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AndoWr-HArvarp 

THEOLOGICAL  UBRARY 


The  Catholic  Encyclopedia 


VOLUME    NINE 

Lap  rade— Mass 


ST.  LUKE  PAINTING  THFT  VIRGIN'  AND  CHILD 


THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN   INTERNATIONAL   WORK   OF    REFERENCE 

ON     THE     CONSTITUTION,    DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC    CHURCH 


EDITED  By 

CHARLES  a  HERBERMANN,  PilD.,  LLD. 

EDWARD  A.  PACE,  PuD,  D.D.        COSDt  B.  PALLEN,  Ph.D.,  VU>. 

THOMAS  J.  SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN  J.  WYNNE,  aj. 

ASSISTED   BY  NUMEROUS  COLLABORATORS 


FIFTEEN  VOLUMES  AND  INDEX 
VOLUME  IX 


new  Vlotli 
THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  PRESS,  INC 


Nihil  Obstat,  February  1,  1910 
REMY  LAFORT,  S.T.D. 

CBNBOB 


Imprirnalvx 

*  JOHN  CARDINAL  FARLEY 

ARCHBISHOP  OF  NEW  YORK 


Copyright,  1910 
By  Robert  Appleton  Company 

Copyright,  1913 
By  the  encyclopedia  PRESS,  INC. 

The  articles  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  for  The  Catholic 
Encyclopedia  and  are  protected  by  copyright.     All  rights,  includ- 
ing the  right   of   translation   and   reproduction,   are   reserved. 


PRCttWORK  AND   BINDINa    BY  J.    ■.    LYON   CO  .   ALSANY,    N.    Y..    U.   •.   A. 


Contributors  to  the  Ninth  Volume 


ARERK,   MICHAEL   JOSEPH,   S.J.,    Innbbbuck,  BEECHER,  PATRICK  A.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  Pbofbssm 
AuBTBiA:  Lueger,  Karl.  of  Pastoral  Theology  and  Sacbed  Eloquence, 

AHERNE,    CX)RNELIUS,   Reotob,    Pbofessor    op         Matnooth  College,  Dublin  :  MacCarthy,  Nich- 
New  Tbbtament  Exegesis,  St.  Joseph's  Col-         °^*^  Tuite. 

LB8B,   Mill   Hnx,   London:    Luke,   Gospel    of  BEMELMANS,   JOHN,   CM.,   Ozone  Park,  New 
Saint.  York  :  Mary,  Missionaries  of  the  Company  of. 

AIKEN",  CHARLES  F.,  S.T.D..  Pbofessob  of  Apol-  bENIGNI,  L^IBERTO,  Professor  of  Ecclesias- 

TICAL     IIlSTORT,     PONT.     COLLEOIO     URBANO     DI 


ooEnos,    Catholic    Universitt    of    Amouca, 
Washington  :  Manu,  The  Laws  of. 

ALBERS,  p.,  S.J.,  Maastricht,  Holland:  Lidwina, 
Saint. 

ALBERT,  F.  X.  E.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Sacred 
Scwptube,  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Dunwoodie, 
New  Yor^:  Le  Camus,  Emile-Paul-Constant- 
Ange;  Loaves  of  Proposition;  Lot. 

IldIsY,  ANTAL,  Ph.D.,  Archivist  of  the  Li- 
brary of  the  National  Museum,  Budapest: 


Propaganda,  Rome:  Larino,  Diocese  of;  Lecce, 
Diocese  of ;  Leghorn,  Diocese  of ;  Leo  XIII,  Pope ; 
Lippomano,  Luigi;  Litta,  Alfonso  and  Lorenzo; 
Ijodi,  Diocese  of;  Lucca,  Archdiocese  of;  Lucent 
Diocese  of;  Luni-Sarzana-Brugnato,  Diocese  of; 
Macerata  and  Tolentino.  United  Sees  of;  Machia- 
velli,  Nicole ;  Maffei,  Raffaelo;  Magistris,  Simone 
de;  Manredonia,  Archdiocese  of;  Mantua,  Dio- 
dese  of;  Margotti,  Giacomo;  Marsi,  Diocese  of; 
Marsico  Nuovo  and  Potenza,  Diocese  of. 


Margaret  of  Hungary,  Blessed. 

ALSltJN.  G.  OYPRIAN.  O.S.Ii.,  Downside  Abbiit,   ^™™^'..^.^^^:.J''?!^'„!^.*'!L!'_I^ 
Bath,  England:  Llanthony  Priory;  Low  Sun- 


day. 

AMADO,  RAMON  RUIZ,  S.J.,  LL.D..  Ph.L.,  Mad- 
RID:  Leon,  Diocese  and  Civil  Province  of. 

A!RENDZEN,  J.  P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  M.A.  (Cantab.), 

Professor  of  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Edmund's 

College,  Ware,  £!ngland:   Manichneism;  Mar- 

ceUus    of    Ancyra;    Marcionites;    Marcosians; 

Marcus. 

AUCLAIR,  ELTE  J.,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  J.C.D.,  Pro- 
fessor AT  THE  University  of  Laval,  Mont- 
real, Canada:  Mance,  Jeanne. 

AVELING,  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  London:  Man. 

AZEVEDO  E  CASTRO,  J05o  PAULINO  D, 
Bishop  of  Macao,  China:  Macao,  Diocese  of. 

BACCHUS,  FRANaS  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  The  Ora- 
tory, Birmingham,  England:  Macarius,  Saint; 
Macarius  of  Antioeh. 


University,  Professor  of  French  Literature, 
Institut  Catholique,  Paris:  Le  Sage,  Alain- 
Ren6;  Lourdes,  Notre  Dame  de;  Maistre,  Joseph- 
Marie,  Comte  de;  Maistre,  Xaxier  de. 

BESSE,  J.  M.,  O.S.B.,  DiREaiOR,  "Revue  Mabil- 
LON  ",  Chevetogne,  BELGIUM :  L^rius,  Abbey  of. 

BIHL,  MICHAEL,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Ecclesias- 
tical History,  Collegio  San  Bonaventura, 
QuARAcciii,  Florence:  I.«onard  of  Port  Maurice, 
Saint;  Macedo,  Francisco;  Magnus,  Valerianus; 
Maillard,  Olivier. 

BONNEY.  EDWIN,  Professor  and  Librarian, 
St.  Cuthbert^s  College,  Ushaw,  England: 
Lingard,  John. 

BOUDINHON,  AUGUSTE-MARIE,  S.T.D.,  D.C.L., 
Director,  **  Canoniste  Contemporain  '*,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law,  Institut  Catholique, 
Paris:  Law,  Canon;  Lay  Confession;  Majority; 
Mansi,  Gian  Domonico;  Margarita;. 


BARNES,    Mgb.    ARTHUR    STAPYLTON,    M.A. 

(OxoN.  AND  Cantab.),  Cambridge,  England:    BOYLAX,  PATRICK,  M.A..  Professor  of  Sacred 


Scripture  and  Oriental  Languages,  May- 
NOOTH  College,  Ditblin:  Lefftvre  de  la  Boderie, 
Guy. 


Lateran,  Saint  John. 

BALiMGARfTEN,  PAUL  MARIA,  J.U.D.,  S.T.D., 
Domestic  Prelate,  Rome:  Maestro  di  Camera 
del  Papa;  Majordomo;  Marini,  Luigi  Gaetano. 

BECHTEL,    FLORENTINE,    S.J.,    Professor    of 

Hebrew    and    Sacred    Scripture,    St.    Louis  BRANTS,  VICTOR,  J.C.D.,  Member  of  the  Rotal 

Urivebsitt,  St.  Louis,  Missouri:   Machabees,  Academy  of  Belgium,  Louvain:  Louvain,  Uhi- 

The;  HCachabees,  The  Books  of;  Manna.  versity  of. 

v 


BRANN,  HENRY  A.,  S.T.D.,  New  York:  McOos- 
key,  William  George. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  NINTH  VOLUME 

BRASSINNE,    JOSEPH,    Ph.D.,    Litt.D.,    Fibst  CLEARY,  GREGORY,  O.F.M.,  S.T.L.,  J.U.L.,  Pro- 

ASSISTAITT     LiBBABIAN,     UniVEBSITT     OF     Li£gE,  FESSOB    OF   MOBAL   ThBOLOGT  AND    CANON    LaW. 

Belqixtm:  Lidge,  Dioces^  of.  St.    Isidobe's    Collbob,  iRoME:    MacCaghwell, 

BRAUN,  JOSEPH,   S.J.,   Belucvue,  Luxembubo:  ^^^''  Marchant,  Peter. 

Mace;  Maniple;  ManteUetta;  Manuterge.  CLEARY,  HENRY  W.,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Auck- 

BRfiHIER,  LOUIS.REN«,  Pbofessob  of  AKdEitT  ^^'  ^"^  Zealand:  Lismore,  Diocese  of. 

AND  Medieval  Histoby,  UmvEBSiTY  of  Cleb-  CLUGNET,     JOSEPH-LEON-TIBURCE,     Litt.L., 

mont-Febband,     PuY-DE-DdME,     Fbance:     La  ^^*™-'  ^  Sallette;  LaBarus  of  Bethany,  Saint; 

Valette,  Jean  Parisot  de;  Manuscripts;  Manu-  Leontius,  Saint;  (Margaret  of  Lorraine,  Blessed; 

scripts,  lUuminated.  Margaret  of  Savoy,  Blessed;  Margaret  of  the 

Blessed  Sacrament;  Marie  Christine  of  Savoy, 

BRIDGE,  JAMES,  S.J.,  M.A.   (OxoN.),  Pbofebsob  Blessed;  Maris,  Martha,  Audifax,  and  Ahachum, 

of  Philosophy,  Stonyhubst  College,  Blacb-  Saints;  Mark  and  Marcellian,  Saints;  Martial, 

BUBN,  England:  Libellatici,  Libelli ;  Lucy,  Saint;  g^int;  Martina,  Saint;  Martin  of  Leon,  Saint; 

Malebranche,  Nicolas;  Martyrs,  Acts  of  the.  Martin  of  Tours,  Saint. 

BROCK,  HENIRY  M.,  S.J.,  Obe  Place,  Hastings,  cX)RDIER,  HEXRI,  Pbofessob  at  the  School  fob 

England:  (Mann,  Theodore  Augustine.  Obiental    Living    Languages,    Pabis:     Man- 

BRUCKER,    JOSEPH,    S.J.,    Editob,    "Etudes",  churia;  Martyrs  in  China. 

Pabis:  Malabar  Rites.  CUTHBERT,   FATHER,  O.S.F.C,   Cbawlet,  Sus- 

BURKE,  EDMUND,  B.A.,  Instbuctob  in  Latin,  ^^'  England:  Margaret  of  Cortona,  Saint. 

College  of  the  Crrr  of  New  Yobk  :  Manutius,  D'ALTON,  R  A.,  LL.D.,  M.R.I.A.,  Athenby,  Ibe- 

Aldus.  LAND:    Limerick,  Diocese  of;    Lombard,  Peter, 

^«.r^*»r>^*    «^^<.^-r«^    ^,»^*.».r*         «         ^  Archbisfaop  of  Armagh ;  Lynch,  John ;  McCabe, 

BURTON.  EDWIN,  S  T.D..  F.R.  Hist.  Soo..  Vice-  j,^^^^    MacGeoghe^n,  jltmes;  Magrath.  John 

Pbesident,    St.     Edmund's     College,     Ware,  Macrorv 
England:  Lawrence,  Saint;  Litchfield,  Ancient 

Diocese  of;  Lincoln,  Ancient  Diocese  of;  Llan-  DEGERT,    ANTOINE,    Utt.D.,    Editob    of    "La 

daff,  Ancient  Diocese  of;  London;  Lucas,  Fred-  "^^^^  ^^  la  Gascoigne",  Pbofessob  of  Latin 

erick;    Malmesbury,    The    Monk    of;    Marian  Litebature,  Institut  Cathouque,  Toulouse: 

Priests;  Marshall,  Thomas  William.  ^^j»'    Ecclesiastical;    Le6n,    Luis   de;    Marca, 

Pierre  de. 
BUTLER,  RICHAIRD  URBAN,  O.S.B.,  Downside 

Abbey,  Bath,  England:  Laura;  Lchnin,  Abbey  ^^  JOXGH,  HENRI,  S.T.L.,  Pbofessob  of  Mobal 

of;  Luxeuil,  Abbey  of.  Theology,  Univebsitt  of  Louvain:  Lindanus, 

William  Damasus. 

CABROL,     fern  and,    O.S.B.,     Abbot    of    St.  t^tt't  ahicawdt^    t^ttto  vr     t>    tx    y 

,,',-,           '             _                 -      ,  DELA'MARIRE,  I/)L^S  N.,  Ph.D.,  Instbuctob  in 

Michael's,  Fabnbobough,  England:   Lauds.  .p_               '                         ^             ^r       ^r 

French,  College  of  the  City  of  New  iobk: 

CAMBOUfi,  PAUL,  S.J.,  Tananarivo,  Madagascar:  Littrfi,  Paul-Maximilien-Emile. 

Madagascar.  DELANY,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D..  New  York:   Lust. 

CANDIDE,  FATHER,  O.M.'Cap.,  Vicar  and  Pro-  DELEHAYE,  HIPPOLYTE,  8J„  Brussels:  Mar- 

fessor  of  Theology,  College  of  the  Capuchin  tyrology. 

Fathers,  Ottawa,  Canada:   Lorenzo  da  Brin-  rn^T-nr  *r^T?   Tr\T-Te    o  t    tw                     t» 

/                '  DELPLACE,  LOUIS,  S.J.,  Pbofessob  of  Religion, 

isi,     am  .  Chbistian    Brothers'   Normal    School,    I^u- 

CAPES,  FLORENCE  MARY,  London:  Mary  Mag-  vain:  Martyrs,  Japanese. 

dalen  de'  Pazzi,  Saint.  DOLAN,    JOHN   GH^BERT,    O.S.B.,    The   Priory, 

CATHREIN,  VICTOR,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Moral  Little  Malvern,  England:  Malmesbury;  Mal- 

PiirLosoPHY,   St.    Ignatius   Collkje,   Valken-  vern;  Martinsberg. 

BL-RG,  Holland:  Law.  DOLL,  SISTER  MARY  BERNARD,  of  the  Vis. 

CERRETTI,      BONAVENTURE,     S.T.D.,     J.U.D.,  H.   M.,   Monastery   of  the  Visitation,   Wil- 

LL.D.,  Censor  of  the  Theological  Academy  mington,  Delaware:  Margaret  Mary  Alacoque, 

IX  Rome,  Private  ChAmbeblain  to  His  Holi-  Blessed. 

ness,  Aitditob  of  the  Apostolic  Delegation  ix)NOVAN,  JUSTIN  FOLEY,  M.D.,  M.Ch.,  Port 

AT  Washington,  U.  S.  A.:  Legate.  „^^^  ^^^  p^^^  ^^^^^  Jamaica:  Leprosy 

CTIAMPON,    LOUIS  MARIE  ABEL,  S.J.,  Lrrr.L.,  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

St.  llfLiER,JEBSEY:  LaRue,Charle8de,S.J.  DONOVAN,    STEPHEN   M.,   O.F.M..    Fbanciscan 

CHAPMAN,  JOHN,  0.S3.,  B. A.  (OxoN.),  Pbiob  of  Monastery,    Washington^    Louis   of    Casoria, 

St.  Thomas's  Abbey,  Erdington,  Birmingham,  Venerable;    Margaret   Colonna,   Blessed:    Mari- 

England:   Lil)eriu«>,  Pope.  anus  of  Florence;  Mark  of  Lisbon. 

▼i 


OaNTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  NINTH  VOLUME 

DIRISOOLL,  JAMES  F.,  &T.D.,  Nsw  Yoke::  Lefvites.  FORTESCUE,    ADRIAN,    Ph.D.,    6.T.D.,  Letcr- 

woBTH,  -    H^BTFOHDSHiBB,      Bnqlaicd:      Latin 

DRUM,  WALTER,  S.J.,  P«aFBSsaB  of  HtaRBW  Church;  Lavaho;  Lector;  Leo  Diaconus;  Leon- 
AND  Sacbed  Scbiptube,  WOODSTOCK  CoLLBQB,  tius  Byaantinus;  LesBons  in  the  Liturgy;  Libera 
Mabylajo):  Lazarus;  Magi;  Manahem;  Mana-  ^e;  Libera  Nos;  Liberatus  of  Carthage;  Litur- 
hen.  Saint;  Manasaes;  Manuscripts  of  the  Bible;  gical  Books;  Liturgy;  Lumen  Christi;  Marcel- 
Martin,  Paulin.  linua    Ckmies;    Jdarcian;    Marcus    Diadochus; 

DRORT,  EDWIN,  Nntmx.  Kkhtvcky:   Loretto,  ^^^'^^^^^i^^.Cb^Vt^'^iGouye^tu,!; 

Sisters  of,  at  the  Foot  of  the  Cross.  '  ^ 

FOBrriER,    ALCEE,    LL.D.,    Cheyausr    of    the 

DUBKAY,  C.  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.B.,  Ph.D.,  Psotbssob  of  Leqiow  of  Honoub;    OFncEa  of  Public  In- 

PHIL060PHY,    Mabibt   Colubob,    Washuygton:  STBUcnoN;   Pbbbioent,  Louisiana  Histqbical 

Le  Fdvre,  Jacques.  Socdctt,  Pbofebsob  of  Romance  Languages, 

TULANE  Unitebsitt,  New  Oblbans:  Louisiana, 

DUGOAN,    THOMAS,    Editob,    "The     Cathoug  ColoniaL 

Tbanscbipt",   Habtfobd,    Connecticut:    Mac-  pOURNET,  PIERRE  AUGU8TB,  S.S.,  MJ^,,  Pbo- 

Farland,  Francis  Patridt.  fessob  of  Histoby,  CouAqe  de  Montreal  :  Marie 

DUNN,    JOSEPH,    PH.D.,    Pbofibbob   of   Celtic  de  rincamation,  Blessed ;  Marie  de  llncamation. 

Languages   and   Litsbatubb,    Catholic   Uni-  ^^^^     ^ 

YEBSITT  OF  AjiEBiCA,  WASHINGTON:  Mabinogion.  ^^^*  JAMES  J.,  S.T.D.,PbofbssoeofPhilosopht, 

St.    Thomas's    College,    Washington:    Law, 

DWYER,  PATRICK  VINCENT,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Natural. 

Maitland,  Austbalia  :  Maitland,  Diocese  of.  fqX,  WILLIAM,  B.S.,  M.E.,  AssociAra  Pbofbssob 

^nr^'^wrs'^T^^    r^<r«^«^A     rs  c^  ^     -^         *  OF  Phtsics,  Colleoe  OF  THE  Cnr  OF  New 

EDMONDS,  OOLUMBA,  O.S.B.,  Fobt  Augustus,         ^^^^     ^^  ./         ,,  i     tlt    •  **      wj 

'       T-  J-  *  A  ■  •     i.    T^-  1         York:   Maignan,  Emmanuel;   Mariotte,  Edme; 


Scotland:    Lindisfame,    Ancient    Diocese    and 
Monastery  of. 


Marsigli,  Luigi  Ferdinando. 

GANfiBVld,     ANTHONY     LAWIRENCE,     PhD., 
ENOLEHAIRDT,     ZEPHYRIN,    O.F.M.,    Watson-         S.T.D.,    Zaostbog,    Dalmatia:    Lesina;    Lucie 
yille,     Califobnia:     Magin    CataU;     Margil,  (Lucius),  John. 

Antonio;  Martin  of  Valencia.  GANSS,  HENRY  G.,  Mus.D.,  Lancasteb,  Pewnstl- 

«.«^.r^^^    ^rrr^^*  ^«,  ^    ,^     r,  ,     ^  VANiA :   Llszt,  Frauz ;  Luther,  Martin. 

FANNING,  WILLAM  H.  W.,  S.J.,  Pbofessob  of  »  »  , 

Chubch  Histobt  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Lol^s  GARDNER,    EDMUND   GARRETT,    M.A.    (Cam- 

UNivEBsnY,  St.  Louis,  Mksoubi:  Legitimation;  bbidge),  Bablow  Lectubeb  on  Dante,  Univeb- 

ManifesUtion  of  Conscience;  Marriage,  Mixed.  «"^  College,  London:  Latini,  Brunette;  Mala- 

testa,  House  of;  Manzoni,  Alessandfo. 

FARLEY,  JOHN  M.,  S.T.D.,  Abchbishop  of  New  qeUDENS,  FRANCIS  MARTIN,  O.Pb^m.,  Abbot 

YOBK:  McCloekey,  John.  Titulab  of  Barlings,  Corpus  Christi  Pbioby, 

FBNLON,  JOHN  F.,  S.S.,  S.T.D.,  Pbesident,  St.  Manchesteb,  England:  Lohel,  Johann. 

Austin's    Coiajbge,    Washington;    Professor  GHELLINCK,  JOSEPH  DE,  Pbofessob  of  Patbol- 

OF  Sacbed  Scbiptube,  St.  MABr*s  Seminary,  ogy    and    Theological    Literature    of    the 

Baltimore:   Legrand,  Louis;   Le  Hir,  Arthur-  Middle  Ages,  University  of  Louvain:  Lessius, 

Marie;  Le  Long,  Jacques.  Leonard;  Lugo,  John  de. 

FINEOAN,   PHILIP  M.,  SJ.,   College  of  the  GIBBONS,  JAMES,  OAiRDINAL,  Abchbishop  of 
Atenbo,  Manila,  Philippine  Islands:  Manila,         Baltimobe:  Magnien,  Alphonse. 
Archdiocese  of;  Manila  Observatory.  GIETMAXN,  GERARD,  S.  J.,  Teacheb  OF  Classical 

«»%-n.T    »TT<r-rvi»«    'mr^n,-^^-^    r^  n, -rx      r^  ,  LANGUAGES  AND  -ESTHETICS,   St.   IGNATIUS  Col- 

FINN,  WimAM  JOSEPH,  C.S  p.,  Chicago,  iLLi-         ^^^      Vau^urg,      Holland:      Lemercier, 
NOIS:  MarceUo,  Benedetto;  Marenzio,  Luca.  j^^^^^.  j^^^^^  pj^^^.  Levau, Louis;  Liesborn, 

FISHER,  J.  H.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College,  Mary-  Master  of;  Lochner,  Stephan;  Maderna,  Carlo; 

land:     Liberatore,    Matteo;     Lohner,    Tobias;  Mansard,  Frangois  and  Jules. 

Lugo,   Francisco  de;    Mary  Anne   de   Paredes,  GILDAS, M.,O.C.R.,  La  Trappe,  Quebec :  Lestrange, 

Blessed.  I-iOuis-Henri  de. 

FORD,  JEREMIAH  D.  M.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  GIMLET,  LOLTfS,  Pabis:  Limbourg,  Pol  de;  Lippi, 
OF  Fbench  and  Spanish,  Habtabd  Univbbsity,         Filippino;  Lippi,  Filippo;  Lorenzetti,  Pietro  and 
Cam  bbidge,    Mabsaohubbits  :     Lope    de    Vega         Ambrogio;  Masolino  da  Panicale. 
Carpio,  Felix;  March,  Ausias;  Marenco,  Carlo  GIROXJX,  C.  H.  A.,  O.M.I.,  Pbovidence,  Canada: 
and  Leopold.  Mackenzie^  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 


OONTIIIBUTORS  TO  THE  NINTH  VOLUME 


GLASS,  JOSEPH  S.,  CM.,  S.T.D.,  PBESnnarr,  St.   HECEJVIAN,   FEIfiDINAND,  O.F.M.,  Tkachbs  of 

VlNCBNT^   COLLBQB,  LOS  AlfOELES/ CAUFOBmA :  LaTIN     AND     GbEEK,     FRANCISCAN     MONASTERY, 

Le  Oras,  Louise  de  Maxillae,  Venerable.  '    Washington:  Mary  Frances  of  the  Five  Wounds 

OOYAU,  GBCXRGE8,  Asboctatb  Editor,  "  Bitot        <>'  Jesus. 

DEB  Deux  Mondbs",  Paris:  La  Rochefoucauld-  HENRY,  H.  T.,  Litt.D.,  Rector  op  Roman  Cath- 
Liancourt,  Francoi8-Alteandre-Fr6d6ric,I>ucde;'  ©Lie  High  School  for  Boys,  Professor  of 
La  Rochelle,  Diocese  of;  Laur^ntie,  Pierre-  English  Literaturb  and  of  Gregorian  Chant, 
Sftbastien;  Laval,  Diocese  of;  League,  The;  St.  Charus  Seminary,  Ovkbbbook,  Pbnnsyl- 
Leclerc  du  Tremblay,  Francois;  Le  Mans,  Die-  vania:  Lauda  Sion;  Magnificat, 
cese  of ;  Le  Puy,  Diocese  of;  Le  Tellier,  Michel;  HBRWEGEN,  ILDEPONSUS,  CAB.,  Maria-Laach 
L'Hospital,  Michel  de;  Lille;  Limoges,  Diocese  Abbey,  Niedebmendig,  Germany:  Maria-Laach- 
of;  Louis  IX,  Saint;  Louis  XI;  Louis  XIV;  HOEBER,  KARL,  PhJD.,  Editor,  "  VoLtfsziaTUNG" 
Lucon,  Diocese  of ;  Lyons,  Archdiocese  of ;  Lyons,  ^^^  "Akademische  MonatsblXtteb  ",  Cologne  : 
Councils  of;  MacMalion,  Marie-Edme-I%itrice-  Lasaulx,  Ernst  von;  Leipzig,  University  of; 
Maurice  de;  M&con,  Ancient  Diocese  of;  Main-         Marius  Maximus. 

tenon,  Frangoise,  Marquise  de;  Mame,  Alfred-   HOLMAN,  FREDERICK  VAN  VOORHIES,  Port- 
Henri-Amand ;    Marie    Antoinette;.    Marseilles,         ^^^»  Oregon:  McLaughlin,  John. 


HUDLESTON,  GILBERT  ROGER,  O.8.B.,  Down- 
side Abbey,  Bath,  England:  Liessies;  Ligug6; 
Lilienfeld;  Llancarvan;  Lobbes,  Benedictine 
Abbey  of;  Loccum;  Margaret  of  Scotland,  Saint. 

LottTrintonio',  luttj',  J^.B^ptiTt^Tii^nt^.  HUGHES,  JAMES.  LrvEBPOOL.  England:  Liverpool, 

Diocese  of. 
HULL,  ERNEST  R.,  S.J.,  Editor,  "The  Exami- 
ner", Bombay,  India:  Madras,  Archdiocese  of; 
Madura  Mission;  Malabar;  Malacca,  Diocese  of; 

Alcalft,  Diocese  of ;  Marquesas  Islands,  Vicariate  HUOT^^Sn/p^rF^soR  of  Art,   College  op 
Apostolic  of.  ^^  (.j^  ^^  j^^  y^jjj^.  Lorrain,  Claude  de. 

GRUBER,    HERMANN,    S.J.,    Stella    Matutina  HL^NTER-BLAIR,  D.  0.,  Bart.,  O.S.B.,  M.A.,  Fort 
College,     Feldkirch,     Austria:     Liberalism;         Augustus    Abbey,    Scotland:     Leslie,    John, 


Diocese  of;  Martinique,  Diocese  of. 

GRATTAN.FLOOD,     W.     H.,    M.R.I.A.,    Mus.D., 

Rosemou>'t»  Ennisoorthy,  Ireland:   Lawrence 

.  OToole,  Saint;  Locke,  Matthew;  Loman,  Saint; 


Saint;  Malachy,  Saint. 

GREY,  J.  C,  New  York;  Le6n,  Diocese  of;  L^rida, 
Diocese  of;  Lima,  Archdiocese  of;  Linares,  Arch- 
diocese  of;    Lisbon,   Patriarchate  of;    Madrid- 


Masonry. 


Lindores,  Benedictine  Abbey  of;  Lochleven. 


GLTNET,  JOHN  PETER,  M.S.,  Superior,  Mission-   HUONDER,    ANTHONY,    S.J.,    Edtior,    "  Katho- 


aries  of  La  Salette,  Hartford,  Connecticut: 
La  Salette,  Missionaries  of. 

GiJNTHBR,  HEINRICH,  Ph.D.,  TtfBiNCEN,  Ger- 
many:  Legends  of  the  Saints. 

HAGEN,  JOHN  G.,  S.J..  Vatican  Observatory, 
Rome:   Lilius,  Aloisius. 

HANDLEY,  MARIE  LOUISE,  New  York  :  Madema, 
Stefano;  Majano,  Benedetto  da;  Marches!,  Pom- 
peo. 

HARTIG,  OTTO,  Assistant  Librarian  of  the 
Royal  Library,  Munich:   Lorraine;  Magellan, 


lische  Missionen",  Bellevub,  Luxe^iburg: 
Le  Gobien,  Charles;  Maroni,  Paul;  Martini, 
Martino. 
JONES,  ARTHUR  EDWARD,  S.J.,  Corresponding 
Member  of  the  Minnesota,  Ontario,  and  Chi- 
cago Historical  Socifties;  Hon.  Member  of 
the  Missoimi  Historical  Society;  Member  of 
THE  International  Congress  of  Americanists  ; 
Archivist  of  St.  Mary's  College,  Montreal: 
La  Richardie,  Armand  de;  Lauzon,  Pierre  de; 
Le  Mercier,  Frangois;  Levadoux,  Michael; 
Marchand,  Jean  Baptisto;   Martin,  Felix. 


Ferdinand;    Magnus,    Olaus;    Mailla,    Joseph-   jquvE,  ODORIC-M.,  O.F.M.,   Candiac,   Canada: 


Anna-Marie  de  Moyria  de;  Mandeville,  Jean  dc; 
Martyr  d'Anghiera,  Peter. 


La  Roche  Daillon,  Joseph  de;  Le  Caron,  Joseph; 
l^clercq,  Ch rest  ion. 


HARTIGAN,  JEREMIAH  ALTrUSTUS,  S.J.,  D.Lirr.  JOYCE,  GEORGE  UAYWAIRD,  S.J.,  M.A.  (Oxon.)  , 

(Orientauum),  Stonyhurst  College,  Black-  st.  Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Lister 

burn,  England:  Mageddo;  Maspha,  (alias  Butler),  Thomas. 

HASSETT.  Mgr.   MAL^ICE   M.,   S.T.D.,  Harris-  KEEGAN,  PETER  CHAiRLES,  Van  Buren,  Maine  : 

BURG,   Pennsylvania:   Lateran,  Christian  Mii-  Maine. 

scum  of;  Lucina,  Crypt  of;  Mamertine  Prison;  KEILEY,  JARVIS,  M.  A.,  Grantwood,  New  Jersey  : 

Martyr.  La  Salle,  Ren6-Robert-Cavalier,  Sieur  de ;  Malory, 

HEALY,   JOHN,    S.T.D.,   LL.D.,   M.R.I.A.,   Arch-  Sir  Thomas. 

Bishop  of  Tuam,  Senator  of  the  National  KE5LLY,    BLANCHE   M.,  New   York:     Macariua 

University  of  Ireland:  Lismore,  School  of.  Magnes;  Majorca  and  Ivisa,  Diocese  of;  Malaga, 

HEALY,  PATRICK  J.,  S.T.D.,  Assistant  Profes-  •       Diocese  of;  Malhferbe,  Francois;  Mangan,  Jamef* 
»OR  OF  Church  History,  Catholic  University 
of  America,  Washutgton:  Lucian  of  Antioch. 


Clarence;    Mantegna,   Andrea;    Margaret   Pole, 
Blesseia. 


00NTRIBUT0R6  TCKTHE  N13NTH  VOMJME 

KELLY,  JOSEPH  I.,  Ph J>.,  LL,D.,  Fobmibly  Leo  LENNOX,  PATRICK  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  Pmxrssob  c» 

TUBES    ON    Roman    Law    in    Northwestern  Enolish  Lanoitage  and  Literature,  Catholic 

University  and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Law  University  of  America,  Washington  :  Marrjat, 

IN  Louisiana  State  University,  Chicago:  Law,  Florence. 

'^^^^'  LINDSAY,  LIONEL  ST.  GEORGE,  B.Sc,  Ph.D., 

KELLY,  LEO  A.,  Ph.B.,  Rochester,  New  York:  Editor-in-Chief,     "La    Nouvellb     France*', 

Lourdes,  Brothers  of  Our  Lady  of.  Quebec:  Lanzon,  Jean  de;   Laval,  Francois  de 

KELLY,  MARY  THRESA,  Dublin:  MacHale,  John.  Montmorency;   Laverdiftre,  Charles-Honorfi ;   Le 

KENDAL,    JAMES,    S.J.,    Bulawato,    Rhodesia,  ^ojne  Family;   Le  Moyne,  Simon;    Lescarbot, 

South  Africa:  Malta.  ^^^^^*  I^^sig^an,  Jean-Baptiste-Alphonee ;  Mail- 
lard,  Antoine-Simon.  . 
KENNEDY,    THOMAS,    B.A.    ( R.U.I. ),    London: 

Lebwin,  Saint;  Letourneux,  Nicholas;  Lockhart,  ^^^^y  JOSEPH,  Freiburo-im-Breisoau,  Germany: 

William;  MacCarthy,  Denis  Florence;  Majunke,  Lavant;   Leipzig;   Leitmeritz,  Diocese  of;   Lim- 

Paul;  Mariana  Islands,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of.  ^^^Sy  Diocese  of;   Linz,  Diocese  of;  Lithuania; 

Ltibeck;  Lublin,  Diocese  of;  Lucerne;  Mainz. 

KENT,  W.  H.,  O.S.C,  Bayswater,  London:  Man-  .. 

ning   Henry  Edward.  LOEFFLER,  KLEMENS,  Ph.D.,  Librarian,  Univer- 
^^     --     -    ^  siTY  OF  Breslau:  Lco  X,  Popc;  Leubus;  Lies- 

KETTENBURG,  PHILIPP,  BARON  VON,  Chap-  ^^^„.  Li^^emann,  Wilhelm;  Luscinius,  Ottmar; 

LAIN  OF   St.   Ansgar's   Churcth,   Copenhagen,  Magdeburg;    Magliabechi,    Antonio;    Mallinck- 

Denmark:  Lund.  ^.^^^^  Hermann  von;  Maria  Theresa ;  Marienberg. 

KIRSCH,    JOHANN    PETER,    S.T.D.,    I^omestio  luceY,  Mgr.  JOHN  M.,  Vicar-General,  Diocese 

Prelate,  Professor  of  Patrology  and  Chris-  ^^  little  Rock,  Arkansas:  Little  Rock,  Dio- 

TiAN   Archaeology;   University   of  Fridourg:  ^^^  ^£ 

Lapsi;    Lawrence,  Saint;    Lawrence   Justinian, 

Saint;  Lay  Abbot;  Leo  I   (the  Great),  Saint,  MA  AS,  A.  J.,  S.J.,  RECTOR,  Woodstock  College, 

Pope;  Leocadia,  Saint;   Leonidas,  Saint;  Liber  Maryland:     Lentulus,    PubUus;    Logia    Jesu; 

Diumus  Romanorum  Pontificum;  Liber  Pontifi-  Lucifer. 

calis;  Linus,  Saint,  Pope ;Liutprand  of  Cremona;  MacAULEY,    PATRICK    J.,    Belfast,    Ireland: 

Lucius  I,  8aint,  Pope;  Luna,  Pedro  de ;  Macrina,  Legists;  Loango,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

Saints;    Mamertus,   Saint;    Marcellina,    Saint;  ^,     tx/^vt4x-»>     axtxt*    n-n-r. . /nt-tt.    «*      t> 

Marcellinus,  Saint/ Pope;  M.rceUinu8,  Flavins;  MacDONALD,   ANXA  SPRAGUE    B.A.,   Boston. 

Marcellu.  I,  Saint.  Pope;   Mark,  Saint.  Pope;  Massachusetts:   MacDonald.  John. 

Martin  of  Troppau;  Martinuzzi.  George.  MACDONALD,  DOKAIJ>  K.,  B.A..  Glen  Nevis, 

KXOTT,  A.  LEO.  Baltimobe,  Maeyland  :  Maryland.  Ontabio,  Canada  :  Macdonell.  Alexander. 
KRAFT,    JOSEF.    Ph.D..    Innsbecck".    austbia: -^^^^^RI-EAN.  ANDKEW  A.,  New  York:  Leodegar 

League.  German  (Catholic).  (Leger),  Saint;  Loja.  Diocese  of;  Lugo.  Diocese 

^    .  of;  Magnesia;  Maine  de  Biran.  Franeois-Pierre- 

LABOIIRT,  JBFIOME,  S.T.D.,  Lnr.D.,  Member  of  Gonthier;    Mariana,  Archdiocese  of;   Marshall 

THE  Asiatic  Soctett  of  Paris,  Paris:   Maph-  Islands,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

rian;  Maronites.  «     ^ 

'  McGAHAN,  FLORENCE  RUDGE,  M.A.,  Youngs- 

LAUCHERT,  FRIEDRICH,  Ph.D.,  Aachen:   Lie-  ,^y^^^  ohio:   Magdalens;   Marcoux,  Joseph.    . 

bermann,  Bruno  Franz  Leopold;  Manharter.  ,    , 

^  McHUGH,  JOHX  AMBROSE,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Lector 

LEBRETON,  J.,   S.J.,  Lrrr.D.    (Sorboitne),   Pro-  ^f  Philosophy,  Dominican  House  of  Studies, 

FESSOR,  History  of  Christian  Origins,  Insti-  Washington:  Lutheranism. 

TUT  Cathouque,  Paris:   Logos,  The. 

IVTcKEXNA,  CHARLES  F.,  Ph.D.  (  Columbia  ),  Sec- 

LECLEROQ,    HENRI,    O.S.B.,    Ix)ND0N:    Lateran  ^^j,^y,  Catholic  Home  Bureau,  Vice-Presi- 

Councils;  Lay  Communion;  Lucifer  of  Cagliari.  ^^^^  ^^,  York  State  Probation  Commission, 

LEHMKUHL,  AUGUSTINUS,  S.J.,  St.   Ignatius  ^'ew  York  :  Lavoisier,  Antoine-Laurent. 

COLLBGE,    Valwinburg,     HOLLAND:     Mariana,  McLOUGHLIN,  JAMF^  J.,  LL.B.,  New  Orleans: 

Juan;  Marriage,  Sacrament  of.  Louisiana,  The  State  of. 

LEJAY,  PAUL,  Felix>w  of  the  UNivEEsnT  of  j^f^^EAL,  J.  PRESTON,  B.A.,  LL.B.,  Baltimore: 

FRANCE,  professor,  CATHOLIC  INSTITUTE,  PARIS :  ^cSherry,  James  ( 2 ) ;  McSherry,  Richard ;  MartS- 

Lascaris,  Constantine;    Lascaris,  Janus;   Latin  ,    ,    Ambrose 

Literature,   Christian,   Early  Centuries;    Latin  ' 

Literature  in  the  Church,  Classical;  Lipsius,  MACPHERSON,  EWAN,  New  York:  Maffei,  Fran- 
Justus;  Mai,  Angelo;  Manuel  Chrysoloras;  Mar-  cesco;  Malvenda,  Thomas;  Map,  Walter;  Mar- 
tianus  Capella.  tini,  Antonio;  Mason,  Richard  Angelus. 


00NTRIBUT0B6  TO  "PHE  NINTH  VOLUME 

ICacRORT,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  PtonsfisoB  of  Sacbed  MOELLBR,  GH.,  PaoFBasoB  of  Gbtvebal  HiSTOBr, 

ScBiPTUBE,  Matnooth  Oollbgb,  Dubun:  Mar-  UinviBsmr  of  Louyains  Lazarus,  Saint,  Order 

garet,  Saint,  Virgin  and  Martyr;  Marie,  Saint  of,  of  Jerusalem. 

and  Evangelist;  Marie,  Gospel  of  Saint;  Mary  of  MOLLOY,  JOSEPH  VINCENT,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  SoMEB- 

Efeypt,  Saint  sbt,  Ohio:  Malchus. 

MAERE,    R.,    S.T.D.,    Pbofesbob    of    Chbistian  MOONEY,  JAMES,  United  States  Ethnologist, 

ABCH.aoi[X)OT,    Univebsity    of    Louvain:     Le  Bubeau  of  Amebioan  Ethnology,  Washinqton  : 

Blant,    Edinonrf-Fr6d6ric;     Mamachi,    Thomas  Lesueur,   Francois   Eustace ;    Lillooet  Indians; 

Maria;    Marchi,    Giuseppe;    Martigny,   Joseph-  Lorette;  Lul6  Indians;  Lummi  Indians;  Maina 

Alexandre.  Indians;    Maipure  Indians;   Maliseet   Indians; 

MAHER,  MICHAEL,  S.J.,  Lrrr.D.,  M.A.  (London),  Mameluco Indians;  Mandan  Indians;  Mascoutens 

DiBECTQB  OF  STUDIES  AND  Pbofessob  OF  PEDA-  Indians. 

GOGics,     Stonthtjbst     COLLEGE,     Blackbubn,  MORICE,  a.  G.,  O.M.I.,  Editob  of  "  Le  Patbiote  db 

England:  Life.  l'Ouest",  Duck  Labjs,  SASijKJiTCHEWAN,  Can- 

MANN,  HORACE  K.,  HkADiCAsrCB,  St.  Cuthbebt's  ada:  Lav^rendrye,  Pierre-Gaultier  de  Varennes, 

Gbakmab   School,   Newcastle-on-Tyne,   Eng-  Sieur  de;  Laverlochdre,  Jean-Nicolas;  Loucheux; 

LAND:  Leo  II,  Saint,  Pope;  Leo  III,  Saint,  Pope ;  Manitoba. 

Leo  IV,  Saint,  Pope;  Leo  V,  Pope;  Leo  VI,  Pope;  MOUGEL,  AMBROSE,  O.Cabt.,  St.  Hugh's  Chab- 

Leo  VII,  Pope;  Leo  VIII,  Pope;  Leo  IX,  Saint,  tebhouse,  Pabkminsteb,  England:  Ludolph  of 

Pope;  Marinus  I,  Pope;  Marinus  II,  Pope.  Saxony. 

MARIQUE,    PIERRE    JOSEPH,    Instbuctob    in  MULLER,   ULRICH    F.,   C.PP.S.,    Pbofessob   of 
Fbench,  College  of  the  City  of  New  Yobk:         Philosophy,  St.  Chables  Bobbomeo  Seminaby, 
Laprade,  Victor  de;  La  Rocbejacquelein,  Henri-         Cabthaoena,  Ohio:    Le  Verrier,   Urbain-Jean- 
Augiiste-Georges  du  Vergier,  Comte  de;  Lecoy  de         Joseph. 
La  Marche,  Richard-Albert;  Marie  de  France.       MURPHY,    JOHN,    C.S.Sp.,    Pbovincial    of    the 

MATHIEU,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgb.,  O.E.,  S.T.D.,  Seminaby  Fathebs  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Cobnwells 
of  QtTEBEC,  Canada:  Laval,  University  of,  Pennsylvania:  Libennann,  Francis  Mary  Paul 
Quebec.  Venerable. 

M A  YENCE,  FERNAND,  Ex-Membeb  of  the  £colb  OBRECHT,  EDMOND  M.,  O.C.R.,  Abbot  of  Geth 
FRANgAiSB  at  Athens,  Pbofessob  of  Abch.«-         semani  Abbey,  Kentucky:  La  Trappe;  Mari 
OLOGY,    Univebsity    op    Louvain:    Lenormant,         annhill,  Congregation  of  the  Missionaries  of. 
Charles;  Lenormant,  Francois.  O'CONNOR,  JOHN  B.,  O.P.,  St.  Dominic's  Pbioby 

MAYER,     JOHANN     GBORG     CANON,     D.C.L.,         San   Fbancisoo,   Califobnia:   Louis  Bertrand 
Rbqent  and  Pbofessob  of  the  Seminaby  op        Saint;  Louis  of  Granada. 
Chub,  Switzbbland:  Lussy,  Melchior.  ^   OXEARY,  THOMAS  M.,  Chanckllob,  Diocese  of 

MEEHAN,  THOMAS  F.,  New  Yobk:  Lead,  Diocese  Manchesteb,  New  H'ampshibe:  Manchester, 
of;  League  of  the  Cross,  The;  L'Enfant,  Pierre-         Diocese  of. 

Charles;  Liberia;  Lincoln,  Diocese  of;  London,  OLIGER,  LIVARIUS,  O.F.M.,  Lectob  OF  Chubch 
Diocese  of;  Longstreet,  James;  McGee,  Thomae  Histoby,  Collegio  S.  Antonio,  Rome:  Latera, 
D*Arcy;  McMahon,  Martin  Thomas;  McMaster,  Flaminius  Annibali  de ;  Louis  of  Toulouse,  Saint ; 
James    Alphonsus;    McQuaid,    Bernard    John;  Marcellinus  of  Civezza. 

Mallory,  Stephen  Russell;  Marquette  League.       q'NEILL,  ARTHUR  BARRY,  C.S.C,  M.A.,  Asso- 

MBRK,  AUGUST,  S.J.,  Pbofessob  of  Apologetics,  ciatb- Editob  "  Ave  Maria  ",  Notbe  Dame, 
St.  Ignatius  College,  Valkenbubg,  Holland:  Indiana:  Lefebvre,  Camille;  Le  Loutre,  Louis- 
Lebanon;  Machpelah;  Magdala.  Joseph. 

MKRSHMAN",  FRANCIS,  O.S.B.,  S.T.D.,  Pbofessob  OTT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.,  Pbofessob  of  the 

OF  Mobal  Theology,  Canon  Law,  and  Liturgy,  History  of  Philosophy,  St.  John's  Univebsity, 

St.  John's  UNtvERsmr,  Collegeville,  Minne-  Collegeville,   Minnesota:    Laski    (a   Lasco), 

sota:     Larue,     Charles    de;  Lectern;     Lennig,  John;   Laymann,  Paul;   Ledochowski,  Miecislas 

Adam  Franz;  LeKourry,  Denis-Nicolas;  Litany;  Halka;  Lemcke,  Henry;  Leo  XI,  Pope;  Lucius 

Litany  of  the  Holy  Name;  Litany  of  the  Saints;  II,  Pope;   Lucius  III,  Popej   Ludmilla,  Saint; 

Ludger,  Saint;  Lumper,  Gottfried;  MaiTei,  Ber-  Magnus,  Saint;  Malagrida,  Gabriel;   Mallinck- 

nardino;  Martin  I,  Saint,  Pope;  Martin,  Abbot  rodt,  Pauline;  Maran,  Prudentius;   Marbodius, 

of  Schottenkloster ;  Martyrs,  The  Ten  Thousand ;  Bishop  of  Rennes;  Marcellua  II,  Pope;  Marius 

Maruthae,  Saint.  Mercator;  Martin  IV,  Pope;  Martin  V,  Pope; 

MEYER,  GEORGE,  Pbovincial,  Society  of  Mary,  Martin  of  Braga,  Saint;  Mary  de  Cervellione. 

of  Pabis,  Dayton,  Ohio:  Mary,  Society  of,  of  OTTEN,     JOSEPH,     PrrrsBUBO,    Pennsylvania: 

Paris.  Lassus,  Orlandus  de. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  NINTH  VOLUME 

pfiREZ  GOTENA  ANTONIO,  8-T.,  Edtiob,  "  Raz6t  ROMPEL,  JOSEPH  HEINRICH,  SJ.,  Ph.D.,  Sikxul 

T  Fk",  Madbid:   Maldonado,  Juan;  Martfn  y  Matutina  College,  FEmfiSmcH,  Austria:  La- 

Garda,  Luis.  treille,    Pierre- Andr^;    Loeeen,    ELarl    August; 

pfiTRIDfis,  90PHR0NE,  A. A.,  Professor,  Greek  MaUard,  Emest-Frangoig. 

^Cathouo   iSEMiNART,    Kadi-Keui,    Coxstanti-  ROTH,  LEANDER  M.,  MAinnEvnuE,  LoxnsiANA: 

NOPLE:  Laranda;  Lebedus;  Lete;  Leuce;  Limyra,  Lorsh  Abbey. 

Liiioe;Loryma;Lyrbe;Lyaia8;Macri;Mactaris^,  RYAN,  JOHN  A.,   8.T.D.,  Peofbbsob  op  Moral 

Madaurua;  Magydus;  Mallus;  Marciane.  Theoloot,    St.    Paul    Seminary,    &r.    Paul, 

PBttLBIN,  EUGENE  A.,  Regent  op  the  Univer-  Minnesota:  Marriage,  History  of. 

srrr  op  the  State  of  New  York,  New  Yor^':  saCHBR,    HERMANN,    Ph.D.,    Editor    op    thi 

^^^  "  Konversationslexikon  ",  Assistant    Kihtob 

POLLEN,  JOHN  HL^GBREORD,   S.  J.,  London  :  of  the  "  Staatslexikon  op  the  Gorresgesell- 

Martinov,  John;   Mary  Queen  of  Scots   (Mary  schapt",     Freiburg-im-Breibgau,      Germany: 

Stuart).  Lippe. 

PONCELET,  ALBERT,  S. J.,  Brussels  :  Leonard  of  S AGMULLER,  JOHANNES  BAPTIST,  PRonssoi 
Limousin,  Saint.  '   of  Theology,  University  of  Tubingen:   Lay 

POPE,   HUGH,   0.P.,    S.T.L.,    Doctor   op  Sacred         Tithes;  Letters,  Ecclesiastical;  Ligamen. 

Scripture,  Professor  op  New-Testament  SALEMBIER,  LOUIS,  S.T.D..,  Professor  'or 
Exegesis,  Collegio  Angelico,  Rome:  Maledic-  Chl^rch  History,  University  of  Lille:  Mar- 
tion  (in  Scripture)  ;*  Mammon;  Martha,  Saint;  silius  of  Padua. 

Martianay;  Mary,  the  name  of  several  personages  ^^^1,  AXGELO  DE,  SJT.,  Rome:  Litany  of  Loreto; 
in  the  N.  T. ;  Mary,  The  Name  of,  in  Scripture         Liturgical  Chant. 

.  and  in  Catholic  use;  Mary  Magdalen,  Saint.         „^.^^^„^^     r«r*r>,l.^   ^     «  om^     «<^ 

SCANNELL,  THOMAS  B.,  Canon,  S.T.D.,  Wey- 

POULAIN,  AUOUSTIN,  6. J.,  Paris:  Louis-Marie  bridge,  England:  Latria. 

Grignion  de  Montfort,  Blessed;  Marriage,  Mys-  gcHAEFER,  FRANCIS  J.,  ®.TJ).,  Ph.D.,  Profm- 

^  soR  OP  Chl'rch  History,  St.  Paxtl  Seminary, 

POWER,  ALICE,  R.S.H.,  Convent  op  the  Sacred  St.  Paltt,  Minnesota:  Law,  Civil,  Influence  of 

Heart,   Kenwood,   Albany,   New   York:    La-  the  church  on;  Madruzzi,  Christopher. 

taste.  Mane.  SCHEID,  NICHOLAS,  S.J.,  Stella  Matutina  Col- 

PRESTAGE,  EDGAR,  B.A.    (Oxon.)  ;  Commenda-  lege,  Feldkirch,  Austria:   Latin  Literature, 

DOR,   Portuguese  Order  op  S.   Thtago;    Cor-  II,  Sixth  to  Twentieth  Century. 

responding    Memheb   op   the    Lisbon    Royal  schlaGER,  HEINT^ICH  PATRICIUS,  O.F.M.,  St. 

Academy  op  Sciences  and  Lisbon  Geooraphi-  ludwio^s  College,  Dalheim,  Germany:  Lupus 

CAL  Society,  Manchester,  England:  Macedo,  ^^y^j^)^    Christian;    Ltitolf,   Aloys;    Maassen, 

Jose  Agostmho  de.  "Friedrich  Bernard  Christian ;  Marius  Aventicus; 

QL^NN, iSTANLEY  J., New  York:  Line, Mrs.  Anne.  Mart^ne,  Edmond;  Martin,  Konrad. 

RANDOLPH,    REGINA,    Baltimore,    Maryland:    SCHROEDER,  JOSEPH,  O.P.,  Dominican  Housb 
Margaret  Haughery.  ^^  Studies,  Washington:  Lemos,  Thomas  de; 

^  Loaisa,  Garcia;  Marini   (de  Marinis). 

REILLY,  THOMAS  A  KEMPIS,  O.P.,  Dominican  '  ^^ 

House  op  Studies,  Washington:  Mariales,  S^^^^^^™' J^^^^"',  S.T.D.,  Jefferson  City,  Mis- 
Xantea.  souri:  Marriage,  Moral  and  Canonical  Aspect  of. 


SHIPMAN,  ANDREW  J.,  M.A.,  LL.M.,  New  York: 
Lutzk,  Zhitomir,  and  Kamenetz,  Diocese  of. 


REINHOLD,  GRBGOR,  Freiburo-im-Breisgau, 
Germany:  Lausanne  and  Geneva,  Diocese  of; 
Lieber  Moriz.  SHORTER,  JOSEPH  A.,  Leavenworth,  Kansas: 

Leavenworth,  Diocese  of. 

REMY,  ARTHUR  F.  J.,  M.A.,  Ph.D..  Adjunct- 
Professor  OP  Germanic  Philology,  Columbia   SILVA,  PAOLO,  S.J.,  S.T.D.,  Rome:  Lombardy. 

University.  New  York:  Lassberg,  Baron  SLATER,  T.,  S.J.,  St.  Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph, 
Joseph  Maria  Christoph  von;  I^^nda,  Literary  Wales:  Law,  Divine,  Moral  Aspect  of;  Lottery; 
and  Profane;  Maelrant,  Jacob  van.  Lying;  Malone,  William. 

REZEK,  ANTOINE  IVAN,  Houchtox,  Michigan:   SMITH,  IGNATIUS,  O.P.,  Dominican  House  op 
Marquette,  Dio<!e8e  of.  Studies,  Washington  :  Leonard  of  Chios. 

ROBINSON,  PASCHAL,  O.F.M.,  Franciscan  Mon-   SMITH,  SYDNEY  P.,  S.J.,  London:  Low  Church. 

ASTERY,  Washington:  I^,  Brother.  ^^^^^  WALTER  GEORGE,  M. A., LLB.  (Univer- 

ROCK,  P. M.  J., LouisvnxE,  Kentucky:  Louisville,        sity  of  Pennsylvania),  Philadelphia,  Penn- 

Diocese  of.  sylvania:  Law,  International;  Marriage,  CiviL 

Si 


OOKTItlBlItORS  TO  TUB  NINTH  VOLUME 

SOLLIER,  JOSEPH  IltANCIS,  8.M.,  fiiTJD.,  Sux  VAS  HOONACEER,  A.,  Pborssob  of  Ckitical 
Fbakcisoo,  Calxpobnia:  Layigerie,  Charles-  Histobt  of  the  Old  TESTAifEitr  and  OBiEin'AL 
Martial-AUonuid;  L»  Camus,  £tienne;  Le  Cos,         LAsauAOES,  Univebsitt  of  Louyair:  Malachias. 

Claude;  I^TeUier,  Charles-Maurice;  Lomftiiede  y^jf  ^^^^  ^'  p^.L.,  PBorassoB  of  Chtjbch 
Brlenne,  fitienne-Charlee  de;  Love,  Theological  H,a^„  ^^  C^^^,,,  La^^  Univebsitt  of 
Virtue  of;  Mary,  Society  of.  Locvain:   Legacies;   Lex   (Law) ;   Liber  Septi- 

SORTAIS,    GASTON.    S.J.,    Absibtant    Kditob.         bus;  Liber  Sextus  Decretalium;  Luca,  Giovanni 
"  Etudes  ",  Paris:  Magaud,  Antoine-Dominique;         Battista  de. 
Btlas&ccio 

SOUVAY,  CHARLES  L.,  CM.,  S.T.D.,  PH.D.,  Pro-  VINCENT,    HUGUES,    O.P.,    S.T.D.,    AssoaATE 

FESsoR,  Sacred  Scripture,  Hehrew  and  Lit-         Editor,    "Revue    Biblique"    and    "£tudes 

UROT,  Kenrick  Seminary,  St. Louis, Missouri:         Bibliques  ",  St.  Stephen's  Biblical  School, 

Leprosy.  Jerusalem:  Madianites. 

SPAHN,  MARTIN,  Ph.D.,  Professor  op  Modern  WAINBWRIGHT,    JOHN     BANNERMAN,     B.A. 

History,    University   of   Strasburo:    Lieber,         (Oxon.),  London:   Leigh,  Richard,  Venerable; 

Ernst  Maria.  Lloyd,  John,  Venerable;  Lockwood,  John,  Ven- 

SPALDING,  HENRY  S.,  S.J.,  St.  Ignatius  Col-         erable;  Mahony,  Charles,  Venerable. 

lege,  Chicago,  Illinois:  Marquette,  Jacques. 

SUAU,  PIERRE,  S.J.,  Toulouse,  France:  Leander  WALSH,  JAMES  J.,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Dean  op 

of  Seville   Saint.  ^^™   Medical    School,    Forduam  ^  University, 

SWIFT,  HENIRY  JARVIS,  S.J.,  Editorial  Staff,         ^«^  York:   Larrey,  Dominique- Jean ;   Linacre, 

"America",  New  York:  Lapuente,  Louis  de,         Thomas;  MacNeven,  WiUiam  James;  Malpighl, 

Venerable.  Marcello. 

TAAFFE,  JAMES  A.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Rhetoric,  WARD,   IRt.    Rev.    Mor.    BERNARD,    President, 

College  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  New  YdRK:         St.     Edmund's     College,     Ware,     England: 

Maltret,  Claude.  Martiall,  John;  Martin,  Gregory. 

THURSTON,  HERBERT,  S. J.,  London :Lectionary;  „,^^^„vr    TTAm:.  ii#ai>v    r  y:^ 

T     X    tI  t.  ux      t     j.    t^  t     •  WARREN,  KATE  MARY,  Lecturer  in  English 

'  Lent;  Libraries;  Lights;  Lords  Prayer;  Louis         ,  -^   

.,,         J    -ni       J     T       •  T       xA.      X     J  Literature  under  Lniversity  op  London  at 

AUemand,  Blessed;   Lummare;  Lunette;   Lynd-         ,,.  ^  ^ 

jt      xi7-n-  nr        '  Xk-.i       1        r       ikir  WeSTFIELD       COLLEGE,       HAMPSTEAD,       LoNDON  : 

wood,    William;    Marriage,    Ritual    of;    Mary         ^    ,     .      ,  ^ 
Tudor.  Lydgate,  John. 

TOKE,  LESLIE  ALEXANDER  ST.  LAWTRENCE,  WATRIGANT,  HENRI,  9.J.,  Enohien,  Belgium: 
B.A.,  StrattoN-on-the-Fosse,  Bath,  England  :         Mary  de  Sales  Chappuis,  Venerable. 

Lay  Brothers;   Leo  XII,  Pope;  Little  Office  of  ^AUGH,   NORMAN.    Cabltwn,   YobkShhUB,    Eng- 
Our  Lady;  Mab.llon,  Jean ;  Maedoc. Saint ;  Mael-         ^^^,  ^eed     Diocese  of. 
man.  Saint;  Maelrubha,  Saint. 

TONER,  PATRICK  J.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Dog-  WEBER,  N.  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  op  Funda- 
MATio  Theology,  Maynooth  College,  Dublin:  mental  Theology  and  Church  History, 
Limbo.  Marist  College,  Washington:   Lefdvre  d*Eta- 

TRISTRAM,  henry,  B.A  (Oxford  and  London),  pies,  Jacques;  Lorenzana, Francisco  Antonio  de; 
The  Oratory,  Birmingham,  England:  Lejeune,         Lupus,  Abbot  of  Feri&res;  Maimbourg,  Louis. 

Jeaw-  WILHELM,  J.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Battle,  England: 
TURNER,  WILLIAM,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  op         Loci  Theologici. 

Logic  and  the  History  of  Philosophy,  Cath-  ^^  «^   ^^     ^^      »    ^  ^ 

ouc   University    op   America,    Washington:  WILLIAMSON,     GEORGE     CHARLES,     Lirr.D., 
'■      Leibniz,  System  of;  Logic;  Maimonides,  Moses,         London:  Lebrun,  Charles;  Lefdvre,  Family  of; 

Teaching  of;  Marianus  Scotus.  Lopez-Caro,   Francisco;   Lotto,  Lorenzo;    Luini, 

URQUHART,    FRANCIS    FORTESOUE,    Fellow         Bernardino;  Maratta,  Carlo;  Martini,  Simone. 

AND   Lecturer  in   Modern  History,   Balliol  WILLIS,  JOHN  WILLEY,  M.A.,  St.  Paul,  Minne- 

COLLEOE,    Oxford:    Lollards;    Magna    Charta;         sqta:  Law,  Common. 

Mannyng,  Robert;  Marisco,  Adam  de. 

VAILHE,  SIMEON,  A.A.,  Member  of  the  (Russian  WITTMANN,     PIUS,     Ph.D.,     Reichsarchtvrat. 

Arch^ological  Institute  of  Constantinople,        Budingen,  Germany:  Linde,  Justin  Timotheus 

Professor  of  Sacred  Scripture  and  History,        Balthasar,  Freiherr  von;  Luxemburg. 

Greek    Catholic    Seminary    of    Kadi-Keui,  zFPHIRINY,     BROTHBR,     Iberville,     Canada: 

Constantinople:  Lares;  Larissa;  Legio;  Lem-         ^         kittle  Brothers  of. 

berg;  Leontopolis;  Lepanto;  Leptis  Magna;  Le 

Quien,  Michel;    Leros;    Lesbi;    Livias;    Lorea;  ZIMMERMAN,    BENEDICT,    O.D.C.,  St.    Luke's 

Lugos,  Diocese  of;  Lycopolis;  Lydda;  Lystra;         Priory,  Wincanton,  Somersetshire:  Leginont, 

Marash;    Marcianopolis;    Marcopolis;    Mardin;         Oliver;  Lezana.  Juan;  Lobera,  Ann:  Ludnvicus 

Haironia;  Biartyropolis.  a  S.  Carolo. 

idi 


Tables  of  Abbreviations 


The  following  tables  and  notes  are  intended  to  guide  readers  of  The  Catholic  Enctclopedi^  in 
interpreting  thoaeabbreviations,  signs,  or  technical  phrases  which,  for  economy  uf  space,  will  be  most  fre- 
quently used  in  the  work.    For  more  general  information  see  the  article  Abbbeviations,  Ecclesiastical. 


I. —  GEiTEaiAL  Abbreviations. 

a article: 

ad  an at  the  year  ( Lat.  ad  ctnnum) . 

an.,  ann the  year,  the  ycarH  (Lat,  annue, 

anni ) . 

ap in   ( Lat.  apud ) . 

art :  •  article. 

Assyr Assyrian. 

A.  S Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  V Authorized  Version   ( i.e.  tr.  of 

the  Bible  authorized  for  use 
in  the  Anglican  Church  —  the 
so-called  **  King  James  ",  or 
"Protestant  Bible"). 

b. bom. 

Bk Book. 

Bl blessed. 

C.,  c about     (Lat.     circa ) ;     canon ; 

chapter ;   compagnie, 

can canon. 

cap chapter      (Lat.      caput  —  used 

only  in  Latin  context). 

cf compare   ( Lat.  confer) . 

cod codex. 

col column. 

concl conclusion. 

const.,  constit Lat.  constilulio. 

curft .by  the  industry  of. 

d. died 

diet dictionary   ( Fr.  dictionnaire) . 

disp Lat.  dispufatio. 

diss Lat.  dissertatio, 

dist Lat.  distinclio. 

D.  V Douay  Version. 

ed..  edit edited,  edition,  editor. 

Ep.,  Epp letter,  letters   (Lat.  epistola) , 

Fr French. 

gen genus. 

Gi Greek.  • 

H.  E.,  Hist.  Eccl. ..  Ecclesiastical  History. 

Heb.,  Hebr Hebrew. 

ib.,  ibid in  the  same  place  ( Lat.  ibidem). 

Id the    same    person,    or    author 

(Lat.  idem), 

inf. below  (Lat.  infra). 


It Italian. 

1.  c,  loc.  cit at  the  place  quoted  (Lat.  toco 

citato). 

I^t Latin. 

iat latitude. 

lib book    {Ijsii.  liher) , 

long longitude. 

Mon Lat.  Monumenta. 

MS.,  MSS manuscript,  manuscripts. 

n.,  no number. 

X.  T New  Testament. 

Nat National. 

Old  Fr.,  O.  Fr Old  French. 

op.  cit in  the  work  quoted  (Lat.  opere 

citato), 

Ord Order. 

O.  T Old  Testament. 

p.,  pp pag«i  pages,  or   ( in  Latin  ref- 
erences) pars  (part). 

par paragraph. 

passim in  various  places. 

pt part. 

Q Quarterly    ( a   periodical ) ,   e.g. 

"  Church    Quarterly  *'. 

Q.J  QQ.)  quflBst question,        questions         (Lat. 

qUCBStio), 

q.  V which    [title]    see    ( Lat.    quod 

vide). 

Rev Review   (a  periodical ) . 

R.  S Rolls  Series. 

R.  V Revised  Version. 

S.,  SS Lat.  Sanctus,  Sancti,  "  Saint  ", 

"  Saints  " —  used  in  this  En- 
cyclopedia only  in  Latin 
context. 

Sept Septaugint. 

Sess Session. 

Skt Sanskrit. 

Sp Spanish. 

Sq.;  sqq following  page,  or  pages   (Lat. 

srquens) . 

St.,  Sts Saint,  Saints. 

Hup Above    ( Lat.  supra ) . 

H.  V Under  the  corresponding  title 

(Lat.  auh  voce). 


xib 


TAIBiLES  OF  ABBRBVIATIGNB. 


tonii volume  (Lat.  tomua). 

tr. translation  or  translated.  By  it- 
self it  means  ''  English  trans- 
lation", or  "tranelated  into 
English  by  ".  Where  a  trans- 
lation is  into  any  other  lan- 
guage, the  language  is  stated. 

tr.,  tract tractate. 

▼. see  ( Lat.  vide), 

Ven Venerable. 

Vol Volume. 

II. —  Abbbeviationb  of  Titles. 

Acta  6S Acta  Samoiorum  (Bolkmdists). 

Ann.  pont.  cath Battandier,  Annuaire  pontifical 

cathoUque, 

Bibl.    IMct.    Eng. 
Cath Gillow,  Bibliographical  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Catholics. 

Diet.  Christ.  Antiq . .  Smith    and'  Cheetham    ( ed ) , 

Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
tiquitii 


Diet.  Christ.  Biog... Smith  and  Wace  (ed.),  Diction- 
ary «of  Christian  Biography. 

Diet,  d'arch.  chr6t. .  .Cabrol  (ed.) ,  Diciionnaire  d'ar- 

ehiologie  chr6timne  et  de 
liturgie. 

Diet. deth6ol. cath.. Vacant    and   Mangenot    (ed.), 

Diatiomiaire  de  tMologie 
catholique. 

Diet.  Nat  Biog Stephen  and  Lee  (ed.).  Diction- 
ary of  National  BiograjAy. 

Hast.,  Diet,   of  the 

Bi^le HasUngs    (ed.),  A  Dictionary 

of  the  Bible. 
Kirchenlez Wetzer    and    Welte,    KircKen^ 

lecriootu 

P.  G Migne  (ed.),  Patreg  Ormoi, 

P.  L Migne  (ed.),  Pairea  La'tini, 

Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  BibleVigouroux    (ed.),  Diciionnaire 

de  la  Bible. 


pace  of 


Nora  I.—  Lsne  RomAn  numermhi  standing  alone  indieate  volumea.    Small  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  dusters. 
Aiabio  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  pages.    In  other  eases  the  divisions  are  explicitly  stated.    Thus     Rashdall,  UniversitieB  of 
Europe,  I,  iz  '*  refers  the  reader  to  the  mnth  chapter  of  the  first  vohime  of  that  work;     I,  p.  is  *'  w<Hild  indicate  the  ninth 
the  Mefaoe  of  the  same  volume. 

NOTB  II. —  Where  St.  Thomas  (Aquinas)  is  cited  without  the  name  of  any  partieular  woric  the  reference  is  always  to  *'  Si 
Thsologica  "  (not  to  "  Summa  Philosophis  ").    The  (tivisions  of  the  "  Summa  Theol."  are  indicated  by  a  system  which  may  best 
be  understood  by  the  following  example:    **  I-II,  Q.  vi.  a.  7,  ad  2  um  "  refers  the  reader  to  the  aeventk  article  of  the  wixth  question 
Id  the  fint  part  of  the  neand  imrt,  in  the  reqsonse  to  the  moimd  objection. 

NoTB  III.«-  The  abbreviations  enu^osrea  for  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  are  obvious.  Eodesiasticus  is  indicated  by  Sedut., 
to  distincuiah  it  from  Eoolesiastes  (EodHt.).  It  should  also  be  noted  that  I  and  II  ^ngs  in  D.  V.  correspond  to  I  and  II  Samuel  in 
A.  v.;  and  I  and  II  Par.  to  I  and  II  Chronioles.  Where,  in  the  Tp^Hing  of  a  proper  name,  there  is  a  marked  difference  between  the 
D.  V.  and  the  A.  V..  the  form  found  in  the  kttsr  is  added,  in  paientbssss. 


Mh 


Full  Page  Illustrations  in  Volume  IX 

Frontispiece  in  Colour  p^^b 

Apse,  St.  John  Lateran,  Rome 14 

Convent  of  Mar  Saba,  from  Brook  of  Cedron 38 

St.  Lawrence  being  ordained  Deacon  by  Sixtus  II 90 

St.  Peter  giving  the  Pallimn  to  Leo  III 158 

Leo  XIII— Chartran 170 

Le6n 176 

Lichfield  Cathedral 232 

Lincoln  Cathedral , 266 

Madonna  with  the  Violet — Lochner 320 

Shrine  of  EJdward  the  Confessor,  London 352 

St.  Peter  Martyr — Lorenzo  Lotto 366 

St.  Louis  relieving  the  Needy,  etc : . .  367 

Louisville 386 

Lund 434 

Isabella  the  Catholic 518 

Signing  of  the  Magna  Carta — Ernest  Normand 532 

Chapel  of  St.  Peter  in  Carcere,  Mamertine  Prison 578 

Henry  Ekiward,  Cardinal  Manning — Eklwin  Long 606 

Cardinal  Giulio  Rospigliosi — Carlo  Maratla 636 

Christ  and  Mary  Magdalen — Correggio 760 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots 766 

Mary  Tudor,  Queen  of  England — Antonio  Moro 767 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Laprade,  Victor  de,  French  poet  and  critic,  b. 
at  Montbrison  in  1812;  d.  at  Lyons  in  1883.  He  first 
studied  medicine,  then  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bsLTf  but  soon  left  it  to  become  professor  of  French 
literature  at  the  "Faculty  des  lettres"  of  Lyons.  He 
lost  this  position  in  1863  for  having  published  ^*  Les 
Muses  d'Etat",  a  satire  aimed  at  the  men  of  the  Sec- 
ond Empire,  and  from  that  time  on  he  devoted  all  his 
time  to  poetry.  In  1858  he  had  taken  the  seat  of  Mus- 
set  in  the  French  Academy.  Laprade  is  probably  the 
most  idealistic  French  poet  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
His  talent  somewhat  resembles  that  of  Lamartine, 
whom  he  ^dly  acknowledged  as  his  master.  His  in- 
spiration IS  always  lofty,  his  verses  are  harmonious 
and  at  times  graceful.  God,  nature,  the  fatherland, 
mankind,  friendship,  the  family  are  his  favourite 
topics.  To  form  a  correct  opinion  of  his  work,  one 
should  discriminate  between  the  two  phases  of  his 
literary  career.  During  the  first,  which  extends  down 
to  his  admission  into  the  Frencn  Academy,  he  takes 
pains  to  connect  the  ancient  with  the  modem  world, 
mythology  with  Christianity.  This  is  what  might  be 
termed  the  impersonal  phase  of  his  thought.  *Tsych6" 
ri342),  "Les  Odes  et  Formes"  (1844),  "Les  Podmes 
6vang61iques"  (1852).  "  Les  Symphonies "  (1855),  be- 
long to  this  first  period.  Another  collection  of  poems 
"L©8  Idylles  h^roiquea"  (1858),  marks  the  transition 
from  the  first  to  the  second  phase.  Laprade's  poetical 
pantheism  has  now  given  place  to  a  more  Cnristian 
and  more  humane  inspiration.  The  "poet  of  the 
summits",  as  he  was  sometimes  called,  had  become  a 
man  of  his  times;  filial  and  parental  love,  the  coimtiy 
life  of  his  dear  native  province  (Forez),  are  now  his 
topics.  To  this  period  belong  "  Fernet te"  (1878), 
"Harmodius"  (1870),  "Les  Formes  civiques"  (1873). 
It  was  then  that,  in  some  measure,  he  became 
popular.  He  was  also  a  remarkable  educational  and 
sesthetical  writer,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  works: 
"  Questions  d'art  et  de  morale  "  (1867), "  Le  Sentiment 
de  la  nature  avant  le  christianisme "  (1867),  "L'^u- 
cation    homicide"    (1867),    "L'^ducation   Hb^rale" 

(1873). 
BiRK,  V.  de  Laprade,  mvieeteee  ctuvres  (Paris,  b.  d  ). 

Pierre  Marique. 

Lapsi  (Lat.,  labi^  lapsus)  ^  the  regular  designation  in 
the  third  century  for  Christians  who  relapsed  into 
heathenism^  especially  for  those  who  during  the  per- 
secutions displayed  weakness  in  the  face  of  torture, 
and  denied  the  Faith  by  sacrificing  to  the  heathen  gods 
or  by  other  acts.  Many  of  the  lapsi,  indeed  the  ma- 
jority of  the  very  numerous  cases  in  the  great  perse- 
cutions after  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  certainly 
did  not  return  to  paganism  out  of  conviction:  they 
simply  had  not  the  courage  to  confess  the  Faith  stead- 
fastly wl^n  threatened  with  temporal  losses  and  se- 
vere punishments  (banishment,  forced  labour,  or 
IX.-  1 


death),  and  their  sole  desire  was  to  preserve  them- 
selves from  persecution  by  an  external  act  of  apostasy, 
and  to  save  their  property,  freedom,  and  life.  Toe 
obligation  of  confessing  the  Christian  Faith  imder  all 
circumstances  and  of  avoiding  every  act  of  denial  was 
firmly  established  in  the  Church  from  Apostolic  times. 
The  First  Epistle  of  St.  Peter  exhorts  the  believers  to 
remain  steadfast  imder  the  visitations  of  affliction 
(i,  6,  7;  iv,  16,  17).  In  his  letter  to  Trajan,  Plmy 
writes  that  those  who  are  truly  Christians  will  not 
offer  any  heathen  sacrifices  or  utter  any  revilings 
against  Christ.  Nevertheless  we  learn  both  from 
"  The  Shepherd  "  of  Hennas,  and  from  the  accounts 
of  the  persecutions  and  martyrdoms,  that  individual 
Christians  after  the  second  century  showed  weak- 
ness, and  fell  away  from  the  Faith.  The  aim  of  the 
civil  proceedings  against  Christians,  as  laid  down  in 
Trajan's  rescript  to  Pliny,  was  to  lead  them  to  apos- 
tasy. Those  Christians  were  acquitted  who  declared 
that  they  wished  to  be  so  no  longer  and  performed 
acts  of  pagan  religious  worship,  but  the  steadfast  were 
punished.  In  the  "Martyrdom  of  St.  Polycarp" 
(c.  iv;  ed.  Funk,  "  Patres  Apostolici ",  2nd  ed.,  I,  319), 
we  read  of  a  Phrygian,  Quintus.  who  at  first  volun- 
tarily avowed  the  Christian  Faitn,  but  showed  weak- 
ness at  the  sight  of  the  wild  beasts  in  the  amphithea- 
tre, and  allowed  the  proconsul  to  persuade  him  to 
offer  sacrifice.  The  letter  of  the  Christians  of  Lyons, 
concerning  the  persecution  of  the  Church  there  in  177, 
tells  us  likewise  of  ten  brethren  who  showed  weak- 
ness and  apostatized.  Kept,  however,  in  confine- 
ment and  stimulated  by  the  example  and  the  kind 
treatment  they  received  from  the  Christians  who  had 
remained  steadfast,  several  of  them  repented  their 
apostasy,  and  in  a  second  trial,  in  which  the  rene' 
^les  were  to  have  been  acquitted,  they  faithfully 
confessed  Christ  and  gained  the  martyrs'  crown 
(Eusebius,  "Hist.  EccL".  V,  ii). 

In  genera],  it  was  a  weil-established  principle  in  the 
Church  of  the  second  and  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century  that  an  apostate,  even  if  he  did  penance,  was 
not  again  tidcen  into  the  Christian  community,  or  ad- 
mitted to  the  Holy  Eucharist.  Idolatry  was  one  of 
the  three  capital  sins  which  entailed  exclusion  from 
the  Church.  After  the  middle  of  the  third  century, 
the  question  of  the  lapsi  gave  rise  on  several  occasions 
to  serious  disputes  in  the  Christtan  commimities,  and 
led  to  a  further  development  of  the  penitential  disci- 
pline in  the  Chureh.  The  first  occasion  on  which  the 
question  of  the  lapsi  became  a  serious  one  in  the 
Church,  and  finally  led  to  a  schism,  was  the  great  per- 
secution of  Decius  (250-1).  An  imperial  edict,  which 
frankly  aimed  at  the  extermination  of  Christianity, 
enjoined  that  every  Christian  must  perform  an  act  of 
idolatry.  Whoever  refused  was  threatened  with  the 
severest  punishments.  The  officials  were  instructed 
to  seek  out  the  Christians  and  compel  them  to  saerifioe. 


uunx 


and  to  proceed  against  the  recalcitrant  ones  with  th« 
greatest  severitv  (see  Decius).    The  consequences  of 
this  first  general  edict  of  persecution  were  dreadful  for 
the  Church.    In  the  long  peace  which  the  Christians 
had   enjoyed,  many  had   Ix^come  infected   with   a 
worldly  spirit.    A  great  number  of  the  laity,  and  even 
some  meml>ers  of  the  clergj',  weakened,  and,  on  the 
promulgation  of  the  edict,  flocked  at  once  to  the 
altars  of  the  heathen  idols  to  offer  sacrifice.     We  are 
particularly  well-informed  about  the  events  in  Africa 
and  in  Rome  by  the  correspondence  of  St.  Cyprian, 
Bishop  of  Carthage,  and  bv  his  treatises.  **  De  catho- 
licae  ecclesi®  unitate  "  and    De  lapsis  "  ("  Csecilii  Cyp- 
riani  openi  omnia",  ed.  Hartel,  I,  II,  Vienna,  18d8- 
71).    There  were  various  classes  of  lapsi,  according  to 
the  act  by  which  they  fell:  (1)  sacrificatiy  those  who 
had  actuallv  offered  a  sacrifice  to  idols;  (2)  thurificcdif 
those  who  had  burnt  incense  on  the  altar  before  the 
statues  of  the  gods;  (3)  libdlaticij  those  who  had 
drawn  up  an  attestation  (libeUus),  or  had,  by  bribing 
the  authorities,  caused  such  certificates  to  be  drawn 
up  for  them,  representing  them  as  having  offered 
■aerifice,  without,  however,  having  actually  done  so. 
So  far  five  of  these  libelli  are  known  to  us  (one  at  Ox- 
ford, one  at  Berlin,  two  at  Vienna,  one  at  Alexandria; 
see  Krebs  in  "Sitzungsberichte  der  kais.  Akademie 
der  Wissenschaften  in  Wien",  1894,  pp.  3-9;  Idem  in 
"Patrologia  Orientalis",  IV,  Paris,  1907,  pp.  33  sq.; 
Franchi  de*  Cavalieri  in  "  Nuovo  Bullettmo  di  arche- 
ologia  cristiana",  1895,  pp.  68-73).    Some  Christians 
were  allowed  to  present  a  written  declaration  to  the 
authorities  to  the  effect  that  they  had  offered  the 
prescribed  sacrifices  to  the  gods,  and  asked  for  a  cer- 
tificate of  this  act  (libdlum  tradere):  this  certificate 
was  delivered  by  the  authorities,  and  the  petition- 
ers received  back  the  attestation  (libeUum  accijjere), 
Hiose  who  had  actually  sacrificed  (the  sacrificati  and 
the  thurificati)  also  received  a  certificate  of  having 
done  so.    The  libellatici,  in  the  narrow  sense  of  the 
word,  were  those  who  obtained  certificates  without 
having  actually  sacrificed.    Some  of  the  libellatici, 
who  forwarded  to  the  authorities  documents  drawn 
up  concerning  their  real  or  alleged  sacrifices  and  bear- 
ing their  signatures,  were  also  called  actafadentes. 

The  names  of  the  Christians,  who  had  shown  their 
apostasy  by  one  of  the  above-mentioned  methods, 
were  entered  on  the  court  records.  After  these  weak 
brethren  had  received  their  attestations  and  knew 
that  their  names  were  thus  recorded,  they  felt  them- 
selves safe  from  further  inquisition  and  persecution. 
The  majority  of  the  lapsi  had  indeed  only  obeyed  the 
edict  of  Decius  out  of  weakness:  at  heart  they  wished 
to  remain  Christians.  Feeling  secure  against  further 
persecution,  they  now  wished  to  attend  Christian 
worship  again  and  to  be  readmitted  into  the  conmiu- 
nion  of  the  Church,  but  this  desire  was  contrary  to  the 
then  existing  penitential  discipline.  The  Lapsi  of 
Carthage  succeeded  in  winning  over  to  their  side  cer- 
tain Cmistians  who  had  remaned  faithful,  and  had 
suffered  torture  and  imprisonment.  These  confes- 
sors sent  letters  of  reconmaendation  in  the  name  of  the 
dead  martyrs  (libelli  pads)  to  the  bishop  in  favour  of 
the  renegades.  On  tne  strength  of  these  ''letters  of 
peace",  the  lapsi  desired  immediate  admittance  into 
communion  with  the  Church,  and  were  actually  ad- 
mitted by  some  of  the  clergy  inimically  disposed  to 
pyprian.  Similar  difficulties  arose  at  Rome,  and  St. 
(Brian's  Carthaginian  opponents  sought  for  support 
in  the  capital  in  their  attack  against  their  bishop. 
Cyprian,  who  had  remained  in  constant  communica- 
turn  with  the  Roman  clergy  during  the  vacancy  of  the 
Roman  See  after  the  martyrdom  of  Pope  Fabian,  de- 
cided that  nothing  should  be  done  in  the  matter  of 
reconciliation  of  the  lapsi  until  the  persecution  should 
be  over  and  he  could  return  to  Carthage.  Only  those 
apostates  who  showed  that  they  were  penitent,  and 
had  received  a  personal  note  (kbellus  pacts)  from  a 


confessor  or  a  martyr,  might  obtain  absolution  ano 
admission  to  communion  with  the  Church  and  to  the 
Holy  Eucharist,  if  they  were  dangerously  ill  and  at  the 
point  of  death.  At  Rome,  likewise,  the  principle  was 
established  that  the  apostates  should  not  be  given  up, 
but  tliat  they  should  be  exhorted  to  do  penance,  so 
that,  in  case  of  their  being  again  cited  before  the  pagan 
authorities,  they  might  atone  for  their  apostasy  by 
steadfastly  confessing  the  Faith.  Furthermore,  com- 
munion was  not  to  l^  refused  to  those  who  were  seri- 
ously ill,  and  wished  to  atone  for  their  apostasy  by 
penance. 

The  party  opposed  to  Cyprian  at  Carthage  did  not 
accept  the  biahop's  decision,  and  stirred  up  a  schism. 
When,  after  the  election  of  St.  Ck)rneUus  to  the  Giair 
of  Peter,  the  Roman  priest  Novatian  set  himself  up 
at  Rome  as  anti-pope,  he  claimed  to  be  the  upholder 
of  strict  discipline,  inasmuch  as  he  refused  uncondi- 
tionally to  readmit  to  communion  with  the  Church 
any  wno  had  fallen  away.  He  was  the  founder  of 
Novatianism  (q.  v.).  Shortly  after  Cyprian's  return 
to  his  episcopal  city  in  the  spring  of  251,  synods  were 
held  in  Rome  and  Africa,  at  wmch  the  affair  of  the 

Xwas  adjusted  by  common  agreement.  It  was 
.ited  as  a  principle  that  they  should  be  encouraged 
to  repent,  and,  imder  certain  conditions  and  after  s^e- 
quate  public  penance  (exoniologesis),  should  be  read- 
mitted to  communion.  In  fixing  the  duration  of 
the  penance,  the  bishops  were  to  take  into  considera- 
tion the  circumstances  of  the  apostasy,  e.  g.,  whether 
the  penitent  had  offered  sacrifice  at  once  or  only  after 
torture,  whether  he  had  led  his  family  into  apostasy 
or  on  the  other  hand  had  saved  them  therefrom,  after 
obtaining  for  himself  a  certificate  of  having  sacrificed. 
Those,  who  of  their  own  accord  had  actually  sacrificed 
(the  sacrificati  and  thurificati),  might  be  reconciled 
with  the  Church  only  at  the  point  of  death.  The 
libellatici  might,  after  a  reasonable  penanc«,  be  im- 
mediately readinitted.  In  view  of  the  severe  perse- 
cution then  inuninent,  it  was  decided  at  a  subsequent 
Carthaginian  synod  that  all  lapsi  who  had  undergone 
public  penance  should  be  readmitted  to  full  com- 
munion with  the  Church.  Bishop  Dionysius  of  Alex- 
andria adopted  the  same  attitude  towards  the  lapsi 
as  Pope  Cornelius  and  the  Italian  bishops,  and  C^'p- 
rian  and  the  African  bishops.  But  in  the  East  Kova- 
tian's  rigid  views  at  first  found  a  more  sympathetic 
reception.  The  united  efforts  of  the  supporters  of 
Pope  Cornelius  succeeded  in  bringing  the  ^eat  ma- 
jority of  the  Eastern  bishops  to  recognise  him  as  the 
rightful  Roman  pontiff,  with  which  recognition  the 
acceptance  of  the  principles  relative  to  the  case  of  the 
lapsi  was  naturally  united.  A  few  groups  of  Chris- 
tians in  different  parts  of  the  empire  shared  the  views 
of  Novatian,  anci  tlius  enabled  the  latter  to  form  a 
small  schismatic  community  (see  Novatianism). 

At  the  time  of  the  great  persecution  of  Diocletian, 
matters  took  the  same  course  as  under  Decius.  Dur- 
ing this  severe  affliction  which  assailed  the  Church, 
many  showed  weakness  and  fell  away,  and,  as  before, 
p^ormed  acts  of  heathen  worship,  or  tried  by  arti- 
fice to  evade  persecution.  Some,  with  the  collusion 
of  the  officials,  sent  their  slaves  to  the  pagan  sacrifices 
instead  of  (^oing  themselves;  others  bribed  pagans  to 
assume  their  names  and  to  perform  the  required  sac- 
rifices (Petrus  Alexandrinus,  ''Liber  de  poenitentia'* 
in  Routh,  *'  Reliquiae  Sacr.",  IV,  2nd  ed.,  22  sqq).  In 
the  Diocletian  persecution  appeared  a  new  cat^'gory 
of  lapsi  called  the  trcuiitares:  tnese  were  the  Christians 
(mostly  clerics)  who,  in  obedience  to  an  edict,  gave  up 
the  sacred  books  to  the  authorities.  The  term  tra- 
ditorea  was  given  both  to  those  who  actually  gave  up 
the  sacred  books,  and  to  those  who  merely  delivered 
secular  works  in  their  stead.  As  on  the  previous  occa- 
sion, the  lapsi  in  Rome,  under  the  l^ership  of  a 
certain  Heraclius,  tried  forcibly  to  obtain  readmission 
to  communion  with  the  Church  without  performing 


LAPUINTI                               3  Ul&ZOHAEDIX 

penance,  but  Popes  Blaroellus  and  Eusebius  adhered  a  part  of  the  sultanate  of  Konia,  and  after  the  pos- 
strictly  to  the  tiaditional  penitential  discipline.  The  sessions  of  the  Seljuks  were  divided,  it  became  the 
confusion  and  disputes  caused  by  this  difference  capital  of  Caramania,  conquered  in  1486  by  the  Os- 
among  the  Roman  Christians  caused  Maxentius  to  manli  Sultan  Bajazet  II.  The  name  Laranda  is  sel- 
fcMinish  MarceUus  and  later  Eusebius  and  Heraclius  dom  heard  in  modern  davs,  the  city  is  generally  known 
(cf.  Inscriptions  of  Pope  Damasus  on  Popes  Mar-  as  Caraman.  It  has  about  15,000  mhabitants,  the 
cellus  and  Eusebius  in  Inm,  ''Damasi  epigrammata'',  majority  being  Mussulmans,  and  is  one  of  the  chief 
Leipzig,  1895,  p.  51,  n.  48;  p.  25,  n.  IB).  In  Africa  towns  of  the  vilayet  of  Konia.  Cbtton  and  silk  fab- 
the  unhappy  Donatist  schism  arose  from  disputes  rics  are  made  there,  and  it  is  a  railway-station  be- 
about  the  lapsi,  especially  the  traditores  (see  Dona-  tween  Konia  and  Eregli  on  the  way  to  Bagdad.  There 
TiSTs).  Several  synods  oi  the  fourth  century  drew  up  are  no  ancient  ruins.  Laranda  is  mentioned  as  a  suf- 
canons  on  the  treatment  of  the  lapsi,  e.  g.,  the  fragan  of  Iconium  bv  the  *'Notitise  Episcopatuum" 
Synod  of  Elvira  in  306  (can.  i-iv,  xlvi),  of  Arlee  in  imtil  about  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  Only 
314  (can.  xiii),  of  Ancyra  in  314  ([can.  i-ix),  and  the  four  of  its  bishops  are  known:  Neo,  mentioned  by 
General  Council  of  >fice  (can.  xiii).  Many  of  the  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  VI,  xix);  Paul,  present  at  the 
decisions  of  these  synods  concerned  only  members  of  Council  of  Nicsea,  325;  Ascholius,  at  Chalcedon,  451 ; 
Uie  clergy  who  had  committed  acts  of  apostasy  in  Sabbas,  at  Constantinople,  879. 

time  of  persecution.  L»  quikn,  Orien$  Christ.,  l,  1081;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and 

HsrBLB.  KonxUienoeKh.,  I  (2nd  ed..  FreibuiK.  1873).  Ill  i^oman  Get^.,  8.  v.;  lUittAr,  A«ia  if inor,  poMtm.^ 

■qq.,  155  sqq..  211.  222  sqa.,  412  sqq.;  Duchksnb.  Hiat.  an-  b.  I'ETIUDES. 
eUnne  de  VBglise,  I  (Paris.  1906) ..397 sqq.;  Funk,  Zur  altchrittl. 

f.'TSi^^'^.^'tSSl^rSS::^:^^^  ^»',  formerly  a  titular  areluepiscopal  aee  in  pn>. 

rian  'mZeUaehr.  fur  KirchengeMch.,  XVI  (1896),  1-44. 187-219;  consular  Afnca.     In  ancient  times  it  was  a  fortified 

8ip3p^R,DieBehandlunoderOejaU^  town,  mentioned  by  Sallust  (JuRurtha,  xc),  later  it 

i;SE»!;^^VEfe?J^teiKrdr2?.i5^^:  ^}yf  the.name  of  Colonia  ^lia  Aug.  La.res.    At 

ThUe  (LvoDfl,  1904);  8ch6naich,  Die  ChristenverfoJoung  dtt  least  five  of  its  bishops  are  known:   Hortensian,  who 

Kainer»fieciu9  (Jauer.  1907):  Db  Roasi.  Roma  toUerruneaari*-  took  part  in  252  and  255  at  the  Councils  of  Carthage; 

^Stii^-^y>^^ii>^'^^id^'J%^T'"^'  ^'  *''  •'^  yictorinu8  who  with  his  Donatist  colleague  Honoratus 

J.  p.  KiRSCH.  figured  at  the  conference  of  Carthage;  Qumtian  who 

Uved  at  the  time  of  the  persecution  of  Iluneric  (about 

Lapuente  (D'Apontb,  db  Pontb,  Dupont),  Luis  480);  Vitulus,  who  was  living  in  525  in  the  time  of 

DB,  Venerable,  b.  at  Valladolid,  11  November,  1554;  King  Hilderic.    St.  Augustine  (Ep.  ccxxix),  Victor 

d.  there,  16  February,  1624.    Having  entered  the  So-  Vitensis  (Hist.  Pers.  Vand.,  6  and  9),  Procopius  (Bell, 

ciety  of  Jesus,  he  studied  under  the  celebrated  Suarez.  Vand.,  II,  22  and  28),  also  Arabian  and  other  historians 

and  professed  philosophy  at  Salamanca.     Endowed  mention  the  town.     It  is  the  Loroeus  of  to-day,  be- 

with  exceptional  talents  for  government  and  the  for-  tween  Tunis  and  Tebessa;    the  ruins  cover  a  large 

mation  of  young  reli^ous.  he  was  forced  by  impaired  area,  which  would  indicate  that  once  it  had  been  a 

health  to  retire  from  offices   which  he  had  filled  town  of  considerable  importance.    A  mosque  has 

with  distinction  and  general  satisfaction.    The  ^ears  taken  the  place  of  a  church,  and  the  ruins  of  a  basilica 

that  followed  were  devoted  to  Uterary  composition,  are  still  visible. 

Though  not   reckoned   among  Spanish    classics,    his  OAiia,  Serie*  episcoporum.  I,  466;  Toulotte,  O^ographie  d§ 

works  are  so  replete  with  practical  spirituaUty  that  VAfriquechritienneproconsulaire  (Paris,  1892).  191-4. 

they  claim  for  him  a  place  among  the  most  eminent  •  ^^^^^^' 

masters  of  ascetidwn    Ordwned  priest  in  IMO,  he  be-  j^  Eichardie,  Armand  de,  b.  at  P<5riKueux,  7  June, 

owne  the  spintual  dujwstor  of  the  celebrated  Marma  de  iggg  ^  ^^  q^^^  17  ^^^^  1758     g^  ^^t^^ed  th^ 

f^?^'u^A^'t,°B'^  »  continued  till  his  death.  Society  of  Jelu8atBordeaux,40ct.,  1703,andinl725 

In  1599  he  devoted  himself  with  great  chanty  to  the  „^  J^^.  ^  the  Canada  misdon.    He  s^nt  the  two 

care  of  the  plagius-rtncken  in  Villagarcia.   Of  remark-  snowing  years  helping  Father  Pierre  I^iel  Richer 

able  umocence  of  life  he  not  only  avoided  all^evous  ^^  Lorett/,  and  studying  the  Huron  language.    In 

sin,  but  bound  himself  by  vow,  some  years  before  his  ^728  he  went  to  Detroft  to  re-establish^e  long- 

f^i'^^'tSr^eilf  ^S'J5i'!?^i:r!fl?„^J^jrJi!l^  interrupted  mission  to.the  dispersed.  Petun-Hurons^ 

Christian  did 
had  been  bap- 


ineHurons.  During  the 
father  was  stricken  with 

lhu^  vu  ^u&unx  ij^ucir,.    xiiu,  i«iv  woriL  xii«  ue«u  ^j^fy^i^  and  on  29  Julv  he  was  placed  in  an  open 

trandatod  mto  ten  different  languag^,  indudmg  Ara-  ^oe  ^nd  thus  conveyeJ  to  Quebei.  ^ 

bic.   A  few  years  irfterhw  death,  the  SacredC^^  j^  1747  ^y^^  HuroM  insisted  on  his  returning  to 

tiOQ  of  Rites  admitted  the  cause  for  his  beatification  ^^^  tranquiUity  to  their  nation.    The  fatherliad 

*%S22^S2.''S:j..  VI.  Ix;  N,.H.MB.Ro.  Varones  Husire..  ^^8^  completely  Tecovered  from  his  palsy,  and  will- 

IX.  mgly  consented.     He  set  out  from  Montreal  on  10 

Henrt  J.  Swift.  Sept.,  and  reached  Detroit  on  20  Oct.    From  this 

date  until  1751,  leaving  the  loyal  Hurons  in  the  keep- 

Laranda,  a  titular  see  of  Isauria,  afterwards  of  in£  of  Father  Potier  at  the  Detroit  village,  he  directed 

Lycaonia.  Strabo  (XII,  569),  informs  us  that  Laranda  allhis  energies  to  reclaiming  Nicolas  Orontondi's  band 

had  belonged  to  the  t3rrant  Antipater  of  Derbe,  of  insurgent  Hurons.    These  had  already  in  1740, 

whence  we  may  infer  that  it  was  governed  by  native  owing  to  a  bloody  feud  with  the  Detroit  Ottawas  and 

princes.    The  city  was  taken  by  storm  and  destroyed  to  the  reluctance,  if  not  refusal,  of  Governor  Beauhar- 

Dy  Perdiccas  (Diodorus  Siculus,  XVIII,  22),  after-  nais  to  let  the  Hurons  remove  to  Montreal,  sullenly 

wards  rebuilt.    Owing  to  its  fertile  territory  Laranda  left  Detroit  and  settled  at  " Little  Lake"  (now  Ron- 

beoune  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  the  di»-  deau  Harbour)  near  Sandusky.    There  they  had  been 

trioty  also  one  of  the  principM  centres  for  the  pirates  of  won  over  to  the  English  cause,  had  openly  revolted  in 

Uauria.    It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  poets  Nestor  and  1747,  and  had  muroered  a  party  of  Frenchmen.  Earl)' 

*'*-  son  Pisander  (Suidas,  s.  v.).    In  later  times  it  was  in  the  tpring  of  1748  Orontondi  (not  Oronteny)  set 


LARINO 


Ul  BOOHS 


fire  to  the  fort  and  cabins  at  Sandusky,  and  withdrew 
to  the  Rividre  Blanche,  not  far  from  the  junction  of 
the  Ohio  and  Wabash  Rivers.  Until  his  death,  which 
occurred  some  time  after  September,  1749,  Orontondi 
continued  to  intrigue  with  the  English  emissaries,  the 
Iroquois,  and  the  disaffected  Miamis.  When  there 
was  no  longer  doubt  of  the  renegade  leader's  demise, 
dc  La  Richardie  resolved  on  a  final  attempt  at  concilia- 
tion. He  had  already  at  intervals  spent  months  at  a 
time  among  the  fugitives,  and  now  on  7  Sept.,  1750, 
at  the  pern  of  his  life  he  started,  with  only  three  canoe 
men  for  the  country  of  the  "Nicolites"  as  they  were 
then  termed.  The  greater  nimiber  remained  obdu- 
rate. It  is  the  descendants  of  the  latter  who  in  July, 
1843,  removed  from  their  lands  at  Upper  Sandusky, 
Ohio,  to  beyond  the  Mississippi,  and  now  occupy  the 
Wyandot  reserve  in  the  extreme  north-eastern  part 
of  Oklahoma.  The  father's  failing  strength  obliged 
his  superiors  to  recall  him  to  Quelle  in  1751,  and  on 
30  June  he  bade  a  final  farewell  to  the  Detroit  mis- 
sion. From  the  autumn  of  1751  until  his  death  he 
filled  various  important  offices  in  Quebec  College.  His 

Huron  name  was  Ondechaouasti. 

Original  sources:  Potier,  MS.  Journal,  passtzo:  Census  of 
Hurona,  Gramin.t  149-60;  Paris  Archives,  Minisltre  dcs 
Colonies,  Canada:  Corrcsp.  gfnirale,  LIII»  c.  xi,  fol.  207- 
14;  LXXIV,  c.  xi,  fol.  80.  268;  L»CV,  c.  xi,  fol.  90,  97.  121, 
124,  130,  149.  164.  1.55,  249.  370;  iZXXVIl,  c.  3d.  fol.  166, 
LXXXI,  fol.  160;  Archives  Coloniales,  Canada:  Correspond. 
a6n.,  XCIII,  c.  xi.  fol.  31,  282;  Collection  de  MSS.  rdatifs  a  la 
Nouvelle-France,  III  (Quebec,  1884).  passim:  N.  Y.  Colonial 
Does.,  X,  99-130.  134-46.  246-61;  Wisconsin  Hist.  CoU.,  XVII, 
XVIII,  passim. 

Modem  authors:  Shea,  Hu<.  of  Caih.  Missions  among  the 
Indians  (1856)  202-03;  Idem,  Hist,  of  Cath.  Ch.  in  U.  S.. 
I.  1886,  631;  III,  1890,  330.  Thwattes,  Jes.  Rds.  and  Allied 
Docs.,  LXVIII,  333;  tXXIII.  80:  db  Rochemonteix,  Les 
Jisuites  et  la  Nouv.  France,  I,  346,  UI.  626. 

Arthur  Edward  Jones. 

Larino  (Larinum),  Diocese  of,  in  the  province  of 
Campobasso,  Southern  Italy.  Larinum  was  a  city  of 
the  t  rentani  (a  Samnite  tribe)  and  a  Roman  municip' 
turn.  The  present  city  is  a  mile  from  the  site  of  the 
ancient  I-Armum,  destroyed  by  war  and  epidemic,  and 
is  first  mentioned  as  an  episcopal  see  in  668.  Note- 
worthy among  the  bishops  were  Giovanni  Leone 
(1440),  a  distinguished  canonist  and  theologian;  Fra 
Giacomo  de'  Petruzzi,  a  saintly  and  renowned  phi- 
losopher; Belisario  Baldovino  (1555),  present  at  the 
Council  of  Trent,  founder  of  the  seminary  and  epis^ 
copal  palace;  the  Oratorian  Gian  Tommaso  Eustachi 
(1612),  famous  for  his  sanctity;  Carlo  M.  Pianetti 
(1706^,  who  restored  the  cathedral,  with  its  beautiful 
marble  fao^de;  Gian  Andrea  Tria  (1726),  historian  of 
Larino.  The  diocese  is  a  suffragan  of  Benevento,  and 
has  21  parishes  with  79,000  souJs,  3  religious  houses 
of  men  and  1  of  women,  and  1  school  for  girls. 

Cappelletti.  Le  chiese  d* Italia,  XIX  (Venice,  1867);  Tria, 
Storia  civile  ed  ecclesiastiche  di  Larino  (Rome»  1744). 

U.  Benigni. 

Larissa,  the  seat  of  a  titular  archbishopric  of 
Thessaly.  The  city,  one  of  the  oldest  and  ricnest  in 
Greece,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Acrisius,  who 
was  killed  accidentally  by  his  son,  Perseus  (Stephanus 
Byzantius,  s.  v.).  There  lived  Peleus,  the  hero  be- 
loved by  the  gods,  and  his  son  Achilles;  however,  the 
city  is  not  mentioned  by  Homer,  unless  it  be  identified 
with  Argissa  of  the  Iliad  (II,  738).  The  constitution 
of  the  town  was  democratic,  which  explains  why  it 
sided  with  Athens  in  the  Peloponnesian  War.  In  the 
nei(;hbourhood  of  Larissa  was  celebrated  a  festival 
which  recalled  the  Roman  Saturnalia,  and  at  which  the 
•laves  were  waited  on  by  their  masters.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Thebans  and  afterwards  by  the  Macedonian 
kings,  and  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  gained  possession  of 
it  for  a  time,  302  b.  c.  It  was  there  that  Philip  V. 
King  of  Macedonia,  signed  in  197  b.  c,  a  shameful 
treaty  with  the  Romans  after  his  defeat  at  Cynosce- 
|^1»,  and  it  was  there  also  that  Antiochus  III,  the 
Great,  won  a  great  victory,  192  b.  c.    Larissa  is  fre- 


quently mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  Roman  civil 
wars  which  preceded  the  establishment  of  the  empire, 
and  Pompey  sought  refuge  there  after  the  defeat  of 
Pharsalus.  First  Roman,  then  Greek  until  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  afterwards  Prankish  until  1460, 
the  city  fell  into  the  liands  of  the  Turks,  who  kept  it 
imtil  1882,  when  it  was  ceded  to  Greece;  it  sufifeied 
greatly  from  the  conflicts  between  the  Greeks  and  the 
Turks  between  1820  and  1830,  and  quite  recently  from 
the  Turkish  occupation  in  1897.  On  6  March,  1770, 
Aya  Pasha  massacred  there  3000  Christians  from 
Trikala,  who  had  been  treacherously  brought  there. 

Very  prosperous  under  the  Turkish  sovereignty 
Larissa,  which  counted  40,000  inhabitants  thirty 
years  ago,  has  now  only  14,000,  Greeks,  Turks,  and 
Jews;  tne  province  of  which  it  is  the  chief  town  has  a 
population  of  140,000.  Christianity  penetrated  early 
to  Larissa,  though  its  first  bishop  is  recorded  only  in 
325  at  the  Council  of  Nicsea.  We  must  mention 
especially,  St.  Achilius,  in  the  fourth  century,  whose 
feast  is  on  15  May,  and  who  is  celebrated  for  his  mira- 
cles. Lequien,  *'Oriens  Christ.",  II,  103-112,  cites 
twentjr-nine  bishops  from  the  fourth  to  the  eighteenth 
centuries;  the  most  famous,  Jeremias  II,  occupied  the 
patriarchal  See  of  Constantinople  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  As  to  the  archbishops  of  Latin  Rite,  about 
ten  names  were  recorded  by  Lequien,  op.  cit.,  Ill, 
979.  and  chiefly  by  Eubel,  **  Ilierarchia  catholica 
medii  aevi"  (MQnster),  I,  307;  II,  191.  The  metro- 
politan See  of  Larissa  depended  directly  on  the  pope 
as  Patriarch  of  the  West  imtil  733,  when  the  Emperor 
Leo  III  the  Isaurian  annexed  it  to  the  Patriarchate  of 
Constantinople.  In  the  first  years  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury it  had  ten  suffragan  sees  (Gelzer,  "  Un^edruckte 
.  .  .  Texte  der  Notitiffi  episcopatuum  '\  Munich,  1900, 
557);  subsequently  the  number  increased  and  about 
the  year  1175,  under  the  Emperor  Manuel  Comnenus, 
it  reached  twenty-eight  (Parthey,  **Hieroclis  Synec- 
demus",  Berlin,  1866,  120).  At  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  under  the  Turkish  domination,  there 
were  only  ten  suffragan  sees  (Gelzer,  op.  cit.,  635), 
which  gradually  grew  less  and  finally  disappeared. 
Since  1882,  when  Thessaly  was  ceded  to  Greece,  the 
Orthodox  Diocese  of  larissa  has  been  dependent  on 
the  Holy  Synod  of  Athens,  not  Constantinople.  Ow- 
ing to  the  law  of  1900  which  suppressed  all  the  metro- 
p(3itan  sees  excepting  Athens,  Larissa  was  reduced  to 
the  rank  of  a  simple  bishopric;  its  title  is  united  with 
that  of  Pharsalus  and  Platamon,  two  adjoining  bishop- 
rics now  suppressed. 

S.  Vailh^. 

La  Roche,  Alain  de.    See  Alanus  de  Rupe. 

La  Roche  Daillon,  Joseph  de,  Recollect,  one  of  the 
most  zealous  missionaries  of  the  Huron  tribe,  d.  in 
France,  1656.  He  landed  at  Quebec,  19  Jime,  1625, 
with  the  first  Jesuits  who  came  to  New  France,  and  at 
once  set  out  with  the  Jesuit  Father  Br^beuf  for  Three 
Rivers,  to  meet  the  Hurons  into  whose  country  they 
hoped  to  enter.  Owing  to  a  report  that  the  Hurons 
had  drowned  the  RecoUect  Nicolas  Viel,  their  mis- 
sionary, the  journey  was  put  off.  In  1626  La  Roche 
Daillon  was  among  the  Hurons,  leaving  whom  he 
passed  to  the  Neutral  Nation  after  travelling  six  days 
on  foot.  He  remained  with  them  for  three  months, 
and  at  one  time  barely  escaped  being  put  to  death. 
This  caused  his  return  to  the  Hurons.  In  1628  he 
went  to  Three  Rivers  with  twenty  Huron  canoes,  on 
their  way  to  trade  pelts  with  the  French.  From 
Three  Rivers  he  journeyed  to  Quebec,  and  on  the  tak- 
ing of  the  city,  in  1629,  the  English  sent  him  back  to 
France.  La  Roche  Daillon  published  an  account  of 
his  voyage  to  and  sojourn  amongst  the  Neutrals,  de- 
scribing their  country  and  their  customs,  and  men- 
tioning a  kind  of  oil  which  seems  to  be  coal  oil.  Sa- 
gard  and  Leclerca  reproduced  it  in  their  writings,  in  a 
more  or  less  alniaged  form. 


LA  BOOHtrOUOAULD-LUMOOnaT 

BAMTuiN.    CEucret.    «d,    L&VBiuiikas    (Quebw,    1870); 

ABD.  Hisloire  du  Camida.tA.  Tsou  (Faiu.  1S6B):    Lk- 

«™,  £y™;.(««inm(  dt  la  Fai  CPstia.  16011;    wJn'i—  -f— 

I.  Rdatioa  dt  15*1  IQuebtc.  185S);    Pa 


poeed  during  the  last  ye&is  of  the  rciKn  of  Loub  ,_ . 
to  the  government  of  Maupcou,  and  tlie  friend  of  all 
the  reformers  who  BUrrouniied  Louis  XVI,  he  owed  to 
the  influence  of  these  economists  the  favour  of  the  king. 


rage  for  rural  life  which  characterized  the  last  years 
of  the  old  regime,  La  Rochefoucauld  made  his  estate 
at  Liancourt  an  experimental  station,  wishing  to  im- 
prove both  the  eoil  and  the  peaaantry.  He  intro- 
duced new  methods  of  farming,  founded  the  first 
model  technical  school  in  Franco  (intended  for  the 
children  of  poor  soldiers),  and  started  two  factories. 
Politically,  he  was  a  partisan  of  a  democratic  regime 
of  which  the  king  was  to  be  the  bead,  and  throughout 
his  life  was  faithful  to  this  dream.  Deputy  for  the 
Dobility  of  Clermont  in  Beauvabis  at  the  States-Gen- 
eral, he  voted  unhesitatingly  for  the  "reunion  of  the 
three  orders".  It  waa  he  who  in  the  night  which 
foUowod  the  taking  of  the  Bastille  (14  July,  1780) 


Assembly  from  20  July  to  3  August,  1789.  On  the 
night  of  4  August  he  was  one  of  the  most  enthusiastic 
in  voting  the  abolition  of  titles  of  nobility  and  privi- 
leges. As  grand  master  of  the  wardrobe  he  accom- 
mnied  Louis  XVI  from  Veruaillea  to  Paris  on  5  and  6 
October,  1789.  Aa  president  of  th«  coimnitt<«  of 
mendicancy,  he  made  a  supreme  effort  at  the  Constit- 
uent Assembly  to  organize  public  relief;  he  determined 
the  extent  and  the  limits  of  the  rights  of  every  citiien 
to  assistance,  determined  the  obligations  of  the  State, 
and  established  a  budget  of  State  assi:jtancc  which 
amounted  annually  to  five  millions  and  a  half  of 
francs,  and  which  implied  the  national  confiscation  of 
hospital  property,  of  ecclesiastical  charitable  property, 
and  of  tno  mcomo  from  privat*  foundations. 

Liancourt  is  one  of  the  most  undisceming  repre- 
sentatives of  the  tendency  which  led  the  revolutionary 


floastoprenii 
but  Louis  A 

of  constitutional  deputies.  Ijb.  Rochefoucauld- Li- 
ancourt emigrated  shortly  after  10  August,  and  re- 
sided in  England  until  1794,  afterwards  in  the  United 
States  (1794-7).  He  took  advantage  of  his  residence 
b  that  country  to  write  eight  volumes  on  the  United 
States,  to  induce  Washington  to  interfere  in  favour  of 
Lafayette,  and  to  gather  ideas  upon  education  and 
Mriculturc  which  ho  attempted  later  to  appl;]^  in 
France.  After  18  Brumaire,  Natx>lcon  auttiorizcd 
him  to  return  to  tiis  Liancourt  estate,  which  was  re- 
stored to  him.  This  former  duke  and  peer  gloried  in 
being  appointed,  during  the  First  Empire  (1806). 
general  in><pector  of  the  "  Ecole  dos  arts  et  metiers 
at  Chalons,  of  which  his  Liancourt  school  had  been  a 
forerunner.  The  IxHjk  "Prisons  de  Philadelphie", 
which  he  composed  in  America  and  published  in 
1706,  was  meant  to  initiate  a  penitentiary  reform  in 
France;  at  the  Restoration  in  1814  he  begged  but  one 
favour— to  be  appointed  prison  inspector.  In  1819 
he  became  inspector  of  one  of  the  twenty-eight  'ir- 
rondiMemenla  into  which  Prance  was  divided  for  peni- 
tentiary puiposea.  LouisXVIIIeave  him  back  neither 
Ihe  blue  ribbon  nor  the  mastership  of  the  wardrobe, 
and  in  the  House  of  Peers  he  sat  with  the  opposition. 


5  LA  BOOHEJAOQUELBIH 

La  Roohefoucauld-Lioncourt  was  the  Franklin  of 
the  Revolution.  An  aristocrat  by  birth,  a  liberal  in 
his  views,  in  touch  with  all  the  representatives  of  the 
new  commerce,  be  availed  himself  of  this  concurrence 
of  circumstances  to  become  the  leader  of  every  cam- 
paign for  the  people's  protection  and  l)etterment:im- 
Sirovenient  of  sanitary  conditions  in  hospitals  and 
oundlinjt  asylums,  reorganization  of  schools  accord- 
ing to  the  theories  of  Lancaster,  wliosc  book  be 
had  translated  (Systt^me  anglais  d'Inst ruction).  He 
brought  into  use  the  method  of  mutual  instnietion, 
and  the  pupils  between  1816  and  1820  increased  from 
165,000  to  1,123,000.  In  1818  ho  established  the  first 
savings  bank  and  provident  institution  in  Paris.  On  19 
Nov.,  1821,  he  founded  the  Society  of  Cliristian  Morals, 
over  which  he  presided  until  1825.  It  was  at  timeB 
looked  upon  with  suspicion  by  the  police  of  the  Res- 
toration. At  ita  meetings  were  such  men  as  Cliarles  de 
Rfimusat,  Charles  Coquerel,  Guizot  the  pedagogue, 
Oberlin,  and  Llorento,  historian  of  the  Inquisition. 
Broglie,  Guizot,  and  Benjamin  Constant  were  chairmen 
in  turn,  and  Dufauro,Tocqueville,  and  Laiiiariine made 
there  their  maiden  speeches.  In  these  meetings  prov- 
ident institutions,  rather  than  charitalilc  ones,  were 
discussed;  slavery,  lottery,  gambling  were  comlwitted, 
and  the  matter  of  prison  inspection  was  taken  up. 
When  La  Rochefoucauld-Liancourt  dieil,  the  Resto- 
ration would  not  permit  tlic  students  of  Citrons  to 
carry  his  coffin,  and  the  two  chambers  were  much  con- 
cerned over  such  extreme  measures.  La  Rochefou- 
cauld-Liancourt was  a  typical  philnnthropist,  with  all 
that  this  word  implies  of  generous  inti'ntions  and  prac- 
tical innovations;  but  also  with  a  certain  naive  pride, 
inherited  from  the  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, which  led  him  to  mistrust  the  charitable  initia- 
tive of  the  Church,  and  to  forget  that  the  Church,  the 
most  perfect  representative  of  the  spirit  of  brother- 
hood, is  still  called  in  our  modem  society  to  win  the 
victory  for  this  spirit  by  putting  it  to  practical  uses, 
as  she  alone  can. 

Ii^am-VAHD-Daavrus,  t/a  pAilnnlArojir  d'autrefiiii:  La 
Rocht/oueaiM-LianrouH,  ITiT-ISt7  (Paris.  ]90a). 

(Jkohuks  Gotau. 

LsRochejacqaelein.HENfti-AunusTE-GEOROEanD 

Vbbgibk,  Comte  db,  French  politician;  b.  at  the 
chateau  of  Citran  (Gironde),  on  28  Se|iieiuber.  ISd-'j; 
d.  on  7  January, 
1867.  He  belonged 
to  an  old  illus- 
trious French  fam- 


Saint  Louii^'s  Cru- 
sade in  1248,  His 
father,  Louis  del.!i 
Rocbejacquelcin, 
andhisuncloHenri 
had  won  fame  b' 
royalist  generals 
in  the  wars  of  the 
Vend  fans  agaiiwt 
the  National  Con- 
vention.  Hi 
mother  left  inter- 
esting memoirs 
which  have   been 


jacquelein  entered  the  military  academy  at  Saintly  rat 
theageof  sixteen  and  in  182-?  he  received  acommission 
aa  second  lieutenant  in  the  cavalrv.  He  took  part  in  the 
Spanish  War(1823)  and  in  the  Jluaso-Tiirkish  War  of 
1828.  In  182,5  he  had  been  made  a  peer,  but  he  re- 
signed shortly  after  the  Revolution  of  1S30,  which 
brought  the  younger  branch  of  the  House  of  Bourbon 
to  Ifae  tlur(»ie  of  France.    The  Department  o{  Uq^Mt 


Ul  boohellk 


LA  BOOHKLLB 


han  sent  him  to  the  legislature  in  1842.  He  took  his 
seat  among  the  members  of  the  Extreme  Right,  or  Le- 
gitimist party,  with  whom  he  usually  cast  his  vote, 
although  he  occasionally  supported  liberal  measures. 
In  KS48  the  "Gazette  de  France"  supported  his  can- 
didacy for  the  presidency  of  the  newly  established 
French  licpublic,  but  he  obtained  only  an  insignificant 
number  of  votes.  In  1852  he  was  made  a  senator  by 
Napoleon  III,  which  caused  some  astonishment  and 
comment  among  his  friends  the  Legitimists.  In  the 
senate  La  Roche jacquelein  always  snowed  himself  an 
ardent  defender  of  Catholicism,  but  he  may  be  re- 
proached with  having  given  his  support  to  the  whole 
foreign  policy  of  the  imperial  Government.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  works  on  political  and  economical 
subjects,  among  them  being:  *' Considerations  sur 
rimpot  du  sel''  (Paris,  1844);  "Opinion  sur  le  projet 
de  loi  relatif  k  la  r^forme  des  pensions"  (1844); 
"Situation  de  la  France"  (1849);  "A  mon  pays" 
(1850);  "La  France  en  1853"  (185.3);  "Question  du 
jour"  (1850):  "La  suspension  d'armes"  (1859);  "La 
politique  Internationale  et  le  droit  des  gens"  (1860); 
^*Un  schisme  et  I'honneur"  (1861). 

Bioffraphie  dfM  900  ilepui^H  h  VAsnembtre  nationale  (Paris, 
1848);  Bwgraphie  de»  760  d^putrs a  VAnaemhUe  It'gialative  (Paris, 
1852). 

Pierre  Marique. 

La  Rochelle,  Diocese  of  (Rupellensis),  suffra- 
gan of  Bordeaux,  coinpriscj^  the  entire  Department  of 
Charente-Inf^rieure.  The  See  of  MaillezaLs  (see  Lu- 
f on)  was  transferred  on  7  May,  1048,  to  La  Rochelle, 
which  diocese  just  previous  to  the  Revolution,  aside 
from  the  territory  of  the  former  Bishopric  of  Maillezais, 
included  the  present  arrondissementa  of  Marennes, 
Rochefort,  La  Rochelle,  and  a  part  of  Saint-Jean- 
d'Ang^ly.  At  the  Concordat  the  entire  territory  of 
the  former  See  of  Saintes  (less  the  part  comprised  in 
the  Department  of  Charente,  and  belonging  to  the  See 
of  Angouleme)  and  of  the  See  of  Lu^on  was  added  to  it. 
In  1821  a  see  was  established  at  Lugon,  and  had  under 
its  jurisdiction,  aside  from  the  former  Diocese  of  Lu- 
9on,  almost  the  entire  former  Diocese  of  Maillezais;  so 
that  Maillezais,  once  transferred  to  La  Rochelle,  no 
longer  belongs  to  the  diocese  now  known  as  La 
Rochelle  et  Saintes. 

I.  See  of  La  Rochelle. — Mgr  Landriot,  a  well- 
known  religious  writer,  occupied  this  see  from  1856  to 
1867.  St.  IjOuls  of  France  is  the  titular  saint  of  the 
cathedral  of  La  Rochelle  and  the  patron  of  the  city. 
St.  Eutropius,  first  Bishop  of  Saintes,  is  the  principal 
patron  of  the  present  Diocese  of  La  Rochelle.  In  this 
diocese  are  especially  honoured:  St.  Gemme,  martyr 
(century  unknown);  St.  Seronius,  martyr  (third  cen- 
tury); St.  Martin,  Abbot  of  the  Saintes  monaster}' 
(fifth  century) ;  St.  Vaise,  martyr  about  500;  St.  Mac- 
lovius  (Malo),  first  Bishop  of  Aleth,  Brittany,  who 
died  in  Saintonge  about  570;  St.  Amand,  Bishop  of 
Maastricht  (seventh  centur>0-  From  1534  La  Ro- 
chelle and  the  Province  of  Aunis  were  a  centre  of  Cal- 
vinism. In  1573  the  city  successfully  resisted  the 
Duke  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Charles  IX,  and  remained 
the  chief  fortress  of  the  Huguenots  in  France.  But  in 
1627  the  alliance  of  La  Rochelle  with  the  English 
proved  to  IjOuLs  XIII  and  to  Richelieu  that  the  politi- 
cal independence  of  the  Protestants  would  be  a  men- 
ace to  France;  the  famous  siege  of  La  Rochelle  (5  Au- 
gust, 1627 — 28  Octolxjr,  1628),  in  the  course  of  which 
the  population  was  reduced  from  18,000  inhabitants 
to  5000.  terminated  with  a  capitulation  which  put  an 
end  to  the  political  claims  of  the  Calvinistic  minority. 

II.  Ancient  See  of  Saintes. — Saintes  had  a  cer- 
tain importance  under  the  Romans,  as  is  proved  by 
manv  existing  monuments.  The  oldest  bishop  of 
known  date  is  Peter,  who  took  part  in  the  Council  of 
OrManr?  (511).  The  first  bishop,  however,  is  St.  Eu- 
tropius. Venantius  Fortunatus,  in  a  poem  written  in 
the  second  half  of  the  sixth  century,  makes  explicit 


mention  of  him  in  connexion  with  Saintes.  Eutropiu 
was  said  to  be  a  Persian  of  royal  descent,  ordained  and 
sent  to  Gaul  by  St.  Clement;  at  Saints  he  converted 
to  Christianity  the  governor's  daughter,  St.  Eustelle, 
and  like  her  suffer^  martyrdom.  This  tradition  a 
noted  by  Gregory  of  Tours,  with  a  cautious  ut/ertur; 
Saintes  is  thus  the  only  church  of  Gaul  which  Gregoiy 
traces  back  to  the  first  centur>'.  This  evidence  is 
much  weakened,  says  Mgr  Duchesne,  by  Gregoiy's 
remark  to  the  effect  that  no  one  knew  the  history  of 
St.  Eutropius  before  the  removal  of  his  relics  by 
Bishop  Palladius,  which  took  place  about  590.  At 
this  tardy  date  seems  to  have  arisen  the  account  of 
Eutropius  as  a  martyr.  Among  the  bishops  of 
Saintes  are  mentioned:  St.  Vivianus  (419-52?),  once 
Count  of  Saintes,  later  a  monk;  St.  Trojanus,  di«l 
about  532;  St.  Concordius  (middle  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury); S.  Pallais  (Palladius),  about  580,  to  whom  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  reconunended  St.  Augustine  on  hn 
way  to  England;  St.  Leontius,  bishop  in  625;  Cardinal 
Raimond  Perauld  (1503-05),  an  ecclesiastical  writer, 
several  times  nuncio,  legate  for  a  crusade  against  the 
infidels  and  the  re-establishment  of  peace  between 
Maximilian  and  Louis  XII;  Cardinal  Francois  Sode- 
rini  (1507-16),  who  died  in  Rome  as  dean  of  the  Sacred 
College,  and  his  nephew  Jules  Soderini  (I516-i4); 
Charles  of  Bourbon  (1544-50),  cardinal  in  1548,  after- 
wards Archbishop  of  Rouen,  whom  Mayenne  wished 
later  to  make  King  of  France;  Pierre  Louis  de  La 
Rochefoucauld  (1782-92),  massacred  at  Paris  with 
his  brother,  the  Bishop  of  Beauvais,  2  September, 
1792,  thus  closing  the  list  of  the  bishops  of  the  dio- 
cese as  it  opened,  with  a  martyr. 

Several  councils  were  held  at  Saintes:  in  562  or  563, 
when  Bishop  Emerius,  ilicf^allv  elected,  was  deposed 
and  Heraclius  appointed  in  his  stead;  other  coun- 
cils were  held  in  579,  1074  or  1075,  1080,  1081,  at 
which  last,  metropolitan  authority  over  the  sees  of 
Lower  Brittany  was  panted  to  Tours  as  against  the 
claims  of  Dol,  and  William  VII  gave  the  church  of  St- 
Eutropius  to  the  monks  of  Clunv;  also  in  1083,  1088, 
1089,  1097.  The  crvpt  of  St.  fiutropius,  one  of  the 
largest  in  France,  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the 
twelfth  century .  Urban  1 1  consecrated  it  on  20  April , 
1096.  Kings  of  France  and  England,  and  dukes  of 
Guyenne,  enriched  the  church  with  numerous  founda- 
tions. Charles  VII  made  a  pilgrimage  to  it  in  1441. 
Louis  XI  himself  wrote  a  prayer  against  dropsy,  in 
honour  of  St.  Eutropius.  Through  the  Middle  Ages 
manv  pilgrimages  were  made  to  the  tomb.  In  iSdS 
the  Calvinists  ravaged  the  crj*pt,  but  the  tomb  of  St. 
Eutropius  was  so  well  hidden  by  the  monks  that  it  was 
thougnt  to  be  lost;  it  was  not  until  19  Mav,  1843,  that  it 
was  again  discovered.  In  a  Bull  of  Nicholas  V,  1451, 
it  is  said  that  the  cathedral  of  Saintes  was  the  second 
church  ever  dedicat^^d  to  St.  Peter.  Geoffrey  Martel, 
Count  of  Anjou,  and  his  wife,  Agnes  of  Bummdy, 
founded  in  1047  the  Abbev  of  Notre-Dame  de  Saintes 
for  Benedictine  nuns,  which  foundation  was  sanc- 
tioned by  a  Bull  of  Leo  IX.  During  seven  centuries 
this  monasterv  had  thirty  abbesses,  most  of  them 
daughters  of  the  first  families  of  France.  The  abbe>' 
church,  now  a  military  barrack,  is  Poitou  Roman- 
C3c\uc  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  Church  of  Saintes 
clamis  the  honour  of  being  the  first  to  begin  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Angelus  (q.  v.);  when  John  XXlI  heajtl  of 
this  pious  custom  he  solemnlv  authorized  it  by  two 
Bulls  (1318,  1.327).  The  monastery  of  "Angeria- 
cum  ",  founded  in  768  by  Pepin  the  Short,  was  the  be- 
ginning of  the  town  of  Saint- Jean-d*Ang^ly.  In  1010 
Abbot  Alduin,  while  having  the  walls  of  the  church  re- 
f?tored,  declared  that  he  found  in  a  cvlindrical  stone  a 
silver  reliquary  containing  the  hean  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist:  William  V,  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  had  the'reJic 
exposed,  and  King  Robert  and  Queen  Constance  in- 
spected it.  The  future  fifteenth-century  Cardinal 
Jean  de  I^  Balue  was  Abl)ot  of  Saint-Jean-d'Angdly. 


Bernard  Pftliaiy,  the  famous  artist  in  ceramics  (1610- 
00),  was  one  of  the  foundeis  of  the  Protestant  Iteform 
Church  of  Saintes,  and  his  atelier  was  about  1562  a 
■ecret  asMmblT-place  of  (he  Huguenots;  for  this  he 
'was  summoned  Defore  the  Parleoient.  Aside  from 
the  Basilica  of  St.  Eutropiua,  the  principal  pilgrimages 
of  the  dioceee  are:  Our  Lady  of  Corme- Ecluse,  near 
Saujon;  Our  Lady  of  Pity,  at  Citiix-Gente  (twelfth 
century);  Our  Laay  of  Seven  Sorrows,  at  Jaugou. 

There  were  in  the  Dioceae  of  La  Rochelle.  when 
the  Associations  Law  was  enforced,  Lazarists,  Little 
Brathera  of  Mary,  Marianists,  Children  of  Mary  Im- 
maculate, and  a  local  congregation  called  the  Broth- 
ere  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  known  as  ' '  farming  broth' 
ere";  this  congregation,  founded  in  1841  by  Pore 
Deahayea,  then  superior  general  of  the  Mi""' ;~."f 


instruction  of  foundlings.  Three  congregati_._.  __ 
women  trace  their  origin  to  this  diocese;  the  Provi- 
dence Sisters  of  St.  Jopeph,  a  teaching  order  founded 
at  La  Rochelle  in  1668  by  Isatielle  Mauriet ;  Providence 
Sisters  of  St.  Mary,  a  teaching  onier  founded  in  181 8, 
with  the  mother-house  at  Raintes;  Ursulines  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  a  nursing  and  teaching  order,  founded 
in  1807  by  Pfre  Charles  Barreaud,  with  mother-house 
at  Pons.  In  1900,  before  the  Associations  Iaw,  the 
religious  congregations  had  in  the  diocese  one 
cr^be,  34  day  nurseries,  one  convalescent  home  for 
children,  an  institute  for  the  blind,  an  agricultural 
settlement  for  boys,  8  orphanages  for  girls,  an  indus- 
trial room,  a  society  for  the  preservation  of  young 
Rirfa  from  danger,  14  hospitals,  homes,  and  asylums 
for  the  aged,  18  convents  of  visiting  nurses,  2  houses 
of  retreat,  and  an  insane  asylum.  In  1905  (last  year 
of  the  Concordat)  the  Diocese  of  La  Rochelle  had  452,- 
149  inhabitants,  46  parishes,  326  succursal  churches, 


GaUia  Chriitiarui.  Wota.  II  (IT^),  1053,  1093  nod  instrvm.. 
1S7-Se:  DccBSBHi,  Fatla  tirucopaux  di  I'ancifnne  Uaulf.  II. 
7J-7b  and  138-3^:  Bbiakd.  HiHoirt  dt  I'^ltn  tanloni  H  auni- 
■      ■-    ■-"--'-  -•e.ltM5-46);  BuN- 


, . Um  pour  I'huliiire  dti  iiociia  dt  tiainta  etdtta  tiothtlk 

(Parii.  1SS2):  Ideu.  Abbaut  dt  Notrt-Damt  dt  SainU".  hisloiri 
H  donrnwrUf  (Paris,  1884!;  BiinH.iT,  Dt  adminiilTalimt  Ur- 
rarvn  Smttomnuii  abbatia,  IOi7-tttO  (Ia  RwheLle.  1901): 
Ai-DUr.  La  diod-  dt  SainUi  au  XVIIf  liMe  (Paris,  IHM): 
Palatsi,  Btmard  Faliny  tt  Id  d»uU  de  la  Rfformt  m  Sainionet 
(Cabon.  1899);    CoDBFBOM,  Euai  tur  fhtnloirr  du  protrtlan- 

HulnniUUlioch.lU.i3.  Dsnti  B'Aniuii  i3  vols..  Pari..  ISSO- 
0OJ;  D>  La  GiuvlEKB,  Let  orvinrt  dt  ia  mdrinF  fntn^aitt  tt  la 
laetigue  naturdU:  U  ritgt  de  La  Rotkrlle  (Paris,  IS91):  Boiio- 
CAHAcm.  Let  demiem  tempt  du  tH^e  tU  La  RoehtUf,  rtlatifm  du 
noneeofaj^itiqui:  Guidi  IVarit.  Ili99);  LAKOm-n,  Quat  oh  amtai 
ntpdUtuit  rttpitblva  prr—^'  "  '  " — *""  -'^'""  " 
Topo-BM.,  a.  V,  SiHJuUt. 


I  (La  Rochella.  1 


Geo  ROBS  Goyao. 

L&  Bocqne,  Pavl.    See  Shbrbrooke,  Diocxbe  op. 

LuTBJ,  Dominhjdb-Jban,  Baron,  French  military 
turgeon,  b.  at  Baudfan,  Hautes-I*}' rinses,' July,  1766; 
d.  at  Lyons,  25  July,  1842,  His  parents  were  so  poor 
that  he  obtained  his  preliminary  education  only 
through  the  kindness  of  the  village  priest.  After  the 
death  of  his  father,  when  the  boy  was  thirteen  years  of 
age,  he  was  sent  to  his  uncle  Dr.  Oscar  Larrey,  a  suc- 
cessful surgeon  of  Toulouse.  The  surgical  anility  of 
the  family  had  already  been,  established  by  his  elder 
brotjiar,  Charles-Fran cois-Hil aire  Larrey,  recognised 
ss  an  able  surgeon  and  writer  on  surgery.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-one  the  youn^r  Larrey  went  to  Paris,  and 
»fter  a  brilliant  competitive  examination  entered  the 
navy.  Later  he  became  a  pupil  of  DessaulU  He 
ioiued  thearmyiu  1792,  and  tne  next  year  established 
the  ambiilanct  volante  (Sying  ambulsnce),  a  corps  of 
turveonsand  nuraea  whowent  into  battle  with  the  men 
and  tended  to  their  wounds  on  the  battle-6eld  as  far  as 
waa  possible.  For  this  be  was  made  surgeon-in-ehief 
•Dd  accompanied  Napoleon  on  his  expedition  into 
Bf^t.    He  became  a  great  favourit«  with  Napoleon 


LA&UK 

for  his  devotion  to  duty.  He  was  noted  not  only  fw 
his  care  of  the  wounded  soldiers  during  and  after  tlw 
battles^  but  also  for  his  care  of  the  health  of  the  troC^Ml 
at  all  times.  Friends  or  enemies  all  received  the  sama 
devoted  attention.  For  distinguished  courage  he  was 
made  a  baron  by  Napoleon  on  the  field  of  Wagram  in 
1S09.  He  was  wounded  at  Austerlitz  and  at  Waterloo- 
He  made  many  ingenious  and  important  inventions  in 
operations,  and  significant  advances  in  clinicalsurgery. 
His  observations  in  medicine  and  on  the  health  of 
troops  during  campaigns  were  scarcely  less  valuable- 
Some  of  his  suggestions  on  medicine  and  surgery  are 
still  used.  "It  ever",  said  Napoleon,  "the  soldiers 
erect  a  statue  it  should  be  to  Baron  Larrey,  the  moat 
virtuous  man  I  have  ever  known."  He  has  two  mon- 
uments, one  erected  in  1850  in  the  court  of  the  Val-de- 
Gr&ce  military  hospital,  Paris,  and  the  other  in  tha 
hall  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine,  The  American  sur- 
geon Agnew  said  of  him:  "As  an  ojierator 
judicious  but  bold  and  rapid;  calm  and  self-pc 
in  every  emergency;  but  full  of  feeling  and  tenderiie™. 
He  stands  among  the  military  surgeons  where  Napo- 
leon stands  among  the  generals,  the  first  and  the  great- 
est." His  attachment  to  his  profession  was  only  ex- 
ceeded by  his  patriotism.  After  the  exile  of  Napoleon, 
deprived  of  nis  honours  and  emoluments,  though 
solicited  by  the  Emperor  of  Russia  and  by  Peilro  I  of 
Braiil  to  take  charge  of  their  armies  with  high  rank, 
he  refused  to  leave  his  native  land.  One  of  his  special 
pleasures  at  the  end  of  his  life  was  a  meeting  with  the 
AbUfi  de  Grace,  the  preceptor  of  his  early  years,  whom 
be  held  in  higii  veneration.  His  works  have  been  a 
favourite  study  of  the  surgeons  of  all  nations  during 
the  nineteenth  century.  Moat  of  them  have  been 
translated  into  all  modem  languages.  His  principal 
works  are:  "Relation  histor.  et  ciiirurg.  de  VexpAii- 
tion  de  Tarm^e  d'Orient  en  Egypt*  et  enSyrie"  (Paris, 
1803),  translated  into  EngUsh  and  German;  "Clinique 
cbirurgicale  dans  les  camps  et  hdpitaux  miUtaires"; 
"Surgical  Memoirs  of  Campaigns:  Russia,  Germany, 
France"  (Philadelphia,  1832);  "Cholera  Morbus,  Mi- 
moire"  (Paris,  1831). 
The  principal  w  -'----■-.'._...  ,.., ... ._ 


Larue,  Charles  de,  b.  29  July,  16S.5  (some  say  12 
July,  1684),  at  Corbie,  in  France;  d.  5  Oct.,  1739,  at 
St.  Germain-des-Pr^s.     Very  early  he  displayed  talent 

in   the   study   of 

languages  and 
signs  of  a  religious 
vocation.  He 
took  the  habit  of 
St.  Benedict  in 
the  Abbey  of  St. 
Faro  at  Meaux, 
and  made  his  re- 
ligious profession 
on  21  Nov.,  1703. 
Ho  then  studied 
philosophy  and 
theology,  and  in 
1712  was  sent  to 

Dom  Bernard  de 
Montfaucon  in 
his  literary  work 
The  latter  soon 
bad  a  true  esti- 
mate of  his  young 
assistant,  and  set 
him  to  work  at 
editing  all  the 
worksofOri^n,  except  the"  HexapUi".  Lame  worked 
with  energy;  in  1725  printingwas  begun, and  eight  yesM 
later  two  volumes  appeared  with  a  dedication  to  Pope 
Clement  XII.    Id  the  prsEace  Larue  gives  the  v«riQUI 


ul  Rxne 


8 


Ul  SALETTS 


opinions  of  earlier  writers  on  Origen  and  his  works, 
and  states  his  reasons  for  making  a  new  edition.  The 
first  volume  contains  the  letters  of  Origen  (mostly  in 
fragments),  the  four  books  '* De  principus  "  on  prayer, 
an  exhortation  to  mart^rrdom,  and  the  eight  hooks 
against  Celsua.  To  this  is  added  '*De  recta  in  Deum 
fide  contra  Marcionem  ",  which  had  been  published  in 
1674  under  the  name  of  Origen.  Larue  proves  that 
this  book  and  the  books  "Contra  haereses  are  falsely 
ascribed  to  Origen.  To  each  book  Larue  adds  copious 
explanatory  notes.  In  the  preface  to  the  secona  vol- 
ume is  given  an  outline  of  the  method  followed  by 
Origen  in  explaining  the  Holy  Scriptures;  then  follow 
the  commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch,  Josue,  Judges, 
Ruth,  Kin^s,  Job,  and  the  Psalter.  Larue  had  gath- 
ered material  for  two  other  volumes,  but  a  stroke  of 
paralysis  put  an  end  to  his  labours.  They  were 
editea  by  his  nephew  Vincent  de  Larue,  a  member  of 
the  same  congregation. 

Tabbis,  Oelehrlengesch.  der  Congr.  von  St.  Maw,  II  (Ixiipzig, 
1874),  271 ;  Lama,  Bibl.  des  fcrivains  de  la  Congr.  dr.  St.  Maur,  no. 
451;  ILlulbn  in  Kirchenlex.^  s.v.;  Hdrter,  Nomendator. 

Francis  Meilshman. 

La  Rue,  Charles  de,  one  of  the  great  orators  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  France  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, b.  at  Paris,  3  August,  1643;  d.  there,  27  May, 
1725.  He  entered  the  novitiate  on  7  September, 
1659,  and  being  afterwards  professor  of  the  human- 
ities and  rhetoric,  he  attracted  attention  while  stil> 
young  by  a  poem  on  the  victories  of  Louis  XIV.  Cor- 
neille  translated  it  and  offered  it  to  the  king,  saying 
that  his  work  did  not  equal  the  original  of  the  young 
Jesuit.  He  wrote  several  tragedies,  brought  out  an 
edition  •  of  Virgil,  and  wrote  several  Latin  poems. 
After  having  several  times  refused  to  permit  him  to  go 
to  Canada,  his  superiors  assigned  him  to  preaching;  as 
an  orator  he  was  much  admired  by  the  court  and  the 
king.  His  funeral  orations  on  the  Dukes  of  Bur- 
gundy and  Luxemburg,  and  that  on  Bossuet,  his  ser- 
nions  on  " Les  Calami^  publiques"  and  "The  Dying 
Sinner'*  have  been  regarded  as  masterpieces  by  the 
greatest  masters.  He  preached  missions  among  the 
Protestants  of  Lan^uedoc  for  three  years.  He  was  a 
most  virtuous  religious,  and  during  his  last  years  en- 
dured courageously  great  infirmities. 

P.  Veroilii  Maronis  opera,  interpretation r  et  notia  illustravit 
Carolua  Ruaua  Soc.  Jesu,  jussu  Christianissimi  Regis,  ad  usum 
Serenisnmi  Delphini  (Paris,  1675),  frequently  reprinted  in 
Fnmce,  England,  Italy,  Germany  (latest  Paris.  1864.  3  vols.). 
All  the  oratorical  works  in  Miqne.  Coll.  irUajmle  et  univ.  dc* 
Orateurn  aaeria  (1844-66),  XXVIII.  col.  199-1570;  XXXIII. 
1120-1214;  Qtuirenmale  del  P.  Carlo  Delia  Rue  (Milan.  1858); 
Confererue  tenrde  neW  avento  (Milan,  1853);  Nettemknt. 
Oraiaont  Fttnkbrea  de  Boaatiett  Bourdaloue,'  de  La  Hue  (Paris. 
1842) ;  Eloge  duP,  de  La  Rue  in  Mercure  de  Prance,  June,  1725, 
1324-1332;  Feller,  Did.  hiai.,  V  (1839),  350;  Sommervogel, 
Bibl.  de  la  Compagnie  de  JUua,  VII,  col.  290-307,  contains  a 
oomplete  Ust  of  bis  works. 

Abel  Champon. 

La  Salette,  in  the  commune  and  parish  of  La  Sa- 
lette-Fallavaux,  Canton  of  Corps,  Department  of 
Isdre,  and  Diocese  of  Grenoble.  It  is  celebrated  as 
the  place  where,  it  is  said,  the  Blessed  Virgin  ap- 
peared to  two  little  shepherds;  and  each  year  is  visited 
Dv  a  large  number  of  pilgrims.  On  19  Sept.,  1846, 
about  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  in  full  sunlight,  on 
a  mountain  about  5918  feet  high  and  about  three  miles 
distant  from  the  village  of  La  Salette-Fallavaux,  it  is 
related  that  two  children,  a  shepherdess  of  fifteen 
named  M^lanie  Calvat,  called  Mathieu,  and  a  shep- 
herd-boy of  eleven  named  Maximin  Giraud,  both  of 
t  hem  very  ignorant,  beheld  in  a  resplendent  light  a 
•  l>eautif  ul  lady  "  clad  in  a  strange  costume.  Speaking 
r'tornately  in  French  and  in  patois,  she  charged  them 
with  A  message  which  they  were  "to  deliver  to  all  her 
f^pople".  After  complaining  of  the  impiety  of  Chris- 
tians, and  threatening  them  with  dreadful  chastise- 
meiit<5  in  case  they  should  i>ersevere  in  evil,  she  prom- 
ised them  the  Divine  mercy  if  they  would  amend. 


Finally,  it  is  alleeed,  before  disappearing  she  com- 
municated to  each  of  the  children  a  special  secret. 
The  sensation  caused  by  the  recital  of  M^lanie  and 
Maximin  was  profound,  and  gave  rise  to  several  in- 
vestigations and  reports.  Mgr  Philibert  de  Bruillard, 
Bishop  of  (jrenoblc,  appointed  a  commission  to  ex- 
amine judicially  this  marvellous  event;  the  commis- 
sion concluded  that  the  reality  of  the  apparition 
should  be  admitted.  Soon  several  miraculous  cures 
took  place  on  the  mountain  of  La  Salette,  and  pil- 
grimages to  the  place  were  begun.  The  miracle,  need- 
less to  say,  was  ridiculed  by  free-thinkers,  but  it  was 
also  questioned  among  the  faithful,  and  especially  by 
ecclesiastics.  There  arose  against  it  in  the  Dioceses 
of  Grenoble  and  Lyons  a  violent  opposition,  aggra- 
vated by  what  is  known  as  the  incident  of  Ars.  As  a 
result  of  this  hostility  and  the  consequent  agitation, 
Mgr  de  Bruillard  (16  November,  1851)  declared  the 
apparition  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  certain,  and  au- 
thorized the  cult  of  Our  Lady  of  La  Salette.  This  act 
subdued,  but  did  not  suppress,  the  opposition,  whose 
leaders,  profiting  by  the  succession  in  1852  of  a  new 
bishop,  Mgr  Ginoulhiac,  to  Mgr  Bruillard,  who  had 
resigned,  retaliated  with  violent  attacks  on  the  re-ality 
of  the  miracle  of  La  Salette.  They  even  asserted  that 
the"  beautiful  lady  "  was  a  young  woman  named  Lam- 
erlidre,  which  story  gave  rise  to  a  widely  advertised 
suit  for  slander.  Despite  these  hostile  act^,  the  first 
stone  of  a  great  church  was  solemnly  laid  on  the  mount 
of  La  Salette,  25  May,  1852^  amid  a  large  assembly  of 
the  faithful.  This  church,  later  elevated  to  the  rank 
of  a  basilica,  was  served  by  a  body  of  religious  called 
Missionaries  of  La  Salette  (q.  v.).  Since  1891  dio- 
cesan priests  have  replaced  these  missionaries,  driven 
into  exile  by  persecuting  laws. 

As  said  above,  the  Blessed  Virgin  confided  to  each 
of  the  two  children  a  special  secret.  These  two  se- 
crets, which  neither  Mmnie  or  Maximin  ever  made 
known  to  each  other,  were  sent  by  them  in  1851  to 
Pius  IX  on  the  advice  of  Mgr  de  Bruillard.  It  is  un- 
known what  impression  the.se  mysterious  revelations 
made  on  the  pope,  for  on  this  point  there  are  two  ver- 
sions diametrically  opposed  to  each  other.  Maximin 's 
secret  is  not  known,  for  it  was  never  published.  M4Ian- 
ie's  was  inserted  in  its  entirety  in  a  brochure  which  she 
herself  had  printed  in  1879  at  Lecce,  Italy,  with  the 
approval  of  the  bishop  of  that  town.  A  Hvely  contro- 
versy followed  as  to  whether  the  secret  published  in 
1879  was  identical  with  that  communicated  to  Pius 
IX  in  1851,  or  whether  in  its  second  form  it  was  not 
merely  a  work  of  the  imagination.  The  latter  was  the 
opinion  of  wise  and  prudent  persons,  who  were  per- 
suaded that  a  distinction  must  be  made  between  the 
two  M^lanies,  between  the  innocent  and  simple  voy- 
ante  of  1846  and  the  visionary  of  1879,  whose  mind  had 
been  disturbed  by  reading  apocalyptic  books  and  the 
lives  of  iUumiiiati.  As  Rome  uttered  no  decision  the 
strife  was  prolonged  between  the  disputants.  Most  of 
the  defenders  of  the  text  of  1879  suffered  censure 
from  their  bishops.  Maximin  Giraud,  after  an  un- 
happy and  wandering  life,  returned  to  Corps,  his 
native  village,  and  died  there  a  holy  death  (1  March, 
1875).  M^lanie  Calvat  ended  a  no  less  wandering  life 
at  Altamura,  Italy  (15  Dec,  1904). 

Bex  (Canon).  Pllerinage  h  la  Salette,  ou  examm  erUique  de 
Vapparition  de  la  aainte  Vietge  h  deux  bergers  (L\'ons,  1847); 
RoussELOT,  La  vMtr  aur  I'ev/nemenl  de  La  Salette  du  19-aeptem' 
bre  1846,  ou  Rapport  a  Mgr  Vt'^taue  de  Grenoble  aur  Vapparition 
de  la  aainte  Vierge  a  deux  petita  hergera  aur  la  montagne  de  La 
Salette  (Grenoble,  1848);  Idem,  Nouveaux  documenta  aur  Vfoene- 
ment  de  La  Salette  (Grenoble,  1850);  Bez  (AaBfe),  M.  Vianneu, 
curi  d'Ara,  et  Maximin  Giraud,  berger  de  La  Salette,  ou  la 
vhil^  H'cuperant  aea  droita  (Paris  and  Lyons,  1851);  Rou»- 
8BLOT,  D6fenae  de  Viv/ncment  de  Iai  Salette  contre  de  nouvellea 
attaquea  (Grenoble,  1851):  Idem,  Vn  novveau  mnctuaire  b  Marie 
ou  condition  de  V affaire  de  La  Salette  (Grenoble,  1853) :  Nicolas, 
La  Salette  devant  la  raiaon  (Pariii.  1855) ;  Giraud.  Ma  profeaaion 
de  foi  aur  Vapparition  de  Notre  Damede  Jm  Salette  (Paris.  1866); 
Calyat,  Vapparition  de  la  trH  aainte  Vierge  aur  la  montagne 
de  La  SaleUe  le  19  aeptembre  1846  (Lecce,  1879),  a  pamphlet 
several  timet  reprinted  in  France;  Bsrtrand,  La  Saldte,  docu- 


UL  SALXnX 


9 


UL  SALLX 


maito  d  hMiograpkU  (Paris,  1 889).  The  chief  woria  publiehad 
•Sttinst  the  appariUoii  of  La  Salette  are  the  foUowing:  Donna- 
DiMU  (peeudonym  of  Abb^  D^xtoN),  La  SalHte-FaUavaux 
(FaUmx  ValHahou  la  VaUce  du  Menwnge  (Grenoble,  1852-53); 
utvtoM  AND  CARTELLnsR,  La  Salette  devant  le  pape  .  .  .  rmr 
pluai€ur$  membre*  du  elerg/'  diociaain  (Grenoble.  1854).  For 
the  Lamerli^re  affair,  see  Favrs,  Mimoire  pour  Mile  Constance 
de  Saini'Ferri'ol  de  Lamerlih-e  (Paris,  s.  d.  (18571):  Sabbattkr, 
Affaire  de  La  Salette,  Mile  de  LamerlHre  contre  MM,  D6i6on  ei 
Coftellier  (Grenoble,  1857).  The  beet  work  on  the  difficulties 
relating  to  the  apparition  of  La  Salette  is  Verdunoy.  La  Salette, 
aude  criHqm  (Paris,  1906). 

LiiON  Clugnet. 

La  Salette,  Missionaries  of. — ^The  Missionaries  of 
La  Salette  were  founded  in  1852,  at  the  shrine  of  Our 
Lady  of  La  Salette,  where  some  priests  banded  to- 
gether to  care  for  the  numerous  pilgrims  frequenting 
the  mountain.  In  1858  these  priests  formea  a  little 
community  with  temporary  constitutions,  under  the 
immediate  charge  of  the  Bishop  of  Grenoble.  In  1876 
Rieht  Rev.  Mgr  Fava  gave  them  more  complete  rules, 
and  in  May,  1890,  the  Institute  was  approved  by 
Rome.  Finding  it  hard  to  recruit  their  number  from 
the  secular  clergy,  the  fathers  founded  an  "Apostolic 
school "  or  missionary  college  in  1876.  At  present 
they  have  about  250  students.  Their  classical  course 
lasts  six  years,  and  after  their  novitiate  they  repair  to 
Rome,  where  the  scholasticate  is  located.  Here  they 
complete  their  philosophical  and  theological  course  in 
the  Gregorian  University.  In  1892  five  of  the  mis- 
sionaries arrived  in  the  United  States  with  fifteen 
students.  Bishop  McMahon  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  wel- 
comed them  into  his  diocese,  and  they  established 
themselves  in  the  episcopal  city,  occupying  the  former 
bishop's  residence  on  Collins  Street.  In  1895  they 
removed  to  their  present  quarters  at  85  New  Park 
Ave.,  Hartford,  Conn.,  close  to  the  church  of  Our  Lady 
of  Sorrows.  Hitherto  a  mission  church  of  the  cathe- 
dral, it  was  made  a  parish  and  given  in  charge  of  the 
fathers,  who  began  to  tend  it  on  Ascension  Day  of  the 
same  year.  In  1894,  having  established  themselves 
in  the  Springfield  Diocese,  the  fathers  received  the 
French  parish  of  St.  Joseph,  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  from 
Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Beaven.  In  1895  Rt.  Rev.  Michael 
Tiemey,  successor  to  Bishop  McMahon,  rec|uested  the 
fathers  to  take  chaige  of  the  mixed  parish  of  St. 
James,  Danielson,  Conn.  In  1901,  at  the  suggestion 
of  Bishop  Beaven  of  Springfield,  the  Very  Rev.  Supe- 
rior General  sent  a  few  students  to  Poland  to  prepare 
themselves  for  Polish  parishes  in  the  Springfield  Dio- 
cese, and  at  present  tne  parish  at  Ware  and  that  of 
Westfield  are  in  their  care.  In  1902  they  were  received 
into  the  Diocese  of  Sherbrooke,  Canada,  with  a  parish 
at  Stanstead,  P.  Q.,  Canada,  and  also  into  the  Arch- 
diocese of  New  York,  with  a  parish  at  Phoenicia, 
Ulster  Co.  At  the  request  of  Archbishop  Langevin  of 
St.  Boniface,  Canada,  a  few  fathers  were  sent  from  the 
mother-house  in  Hartford  to  establish  themselves  in 
West  Canada.  They  now  form  a  separate  province 
with  headquarters  at  Forget,  Sask.  They  tend  to  the 
spiritual  wants  of  four  nourishing  parishes.  Forget, 
Esteven,  Ossa,  and  Weybum.  In  1909,  the  mission- 
aries deemine  their  order  suflSciently  developed,  owing 
to  additional  foundations  in  Belgium,  Madagascar. 
Poland,  and  Brazil,  the  Very  Rev.  Superior  General 
petitioned  the  Holy  See  to  approve  their  constitutions. 
The  request  was  granted  29  January,  1909.  The 
students  of  the  Apostolic  schools  are  trained  chiefly  to 
combat  the  great  crimes  of  the  day,  especially  those 
denounced  in  the  discourse  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  at  La 
Salette.  The  spirit  of  the  community  is  that  which 
pcarades  the  whole  apparition  of  Mary  on  the  Moun- 
tain of  La  Salette — a  spirit  of  prayer  and  sacrifice. 

J.   GUINET. 

La  Smile,  Jean  Baptist  db.    See  John  Baptist 
im  LA  Salle,  Saint. 

La  BaUe,  RsNi^-RoBERT-CAVELiER,  Sieur  db,  ex- 
,  b.  at  Rouen,  1643;  d.  in  Texas,  1687.    In  his 


youth  he  displayed  an  unusual  precocity  in  mathe- 
matics and  a  prelection  for  natural  science;  his  out- 
look upon  life  was  somewhat  puritanical.  Whether 
or  not  he  was  educated  with  a  view  to  entering  the 
Society  of  Jesus  is  a  matter  of  doubt,  though  some 
religious  order  he  must  have  subsequently  jomed,  for 
to  this  fact  is  assigned  the  forfeiture  of  his  estates.  The 
career  of  a  churchman  was  definitively  abandoned, 
however,  when,  after  receiving  the  feudal  grant  of  a 
tract  of  land  at  La  Chine  on  the  St.  Lawrence  from  the 
Sulpicians,  aeigneurs  of  Montreal — perhaps  through 
the  influence  of  an  elder  brother  who  was  a  memMr 
of  the  order  at  that  place — he  came  to  Canada  as 
an  adventurer  and  trader  in  1666.  For  three  years 
La  Salle  remained  quietly  upon  his  little  estate, 
mastering  Indian  dialects  and  meditating  on  a  south- 
west passage.  Upon  the  latter  quest  he  set  out 
in  1669  with  a  party  of  Sulpicians,  who,  deeming 
that  there  waH  ^*eater  missionary  work  among  the 
north-western  tribes,  soon  abandoned  the  expedi- 
tion. La  Salle's  subsequent  travels  on  this  occa- 
sion are  shrouded  in  an  obscurity  that  will  pep- 
haps  never  be  dispelled.  Whether  he  was  the  first 
white  man  to  gaze  upon  Niagara,  whether  he  ex- 
plored the  Allegheny  valley  or  the  Ohio  river,  he 
seems  not  to  have  reached  the  Mississippi,  Joliet's  un- 
disputed claim  to  that  distinction  durmg  La  Salle's 
residence  in  Canada  being  r^arded,  at  present,  as 
finally  estabUshed.  Indeed  .joliet's  announcement, 
some  few  years  later,  that  the  Orande  Riviere  flowed  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  perceptibly  stimulated  La  Salle  to 
fashion  and  carry  out  those  schemes  which  must  have 
been  taking  shape  even  in  the  novitiate  at  Rouen — 
dreams  of  acquinng  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  and  of 
building  up  tne  empire  of  New  France.  The  French 
doctrine  that  the  discovery  of  a  river  gave  an  inchoate 
right  to  the  land  drained  by  its  tributaries  suggested  to 
La  Salle  and  Governor  Frontenac  a  '*  plan  to  effect  a 
military  occupation  of  the  whole  Mississippi  valley  . . . 
by  means  of  military  p>osts  which  shoula  control  the 
communication  and  sway  the  policy  of  the  Indian 
tribes  *',  as  well  as  present  an  impassable  barrier  to  the 
English  colonies.  The  money  needed  for  such  a  plan 
drove  La  Salle  to  those  attempts  at  a  monopoly  wnich 
engendered  such  persistent  opposition,  ana  which  ao^ 
count,  partlv  at  least,  for  the  failure  of  his  plans. 

A  trip  to  France  in  the  autumn  of  1674  followed  his 
erection  of  Fort  Frontenac  for  the  protection  of  the 
fur  trade  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Ontario.  The  king 
gave  him  a  grant  of  this  fort  and  the  adjacent  territory, 
promised  to  garrison  it  at  his  own  expense,  and  con- 
ferred upon  him  the  rank  of  esquire.  Upon  his  r^ 
turn.  La  Salle  rebuilt  the  fort,  launchea  upon  the 
Niagara  River  the  '*  Griffin  ",  a  forty-five  ton  schooner 
with  five  guns,  in  which,  with  Hennepin,  a  Francis- 
can, and  the  Neapolitan  Henri  de  Tonty,  he  set  saU 
in  the  autumn  of  1678,  passed  over  Lakes  Erie  and 
Huron,  and  reached  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake 
Michigan.  Here  the  gunboat  was  sent  back,  unlaw- 
fully laden  with  furs  to  appease  I^a  Salle's  creditors, 
and  was  never  heard  from  again.    The  expedition 

Cushed  on  to  the  Illinois,  where  Fort  Cr^veccsur  was 
uilt.  After  waiting  through  the  winter  for  the  re- 
turn of  the  "Griffin",  La  &lle,  leaving  the  faithful 
Tonty  in  charge  of  the  fort,  resolved  to  return  one 
thousand  miles  on  foot  to  Montreal,  accompanied  by 
four  Frenchmen  and  an  Indian  guide.  The  sufferinn 
of  this  famous  retreat  were  borne  with  incredible 
fortitude,  and  he  was  returning  with  supphes  when  it 
was  learned  that  the  garrison  at  Fort  Urdvecoeur  had 
mutinied,  had  driven  Tonty  into  the  wilderness,  and 
were  then  cruising  about  Lake  Ontario  in  the  hope 
of  murdering  La  Salle.  The  dauntless  Frenchman 
pushed  out  at  once  upon  the  lake,  captured  the  mu- 
tineers, sent  them  back  in  irons  to  the  governor,  and 
then  went  to  the  rescue  of  Tonty,  whom  he  met  at 
Mackinaw  on  his  return  trip  after  abandoning  the 


uuutnJc 


10 


t.jgOAtTg 


search.  For  a  brief  space  in  1682  La  Salle's  fate 
seems  more  propitious,  when,  on  9  April,  we  catch  a 
glimpse  of  hmi  planting  the  fleurs-de-lis  on  the  banks 
of  tne  Mississippi,  and  claiming  for  France  the  wide 
territory  that  it  drained.  But,  five  years  later,  in  the 
wretched  failure  of  an  attempt  to  plant  a  colony  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  he  was  murdered  by 
mutineers  from  ambush. 

La  Salle's  schemes  of  empire  and  of  trade  were  far 
too  vast  for  his  own  generation  to  accomplish,  though  it 
was  along  the  Unes  tliat  he  projected  that  France 
pmmied  her  colonial  policy  in  the  New  World  in  the 
eighteenth  century  until  finally  overthrown  by  the 
English  in  the  French  and  Indian  Wars. 

Maeobt,  Af <*motrM  et  DocumenU  (Paris,  1879-88),  I,  II,  III; 
Shxa,  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi;  Charlkvoix.  Hifioire  de 
la  Nouvelle-France  (Paris,  1744;  tr.  Shea,  New  York,  1865-72^; 
Lbcubrcq.  Etdblissemeni  de  la  foi  dans  la  Nouvelle-France 
(Paris.  1691;  tr.  Shba,  New  York,  1881):  Parkm an,  La  iSa//^ 
and  the  Discovery  of  the  Greii  West  ( New  Yorljrf  1869) .  For  full 
bibliojeraphy  of  tne  La  Salle-Marquette-Joliet  controversy,  con- 
sult WiNSOR,  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  IV 
(London,  1884-9),  245  sqq. 

Jarvis  Keiley. 

Lasaulx,  Ernst  von,  scholar  and  philosopher,  b.  at 
Coblenz,  16  March,  1805;  d.  at  Mumch,  9  May,  18G1. 
His  father,  Johann  Claudius  von  Lasaulx,  was  a  dis- 
tinguished architect;  his  uncle,  Johann  Joseph  Gorres 
(q.  v.),  was  the  fiery  champion  of  Catholic  liberties; 
and  the  young  Ernst  became  imbued  with  an  enthu- 
siasm for  the  Catholic  Faith  and  for  liberty.  He  first 
studied  at  Bonn  (1824-30),  and  later  took  up  classical 
philology  and  philosophy  at  Munich,  attaching  him- 
self in  particular  to  Schelling,  Gorres,  and  Baadcr,  and 
then  spent  four  years  travelling  through  Austria, 
Italy,  Greece,  and  Palestine,  visiting  the  places  most 
famous  in  the  history  of  civilization,  both  pagan  and 
Christian.  His  voyage  to  Athens  was  made  as  a 
member  of  the  suite  of  Prince  Otto  of  Wittelsbach 
fBavaria),  who  had  been  elected  King  of  the  Hellenes. 
On  his  return  to  his  native  land  he  took  the  doctor's 
degree  at  Kiel,  in  183i),  presenting  a  dissertation  en- 
titled *'  De  mortis  dominatu  in  vetercs,  commentatio 
theologica-philosophica",andwas  appointed  dozerU  in 
classical  philology  at  the  University  of  Wurzburg, 
where  he  exercised  a  deep  and  far-reaching  influence 
on  the  vouth  of  the  university.  Meanwhile  he  mar- 
ried Julie  Baader,  daughter  of  the  Munich  philosopher, 
Franz  Baader. 

Upon  the  arrest  (20  November,  1837)  of  Clemens 
August,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  whose  forcible  deten- 
tion in  the  fortress  of  Minden  by  order  of  the  Prus- 
sian Government  caused  a  great  stir  in  Catholic 
circles  both  at  home  and  abroad,  Lasaulx  wrote 
to  his  uncle,  Gorres,  calling  upon  him  to  protest 
against  the  arbitrary  act  of  the  "military  Govern- 
ment of  Berlin  agamst  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne". 
This  was  the  impulse  that  was  responsible  for 
Gbrres's  celebrated  "  Athanasius".  At  the  same  time 
Lasaulx  himself  issued  the  controversial  pamphlet 
"Kritische  Bemerkungen  iiber  die  K5lner  Sache", 
a  bold  attack  on  the  Prussian  Government  and 
the  diplomat  Josias  von  Bunsen.  In  the  autunm 
of  1844  Lasaulx  was  appointed  professor  of  philology 
and  aesthetics  at  the  University  of  Munich,  despite  the 
vigorous  efforts  of  the  Wurzburg  senate  to  secure  his 
continued  services  there.  At  Munich  he  quickly  be- 
came famous  as  a  magnetic  and  stimulating  teacher. 
When  his  influence  effected  the  downfall  of  the  min- 
ister Abel,  the  senate  of  the  University  applauded  his 
action,  but  Iving  Louis,  on  the  other  hand,  vented  his 
displeasure  by  dismissing  Lasaulx  from  office  (28  Feb- 
ruary, 1847).  Demonstrations  on  the  part  of  the  stu- 
dents followed,  resulting  in  the  dismissal  of  eight 
other  members  of  the  university  teaching  staff.  In 
1848  Lasaulx,  with  three  of  his  former  colleagues,  was 
elected  to  the  National  Assembly  at  Frankfort,  where 
he  identified  himself  with  the  Conservative  group  and 


again  and  again  eloquently  defended  the  liberties  of 
the  Catholic  Church  among  the  intellectual  ilite  o£ 
Germanv. 

King  Maximilian  II  having  at  length  yielded  to  the 
petition  of  the  Munich  students  to  reinstate  Lasaulx 
and  the  other  expelled  professors  (15  March.  1849), 
Lasaulx  resumed  his  work  as  a  philosophical  writer. 
Id  the  same  vear  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Ba- 
varian Chamber  of  Deputies,  where,  until  his  death,  his 
masterly  ability  in  all  political  controversies  found 
energetic  expression.  Soon  after  his  death,  four  of 
his  works  were  placed  on  the  Index;  it  was  found  that 
in  them  he  had  erred  on  the  side  of  effacing  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  conmion  human  religious  ele- 
ment in  heathenism  and  the  theological  expression  of 
Christian  revelation.  Several  years  earlier,  however, 
he  had  declared  that,  should  any  errors  be  found  in 
his  works,  he  would  freely  submit  to  the  judgment 
of  the  Church. 

Holland,  Erinncrungen  an  Ernst  von  Lasaulx  (Munich,  1861); 
Stolzle,  Ernst  vonlAiuulx  (Miinater,  1904). 

Karl  Hoeber. 

Lascaris,  Constantine,  of  Constantinople,  Greek 
scholar,  b.  1434;  d.  at  Messina  in  1501.  Made  a  pris- 
oner by  the  Turks  on  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  he 
probably  stayed  the  greater  part  of  seven  years  in 
(Jorfu;  he  made  a  visit  to  Rliodes  where  he  acouired 
some  manuscripts;  finally  came  to  Italy  and  settled  at 
Milan  as  a  copyist  of  manuscripts.  His  work  on  the 
eight  parts  of  speech  presented  to  Princess  Hippolyta 
Sforza  procured  from  her  father  a  reauest  to  teach 
the  princess  Greek.  Lascaris  followea  the  princess 
to  Naples  when  she  married  Alfonso  II  (1465).  The 
following  year  he  left  for  Greece,  but  the  vessel  stop- 
ping at  Messina,  he  was  urged  to  stay  there,  con- 
sented, and  died  there  after  many  years,  bequeathing 
to  the  city  his  seventy-six  manuscripts.  They  re- 
mained at  Messina  until  1679,  and  were  then  moved 
first  to  Palermo  and  later  to  Spain^  where  they  are 
now  in  the  National  Library  of  Madrid.  Constantine 
Ijascaris  was  above  all  a  tutor  and  a  transcriber  of 
manuscripts.  One  of  his  pupils  was  the  future  Cardi- 
nal Bembo.  His  industry  as  a  copyist  was  soon  su- 
perseded by  the  art  of  printing.  He  was  himself  the 
author  of  the  first  lx)ok  printed  in  Greek,  a  small 
grammar  (Milan,  1476)  entitled  "Erotemata". 

Leorand,    Bibliographie   hell&nique,    I   (Paria,  1884),    Ixxi; 


Iriarte,_  BibliothecoB     Matritensis     codices      m-ceci      (1769); 

*    .'     '  arec  de  VEsc      '  '  '_ 
1880);    Rapport  sur  une  mission  en   Espagne  in  Archives  des 


Graux,  Essai  sur  les  origines  du  fond  grec  de  VEscurial  (Paris, 


missions,  3d  ser..  V,  i  (Paris,  1877),  124;  Sandtb,  A  History  oj 
Classical  Scholarship,  II  (Cambridge,  1908),  77-  Sabbadini, 
IjC  scoperte  dei  codicx  latini  e  greci  net  secoli  XIV  e  XV  (Florence, 
1905),  67. 

Paul  Lejat. 

Lascaris,  Janus  (or  John),  surnamed  Rhtnda- 
CENUS  (from  Rhyndacus,  a  country  town  in  Asia 
Minor),  noted  Greek  scholar,  b.  about  1445;  d.  at 
Rome  in  1535.  After  the  fall  of  Constantinople  he 
was  taken  to  Peloponnesus  and  to  Crete.  When  still 
quite  young  he  came  to  Venice,  where  Bessarion  be- 
came his  patron,  and  sent  him  to  learn  Latin  at  Padua. 
On  the  death  of  Bessarion,  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  wel- 
comed him  to  Florence,  where  Lascaris  gave  Greek 
lectures  on  Thucydides,  Demosthenes,  Sophocles,  and 
the  Greek  anthology.  Twice  Lorenzo  sent  him  to 
Greece  in  quest  of  manuscripts.  When  he  returned 
the  second  time  (1492)  he  brought  back  about  two 
hundred  from  Mount  Athos.  Meanwhile  Lorenzo  had 
passed  away.  Lascaris  entered  the  service  of  France 
and  was  ambassador  at  Venice  from  1503  to  1508,  at 
which  time  he  became  a  member  of  the  Greek  Acad- 
emy of  Aldus  Manutius;  but  if  the  printer  had  the 
benefit  of  his  advice,  no  Aldine  work  Dears  his  name. 
He  resided  at  Rome  under  Leo  X,  the  first  pope  of  the 
Medici  family,  from  1513  to  1518,  returned  under 
aement  VII  m  1523,  and  Paul  III  in  1534.  Meanwhile 
he  had  assisted  Louis  XII  in  forming  the  library  of 


LAB  0A8A8 


II 


LiMUS 


Blois,  and  when  Francis  I  had  it  removed  to  Fontaine- 
bleau,  Lascaris  and  Bud^  had  charee  of  its  organiza- 
tion. We  owe  to  him  a  number  of  Mitiones  pnncipeSf 
amon^  them  the  Greek  anthology  (1494),  four  plays  of 
Euripides,  Callimachus  (about  1495),  ApK)lloniu8  Itho- 
dius,  Lucian  (1496),  printed  in  Florence  in  Greek  capi- 
tals with  accents,  and  the  scholia  of  Didymas  (1517) 
and  of  Porphyrins  (1518)  on  Homer,  printed  in  Rome. 
Lborand,  BMiographie  helUnique,  I  (rarb,  1884),  cxzzi; 
III.  411;  OifONT«  Catalogue  dn  manuacnU  grw  de  Fontaine 
bleau  (Paris,  1889);  Sandts,  A  Hiatory  ofClauical  Seholarahip, 
II  (Cambridge,  1908),  78.  Paul  LejaT. 

Ia8  Oasas.    See  Cabas,  BABTOLOMt  de  Las. 

Laski  (a  Lasco),  John,  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and 
Primate  of  Poland,  b.  at  Lask,  1456;  d.  at  Gnesen, 
19  May,  1531.  In  1482  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
royal  arch-chancellor  Kurozwcki,  who  made  him  pro- 
vost cf  Skalmierz  and  of  the  cathedral  church  in 
Posen,  and  canon  of  Krakow.  In  1502  he  became 
royal  arch-secretary,  in  1505  arch-chancellor,  in  1509 
coadjutor  of  Archbishop  Boryszewski  of  Gnesen,  and, 
after  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1510,  Archbishop  of 
Gnesen  and  Primate  of  Poland,  whereupon  he  re- 
signed as  arch-chancellor  in  1511.  In  1513  he  took 
part  in  the  Fifth  General  Council  of  the  Lateran,  when 
he  delivered  an  oration  in  which  he  ur^ed  upon  Pope 
Leo  X  and  the  temporal  princes  to  assist  Poland  and 
Hungary  against  tne  continually  increasing  inroads 
of  the  Turks.  Though  he  had  little  success  in  his 
plea  for  a  crusade,  he  prevailed  upon  the  oope  to  take 
measures  against  the  Teutonic  Knights,  who  had  been 
openly  and  secretly  intriguing  against  Poland  ever 
smce  1466,  when  it  had  taken  West  Prussia  and  Erm- 
land  from  them  and  begim  to  exercise  its  suzerainty 
over  East  Prussia.  During  the  progress  of  the  ^te- 
ran  Council.  Leo  X  conferred  upon  Laski  and  his  suc- 
cessors in  tne  archiepiscopal  See  of  Gnesen  the  title 
of  leaatus  ncUus,  The  Bull  conferring  the  title  is 
dated  25  July,  1515.  and  is  still  preserved  in  the 
archives  of  the  catheoral  chapter  of  Gnesen  (no.  625). 
It  was  reprinted  in  Korytowski's  "  Arcybiscupi 
Gnieznienscy  ",  II  (Posen,  1888),  662.  Laski^s  eleva- 
tion to  the  cardinalate  by  Pope  Leo  X  is  said  to 
have  been  prevented  by  King  Sigismund.  Archbishop 
Laslp  was  a  z^ous  upholder  of  ecclesiastical  disci- 
pline within  his  archdiocese,  and  a  strenuous  opponent 
of  Protestantism  in  Poland.  To  put  a  stop  to  various 
ecclesiastical  abuses,  he  held  two  provincial  synods 
at  Piotrkow  (1510, 12)  and  a  diocesan  synod  at 
Gnesen  (1513).  The  seven  other  provincial  synods 
which  he  held  were  intended  chiefly  to  stem  the 
spread  of  Protestantism  in  Poland.  Four  of  these  were 
convened  at  Lencicz  in  the  years  1522, 1523, 1525,  and 
1527,  and  three  at  Piotrkow  in  1526,  1532,  and  1533. 

Many  of  the  legislative  measures  passed  at  these 
synods  are  printed  in  the  "  Constitutiones  synodorum 
metropoUtanse  ecclesiae  Gnesnensis''  (Krakow,  1630). 
Most  of  the  canons  and  decrees  of  the  earlier  synods 
Laski  edited  in  his  "  Sanctiones  ecclesiastics^  tam  ex 
pontificum  decretis  quam  ex  constitutionibus  syno- 
dcmun  provincis  excerptse,  in  primis  autem  statuta 
in  diversis  provincialibus  synodis  a  se  sancita  "  (Kra- 
kow, 1525),  in  his  "Statuta  provincialia  "  (1512),  and 
"Statuta  provinci®  Gnesnensis"  (1527).  After  the 
marriage  of  King  Sigismund  of  Poland  with  Barbara 
Zapolya,  in  1512,  Archbishop  Laski  entered  into 
friendly  relations  with  John  Zapolya,  a  brother  of 
Barbara  and  an  aspirant  to  the  Crown  of  Hungary. 
He  sent  his  nephew  Jerome  Laski  to  Hungary  to 
assist  Zapolya  with  money  and  troops  in  his  opposi- 
tion against  the  rightful  lung  Ferdinand  of  Hungary. 
If  we  may  believe  his  enemies  (especially  Cardinal 
Gattinara),  he  continued  to  support  his  nephew  even 
after  the  latter  allied  himself  witn  the  Turkish  Sidtan 
Solimaii  with  the  purpose  of  marching  upon  Vienna. 
In  1530  he  was  cited  to  Rome  by  Clement  VII  to  give 
an  aceouDt  of  his  actions.    His  departure  was,  how- 


ever, delayed  by  King  Sigismund,  and  he  died  tlM 
following  year  after  expressing  his  desire  to  resign 
his  see.  Besides  collecting  the  synodal  legislations 
mentioned  above,  he  made  a  compilation  of  the  most 
important  laws  of  Poland  while  he  was  arch-chancel- 
lor. The  work  is  entitled  "  Commune  inclyti  Polonis 
regni  privilegiorum,  constitutionum  et  indultuum", 
etc.,  and  was  published  at  Cracow  in  1506.  His 
"Lioer  beneficiorum  archidioecesis  Gnesnensis'' was 
edited  by  Lukowski,  with  a  biography  of  the  author 
by  Korytowski  (Gnesen,  1880-1). 

ZsiBSBBBQ,  Johann  Laski,  Erzbitchof  von  Gneaen,  ttnd  aein 
Tettament  (Vienna,  1874) :  Hirschbebo,  /.  Laaki  (da  Verhiin* 
deter  dea  tUrkiachen  SxtUana  (Lemberg,  1879) ;  Bukowski,  Dzieja 
reformacyi  to  Polace  (Krakow,  1883).  MiCHABL  Ott. 

Laasbeif^.  Babon  Joseph  Maria  Christoph  von, 
a  distingmshed  German  antiouary,  b.  at  Donaue- 
schingen,  10  April,  1770;  d.  15  March,  1855.  He  was 
descended  from  a  pious  Catholic  family.  His  father 
was  chief  forester  in  the  service  of  Prince  von  Fiirsten- 
berg.  After  a  brief  service  in  the  army,  he  entered 
the  University  of  Strasburg  and  later  that  of  Frei- 
burg im  Br.  to  study  law  and  economics,  especially 
forestry.  From  1789  he  was  in  the  service  of  Prince 
von  Fiirstenberg,  becoming  chief  warden  of  the  for- 
ests in  1804.  Princess  Elizabeth,  who  ruled  the  prin- 
cipality during  the  minority  of  her  son  Karl  Egon, 
showed  him  marked  favour.  He  became  privy  coun- 
cillor in  1806,  and  accompanied  her  on  ner  travels 
through  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  England.  When  the 
regency  ended  in  1817,  Lassbere  resigned  his  position 
and  retired  to  private  life,  residing  nrst  on  his  estate 
at  Eppishusen  in  Thurgau,  and  from  1838  at  Castle 
Meersburg  on  Lake  Constance.  He  now  devoted  him- 
self zealously  to  the  study  of  old  German  literature, 
and  in  the  pursuit  of  these  studies  he  collected  a  su- 
perb library  of  upwards  of  12,000  books  and  273  valu- 
able manuscripts,  among  which  was  the  codex  of  the 
"  Nibelungenlied  "  (known  as  the  Hohenems  MS.  and 
commonly  designated  as  C).  After  his  death  this  li- 
brary was  presented  to  the  town  of  Donaueschingen. 

Lassberg  was  very  hospitably  inclined  and  manv 
visitors  were  entertained  at  Castle  Meersburg.  Uhland, 
Lachmann,  Gustav  Schwab,  and  other  distinguished 
men  of  letters  were  among  his  friends.  He  was  twice 
married,  his  second  wife  being  Maria  Anna  von  Droste- 
Hiilshoff,  a  sister  of  the  famous  poetess  Annette 
(q.  v.).  His  literary  work  consisted  chiefly  in  editing 
medieval  German  poems,  many  of  which  were  put? 
lished  under  the  pseudonym  of  Meister  Sepp  von  Ep- 
pishusen. Especially  noteworthy  is  the '  *  Liedersaal  , 
a  collection  of  medieval  German  poems,  chiefly  of  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  of  miscellaneous 
content.  It  appeared  at  St.  Gall  in  four  volumes. 
In  the  fourth  volume  the  above-mentioned  Nibel- 
ungen  MS.  was  printed  for  the  first  time. 

Driefweehael  twiachen  Laaaberg  und  Uhland,  ed.  PrEirrxB 


sqq.  and  dUd  sqq 
AUgemeine  Deutache  Biographie,  XVlI.  780-84. 

Arthur  F.  J.  Remy. 

Laasua,  Orlandus  de  (original  name,  Roland  de 
Lattre),  composer,  b.  at  Mons,  Hainault,  Belgium, 
in  1520  (according  to  most  biographers;  but  his  epitaph 
gives  1532)  'd.  at  Munich,  14  June,  1594.  At  the  age  of 
eight  and  a  half  years  he  was  admitted  as  soprano  to  the 
choir  of  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas  in  his  native  city. 
He  soon  attracted  general  attention,  lx>th  on  account 
of  his  unusual  musical  talent  and  his  beautiful  voice; 
so  much  so  that  he  was  three  times  abducted.  Twice 
his  parents  had  him  returned  to  the  parental  roof,  but 
the  third  time  they  consented  to  allow  him  to  take  up 
his  abode  at  St-Didier,  the  temporary  residence  of 
Ferdinand  de  Gonzaga,  general  m  command  of  the 
armv  of  Charles  V  and  Viceroy  of  Sicily.  At  the  end 
of  the  campaign  in  the  Netherlands,  Orlandus  fol- 
lowed his  patron  to  Milan  and  from  there  to  Sicily. 


LAST 

Ah«  the  chaDge  of  his  voice  Orlandus  apent  about 
tiiree  yeara  at  the  court  of  the  Mftrquess  della  Teru,  at 
Naples.  He  next  went  to  Rome,  where  he  enioyed 
the  favour  and  hospitality,  for  about  a\x  monttis,  of 
tJie  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Florence,  who  was  then 
liviof;  there.  Through  the  influence  of  this  prince  of 
the  Church.  Orlandus  obtained  the  position  of  choir- 
master at  St.  John  Lateran,  in  spite  of  his  extreme 
jroutb  and  the  fact  that  there  were  many  capable  mu- 
eicians  available.  During  his  residence  m  Rome, 
I^Bsua  completed  his  first  volume  of  Maasee  for  tour 
voices,  and  a  collection  of  motets  for  five  voices,  all  of 
wbich  he  had  published  in  Venice.  After  a  sojourn  of 
probably  two  ycare  in  Rome,  Laasus,  learning  of  the 
serious  illness  of  his  parents,  hastened  back  to  Bel- 
([ium  only  to  find  tliat  they  had  died.  His  native 
city  Mons  not  offering  him  a  suitalile  field  of  activity, 

It  two 
It  was 
while  here  that 
Orlandus  received 
m  invitation  from 
Albert  V,  Duke  of 
Bavaria,  not  onlv 
to  become  the  di- 
rector of  Ills  court 
chapel,  but  also  to 
recruit  capable 

the  Netherlands. 
While  in  the  em- 
ployment and 
under  the  pro- 
tection of  this  art- 
loving  prince,  I,as- 
BU9  developed  that 
phenomenal  pro- 
ductivity as  a  com- 
poser which  is  un- 
surpassed in  the 
histtiry  of  music. 
For  thirty-four  years  he  remained  active  at  Munich  as 
composer  and  director,  first  under  Alltert  V,  and  then 
under  his  son  and  successor,  William  V.  During  all 
tills  time  ho  enjoyed  not  only  the  continued  and  sym- 
pathetic favour  of  his  patrons  and  employers,  but  was 
also  honoured  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII,  who  appointed 
him  Knight  of  the  Golden  Spur;  by  Charles  IX  of 
France,  who  bestowed  upon  him  the  cross  of  tlic  Order 
of  Malta:  and  by  Emperor  Maximilian,  who  on  7  De- 
cemi  >er,  1 570,  raised  I  Jissus  and  his  descendants  to  the 
nobility.  The  imperial  document  conferring  the  honour 
is  remarkable,  not  only  as  showing  the  enteem  in  which 
the  master  was  held  by  rulers  and  nations,  but  particu- 
larly as  evidence  of  the  lofty  conception  on  the  part  of 
this  monarch  of  tlic  function  of  art  in  the  social  econ- 
omy. Lassus's  great  and  long-continued  activity 
linnlly  told  on  his  mind  and  caused  a  depression  and 
Itreak-down,  from  which  he  at  first  rallied  but  never 
fully  recovered. 

tassui  was  the  heir  to  the  centuries  of  preparation 
and  development  of  the  Netherland  school,  and  was  its 
greatest  and  also  its  last  representative. 

While  with  many  of  his  contemporaries,  even  the 
mo3tnote<l,suchaKDufay,  Okeghem,  Obn!cht,andJos- 
quin  des  Pr^,  contrapuntal  skdl  is  often  an  end  in  it- 
self, LassuB,  being  consummate  master  of  every  form 
of  the  art  and  possessing  a  powerful  imagination,  al- 
ways aims  at  a  lofty  and  truthful  interpretation  of  the 
text  before  liim.  His  genius  is  of  a  universal  nature. 
His  wide  culture  and  the  extensive  travels  of  his  youth 
bad  enabled  him  to  absorb  the  djstmgujshing  musical 
traits  of  cveri-  nationality.  None  of  his  contempo- 
raries liad  surh  a  well-defined  judgment  in  the  choice 
of  the  means  of  expression  which  best  served  his  pur- 
pose.    1^  lyric,  epic,  and  dramatic  elements  are 


12 


UTUTE 


ORLANnCt 


alternately  in  evidence  in  his  work.  But  he  would 
undoubtedly  have  been  greatest  in  the  dramatic  style, 
had  he  lived  ata  later  period.  Although  Loseus  lived 
at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  when  the  individ- 
ual and  secular  spirit  manifested  itself  more  and  more 
in  music,  and  although  he  interpreted  secular  poems 
such  as  madrigals,  chansottt,  and  German  lieder,  the 
contents  of  which  were  sometimes  rather  free  (as  was 
not  infrequently  the  case  in  those  times) ,  his  distinction 
lies  overwheljmngly  in  his  works  for  the  Church. 

The  diatonic  Gregorian  modes  form  the  basis  of  his 
compositions,  and  most  frequently  his  themes  are 
taken  from  liturgical  melodies.  The  number  of  works 
the  master  has  left  to  posterity  exceeds  two  thousand, 
in  every  possible  form,  and  in  combinations  of  from 
two  to  twelve  voices.  Many  of  them  remain  in  manu- 
script, l>ut  the  great  majority  have  been  printed  at 
Venice,  Munich,  Nuremberg,  Louvain,  Antwerp,  or 
Paris.  Among  his  more  famous  works  must  be  men- 
tioned his  setting  of  the  seven  penitential  psalms, 
which  for  variety,  depth,  truth  of  expression,  and  ele- 
vation of  conception  arc  unsurpassed.  Duke  Albert 
shou'od  his  admiration  for  this  work  by  having  it 
written  on  parchment  and  liound  in  two  folio  vol- 
umes, which  the  noted  painter  Hans  Mielicb  illus- 
trated, at  the  command  of  the  duke,  in  a  most  beau- 
tiful manner.  These,  with  two  other  smaller  volumes 
containing  an  analysis  of  Lassus's  and  ^lielicll's  work 
liy  Samuel  van  Quickelberg,  a  contemporary,  are 
preserved  in  the  court  library  at  Munich.  I.assus  left 
no  fewer  than  fifty  Masses  of  his  composition.  Some 
of  these  arc  l>uilt  upon  secular  melodies,  as  was  cus- 
tomary in  his  time,  but  the  thematic  material  for 
most  of  thcni  has  been  taken  from  the  liturgical  chant. 
In  1^04,  his  two  sons,  Rudolph  and  I'erdinand,  also 
musicians  of  note,  published  a  collection  of  516  mo- 
tets, under  the  title  of  "Magnum  opus  musicum". 
which  was  followe.1  in  1609  by  "  Jubilus  B.  Maria-  Vir- 
ginis",  consisting  of  100  settings  of  the  Magnificat. 
The  publication  of  a  critical  cilition  of  Lassus's  com- 
plete works  in  sixty  volumes,  prepared  by  Dr.  Haberl 
and  A.  Sandberger,  was  begun  in  1894. 

BSriiKEn,  Orlandun  de  Ijimi  (Freibuix.  1878);  Ahbhob. 
OfMhirhtr  dft  «fu«*.  Ill  (I^ipiiK.  1881).  3M-T0;  DEt-MOTTE, 
Not^r  bionraphiqar  mr  Bnlnnd  dr  IMiTt  fVnl™ci»nnps.  IS-LI); 
Matthibo,  Roland  dt  Ijallri  (Moiu,  18118);  Habebl,  Kirrhn- 
intinicaliKhtm  JahrirucA  (m04)-  ^ 

Joseph  Otten. 
Last  Supper.    See  Bttppkr,  The  Last. 

Lataste,  Mame,  b.  at  Mimbasf*  near  Da,\,  France, 
21  Fcbruarj",  I822;'d.  at  Renncs,  10  May,  1S47;  was 
the  youngest  child  of  simple  pious  peasants.  Accord- 
ing to  her  own  narralive,  written  under  obedience,  she 
was  a  poor,  lowly,  country  girl,  knowing  nothing  but 
what  her  mother  taught  her;  hence,  in  the  natural 
order,  all  her  learning  consisted  in  being  able  to  read, 
write,  sew,  and  spin.  Her  knowledge  in  tlic  supeis 
nutiirn)  onlcr  long  embraced  merely  the  principal 
tnilhs  of  nalvation.  Little  by  Utttc  tbc  liglit  gn-w  like 
a  vast  funuice  on  which  wood  is  cast,  and  towards 
which  a  mighty  wind  blows  from  all  sides.  The  I.onl 
Jesus,  the  Light  of  the  World,  hail  been  the  light  of  her 
soul.  He  had  brought  her  up  a.s  a  mother  docs  her 
chilli,  with  patience  and  perseverance;  if  she  knew 
aught  she  owed  it  to  Him,  she  liad  all  from  Ilim.  A 
troublesome  child,  proud,  ambitious,  and  self-con- 
tained, she  was  the  constant  subject  of  her  mother's 
anxious  prayer,  and  her  first  Communion,  made  in  her 
twelfth  year,  was  the  turning  point  in  her  life.  A 
strong  impression  of  the  I>ivine  presence  on  the  great 
day,  and  confirmation  received  soon  after,  strength- 
ened her  piety  and  virtue,  which  thenceforward  never 
faltered.  About  a  year,  aftflr  Marie  saw  at  Mass, 
during  the  Elevation,  a  bnghi  light  which  seemed  to 
inflame  her  love  for  the  Eucharistic  I-ord  and  to  in- 


ULTERA 


13 


ULTERA 


■evere  intorior  trials  and  temptations,  whence  docility 
to  her  director  brought  her  forth  victorious.  He  al- 
lowed her  to  make  a  yearly  vow  of  virginity,  and  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  became  the  central  thought  of  her 
life.  According  to  her  own  narrative,  towards  the  end 
of  1839,  when  she  was  seventeen,  she  saw  Christ  on  the 
altar.  On  the  Epiphany,  18^,  this  was  repeated,  and 
for  three  whole  years  every  time  she  assisted  at  Mass 
this  grace  was  granted  her.  Almost  daily  she  received 
from  the  lips  of  Jesus  instructions  forming  a  complete 
spiritual  and  doctrinal  education.  He*  explained  in 
smiple  language  the  principal  truths  of  faith;  some- 
times He  showed  her  symbolical  visions,  or  taught  her 
in  parables.  He  sent  His  Mother  and  angels  to  her; 
at  times  He  reproached  and  humbled  her.  Her  prog- 
ress in  virtue  was  rapid,  her  defects  disappeared,  and 
she  exercised  a  happy  influence  on  those  who  ap- 
proached her.  She  did  not  suspect  at  first  that  hers 
was  a  singular  privilege,  yet  she  never  mentioned  it 
except  to  her  confessor. 

In  1840  M.  TAbb^  Pierre  Darbins  succeeded  M. 
Farbos  as  cur^  of  Mimbaste.  By  Divine  command 
Marie  revealed  her  soul  to  him.  Much  surprised,  he 
tested  his  penitent  by  trying  her  obedience  and 
humility;  he  found  her  wholly  submissive.  Then  he 
asked  the  help  of  the  director  of  the  seminary  of  Dax. 
They  agreed  to  order  her  to  put  in  writing  everything 
supernatural  she  had  heard  and  seen  in  tne  past,  and 
all  she  might  hear  and  see  in  the  future.  In  due  time 
this  was  accomplished;  but  the  true  text  has  been  so 
much  interpolated  by  the  editor  that  the  "Works  of 
Mario  Lataste''  are  not  considered  authentic.  The 
Divine  Master  had  made  known  to  her  His  will,  that 
she  should  embrace  religious  life,  and  in  the  Society  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  recently  founded  and  wholly  un- 
known to  her  and  ner  director.  After  many  objections 
and  delays,  she  obtained  permission  and  loft  for  Paris, 
21  April,  1844,  alone,  under  the  guidance  of  Divine 
Providence.  She  was  received  at  the  H6tel  Biron  by 
Madame  de  Boisbaudry^  who  had  her  examined  by  an 
experienced  spiritualguide.  She  was  admitted  as  lay- 
sister  on  15  May.  With  great  joy  she  entered  upon 
this  new  life.  Humility,  charity,  obedience,  and  fidel- 
ity to  common  life  were  ner  chief  characteristics.  Her 
sisters*  testimony  was:  "  Sister  Lataste  does  eveiy- 
thin£  like  every  one  else,  yet  no  one  does  anything  like 
her.''  Still  a  novice  she  was  sent  to  Rennes,  in  the 
hope  that  change  of  air  would  improve  her  health. 
An  active  life  succeeded  the  quiet  of  the  noviceship; 
she  was  infirmarian,  refectonan,  portress,  but  her 
humble  virtues  shone  the  more  brilliantly;  children, 
strangers,  as  well  as  her  superiors  and  her  sisters,  felt 
her  hidden  sanctity.    Marie's  vows  had  been  post- 

goned  in  the  hope  of  an  improvement  in  her  health. 
>ut  on  Sunday,  9  May,  she  became  suddenly  so  very 
ill  that  the  end  seemed  near.  She  was  allowed  to 
pronounce  her  vows,  just  before  receiving  the  last 
sacraments.  Then  the  pent-up  ardours  of  her  soul 
burst  forth  in  ecstatic  joy  until  her  death  on  10  Ma^, 
1847,  at  the  age  of  twentjr-five.  Her  memory  lives  in 
benediction.  Her  remains  have  been  secured  from 
desecration  and  now  repose  at  Roehampton  near 
London. 

Vie  de  Marie  LaUulepar  une  reUgieuse  du  S.  C.  (Paris.  1866); 
Dabbins,  La  Vie  et  let  (Euvree  de  Marie  LaUute  (Paru,  1866). 

AucB  Power. 

lAtera,  Flaminius  Annibau  de,  historian,  b.  at 
Latera,  near  Viterbo,  23  Nov.,  1733;  d.  at  Viterbo, 
27  Feb.,  1813.  He  received  his  first  education  from 
a  priest,  Paolo  Ferranti,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen 
entered  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  Observants  in  the 
Roman  Province,  taking  the  habit  at  the  convent 
^  of  St.  Bemardine  at  Orte,  23  January,  1750;  a  y^ar 
later  on  the  same  day  he  made  his  solemn  profession. 
Being  in  due  time  ordained  priest,  he  passed  his  ex- 
aminations as  lector  generalia  (protcssor),  and  8uccea« 


sively  taught  theology  in  various  convents — ^Viterbo, 
Fano,  Velletri,  and  Rome.  From  1790  to  1791  he 
was  definitor  general  of  the  order,  and  from  1794  to 
1797  superior  of  the  Roman  Province.  When  the 
convents  in  Italy  were  suppressed  by  Napoleon  I  in 
1810,  Annibali  retired  to  Viterbo,  and  died  there  in  a 
private  residence. 

De  Latera  during  fifty  years  developed  immense 
activity  as  a  writer.  Unfortunately  he  lived  at  a  time 
when  Franciscan  history  had  just  passed  through  the 

Seat  and  passionate  Spader-Ringhieri  and  Lucci- 
arczic  controversies,  which  circumstances  had  a  not- 
able influence  on  his  writings:  instead  of  using  his  re- 
markable talents  for  constructive  work,  he  wrote 
mostly  with  a  polemical  motive.     Still  his  merits  are 

freat  enough  to  secure  him  an  honourable  place  in 
'ranciscan  literature.  His  chief  works  are  (1)  "Ad 
Bullarium  Franciscanum  a  P.  Hyacintho  Sbaralea 
Ord.  Min.  Con  v. . . .  editum,  Supplementum"  (Rome, 
1780),  dedicated  to  Pope  Pius  Vl,  by  whose  orders  it 
was  written  to  correct  the  Conventual  interpreta- 
tions of  Sbaralea  [see  '' Archiv  f.  Litt.  u.  Kirchenge- 
schichte'',  I  (1885),  516-171.  (2)  '*  Manuale  de'  Frati 
Minori  .  .  .  con  un  appenoice,  o  sia  risposta  all'  au- 
tore  (P.  Sangallo,  O.M.  Con.)  del  Saggio  compendi- 
oso  della  dottrina  di  Giustino  Febbronio"  (Home, 
1776).  This  latter  work  occasioned  great  controver- 
sies, which  partly  took  a  violent  and  abusive  form.  (3) 
"  Dissertationes  critico-historicae  in  quarum  una  Ser. 
Patriarcha  Franciscus  Tertii  Ordinis  institutor,  in 
altera  Indulgentiae  Portiunculae  Veritas  asseritur  et 
vindicatur  (Rome,  1784),  (4)  "Veritas  impressionls 
Sacrorum  Stignuttum  in  corporeSeraphici  S.  Francisci 
Assisiensis  ..."  (Rome,  1786).  (5)  "La  storia  della 
Indulgenza  concessa  da  Gesu  Cristo  .  .  .  nclla  Chiesa 
della  Portiuncula  si  dimostra  vera  ..."  (Rome, 
1796).  The  last  three  books  were  written  against 
rationalistic  attacks  of  the  time,  concerning  which  see 
Pezzana,  "Memorie  degli  Scrittori  e  Letterati  Parmi- 

fiani",  VI,  pt.  I,  127  (Parma,  1825).  When  the 
Benedictine  Pujati  had,  by  order  of  Scipio  Ricci  of 
unhappy  memory,  written  against  the  traditional 
form  of  the  Stations  of  the  Cross,  Annibali,  with  the 
Franciscans  AfTo  and  Tommaso  da  Cireglio,  was 
chareed  to  answer;  he  then  wrote  (6)  "LaPraticadel 
pio  Esercizio  della  Via  Crucis  .  .  .  vendicata  dalle 
obbiezioni  di  D.  Giuseppe  Ma  Pujati,  Monaco  Casi- 
nese  ..."  (Viterbo,  1783;  2nd  ed.,  Viterbo,  1785). 
(7^  '*La  Difesa  dell'  antico  metodo  della  Via  Crucia 
e  la  Censura  del  nuovo  ..."  (against  the  "Annali 
ecclesiastici"  of  Florence)  (Viterbo,  1783).  An  im- 
portant but  little -known  work  is  (8)  "Compendio 
della  Storia  degli  Ordini  religiosi  esistenti"  (4  vols., 
Rome,  1790-91);  2nd  ed.  of  the  same  with  the  title 
"Storia  degli  Ordini  r^golari  ..."  (Naples,  1796). 
(9)  A  life  of  St.  Collette,  in  Italian  (Rome,  1805;  2nd 
ed.,  Rome,  1807).  (10)  Italian  life  of  St.  Hyacintha 
Mariscotti  (Rome,  1805;  2nd  ed.,  Rome,  1807).  (11) 
New  edition  of  "F.  Francisci  Horantii  Hispaoi 
(O.F.M.)  .  .  .  Locorum  Catholicorum  .  .  .  libri  VII" 
(2  vols.,  Rome,  1795-96).  (12)  Annibali  worked  at 
the  reform  of  the  Franciscan  Breviary,  1784-85,  and 
composed  many  new  offices  edited  separately  at 
Rome,  1785  (see  "Archivum  Franc.  Hist.",  I,  Quar- 
acchi,  1908, 45-49).  (13)  An  Italian  hymn-book  (Vit- 
erbo, 1772).  After  his  death  appeared  (14)  "Notizic 
storiche  della  Casa  Famese  della  fu  Citt^  di  Castro 
.  .  .  coir  aggiunta  di  due  Paesi  Latera  e  Famese" 
(in  2  parts,  Montefiascone,  1817-18).  We  omit  some 
other  works,  as  well  as  the  anonymous  and  pseudony- 
mous pamphlets  of  the  author. 

The  biographical  notices  have  been  taken  from  the  archives 
of  Ara  Coeli,  Rx>nie;  the  biblioeraohioal  indications,  from  th« 
books  themselves.  Breve  Compenaio  della  Vila  di  F.  Flaminio 
Annibali  da  Latera  (s.  d.,  but  probabty  about  1770-80\  is  noth- 
ing but  a  sad  travesty  of  Aonibali,  wntten  by  one  of  his  literal^' 
advenaries. 

LtYAiuns  OuQxm. 


ULTIRAH 


14 


L4T1RAH 


lAteran,  Canons  Regulab  of  the.    See  Canons 

AND  CaNONEBSES  ReQULAB. 

Lateran,  Christian  Museum  of,  established  by 
Pius  IX,  in  1854,  in  the  Palazzo  del  Laterano  erected 
by  Sixtus  V  on  part  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Lateran 
palace  destroyed  by  fire  in  1308.  In  1843  the  "  pro- 
fane" Museum  of  the  Lateran  was  founded  by  Greg- 
ory XVI,  in  whose  pontificate  also  was  mooted  the 
idea  of  establishing  a  museum  ol  Christian  antiquities 
in  the  same  edifice.  Nothing  of  consequence,  how- 
ever, was  accomplished  until  Pius  IX,  at  .the  date 
noted,  entrusted  the  task  to  the  two  famous  archae- 
ologists, Father  Marchi,  S.J.,  and  Giovanni  Battista 
de  Rossi.  To  Marchi  was  assigned  the  work  of  col- 
lecting and  arranging  the  sculptured  monuments  of 
tiie  early  Christian  a^ges,  to  de  Rossi  all  that  con- 
cerned ancient  Christian  inscriptions;  a  third  depart- 
ment of  the  museum  consisted  of  copies  of  some  of  the 
more  important  catacomb  frescoes.  The  larger  part 
of  the  material  for  the  new  foundation  was  drawn 
from  the  hall  in  the  Vatican  Library  set  apart  by 
Benedict  XIV,  in  1750,  as  the  nucleus  of  a  Cnristian 
museimi,  from  the  storerooms  of  the  Vatican,  and 
from  the  Roman  catacombs.  The  Roxnan  munici- 
pality also  contributed  a  number  of  Christian  monu- 
ments from  the  Capitoline  Museum,  while  many 
others  were  recovered  frona  convents,  chapels,  sac- 
risties, and  private  collections.  Plaster  casts  were 
also  supplied  of  certain  especially  interesting  monu- 
ments that  could  not  be  removed  from  their  orijginal 
location.  The  result  has  been  eminently  satisfac- 
tory, so  much  so  indeed  that  the  Christian  Museum  of 
the  Lateran  contains  to-day  a  collection  of  monu- 
ments the  study  of  which  is  mdispensable  to  a  proper 
appreciation  of  the  earlier  ages  of  Christianity.  The 
section  devoted  to  early  Christian  e{)igraphy,  classified 
by  de  Rossi,  begins  with  a  collection  of  mscriptions 
relating  to  the  most  ancient  basilicas,  baptisteries, 
etc.;  then  follow  in  order  the  Damasan  inscriptions, 
inscriptions  with  consular  dates,  those  containing  allu- 
sions to  dogma,  to  the  hierarchy,  civil  matters,  and 
accompanied  with  such  symbols  as  the  anchor,  dove, 
and  monograni.  Still  another  section  is  occupied  by 
monumento  with  inscriptions  classified  according  to 
their  topography.  The  most  interesting,  perhaps,  of 
idl  the  mscribed  monuments  of  the  museum  is  that 
containing  the  famous  epitaph  of  Abercius,  one  frag- 
ment of  which  was  presented  to  Leo  XIII  by  the 
Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  II,  the  other  by  Professor  (now 
Sir  William)  Ramsa^r.  The  sculptured  monimients 
include  a  fine  collection  of  fourth  and  fifth  century 
8Ut;ophagi,  the  statue  of  St.  Hippolytus,  and  an  ad.- 
mirable  third-^entury  statue  of  the  Good  Shepherd. 
The  third  section  of  the  museum  consists  of  copies,  not 
always  accurate,  of  some  of  the  most  interesting 
paintings  discovered  in  the  Roman  catacombs. 

NoRTHCOTE  AND  Brownlow,  Roma  SoUerranea  (London, 
1878-70);  Northcx>tb,  Epitaphs  of  the  CtUacombt  (London, 
1878);  Marucchi,  Guxda  del  Muteo  CrUUano  LcUeranense 
(Rome,  1808). 

Maubice  M.  Hassett. 

Lateran,  Saint  John, — ^Thb  Basilica. — ^This  is  the 
oldest,  and  ranks  first  among  the  four  great  "patri- 
archal" basilicas  of  Rome.  The  site  was,  in  ancient 
times,  occupied  by  the  palace  of  the  family  of  the 
Laterani.  A  member  of  this  family,  P.  Sextius  Lat- 
eranus,  was  the  first  plebeian  to  attain  the  rank  of 
consul.  In  the  time  of  Nero,  another  member  of 
the  family,  Plautius  Lateranus,  at  the  time  consul 
dssignatus  was  accused  of  conspiracv  against  the  em- 
peror, and  his  goods  were  confiscated.  Juvenal  men- 
tions the  palace,  and  speaks  of  it  as  being  of  some 
magnificence,  "regise  sedes  Lateranorum".  Some 
few  remains  of  the  original  buildings  may  still  be 
traced  in  the  city  walls  outside  the  Gate  of  St.  John, 
and  a  large  hall  decorated  with  paintings  was  unc-ov- 
ered  in  the  eighteenth  century  within  the  basilica  itself , 


behind  the  Lancellotti  Chapel.  A  few  traces  of  older 
buildings  also  came  to  lignt  during  the  excavations 
made  in  1880,  when  the  work  of  extending  the  apse 
was  in  progress,  but  nothing  was  then  discovered  of 
real  value  or  importance.  The  palace  came  event- 
ually into  the  hands  of  Constantine,  the  first  Christian 
emperor,  through  his  wife  Fausta,  and  it  is  from  her 
that  it  derived  the  name  by  which  it  was  then  some- 
times called,  *'Domus  Faustse".  Constantine  must 
have  given  it  to  the  Church  in  the  time  of  Miltiades, 
not  later  than  about  311,  for  we  find  a  council  against 
the  Donatists  meeting  within  its  walls  as  early  as  313. 
From  that  time  onwards  it  was  always  the  centre  of 
Christian  life  within  the  city;  the  residence  of  the 
popes  and  the  cathedral  of  Rome.  The  latter  distinc- 
tion it  still  holds,  though  it  has  Ions  lost  the  former. 
Hence  the  proud  title  which  may  be  read  upon  its 
walls,  that  it  is  *'  Omniimi  urbis  et  orbis  ecclesiarum 
mater,  et  caput '\ 

It  seems  probable,  in  spite  of  the  tradition  that  Con- 
stantine helped  in  the  work  of  building  with  his  own 
hands,  that  there  was  not  a  new  basilica  erected  at  the 
Lateran,  but  that  the  work  carried  out  at  this  period 
was  limited  to  the  adaptation,  which  perhaps  involved 
the  enlargement,  of  tne  already  existing  basilica  or 
great  hall  of  the  palace.  The  words  of  St.  Jerome 
"  basilica  quondam  Laterani ''  (Ep.  Ixxiii,  P.  L.,  XXII, 
col.  692)  seem  to  point  in  this  direction,  and  it  is  also 
probable  on  other  grounds.  This  original  church  was 
probably  not  of  very  laree  dimensions,  but  we  have  no 
reUable  mformation  on  the  subject.  It  was  d^cated 
to  the  Saviour,  ''Basihca  Salvatoris'',  the  dedication 
to  St.  John  being  of  later  date,  and  due  to  a  Benedic- 
tine monastery  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  and  St.  John 
the  Evangelist  which  adjoined  the  basilica  and  whose 
members  were  charged  at  one  period  with  the  duty  of 
maintaining  the  services  in  tne  church.  This  later 
dedication  to  St.  John  has  now  in  popular  usage  al- 
together superseded  the  original  one.  A  great  many 
donations  from  the  popes  and  other  benefactors  to  the 
basilica  are  recorded  in  the  "Liber  Pontificalis",  and 
its  splendour  at  an  early  period  was  such  that  it  be- 
came known  at  the  ''Basilica  Aurea*',  or  Golden 
Church.  This  splendour  drew  upon  it  the  attack  of 
the  Vandals,  who  stripped  it  of  all  its  treasures.  St. 
Leo  the  Great  restored  it  about  460,  and  it  was  again 
r^tored  by  Hadrian  I,  but  in  896  it  was  almost  totally 
destroy  ed  by  an  earthquake  (' '  ab  altari  usque  ad  port  as 
cecidit ").  The  dams^  was  so  extensive  that  it  was 
difficult  to  trace  in  every  case  the  lines  of  the  old  build- 
ing, but  these  were  in  the  main  respected  and  the  new 
bwlding  was  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  old.  This 
second  church  lasted  for  four  hundred  years  and  was 
then  burnt  down.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Clement  V  am! 
John  XXII,  only  to  be  burnt  down  once  more  in  1360, 
but  again  rebuilt  by  Urban  V. 

Through  these  various  vicissitudes  the  basilica  re* 
tained  its  ancient  form,  being  divided  by  rows  of  col- 
imms  into  aisles,  and  having  in  front  an  atrium  sur- 
rounded by  colonnades  with  a  fountain  in  the  middle. 
The  facade  had  three  windows,  and  was  embellished 
with  a  mosaic  representing  Christ  as  the  Saviour  of  the 
world.  The  porticoes  of  the  atrium  were  decorated 
with  frescoes,  probably  not  dating  further  back  than 
the  twelfth  century,  which  commemorated  the  Roman 
fleet  under  Vespasian,  the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  the 
Baptism  of  the  Emperor  Constantine  and  his  **  Dona- 
tion" to  the  Church.  Inside  the  basilica  the  columns 
no  doubt  ran,  as  in  all  other  basilicas  of  the  same  date, 
the  whole  length  of  the  church  from  east  to  west,  but 
at  one  of  the  rebuildings,  probably  that  which  was 
carried  out  by  Clement  y,  the  feature  of  a  transverse 
nave  was  introduced,  imitated  no  dotibt  from  the  one 
which  had  been,  long  before  this,  added  at  S.  Paolo 
f  uori  le  Mura.  It  was  probably  at  this  time  also  that 
the  church  was  enlarged.  When  the  popes  returned  to 
Rome  from  their  long  absence  at  Avignon  they  found 


ULTiaAH 


15 


ULTiaAH 


fthe  city  deserted  and  the  churches  almost  m  ruins. 
Great  works  were  begun  at  the  Lateran  by  Martin  V 
and  his  successors.  The  palace,  however,  was  never 
Again  used  by  them  as  a  residence,  the  Vatican,  which 
stands  in  a  much  drier  and  healthier  position,  being 
chosen  in  its  place.  It  was  not  until  the  latter  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century  that  the  church  took  its 
present  appearance,  in  the  tasteless  restoration  carried 
out  by  Innocent  X,  with  Borromini  for  his  architect. 
The  ancient  columns  were  now  enclosed  in  huge  pi- 
lasters, with  gigantic  statues  in  front.  In  consequence 
of  this  the  church  has  entirely  lost  the  appearance 
of  an  ancient  basilica,  and  is  completely  altered  in 
character. 

Some  portions  of  the  older  buildings  still  survive. 
Among  these  we  may  notice  the  pavement  of  medieval 
Cosmatesque  work,  and  the  statues  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul,  now  in  the  cloisters.  The  graceful  haldacchino 
over  the  high  altar,  which  looks  so  utterly  out  of  place 
in  its  present  surroundings,  dates  from  13G9.  The 
stercoraria,  or  throne  of  red  marble  on  which  the 
popes  sat,  is  now  in  the  Vatican  Museum.  It  owes  its 
unsavoiuy  name  to  the  anthem  sung  at  the  ceremony 
of  the  papal  enthronization,  *'  De  stercore  erigens  pau- 
perem".  From  the  fifth  century  there  were  seven 
oratories  surrounding  the  basilica.  These  before  long 
were  thrown  into  the  actual  church.  The  devotion  of 
visitina;  these  oratories,  which  held  its  ground  all 
through  the  medieval  period,  gave  rise  to  the  similar 
devotion  of  the  seven  altars,  still  common  in  many 
churches  of  Rome  and  elsewhere.  Between  the  ba- 
silica and  the  city  wall  there  was  in  former  times  the 
great  monastery,  in  which  dwelt  the  community  of 
monks  whose  dutv  it  was  to  provide  the  services  in  the 
basilica.  The  only  part  of  it  which  still  survives  is  the 
cloister,  surrounded  by  graceful  columns  of  inlaid 
marble.  They  are  of  a  style  intermediate  between 
the  Romanesque  proper  and  the  Gothic,  and  are  the 
work  of  Vassellectus  and  the  Cosmati.  The  date  of 
these  beautiful  cloisters  is  the  early  part  of  the  thir- 
teenth century. 

The  ancient  apse,  with  mosaics  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, survived  all  the  many  changes  and  dangers  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  was  still  to  be  seen  very  much  in 
its  original  condition  as  late  as  1878,  when  it  was  de- 
stroyed in  order  to  provide  a  larger  space  for  the  or- 
dinations and  other  pontifical  functions  which  take 
place  in  this  cathedral  church  of  Rome.  The  original 
mosaics  were,  however,  preserved  with  the  greatest 
possible  care  and  very  great  success,  and  were  re- 
erected  at  the  end  of  the  new  and  deeper  apse  which 
had  been  provided.  In  these  mosaics,  as  they  now 
appear,  the  centre  of  the  upper  portion  is  occupied  by 
the  figure  of  Christ  surrounded  by  nine  angels.  This 
figure  is  extremely  ancient,  and  dates  from  the  fifth, 
or  it  may  be  even  the  fourth  century.  It  is  possible 
even  that  it  is  the  identical  one  which,  as  is  told  in 
ancient  tradition,  was  manifested  to  the  eyes  of  the 
worshippers  on  the  occasion  of  the  dedication  of  the 


If  it  is  so,  however,  it  has  certainly -been  retouched. 
Below  is  seen  the  crux  gammata,  surmounted  by  a 
dove  which  symbolizes  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  standing 
on  a  hill  whence  flow  the  four  rivers  of  the  Gospels, 
from  whose  waters  stags  and  sheep  come  to  drink. 
On  either  side  are  saints,  looking  towards  the  Cross. 
These  last  are  thought  to  belong  originally  to  the 
sixth  century,  though  they  were  repaired  and  altered 
in  the  thirteenth  by  Nicholas  IV,  whose  effigy  may  be 
seen  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The 
river  which  runs  below  is  more  ancient  still,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  going  back  to  Constantine  and  the  first 
day^  of  the  basilica.  The  remaining  mosaics  of  the 
apse  are  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  signatures 
01  the  artist-s,  Torriti  and  Camerino,  may  still  be  read 


upon  them.  Camerino  was  a  Frandsoan  friar;  per- 
haps Torriti  was  one  also. 

The  pavement  of  the  basilica  dates  from  Martin  V 
and  the  return  of  the  popes  to  Rome  from  Avignon. 
Martin  V  was  of  the  Colonna  family,  and  the  columns 
are  their  badge.  The  high  altar,  which  formerly  oc- 
cupied the  position  customary  in  all  ancient  basilicas, 
in  the  centre  of  the  chord  of  the  apse,  has  now  beyond 
it,  owine  to  the  successive  enlargements  of  the  church, 
the  whole  of  the  transverse  nave  and  of  the  new  choir. 
It  has  no  saint  buried  beneath  it,  since  it  was  not,  as 
were  almost  all  the  other  great  churches  of  Rome, 
erected  over  the  tomb  of  a  martyr.  It  stands  alone 
among  all  the  altars  of  the  Catholic  world  in  being  of 
wood  and  not  of  stone,  and  enclosing  no  relics  of  any 
kind.  The  reason  for  this  peculiarity  is  that  it  is  it- 
self a  relic  of  a  most  interesting  kind,  being  the  actual 
wooden  altar  upon  which  St.  Peter  is  believed  to  have 
celebrated  Mass  during  his  residence  in  Rome.  It 
was  carefully  preserved  through  all  the  years  of  per- 
secution, and  was  brought  by  Constantine  and  Syl- 
vester from  St.  Pudentiana's,  where  it  had  been  kept 
till  then,  to  become  the  principal  altar  of  the  cathedral 
church  of  Rome.  It  is  now,  of  course,  enclosed  in  a 
larger  altar  of  stone  and  cased  with  marble,  but  the 
original  wood  can  still  be  seen.  A  small  portion  was 
left  at  St.  Pudentiana's  in  memory  of  its  long  con- 
nexion with  that  church,  and  is  still  preserved  there. 
Above  the  High  Altar  is  the  canopy  or  haldacchino  al- 
ready mentioned,  a  Gothic  structure  resting  on  four 
marble  columns,  and  decorated  with  paintings  by 
Bama  of  Siena.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  baldacchino 
are  preserved  the  heads  of  the  Apostles  Peter  and 
Paul,  the  great  treasure  of  the  basilica,  which  until 
this  shrine  was  prepared  to  receive  them  had  always 
been  kept  in  the  *^Sancta  Sanctorum",  the  private 
chapel  of  the  Lateran  Palace  adjoining.  Bchmd  the 
ai^e  there  formerly  extended  the  "Leonine"  portico; 
it  is  not  known  which  pontiff  §ave  it  this  name.  At 
the  entrance  there  was  an  inscription  commemorating 
the  dream  of  Innocent  VIII,  when  he  saw  the  church 
of  the  Lateran  upheld  by  St.  Francis  of  Assisi.  On 
the  opposite  wall  was  hung  the  tabula  magna,  or 
catalogue  of  all  the  relics  of  the  basilica,  and  also  of  the 
different  chapels  and  the  indulgences  attached  to 
them  respectively.  It  is  now  in  the  archives  of  the 
basilica. 

The  Baptistery. — ^The  baptistery  of  the  church, 
following  the  invariable  rule  of  the  first  centuries  of 
Christianity,  was  not  an  integral  part  of  the  ciiurch  it- 
self, but  a  separate  and  detached  building,  joined  to 
the  church  by  a  colonnade,  or  at  any  rate  in  close  prox- 
imity to  it.  The  right  to  baptize  was  the  peculiar 
privilege  of  the  cathedral  church,  and  here,  as  else- 
where, all  were  brought  from  all  parts  of  the  city  to  re- 
ceive the  sacrament.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the 
tradition  which  makes  the  existing  baptistery,  which 
altogether  conforms  to  these  conditions,  the  original 
Imptistery  of  the  church,  and  ascribes  its  foundation 
to  Constantine.  The  whole  style  and  appearance  of 
the  edifice  bear  out  the  claim  made  on  its  behalf. 
There  is,  however,  much  less  ground  for  saying  that  it 
w^as  here  that  the  emperor  was  baptized  by  St.  Syl- 
vester. The  building  was  originally  entered  from 
the  opposite  side  from  the  present  doorway,  through 
the  portico  of  St.  Vcnantius.  This  is  a  vestibule  or 
atrium,  in  which  two  large  porphyry  columns  are  still 
standing  and  was  formerly  approached  by  a  colonnade 
of  smaller  porphyry  columns  leading  from  the  church. 
The  baptistery  itself  is  an  octagonal  edifice  with  eight 
immense  porphyry  columns  supporting  an  architrave 
on  which  are  eight  smaller  columns,  likewise  of  por- 
phyry, which  in  their  turn  support  the  octagonal 
drums  of  the  lantern.  In  the  main  the  building  has 
preserved  its  ancient  form  and  characteristics,  though 
it  has  been  added  to  and  adorned  by  many  popes. 
Sixtus  III  carried  out  the  first  of  these  restorations 


ULTSRAH 


16 


ULTK&AN 


and  adornments,  and  his  inscription  recording  the  fact 
may  still  be  seen  on  the  architrave.  Pope  St.  Hilary 
(461-468)  raised  the  height,  and  also  added  the  chap- 
els round.  Urban  VIII  and  Innocent  X  repaired  it  m 
more  recent  times. 

In  the  centre  of  the  buildinc  one  descends  by  sev- 
eral steps  to  the  basin  of  crecn  oasalt  which  forms  the 
actual  baptismal  font.  1  here  is  no  foundation  for  the 
idea  that  the  Emperor  Con^tantine  was  himself  ac- 
tually baptized  in  this  font  by  Pope  St.  Sylvester. 
That  is  a  confusion  which  lias  arisen  from  the  fact  that 
he  was  the  founder  of  the  baptistery.  But  although 
he  had  embraced  Christianity  and  had  done  so  much 
for  the  advancement  of  the  Church,  the  emperor,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  deferred  the  actual  reception  of  the 
sacrament  of  baptism  imtil  the  very  end  of  his  life, 
and  was  at  last  baptized,  not  by  Sylvester,  but  by  Eu- 
sebius,  in  whose  diocese  of  Nicomedia  he  was  then, 
after  the  foundation  of  Constantinople,  pcrmanentlv 
residing  (Von  Funk,  ''Manual  of  Church  History' , 
London,  1910, 1,  118-119;  Duchesne,  *' Liber  Pontifi- 
cahs",  Paris,  1887,  I,  cix-cxx).  The  mosaics  in  the 
adjoining  oratories  are  both  ancient  and  interesting. 
Those  in  the  oratory  of  St.  Jolm  the  Evangelist  are  of 
the  fifth  centuiy,  and  are  of  the  conventional  style  of 
that  period,  consisting  of  flowers  and  birds  on  a  gold 
ground,  also  a  Lamb  with  a  cruciform  nimbus  on  the 
vault.  The  corresponding  mosaics  of  the  chapel  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist  disappeared  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  but  we  have  a  ciescription  of  them  in  Pan- 
vinio.  The  mosaics  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Venantius 
(the  ancient  vestibule)  are  still  extant,  and  are  of  con- 
siderable interest.  They  date  from  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, and  a  comparison  between  the  workmanship  of 
these  mosaics  and  of  those  in  the  cliapel  of  St.  John 
offers  an  instructive  lesson  on  the  extent  to  which  the 
arts  had  deteriorated  between  the  fifth  and  the  sev- 
enth centuries.  The  figures  represent,  for  the  most 
part,  Dalmatian  saints,  and  the  whole  decoration  was 
originally  desired  as  a  memorial  to  Dalmatian  mar- 
tyrs, whose  relics  were  brought  here  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  Istrian  schism. 

The  Lateran  Palace. — From  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century,  when  it  was  eiven  to  the  pope  by  Con- 
stantine,  the  palace  of  the  Lateran  was  the  principal 
residence  of  the  popes,  and  continued  so  for  about  a 
thousand  years.  In  the  tenth  century  Serglus  III 
restored  it  after  a  disastrous  fire,  and  later  on  it  was 
greatlv  embellished  by  Innocent  III.  This  was  the 
period  of  its  greatest  magnificence,  when  Dante  speaks 
of  it  as  beyond  all  human  achievements.  At  this  t  imc 
the  centre  of  the  piazza  in  front,  where  now  the  obe- 
lisk stands,  was  occupied  by  the  palace  and  tower  of 
the  Annibaldeschi.  Between  this  palace  and  the  ba- 
silica was  the  equestrian  statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
then  believed  to  represent  Constantine,  which  now  is 
at  the  Capitol.  The  whole  of  the  front  of  the  palace 
was  taken  up  with  the  ''Aula  Concilii",  a  magnifi- 
cent hall  witn  eleven  apses,  in  which  were  held  the 
various  Councils  of  the  Lateran  during  the  medieval 
period.    The  fall  of  the  palace  from  uiis  position  of 

flory  was  the  result  of  the  departurie  of  the  popes  from 
Lome  during  the  Avignon  period.  Two  aestructive 
fires,  in  130/  and  1361  respectively,  did  irreparable 
harm,  and  although  vast  sums  were  sent  from  Avignon 
for  the  rebuilding,  the  palace  never  again  attained  its 
former  splendour.  When  the  popes  returned  to  Home 
they  resided  first  at  Santa  Maria  m  Trastevere,  then  at 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  and  lastly  fixed  their  residence 
at  the  Vatican.  Sixtus  V  then  destroyed  what  still 
remained  of  the  ancient  palace  of  the  Lateran  and 
erected  the  present  much  smaller  edifice  in  its  place. 
An  apee  lined  with  mosaics  and  open  to  the  air  still 
preserves  the  memory  of  one  of  the  most  famous  halls 
of  the  ancient  palace,  the  "Triclinium"  of  Leo  III, 
which  was  the  state  banqueting  hall.  The  existing 
fftructure  is  not  ancient,  but  it  is  possible  that  some 


portions  of  the  original  mosaics  have  been  preserved. 
The  subject  is  threefold.  In  the  centre  Christ  gives 
their  mission  to  the  Apostles,  on  the  left  he  gives  the 
kc>[s  to  St.  Sylvester  and  the  Labarum  to  Constantine, 
while  on  the  ri^ht  St.  Peter  gives  the  stole  to  Leo  III 
and  the  standard  to  Charlemagne.  The  private 
rooms  of  the  popes  in  the  old  palace  were  situated  be- 
tween this  '^Triclinium"  and  the  city  walls.  The 
palace  is  now  given  up  to  the  Pontifical  Museiun  of 
Christian  Antiquities. 

For  the  history  of  the  basilica,  the  student  should  consult 
primarily  the  two  quarto  volumes  of  the  Liber  PontificaKs, 
edited  by  Duchesne  (Paris,  1887  sqq.).  Other  monographs  are 
Joannes  Diaconuh,  Liber  de  Ecclena  Laleranensi  in  P.  L.: 
AxjEMANNi,  De  Laieranensibiu  parietinis  (Rome,  1625);  Uah- 
poNDi,  De  basilica  el  patriarchio  Jjoteranenn  (Home,  1656); 
Crescimbeni  and  Baldeschi,  Stalo  delta  S.  Chiesa  papale  Latera- 
nense  nell'  anno  172S  (Rome,  1723);  Skverano,  Le  »eUe  chiete 
di  Roma;  Ugonio,  Historia  delle  Stazioni  di  Roma;  Panvinio, 
De  Seplem  urbis  ecclenis;  Piazza,  Stazioni  di  Roma.  The  latter 
four  works  were  published  in  Rome  in  the  sixteenth  or  seven- 
teoith  century. 

Among  recent  books  the  best  are:  Armellini,  Le  chieae  di 
Roma  (Rome,  1891);  Marucchi,  Basiligucs  et  Eglises  de  Rome 
(Rome.  1902);  and  in  particular,  ns  Fleury,  Le  Lairem  au 
moyen  Age^  (Paris,  1877).  There  is  a  lai]ge  number  of  plans  and 
manuscripts  in  the  archives  of  the  bxisilica.  For  special  points 
consult  also  de  Rossi,  Musaici  delle  chiese  di  Roma  anteriori  al 
secolo  XV  (Rome,  1872);  de  Montault,  La  grande  pancarU  de 
la  baeilique  de  Latran  in  Revue  de  Vart  chritien  (Paris,  1886) ; 
GER8PA(*n,  La  Moea'ique  apaidaie  dee  Sancla  Sanctorum  du 
Latran  in  Gazette  dee  beaux  aria,  1880:  Bartouni,  Sopra 
Vantichiaaimo  altare  di  legno  in  Roma  (1852). 

Arthur  S.  Barnes. 

Lateran  Oooncils,  a  series  of  five  important  coun- 
cils held  at  Rome  from  the  twelfth  to  the  sixteenth 
century.  From  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great 
imtil  the  removal  of  the  papal  Court  to  Avi^on,  the 
Lateran  palace  and  basilica  ser\'ed  the  bishops  of 
Rome  as  residence  and  cathedral.  During  this  long 
period  the  popes  had  occasion  to  convoke  a  number 
of  general  councils,  and  for  this  purpose  thev  made 
choice  of  cities  so  situated  as  to  reduce  as  much  as  pos- 
sible the  inconveniences  which  the  bishops  called  to 
such  assemblies  must  necessarily  experience  by  reason 
of  long  and  costly  absence  from  their  sees.  Five  of 
these  councils  were  held  in  the  Lateran  palace,  and 
are  known  as  the  First,  Second,  Third,  Fourth,  and 
Fifth  Lateran  Councils,  held  respectively  in  1123, 
1139,  1179,  1215,  and  1512-17. 

First  Lateran  Council  (1123). — The  Council  of 
1123  is  reckoned  in  the  series  of  oecumenical  councils. 
It  had  been  convoked  in  December,  1122,  immediately 
after  the  Concordat  of  Worms,  which  agreement  be- 
tween pope  and  emperor  had  caused  general  satisfac- 
tion in  tne  Church.  It  put  a  stop  to  the  arbitrary 
conferring  of  ecclesiastical  benefices  by  laymen,  re- 
established freedom  of  episcopal  and  abbatial  elections, 
separated  spiritual  from  temporal  affairs,  and  ratified 
the  principle  that  spiritual  authority  can  emanate  only 
from  the  Church;  lastly,  it  tacitly  alx)lished  the  exor- 
bitant claim  of  the  emperors  to  interfere  in  panal  elec- 
tions. So  deep  was  the  emotion  caused  by  tnis  con- 
cordat, the  first  ever  signed,  that  in  many  documents 
of  the  time  the  year  1122  is  mentioned  as  the  be^n- 
ning  of  a  new  era.  For  its  more  solemn  confirmation, 
and  in  conformity  with  the  earnest  desire  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Mainz,  Callistus  II  convoked  a  council  to 
which  all  the  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the  West  were 
invited.  Three  hundred  bishops  and  more  than  six 
hundred  abbots  assembled  at  Rome  in  March,  1123; 
Callistus  II  presided  in  nerson.  Both  originals  {in- 
strumenta)  of  the  Concoraat  of  Worms  were  read  and 
ratified,  and  twent-y-two  disciplinary  canons  were  pro- 
mulgated, most  of  them  reinforcements  of  previous 
conciliary  decrees.  Canons  iii  and  xxi  forbia  priests, 
deacons,  subdeacons,  and  monks  to  marry  or  to  have 
concubines;  it  is  also  forbidden  them  to  keep  in  their 
houses  any  women  other  than  those  sanctioned  by  the 
ancient  canons.  Marriages  of  clerics  are  null  vieno 
jvre,  and  those  who  have  contracted  them  are  subject 
to  penance.    Canon  vi:  Nullity  of  the  ordinations  per- 


L4TIKAH 


17 


LATERAH 


formed  by  the  heresiarch  Burdinus  (Antipope  Greg- 
ory VIII)  after  his  condemnation,  panon  xi:  Safe- 
guard for  the  families  and  possessions  of  crusaders. 
Canon  xiv:  Excommunication  of  laymen  appropriat- 
ing offerings  made  to  the  Church,  and  those  who  for- 
tify churches  as  strongholds.  Canon  xvi:  Against 
those  who  molest  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Rome. 
Canon  xvii:  Abbots  and  religious  are  prohibited  from 
admitting  sinners  to  penance,  visiting  the  sick,  ad- 
ministering extreme  unction,  singing  solemn  and  pub- 
lic Masses;  they  are  obliged  to  obtam  the  holy  chrism 
and  holy  oils  from  their  respective  bishops. 

Second  Lateran  Council  (lli^9). — ^The  death  of 
Pope  Honorius  II  (February,  1130)  was  followed  by  a 
schism.  Petrus  Leonis  (Pierleoni),  under  the  name  of 
Anacletus  II,  for  a  long  time  held  in  check  the  legiti- 
mate pope.  Innocent  II,  who  was  supported  by  St. 
Bernard  and  St.  Norbert.  In  1135  Innocent  II  cele- 
brated a  Council  at  Pisa,  and  his  cause  gained  steadily 
until,  in  January,  1138,  the  death  of  Anacletus  helped 
largely  to  solve  the  difficulty.  Nevertheless,  to  efface 
the  last  vestiges  of  the  schism,  to  condemn  various 
errors  and  reform  abuses  among  clergy  and  people, 
Innocent,  in  the  month  of  April,  1139,  convofced,  at 
the  Lateran,  the  tenth  oecumenical  council.  Nearly 
a  thousand  prelates,  from  most  of  the  Christian  na- 
tions, assisted.  The  pope  opened  the  council  with  a 
discourse,  and  deposed  from  their  offices  those  who 
had  been  ordained  and  instituted  bv  the  antipope  and 
by  his  chief  partisans,  iEgidius  of  'fuscuhim  and  Ger- 
ard of  Angoul^me.  As  Roger,  King  of  Sicily,  a  parti- 
san of  Anacletus  who  had  been  reconciled  with  Inno- 
cent, persisted  in  maintaining  in  Southern  Italy  his 
schismatical  attitude,  he  was  excommunicated.  The 
council  likewise  condemned  the  errors  of  the  Petro- 
brusians*  and  the  Henricians,  the  followers  of  two 
active  and  dangerous  heretics,  Peter  of  Bruys  and 
Arnold  of  Brescia.  The  council  promulgated  against 
these  heretics  its  twenty-third  canon,  a  repetition  of 
the  third  canon  of  the  Council  of  Toulouse  (1119) 
against  the  Manichseans.  Finally,  the  council  drew 
up  measures  for  the  amendment  of  ecclesiastical 
morals  and  discipline  that  had  grown  lax  during  the 
schism.  Twenty-eight  canons  pertinent  to  these 
matters  reproduced  in  great  part  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Reims,  in  1131,  and  the  Council  of  Cler- 
mont, in  1130,  whose  enactments,  frequently  cited 
since  then  under  the  name  of  the  Lateran  Council,  ac- 
quired thereby  increase  of  authority.  Canon  iv:  In- 
junction to  bishops  and  ecclesiastics  not  to  scandalize 
anyone  by  the  colours,  the  shape,  or  extravagance  of 
their  garments,  but  to  clothe  tJiemselves  in  a  modest 
and  well-regulated  manner.  Canons  vi,vii,xxi:  Con- 
demnation and  repression  of  marriage  and  concubin- 
age among  priests,  deacons,  subdeacons,  monks,  and 
nuns.  Canon  x:  Excommunication  of  laymen  who 
fail  to  pay  the  tithes  due  the  bishops,  or  who  do  not 
surrender  to  the  latter  the  churches  of  which  they  re- 
tain possession,  whether  received  from  bishops,  or 
obtained  from  princes  or  other  persons.  Canon  xii 
fixes  the  periods  and  the  duration  of  the  Truce  of  God. 
Canon  xiv:  Prohibition,  under  pain  of  deprivation  of 
Christian  burial,  of  jousts  and  tournaments  which 
jeopardize  life.  Canon  xx:  Kings  and  princes  are  to 
dispense  justice  in  consultation  with  the  bishops. 
Canon  xxv:  No  one  must  accept  a  l^enefice  at  the 
hands  of  a  layman.  Canon  xxvii:  Nuns  are  prohibited 
from  singing  the  Divine  Office  in  the  same  choir  with 
monks  or  canons.  Canon  xxviii :  No  church  must  be 
left  vacant  more  than  three  years  from  the  death  of 
the  bishop;  anathema  is  pronounced  against  those 
(secular)  canons  who  exclude  from  episcopal  election 
"persons  of  piety" — ^i.  e.  regular  canons  or  monks. 

Third  Lateral  Council  (1179). — ^The  reign  of 
Alexander  III  was  one  of  the  most  laborious  pontifi- 
cates of  the  Middle  Ages.  Then,  as  in  1 130,  the  ot)ject 
to  repair  the  evils  caused  by  the  schism  of  an  anti- 


pope.  Shortl^r  after  returning  to  Rome  (12  Marcfa. 
1178)  and  receiving  from  its  inhabitants  their  oath  off 
fidelity  and  certain  indispensable  guarantees,  Alex- 
ander had  the  satisfaction  of  receiving  the  submission 
of  the  antipope  Callistus  III  (John  de  Struma).  The 
latter,  besieged  at  Viterbo  by  Christian  of  Mainz, 
eventually  yielded  and,  at  Tusculum,  made  his  sub- 
mission to  rope  Alexander  (29  August,  1178),  who 
received  him  with  kindness  and  appomted  him  Gover- 
nor of  Beneventum.  Some  of  his  obstinate  partisans 
sought  to  substitute  a  new  antipope,  and  cnose  one 
Lando  Sitino,  under  the  name  of  Innocent  III.  For 
lack  of  support  he  soon  gave  up  the  struggle  and  was 
relegated  to  the  monastery  of  La  Cava.  In  Septem- 
ber, 1178,  the  pope  in  agreement  with  an  article  of  the 
Peace  of  Venice,  convoked  an  oecumenical  council  at 
the  Lateran  for  Lent  of  the  following  year  and,  with 
that  object,  sent  legates  to  different  countries.  This 
was  the  eleventh  of  the  oecmnenical  councils.  It  met 
m  March,  1179.  The  pope  presided,  seated  upon  an 
elevated  throne,  surrounded  by  the  cardinals,  and  by 
the  prefects,  senators,  and  consuls  of  Rome.  The 
gathering  numbered  three  hundred  and  two  bishops, 
among  them  several  Latin  prelates  of  Eastern  sees. 
There  were  in  all  nearly  one  thousand  members. 
Nectarius,  abbot  of  the  Cabules,  represented  the 
Greeks.  The  East  was  represented  by  Archbishops 
William  of  Tyre  and  Heraclius  of  Caesarea,  Prior 
Peter  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  the  Bishop  of  Bethle- 
hem. Spain  sent  nineteen  bishops;  Ireland,  six; 
Scotland,  only  one;  England,  seven;  France,  fifty- 
nine;  Germany,  seventeen;  Denmark  and  Hungary, 
one  each.  The  bishops  of  Ireland  had  at  their  head 
St.  Laurence,  Archbisnop  of  Dublin.  The  pope  con- 
secrated, in  the  presence  of  the  council,  two  English 
bishops,  and  two  Scottish,  one  of  whom  had  come  to 
Rome  with  only  one  horse,  the  other  on  foot.  There 
was  also  present  an  Icelandic  bishop  who  had  no  other 
revenue  than  the  milk  of  three  cows,  and  when  one  of 
these  went  dry  his  diocese  furnished  him  with  another. 
Besides  exterminating  the  remains  of  the  schism, 
the  council  undertook  the  condemnation  of  the  Wal- 
densian  heresy  and  the  restoration  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline,  which  had  been  much,  relaxed.  Three 
sessions  were  held,  on  5,  14,  and  19  March,  in  which 
twenty-seven  canons  were  promulgated,  the  most 
important  of  which  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
Canon  i:  To  prevent  schisms  in  future,  only  the  car- 
dinals should  have  the  right  to  elect  the  pope,  and 
two-thirds  of  their  votes  should  be  required  for  the 
validity  of  such  election.  If  any  candidate,  after  se- 
curing only  one-third  of  the  votes,  should  arrogate  to 
himself  the  papal  dignity,  both  he  and  his  partisans 
should  be  excluded  from  the  ecclesiastical  order  and 
excommunicated.  Canon  ii:  Annulment  of  the  or- 
dinations performed  by  the  heresiarchs  Octavian  and' 
Guy  of  Crema,  as  well  as  those  by  John  de  Struma. 
Those  who  have  received  ecclesiastical  dignities  or 
benefices  from  these  persons  are  deprived  of  the  same; 
those  who  have  freely  sworn  to  adhere^  to  the  schism 
are  declared  suspended.  Canon  iii:  It  is  forbidden  to 
promote  anyone  to  the  episcopate  before  the  age  of 
thirty.  Deaneries,  archdeaconries,  parochial  charges, 
and  other  benefices  involving  the  care  of  souls  shall 
not  be  conferred  upon  anyone  less  than  twenty-five 
vears  of  age.  Canon  iv  regulates  the  retinue  of  mem- 
bers of  the  higher  clergy,  whose  canonical  visits  were 
frequently  ruinous  to  the  rural  priests.  Thencefor- 
wara  the  train  of  an  archbishop  is  not  to  include  more 
than  forty  or  fiftv  horses;  that  of  a  bishop,  not  more 
than  twenty  or  thirty;  that  of  an  archdeacon,  five  or 
seven  at  the  most;  the  dean  is  to  have  two.  Canon 
V  forbids  the  ordination  of  clerics  not  provided  with 
an  ecclesiastical  title,  i.  e.  means  of  proper  support. 
If  a  bishop  ordains  a  priest  or  a  deacon  without  assign- 
ing him  a  certain  title  on  which  he  can  subsist^  the 
bishop  shall  provide  such  cleric  with  means  of  hveli> 


ULTUUir 


18 


L4TIRAH 


hood  until  he  can  assure  him  an  ecclesiastical  revenuej 
that  is,  if  the  cleric  cannot  subsist  on  his  patrimon^ 
alone.  Canon  vi  regulates  the  formalities  of  ecclesi- 
astical sentences.  Canon  vii  forbids  the  exaction  of  a 
sum  of  money  for  the  burial  of  the  dead,  the  marriage 
benediction,  and,  in  general,  for  the  administration  of 
the  sacrji^ments.  Canon  viii:  The  patrons  of  benefices 
shall  nominate  to  such  benefices  within  six  months 
after  the  occurrence  of  a  vacancy.  Canon  ix  recalls 
the  military  orders  of  the  Templars  and  the  Hospital- 
lers to  the  observation  of  canonical  regulations,  from 
which  the  churches  dependent  on  them  are  in  no  wise 
exempt.  Canon  xi  foroids  clerics  to  receive  women  in 
their  hoiises,  or  to  frequent,  without  necessity,  the 
monasteries  of  nuns.  Canon  xiv  forbids  laymen  to 
transfer  to  other  laymen  the  tithes  which  they  possess, 
under  pain  of  being  debarred  from  the  communion  of 
the  faitliful  and  deprived  of  Christian  burial.  Canon 
xviii  provides  for  the  establishment  in  every  cathedral 
church  of  a  school  foi  poor  clerics.  Canon  xix:  Ex- 
communication aimed  at  those  who  levy  contributions 
on  churches  and  churchmen  without  the  consent  of  the 
bishop  and  clergy.  Canon  xx  forbids  tournaments. 
Canon  xxi  relates  to  the  "Truce  of  God".  Canon 
xxiii  relates  to  the  organization  of  asylums  for  lepers. 
Canon  xxiv  consists  of  a  prohibition  against  fur- 
nishing the  Saracens  with  material  for  the  construc- 
tion of  their  galleys.  Canon  xxvii  enjoins  on  princes 
the  repression  of  heresy. 

Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215). — From  the  com- 
mencement of  his  reign  Innocent  III  had  purposed  to 
assemble  an  cBcumemcal  council,  but  only  towards  the 
end  of  his  pontificate  could  he  realize  this  project,  by 
the  Bull  of  19  April,  1213.  The  assembly  was  to  take 
place  in  November,  1215.  The  council  did  in  fact 
meet  on  11  November,  and  its  sessions  were  prolonged 
until  the  end  of  the  month.  The  long  interval  oe- 
tween  the  convocation  and  the  opening  of  the  council, 
as  well  as  the  prestige  of  the  reigm'ng  pontiff,  were  re- 
sponsible for  the  very  large  number  of  bishops  who 
attended  it;  it  is  commonly  cited  in  canon  law  as  "the 
General  Council  of  Lateran",  without  further  qualifi- 
cation, or.  ag^in,  as  "the  Great  Council".  Innocent 
III  found  himself  on  this  occasion  surrounded  by 
seventy-one  patriarchs  and  metropolitans,  including 
the  Patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and  of  Jerusalem, 
four  hundred  and  twelve  bishops,  and  nine  hundred 
abbots  and  priors.  The  Patriarchs  of  Antioch  and 
Alexandria  were  represented  by  delegates.  Envoys 
appeared  from  Emperor  Frederick  II,  from  Henry, 
Latin  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  from  the  Kings  of 
France,  England,  Aragon,  Hunganr.  Cyprus,  and 
Jerusalem,  and  from  other  princes.  Tne  pope  himself 
opened  the  council  with  an  allocution  the  lofty  views 
of  which  surpassed  the  orator's  power  of  expression. 
He  had  desired,  said  the  pope,  to  celebrate  this  Pasch 
before  he  died.  He  declared  himself  ready  to  drink 
the  chalice  of  the  Passion  for  the  defence  of  the  Catho- 
lic Faith,  for  the  succour  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  to 
establish  the  liberty  of  the  Church.  After  this  dis- 
course, followed  by  moral  exhortation,  the  pope  pre- 
sented to  the  council  seventy  decrees  or  canons,  al- 
ready formulated,  on  the  most  important  points  of 
donatio  and  moral  theology.  Dogmas  were  defined, 
points  of  discipline  were  decided,  measures  were 
drawn  up  against  heretics,  and,  finally,  the  conditions 
of  the  next  crusade  were  regulated. 

The  fathers  of  the  council  did  little  more  than  ap- 
prove the  seventy  decrees  presented  to  them;  tnis 
approbation,  nevertheless,  sufficed  to  impart  to  the 
acts  thus  formulated  and  promulgated  tne  value  of 
oecumenical  decrees.  Most  of  them  are  somewhat 
lengthy  and  are  divided  into  chapters.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  most  important:  Canon  i:  Exposition  of 
the  Catholic  Faith  and  of  the  dogma  of  Transub- 
stantiation.  Canon  ii :  Condemnation  of  the  doctrines 
of  Joachim  of  Flora  and  of  Amaury.    Canon  iii:  Pro- 


cedure and  penalties  against  heretics  and  their  pro- 
tectors. Canon  iv:  iSdiortation  to  the  Greeks  to 
reunite  with  the  Roman  Church  and  accept  its  max- 
imjs,  to  the  end  that,  according  to  the  Gospel,  there 
may  be  only  one  fold  and  only  one  shephera.  Canon 
v:  Proclapiav^ion  of  the  papal  primacy  recognized  by 
all  antiquity.  After  the  pope,  primacy  is  attributed 
to  the  patriarchs  in  the  following  order:  Constant!* 
nople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jerusalem.  (It  is  enough 
to  remind  the  reader  how  long  an  opposition  preceded 
at  Rome  this  recognition  of  Constantinople  as  second 
in  rank  among  the  patriarchal  sees.)  Canon  vi:  Pro- 
vincial councils  must  be  held  annually  for  the  reform 
of  morals,  especially  those  of  the  clergy.  Canon  viii: 
Procedure  in  regard  to  accusations  against  ecclesias- 
tics. Until  the  French  Revolution,  this  canon  was 
of  considerable  importance  in  criminal  law,  not  only 
ecclesiastical  but  even  civil.  Canon  ix:  Celebration 
of  public  worship  in  places  where  the  inhabitants  be- 
long to  nations  following  different  rites.  Canon  xi 
renews  the  ordinance  of  the  council  of  1179  on  free 
schools  for  clerics  in  connexion  with  every  cathedral. 
Canon  xii:  Abbots  and  priors  are  to  hold  their  general 
chapter  every  three  years.  Canon  xiii  forbids  the 
establishment  of  new  religious  orders,  lest  too  great 
diversity  bring  confusion  into  the  Church.  Canons 
xiv-xvu:  Against  the  irregularities  of  the  clergy — 
incontinence,  drunkennness,  the  chase,  attendance 
at  farces  and  histrionic  exhibitions.  Canon  xviii: 
Priests,  deacons,  and  subdeacons  are  forbidden  to  per- 
form suigical  operations.  Canon  xix  forbids  the 
blessing  of  water  and  hot  iron  for  judicial  tests  or 
ordeals.  Canon  xxi,  the  famous  "Omnis  utriusnue 
sexus",  which  commands  every  Christian  who  has 
reached  the  years  of  discretion  to  confess  all  his,  or 
her,  sins  at  least  once  a  year  to  his,  or  her,  otvn  (i.  e. 
parish)  priest.  This  canon  did  no  more  than  confirm 
earlier  legislation  and  custom,  and  has  been  often, 
but  wrongly,  quoted  as  commanding  for  the  first  time 
the  use  of  sacramental  confession.  Canon  xxii:  Be- 
fore prescribing  for  the  sick,  physicians  shall  be  bound, 
under  pain  of  exclusion  from  the  Church,  to  exhort 
their  patients  to  call  in  a  priest,  and  thus  provide  for 
their  spiritual  welfare.  Canons  xxiii-xxx  regulate 
ecclesiastical  elections  and  the  collation  of  benefices. 
Canons  xxyi,  xliv,  and  xlviii:  Ecclesiastical  procedure. 
Canons  1-lii:  On  marriage,  impediments  of  relation- 
ship, publication  of  banns.  Canons  Ixxviii,  Ixxix: 
Jews  and  Mohammedans  shall  wear  a  special  dress 
to  enable  them  to  be  distinguished  from  Christians. 
Christian  princes  must  take  measures  to  prevent 
blasphemies  against  Jesus  Christ.  The  council,  more- 
over, made  rules  for  the  projected  crusade,  imposed  a 
four  years'  peace  on  all  Christian  peoples  and  princes, 
published  indulgences,  and  enjoineci  the  bisnops  to 
reconcile  all  enemies.  The  council  confirmed  the  ele- 
vation of  Frederick  II  to  the  German  throne  and  took 
other  important  measures.  Its  decrees  were  widely 
published  in  many  provincial  councils. 

Fifth  Lateran  Council  (1512-17). — When  elected 
pope,  Julius  II  promised  under  oath  that  he  would 
soon  convoke  a  general  council.  Time  passed,  how- 
ever, and  this  promise  was  not  fulfilled.  Conse- 
quently, certain  dissatisfied  cardinals,  urged,  also,  by 
Emperor  Maximilian  and  Louis  XII,  convoked  a  coun- 
cil at  Pisa  and  fixed  1  September,  1511,  for  its  open- 
ing. This  event  was  delayed  until  1  October.  Four 
cardinals  then  met  at  Pisa  provided  with  proxies  from 
three  absent  cardinals.  Several  bishops  and  abbots 
were  also  there,  as  well  as  ambassadors  from  the  King 
of  France.  Seven  or  eight  sessions  were  held,  in  the 
last  of  which  Pope  Julius  II  was  suspended,  where- 
upon the  prelates  withdrew  to  Lyons.  The  pope 
hastened  to  oppose  to  this  concUiabulum  a  more 
numerously  attended  council,  which  he  convoked,  by 
the  Bull  of  18  July,  1511,  to  assemble  19  April,  1512, 
in  the  church  of  St.  John  Lateran.    The  Bull  was  ai 


ULTiy                                  19  ULTXN 

once  a  canonical  and  a  polemical  document.    In  it  the  CW/.  Regia  etmeUiomm,  XXVII.  col..  32.120, 434;  M arca.  Con- 

pope  refuted  in  detaU  the  ,«j«,n8  aUeged  bv  the  <»,^  ro^!t:;^::^i^'r^:^^x^2^h^!?'&.t^-M^^%\ 

dinals  for  their  Pisa  concuiabxdum.     He  declared  that  Alexander.  Hi^.  ecdea.,  VII  (Venice.  1778),  299-302;  347-58; 

his  conduct  before  his  elevation  to  the  pontificate  was  Lessius,  Discunaio  decreti  magni  concUH  Laieranen--ia  (Mains. 

a  pledge  of  his.sincere  desire.for  the  celebration  of  the  l^^^\^Xo'^riV^^rw^i^.Z  t^r.t^^o^::fJ,J^^. 

council;  that  since  his  elevation  he  had  always  sought  torico-theologica  de  concUUa  Lateranensibw  rei  Christiana  noxiia 

opportunities  for  assembUng  it;   that  for  this  reason  (Jena.  1725);  HEFELB,Con^ten(7«5cAic^^^      (Freiburj?  im  Br., 

hp  hiiH  Rniicrlif  t-n  iv-Psfjihlisli  npjipp  nmonir  rhrlstinn  1886).  378,  438.  710,  872;    Rivinoton.  TAe  Primitive  Church 

ne  naa  sougni  to  re-estamisn  peace  among  cnrisimn  ^^^  ,^  ^^^  ^^  p^^  (London.  1894);  Pastor.  iri/>tory  of  the 

prmces;   that  tne  wars  which  had  ansen  agamst  his  Popes,  tr.  Antrobus,  V  (London,  1902),  pa»«<im. 

will  had  no  other  object  than  the  re-establishment  of  H.  Leclercq. 
pontifical  authority  m  the  States  of  the  Church.    Ho 

then  reproached  the  rebel  cardinals  with  the  irregular-  Latin,  Ecclesiastical. — In  the  present  instance 

ity  of  their  conduct  and  the  unseemliness  of  convoking  these  words  are  taken  to  mean  the  Latin  we  find  in  the 

the  Universal  Church  independently  of  its  head.    He  oflScial  text-books  of  the  Church  (the  Bible  and  the 

pointed  out  to  them  that  the  three  months  accorded  Liturgy),  as  well  as  in  the  works  of  those  Christian 

oy  them  for  the  assembly  of  all  bishops  at  Pisa  was  writers  of  the  West  who  have  undertaken  to  expound 

too  short,  and  that  said  city  presented  none  of  the  or  defend  Christian  beliefs. 

advantages  requisite  for  an  assembly  of  such  impor-  Characteristics. — Ecclesiastical  differs  from  classical 
tance.  Finally,  he  declared  that  no  one  should  attach  Latin  especially  by  the  introduction  of  new  idioms  and 
any  si^ificance  to  the  act  of  the  cardinals.  The  Bull  new  words.  (In  syntax  and  literary  method,  Christian 
was  signed  by  twenty-one  cardinals.  The  French  writers  are  not  different  from  other  contemporary 
victory  of  Ravenna  (11  April,  1512)  hindered  the  writers.).  These  characteristic  differences  are  due  to 
opening  of  the  council  before  3  Ala^,  on  which  day  the  the  origin  and  purpose  of  ecclesiastical  Latin.  Origi- 
fathers  met  in  the  Lateran  Basilica.  There  were  nally  the  Roman  people  spoke  the  old  tongue  of  Latium, 
present  fifteen  cardinals,  the  Latin  Patriarchs  of  ]aiGwn  aa  priscaJatiniias,  In  the  third  century  b.  c, 
Alexandria  and  Antioch,  ten  archbishops,  fifty-six  Ennius  and  a  few  other  writers  trained  in  the  school 
bishops,  some  abbots  and  generals  of  religious  orders,  of  the  Greeks  undertook  to  enrich  the  language  with 
the  ambassadors  of  King  Ferdinand,  and  those  ot  Greek  embellishments.  This  attempt  was  encour- 
Venice  and  of  Florence.  Convoked  by  Julius  II,  the  aged  by  the  cultured  classes  in  Rome,  and  it  was  to 
assembly  survived  him,  was  continued  bv  Leo  X,  and  these  classes  that  henceforth  the  poets,  orators,  his- 
held  its  twelfth,  and  last,  session  on  16  ^arch,  1517.  torians,  and  literary  coteries  of  Rome  addressed  them- 
In  the  third  session  Matthew  Lang,  who  had  repre-  selves.  Under  the  combined  influence  of  this  political 
sented  Maximilian  at  the  Council  of  Tours,  read  an  act  and  intellectual  aristocracy  was  developed  that  classi* 
by  which  that  emperor  repudiated  all  that  had  been  cal  Latin  which  has  been  preserved  for  us  in  greatest 
done  at  Tours  and  at  Pisa.  In  the  fourth  session  the  purity  in  the  works  of  Csesar  and  of  Cicero.  The 
advocate  of  the  council  demanded  the  revocation  of  mass  of  the  Roman  populace  in  their  native  rugged- 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges.  In  the  eighth  ness  remained  aloof  from  this  hellenizing  influence, 
(17  December,  1513),  an  act  of  King  Louis  XII  was  and  continued  to  speak  the  old  tongue.  Thus  it  came 
read,  disavowing  the  Council  of  Pisa  and  adhering  to  to  pass  that  after  the  third  century  b.  c.  there  existed 
the  Lateran  Council.  In  the  next  session  (5  March,  side  by  side  in  Rome  two  languages,  or  rather  two 
1514)  the  French  bishops  made  their  submission,  ana  idioms:  that  of  the  literary  circles  or  hellenists  (sermo 
Leo  X  granted  them  absolution  from  the  censures  pro-  urbanus)  and  that  of  the  illiterate  (sermo  vulgaris); 
nounced  against  them  by  Julius  II.  In  the  tenth  and  the  more  highly  the  former  developed  the  greater 
session  (4  Mav,  1515)  the  pope  published  four  decrees;  grew  the  chasm  between  them.  But  in  spite  of  all  the 
the  first  of  these  sanctions  the  institution  of  monies  effortsof  the  purists,  the  exigencies  of  daily  life  brought 
pielatis,  or  pawn  shops,  under  strict  ecclesiastical  super-  the  writers  oi  the  cultured  mode  into  continual  touch 
vision,  for  the  purpose  of  aidiqg  the  necessitous  poor  with  the  uneducated  populace,  and  constrained  them 
on  ihe  most  favourable  terms;  the  second  relates  to  to  understand  its  speech  and  make  it  understand  them 
ecclesiastical  liberty  and  the  episcopal  dignity,  and  in  turn;  so  that  they  were  obliged  in  conversation  to 
condemns  certain  abusive  exemptions;  the  third  for-  employ  words  and  expressions  forming  part  of  the 
bids,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  the  printing  of  vulgar  tongue.  Hence  arose  a  third  idiom,  the  sermo 
booKS  without  the  permission  of  the  ordinary  of  the  coiidiantLs,  a  medley  of  the  two  others,  varying  in  the 
diocese;  the  fourth  orders  a  peremptory  citation  mixture  of  its  ingredients  with  the  various  periods  of 
a^inst  the  French  in  regard  to  the  Pragmatic  Sane-  time  and  the  intelligence  of  those  who  used  it. 
tion.  The  latter  was  solemnly  revoked  and  condemned.  Origins. — Classical  Latin  did  not  long  remain  at  the 
and  the  concordat  with  Francis  I  approved,  in  the  high  level  to  which  Cicero  had  raised  it.  The  aristoc- 
eleventh  session  (19  December,  1516).  Finally,  the  racy,  who  alone  spoke  it,  were  decimated  by  proscrip- 
council  promulgated  a  decree  prescribing  war  against  tion  and  civil  war,  and  the  families  who  rose  in  turn  to 
the  Turks  and  ordered  the  levying  of  tithes  of  all  the  social  position  were  mainly  of  plebeian  or  forcism  ex- 
benefices  in  Christendom  for  three  years.  traction,  and  in  any  case  unaccustomed  to  the  delicacy 
Otheb  Lateran  Councils.— Other  councils  were  of  the  literary  language.  Thus  the  decadence  of  clas- 
held  at  the  Lateran,  among  the  best  known  being  sical  Latin  began  with  the  age  of  Augustus,  and  went 
those  in  649  against  the  Monothelite  heresy,  in  823,  on  more  rapidly  as  that  age  rcce<ied.  As  it  forgot  the 
86  ^,  900,  1 102,  1 105,  1110,  1111,  1112,  and  1 1 16.  In  classical  distinction  between  the  language  of  prose  and 
1725,  Benedict  XIII  called  to  the  Lateran  the  bishops  that  of  poetry,  literary  Latin,  spoken  or  written,  began 
directly  dependent  on  Rome  as  their  metropolitan  to  borrow  more  and  more  freely  from  the  popular 
see,  !•  o.  archbishops  without  suffragans,  bishops  im-  speech.  Now  it  was  at  this  very  time  that  the  Church 
znediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  and  abbots  exer-  found  herself  called  on  to  construct  a  Latin  of  her  own; 
cising  quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction.  Seven  sessions  and  this  in  itself  was  one  reason  why  her  Latin  should 
were  held  between  15  April  and  29  May,  and  divers  differ  from  the  classical.  There  were  two  other  rea- 
regulations  were  promulgated  concerning  the  duties  sons  however:  first  of  all  the  Gospel  had  to  be  spread 
of  bishops  and  other  pastors,  concerning  residence,  by  preaching,  that  is,  by  the  spoken  word;  moreover 
ordinations,  and  the  periods  icfc  the  holding  of  synods,  the  heralds  of  the  good  tidings  had  to  construct  an 
The  chief  objects  were  the  suppression  of  Jansenism  idiom  that  would  appeal,  not  alone  to  the  hterary 
and  the  solemn  confirmation  of  the  Bull  "Unigen-  classes,  but  to  the  whole  people.  Seeing  that  they 
iios'*,  which  was  declu^  a  rule  of  faith  demanding  sought  to  win  the  masses  to  the  Faith,  they  had  to 
Mm  fullest  obedience.  come  down  to  their  level  and  employ  a  speech  that 


ULTXN 


20 


LATIM 


was  familiar  to  their  listeners.  St.  Augustine  says 
this  very  frankly  to  his  hearers:  "I  often  employ''*, 
he  says,  **  words  that  are  not  Latin,  and  I  do  so  that 
you  may  understand  me.  Better  that  I  should  incur 
the  blame  of  the  grammarians  than  not  be  imderstood 
by  the  people  "  (In  Psal.  cxxxviii,  20).  Strange  though 
it  may  seem,  it  was  not  at  Rome  that  the  building  up 
of  ecclesia«tical  Latin  began.  Until  the  middle  of  the 
third  century  the  Christian  community  at  Rome  was 
in  the  main  a  Greek-speaking  one.  The  Liturgy  was 
celebrated  in  Greek,  and  the  apologists  and  theologians 
wrote  in  Greek  until  the  time  of  St.  Hippolytus^  who 
died  in  235.  It  was  much  the  same  in  Uaul.  at  Lyons 
and  at  Vienne,  at  all  events  until  after  the  a  ays  of  St. 
Irenseus.  In  Africa,  Greek  was  the  chosen  language 
of  the  clerics,  to  begin  with,  but  Latin  was  the  more 
familiar  speech  for  the  majority  of  the  faithful,  and  it 
must  have  soon  taken  the  lead  in  the  Church,  since 
Tertullian,  who  wrote  some  ■of  his  earlier  works  in 
Greek,  ended  by  employing  Latin  only.  And  in  this 
use  he  had  been  preceded  by  Pope  \ictor,  who  was 
also  an  African,  and  who,  as  St.  Jerome  assures  us,  was 
the  earliest  Christian  writer  in  the  Latin  language. 

But  even  before  these  writers  various  local  Churches 
must  have  seen  the  necessity  of  rendering  hito  Latin 
the  texts  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  the  reading 
of  which  formed  a  main  portion  of  the  Litiu-gy.  This 
necessity  arose  as  soon  as  the  Latin-speaking  faithful 
became  numerous,  and  in  all  likelihooti  it  was  felt  first 
in  Africa.  For  a  time  improvised  oral  translations 
sufficed,  but  soon  written  translations  were  required. 
Such  translations  multiplied.  "  It  is  possible  to  enu- 
merate", says  St.  Augustine,  "those  who  have  trans- 
lated the  Scriptures  from  Hebrew  into  Greek,  but  not 
those  who  have  translated  them  into  Latin.  In  sooth, 
in  the  early  days  of  faith  whoso  possessed  a  Greek 
manuscript  and  thought  he  had  some  knowledge  of 
both  tongues  was  daring  enough  to  undertake  a  trans- 
lation" (De  doct.  Christ.,  11^  xi).  From  our  present 
point  of  view  the  multiplicity  of  these  translations, 
which  were  destined  to  have  so  great  an  influence  on 
the  formation  of  ecclesiastical  Latin,  helps  to  explain 
the  many  colloquialisms  which  it  assimilated,  and 
which  are  found  even  in  the  most  famous  of  these 
texts,  that  of  which  St.  Augustine  said:  "  Amor^  all 
translations  the  Itala  is  to  be  preferred,  for  its  lan- 
guage is  most  accurate,  and  its  expression  the  clearest " 
(De  doct.  Christ.,  II,  xv).  While  it  is  true  that  many 
renderings  of  this  passage  have  been  given,  the  gener- 
ally accepted  one,  and  the  one  we  content  ourselves 
with  mentioning  here,  is  that  the  Itala  is  the  most 
important  of  the  Biblical  recensions  from  Italian 
sources,  dating  from  the  fourth  century,  used  by  St. 
Ambrose  and  the  Italian  authors  of  that  day,  which 
have  been  partially  preserved  to  us  in  many  manu- 
scripts and  are  to  be  met  with  even  in  St.  AJugustine 
himiself.  With  some  slight  modifications  its  version 
of  the  deuterocanonical  works  of  the  Old  Testament 
was  incorporated  into  St.  Jerome's  "  Vulgate  ". 

Elements  from  African  Sources. — But  even  in  this 
respect  Afnca  had  been  beforehand  with  Italy.  As 
early  as  a.  d.  180  mention  is  made  in  the  Acts  of  the 
ScilUtan  martyrs  of  a  translation  of  the  Gospels  and  of 
the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  "  In  Tertullian's  time  ",  savs 
Hamack,  "  there  existed  translations,  if  not  of  all  the 
books  of  the  Bible,  at  least  of  the  'greater  number  of 
them."  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  none  of  them  pos- 
sessed any  predominating  authority,  though  a  few 
were  beginning  to  claim  a  certain  respect.  And  thus 
we  find  TertiuUan  and  St.  Cyprian  using  those  by 
preference,  as  app>ears  from  the  concordance  of  their 
(quotations.  The  interesting  point  in  these  transla- 
tions made  by  many  hands  is  that  they  form  one  of  the 
principal  elements  of  Church  Latin;  they  make  up,  so 
to  say,  the  popular  contribution .  This  is  to  be  seen  in 
their  disregard  for  complicated  inflexions,  in  their 
analytical  tendencies,  and  in  the  alterations  due  to 


analogy.  Pagan  liUSrcUeurSf  as  Amobius  tells  us  (Adv. 
nat.,  I,  xlv-lix),  complained  that  these  texts  were 
edited  in  a  trivial  and  mean  speech,  in  a  vitiated  and 
uncouth  language. 

But  to  the  popular  contribution  the  more  cultivated 
Christians  added  their  share  in  forming  the  Latih  of 
the  Church.  If  the  ordinary  Christian  could  translate 
the  "  Acts  of  St.  Pcrpetua",  the  "  Pastor"  of  Hermas, 
the  "Didache",  and  the  "First  Epistle"  of  Clement 
it  took  a  scholar  to  put  into  Latin  the  "  Acta  Pauli " 
and  St.  Irenaeus's  treatise  "Adversus  ha>reticos",  as 
well  as  other  works  which  seem  to  have  been  trans- 
lated in  the  second  and  third  century.  It  is  not  known 
to  what  country  these  translators  belonged,  but,  in  the 
case  of  original  works,  Africa  leads  the  way  with  Ter- 
tullian, who  has  been  rightly  styled  the  creates  of  the 
language  of  the  Church.  Born  at  Carthage,  he  studied, 
and  perhaps  taught,  rhetoric  there:  he  studied  law 
and  acquired  a  vast  erudition;  he  was  converted  to 
Christianity,  raised  to  the  priesthood,  and  brought  to 
the  service  of  the  Faith  an  ardent  zeal  and  a  forceful 
eloquence  to  which  the  number  and  character  of  his 
works  bear  witness.  He  touched  on  every  subject, 
apologetics,  polemics,  dogma,  discipline,  exegesis.  He 
had  to  express  a  host  of  ideas  which  the  simple  faith  of 
the  communities  of  the  west  had  not  yet  grasped. 
With  his  fiery  temperament,  his  doctrinal  rigidness. 
and  his  disdain  for  literary  canons,  he  never  hesitated 
to  use  the  pointed  word,  the  everyday  phrase.  Hence 
the  marvellous  exactness  of  his  style,  its  restless  vigour 
and  high  relief,  the  loud  tones  as  of  words  thrown  im- 
petuously together:  hence,  above  all,  a  wealth  of 
expressions  and  words,  many  of  which  came  then  for 
the  first  time  into  ecclesiastical  I^atin  and  have  re- 
mained there  ever  since.  Some  of  these  are  Greek 
words  in  Latin  dress — baptisma,  charisma,  extasis,  idolo^ 
latria,  prophetia,  martyr,  etc. — some  are  given  a  Latin 
termination — dccmonium,  aUegorizare,  Paracleltis,  etc 
— some  are  law  terms  or  old  Latin  words  used  in  a 
new  sense — ablviio,  gratia,  sacram^ntumj  scBculum,  per^ 
secutor,  peccator.  The  greater  part  are  entirely  new, 
but  are  derived  from  Latin  sources  and  regularly  in- 
flected according  to  the  ordinary  rules  affecting  anal- 
ogous words — annunciatioj  concupisceniia,  christianiS' 
mtiSf  coa^ternus,  compatilnlis,  trivitas,  vivificare,  etc. 
Many  of  these  new  words  (more  than  850  of  them) 
have  died  out,  but  a  very  large  portion  are  still  to  be 
found  in  ecclesiastical  use;  they  arc  mainly  those  that 
met  the  need  of  expressing  strictly  Christian  ideas. 
Nor  is  it  certain  that  all  of  these  owe  their  origin  to 
Tertullian,  but  before  his  time  they  are  not  to  be  met 
with  in  the  texts  that  have  come  down  to  us,  and  very 
often  it  is  he  who  has  naturalized  them  in  Christian 
terminology. 

The  part  St.  Cyprian  played  in  this  building  of  the 
language  was  less  important.  The  famous  Bishop  of 
Carthage  never  lost  that  respect  for  classical  tradition 
which  he  inherited  from  his  education  and  his  previous 
profession  of  rhetor;  he  preserved  that  concern  for 
style  which  led  him  to  tiie  practice  of  the  Hterary 
methods  so  dear  to  the  rhetors  of  his  day.  His  lan- 
guage shows  this  even  when  he  is  dealing  with  Chris- 
tian topics.  Apart  from  his  rather  cautious  imitation 
of  Tertullian's  vocabulary,  we  find  in  his  writings  not 
more  than  sixty  new  words,  a  few  Hellenisms — apos^' 
tola,  gazophyladum — a  few  popular  words  or  phrases — 
magnolia,  mammona — or  a  few  words  formed  by  added 
inflections — apostatare,  darificatio.  In  St.  Augustine's 
case  it  was  his  sermons  preached  to  the  people  that 
mainly  contributed  to  ecclesiastical  Latin,  and  present 
it  to  us  at  its  best;  for,  in  spite  of  his  assertion  that  he 
cares  nothing  for  the  sneers  of  the  grammarians,  his 
youthful  studies  retained  too  strong  a  hold  on  him  to 
permit  of  his  departing  from  classical  speech  more 
than  was  strictly  necessary.  He  was  the  first  to  find 
fault  with  the  use  of  certain  words  common  at  the 
time,  such  as  dolu»  for  doHor,  effloriet  for  fiorebit,  098um 


L4TIN 


21 


L4TIN 


for  08,  The  language  he  uses  includes,  besides  a  large 
mirt  of  Clascal  Latin  and  the  ecclesiastical  Latin  of 
Tertullian  and  St.  Cyprian,  borrowings  from  the  popu- 
lar sp)eech  of  his  day — incantare,  falsidicus^  tantillus, 
cordatus — and  some  new  words  or  words  in  new 
meanings — spiritiudis,  adorator,  beaiifiais,  (rdificare, 
meaning  to  edify,  inflaiio,  meaning  pride,  reatiu^,  mean- 
ing guilt,  etc.  It  is,  we  think,  useless  to  pursue  this 
inquiry  into  the  realm  of  Christian  inscriptions  and  the 
works  of  Victor  of  Vito,  the  last  of  these  Latin  writers, 
as  we  should  only  find  a  Latin  peculiar  to  certain  indi- 
viduals rather  than  that  adopted  by  any  Christian 
communities.  Nor  shall  we  delay  over  Africanisms, 
i.  e.  characteristics  peculiar  to  African  writers.  The 
very  existence  of  tnese  characteristics,  formerly  so 
strongly  held  l)y  many  philologists,  is  nowadays  gener- 
ally questioned.  In  the  works  of  several  of  these 
African  writers  we  find  a  pronounced  love  for  em- 
phasis, alliteration,  and  rhythm,  but  these  are  matters 
affecting  style  rather  than  vocabulary.  The  most 
that  can  be  said  is  that  the  African  writers  take  more 
account  of  J^atin  as  it  was  spoken  {sermo  cotidianus), 
but  this  speech  was  no  peculiarity  of  Africa. 

St.  Jerome's  Contribrdion. — After  the  African  writers 
no  author  had  such  influence  on  the  upbuilding  of 
ecclesiastical  Liitin  as  St.  Jerome  had.  Ilis  contribu- 
tion came  mainly  along  the  lines  of  literary  Latin. 
From  his  master,  Donatus,  he  had  received  a  gram- 
matical instruction  that  made  him  the  most  literary 
and  learned  of  the  Fathers,  and  he  always  retained  a 
love  for  correct  diction,  and  an  attraction  towanls 
Cicero.  lie  prized  good  writing  so  higlily  that  he 
grew  angrj'  whenever  he  was  accused  of  a  solecism; 
one-half  of  the  words  he  uses  are  taken  from  Cicero, 
and  it  has  been  computed  that  besides  employing,  as 
occasion  required,  the  words  introduced  by  earlier 
writers,  he  himself  is  responsible  for  three  hundred  and 
fifty  new  words  in  the  vocabulary  of  ecclesiastical 
Latin;  yet  of  this  numl)er  there  are  hardly  nine  or  ten 
that;  may  fitly  be  considered  as  barbarisms  on  the  score 
of  not  conforming  to  the  general  laws  of  Latin  deriva- 
tives. "  The  remainder  ",  says  Goelzcr,  "  were  created 
by  employing  ordinarv  suffixes  and  were  in  harmony 
with  the  genius  of  the  language."  They  are  both 
accurately  formed  and  useful  words,  expressing  for  the 
most  part  abstract  qualities  necessitated  by  the  Chris- 
tian religion  and  which  hitherto  had  not  existed  in  the 
Latin  tongue,  e.  g.,  clericatus,  imjKTmtentia,  deitasj 
dualitas,  ghrificatio,  corruptrix.  At  times,  also,  to  sup- 
ply new  needs,  he  gives  new  meanings  to  old  words — 
conditor^  creator,  redemplor,  saviour  of  the  world,  pro'- 
destinatio,  commiinio^  etc.  Besides  this  enriching  of 
the  lexicon,  St.  Jerome  rendered  no  less  service  to  eccle- 
siastical Latin  by  his  edition  of  the  Vulgate.  Whether 
he  made  his  translation  from  the  original  text  or 
adapted  previous  translations  after  correcting  them, 
he  diminishe<l,  by  that  much,  the  authority  of  the 
many  popular  versions  which  could  not  fail  to  be 
prejudicial  to  the  correctness  of  the  language  of  the 
Cliurch.  By  this  very  same  act  he  popula  rized  a  num- 
l>er  of  Hebraisms  and  modes  of  speech — v^ir  desidcrio- 
rum,  filii  inu^idtatM,  hortvs  iK)luptalu,  infcrioris  a 
Danide^  inferior  to  Daniel — which  completed  the 
shaping  of  the  peculiar  physiognomy  of  church  Latin. 

After  St.  Jerome's  time  ecclesiastical  Latin  may  be 
said  to  be  fully  formed  on  the  whole.  If  we  trace  the 
various  steps  of  the  process  of  producing  it  we  find 
(1)  that  th3  ecclesiastical  rites  and  institutions  were 
first  of  all  known  by  Greek  names,  and  that  the  early 
Christian  writers  in  the  Latin  language  took  those 
words  consecrated  by  usage  and  embodied  them  in 
their  works  either  in  ioto  (e.  g.,  angdus,  apostolus,  eccU' 
«a,  evang^ium,  clerus,  episcopus,  martyr)  or  else  trans- 
lated them(e.  g.,verbum,  persona,  testamerUum,  gerUilis), 
It  sometimes  even  happened  that  words  bodily  incor- 
porated were  af  terwarrls  replaced  by  translations  (e.  g., 
chrvima  by  dnnum,  hffpoRlaRvt  by  substaniia  or  persona, 


exomologesia  by  confessio.  synodus  by  concilium).  (2) 
Latin  words  were  created  by  derivations  from  existing 
Latin  or  Greek  words  by  the  addition  of  suffixes  or 
prefixes,  or  by  the  combination  of  two  or  more  words  to- 
gether (e.  g.,  evangelizare,  Incarnaiio,  consubstaniialis, 
idololatria) .  (3)  At  times  words  having  a  secular  or 
profane  meaning  are  employe<l  without  any  modifica- 
tion in  a  new  sense  (e.  g.,fidelis,  deposUio,  scriptura, 
sacramentum,  resurgere,  etc.).  With  respect  to  its  ele- 
ments, ecclesiastical  Latin  consists  of  spoken  Latin 
(scrmo  cotidianus)  shot  through  with  a  quantity  of 
Greek  words,  a  few  primitive  popular  phrases,  some 
new. and  normal  accretions  to  the  language,  and, 
lastly,  various  new  meanings  arising  mainly  from 
development  or  analogy. 

With  the  exception  of  some  Hebraic  or  Hellenist 
expressions  popularized  through  Bible  translations, 
the  grammatical  peculiarities  to  be  met  with  in  eccle- 
siastical Latin  are  not  to  be  laid  to  the  charge  of 
Christianitv;  they  are  the  result  of  an  evolution 
through  wnich  the  common  language  passed,  and  are 
to  l)e  met  with  among  non-Christian  writers.  In  the 
main  the  religious  upheaval  wliich  was  colouring  all 
the  beliefs  and  customs  of  the  W^estern  world  did  not 
unsettle  the  language  as  much  as  might  have  been 
expected.  Christian  writers  preserved  the  literary 
Latin  of  their  day  as  the  basis  of  their  language,  and  if 
they  added  to  it  certain  neologisms  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  classical  writers,  Cicero,  Lucretius, 
Seneca,  etc.,  had  before  this  to  lament  the  poverty  of 
Latin  to  express  philosophical  ideas,  and  had  set  the 
example  of  coining  words.  Why  should  later  writers 
hesitate  to  say  annunciatio,  incarnaiio,  prwdestinatio, 
when  Cicero  had  said  moniiio,  debiiio,  prohibition  and 
Livy,  coercitio?  Words  like  deltas,  nativitas,  trinUas 
are  not  more  o<ld  than  autumnitas,  olivitas,  coined  by 
Varro,  and  plebilas,  which  was  used  by  the  elder  Cato. 

Development  in  the  Liturgy. — Hardly  had  it  l)een 
formed  when  church  Latin  had  to  undergo  the  shock 
of  the  invasion  of  the  barbarians  and  the  fall  of  the 
Empire  of  the  West;  it  was  a  shock  that  gave  the 
death-blow  to  literary  Latin  as  well  as  to  the  Latin  of 
everyday  speech  on  wliich  church  Latin  was  waxing 
st rong.  Both  underwent  a  series  of  changes  that  com- 
pletely  transformed  them.  Literary  Latin  became 
more  and  more  debased;  popular  Latin  evolved  into 
the  various  Romance  languages  in  the  South,  wiiile  in 
the  North  it  gave  way  before  the  Germanic  tongues. 
Church  Latin  alone  survived,  thanks  to  the  religion  of 
which  it  was  the  organ  and  with  which  its  destinies 
were  linked.  True,  it  lost  a  portion  of  its  sway;  in 
popular  preaching  it  gave  way  to  the  vernacular  after 
the  seventh  century;  but  it  could  still  claim  the  Lit- 
urgy and  theologj',  and  in  these  it  served  the  purpose 
of  a  living  language.  In  the  liturgy  ecclesiastical 
Latin  shows  its  \ntality  bv  its  fruitfulness.  Africa  is 
once  more  in  the  lead  with  St.  ('yprian.  Besides  the 
singing  of  the  Psalms  and  the  readings  in  public  from 
the  Bible,  which  made  up  the  main  portion  of  the 
primitive  liturgy  and  wliich  we  already  know,  it 
shows  itself  in  set  prayers,  in  a  love  for  rhythm,  for 
well-balanced  endings  that  were  to  remain  for  cen- 
turies during  the  Middle  Ages  the  main  characteristics 
of  liturgical  Latin.  As  the  process  of  development 
went  on,  this  love  of  harmony  held  sway  over  all 
prayers;  they  followed  the  rules  of  metre  and  prosody 
to  begin  with,  but  rhythmical  cursus  gained  the 
upper-hand  from  the  fourth  to  the  seventh,  and  from 
the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth,  century. 

As  is  well  known,  the  ctirsus  consists  in  a  certain 
arrangement  of  words,  accents,  and  sometimes  whole 
phrases,  whereby  a  pleasing  modulated  effect  is  pro- 
duced. The  prayer  of  the  "  Angelus  "  is  the  simplest 
example  of  this;  it  contains  all  three  kinds  of  cursus 
that  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  prayers  of  the  Missal  and 
the  Breviary:  (1)  the  cursus  planus,  "nostris  iii- 
f  unde  " ;  (2)  the  cursus  tardus,  **  incamationem  cognovi- 


LATIN 


22 


LATIN 


>», 


mus";  (3)  the  cursus  veLox^  "gloriam  perducamur." 
So  great  was  their  influence  over  the  language  that  the 
cursus  passed  from  the  prayers  of  the  liturgy  into 
some  of  the  sermons  of  St.  Leo  and  a  few  others,  into 
papal  Bulls  from  the  twelftli  to  the  fifteenth  century, 
and  into  many  Latin  letters  wi-itten  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  Besides  the  prayers,  hymns  make  up  the  most 
vital  thing  in  the  Liturgy.  From  St.  Hilary  of  Poi- 
tiers, to  whom  St.  Jerome  attributes  the  earliest,  down 
to  Leo  XIII,  who  composed  many  hymns,  the  number 
of  hymn  writers  is  very  great,  and  their  output,  as  we 
learn  from  recent  research,  is  beyond  computing. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  these  hymns  originated  in  popu- 
lar rhythms  founded  on  accent;  as  a  rule  they  were 
modelled  on  classical  metres,  but  gradually  metre  gave 
way  to  beat  or  number  of  syllables  and  accent.  (See 
Hymnody  and  Hymnology.)  Since  the  Renaissance, 
rhythm  has  again  given  way  to  metre;  and  many  old 
hymns  were  even  retouched,  under  Urban  VIII,  to 
bring  them  into  line  with  the  rules  of  classical  prosody. 

Besides  this  liturgy  which  we  may  style  official,  and 
wliich  was  made  up .  of  words  of  the  Mass,  of  the 
Breviary,  or  of  the  Ritual,  we  may  recall  the  wealth  of 
literature  dealing  with  a  variety  of  historical  detail, 
such  as  the  "  Pereginatio  ad  Loca  sancta  "  formerly  at- 
tributed to  Silvia,  many  collections  of  rubrics,  orcfines, 
sacramentaries,  ordinaries,  or  other  books  of  a  reli- 
gious bearing,  of  which  so  many  have  been  edited  of 
late  years  in  England  either  by  private  individuals  or 
by  the  Surtees*  Society  and  the  Bradshaw  Society. 
But  the  most  we  can  do  is  to  mention  this  brilhant 
liturgical  efflorescence. 

Devdomnent  in  Theology. — Wider  and  more  varied 
is  the  field  theologj'  opens  up  for  ecclesiastical  Latin; 
so  wide  that  we  must  restrict  ourselves  to  pointing  out 
the  creative  resources  which  the  Latin  we  speak  of  has 
given  proof  of  since  the  beginning  of  the  study  of 
speculative  theology',  i.  e.,  from  the  writings  of  the 
earliest  Fathers  down  to  our  own  day.  More  than 
elsewhere,  it  has  here  shown  how  capable  it  is  of  ex- 
pressing the  most  deUcate  shades  of  theological 
thought,  or  the  keenest  hair-splitting  of  decadent 
Scholasticism.  Need  we  mention  what  it  has  done  in 
this  field  ?  The  expressions  it  has  created,  the  meanings 
it  has  conveyed  are  only  too  well  known.  Whereas  the 
major  part  of  these  expressions  were  legitimate,  were 
necessary  and  successful — iranssubstarUiatio,  forma, 
materia,  indudduum,  accidens,  appetitus — there  are 
only  too  many  that  show  a  wordy  and  empty  formal- 
ism, a  deplorable  indifference  for  the  sobriety  of  ex- 
pression and  for  the  purity  of  the  Latin  tongue — a^eitas, 
futuritio,  beatificativum,  tenninatio,  actuulitas,  hceccei- 
tas,  etc.  It  was  by  such  w^ords  as  these  that  the 
language  of  theology  exposed  itself  to  the  iibes  of 
Erasmus  and  Rabelais,  and  brought  discredit  on  a 
study  that  was  deserving  of  more  consideration.  With 
the  Renaissance,  men's  minds  became  more  difficuU  to 
satisfy,  readers  of  cultured  taste  could  not  tolerate  a 
language  so  foreign  to  the  genius  of  the  classical  Latin- 
ity  that  had  been  revived.  It  became  necessary  even 
for  renowned  theologians,  like  Melchior  Cano  in  the 
preface  to  his  "  Loci  Theologici ",  to  raise  their  voices 
against  the  demands  of  their  readers  as  well  as  against 
the  carelessness  and  obscurity  of  former  theologians. 
It  may  be  laid  down  that  about  this  time  classic 
correctness  began  to  find  a  place  in  theological  as  well 
as  in  liturgical  Latin. 

Present  Position. — Henceforth  correctness  was  to  be 
the  characteristic  of  ecclesiastical  Latin.  To  the  ter- 
minology consecrated  for  the  expression  of  the  faith 
of  the  Catholic  Church  it  now  adds  as  a  rule  that  gram- 
matical accuracy  which  the  Renaissance  gave  back  to 
us.  But  in  our  own  age,  thanks  to  a  variety  of  causes, 
some  of  which  arise  from  the  evolution  of  educational 
programmes,  the  Latin  of  the  Church  has  lost  in  quan- 
tity what  it  has  gained  in  Quality.  Latin  retains  its 
ftlace  in  the  Liturgy,  and  rightly  so,  the  better  to  point 


out  and  watch  over,  in  the  very  bosom  of  the  Church, 
that  unity  of  belief  in  all  places  and  throughout  all 
times  whicji  is  her  birthright.  But  in  the  devotional 
hymns  that  accompany  the  ritual  the  vernacular  alone 
is  used,  and  these  hymns  are  gradually  replacing  the 
liturgical  hymns.  AH  the  official  documents  of  the 
Church,  Encyclicals,  Bulls,  Briefs,  iiistitutions  of 
bishops,  replies  from  the  Roman  Congregations,  acts 
of  provincial  councils,  are  written  in  Latin.  Within 
recent  years,  however,  solemn  Apostolic  letters  ad- 
dressed to  one  or  other  nation  have  been  in  their  own 
tongue,  and  various  diplomatic  documents  have  been 
drawn  up  in  French  or  in  ItaUan.  In  the  training  of 
the  clergy,  the  necessity  of  discussing  modem  systems, 
whether  of  exegesis  or  philosophy,  has  led  almost 
everywhere  to  the  use  of  the  national  tongue.  Man- 
uals of  dogmatic  and  moral  theology  are  written  in 
Latin,  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  France,  but  often,  save  in 
the  Roman  universities,  the  oral  explanation  thereof  is 
given  in  the  vernacular.  In  German-  and  English- 
speaking  countries  most  of  the  manuals  are  in  their 
own  tongue,  and  nearly  always  the  explanation  is  in 

the  same  languages. 

Cooper,  Word  Formation  in  the  Roman  aermo  plebeitu  (Boa- 
ton  and  London,  1895)-  Harnack,  Geschichte  der  aUckrisUichen 
Literatur  (Leipzig,  1904);  Schanz,  Geaehichte  der  rumiachen 
Literatttr,  III  (Munich,  1896);  Duchebne,  Histoire  ancienne  de 
VEglise,  I  (Paris,  1906);  Koffmane,  (jeaofcicA/e  dea  Kirchenla- 
teins  (Breslau,  1879,  1881);  Monceaux,  Histoire  litliraire  de 
VAfrique  chritienne  (Paris,  1901-05);  RoNScn.  Jtala  und  Vid- 
gata  (2nd  ed.  Marburg,  1875);  Word8Worth,  Sandat  ajtd 
White,  Old  Biblical  Latin  Texta  (Oxford,  1883-88);  Coh- 
DAMiN,  De  TertuUiano  .  .  .  prcecipuo  Christiana  linqvux  artifice 
(Lyons,  1877);  Bataro,  Le  latin  de  aaint  Cyprxen  (Paris, 
1902):  Ga:LZER,  LatinilA  de  aaint  J^6me  (Paris,  1884);  Idem, 
Histoire  du  latin  du  III*  au  VJJ^  aii-cle  in  Revue  IntemcUiimal 
de  V Enaeignement  (Paris,  1908) ;  Ri:oNiER,  De  la  latiniU  dea  aer- 
mons  de  aaint  Augtiatin  (Paris,  1886);  Deqert,  Quid  ad  morea 
ingeniaque  A/rorum  cognoscenda  con/erant  aancti  A  uguatini  aer- 
monea  (Paris,  1894):  Ebert,  Geaehichte  der  Chriaileben  Littera- 
tur  (Leipzig,  1874,  French  tr.,  Paris,  1883);  Cabrol,  Introduc- 
tion aux  etudes  liturgique^  (Paris,  1906);  Chevalier,  Poiaie 
liiurgujue  du  moyen  Oge  (Paris,  1893);  Schwane,  Hiatoire  dea 
Dogmes,  V,  VI,  French  tr.,  Degert  (Paris,  1904);  Simler,  Dea 
Sommes  de  th^ologie  (Paris,  1871);  Zell,  Commentatio  de  lati- 
nitate  atxuliose  colenda  (Freiburg,  1870);  Guibert,  Le  Latin 
dana  les  arminairea  (Paris,  1909). 

Antoine  Degert. 

Latin  Ghurch. — The  word  Church  (ecclesia)  is  used 
in  iU  first  sense  to  express  the  whole  congregation  of 
Catholic  Christendom  united  in  one  Faith^  obeying  one 
hierarchy  in  communion  with  itself.  This  is  tne  sense 
of  Matt.,  xvi,  18;  xviii,  17;  Eph.,  v,  25,  27,  etc.  It  is 
in  this  sense  that  we  speak  of  the  Church  without  quali- 
fication, say  that  Christ  founded  one  Church,  and  so 
on.  But  tne  word  is  also  constantly  applied  to  the 
various  individual  elements  of  this  union.  As  the 
whole  is  the  Church,  the  universal  Church,  so  are  its 
parts  the  Churches  of  Corinth,  Asia,  France,  etc.  This 
second  use  of  the  word  also  occurs  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Acts,  XV,  41;  II  Cor.,  xi,  28;  Apoc.,  i,  4,  11, 
etc.).  Any  portion  then  that  forms  a  subsidiary  unity 
in  itself  may  be  called  a  locid  Church.  The  smallest 
such  portion  is  a  diocese — thus  we  speak  of  the  Church 
of  Paris,  of  Milan,  of  Seville.  Above  this  again  we 
group  metropolitical  provinct^s  and  national  portions 
together  as  unities,  and  speak  of  the  Church  of  Africa , 
of  CJaul,  of  Spain.  The  expression  Church  of  Rome, 
it  should  be  noted,  though  commonly  applied  by  non- 
Catholics  to  the  whole  Catholic  body,  can  only  be  used 
correctly  in  this  secondary  sense  for  the  local  diocese 
(or  possibly  the  province)  of  Home,  mother  and  mis- 
tress of  ail  Churches.  A  German  Catholic  is  not, 
strictly  speaking,  a  member  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
but  of  the  Church  of  Cologne,  or  Munich-Freising,  or 
whatever  it  may  be,  in  union  with  and  under  the 
obedience  of  the  Roman  Church  (although,  no  doubt, 
by  a  further  extension  Roman  Church  may  be  used  as 
equivalent  to  Latin  Church  for  the  patriarchate). 

The  word  is  also  used  very  commonly  for  the  still 
greater  portions  that  are  united  under  their  pa- 
triarchs, that  is  for  the  patriarchates.    It  is  in  tnis 


ZJLTIH 


23 


ZJLTIH 


BBOse  that  we  speak  of  the  Latin  Church.  The  Latin 
Church  is  simply  that  vast  portion  of  the  Catholic 
bodv  wluch  obeys  the  Latin  patriarch,  which  submits 
to  the  pope,  not  only  in  papal,  but  also  in  patriarchal 
matters.  It  is  thus  distinguished  from  the  Eastern 
Churches  (whether  Catholic  or  Schismatic),  which  rep- 
resent the  other  four  patriarchates  (Constantinople, 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jerusalem),  and  any  fractions 
broken  away  from  them.  The  Latin  patriarchate  has 
always  been  considerably  the  largest.  Now,  since  the 
great  part  of  Eastern  Christendom  has  fallen  into 
schism,  since  vast  new  lands  have  been  colonized, 
conquered  or  (partly)  converted  by  Latins  (America, 
Australia,  etc.),  the  Latin  part  of  the  Catholic  Church 
looms  so  enormous  as  compared  with  the  others  that 
many  people  think  that  every  one  in  communion  with 
the  pope  is  a  Latin.  This  error  is  fostered  by  the 
Anglican  branch  theory,  which  supposes  the  situation 
to  be  that  the  Eastern  Church  is  no  longer  in  com- 
munion with  Rome.  Against  this  we  must  always 
remember,  and  when  necessary  point  out,  that  the 
constitution  of  the  Catholic  Church  is  still  essentially 
what  it  was  at  the  time  of  the  Second  Council  of  Nicsa 
(787;  see  also  canon  xxi  of  Constantinople  IV  in  869 
in  the  ''Corp.  Jur.  can.",  dist.  xxii,  c.  vu).  Namely, 
there  are  still  the  five  patriarchates,  of  which  the  Latm 
Church  is  only  one,  although  so  great  a  part  of  the 
Eastern  ones  have  fallen  away.  The  Uniate  Churches, 
small  as  they  are,  still  represent  the  old  Catholic  Chris- 
tendom of  the  Rast  in  union  with  the  pope,  obeying 
him  as  pope,  though  not  as  their  patriarch.  AH  Latins 
are  Catholics,  but  not  all  Catholics  are  Latins.  The 
old  frontier  passed  just  east  of  Macedonia,  Greece 
(lUyricum  was  afterwards  claimed  by  Constantinople), 
ana  Crete^  and  cut  Africa  west  of  Egypt.  All  to  the 
west  of  this  was  the  Latin  Church. 

We  must  now  add  to  Western  Europe  all  the  new 
lands  occupied  by  Western  Europeans,  to  make  up  the 
present  enormous  Latin  patriarchate.  Throughout 
this  vast  territory  the  pope  reigns  as  patriarch,  as  well 
as  by  his  supreme  position  as  visible  head  of  the  whole 
Church.  With  the  exception  of  very  small  remnants 
of  other  uses  (Milan,  Toledo,  and  the  Byzantines  of 
Southern  Italy),  his  Roman  Rite  is  used  throughout, 
according  to  tne  general  principle  that  rite  follows  the 
patriarcmite,  that  local  uishops  use  the  rite  of  their 
patriarch.  The  medieval  Western  uses  (Paris,  Sarum, 
and  so  on),  of  which  people  at  one  time  made  much 
for  controversial  purposes,  were  in  no  sense  really 
independent  rites,  as  are  the  remnants  of  the  Gallican 
use  at  Milan  and  Toledo.  They  were  only  the  Roman 
Rite  with  very  slight  local  modifications.  From  this 
conception  we  see  that  the  practical  disappearance  of 
the  Gallican  Rite,  however  much  the  archaeologist  may 
regret  it,  is  justified  by  the  general  principle  that  rite 
should  follow  patriarchate.  Uniformity  of  rite  through- 
out Christendom  has  never  been  an  ideal  among 
Catholics;  but  uniformity  in  each  patriarchate  is.  We 
see  also  tliat  the  suggestion,  occasionally  made  by 
advanced  Ani^licans,  of  a  Uniate  Anglican  Church 
with  its  own  rite  ami  to  some  extent  its  own  laws  (for 
instance  with  a  married  clergy)  is  utterly  opposed  to 
antiquity  and  to  consistent  canon  law.  England  is 
most  certainly  part  of  the  Latin  patriarchate.  When 
Anglicans  return  to  the  old  Faith  they  find  themselves 
subject  to  the  pope,  not  only  as  head  of  the  Church, 
but  also  as  patriarch.  As  part  of  the  Latin  Church 
England  must  submit  to  Latin  canon  law  and  the 
Roman  Rite  just  as  much  as  France  or  Germany.  The 
eomparison  with  Eastern  Uniates  .rests  on  a  miscon- 
ception of  the  whole  situation.  It  follows  also  that 
the  expression  Latin  (or  even  Roman)  Catholic  is  quite 
justifiable,  inasmuch  as  we  express  by  it  that  we  are 
not  only  Catholics  but  also  members  of  the  Latin  or 
Roman  patriarchate.  A  Uniate  on  the  other  hand  is 
a  Byaantine,  or  Armenian,  or Maronite Catholic.  But 
a  person  who  is  in  schism  with  the  Holy  See  is  not, 


of  course,  admitted  by  Catholics  to  be  any  kind  of 
Catholic  at  all. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Latin  Langfuage,  Use  of,  in  the  Liturgy.  See 
Liturgy. 

Latin  Literature,  Christian. — Early  Centuries. 
— The  Latin  language  was  not  at  first  the  literary  and 
official  organ  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  West.  The 
Gospel  was  emnounced  hy  preachers  whose  language 
was  Greek,  and  these  continued  to  use  Greek,  if  not  in 
their  discourses,  at  least  in  their  most  important  acts. 
Irenffius,  at  Lyons,  preached  in  Latin,  or  perhaps  in 
the  Celtic  vernacular,  but  he  refuted  heresies  in  Greek. 
The  Letter  of  the  Church  of  Lyons  concerning  its 
martyrs  is  written  in  Greek;  so  at  Rome,  a  century 
earlier,  is  that  of  Clement  to  the  Corinthians.  In  botn 
cases  the  language  of  those  to  whom  the  letters  were 
addressed  may  ^ve  been  designedly  chosen;  never- 
theless, a  document  that  may  be  called  a  domestic 
product  of  the  Roman  Church — ^the  *' Shepherd"  of 
Hermas,  was  written  in  Greek.  At  Rome  in  the 
middle  of  the  second  century,  Justin,  a  Palestinian 
philosopher,  opened  his  school,  and  suffered  martyr* 
dom;  Tatian  wrote  his  ''Apologia"  in  Greek;  at 
Rome  in  the  third  century  Hippolytus  compiled  his 
numerous  works  in  Greek.  And  Greek  is  not  only  the 
lanjguage  of  books,  but  also  of  the  Roman  Christian  ii^ 
scriptions,  the  greater  number  of  which,  down  to  the 
third  century,  are  written  in  Glreek.  The  most  an- 
cient Latin  document  emanating  from  the  Roman 
Cliurch  is  the  correspondence  of  its  clergy  with  Car- 
thage during  the  vacancy  of  the  Apostolic  See»follow- 
ing  on  the  oeath  of  Pop>e  Fabian  (20  January,  250). 
One  of  the  letters  is  the  work  of  Novatian,  the  first 
Christian  writer  to  use  the  Latin  language  at  Rome. 
But  even  at  this  epoch,  Greek  is  still  the  official  lan- 
guage: the  original  epitaphs  of  the  popes  are  still  com- 
posed in  G  reek.  We  have  those  of  An  terns,  of  FabiaD^ 
of  Lucius,  of  Gains,  and  the  series  brings  us  down  to 
296.  That  of  CorneUus,  which  is  in  Latin,  seenis  to  be 
later  than  the  third  century.  In  Africa  Latin  was 
always  the  literary  language  of  Christianity,  although 
Punic  was  still  used  for  preacliing  in  the  time  of  St. 
Augustine,  and  some  even  preached  in  the  Berber  lan- 
guage. These  latter,  however,  had  no  literature; 
cultivated  persons,  as  well  as  the  cosmopolitan  popu- 
lation  of  the  seaports  used  Greek.  The  oldest  Chris- 
tian document  of  Africa,  the  Acts  of  the  Scillitan 
Martyrs,  was  translated  into  Greek,  as  were  some  of 
the  works  of  Tertullian,  perhaps  by  the  author  himself, 
and  certainly  with  the  object  of  securing  for  them  a 
wider  diffusion.  The  Acts  of  Sts.  Perpetua  and  Feli- 
citas,  originally  written  in  Latin,  were  translated  into 
Greek.  In  Spain  all  the  known  documents  are  writ- 
ten in  Latin,  tut  they  appear  very  late.  The  Acts  of 
St.  Fructuosus,  a  martyr  under  Valerian,  are  attrib- 
uted by  some  critics  to  the  third  century.  The  first 
Latin  Christian  document  to  which  a  quite  certain 
date  can  be  assigned  is  a  collection  of  the  canons  of  the 
Council  of  Elvira,  about  300. 

Side  by  side  with  literary  works,  the  Church  pro- 
duced certain  writings  necessary  to  her  life.  In  this 
category  must  be  placed  the  most  ancient  Christian 
documents  written  in  Latin,  the  translations  of  the 
Bible  made  either  in  Africa  or  in  Italy.  Beginning 
with  the  second  century,  Latin  translations  of  techni- 
cal works  written  in  Greek  became  numerous — trea- 
tises on  medicine,  botany,  mathematics,  etc.  These 
translations  served  a  practical  purpose,  and  were  made 
by  professionals;  consequently  tney  had  no  literary 
merit,  and  aimed  at  an  almost  servile  exactitude  re- 
sulting in  the  retention  of  many  peculiarities  of  the 
original.  Hellenisms,  a  very  questionable  feature  in 
the  literary  works  of  preceding  centuries,  were  fre- 
quent in  these  translations.  The  early  Latin  versions 
of  the  Bible  had  the  characteristics  common  to  all 


ZJLTXH 


24 


LATIN 


texts  of  this  ^up;  Hellenisms  abounded  in  them, 
and  even  Semitisms  filtered  in  through  the  Greek.  In 
the  fourth  century,  when  St.  Jerome  made  his  new 
Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures,  the  partisans  of  the 
older  versions  to  justify  tlieir  opposition  praised 
loudly  the  harsh  fidelity  of  these  inelegant  traaslations 
(Augustine,  "Dedoct.  christ.",  II,  xv,in  P.  L.,  XXXIV, 
46).  These  versions  no  doubt  exercised  a  great  influ- 
ence upon  the  imagination  and  the  style  of  Christian 
writers,  but  it  was  an  influence  rather  of  inven- 
tion and  inspiration  than  of  expression.  The  incor- 
rectness and  barbarisms  of  the  Fathers  have  been 
much  exaggerated:  profoimder  knowledge  of  the 
Latin  language  and  its  history  has  shown  that  they 
used  the  language  of  their  time,  and  that  in  this  re- 
spect there  is  no  difference  worth  mentioning  between 
tnem  and  their  pagan  contemporaries.  No  doubt 
some  of  them  were  men  of  defective  education,  writers 
of  incorrect  prose  and  popular  verse,  but  there  have 
been  such  in  every  age;  the  author  of  the  "Bellum 
Hispaniense^',  the  historian  Justinus,  Vitruvius,  are 
profane  authors  who  cared  little  for  purity  or  elegance 
of  style.  TertuUian,  the  Christian  author  most  fre- 
quently accused  of  barbarism,  for  his  time,  is  by  no 
means  incorrect.  He  possesses  strong  creative  power, 
and  his  freedom  is  mostly  in  the  matter  of  vocabulary; 
he  either  invents  new  words  or  uses  old  ones  in  very 
novel  ways.  His  style  is  bold;  his  imagination  and 
his  passion  light  it  up  with  figures  at  times  incoherent 
and  in  bad  taste;  but  his  syntax  contains,  it  may  be 
said,  almost  no  innovations.  He  multiplies  construc- 
tions as  yet  rare  and  adds  new  constructions,  but 
he  always  respects  the  genius  of  the  language.  His 
work  contains  no  Semitisms,  and  the  Hellenisms 
which  his  critics  have  pointed  out  in  it  are  neitlier 
frequent  nor  without  warrant  in  the  usage  of  his  day. 
This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  his  express  or  im- 
plicit citations  from  the  Bible.  At  the  other  extreme, 
chronologically,  of  Latin  Christian  literary  developH 
ment,  a  pope  like  Gelasius  gives  evidence  of  consider- 
able classical  culture;  his  language  is  novel  chiefly  in 
its  choice  of  words,  but  many  of  these  neoterisms  were 
in  his  time  no  longer  new,  and  had  their  origin  in  the 
technical  usage  of  the  Church  and  the  Roman  law. 

In  the  historical  development  of  Christian  Latin 
literature  three  periods  may  be  distinguished:  that  of 
the  Apologists,  lasting  until  the  fourth  century;  that 
of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  (the  fourth  centurj') ;  and 
the  Gallo-Roman  period.  The  first  period  is  charac- 
terized by  its  dominant  tone  of  apology,  or  defence  of 
the  Christian  religion.  In  fact,  most  of  the  earliest 
Christian  writers  wrote  apologies,  e.  g.  Minucius  Felix, 
Tertullian,  Arnobius,  Lactantius.  In  face  of  pagan- 
ism and  the  Roman  State  they  plead  the  cause  of 
Christianity,  and  the3r  do  it  each  according  to  his 
character,  and  each  with  his  own  line  of  arguments. 
Minucius  Felix  represents,  in  a  way,  the  transition 
from  the  traditional  philosophy  of  the  cultured  classes 
to  the  popular  preaching  of  Christianity  and  in  this 
approaches  closely  to  some  of  the  Greek  apologists, 
converts  from  philosophy  to  Christianity,  e.  ^.  Justin, 
Beekinff  at  the  same  time  to  harmonize  their  inherited 
mental  culture  with  their  faith.  Even  the  dialogue 
form  they  use  is  meant  to  retain  the  reader  in  that 
philosophic  world  with  which  Plato  and  Cicero  had 
lamiliarized  him.  Tertullian,  perhaps  identical  with 
the  jurisconsult  mentioned  in  the  '*  Digest"  of  Jus- 
tinian, lifts  out  boldly  arguments  of  a  legal  order  and 
examines  the  juridical  bases  of  the  persecution.  Arno- 
bius, rhetorician  and  philosopher,  is  first  and  foremost 
A  product  of  the  school;  he  exhibits  the  resources  of 
amplification  and  displays  the  erudition  of  a  scholiast. 
Lactantius  is  a  philosopher,  only  more  profoundlv 
penetrated  by  Christianity  than  were  the  earlier  apol- 
ogists. He  IS  also  very  particular  about  the  main- 
tenance of  social  order,  good  government,  and  the 
State.    Hid  writings  are  well  adapted  to  a  society  that 


has  recently  been  shaken  by  a  long  period  of  anarchy 
and  is  in  process  of  reconstruction.  In  this  way  the 
early  Christian  Latin  literature  presents  all  the  varie- 
ties of  apology.  There  are  here  mentioned  only  those 
apologies  which  formally  present  themselves  as  such ;  to 
them  should  be  added  some  of  St.  Cyprian's  works — 
the  treatises  on  idols,  and  "ad  Donatum",  the  letter 
to  Demetrianus,  works  which  attack  special  weak- 
nesses of  polytheism,  the  vices  of  pagan  society,  or 
discuss  the  calamities  of  Rome. 

These  writers  do  not  confine  their  activity  to  con- 
troversy with  the  pagans.  The  extent  and  variety  of 
the  works  of  Tertullian  and  St.  Cyprian  are  well 
known.  At  Rome,  Novatian  touches,  m  his  treatises, 
on  questions  which  more  particularly  interest  the 
faithful,  their  religious  life  or  their  beliefs.  Victorinus 
of  Pettau,  in  the  mountains  of  Styria,  introduced  Bib- 
lical exegesis  into  Latin  literature,  and  be^an  that 
series  of  commentaries  on  the  Apocalypse  which  so  in- 
fluenced the  imagination,  and  echoea  so  powerfully 
among  the  artists  and  writers,  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  same  visions  were  embodied  in  the  verses  of  Com- 
modianus,  the  first  Christian  poet;  but  in  a  second 
work  he  took  his  place  among  the  apologists  and  com- 
batted  paganism.  In  their  other  worfi  St.  Cyprian 
and  Tertmlian  kept  always  in  view  the  apoio^tic 
interest;  indeed,  this  is  the  most  noteworthy  trait  of 
the  early  Christian  Latin  literature.  We  may  caU 
attention  here  to  another  characteristic:  many  Latin 
writers  of  this  time,  Minucius  Felix,  Tertullian,  Cyp- 
rian, Arnobius,  perhaps  Commodianus,  were  Africans, 
for  which  peculiarity  two  causes  may  be  assigned. 
On  the  one  hand,  Gaul  and  Italy  had  lone  employed 
the  Greek  language,  while  Spain  was  backward,  and 
Christianity  developed  there  but  feebly  at  this  period. 
On  the  other  hana,  Africa  had  become  a  centre  of 
profane  literature;  Apuleius,  the  greatest  profane 
writer  of  the  ace,  was  an  African;  Carthage  possessed 
a  celebrated  scnool  which  is  called  in  one  inscription 
by  the  same  name,  studium,  which  was  afterwards  ap- 
plied to  the  medieval  universities.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  second  was  the  more  potent  cause. 

The  second  period  of  Christian  literature  covers 
broadly  speaking,  the  fourth  century' — i.  e.  from  the 
Edict  of  Milan  (313)  to  the  death  of  St.  Jerome  (420). 
It  was  then  that  the  great  writers  of  the  Church 
flourished,  those  known  pre-eminently  as  *'the  Fath- 
both  West  and  East.     Though  the  term  pcUris- 


ers 


tic  belongs  to  'the  whole  period  here  under  considera- 
tion, as  contrasted  with  the  term  scholastic  applied  to 
the  Middle  Ages,  it  may  nevertheless  be  restricted  to 
the  period  we  arc  now  describing.  Literar>'  produc- 
tiveness was  no  longer  the  almost  exclusive  privil^e 
of  one  country;  it  was  spread  throughout  all  the 
Roman  West.  Notwithstanding  this  diffusion,  all  the 
Latin  writers  are  closely  related;  there  are  no  national 
schools;  the  writers  and  their  works  are  all  caught  up 
in  the  general  current  of  church  history.  There  is 
truly  a  Christian  West,  all  parts  of  which  possess 
nearly  the  same  importance,  and  are  closely  united,  in 
spite  of  differences  of  climate  and  temperament.  And 
this  West  is  beginning  to  stand  off  from  the  Greek 
East,  which  tends  to  follow  its  own  particular  path. 
The  causes  of  Western  cohesion  were  various,  but 
it  was  principally  rooted  in  community  of  interests 
and  the  similarity  of  questions  arising  immediately 
after  the  peace  of  the  Church.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  century  Christological  problems  agitated 
the  Church.  The  West  came  to  the  aid  of  the  ortho- 
dox communities  of  the  East,  but  knew  little  of  Arian- 
ism  until  the  Teutonic  invasions.  WTien  the  conflict 
concerning  the  use  of  the  basilicas  at  Milan  arose,  the 
Aiians  do  not  appear  as  the  people  of  Milan;  they  are 
Goths  (Ambrose,  Ep.  xii,  12,  in  P.  L.,  XVI,  997).  In 
the  fourth  century  the  j^at  personages  of  the  West 
are  champions  of  the  faith  of  Nicaea — Hilary  of  Poi- 
tiers, Lucifer  of  Oagliari,  Phoebadius  of  Agen,  Am- 


LLTTS 


25 


L4TIK 


IntMe,  Augustine.  Nevertheless,  the  West  has  errors 
of  its  own:  Novatianism,  a  legacy  from  the  preceding 
age;  Donatism  in  Africa;  Manichaeism,  which  came 
from  the  East,  but  developed  cliicfly  in  Africa  and 
Cjaul;  Priscilhanism,  akin  to  Manicha?ism,  and  the 
tirstfruits  of  Spanish  mysticism.  Manichajism  has  a 
complex  character,  and,  in  truth,  appears  to  be  a  dis- 
tinct religion.  All  other  errors  of  the  West  have  a 
bearing  on  discipUne  or  morals,  on  practical  hfe,  and 
do  not  arise  from  intellectual  speculation.  Even  in 
the  Manichsean  controversy,  moral  questions  occupy 
a  large  place.  Moreover,  the  characteristic  and  most 
important  heresy  of  the  Latin  countries  bears  upon  a 
problem  of  Christian  psychology  and  life — the  recon- 
ciliation of  human  liberty  with  the  action  of  Divine 
grace.  This  problem,  raised  by  Pela^ius,  was  solved 
by  Augustine.  Another  characteristic  of  this  period 
is  the  universality  of  the  gifts  and  the  activity  dis- 
played by  its  ^atest  writers;  Ambrose,  Jerome,  and 
Augustine  are  in  turn  moralists,  historians,  and  ora- 
tors; Ambrose  and  Augustine  are  poets;  Augustine  is 
the  universal  genius,  not  only  of  his  own  time,  but  of 
the  Latin  Church — one  of  the  greatest  men  of  an- 
tiquity, to  whom  Hamack,  without  exaggeration, 
has  found  none  comparable  in  ancient  history  except 
Plato.  In  him  Christianity  reached  one  of  the  hign- 
est  peaks  of  human  thought. 

Tnis  second  period  may  be  again  sulxlivided  into 
three  generations.  First,  the  reign  of  Constantino 
after  the  peace  of  the  Church  (313-37),  when  Juvcncus 
composed  the  Gospel' History  (Historia  EvaiigeMca)  in 
verse;  from  the  preceding  period  he  had  inherited  the 
influence  of  Hosius  of  Cordova.  Second,  the  time 
between  the  death  of  Constantine  and  the  accession  of 
Theodosius  (337-79).  In  this  generation  apologetic 
assumes  an  aggressive  tone  with  Firmicus  Maternus, 
and  appeals  to  the  secular  arm  against  paganism; 
Christianity,  by  many  held  res|X)nsible  for  the  gather- 
ing misfortunes  of  the  empire,  is  defended  by  Augus- 
tine in  "The  City  of  God  ;  Ambrose  and  Prudentius 
protest  against  the  retention  of  paganism  in  official 
ceremonies;  great  bishops  like  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Zeno 
of  yerona,  Optatus  of  Mileve,  Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  Eu- 
sebius  of  Vercelli,  take  part  in  the  controversies  of  the 
day;  Marius  Victorinus  combines  the  erudition  of  a 
philologian  with  the  subtlety  of  a  theologian.  The 
third  generation  was  that  of  St.  Jerome,  mider  Theo- 
dosius and  his  son  (380-420),  a  generation  rich  in 
intellect — Ambrose,  Prudentius,  Sulpicius  Sevcrus, 
Rufinus,  Jerome,  Paulinus  of  Nola,  Augustine,  the  sec- 
ondary poets  Proba,  Damasus,  Cyprian;  the  Spanish 
theologians  Pacianus  and  Gregory  of  Elvira;  Philas- 
trius  of  Brescia  and  Phoebadius  of  Agen.  The  long- 
lived  Augustine  overlapped  this  period;  at  the  same 
time  by  the  sheer  force  of  genius  he  is  both  the  last 
great  thinker  of  antinuity  in  the  West  and  the  first 
great  thinker  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Early  Christian  literature  in  the  W'est  may  \ye  re- 
garded as  ending  with  the  accession  of  Theodoric 
(408) .  Thenceforth  until  the  Carlo vingian  renascence 
there  arises  in  the  various  barbarian  kingdoms  a  lit- 
erature which  has  for  its  chief  object  the  ^ucation  of 
the  new-comers  and  the  transmission  of  some  of  the 
ancient  culture  into  their  new  civilization.  This 
brings  us  to  the  last  of  our  three  p>eriods,  which  may 
conveniently  be  called  the  Gallo-Roman,  and  com- 
prises about  two  generations,  from  420  to  493.  It  is 
dominated  by  one  school,  that  of  I^rins.  but  already 
the  splintering  of  the  old  social  and  political  unity  is  at 
hand  in  the  new  barbarian  nationalities  rooted  on  pro- 
vincial soil.  In  Augustine's  old  age,  and  after  his 
death,  a  few  disciples  and  partisans  of  his  teachings 
remain:  Orosius,  a  Spaniard;  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  a 
Gallo-Roman;  Marius  Mercator,  an  African.  Later, 
Victor  Vitensis  tells  the  story  of  the  Vandal  persecu- 
tion; in  him  Roman  Africa,  overrun  by  barbarians, 
furnishes  almost  the  only  writer  of  the  second  half  of 


the  century.  To  the  Ust  of  African  authors  must  h% 
added  the  names  of  two  bishops  of  Mauretania  men- 
tioned by  Gennadius — Victor  and  Voconius.  In  Gaul 
a  pleiad  of  writers  and  theologians  develops  at  L^ins 
or  within  the  radius  of  that  monastery's  influence — 
Cassian,  Honoratus,  Eucherius  of  Lyons,  Vincent  of 
I-.<5rins,  Hilarj'^  of  Aries,  Valerian  of  Cemclium,  Sal- 
viaiius,  Faustus  of  Riez,  Gennadius.  Here  we  might 
mention  Amobius  the  younger,  and  the  author  of  the 
"Praedestinatus".  No  literary  movement  in  the 
West,  before  Charlemagne,  was  so  important  or  so 
prolonged.  Gaul  was  then  truly  the  scene  of  manifold 
intellectual  activity;  in  addition  to  the  writers  of 
Ldrins,  that  country  reckons^  one  poly^apher,  Sido- 
nius  Apollinaris,  one  philosopher,  Claudian  Mamertus, 
several  poets,  Claudius  Marius  Victor,  Prosper,  Orienr 
tins,  Paulinus  of  Pella,  Paulinus  of  P4rigueux,  perhaps 
also  CcdUus  Sedulius.  Against  tliis  array  Italy  can 
offer  only  two  preachers,  St.  Peter  Chrysologus  and 
Maximus  of  Turin,  and  one  ^eat  pope,  Leo  I,  still 
greater  by  his  deeds  than  by  his  writings,  whose  name 
recalls  a  new  influence  of  the  Church  of  Rome  on  the 
intellectual  movement  of  the  time,  but  a  juridical 
rather  than  a  literary  influence.  Early  in  the  fifth 
century  Innocent  1  appears  to  have  been  occupied 
with  a  first  compilation  of  the  canon  law.  He  and  his 
successors  intervene  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  with  let- 
ters, some  of  which  have  the  size  and  scope  of  veritable 
treatises.  Spain  is  still  poorer  than  Italy,  even  count- 
ing Orosius  (already  mentioned  amon^  the  disciples  of 
Augustine)  and  the  chronicler  Hydatius.  The  island 
peoples,  which  in  the  preceding  period  had  produced 
the  heresiarch  Pelagius,  deserve  mention  at  this  date 
also  for  the  works  attributed  to  St.  Patrick. 

A  first  general  characteristic  of  Christian  liter- 
ature, common  to  both  East  and  W^est,  is  the  space  it 
devotes  to  bibliographical  questions,  and  the  impor- 
tance they  assume.  This  fact  is  explained  by  the  very 
origins  of  Christianity:  it  is  a  religion  not  of  one  book, 
but  of  a  collection  of  books,  the  date,  source,  authen- 
ticity, and  canonicity  of  which  are  matters  which  it  is 
important  to  determine.  In  Eusebius's  "History  of 
the  Church"  it  is  obvious  with  what  care  he  pursues 
the  inquiry  as  to  the  books  of  Scripture  cited  and 
recognized  by  his  Christian  predecessors.  In  this  way 
there  grows  up  a  habit  of  classifying  documents  ana 
references,  and  of  describing  in  prefaces  the  nature  of 
the  several  books.  The  Bible  is  not  the  only  object  of 
these  minute  studies;  every  important  and  complex 
work  attracts  the  attention  of  editors.  Let  it  suffice 
to  recall  the  formation  of  the  collection  of  St.  Cyprian's 
letters  and  treatises,  a  more  or  less  official  catalogue 
of  which,  the  **  Cheltenham  Catalogue  ",  was  drawn  up 
in  359,  after  a  lengthy  elaboration,  the  successive  stages 
of  which  are  still  traceable  in  several  manuscripts. 
Questions  of  authenticity  play  a  large  part  in  the  dis- 
sensions of  St.  Jerome  and  Rufinus.  Apocryphal 
writings,  fabricated  in  the  interest  of  heresy,  engen- 
dered controversies  between  the  Church  and  the  heret- 
ical sects.  Another  illustration  of  the  same  literary 
interest  is  to  be  found  in  the  inquiry  instituted  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century  as  to  tne  Canons  of  Sardica, 
called  Canons  of  Nicaea.  The  "  Retractationes "  of 
St.  Augustine  is  a  work  unique  in  the  history  of  an- 
cient bibliography,  not  to  speak  of  its  psychologjc 
interest,  a  peculiar  quality  of  all  Christian  literature  in 
the  West. 

In  part,  therefore,  Christian  I^atin  literatiu*e  natu- 
rally assumes  a  character  of  immediate  utility.  (Cata- 
logues are  drawn  up,  lists  of  bishops,  lists  of  martyrs 
(Depo»iliones  episcoporum  et  marti/rum) ,  catalogues  of 
cemeteries,  later  on  church  inventories,  '*Provin- 
ciales  ",  or  lists  of  dioceses  according  to  countries.  Be- 
sides these  archive  documents,  in  which  we  recogniie 
an  imitation  of  Roman  bureaucratic  customs,  certain 
literary  genres  bear  the  same  stamp.  The  accounts  of 
pilgrimages  have  as  much  of  the  guide-book  as  of  the 


Dwntive  in  them.  History  tutd  tiixeady  been  raduoed  method  of  expoeition,  but  aieo  furniohes  some  of  the 
to  a  number  of  itereotyped  Bcenee  by  the  profuie  maa-  themes  developed,  commonpkces  of  popular  morality, 
t«Ta,  &nd  hod  been  incorpor&ted,  at  Alexandria,  in  that  modified  and  adapted,  but  still  recognuable.  WitA- 
elementary  literature  which  condeosed  b11  knowledge  out  repudiating  tnis  indebtedness  of  Christian  lit«ra- 
into  ft  minimum  of  dry  formula.  The  "Chronicle  "of  ture  to  pagan  literary  form,  one  cannot  he!p  seeing  in 
St.  Jerome,  really  only  a  continuation  of  that  of  Eu-  itsdoublecharacter,  oratorical  and  moral,  the  peculiar 
sebius,  is  in  turn  continued  by  a  seriea  of  special  stamp  of  Roman  genius.  This  explains  the  con- 
writers,  and  even  a  Sulpicius  Severus  betrays  the  in-  stant  tone  of  exhortation  which  makes  most  works  of 
fluence  of  the  new  form  of  chronicle.  While  in  these  ecclesiastical  writers  so  monotonous  and  tiresome, 
departments  of  literature  the  West  but  imitates  the  Exegesis  borrows  from  Greek  and  Jewish  literature 
East,  it  follows  at  the  same  time  its  own  practical  ten-  the  system  of  allegory,  but  it  lends  to  these  parables  a 
dencics.  Indeed,  the  Latin  writeis  make  no  pretence  moralizing  and  edifymg  turn,  ll^iography  finds  its 
to  originality;  they  take  their  materials  from  their  models  in  biographies  Tike  thtsc  of  Plutarch,  but  al- 
E^tem  brethren.  Five  of  them,  Hilary,  Jerome,  ways  accentuates  their  panegyrical  and  moral  tone. 
Rufinus,  Caasian,  and  Marius  Mercator,  have  been  Some  compensation  is  to  be  found  in  the  autobiograph- 
described  as  helleniEing  Westerns.  St.  Ambrose  is  ical  writings,  the  personal  letters,  memoira,  and  con- 
generally  considered  an  authentic  representative  of  feesions.  In  the  "Confessions"  of  St.  Augustine  we 
the  Latin  mind,  and  this  is  true  of  the  bent  of  his  gen-  have  a  work  the  value  of  which  is  unique  in  the  litera- 
ius  and  of  his  exercise  of  authority  as  the  head  of  a  ture  of  all  time. 

Church;  but  no  one,  perhaps,  translated  more  fre-  Although  its  oratorical  methods  are  chosen  with  an 
quently  from  the  Greek  writers,  or  did  it  with  more  eye  to  the  character  of  its  public,  there  is  nothing  t>op- 
^irit  or  more  care.  It  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that  ular  in  the  form  of  Christian  Latin  literature,  notliing 
his  exegesis  is  taken  from  St.  Basil's  "  Hexaemeron"  even  corresponding  to  the  freedom  of  the  primitive 
and  from  a  series  of  treatises  on  Genesis  by  Philo.  translationsof  the  Bible.  In  prose,  the  work  of  Luci- 
Tbe  same  holds  good  in  respect  to  his  dogrnatic  or  fer  of  Cagliari  stands  almost  alone,  and  reveals  the 
mystical  treatises:  the  "De  mysteriis",  written  in  his  aforesaid  rhetorical  influence  almost  as  much  as  it  does 
last  years,  before  397,  is  largelj'  taken  from  Cyril  of  the  writer's  incorrectness.  The  Christian  poets  might 
Jerusalem  and  a  treatiKe  of  DidjTnus  of  Alexandria  have  wandered  somewhat  more  freely  from  the  beaten 
publislied  a  little  before  381,  while  the  "De  Spiritu  path;  nevertheless,  they  were  content  to  imitate  olas- 
Sancto",  written  before  Easier,  381,  is  a  compilation  sical  poetry  in  an  age  when  prosody,  owing  to  the 
from  AthanasiuB,  Basil,  Didymus,  and  Epiphanius,  changes  in  pronunciation,  had  ceased  to  be  a  living 
from  a  recension  of  thp  "Catecheses"  of  Cyril  made  thing.  Juveneus  was  more  typical  than  Pnidentius. 
after  3(50,  and  from  some  theological  discourses  which  The  verses  of  the  Christian  poets  arc  as  artificial  as 
had  been  delivered  by  Gregory  of  Naiiangus  leas  than  those  of  good  scholars  in  our  own  time.  Commo- 
atwclvemonth  previously  (i)30).  St.  Augustine  is  less  dianus,  out  of  sheer  ignorance,  supplies  the  defects  of 
erudite;  his  learning,  if  not  his  philosophy,  is  more  prosody  with  the  tonic  accent.  Indeed,  anew  type  of 
Latin  than  Greek.  But  it  is  the  strength  of  his  genius  riiythm,  based  on  accent,  was  about  to  develop  from 
which  makes  him  the  most  original  of  the  Latin  the  new  pronunciation;  St.  Augustine  gives  an  exam- 
Fathers,  pie  of  it  m  his  "  psalmus  abecedarius  ",  It  may  there- 
One  influence,  however,  no  Christian  writer  in  the  fore  be  said  that  from  the  point  of  view  of  literaiy 
West  escaped,  that  of  the  literary  school  and  the  lit-  history  the  work  of  the  Latin  Christian  writers  is  little 
erary  tradition.  From  the  licginning  similarities  of  more  than  a  survival  and  a  prolongation  of  the  early 
Style  with  Pronto  and  Apuleius  appear  numerous  and  profane  literature  of  Rome.  It  counta  amone  its 
distinctly  perceptible  in  Minucius  Felix,  Tertullian,  celebrities  some  gifted  writers  and  one  of  the  noblest 
and  Zeno  of  Verona;  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  fact  tha  g  n  use  h  m  ..... 
all  writers,  sacred  and  profane,  adopted  then  the  sam  und    ■ 

fashions,  particularly  unitation  of  the  old  Latin  wri        0  ^   '■ — .-- 

crs.     To  its  traditional  character  also,  early  Christian  ^^  rf'dVlMjWo*' 

Latin  literature  owes  two  characteristics  more  pecu  n,                                                  mdiu  d     Arad-mM  dn 

iarly  its  own ;  it  is  oratorical,  and  it  is  moral.     From  ntm   to                           v  ^  """'  r^    ■^  "     j'  ^J.'"""" 

remote  antiquity  there  had  existed  a  moral  literature  '^™  ""       ™^  ^      A^>a£  uJb  enrnmr     Bmlau    1879- 

more   exactly  a   preaching,   which   brought   certain  88         one           nl        « in  ed         C           Bfouanum  od 

truths  within  the  reach  of  the  masses,  and  by  the  tnpioTeM  m»du»  M  tafiwum  latiniuau  (Pans,  16<B);   Ronsch, 

j>Knroft»r  nf  its  Bii[lipn<>D  won  cnm™illiul  tr.  omr.1^.,  ''""'  ""''  Vvloala,  Dot  SpToth-idiam  drr  Ilala  nndder  Vaigala 

cnaracier  oi   iia  auuience  was  compellea  to  employ  -jiartjuiK,   1875);    Hopra.  Svntaj-  raid  Slil  drt  Tmullianv* 

certam  modes  of  expression.     On  this  common  ground  (Leip.ig,  19031.  cf.  Snue  Criitow.  I  (1908),  107;  moM  of  tlw 

the  CVnic  and  the  Stoic  philosophies  had  met  since  at.adiam'W6lWii'aArctiiv{'iTlai.LriikotrafAiiundGrairaiH- 

tne  tnira  century  dci ore  Chnst.     trom  the  still  ex-  ^^^     priKillian.  HI  (1888).  300;    Luri/n-  of  CagHiri.  ill 

tant  remains  of  leles  and  Bion  of  Bor\'sthenes  we  (i8.se),  l;  the  Pernmnofiu  orf  lora  mncto  of  Silvia  iEtkmn). 

can  form  some  idea  of  this  style  of  preacliine.      From  IV  (1887),  259;   XV  (1901).  238:   XV  (19(>8).  5<B;   Crfanu., 

this  source  the  satire  of  Horace  borrows  some  of  its  ""  (1003).  I;  SaiMBaudicl.  IX  p896),  493;  Jordanc,  XI 

themes.      This  Cynico-Stoic  morality  finds  expression  iss*);'  Bonskt.  Ct  latin  dr  Grfooi-n  dr  Toun  (Parii.  1890)! 

also  in  the  Greek  of  Musonius,  Epictetus,  and  some  of  «i™»  gnwral   importajica      Be*  Ihc  hiBionsna  of   laliu 

of  Plutarch's  treatises,  likewise  in  the  Latin  of  Son-  J|^h'/hi?oriS'  oTcbriSra  Ef"mVim"{H' bnT^"" N™*'!?" 

eca's  letters  and  opuicula.     Its  decidedly  oratorical  ALXnn.  Bahdbhreves),  atao   the   artiplM  of  thii   eno-clo- 

Charactcr  it  owes  to  the  factthatwith  the  beginning  of  rwdia.  r^tivo  to  pKtrolop',  theology.  ChHsliiui  writcn,  imtl 

the  Christian  era  rhetoric  became  the  sole  form  of  ,  ™'."    rS^  J''2  I'JfS^  !n^.?:l  T™i™  iK^.ii^«   tiH 

...                  ,,               J     f  ^       L-           ,¥M  ■    A      |..-  ArHFI-is,  Die  Munymioffim  (Berlin.  IWKl);   I^AUW^AItx,  (w* 

literary  culture  and  of  teaching.      This  tradition  was  rT.-rv  )jnii>  arr  rlmiKhm  Cfmittrim  in  Rom.  Quattaltthrifl, 

perpetuated  bv  the  Fathers.     It  furnished  them  the  XV  (1901),  1;   DycHFBNB,  Let  Prmndeux  in  M/lansn  dr 

inrmn  most,  n^dirl  Tnr  thpir  wnrlt  nf  instmetinn-  tho  I^Scolt  de  Romi.  XXIV  (1904),  76;  Lejat.  Reoue  ShtUatre  tt 

lomis  most  needed  tor  their  work  of  instruction   the  ^  jituroi^  ««ffi™.«.  vn  (19621, 367:  Stwhachiii.  t'((»T  dit 

letter,  developed  mto  a  brief  treatise  or  reasoned  ex-  ^Ualt   ptntHlidu   RrgiHerweien    in  MiUrilunnrn  dit  IntliluU 

position  of  opinion  in  the  correspondence  of  Seneca  f''  oiierrricJi.    OtKhirhiifvrKhuns,  XXIII  (1901).  1;    Hab- 

with  Lucilius;  the  treatise  in  the  shape  of  a  discourse  1,'i^^^J' zi^D^^h^'i'v^-  ^^T^owin  %S^«I," 

tn- as  Seneca  again  calls  it  a  dialf>!7u«,- lastly,  the  ser-  KnC<itvi<<».  p.29e(oaChTutiuipmching). 

mon  itself,  in  all  its  varieties  of  conference,  funeral  Paul  Lejat, 
oration,  and  homily.     Indeed,  homily  {homtiia)  is  a 

technical  term  of  the  Cyi>ic  and  Stoic  moralists.     And  IT.  Sixth  to  Twintibth  CBNTtmT. — During  the 

the  aforesaid  literwy  tradition  not  only  dominAtee  the  Middle  Ages  the  so-called  church  Latin  was  to  a  great 


L4TXH 


27 


LATIN 


extent  the  language  of  poetry,  and  it  was  only  on  the 
advent  of  the  Renaiasance  that  daseioal  Latin  re- 
vived and  flourished  in  the  writings  of  the  neo-Latinists, 
as  it  does  even  to-day  though  to  a  more  modest  ex- 
tent. To  present  to  the  reader  an  account  of  Latin 
poetry  in  a  manner  at  once  methodical  and  clear  is 
not  an  easy  task;  a  strict  adherence  to  chronology 
interferes  with  clearness  of  treatment,  and  an  ar- 
rangement according  to  the  different  kinds  of  poetry 
womd  demand  a  repeated  haudling  of  some  of  the 
poets.  However,  the  latter  method  is  preferable  be- 
cause it  enables  us  to  trace  the  historical  development 
of  this  literature. 

A.  The  iKxbin  Drama, — Both  in  its  inception  and  its 
subsequent  development  Latin  dramatic  poetry  dis- 
plays a  peculiar  character.  *'  In  no  domam  of  litera- 
ture", says  W.  Creizenach  in  the  opening  sentence  of 
his  well-known  work  on  the  historv  of  the  drama, 
"  do  the  Middle  Ages  show  so  complete  a  suspension 
of  the  tradition  of  classical  antiquity  as  in  the  drama.'' 
Terence  was  indeed  read  and  tausht  in  the  schools  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  but  the  true  dramatic  art  of  the 
Roman  poet  was  misunderstood.  Nowhere  do  we 
find  evidence  that  any  of  his  comedies  were  placed  on 
the  stage  in  schools  or.  elsewhere;  for  this  an  ade- 
quate conception  of  classical  stage-craft  was  wanting. 
The  very  knowledge  of  the  metres  of  Terence  was  lost 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  and,  just  as  the  difference  between 
comedy  and  tragedy  was  misunderstood,  so  also  the 
difference  between  these  and  other  kinds  of  {poetical 
composition  was  no  longer  understood.  It  is  thus 
clear  why  we  can  speak  of  imitations  of  the  Roman 
writer  only  in  rare  and  completely  isolated  cases,  for 
example,  m  the  case  of  the  nun  Hroswitha  of  Gander- 
sheim  in  the  tenth  century.  But  even  she  shared  the 
mistaken  views  of  her  age  concerning  the  comedies  of 
Terence,  having  no  idea  that  these  works  were  written 
for  the  stage  nor  indeed  any  conception  of  the  dra- 
matic art.  Her  imitations  therefore  can  be  regarded 
only  as  literary  dramas  on  spiritual  subjects,  which 
exercised  no  influence  whatever  on  the  subsequent 
development  of  the  drama  (see  Hroswitha).  Two 
centimes  later  we  find  an  example  of  how  Plautus 
far^  at  the  hands  of  his  poetical  imitators.  The  fact 
that,  like  Seneca,  Plautus  is  scarcelv  ever  mentioned 
among  the  school-texts  of  the  Middle  Ages  makes  it 
easier  to  understand  how  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
century  Vitahs  of  Blois  came  to  recast  the  ''Amphi- 
truo"  and  the  **  Querulus",  a  later  sequel  to  the  "  Au- 
lularia",  into  satirical  epic  poems. 

That  the  drama  might  therefore  never  have  devel- 
oped in  the  Middle  Ages  were  it  not  for  the  effective 
stimulus  supplied  by  the  ecclesiastical  liturgy  is 
quite  conceivable.  Liturgy  began  by  assuming  more 
solemn  forms  and  finally  gave  rise  to  the  religious 
drama  which  was  at  first  naturally  composed  in  the 
liturgical  Latin  language,  but  subseouently  degen- 
erate into  a  mixture  of  Latin  and  tne  vernacular, 
until  it  finally  assumed  an  entirely  vernacular  form. 
The  origin  of  the  drama  may  be  traced  to  the  so-called 
Easter  celebrations  which  came  into  life  when  the 
strictly  ecclesiastical  liturgy  was  developed  into  a 
dramatic  scene  by  the  introduction  of  hymns  and  se- 
quences in  a  dialogue  form.  A  further  step  in  the  de- 
velopment was  reached  when  narration  in  John,  xx, 
4  sqq.,  was  translated  into  action  and  the  Apostles 
Peter  and  John  were  represented  as  hastening  to  the 
tomb  of  the  risen  Saviour.  This  form  appears  in  a 
Paschal  celebration  at  St.  Lambrecht  ana  another  at 
Au^burg,  both  dating  back  to  the  twelfth  century. 
This  expansion  of  the  Easter  celebration  by  the  intro- 
duction of  scenes  participated  in  by  the  Apostles 
spread  from  Germany  over  Holland  and  Italy,  but 
seems  to  have  found  a  less  sympathetic  reception  in 
France.  The  third  and  final  step  in  the  development 
of  the  Easter  celebrations  was  the  inclusion  of  the 
apparition  of  the  risen  Christ.    Among  others  a  Nu- 


remberg antiphonary  of  the  thirteenth  century  eon- 
tains  aU  three  scenes,  joined  together  so  as  to  give 
unity  of  action,  thus  possessing  the  character  of  a 
little  drama.  Of  such  Paschal  celebrations,  which 
still  formed  a  part  of  the  ecclesiastical  liturgy,  224 
have  been  already  discovered:  159  in  Germany,  52  in 
France,  and  the  remainder  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Hol- 
land. The  taste  for  dramatic  representations,  awak- 
ened in  the  people  by  the  Easter  celebrations,  was 
fostered  by  the  ciergy,  and  by  bringing  out  the  human 
side  of  such  characters  as  Pilate,  Judas,  the  Jews,  and 
the  soldiers,  a  true  drama  was  gradually  created. 

That  the  Easter  plays  were  orieinally  composed  in 
Latin  is  proved  by  numerous  still  existing  examples, 
such  as  those  of  "Benediktbeuren'*,  "Klostemeu- 
burg",  and  the  "Mystery  of  Tours";  gradually,  how- 
ever, passages  in  the  vernacular  were  mtroduced,  and 
finally  this  alone  was  made  use  of.  Passion-plays 
were  first  produced  in  connexion  with  the  EEtster 
plays,  but  soon  developed  into  independent  dramas, 
generally  in  the  mother-tongue.  As  late  as  1537  the 
passion-play  "Christus  Xylonicus"  was  written  in 
Latin  by  Barth^lemy  de  Loches  of  Orleans.  As  the 
Easter  plays  developed  from  the  Easter  celebrations, 
so  Christmas  plavs  develojjed  from  the  ecclesiastical 
celebrations  at  Christmas.  In  these  the  preparatory' 
season  of  Advent  also  was  symlx)lized  in  the  predic- 
tions of  the  Prophets.  Similarly  the  plays  of  the 
Three  Kings  origmated  in  connexion  with  the  Feast 
of  the  Epiphany;  there  the  person  of  Herod  and  the 
Massacre  of  the  Innocents  are  the  materials  for  a  very 
effective  drama.  It  was  but  natural  that  all  the  plays 
dealing  with  the  Christmas  season  should  be  brought 
together  into  a  connected  whole  or  cycle,  beginning 
with  the  play  of  the  Shepherds,  continuing  in  that  c« 
the  Three  Kings,  and  ending  with  the  Massacre  of  the 
Innocents.  That  this  combination  of  plays  actually 
existed  we  have  abundant  manuscript  evidence;  par- 
ticularly famous  is  the  Freising  cycle. 

The  transition  to  the  so-called  eschatological  plays 
— the  climax  of  the  history  of  the  Redemption — ^was 
easy.  Two  such  plays  enjoy  a  special  celebrity,  "The 
Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins",  which  appeared  in  France 
in  the  twelfth  century,  and  "The  Appearance  and  Dis- 
appearance of  Antichrist",  written  by  a  German  p)oet 
about  1160.  The  latter,  which  is  also  entitled  "The 
Roman  Emperor  of  the  German  Nation  and  Anti- 
christ", has  also  been  regarded  as  an  Easter  play,  be- 
cause the  arrival  of  Antichrist  was  expected  at  Eioster. 
The  second  title  agrees  better  with  the  contents  of  the 
play.  The  poet,  who  must  have  been  a  learned 
scholar,  drew  his  inspiration  from  the  politico-reli- 
gious constitution  of  the  Roman  Empire  as  it  existed  . 
in  the  golden  period  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and 
from  the  Crusades.  This  ambitious  play  with  its  mi- 
nute directions  for  representation  is  divided  into  two 
main  actions — the  realization  of  a  Christian  world- 
empire  under  the  German  nation,  and  the  doings  of 
Antichrist  and  his  final  overthrow  by  the  Kingdom  of 
Christ.  The  unity  and  conception  of  the  two  parts  is 
indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  nations  appearing  in  the 
first  part  suggest  to  the  spectator  what  will  be  tneir  at- 
titucle  towards  Antichrist.  The  drama  was  intended 
to  convey  the  impression  that  the  German  people 
alone  could  fulfil  tne  world-wide  office  of  the  Roman 
Empire  and  that  the  Church  needed  such  a  protector. 

The  extension  of  the  ecclesiastical  plays  by  the  in- 
troduction of  purely  worldly  elements  led  gradually 
to  the  disappearance  of  spiritual  influence,  the  decay 
of  which  may  also  be  gathered  from  the  gradual  adop- 
tion of  the  vernacular  for  these  plays.  While  the  firet 
bloom  of  the  neo-Latin  drama  is  thus  attributable  to 
the  influence  of  the  Church,  its  second  era  of  prosper- 
ity was  purely  secular  in  character  and  began  with  the 
laDours  of  the  so-called  Humanists  in  Italy,  who  called 
into  life  the  literary  drama.  Numerous  as  they  were, 
we  do  not  meet  with  a  single  genuine  dramatist  amon^ 


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them ;  still  many  sporadic  attempts  at  play-writing 
were  made  by  them.  The  pagan  classics  were  naturally 
adopted  as  models — Seneca  for  tragedy,  as  is  shown  by 
the  plays  of  Mussato,  Loschi,  or  Dati,  and  especially 
the  "  Progne"  of  Corraro.  On  the  other  hand  Plau- 
tus  and  Terence  found  more  numerous  imitators,  whose 
works  did  not  degenerate  into  ribaldry,  as  is  seen  from 
the  attempts  of  Poggio,  Beccadelli,  Bruni,  Fidelfo,  etc. 
These  humanistic  attempts  attained  a  measure  of 
success  in  the  school  drama.  A  beginning  was  made 
with  the  production  of  the  ancient  dramas  in  the 
original  text;  such  productions  were  introduced  into 
the  curriculum  of  the  Lidge  school  of  the  Hieronymites 
and  they  are  occasionally  mentioned  at  Vienna,  Ros- 
tock, and  Lou  vain.  A  permanent  school-stage  was 
erected  in  Strasburg  by  the  Protectant  rector,  John 
Sturm,  who  wished  that  "  all  the  comedies  of  Plautus 
and  Terence  should  be  produced,  if  possible,  within 
half  a  year." 

The  second  step  in  the  development  was  the  imita- 
tion of  the  classical  drama,  which  may  be  traced  to 
Wimpfeling's  "Stylpho";  produced  for  the  first  time 
at  Heidelberg  in  1470,  this  play  was  still  produced 
in  1505,  a  proof  of  its  great  popularity.  A  glorifica- 
tion and  defence  of  classical  studies  was  foun<l  in 
the  comedy  of  "Codrus"  by  Kerkmcister,  master  of 
the  Miinster  grammar  school.  The  contrast  between 
humanistic  studies  and  medieval  methods,  which 
does  not  come  into  prominence  in  Wimpfeling's  "  Styl- 
pho", forms  here  the  main  theme.  Into  the  same 
category  falls  a  comedy  by  Rebel,  demonstrating  the 
superiority  of  humanistic  culture  over  medieval  learn- 
ing. Into  these  plays  important  current  events  are 
introduced,  such  as  the  war  of  Charles  VII  against 
Naples,  the  Turkish  peril,  the  political  situation  after 
the  Battle  of  Guinegate  (1513),  etc.  The  best-known 
of  these  dialogue  writers  were  Jacob  Locher,  Johann 
von  Kitzcher,  and  Hermann  Schottcnius  llessus. 

Another  hybrid  class  of  drama  was  the  allegorical 
festival  plays,  which  were  fitted  out  as  show-pieces 
after  the  fashion  of  the  Italian  mask-comedies.  A 
briUiant  example  of  this  class  is  the  "  Ludus  Dianaj", 
in  which  Conrad  Celtes  (1501)  panegyrizes  the  pre- 
eminence of  the  emperor  in  the  chase.  Similar  to  that 
of  the  festival  plays  was  the  development  of  the  so- 
called  moraUties  in  the  Netherland  schools  of  rhetoric. 
These  represented  the  strife  between  the  good  and  the 
bad  principles  (virtus  et  voluptas)  for  the  soul  of  man, 
e.  g.,  Locher's  "Spectaculum  de  judicio  Paridis"  or  the 
well-known  dramatized  version  of  the  "  Choice  of  Her- 
cules". •  Side  by  side  with  these  semi-dramatic  plays 
proceeded  the  attempts  to  follow  more  closely  the 
ancient  dramatic  form  in  the  school  drama  with  its 
varied  contents.  Reuchlin  with  his  three-act  comedy, 
which  treats  as  subject  the  wonderful  skull  of  Sergius, 
may  be  regarded  as  the  real  founder  of  the  school 
drama.  With  "Henno",  his  second  and  still  more 
famous  drama,  the  humanistic  comedy  became  nat- 
uralized in  Germany.  The  great  master  of  this  art  is 
unquestionably  George  Macropedius  (i.e.,Langh veldt), 
with  his  three  farces  "Aluta"  (1535),  "Andriska" 
(1537),  and  "Bassarus"  (1540).  A  further  develop- 
ment led  to  the  religious  school  drama,  which 
fmerallv  drew  its  subject -matter  from  Holy  Writ. 
o  further  his  own  objects  Luther  had  counselled 
the  dramatization  of  Bibhcal  subjects,  and  tales  from 
the  Bible  were  thus  by  free  treatment  of  the  in- 
cidents made  to  mirror  the  conditions  of  the  time, 
while  containing  occasional  satirical  sallies.  Among 
the  numerous  writers  of  this  class  must  ])e  mentioned 
before  all  as  the  pioneer,  the  Netherlander  Wilhelm 
Graph&us  (Willem  van  de  Voldergroft),  who  became  a 
Protestant:  his  much-discussed  "  Acolastus"  (the  story 
of  the  prodigal  son),  which  follows  the  Protestant  ten- 
dencjy^  of  representing  the  uselessness  of  good  works 
and  justification  b^  faith  alone,  was  reprinted  at  least 
£orty-seven  times  in  various  countries  between  1529 


and  15S5,  frequently  translated,  and  produced  ev^iy- 
where. 

This  species  of  drama  was  cultivated  by  the  Catho- 
lics also,  who  introduced  greater  variety  of  subject- 
matter  by  incluiling  lives  of  the  saints.  Thus  Corne- 
lius Crocus  wrote  a  "St.  Joseph  in  Egypt",  PetriiK 
Papeus  a  "[Good?]  Samaritan",  and  George  Holonins 
several  martyr-plays.  The  founder  of  the  school 
drama  in  Germany  was  Sixt  Birk  (Xistus  BetuHus): 
his  "Susanna",  "Judith",  and  "Eva"  have  primarily 
an  educative  aim,  but  are  coupled  with  Protestant 
tendencies.  His  example  was  followed  by  a  fair  num- 
ber of  imitators:  George  Buchanan  (1582),  a  Scot<*.h- 
man,  wrote  "  Jephthe"  and  "  Baptistes",  and  the  belli- 
cose Naogeorgus  treats  with  still  more  bitterness  the 
differences  between  Catholics  and  Protestants  in  his 
"Hamanus",  "Jeremias",  and  "Judas  Iscariot". 
Among  the  polemical  dramatists  on  the  Catholic  side 
Cornelius  Laurimanus  and  Andreas  Fabricius  must  be 
mentioned. 

Although  the  number  of  the  Biblical  school-dramas 
was  not  small,  it  was  far  surpassed  by  the  number  of 
the  moralities.  As  has  Ixjcn  said,  those  originated  in 
the  "Netherlaiuls,  and  it  was  the  Maiistricht  priest, 
Christian  Ischyrius  (Sterck),  who  freely  adapted  the 
famous  English  morality  "Everyman".  This  is  the 
dramatized  and  widely  circulated  "  Ars  moriendi"  and 
represents  the  importance  of  a  good  preparation  for 
death.  The  same  subject  in  a  somewhat  more  de- 
tailed fonn  is  treated  by  Macropedius  in  his  "  Hecas- 
tus"  (1538).  The  conclusion  of  the  drama  is  an 
exposition  of  justification  bv  faith  in  the  merits  of 
Christ.  This  inclination  of  the  Catholic  poet  towards 
Luther's  teaching  found  great  applause  among  Protes- 
tants, and  fostered  the  development  of  polemico- 
satirical  sectarian  plays  as  Naogeorgus's  "  Mercator" 
(1539)  shows.  The  Catholic  standpoint  also  found  its 
exposition  in  the  moraUties,  for  example  in  the  "  Miles 
Christianus"  of  Laurimanus  (1575),  the  "Euripus"  of 
the  Miooritc  Levin  Brecht,  the  "Pomius"  of  Iiannar- 
dus  Gamcrius,  the  "Evangelicus  fluctuans"  (1569)  of 
Andreas  Fa})ricius,  who  had  composed  his  "Religio 
patiens"  three  years  earlier  in  the  service  of  the  Coun- 
ter-Reformation. Still  more  bitter  now  grew  the 
polemics  in  the  dramas,  which  borrowed  their  material 
from  contemporary  history.  The  most  notorious  of 
this  class  is  the  "Pamachius"  of  the  pope-hater, 
Thomas  Naogeorgus,  who  found  many  imitators. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  materials 
derived  from  ancient  popular  legends  and  history  first 
came  into  greater  vogue,  and  gradually  led  to  the 
Latin  historical  drama,  of  which  we  find  niunerous 
examples  at  the  famous  representations  given  at  the 
Strasburg  academy  under  its  founder  Sturm.  This 
example  found  ready  imitation,  especially  wherever 
the  influence  of  the  English  comedy-writers  had  made 
itself  felt.  In  this  way  Latin  drama  enjoyed  a  period 
of  prosperity  everj^'here  until  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. The  best-known  dramatic  poet  of  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century  was  the  unfortunate 
Nicodemus  Frischlin.  Examples  of  everj'  kind  of 
school  drama  may  be  found  among  his  works :  "  Dido" 
(1581),  "Venus"  (1584),and"Helvctiogcrmani"  (1588), 
owe  their  subjects  to  the  ancient  classical  period;  "Re- 
becca" (1576),'*Susanna"  (1577),  his  incomplete  Chris- 
tianized drama  of  "  Ruth",  after  the  manner  of  Terence, 
the  "  Marriage  of  Cana",  and  a  "  Prologue  to  Jaseph", 
treat  Biblical  topics;  German  legend  is  represented  by 
"  Hildegardis",  the  wife  of  Charlemagne,  whose  fate  is 
copied  from  that  of  St.  Genevieve;  of  a  polemico- 
satirical  nature  are  "Priscianus  vapulans"  (1578),  a 
mockery  of  medieval  Latin,  and  "  Pliasma"  (1580),  in 
which  the  sectarian  spirit  of  the  age  is  scourged.  A 
play  of  an  entirely  original  character  is  his  "Julius 
redivivus":  Cia^ro  and  CiPsar  ascend  from  the  lower 
world  to  Germany,  and  express  their  wonder  at  Ger- 
man discoveries  (gimpowder,  printing).     All    these 


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attempts  at  a  Latin  school  drama^  in  so  far  as  thev 
servea  educational  purposes,  were  most  zealously  wel- 
comed in  the  schools  of  the  regular  orders  (especially 
those  of  the  Jesuits),  and  cultivated  with  great  suc- 
cess. Thus  the  purely  external  side  of  the  dramatic 
art  developed  from  the  crudest  of  beginnings  to  the 
brilliant  settings  of  the  so-calleii  liidi  cicsarii.  With 
the  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  the  school  drama 
came  to  a  rapid  end,  and  no  serious  attempt  has  been 
since  made  to  revive  it  and  restore  it  to  its  fonner  posi- 
tion. However  from  time  to  time  new  plays  nave 
been  produced  both  in  Europe  and  America,  and  the 
'*St.  John  Damascene",  written  by  Father  Harzheim 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  is  worthy  to  take  its  place 
among  the  best  productions  of  the  Jesuit  dramatists. 

B.  Latin  Lifncal  Poetry. — This  division  of  Latin 
poetry  falls  naturally  into  two  classes:  secular  and  re- 
ligious. The  former  includes  the  poems  of  itinerant 
scholars  and  the  Humanists,  the  latter  h^innody.  The 
development  of  vagrant  scholars  {cleria,  vagi)  is  con- 
nected with  the  foundation  of  the  universities,  as  stu- 
dents wandered  about  to  visit  these  newly  founded  in- 
stitutions of  learning.  From  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century  imperial  privileges  protected  these  travelling 
schoku^.  The  majority  intended  to  devote  them- 
selves to  theology,  but  comparatively  few  reached 
orders.  The  remainder  found  their  callings  as  amanu- 
enses or  tutors  in  noble  families,  or  degenerated  into 
loose-living  goliards  or  into  wandering  scholars  who 
became  a  veritable  plague  during  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  as  they  wandered,  begging,  from 
place  to  place,  demanded  hospitality  in  monasteries 
and  castles  ami  like  the  wandering  minstrels  paid 
with  their  songs,  jugglery,  buffoonery,  and  tales. 
Proud  of  their  scholarly  attainments,  they  used  Latin 
in  their  poetical  compositions,  and  thus  arose  a  special 
literature,  the  goHaraic  poetry.  Of  this  two  great  col- 
lections are  still  extant,  the  "  Benediktbciircn  "  collec- 
tion and  the  so-called  Harleian  MS.  (no.  978)  at  Cam- 
bridge. The  arrangement  of  ''Carmina  burana",  as 
their  first  publisher,  Schmeller,  named  them,  was  upon 
a  uniform  plan,  according  to  which  they  were  divided 
into  serious,  comic,  and  aramatic  pieces.  Songs  cele- 
brating the  spring  and  the  winter,  m  which  sentiments 
of  love  also  find  expression,  follow  one  another  in  great 
variety.  Together  with  these  are  pious  hymns  of  en- 
thusiasm for  the  Crusades  or  of  praise  for  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  We  also  find  the  most  riotous  drinking-songs, 
often  of  a  loose,  erotic  nature,  nor  arc  diatribes  of  a 
satirical  nature  wanting:  these  soured  and  dissolute, 
though  educated,  tramps  delighted  especially  in  lam- 
poons against  the  pope,  bishops,  and  nobles,  inveigh- 
mg  with  bitter  sarcasm  against  the  avarice,  ambition, 
and  incontinence  of  the  clergy.  In  this  Professor 
Schonlmch  sees  the  influence  of  the  Catharists. 

Concerning  the  composers  of  this  extensive  litera- 
ture nothing  can  be  stated  with  certaintv.  The 
poems  were  m  a  certain  sense  regarded  as  folk-songs, 
that  is  as  common  property  and  international  in  the 
full  sense  of  the  word.  Some  representative  poets  are 
indeed  mentioned,  e.  g.,  Golias,  Primas,  Archipoeta, 
but  these  are  merely  assumed  names.  Particularly 
famous  among  the  poems  is  the  "Confessio  Goliae", 
which  was  referred  to  the  Archipoeta,  and  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  prototype  of  the  goliardic  songs :  strophes 
12-17  (Meum  est  vropositum  in  taberna  ynori)  are  even 
to-day  sun^  as  a  clrinking-song  in  German  student  cir- 
cles. The  identity  of  the  Archipoeta  has  been  the  sub- 
1'ect  of  much  investigation,  but  so  far  without  success, 
'aris  was  an  important  centre  of  these  itinerant  poets, 
particularly  in  the  time  of  Abelard  (1079-1142),  and  it 
was  probably  thence  that  they  derived  the  name  of 

foliards,  Atfelard  having  been  called  Golias  by  St. 
Bernard.  From  Paris  their  poetry  passed  to  England 
and  Germany,  but  in  Italy  it  found  Httle  favour.  At 
a  later  period,  when  the  goliardic  songs  had  become 
known  ever}'where,  the  pngin  of  their  title  appears  to 


have  grown  obscure,  and  thus  emerged  a  Bishop  Go- 
lias— a  name  referred  to  the  Latin  gtUa — to  whom  a 
parody  on  the  Apocalypse  and  biting  satires  on  the 
pope  were  ascribed.  There  even  appeared  poets  as 
filiuft  or  puer  or  discipulus  de  familia  GolicBf  and  fre- 
quent mention  is  made  of  a  goliardic  order  with  the 
titles  of  abbot,  prior,  etc.  Apart  from  their  satirical 
attitude  towards  ecclesiastical  life,  the  goliards  showed 
their  free,  and  at  times  heretical,  views  in  their  paro- 
dies of  religious  hymns,  their  irreverence  in  adapting 
ecclesiastical  melodies  to  secular  texts  and  their  use 
of  metaphors  and  expressions  from  church  hymns  in 
their  loose  verses. 

In  outward  form  the  poetry  of  the  goliards  resem- 
bled the  ecclesiastical  sequences,  rhyme  being  com- 
bined with  an  easily  sun^  rhythm  and  the  verses  being 
joined  into  strophes.  Smgularly  rapid  in  its  develop- 
ment, its  decay  was  no  less  sudden.  The  cause  of  its 
decline  is  traceable  partly  to  the  conditions  of  the  time 
and  partly  to  the  character  of  the  goliardic  poets.  In 
a  burlesque  edict  of  1265  the  goliards  were  compared 
to  bats — neither  quadrupeds  nor  birds.  This  was  in- 
deed a  not  inapt  comparison,  for  their  unfortunate 
begging  rendered  them  odious  to  clergy  and  laity  alike. 
Forgetting  their  higher  educational  parts,  they  found 
it  necessary  to  ally  themselves  more  and  more  closely 
with  the  strolling  players  and  thus  became  subject  to 
the  ecclesiastical  censures  repeatedly  decreed  by 
synods  and  councils  against  these  wandering  musi- 
cians. Thus,  regarded  virtually  as  outlaws,  they  are 
heard  of  no  more  in  France  after  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, although  they  are  referred  to  in  the  synods  of 
Germany  until  the  following  century.  Together  with 
the  poets  gradually  disappeared  their  songs,  and  only 
a  few  are  preserved  in  the  KommersbUcher  of  the  stu- 
dent worla.  Yet  the  influence  of  their  poetry  on  the 
secular  German  lyric,  and  perhaps  also  on  the  out^r 
form  of  religious  poetry,  was  both  stimulating  and 
permanent.  In  this  fact  lies  their  principal  literary 
importance  and  they  are  valuable  as  illustrations  of 
the  literary  culture  of  the  time. 

Quite  distinct  in  subject  and  form  is  the  lyric  poetry 
of  the  humanistic  period,  the  era  of  the  revival  of 
classical  learning.  The  work  of  a  few  scattered 
poets,  it  could  not  attain  the  popularity  won  by  the 
goliardic  poetry,  even  had  its  form  not  been  exclu- 
sively an  imitation  of  ancient  classical  versification. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Cath- 
olic humanist,  Vida,  had  been  engaged  among  other 
works  on  the  composition  of  odes,  elegies,  and  hymns: 
he  belonged  to  the  poetcs  urhani  of  the  Medici  period  of 
Leo  X,  many  of  whom  wrote  lyrical,  in  addition  to 
their  epical,  pieces.  Johannes  Dantiscus,  who  died  in 
1548  as  Bishop  of  Ermland,  composed  thirty  religious 
hymns  after  the  fashion  of  the  older  ones  in  the  Brevi- 
ary, without  any  trace  of  classical  imitation.  Even 
the  renowned  Nicolaus  Copernicus  composed  seven 
odes  embodying  the  beautiful  Christian  truths  associ- 
ated with  Advent  and  Christmas.  Among  the  Hu- 
manists of  Francer  John  Salmon  (Salmonius  Macrinus) 
was  named  the  French  Horace,  and  among  the  numer- 
ous other  names  those  of  Erixius  with  his  "  Carmina" 
(1519)  and  Theodore  de  Bds^e  with  his  "Poemata" 
(1548)  deserve  special  mention.  In  Belgium  and  the 
Netherlands  Johannes  Secundus  (Jan  Nicolai  Ever- 
aerts,d.  1536)  was  conspicuous  as  a  lyrical  poet.  From 
Holland  Latin  poetry  found  an  entrance  also  into  the 
Northern  Empire  under  the  patronage  of  Queen  Chris- 
tina, while  even  Iceland  haa  its  representative  in  the 
Protestant  Bishop  Sveinsson  (1605-74),  who  among 
other  works  published  a  rich  collection  of  poems  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  in  the  most  varied  ancient  Clascal 
metres. 

As  in  the  domain  of  drama,  so  also  in  that  of  lyrical 
poetry.  Humanism  showed  itself  most  fruitful  in  Ger- 
many, particularly  in  connexion  with  the  disseminsr 
tion  of  the  new  doctrine  of  Luther.    *  *  Thus  among  the 


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neo-Latinist  poets  we  meet  a  large  number  of  preach- 
ers, school-rectors,  university  and  grammar-school 
professors,  who  translated  the  Psalms  into  Horatian 
metres,  converted  ecclesiastical  and  edifying  songs  of 
every  type  into  the  most  divine  ancient  strophes^  and 
finally,  in  an  immeasurable  number  of  occasional 
poems,  celebrated  in  verse  princes  and  potentates,  re- 
ligious and  secular  festivals,  the  consecration  of 
churches,  christenings,  marriage,  interments,  installa- 
tions, occasions  of  public  rejoicing  and  calamity'' 
(Baum^artner).  The  Jesuits  were  as  distinguished 
for  theu"  fruitful  activity  in  the  field  of  lyrical  poetry 
as  in  the  school  drama.  With  Sarbiewski  (q.v.)»  the 
Polish  Horace,  were  associated  by  Urban  VIIl  for  the 
revision  of  the  old  hymns  in  the  Breviary  Famian 
Strada,  Tarauinius  Galuzzi,  Hieronymus  Petrucci, 
and  Cardinal  Robert  Bellarmine.  In  addition  to 
Balde  (q.  v.)  there  were  amon^  the  German  Jesuit 
poets  a  notable  number  of  lyricists.  Of  the  many 
names  we  may  mention  Jacob  Masen,  Nicola  Avan- 
cini,  Adam  Widl,  and  John  Bissel,  who  must  be  num- 
bered among  the  best-known  imitators  of  Horace.  In 
the  Nethermnds,  France,  Italy,  England,  Portugal, 
and  Spain,  their  number  was  not  smaller,  nor  their 
achievements  of  less  value.  For  example  the  Dutch 
Hosschius  (de  Hossche,  1596-1669)  excels  both  Balde 
and  Sarbiewski  in  purity  of  language  and  smoothness 
of  verse.  Simon  Rettenbacher  (1634-1706),  the 
Benedictine  imitator  of  Balde,  whose  lyrics  show  a 
true  poetic  ^ft,  also  deserves  a  place  among  the  neo- 
Latinist  writers  of  odes.  The  nineteenth  century 
added  but  one  name  to  the  list  of  Latin  lyricists,  that 
of  Leo  XIII,  whose  poems  evince  an  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  ancient  classical  literature.  The  other  trend 
of  neo-Latinist  lyric  poetry  embraces  religious  hym- 
nody.  "The  whole  career  of  ecclesiastical  and  devo- 
tional hynmody  from  its  cradle  to  the  present  day  may 
be  divided  into  three  natural  periods,  of  which  the  first 
is  the  most  important,  the  second  the  longest,  and  the 
third  the  most  insignificant.''  Such  is  the  division  of 
Latin  ecclesiastical  hymnody  (q.  v.)  given  by  the 
fl;reatest  authority,  the  late  Father  Guido  Dreves, 
formerly  a  memlx^r  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 

C.  Tne  neo-Latin  Epic. — ^The  epic  forms,  as  is  nat- 
ural, the  largest  part  of  our  inheritance  of  Christian 
Latin  poetry.  As  a  lucid  treatment  according  to  any 
regular  division  of  the  subject-matter  is  difficult,  we 
slmll  content  ourselves  with  a  chronological  sketch  of 
it.  The  foundation  of  the  Benedictine  Order  was  in 
every  respect  an  event  of  prime  importance.  The 
Benedictines  advanced  the  mterests  of  culture,  not 
only  to  supply  the  needs  of  life,  but  also  to  embellish 
it.  Thus  among  the  earliest  companions  of  St.  Bene- 
dict we  already  find  a  poet.  Marcus  of  Monte  Cas- 
sino,  who  in  his  distich  san^  tne  praises  of  the  deceased 
founder  of  his  order.  Dunng  the  sixth  century,  while 
the  foundations  of  a  rich  literature  were  being  thus 
laid  the  culture  formerly  so  flourishing  in  Northern 
Africa  had  almost  died  out.  The  imperial  governor, 
Flaviua  Cresconius  Corippus,  and  Bishop  Verecundus 
were  still  regarded  as  poets  of  some  merit:  but  the  for- 
mer lacked  poetic  inspiration,  the  latter,  poetic  form. 
Among  the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  however,  we  find  true 
poets,  e.  g.,  St.  Eugenius  II  with  his  version  of  the  Hex- 
aemeron.  In  Gaul  in  the  sixth  century  flourished  the 
most  celebrated  poet  of  his  age,  Venantius  Fortunatus. 
Most  original  is  his  '*  Epithalamium  "  on  the  marriage 
of  Sigebert  I  of  Austrasia  to  the  Visigothic  princess 
Brunehaut,  Christian  thought  being  clothed  in  ancient 
mythological  forms.  About  250  more  or  less  exten- 
sive poems  of  Venantius  are  extant,  including  a  "  Life 
of  St.  Martin"  in  more  than  two  thousand  hexameter 
verses.  Most  of  his  composition  are  occasional  poems. 
In  addition  to  his  well-known  hymns  "  Vexilla  regis" 
and  **  Pange  lingua",  his  elegies  treating  of  the  tragi- 
cal fate  of  the  family  of  Radegundis  found  the  greatest 
appreciation.    About  the  same  period  there  sprang  up 


in  the  British  Isles  a  rich  harvest  of  Latin  culture 
One  of  the  most  eminent  poets  is  St.  Aldhelm,  a  scion 
of  the  royal  house  of  Wessex:  his  great  •work  "De 
laudibus  virginum",  containing  3000  verses,  attained 
a  wide  renown  which  it  long  enjoyed.  The  Venerable 
Bede  also  cultivated  Latin  poetry,  writing  a  eulogy  of 
St.  Cuthbert  in  976  hexameters. 

Ireland  transmitted  the  true  Faith,  together  with 
higher  culture,  to  Germany.  The  earliest  pioneers 
were  Saints  Columbanus  and  Gall:  the  former  is  cred- 
ited with  some  poems,  the  latter  founded  Saint-Gall. 
The  real  apostle  of  Germany,  St.  Boniface,  left  behind 
some  hunareds  of  didactic  verses .  The  seeds  sown  by 
this  saint  flourished  and  spread  under  the  energetic 
Charlemagne,  who  succeecled,  without  neglecting  his 
extensive  affairs  of  state,  in  making  his  Court  a  Roimd 
Table  of  Science  and  Art,  at  which  Latin  was  the  collo- 
quial speech.  The  soul  of  this  learned  circle  was  Al- 
cuin,  who  showed  his  knowledge  of  classical  antiquity 
in  two  great  epic  poems,  the  "  Life  of  St.  Willibrord 
and  the  history  of  his  native  York.  In  command  of 
language  and  skill  of  versification  as  well  as  in  the 
number  of  poems  transmitted  to  posterity,  Theodulf 
the  Goth  surpassed  all  members  of  the  Round  Table. 
Movements  similar  to  that  at  Charlemagne's  Court  are 
observed  in  the  contemporary  monastic  schools  of 
Fulda,  Reichenau,  and  Saint-Gall.  It  will  suffice  to 
mention  a  few  of  the  chief  names  from  the  multitude 
of  poets.  Walafrid  Strabo's  "  De  visionibus  Wettini". 
containing  about  1000  hexameters,  is  justly  regarded 
as  the  precursor  of  Dante's  "Divine  Comedy".  His 
verses  on  the  equestrian  statue  of  Theodoric,  "  Versus 
de  imagine  tetrici ",  are  of  literary  importance,  because 
he  represents  the  king  as  a  tyrant  hating  God  and  man. 
Highly  interesting  also  for  the  art  of  gardening  is  his 
great  poem  "Hortulus",  in  which  he  descries  the 
monastery  garden  with  its  various  herbs  etc.  Con- 
temporary with  Walafrid  and  characterized  by  the 
same  spirit  were  the  poets  Ermoldas,  Nigellus,  Ermen- 
rich,  Sedulius  Scottus,  etc.  As  a  "  real  gem  from  the 
treasury  of  old  manuscripts"  F.  RQckert  describes  the 
elegy  on  Hathumod,  the  first  Abbess  of  Gandersheim, 
written  by  the  Benedictine  Father  Agius.  From  the 
same  monk  of  Corwey  we  have  the  poem  "On  the 
translation  of  St.  Liborius"  and  a  poetical  biography 
of  Charlemagne.  A  peculiar  work  was  written  by 
Albert  Odo  of  Cluny  under  the  title  "Occupatio":  it 
is  an  epico-didactic  poem  against  pride  and  debauch- 
ery, which  he  demonstrates  to  be  tne  chief  vices  in  the 
history  of  the  world. 

The  golden  age  of  Saint-Gall  begins  with  the  end  of 
the  ninth  century,  after  which  opens  the  epoch  of  the 
four  famous  Notkers  and  the  five  not  less  renown^ 
Ekkehards.  The  first  Ekkehard  is  the  author  of  the 
welUknown  "Waltharius"  which  Ekkehard  IV  re- 
vised. About  the  time  when  the  "  Waltharius"  was 
revised,  there  appeared  another  epic  poem  "Ruod- 
lieb" — a  romance  in  Latin  hexameters  by  an  unknown 
author,  describing  the  adventurous  fate  of  the  hero — 
which  is  unfortunately  only  partly  extant.  The 
name  of  the  poet  who  in  1175  composed  in  Latin 
hexameters  the  first  "animal"  epic,  "Ecbasis  cuius- 
dam  captivi  per  tropologiam",  is  also  unknown.  The 
frame-work  of  the  poem  is  the  story  of  a  monk  who 
runs  away  from  the  monastery  but  is  brought  back 
again  under  the  form  of  a  calf.  The  "Fable  of  the 
l£es"  forms  the  "animal"  epic  in  which  the  enmity 
of  the  wolf  and  fox  is  the  central  point.  In  the  twelfm 
century  this  "animal"  epic  received  an  extension, 
probably  from  Magister  Nivardus  of  Flanders,  under 
the  title  "Ysengrimus"  or  "Renardus  vulpes  :  from 
the  poem  thus  extended  an  extract  was  made  later, 
and  this  is  the  last  product  of  the  "  animal"  epic  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  Like  Charlemagne  Otto  the  Great 
(936-73)  sought  to  make  his  Court  the  centre  of 
science,  art.  and  literature.  The  most  brilliant  reDr&- 
sentative  ot  this  period  is  the  nun  Hroswitha,  pupu  at 


ZJLTIH 


31 


LATIH 


the  emperor's  niece  Gerberga.  It  was  in  the  epic  that 
Bhe  achieved  her  first  poetic  successes:  these  were  her 
well-known  "  Legends  ,  which  were  followed  by  two 
long  epic  poems  in  praise  of  the  imperial  house  (see 
Hroswitha). 

The  chroniclers  and  historians  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries  but  seldom  use  verse  in  their 
narratives,  their  works  being  intended  above  all  else 
for  strictly  historical  purposes.  Histories  in  verse, 
however,  were  not  wanting.  Thus  Flodoard  records 
in  legendary  fashion  almost  the  whole  ecclesiastical 
history  of  the  first  ten  centuries.  Walter  of  Speyer 
wrote  during  the  same  period  the  first  "  Legend  of  St. 
Christopher",  and  an  unknown  poet  composed  "The 
Epic  of  the  Saxon  War"  (of  Henry  IV).  Other  poets 
wrote  on  the  Crusades,  Walter  of  Ch&tillon  even  ven- 
tured on  an  "  Alexandreis",  while  Hildebert  produced 
a  "  Historia  Mahumetis"  in  verse. 

The  Humanists  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies are  characterized  by  a  closer  approach  to  an- 
cient classical  form .  Mar  bod  (d .  II 23)  was  a  scholarly 
poet,  and  left  behind  a  considerable  number  of  legencis 
and  didactic  aphorisms.  His  younger  contemporary 
Hildebert  of  Tours  also  wrote  a  fair  number  of  re- 
ligious poems:  more  important  are  the  two  "Roman 
Elegies",  in  which  he  treats  of  the  remains  of  ancient 
Rome  and  the  sufferings  of  the  papal  capital  under 
Paschal  II.  Most  artistic  in  its  conception  and  execu- 
tion, is  his  fragment  "  Liber  mathematicus",  in  which 
the  tragical  complications  caused  by  the  superstitious 
fear  arising  from  an  unfavourable  horoscope  are  de- 
picted. That  the  medieval  Scholastics  could  combine 
theological  knowledge  with  humanistic  culture  may 
be  seen  from  the  works  of  the  two  scholars  John  of 
Salisbury  and  Alanus  de  Insulis.  That  the  influence 
of  this  humanistic  culture  was  unfortunately  not 
always  for  good,  the  notorious  prurient  narratives 
of  Matthew  of  Vend6me  prove.  In  the  days  of 
the  goliards  there  were  also  poets  who  depicted  in 
verse  contemporary  events.  Thus  the  achievements 
of  Barbarossa  were  sung  by  no  less  than  three 
poets. 

Humanism  attained  its  full  bloom  in  the  era  of  the 
Renaissance,  which  began  in  Italy.  Dante  gives 
strong  evidence  of  this  movement,  as  does  even  more 
strongly  Francesco  Petrarch,  whose  epic  "Africa"  en- 
joyed wide  renown.  Giovanni  Boccaccio,  a  contem- 
porary of  the  preceding,  belongs  ratlier  to  Italian 
literature,  although  he  also  cultivated  Latin  poetry. 
The  himoanistic  movement  found  favourable  reception 
and  encouragement  everywhere.  In  Florence  there 
sprang  up  about  the  Augustinian  monk.  Luigi  Marsigli 
(d.  1394),  a  kind  of  literary  academy  lor  the  cultiva- 
tion of  ancient  literature  while  in  the  following  cen- 
tury the  city  of  the  Medici  developed  into  the  literary 
centre  of  all  Italy.  Most  representatives  of  the  new 
movement  preserved  their  close  connexion  with  the 
Church,  altnough  a  few  isolated  forerunners  of  the 
great  revolt  of  the  sixteenth  century  already  made 
their  appearance.  The  seeds  of  this  religious  revolu- 
tion were  sown  by  the  lampoons  and  libidinous  poems 
of  such  men  as  Poggio  Bracciolini,  Antonio  Beccadelli, 
and  Lorenzo  Valla.  MafTeo  Vegio  on  the  other  hand 
followed  the  purely  humanistic  direction  of  the  true 
Renaissance;  he  added  a  thirteenth  book  to  Virgil's 
"  iEneid",  making  the  poem  conclude  with  tiie  death 
of  iGneas.  He  also  composed  poetic  versions  of  the 
"  Death  of  Astyanax"  and  "The  Golden  Fleece",  and 
still  later  composed  a  "  Life  of  St.  Anthony".  An 
epic  eulogizing  the  elder  Hunyadi  was  begun  by  the 
Hungarian  Janus  Pannonius,  but  unfortunately  left 
unfinished.  A  legendary  poem  of  an  entirely  original 
character  is  the  "  Josephma",  written  in  twelve  cantos 
by  John  Gerson,  the  learned  chancellor  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris.  It  reminds  us  of  a  similar  poem  by 
Hroswitha,  though  the  apocryphal  narratives  taken 
from  the  so-called  Gospel  of  St.  James  are  marked  by 


greater  deoth.  Humanism  was  planted  in  Germany 
by  Petrarcn  during  his  residence  there  as  ambassador 
to  Charles  IV,  with  whom  he  corresponded  after  his 
departure.  'The  interest  in  humanistic  studies  was 
abo  spread  by  Mne&s  Silvius  at  the  Council  of 
Basle. 

As  in  Italy,  the  movement  rapidly  developed  every- 
where, evincing  at  first  a  religious  tenaency  but 
afterwards  becoming  hostile  to  the  Church.  In  the 
century  preceding  the  "Reformation",  indeed,  the 
foremost  representatives  of  Humanism  remained  true 
to  the  ancient  Faith.  Conrad  Celtes,  although  his  four 
books  of  "'Amores''  are  a  reflection  of  his  dissolute 
life,  sang  later  of  Catholic  truths  and  the  lives  of  the 
saints.  Similarly  Willibald  Pirkheimer  (d.  1528) 
among  many  others,  notwithstanding  his  satire  *'Ec- 
cius  desolatus",  remained  faithful  to  the  Church.  On 
the  other  hand  Eoban  Hessus,  Crotus  Rubeanus,  and 
above  all  Ulrich  von  Hutten  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
new  doctrine  in  their  highly  satirical  writings.  A 
somewhat  protean  character  was  displayed  by  Desid- 
erius  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  whose  early  works  in- 
clude hymns  to  Christ  and  the  Virgin  Mary.  "  Laus 
stultitise",  a  satire  on  all  the  estates  after  the  fashion 
of  Brant's  "NarrenschifT",  was  written  in  seven  days 
to  cheer  his  sick  friend,  Thomas  More.  In  England  es- 
pecially at  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
the  humanistic  movement  developed  along  the  same 
lines  as  in  Germany.  The  first  direction  was  given  to 
the  movement  mainly  by  Thonuis  More,  whose 
"Utopia"  (1515)  is  world  renowned.  In  Italy  the 
Renaissance  movement  continued  into  the  sixteenth 
century.  Sadolet's  poem  on  "The  Laocoon  Group" 
is  known  throughout  the  literary  world,  while  his  epic 
on  the  heroic  death  of  Caius  Curtius  is  equally  fin- 
ished. Not  less  famous  is  Vida's  "  Christiad  " :  he  also 
wrote  didactic  poems  on  "Silk-worms"  and  "Chess". 
Among  the  more  important  works  of  this  period  must 
also  be  included  Jacopo  Sannazaro  with  his  classically 
finished  epic  "De  partu  Virginis",  at  which  he  la- 
boured for  twenty  years.  His  "  Naenia"  on  the  death 
of  Christ  also  merits  every  praise.  The  example  of 
Vida  and  Sannazaro  spurred  numerous  other  poets  to 
undertake  extensive  epical  works,  of  which  none  at- 
tained the  excellence  of  their  models. 

In  other  countries  also  the  new  literary  movement 
continued,  although  it  produced  richer  fruit  in  the 
field  of  dramatic  and  lyric  poetry  than  in  epic  poetry. 
The  singular  attempt  of  Laurenz  Rhodomannus  to 
compose  a  "Legend  of  Luther"  in  opposition  to  the 
Catholic  legend  deserves  mention  on  account  of  its 
peculiarity.  Among  the  works  of  the  dramatists  we 
also  meet  with  more  or  less  ambitious  attempts  at  epic 
verse.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  dramatists  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  J.  Masen's  "  Sarcotis  ",  for  example, 
enjoys  a  certain  fame  as  the  proto-type  of  Milton's 
"Paradise  Lost"  and  Vondel's  "Lucifer".  Bieder- 
mann  and  Avancini  also  composed  small  epic  narra- 
tives. Balde  produced  many  epical  works;  his  "Ba- 
trachomyomachia"  is  an  allegorical  treatment  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  and  his  "  Obseauies"  of  Tilly  bring 
to  light  many  interesting  particulars  concerning  the 
mat  general.  He  also  celebrated  in  verse  the  heroic 
death  of  Dampierre  and  Bouo^uois.  Not  least  among 
his  works  is  his  "  Urania  Victnx  ".  But,  instead  of  ac- 
cumulating further  names,  let  us  bring  forward  just 
a  few  of  the  more  important  poems:  the  " Puer  Jesus" 
of  Tommaso  Ceva  must  be  placed  in  the  front  rank  of 
idyllic  compositions;  the  "Life  of  Mary"  (2086  dis- 
tichs)  of  the  Brazilian  missionary,  Venerable  Joseph 
de  Anchicta,  is  a  model  for  similar  works.  During  tne 
nineteenth  century  the  Latin  epic  more  or  less  cen- 
tred around  the  endowment  of  the  rich  native  of 
Amsterdam,  Jacob  Henry  Hoeufft,  who  founded  a 
competitive  prize  for  Latin  poetry.  Peter  Esseiva,  a 
Swiss,  is  the  best-known  prize  winner:  he  celebrated  in 
beautiful  classical  verse  and  brilliant  Latin  such  mod- 


LATXK 


32 


LATIN 


era  inventions  as  the  railroad,  etc.,  and  also  treated 
strictly  religious  and  light  topics  (e.  g.,  in  "The  Flood", 
"The  Grievances  of  an  Old  Maid' ') .  I^  XIII  was  the 
last  writer  who  wrote  short  epical  poems  in  addition 
to  his  odes.  Baumgartner,  the  author  of  '*  Weltliter- 
atur",  assigns  to  Latin  Christian  poetry  the  well- 
merited  pn*'se:  "It  still  contains  creative  sugges- 
tions and  offers  the  noblest  of  intellectual  enjo}'- 
ment.  '* 

BADifQARTNER,  Oeschichte  der  Weltliteratur,  IV  (Freibui^g, 
1900);  Salzer,  JllustricrU  Geschichte  der  deuUchen  LUcratur 
^Vienna),  publication  not  yet  completed;  Drevks,  Die  Kirche 
xn  ihren  Liedem  (Kemoten,  1908);  Hartuno,  Andreas Gryphius 
und  daa  Drama  der  Jesuiten  (Halle,  1907);  CREiZENACn,  Oe- 
aehichte  dee  neueren  Dramas,  I,  II  (Halle,  1893-1901);  Heinzel, 
Beschreibung  des  geistelichen  Sehauspiels  im  deutschen  Mittelalter 
(Hamburg,  1898) ;  Goedkke,  Grunariss  (2nd  ed.);  Schmidt,  Die 
aUhnenverhUltnisse  des  deutschen  Schuldramas  (Berlin,  1903); 
ScHEiD,  Der  Jesuit  J.  Masen  (Cologne,  1898);  Idem,  Jakob 
Balde  in  HiUorische-politische  BUiUer,  CXIII,  19;  Swoboda, 
Odonis  ahbatis  Ctuniacensis  Occupatio  (Leipzig,   1900). 

N.  SCHEID. 

Latin  Literature  in  the  Ghurch,  Classical. — 
I.  This  article  deals  only  with  the  relations  of  the 
classical  literature,  chiefly  Latin,  to  the  Catholic 
Church.  When  Christianity  at  first  appeared  in 
Rome  the  instruction  of  youth  was  largely  confined  to 
the  study  of  poets  und  historians,  chief  among  whom 
at  a  very  early  date  appear  Horace  and  Virgil.  Until 
the  peace  of  the  Church,  early  in  the  fourth  century, 
the  value  and  use  of  classical  studies  were,  of  course, 
not  even  questioned.  The  new  converts  to  Christian- 
ity brought  with  them  such  mental  cultivation  as  they 
had  received  while  pagans.  Their  knowledge  of  my- 
thology and  ancient  traditions  they  used  as  a  means 
of  attacking  paganism;  their  acqmrements  as  orators 
and  writers  were  placed  at  the  service  of  their  new 
Faith.  They  coula  not  conceive  how  a  thorough  edu- 
cation could  be  obtained  under  conditions  other  than 
those  under  which  they  had  grown  up.  Tertullian  for- 
bade Christians  to  teach,  but  admitted  that  school 
attendance  by  Christian  pupils  was  unavoidable  (De 
idol.,  10).  In  fact,  his  rigorous  views  were  not  carried 
out  even  so  far  as  the  prohibition  of  teaching  is  con- 
cerned. Arnobius  taught  rhetoric,  and  was  very 
proud  of  having  numerous  Christian  colleagues  (Adv. 
nat.,  II,  4).  One  of  his  disciples  was  Lactantius,  him- 
self a  rhetorician  and  imperial  professor  at  Nicomedia. 
Among  the  martyrs,  we  meet  with  school  teachers  like 
Cassianus  (Prudent.,  "Perist.",  9)  whom  his  pupils 
stabbed  to  death  with  a  stylus;  Gorgonis,  another 
humble  teacher,  whose  epitaph  in  the  Roman  cata- 
combs dates  from  the  third  century  (De  Rossi,  "Roma 
Sotterranea",  II,  810).  During  the  fourth  century, 
however,  there  sprang  up  an  opposition  between  pro- 
fane literature  and  the  Bible.  This  opposition  is  con- 
densed in  the  accepted  translation,  dating  from  St. 
Jerome,  of  Psalm  Ixx,  15-16,  *'Quoniam  non  cognovi 
litteraturam,  introibo  in  potentias  Domini;  Domine 
memorabor  justitise  tuae  solius".  One  of  the  va- 
riants of  the  (jireek  text  (ypafifMTias  for  wpaynarlas) 
was  perpetuated  in  this  translation.  The  opposition 
between  Divine  justice,  i.  e.,  the  Law  and  literature, 
became  gradually  an  accepted  Christian  idea. 

The  persecution  of  Julian  led  Christian  writers  to 
express  more  definitely  their  views  on  the  subject.  It 
produced  httle  effect  in  the  West.  However,  Marius 
Victorinus,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  professors  in 
Rome,  chose  "to  give  up  the  idle  talk  of  the  school 
rather  than  denv  the  Word  of  God"  (Augustine. 
"Conf.",  VIII,  5).  Thenceforth,  Christians  studied 
more  closely  and  more  appreciatively  their  own  litera- 
ture, i.  e.,  the  Biblical  writings.  St.  Jerome  discovers 
therein  a  Horace,  a  Catullus,  an  Alcjeus  (Epist.  30). 
In  his  "De  doctrina  Christiana"  St.  Augustine  shows 
how  the  Scriptures  could  be  turned  to  account  for  the 
•tudy  of  eloquence;  he  analyses  periods  of  the  Prophet 
Amos,  of  St.  Paul,  and  shows  excellent  examples  of 
rhetorical  figures  io  the  Pauline  Epistles  (Doctr,  chr.. 


IV,  6-7).  The  Church,  therefore,  it  seemed  ought  to 
have  given  up  the  study  of  pagan  literature.  She  did 
not  do  so.  St.  Augustme  suggested  his  method  only 
to  those  who  wish^  to  become  priests,  and  even  for 
these  he  did  mean  to  make  it  obligatory.  Men  of  less 
marked  ability  were  to  use  the  ordinary  method  of  in- 
struction. The  "  De  doctrina  chrif  tiana"  was  written 
in  the  year  427,  at  which  time  his  advancing  age  and 
the  increasing  strictness  of  monastic  life  might  have 
inclined  Augustine  to  a  rigorous  solution.  St.  Jerome's 
scruples  and  the  dream  he  relates  in  one  of  his  letters 
are  quite  well  known.  In  this  dream  he  saw  an|;els 
scourging  him  and  saying :  *  *  Thou  art  not  a  Christian, 
thou  art  a  Ciceronian"  (Epist.  25).  He  finds  fault 
with  ecclesiastics  who  find  too  keen  a  pleasure  in  the 
reading  of  Virgil;  he  adds,  nevertheless,  that  youths 
are  indeed  compelled  to  study  him  (Epist.  21).  In 
his  quarrel  with  Rufinus  he  declares  that  he  has  not 
read  the  profane  authors  since  he  left  school;  **but  I 
admit  that  I  read  them  while  there.  Must  I  then 
drink  the  waters  of  Lethe  that  I  may  forget?"  (Adv. 
Ruf.,  I,  30). 

In  defending  himself  the  first  figure  that  occurs  to 
him  is  taken  from  mythology.  What  these  eminent 
men  desired  was  not  so  much  the  separation  but  the 
combination  of  the  treasures  of  profane  literature  and 
of  Christian  truths.  St.  Jerome  recalls  the  precept  of 
Deuteronomy:  "  If  you  desire  to  marry  a  captive,  you 
must  first  shave  her  head  and  eyebrows,  shave  the 
hair  on  her  body  and  cut  her  nails;  so  must  it  be  done 
with  profane  literature,  after  having  removed  all  that 
was  earthly  and  idolatrous,  unite  with  her  and  make 
her  fruitful  for  the  Lord"  (Epist.  83).  St.  Augustine 
uses  another  Biblical  allegory.  For  him,  the  Christian 
who  seeks  his  knowledge  in  the  pagan  authors  re- 
sembles the  Israelites  who  de8[)oil  the  Egyptians  of 
their  treasures  in  order  to  build  the  tabernacle  of  God. 
As  to  St.  Ambrose,  he  has  no  doubts  whatever.  He 
quotes  quit€  freely  from  Seneca,  V^irgil,  and  the  "  Con- 
solatio  of  Servius  Sulpicius.  lie  accepts  the  earlier 
view  handed  down  from  the  Hebrew  apologists  to 
their  Christian  successors,  viz.,  that  whatever  is  good 
in  the  literature  of  antiquity  comes  from  the  Sacred 
Books.  Pythagoras  was  a  Jew  or,  at  least,  had  read 
Moses.  The  pagan  poets  owe  their  flashes  of  wisdom 
to  David  and  Jol>.  Tatian,  following  earlier  Jews  had 
learnedly  confirmed  this  view,  and  it  recurs,  more  or 
less  developed,  in  the  other  Christian  apologists.  In 
the  West  Minucius  Felix  gathered  carefully  into  his 
"Octavius"  whatever  seemed  to  show  harmony  be- 
tween the  new  doctrine  and  ancient  learning.  This 
was  a  convenient  argument  and  served  more  than  one 
purpose. 

But  this  concession  pre-supposed  that  pagan  stud- 
ies were  subordinate  to  Christian  truth,  tne  "He- 
braica  Veritas".  In  the  second  book  of  his  " De  doc- 
trina Christiana",  St.  Augustine  explains  how  pagan 
classics  lead  to  a  more  perfect  apprehension  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  are  indeed  an  introduction  to  them. 
In  this  sense  St.  Jerome,  in  a  lett-er  to  Magnus,  pro- 
fessor of  eloquence  at  Rome,  recommends  the  use  of 
profane  authors;  profane  literature  is  a  captive  (Epist. 
85).  Indeed,  men  neither  dared  nor  were  able  to  do 
without  classical  teaching.  Rhetoric  continued  to  in- 
spire a  kind  of  timid  reverence.  The  panegyrists,  for 
example,  do  not  trouble  themselves  about  the  em- 
peror s  religion,  but  addressed  him  as  pagans  would  a 
pagan  and  draw  their  literary  embellishments  from 
mythology.  Theodosius  himself  did  not  dare  to  ex- 
clude pagan  authors  from  the  school.  A  professor  like 
Ausonius  pursued  the  same  methods  as  his  pagan  pred- 
ecessors. Ennodiiis,  deacon  of  Milan  under  Theo- 
doric,  and  later  Bishop  of  Pa  via,  inveighed  against  the 
impious  person  who  carried  a  statue  of  Minerva  to  a 
disorderly  house,  and  himself  under  pretext  of  an 
"  epithalamium  "  wrote  light  and  trivial  verses.  It  is 
true  that  Christian  society  at  the  time  of  the  barbarian 


LATDr 


33 


LATnr 


invasions  repudiated  mythology  and  ancient  culture, 
but  it  did  not  venture  to  completely  banish  them.  In 
the  meantime  the  public  schools  of  antiquity  were 
gradually  closed,  rrivate  teaching  took  their  place, 
but  even  that  formed  its  pupils,  e.  g.  Sidonius  Ap- 
poUinaris,  accordinfi"  to  the  traditional  method. 
Christian  asceticism,  however,  developed  a  strong  feel- 
ing against  secular  studies.  As  early  as  the  fourtn  cen- 
tury St.  Martin  of  Tours  finds  that  men  have  better 
thines  to  do  than  studving.  There  are  lettered  monks 
at  Lerins,  but  their  scholarship  is  a  relic  of  their  early 
education,  not  acquired  after  their  monastic  profes- 
sion. The  Rule  of^St.  Benedict  prescribes  reading,  it 
is  true,  but  only  sacred  reading.  Gregory  the  Great 
condemns  the  study  of  literature  so  far  as  bishops  are 
concerned.  Isidore  of  Seville  condenses  all  ancient 
culture  into  a  few  data  gathered  into  his  withered 
herbarium  known  as  the  ^'Origines'^  just  enough  to 
prevent  all  further  study  in  the  original  sources.  Cas- 
siodorus  alone  shows  a  far  wider  range  and  makes  pos- 
sible a  deeper  and  broader  study  of  letters.  His  en- 
cvclopedic  grasp  of  human  knowledge  links  him  with 
the  best  literary  traditions  of  pagan  antiquity.  He 
planned  a  close  union  of  secular  and  sacred  science, 
whence  ought  to  issue  a  complete  and  truly  Christian 
method  of  teaching.  Unfortunately  the  invasions  of 
the  barbarians  followed  and  the  Institutiones  of  Cas- 
siodorus  remained  a  mere  project. 

II.  At  this  period,  i.  e.  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century,  the  nrst  indications  of  classical  culture  were 
seen  in  Britain  and  a  little  later,  towards  the  close  of 
the  century,  in  Ireland.  Thenceforth  a  growing  liter- 
ary movement  appears  in  these  islands.  The  Irish,  at 
fint  scholars  ana  then  teachcra.  create  a  culture  which 
tlie  Anglo-Saxons  develop.  Tnis  culture  places  pro- 
fane hterature  and  science  at  the  service  of  theology 
and  exegesis.  They  seem  to  have  devoted  themselves 
chiefly  to  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dialectics.  Whence 
did  the  Irish  monks  draw  the  material  of  their  learn- 
ing? It  is  quite  unlikely  that  manuscripts  had  been 
brought  to  the  island  between  350  and  450,  to  bring 
about  very  much  later  a  literary  renaissance.  The 
small  ecclesiastical  schools  almost  everywhere  pre- 
served elementary  teaching,  reading  and  writing.  ' 
But  Irish  scholarship  w^ent  T&t  beyond  that.  During 
the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  manuscripts  were  stin 
being  copied  in  colitinental  Europe.  The  writing  of 
this  period  is  imcial  or  semi-uncial.  Even  after  elim- 
inatmg  fifth-century  manuscripts  there  still  remains  a 
fair  number  of  manuscripts  in  this  style  of  writing. 
We  find  among  these  profane  works  practically  use- 
ful writings,  glossaries,  treatises  on  land-surveying, 
medicine,  the  veterinary  art,  juridical  commentaries. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  numerous  ecclesiastical  manu- 
scripts prove  the  persistence  of  certain  scholarly  tra- 
ditions. The  continuations  of  sacred  studies  sufficed 
to  bring  about  the  Carlovingian  revival.  It  was  like- 
wise a  piurely  ecclesiastical  culture  which  in  their  turn 
the  Irish  brought  back  to  the  continent  in  the  sixth 
and  seventh  centuries.  The  chief  aim  of  these  Irish 
monks  was  to  preserve  and  develop  religious  life;  for 
literature  as  such  they  did  nothing.  Wlien  we  exam- 
ine closely  the  scattered  items  of  information,  espe- 
cially the  hagiological  indications,  their  importance  is 
peculiarly  lessen^,  for  we  find  that  the  teaching  in 
question  generally  concerns  Scripture  or  theologj'. 
Even  St.  Columbanus  docs  not  seem  to  have  organized 
literary  studies  in  his  monasteries.  The  Irish  monks 
had  a  personal  culture  which  they  did  not  make  any 
effort  to  diffuse,  for  which  remarkable  fact  two  general 
reasons  may  be  given.  The  times  were  too  barbarous, 
and  the  Church  of  Gaul  had  too  long  a  road  to  travel 
to  meet  the  Church  of  Ireland.  Moreover,  the  disciples 
of  the  Irish  were  men  enamoured  of  ascetic  mortinca- 
tion,  who  ahimned  an  evil  world  and  sought  a  life  of 
prayer  and  penance.  For  such  minds,  beauty  of  lan- 
guage and  verbal  rhythm  were  frivolous  attractions. 
IX.— 3 


Then,  too,  the  material  equipment  of  the  Irish  religious 
establishments  in  Gaul  scarcely  admitted  any  other 
study  than  that  of  the  Scriptiu^s.  Generally  these 
establishments  were  but  a  group  of  huts  surrounding 
a  small  chapel. 

Thus,  until  Charlemagne  and  Alcuin,  intellectual 
life  was  confined  te  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  It  re- 
vived in  Gaul  with  the  eighth  century,  when  the  clas- 
sic Latin  literature  was  again  studied  with  ardour. 
This  is  not  the  place  to  treat  of  the  Carlovingian  re- 
naissance nor  to  attempt  the  history  of  the  schools  and 
studies  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  will  be  sufficient  to 
point  out  a  few  facts.  The  study  of  classical  texts  for 
their  own  sake  was  at  that  period  very  uncommon.  The 
pagan  authors  were  read  as  secondary  to  Scripture  and 
theolcwgy.  Even  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  Alcuin 
forbade  his  monks  to  read  Vii^gil.  Statins  is  the  fa- 
vourite poet,  and,  ere  long,  Ovid  whose  licentiousness  is 
glossed  over  by  allegorical  interpretation.  Mediocre 
abstracts  and  compilations,  products  of  academic  de- 
cadence, appear  among  the  books  frequently  read, 
e.  g.  Homerus  latinus  (llias  latina),  Dictys,  Dares,  the 
distichs  ascribed  to  Cato.  Cicero  is  almost  over- 
looked, and  two  distinct  personages  are  made  of  Tul- 
lius  and  Cicero.  However,  until  the  thirteenth  century 
the  authors  read  and  known  are  not  a  few  in  number. 
At  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  in  the  early  years 
of  the  University  of  Paris,  the  principal  known  au- 
thors are:  Statins,  Virgil,  Lucian,  Juvenal,  Horace, 
Ovid  (with  exception  of  the  erotic  poems  and  the 
satires),  Sallust,  Cicero,  Martial,  Petronius  (judged  as 
combining  usefiil  information  and  dangerous  passages), 
Symmachus,  Solinus,  Sidonius,  Suetonius,  Quintus 
Curtius,  Justin  (known  as  Trogus  Pompeius),  Livy, 
the  two  Senecas  (including  the  tragedies),  Donatus, 
Priscian,  Boethius^  Quintilian,  Euclid,  Ptolemy  (Haw- 
kins, "  Harvard  Studies",  XX,  75).  In  the  thirteenth 
century  the  influence  of  Aristotle  restricted  the  field  of 
reading. 

There  are,  however,  a  few  real  Humanists  among 
the  medieval  writers.  Einhard  (770-840),  Rabanus 
Maurus  (776-856),  the  ablest  scholar  of  his  time,  and 
Walafrid  Strabo  (809-849)  are  men  of  extensive  and 
disinterested  learning.  Servatus  Lupus,  Abbot  of 
Ferrit^res  (805-862),  in  his  quest  for  Latin  manuscripts 
labours  as  zealously  as  any  scholar  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  At  a  later  period  Latin  literature  is  more  or 
less  felicitously  represented  by  such  men  a|^Remigius 
of  Auxerre  (d.  908),  Gerbert  (later  Pope  Sylvester  II, 
d.  1003),  Liutprand  of  Cremona  (d.  about  972),  John 
of  Salisbury  (1110-1180),  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (d. 
1264),  Roger  Bacon  (d.  1294).  Naturally  enough 
medieval  ]&tin  poetry  drew  its  inspiration  from  Latin 
poetry.  Among  the  imitations  must  be  mentioned  the 
works  of  Hroswitha  (or  Roswitha),  Abl)ess  of  Gan- 
dersheim  (close  of  the  tenth  century),  whom  Virgil, 
Prudentius,  and  Sedulius  inspired  to  celebrate  the  acts 
of  Otho  the  Great.  She  is  of  particular  interest  in  the 
history  of  the  survival  of  Latin  literature,  because  of 
her  comedies  after  the  manner  of  Terence.  It  1  iii.s  lx*en 
said  that  she  wished  to  cause  the  pagan  author  to  be 
totally  forgotten,  but  so  base  a  purpose  is  not  recon- 
cilable with  her  known  simplicity  of  chara(;t<>r.  A 
certain  facility  in  the  dialogue  and  clearness  of  style  do 
not  offset  the  lack  of  ideas  in  her  writings;  they  ex- 
hibit only  too  clearly  the  fate  of  classical  culture  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  Hroswitha  imitates  Terence,  indeed, 
but  without  understanding  him,  and  in  a  ridiculous 
manner.  The  poems  on  actual  life  of  Hugh  of  Orlclfans, 
known  as  **  Primas  "  or  "  Archipoota  "  are  far  superior, 
and  betrav  genuine  talent  as  well  as  an  intelligent 
grasp  of  Horace. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Church  preserved  sec- 
ular literature  by  harbouring  and  copying  its  works  in 
monasteries,  where  valuable  libraries  existed  as  early 
as  the  ninth  centurj';  in  Italy,  at  Monte  Cassino 
(foimded  in  529),  and.  at  Bobbio  (founded  in  612  by 


LATINI 


34 


LLTOn 


Columbanus) ;  in  Gennany  at  Saint  GaU  (614),  Reich- 
enau  (794),  Fulda  (744),  Lorech  (763),  Hersfeld  (768;, 
Corvey  (822),  Hirschau  (830);  in  France  at  St.  Mar- 
tin's of  Tours  (founded  in  372,  but  later  restored), 
Fleury  or  Saint-Benott-sur-Loire  (620),  Ferridres 
(630),  Ck)rbic  (662),  Cluny  (910).  The  reforms  of 
Cluny  and  later  of  Clairvaux  were  not  favourable  to 
studies,  as  the  chief  aim  of  the  reformers  was  to  com- 
bat the  secular  spirit  and  re-establish  strict  religious 
observances.  This  influence  is  in  harmony  with  the 
tendencies  of  scholasticism.  Consequently,  from  the 
twelfth  century  and  especially  the  thirteenth,  the  copy- 
ing of  manuscripts  became  a  secular  business,  a  source 
of  gain.  To  Gudeman  ("  Grundriss  zur  Geschichte  der 
klassischen  Philologie",  Leipzig,  1909,  p.  160)  we  owe 
the  following  list  of  the  most  ancient  or  most  useful 
manuscripts  of  the  Latin  classics  for  the  Middle  Ages. 
Eighth-ninth  centuries:  Cicero's  Orations,  Horace,  the 
philosopher  Seneca,  Martial.  Ninth  century :  Terence, 
Lucretius,  Cicero,  Sallust,  Livy,  Ovid,  Lucan,  Val- 
erius-Maximus,  Columella,  Persius,  Lucan,  the  philoso- 
pher Seneca,  Pliny  the  Elder,  QuintusCurtius,  the  The- 
baid  of  Statins,  Silius  Italicus,  Plinv  the  Younger, 
Juvenal,  Tacitus,  Suetonius,  Florus,  Cfaudian.  Ninth- 
Tenth  centuries:  Persius,  Quintus  Curtius,  Caesar, 
Cicero,  Horace,  Livy,  Phaedrus,  Persius,  Lucan,  the 
philosopher  Seneca,  Valerius  Flaccus,  Martial,  Jus- 
tin, Ammianus  Marcellinus.  Tenth  century:  Caesar, 
Catullus,  Cicero,  Sallust,  Livy,  Ovid,  Lucan,  Per- 
sius, Quintus  Curtius,  Pliny  the  Elder,  Quintilian, 
Statins,  Juvenal.  Eleventh  century:  Caesar,  Sallust, 
Livy,  Ovid,  Tacitus,  Apuleius.  Thirteenth  century: 
Cornelius  Nepos,  Propertius,  Varro,  *'De  lingua 
latina". 

This  list,  however,  furnishes  only  incomplete  in- 
formation. An  author  like  Quintus  Curtius  is  repre- 
sented by  numerous  manuscripts  in  every  century; 
another,  like  Lucretius,  was  not  copied  anew  between 
the  ninth  century  and  the  Renaissance.  Moreover,  it 
was  customary  to  compile  manuscripts  of  epitomes 
and  anthologies,  some  of  which  have  preserved  the 
only  extant  fragments  of  ancient  authors.  The  teach- 
ing of  grammar  was  very  deficient;  this  majy^,  perhaps, 
account  for  the  backwardness  of  philological  science 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  Latin  grammar  is  r^uced  to  an 
abridgment  of  Donatius,  supplemented  bv  the  mea- 
gre conmientaries  of  the  tealciier,  and  replaced  since 
the  thirteenth  century  by  the  "Doctrinale"  of  Alex- 
ander de  Vflledieu  (de  Villa  Dei). 

III.  The  Renaissance  brought  to  light;  the  hidden 
treasures  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Prior  to  this  period, 
classical  culture  had  been  an  individuaJ,  isolated  fact. 
From  the  fourteenth  century  on  it  became  collective 
and  social.  The  attitude  of  the  Cliurch  towards  this 
movement  is  too  important  to  be  treated  within  the 
brief  limits  of  this  article  (see  Humanism;  Renais- 
sance; Leo  X;  Pius  11;  etc.).  As  to  Latin  studies,  in 
particular,  the  Church  continued  to  influence  very 
actively  their  development  At  the  beginning  of  the 
modem  era  Latin  was  the  court  language  of  sove- 
reigns, notabl^^  of  the  Italian  chanceries.  The  Roman 
curia  ranks  with  Florence  and  Naples,  amons  the  first 
for  the  eminence,  fame,  and  grace  of  its  Latinists. 
Poggio  was  a  papal  secretary'.  Bembo  and  Sadoleto 
became  cardinals.  Schools  and  universities  soon 
yielded  to  the  influence  of  the  Humanists  (see  Hu- 
manism). In  France,  the  Netherlands,  and  Germany 
the  study  of  the  ancient  classics  was  more  or  less 
openly  influenced  by  tendencies  hostile  to  tlie  Church 
and  Christianity.  But  tlie  Jesuits  soon  made  Latin 
the  basis  of  their  teaching,  organized  the  same  in  a 
systematic  way  and  introauced  compulsory  and  daily 
construing  of  Cicero.  The  newly  founded  Lou  vain 
University  (1426)  became  a  centre  of  Latin  studies, 
owin^  chiefly  to  the  Ecole  du  Lis  founded  in  1437  and 
especially  to  the  Ecole  dcjs  Trois  Langues  (Greek, 
Latin,  Hebrew),  opened  in  1517.    It  was  at  the  Ecole 


du  Lis  that  Jan  van  Pauteran  (Despauterius)  taught, 
the  author  of  a  Latin  grammar  destined  to  survive 
two  centuries,  but  unfortunately  too  clearly  dependent 
on  Alexander  de  Villedieu's  above-mentioned  "Doo- 
trinale'*.  In  the  seventeenth  century  Port  Royal  in- 
troduced a  few  reforms  in  the  method  of  teauching, 
substituted  French  for  Latin  in  the  recitations,  and 
added  to  the  programme  of  studies.  But  the  general 
lines  of  education  remained  the  same. 

In  the  nineteenth  century,  classical  philology  re- 
vived as  a  historical  science.  The  men  who  brought 
about  this  progress  were  mainlv  Germans,  Dutch,  and 
English.  The  Catholic  Church  had  no  share  in  this 
labour  until  towards  the  close  of  the  century.  In  ^e 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  sprang  up  in  France 
a  controversy  of  a  pedago^cal  nature,  concerning  the 
use  of  the  Latin  classics  in  Christian  schools.  Abb^ 
Gaume  insisted  that  Christians,  especially  future 
priests,  should  obtain  their  hterary  training  from  the 
reading  and  interpretation  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  and  he  went  so  far  as  to  call  classical  educa^ 
tion  the  canker-worm  (ver  rongeur)  of  modem  society. 
Dupanloup,  superior  of  the  Paris  seminary  of  Notre- 
Dame  des  Champs,  later  Bishop  of  Orleans,  took  up 
the  defence  of  the  classical  authors,  whereupon  there 
broke  out  a  long  polemical  controversy  whicn  belongs 
to  the  history  of  Catholic  Liberalism.  Louis  Veuillot 
answered  Dupanloup,  but  the  Holy  See  was  silent  and 
the  French  bishops  did  not  alter  the  curriculum  of 
their  "petits  s^minaires"  or  preparatory  schools  for 
the  clergy.  Veuillot  withdrew  from  the  discussion  in 
1852.  Dubner  edited  a  collection  of  patristic  texts  so 
graded  as  to  serve  all  Christian  schools  from  the  ele- 
mentary to  the  upper  classes.  Less  positive  at- 
tempts were  made  to  introduce  selections  from  the 
principal  ecclesiastical  \ivTiter8  of  Christian  antiquity 
(Nounsson,  for  the  state  lyc^es  and  colleges;  Monier, 
for  the  Catholic  colleges).  In  Belgium  Guillaume 
urged  the  simultaneous  comparative  study  of  a  Chris- 
tian and  a  pagan  author.  Both  in  Belgium  and 
France  the  traditional  use  of  the  pagan  authors  has 
held  its  own  in  most  educational  houses;  in  this  re- 
spect, the  Jesuit  schools  and  the  government  institu- 
tions do  not  differ.  In  recent  times  attacks  have  been 
aimed,  not  merely  at  pagan  authors,  but  in  general  at 
all  mental  training  in  Latin.  The  leaders  of  this  new 
opposition  are  on  the  one  hand  the  so-called  *'prac- 
ticar'  men,  i.  e.  representatives  of  the  natural  and 
applied  sciences,  and  on  the  other  declared  adver- 
saries of  the  Catholic  Church,  many  of  whom  hold  the 
opinion  that  the  study  of  Latin  makes  men  more 
ready  to  receive  the  teachings  of  Faith.  Once  again, 
therefore,  the  destinies  of  the  Church  and  of  the  J^tin 
classics  are  brought  into  connexion.  On  this  subject 
see  the  various  articles  of  The  Cathouc  Encyclo- 
pedia concerning  schools,  studies,  education,  the 
history  of  philology,  etc. 

Sandys,  History  ofClassical  Scholarship:  The  Survival  of  (he 
Latin  Classics^  I  (Cambridge,  1903-8),  ch.  xxxii;  Boissieb, 
La  fin  du  paganitme,  I  (Pans,  1891)  233-398:  Lrjay,  Littera-. 
tura  in  Revue  de  phitologie  de  liUSraure  et  d'histoire  ancienne, 
XVI  (1892),  22|  Roger,  L'enseignement  dca  leltrea  claaaiques 
d'Aitsone  •  Alcutn  (Paris,  1905);  Chatelain,  Vncialia  scriptura 
codicum  latinorum  (Paris,  1902):  Traube,  VorUtungen  und  Ab- 
handlungen,  1  (Munich,  1909) ;  Haskins,  A  List  of  Text-Books 
from  the  close  o'  the  twelfth  century  in  Harvard  Studies  in  Classi- 
cal Philology,  XX  (1909),  75;  Laorangb,  Vie  de  Mgr  Dupan- 
loup (Paris,  1907). 

Paul  Lejay, 

Latmi,  Brunetto,  Florentine  philosopher-  and 
statesman,  b.  at  Florence,  c.  1210;  the  son  of  Buonac- 
corso  Latini,  d.  1294.  A  notary  by  profession,  Brunetto 
shared  in  the  revolution  of  1250,  by  which  the  Ghibel- 
line  power  in  Plorence  was  overthrow^n,  and  a  Guelph 
democratic  government  established.  In  1260,  he  was 
sent  by  the  Commune  as  ambassador  to  Alfonso  X  of 
Castile,  to  implore  his  aid  against  King  Manfred  and 
the  Ghibellines,  and  he  has  left  us  in  his  "Tesoretto" 
{II,  27-50),  a  dramatic  account  of  how,  on  his  return 


LATZTUDIIIA&IANS 


35 


X41TBBIIJ.X 


Journey,  he  met  a  scholar  from  Bologna  who  told  him 
that  the  Guelphs  had  been  defeated  at  Montaperti  and 
expelled  from  Florence.  Bnmetto  took  refuge  at 
Paris,  where  a  f^erous  fellow-countT3rman  enabled 
him  to  pursue  his  studies  While  carrying  on  his  pro* 
fession  of  notaiy.  To  this  unnamed  friend  he  now 
dedicated  his  "Tr^sor''.  After  the  Guelph  triumph 
€/[  1266  and  the  establishment  of  a  new  democratic 
constitution,  Bnmetto  returned  to  Florence^  where  he 
held  various  offices,  including  that  of  secretary  to  the 
Commune,  took  an  active  and  honoured  part  m  Flor- 
entine politics,  and  was  influential  in  the  counsels  of 
the  Republic.  Himself  a  man  of  great  eloquence,  he 
introduced  the  art  of  oratory  and  the  systematic  study 
oi  political  science  into  Florentine  public  life.  B!e 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Magf^iore. 
Among  the  individuals  who  had  come  under  his  influr 
esice  WCU9  the  young  Dante  Alighieri,  and.  in  one  of  the 
most  pathetic  epi^es  of  the  *' Inferno'  (canto  XV), 
Dante  finds  the  sage,  who  had  taucht  him  *'  how  man 
makes  himself  eternal",  among  ttie  sinners  against 
nature. 

Brunetto's  chief  work, "  Li  Livres  dou  Tr^r ",  is  a 
kind  of  encyclopedia  in  which  he  *'  treats  of  all  things 
that  pertain  to  mortals".  It  was  written  in  French 
prose  during  his  exile,  and  translated  into  Italian  by  a 
contemporary.  Bono  Giamboni.  Mainly  a  compila- 
tion from  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  and  other  writers,  it 
includes  oompendiums  of  Aristotle's  *' Ethics"  and 
Cicero's  treatise  on  rhetoric.  The  most  interesting 
portion  is  the  last,  " On  the  Government  of  Cities",  in 
which  the  author  deals  with  the  political  life  of  his  own 
times.  The  "Tesoretto",  written  before  the  "Tr6- 
sor",  is  an  allegorical  didactic  poem  in  Italian,  which 
undoubtedly  influenced  Dante.  Bnmetto  finds  him- 
self astray  in  a  wood,  speaks  with  Nature  in  her  secret 
places,  reaches  the  reaun  of  the  Virtues,  wanders  into 
the  flowery  meadow  of  Love,  from  which  he  is  deliv- 
ered by  Ovid.  He  confesses  his  sins  to  a  friar  and 
resolves  to  amend  his  life,  after  which  he  ascends  Olym- 
pus and  begins  to  hold  converse  with  Ptolemy.  It  has 
recently  b^n  shown  that  the  ''Tesoretto"  was  prob- 
ably dedicated  to  Guido  Guerra,  the  Florentine  sol- 
dier and  politician  who  shares  Brunetto's  terrible  fate 
in  Dante  s ' '  Inferno  ".  Bnmetto  also  wrote  the ' '  Fa- 
volello",  a  pleasant  letter  in  Italian  verse  to  Rustico 
di  Filippo  on  friends  and  friendship.  The  other  poems 
ascribed  to  him,  with  the  possible  exception  of  one 
cansone,  are  spurious. 

Cbabailub,  ZA  Livret  dou  Trimur  par  BrunHto  Latini,  piMiS 
pour  la  premiere  Jots  (Paris,  1863);  Qaiter,  //  Tesoro  dt  Brur 
neUo  LaHni  volgarittato  da  Bono  Oiamboni  (4  vols.,  Bologna, 
1878-83);  Zannoni,  II  TeaoreUo  e  il  Favoletto  [sic]  di  Ser  Bru- 
ndio  Laiini  (Florence.  1824);  Wzbse,  Der  Te^oreUo  und  FavoleUo 
B.  Lai%no9j  kriti9eher  Text  in  Zeitschr.  f.  romanUche  Philologie 
(Halle.  1883),  VII;  SuifSBT.  DeUa  Vita  e  ddU  Opert  di  Bnuutto 
Latini,  tr,  Rbnbr.  with  appendixes  by  Dbl  LuNooand  Musba- 
rtA  (Florence,  1884);  Schbrillo,  Alcuni  capitoli  delta  biooro' 
fki  di  Dante  (Turin,  1806);  Zinoabxlu,  Danfe  jTMilan,  1903). 

Edmund  G.  Gardner. 
Latitadinarianfl.    See  Low  Church. 

Za  Trappe.— This  celebrated  abbey  of  the  Order 
of  Reform^  Cistercians  is  built  in  a  solitary  valley, 
surrounded  by  forests^  and  watered  by  numerous 
streams  which  form,  m  the  vicinity,  a  number  of 
beautiful  lakes.  The  location  is  ei  ghty-f our  miles  from 
Paris,  and  nine  miles  from  the  little  town  of  Mortagne 
in  the  Department  of  Orne  and  the  Diocese  of  Sdez, 
within  the  ancient  Province  of  Normandy.  At  its 
beginning  it  waa  only  a  small  chapel,  built  in  1122 
in  pursuance  of  a  vow  made  by  Rotrou  II,  Count  of 
Perehe,  who,  a  few  years  afterwards,  constructed  a 
monastery  adjcnning,  to  which  he  invited  the  religious 
of  Breuil-Benolt,  an  abbey  belonging  to  the  Order  of 
Savigny,  then  in  great  renown  for  fervour  and  holi- 
nees;  and  in  1140  the  monastery  of  La  Trappe  was 
erwted  into  an  abbey.  In  1147  Savigny,  with  all 
its  affiliated  mooasteneB,  was  united  to  tm  Order  of 


Citeauz,  and  frimi  this  time  forth  La  Trappe  was  a 
Gisterdan  abbey,  immediately  depending  on  the 
Abbot  of  Clairvaux.  During  several  centuries  La 
Trappe  remained  in  obscurity  and,  as  it  were,  lost 
in  the  vast  multitude  of  monasteries  that  claimed 
Citeaux  for  their  mother.  But  in  the  course  of  the  M- 
teenth  century  La  Trappe,  on  accoimt  of  its  eeograph- 
ical  situation,  became  a  prey  to  the  Englidi  troofxi, 
during  the  wars  between  France  and  EngUind,  and  in 
the  sixteenth  century,,  it,  like  all  the  other  monaa* 
teries,  had  the  misfortune  to  be  given  "in  commen* 
dam";  after  this  the  religious  had  nothing  further  to 
preserve  than  the  mournful  ruins  of  a  glorious  past. 

However,  the  hour  was  soon  to  come  when  tlie 
monastery  was  to  have  a  bri^t  return  to  its  primitive 
fervour.  The  author  of  this  reform  was  de  Ilano6, 
fourteenth  commendatory  Abbot  of  La  Trappe,  who, 
as  regular  abbot,  employed  all  his  zeal  in  this  great 
enterprise,  the  noble  traditions  of  the  holy  founders 
of  Citeaux  bein^  again  enforced.  The  good  odour  of 
sanctity  of  the  inhabitants  of  La  Trappe  soon  made 
the  monastery  celebrated  amongst  all  Christian 
nations.  On  13  February,  1790,  a  decree  of  the 
Government  was  directed  against  the  religious  orders 
of  France,  and  the  Abbey  of  La  Trappe  was  sup- 
pressed; but  the  religious,  who  had  taken  the  road 
to  exile  under  their  abbot,  Dom  Augustin  de  Le- 
strange,  were  one  day  to  see  the  doors  reopen  to  them. 
In  1815,  the  abbey,  which  had  been  sold  as  national 
property,  was  repurchased  by  Dom  Augustin.  but  on 
their  return  the  Trappbts  found  nothing  besiaes  ruin; 
they  rebuilt  their  monastery  on  the  foundations  of  the 
old  one,  and  on  30  August,  1832,  the  new  church  was 
solemnly  consecrated  by  the  Bishop  of  S6ez.  In  1880 
the  Trappists  were  again  expelled;  they,  however, 
soon  returned,  to  the  great  joy  and  satisfaction  of 
the  working  classes  andf  the  poor.  Under  the  able 
administration  of  the  present  abbot,  Dom  Etienne 
Salasc,  the  forty-fifth  abbot  since  the  foundation, 
and  the  fourteenth  since  the  reform  of  de  Ranc6,  the 
monastery  has  been  entirely  rebuilt:  the  new  church, 
which  is  greatly  admired,  was  consecrated  on  30 
August,  1895.  The  different  congregations  of  Trap- 
pists are  now  united  in  a  single  order,  the  official  name 
oeing  the  "  Order  of  Reformed  Cistercians",  but  for  a 
long  time  they  will  continue  to  be  known  by  their 
popular  name  of  "Trappists"  (see  Cistercians). 

Bossuet  was  a  frequent  visitor  at  La  Trappe,  in 
order  to  spend  a  few  days  in  retreat  with  his  friend, 
the  Abbot  de  Ranc^;  James  II  of  England,  when  a 
refugee  in  France,  went  there  to  look  for  consolation. 
Dom  Mabillon.  after  his  long  quarrels  with  de  Ranc^, 
visited  him  tnere  to  make  peace  with  him.  The 
Count  of  Artois,  afterwards  Charles  X,  spent  several 
days  at  the  abbey;  and  in  1847  Louis  Philippe  wished 
likewise  to  visit  this  celebrated  monastery.  Amongst 
those  who  have  contributed  to  the  glory  of  the  abbey 
in  modem  times  we  will  only  mention  Father  Robert, 
known  to  the  world  as  Dr.  Debreyne,  one  of  the  most 
renowned  physicians  of  France,  and  held  in  high  re- 
pute for  his  numerous  medico-theological  works. 

Manriqub,  Annaiea  Ciatercienaea,  IIU),  III48;  Jongblinus, 
Notitia  Abbatiarum  O.  Cttt.,  I,  86;  Janauschek,  Orig.  Cist.,  I, 
2S5,  and  introduction :  Gattia  ChriMtiana^  XI;  OAZLLARDnr, 
Hiatoire  de  La  Trappe  (Faria,  1844) ;  db  Charbncbt,  CartuUure 
de  VAbbaye  de  N.  D,  de  La  Trappe  (Alencon.  1889):  Hiatoire  de 
N.  D.  deLa  Trappe^  by  a  religious  of  the  monastery  (Paris,  1895) ; 
M.  P.,  La  Trappe  mieux  connue  (Paris,  1834);  M.  L.  D.  B,,Hi9- 
toire  eimU,  relioieueeel  litUraire  de  VAbbaye  de  La  Trappe  (Paris, 
1824) ;  La  Trappe,  joar  un  Trappiete  de  Sept  Fone  (Paris.  1870); 
PPANNBNSCHMiOTt  lUiutrierte  Geachic?Ue  der  Trappiaten  (Pader* 
bom,  1873);  Deacription  de  VAbbaye  de  La  Trappe,  en  forme  de 
fettre  (Paris.  1671). 

Edicond  M.  Obrecht. 

Latreilley  Pierre -AndrI:,  a  prominent  French 
zoologist;  b.  at  Brives,  29  November,  1762;  d.  in 
Paris,  6  Feb.,  1833.  Left  destitute  by  his  parents  in 
1778,  the  bov  found  benefactors  in  Paris,  and  was 
adopted  by  the  Abb4  HaOy,  the  famous  mineralogist. 


LLmk 


36 


lavha 


He  studied  theolo^  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1786, 
after  which  he  retired  to  Brives  and  spent  his  leisure 
in  the  study  of  entomology.  In  1788  he  returned  to 
Paris,  where  he  lived  till  (uiven  out  by  the  Revolution. 
Al^ough  not  a  pastor,  he  was  arrested  with  several 
other  priests,  sentenced  to  transportation,  and  sent  in 
a  cart  to  Bordeaux  in  the  summer  of  1 792.  Before  the 
veaael  sailed,  however,  Latreille  made  the  acquaintance 
of  a  physician,  a  fellow-prisoner,  who  had  obtained  a 
specimen  of  the  rare  beetle,  Necrobia  ruiicoUis,  It 
was  through  this  discovery  that  Latreille  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  naturalist,  Bory  de  Saint- Vincent, 
who  obtained  his  release. 

He  was  again  arrested  in  1797  as  an  4tnigrif  but  was 
once  more  saved  by  influential  friends.  In  1799  he 
was  placed  in  char^  of  the  entomological  department 
of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  in  Paris,  and  was 
elected  a  Member  of  the  Academy  in  1814.  In  1829 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  entomolo^  to  succeed 
Lamarck.  From  1796  to  1833  he  published  a  great 
number  of  works  on  natural  history.  He  was  the  real 
founder  of  modem  entomology. 

His  lesser  treatises  and  articles  for  various  en- 
cyclopedias are  too  numerous  for  detailed  mention 
here;  details  of  them  will  be  found  in  "Biographie 
g^n^rale",  XXIX,  and  in  Carus-Engelmann,  ''BibUo- 
theca  zool.",  II  ^Leipziff,  1861).  In  his  "Prdcis  des 
caract^res  g^n^nques  dies  Insectes"  (Brives,  1795), 
and  ''Genera  Crustaceorum  'et  Insectorum"  (4  vols., 
Paris,  1806-09),  Latreille  added  very  lai^ly  to  the 
number  of  known  genera,  and  he  rendered  an  incom- 
parable service  to  science  by  grouping  the  genera  into 
families,  which  are  treated  in  the  complete  work 
"Histoire  naturelle  g^^rale  et  particulidre  des  Crus- 
tac^  et  Insectes"  (14  vols.,  Paris,  1802-06).  But 
his  two  most,  conspicuous  writing  on  this  subject 
of  natural  classification  are:  "Considerations  sur  Tor- 
drenatureldesanimaux"  (Paris,  1810),  and  *'  Families 
naturellesdur^sne animal"  (Paris,  1825).  His  last  work 
was  "Cours  d'Entomologie"  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1831-33). 


neiteren   Nahtrwiaaenschaft    (Freiburs,    1904);    Bubckbarot, 
Oetchichte  der  Zoologie  (Leipzig,  1907}. 

J.  H.  ROMPEL. 

Latria  (Xarpc/a)  in  classical  Greek  originally  meant 
"the  state  of  a  hired  servant"  (^Isch.,  "Prom.", 
966),  and  so  service  generally.  It  is  used  especiaUy 
for  Divine  service  (Plato, "  Apol.".  23  B) .  In  Cnristian^ 
literature  it  came  to  have  a  tecnnical  sense  for  the' 
supreme  honour  due  to  God  alone,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  inferior  honour  due  to  His  servants,  the 
angels  and  saints.  This  latter  was  styled  ''dulia" 
(a.  v.).  Etymologically,  however,  there  is  no  reason 
wny  latria  should  be  preferred  to  designate  supreme 
honour;  and  indeed  tne  two  words  were  often  used 
indiscriminately.  The  distinction  is  due  to  St. 
Augustine,  who  says:  '' Latria  .  .  .  ea  dicitur  ser- 
vitus  quae  pertinet  ad  colendum  Deum"  (De  Civ,  Dei, 
X,  i).    (See  Adoration;  Wohship.) 

T.     B.    SCANNELL. 

Latulipe,  Eue  Anicet.    See  Temiscaming,  Vicar- 
iate Apostolic  op. 

Lauda  Sion. — ^The  opening  words  (used  as  a  title)  of 
the  sequence  composed  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  about 
the  year  1264,  for  the  Aiass  of  Corpus  Cnristi.     (See 
Corpus  Christi,  Feast  of.)    That  the  sequence  was 
written  for  the  Mass  is  evidenced  by  the  sixth  stanza: 
Dies  enim  solemnis  agitur 
In  qua  mensae  prima  recolitur 
Hujus  institutio. 
(["for  on  this  solemn  day  is  again  celebrated  the  first 
institution  of  the  Supper").    The  authorship  of  the 
sequence  was  once  attributed  to  St.  Bonaventure;  and 
Gerbert^in  his  "  De  cantu  et  musica  sacra",  declaring  it 


redolent  of  the  style  and  rhyUimic  sweetness  chaise 
teristic  of  the  verse  of  this  saint,  moots  the  question 
whether  the  composition  of  the  Mass  of  the  feast 
should  not  be  ascribed  to  him,  and  of  the  Office  to  St. 
Thomas.  The  fact  that  another  Office  liad  been  com<* 
posed  for  the  local  feast  established  by  a  synodal  de- 
cree of  the  Bishop  of  Lidge  in  1246  also  led  some 
writers  to  contest  the  ascription  to  St.  Thomas.  His 
authorship  has  been  proved,  however,  beyond  ques- 
tion, thinks  Martdne  (De  antiq.  rit.  eoel.,  IV,  zxx),  by 
the  dissertation  of  No£l  Alexandre,  which  leaves  no 
doubt  (minimum  dubUandi  acrupulum)  in  the  matter. 
There  is  also  a  clear  declaration  (referred  to  by  Car- 
dinal Thomasius)  of  the  authorship  of  St.  Thomas,  in 
a  Constitution  issued  by  Sixtus  IV  (1471-1484),  ana  to 
be  found  in  the  third  tome  of  the  ''  Bullarium  noviasi- 
mum  Fratrum  PrsBdicatorum".  In  content  the  great 
sequence,  which  is  partiy  epic,  but  mostiy  didactis 
and  lyric  in  character,  summons  all  to  endlesB  praise 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  of  the  Altar  (lines  1-15); 
assigns  the  reason  for  the  commemoration  of  its  in- 
stitution (lines  16-30);  gives  in  detail  the  CathoKo 
doctrine  of  the  Sacrament  (lines  31-62):  "Dogma 
datur  Christianis",  etc.;  shows  the  fulfilment  ai  an- 
cient types  (lines  63-70):  "£cce  panis  angdcniim'S 
etc.;  prays  the  Good  Shepherd  to  feed  and  guard  us 
here  and  make  us  sharers  of  the  Heavenl;^  Table  here- 
after (lines  71-80) :  **  Bone  pastor,  panis  yeare"  eto. 
Thioughout  the  long  poem  tne  rhythmic  flow  is  ea^y 
and  natural,  and,  strange  to  say.  especially  so  in  the 
most  didactic  of  the  stansas,  aespite  a  scrupulous 
theological  accuracy  in  both  thought  and  phrase. 
The  saint  "writes  with  the  full  panoply  under  his 
singing-robes";  but  always  the  melody  is  perfect,  the 
condensation  of  phrase  is  of  crystalline  clearness,  the 
imction  is  abunoant  and,  in  the  closing  stsmzas,  of 
compelling  sweetness.  A  more  detailed  description  of 
the  content  of  the ' '  Lauda  Sion  "  is  not  neoessarj^  bere» 
since  both  Latin  text  and  English  version  are  given  in 
the  Baltimore  "  Manual  of  Prayers",  p.  632. 

In  form,  the  seauenoe  follows  the  rhythmic  and 
stanzaic  build  of  Acfam  of  St.  Victor's  "  Laudes  crucis 
attollamus",  which  is  given  by  present-day  hymnolo*- 
gists  as  the  type  selected  by  St  Tnomas  for  the '  *  Lauda 
Sion  ".  Thus  the  opening  stanzas  of  both  sequences 
have  the  form: 


which  is  continued  through  five  stanzas.  In  the 
sixth  stanza  the  form  changes  in  the  "  Lauda  Sion  "  to: 
"Dies  enim  solemnis  agitur"  etc..  as  quoted  above; 
and  in  the  "Laudes  crucis"  to  the  iaentical  (numerical) 
rhythms  of: 

Dicant  omnes  et  dicant  singuli, 

Ave  salus  totius  sseculi 

Arbor  salutifera. 
Both  sequences  then  revert  to  the  first  form  for  the 
next  stanza,  while  in  the  following  stanza  both  alter  the 
form  to: 


in  which  all  three  Unes  are  in  the  same  rhjrthm.  Both 
again  revert  to  the  first  form,  the  "  Lauda  Sion"  having 
ten  such  stanzas,  the  ^ '  Laudes  crucis ' '  twelve.  We  next 
come  to  a  beautiful  stanzaic  feature  of  the  sequences 
of  Adam,  which  is  imitated  by  the  "  Lauda  Bion  ". 
The  stanzaic  forms  thus  far  noticed  have  comprised 
three  verses  or  Unes.  But  now,  as  if  the  fervour  of  bis 
theme  had  at  length  begun  to  carry  the  poet  beyond 


LAUDJL 


87 


LAUD4 


narrow  stanxaic  fimits,  the  lines  multiply  in  each 
stanza.  Thus,  the  following  four  stansas  in  both 
sequences  have  a  form  which,  as  it  has  in  various  ways 
become  notable  in  the  ''LaudaSion",  may  be  given 
here  in  the  text  of  one  of  its  stanzas : 

Ecce  panis  angelorum 

Factus  cibus  viatorum; 

Vere  panis  filiorum 

Non  mittendus  canibus. 
finally,  both  sequences  close  with  two  stanzas 
having  each  five  lines,  as  illustrated  by  the  penulti- 
mate stanza  of  the  "  Lauda  8ion  " : 

Bone  pastor,  ^anis  vere, 

Jesu,  nostri  miserere; 

Tu  nos  pasce,  nos  tuere, 

Tu  nos  bona  fac  videre 

In  terra  viventium. 
It  is  clear  from  the  above  detailed  comparison  of  the 
two  sequences  that  St.  Thomas,  following  the  form  of 
the  "  Laudes  cnicis"  throughout  all  its  raythmio  and 
stahzaic  variations,  composed  a  sequence  which  could 
be  sung  to  a  chant  already  in  existence;  but  it  is  not 
a  necessary  inference  from  this  fact  that  St.  Thomas 
directly  used  the  'Maudes  crucis' '  as  his  model.  In  form 
the  two  seouences  are  indeed  identical  (except,  as  al- 
ready notea,  that  one  has  two  stanzas  more  than  the 
other) .  But  identity  of  form  is  also  found  in  the  "Lauda 
8ion  and  Adam's  Easter  sequence.  "Zyma  vetus 
expurgetur  ",  which  Clichtoveus  rightly  styles  "admo- 
dum  cuvina  **^  and  whose  spirit  and  occasional  phrase- 
ology approxmiate  much  more  closely  to  those  of  the 
"  Lauda  Sion '' .  This  is  especially  notable  in  the  sixth 
stanza,  where  the  first  peculiar  cnange  of  rhythm  oc- 
curs, and  where  in  both  sequences  the  application  of 
the  theme  to  the  feast-day  is  made  directly  and  for- 
mally. Thus  (in" Lauda Sion''):  "  Dies enim solemnis 
agitur  ",  etc.;  and  (in  "  Zyma  vetus") :  "  Hsec  est  dies 
quam  fecit  Dominus  "  (This  is  the  day  which  the  Lord 
hath  made).  It  may  well  be  surmised  that  Adam  de- 
sired to  include  this  famous  liturgical  text  in  his 
Easter  sequence  of  "  Zyma  vetus  expurgetur''  even  at 
the  expense  of  altering  the  rhythm  with  which  he  had 
begun  nis  poem;  and  St.  Thomas,  copying  exactly  the 
new  rhythmic  form  thus  introduced,  copied  also  the 
spirit  and  pungency  of  its  text.  The  same  thing  is  not 
true,  however,  of  the  corresponding  stanza  of  the 
"Laudes  crucis",  which  gives  us  merely  similarity  of 
form  and  not  of  content  or  of  spirit.  Other  verbal 
correspondences  between  the  "Z3rma  vetus"  and  the 
"Lauoa  Sion"  are  observable  in  the  closing  stanzas. 
It  may  be  said,  then,  that  the  ''Lauda  Sion  owes  not 
only  its  poetic  form,  but  much  also  of  its  spirit  and  fire, 
ana  not  a  little  even  of  its  phraseology,  to  various 
sequences  of  Adam,  whom  Gu^ranger  styles  "  le  plus 
grand  podte  du  moyen  d.ge  ".  Thus,  for  instance,  the 
two  lines  (rhythmically  variant  from  the  type  set  in 
the  first  stanza)  of  the  ^' Lauda  Sion  **: 

Vetustatem  novitas, 

Umbram  fugat  Veritas, 
were  directly  borrowed  from  another  Easter  seauence 
of  Adam's,  Ecce  dies  Celebris ,  in  which  occurs  the  aouble 
stanza: 

Lstis  cedant  tristia, 

Cum  sit  nugor  gloria, 
Quam  pnma  conf  usio. 

Umbram  fugat  Veritas, 

Vetustatem  novitas, 
Luctum  consolatio— 
while  the  "  Pascha  novum  Christus  est "  of  the  Easter 
sequence  of  Adam,  and  the  "  Paranymphi  novse  legis 
Ad  amplexum  novi  Regis"  of  his  sequence  of  the 
Apostles^  find  a  strong  echo  in  the  " Novum  pascha 
novs leas  "  of  ^e  "Lauda  Sion". 

The plainsong melody  of  the  "Lauda Sion "  includes 
the  seventh  and  eighth  modes.  Its  purest  form  is 
found  in  the  recently  issued  Vatican  edition  of  the 
RoomQ  Gradual.    Its  authcnrship  is  not  known;  and. 


accordingly,  the  surmise  of  W.  S.  Rockstro  that  the 
text-authors  of  the  five  sequences  still  retained  in  the 
Roman  Missal  probably  wrote  the  melodies  also  (and 
therefore  that  St.  Thomas  wrote  the  melody  of  the 
"Lauda  Sion"),  and  the  conviction  of  a  writer  in  the 
"Irish  Ecclesiastical  Record",  August,  1888  (St. 
Thomas  as  a  Musician),  to  the  same  effect,  are  incor- 
rect. Shall  we  suppose  that  Adam  of  St.  Victor  com- 
posed the  melody?  The  supposition,  which  would  of 
course  date  the  melody  in  the  twelftn  century,  is  not 
an  improbable  one.  Possibly  it  is  of  older  date ;  out  the 
pecuhar  changes  of  rhythm  suggest  that  the  melody 
was  composed  either  by  Adam  or  by  some  fellow- 
monk  of  St.  Victor's  Abbey;  and  the  most  notable 
rh3rthmic  change  is,  as  has  been  remarked  al)ove,  the 
inclusion  of  the  intractable  liturgical  text:  ''Hsec 
dies  quam  fecit  Dominus  " — a  change  demanding  a 
melodfy  appropriate  to  itself.  Since  the  melody  dates 
back  at  least  to  the  twelfth  century,  it  is  clear  tnat  the 
"local  tradition"  ascribing  its  composition  to  Pope 
Urban  IV  (d.  1264),  who  had  established  the  feast-day 
and  had  charged  St.  Thomas  with  the  composition  of 
the  Oflice,  is  not  well-based:  "Contemporary  writers 
of  Urban  IV  speak  of  the  beauty  and  harmony  of  his 
voice  and  of  his  taste  for  music  and  the  Gregorian 
chant;  and,  according  to  a  local  tradition,  the  music 
of  the  Office  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament — a  composition 
as  grave,  warm,  penetrating,  splendid  as  the  celestial 
harmonies — ^was  the  work  <M  Urban  IV"  TCruls, 
"The  Blessed  Sacrament",  tr.,  Preston,  p.  76).  In 
addition  to  the  exquisite  plainsong  melody  mention 
should  be  made  of  Palestnna's  settings  of  the  "  Lauda 
Sion  ",  two  for  eight  voices  (the  better  known  of  which 
follows  somewhat  closely  the  plainsong  melody),  and 
one  for  four  voices;  and  also  of  the  noble  setting  of 
Mendelssohn. 

The  "  Lauda  Sion  "  is  on^  of  the  five  sequences  (out 
of  the  thousand  which  have  come  down  to  us  from  the 
Middle  Ages)  still  retained  in  the  Roman  Missal.  Each 
of  the  five  has  its  own  special  beauty;  but  the  "Lauda 
Sion"  is  peculiar  in  its  combination  of  rhythmic  flow, 
dpgmatic  precision,  phrasal  condensation.  It  has 
been  translated,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  upwards  of 
twenty  times  into  English  verse;  and  a  selection  from 
it,  the  "  Ecce  panis  angelorum  ",  has  received  some  ten 
additional  versions.  Amongst  Catholic  versions  are 
those  of  Southwell,  Crashaw,  Husenbeth,  Beste, 
Cakeley,  Caswall,  Wallace,  Aylward.  Wackerbarth, 
Henry.  Non-Catholic  versions  modify  the  meaning 
where  it  is  too  aggressively  dogmatic  and  precise.  E. 
C.  Benedict,  however,  in  his  "  Hymn  of  Hildebert ", 
etc.,  ^ves  a  literal  translation  into  verse,  but  declares 
that  it  is  to  be  understood  in  a  Protestant  sense.  On 
the  other  hand,  as  the  editor  of  "Duffield's  Latin 
Hymns"  very  sensibly  remarks,  certain  stanzas  ex- 
press "  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  so  distinctly, 
that  one  must  have  gone  as  far  as  Dr.  Pusey,  who 
avowed  that  he  held  'all  Roman  doctrine',  before 
using  these  words  in  a  non-natural  sense."  The  ad- 
miration tacitly  bestowed  on  the  sequence  by  its 
freauent  translation,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  by  non- 
Catnolic  pens,  found  its  best  expression  in  the  elo- 
quent Latin  eulo^  of  Daniel  (Thesaurus  Hymnologi- 
cus,  II,  p.  88),  \J^cn,  speaking  of  the  hymns  of  the 
Mass  and  Office  of  Corpus  Christi,  he  saj's:  "The 
Angelic  Doctor  took  a  single  theme  for  his  singing,  one 
filled  with  excellence  and  divinity  and,  indeed,  angelic, 
that  is,  one  celebrated  and  adored  by  the  very  angels. 
Thomas  was  the  greatest  singer  of  the  venerable 
Sacrament.  Neither  is  it  to  be  believed  that  he  did 
this  without  the  inbreathing  of  God  (quern  non  sine 
numinis  afflatu  cecinisse  credos),  nor  shall  we  be  sur- 
prised that,  having  so  wondrously,  not  to  say  uniquely, 
absolved  this  one  spiritual  and  wholly  heavenly  theme, 
he  should  thenceforward  sing  no  more.  One  only  off- 
spring was  his— but  it  was  a  lion  {Peperit  semel,  sed 
leonem),*' 


ULUDIAVUS 


38 


LkVDB 


Katsbr,  B€UTqM  §ur  OtaohUhU  imtf  Briitrmqder  aU&h 
KirAgnhumnmi^  11  (Paderbom  and  Manster,  1886),  77;  Juuan, 
Dictianary  of  Hymnohgy  (New  York,  1882),  s.v.  for  referenoes 
to  MSS.  and  translatKnis;  Dretbs  and  Blumb,  Analeeta 
Hymnica  (Leipiig),  x.  123;  zxxvii,  58;  zxxix.  226,  220:  xl,  311; 
xlii,  104, 151,  for  poems  founded  on  the  Lauda  Sion,  and  zxxvii, 
269  (no.  312)  for  a  sequence  in  honour  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas, 
beginnhig  Lauda  Sion  increatamf  Sodegiaatical  Review,  Iv,  443, 
for  text  and  translation,  notes  and  commoit. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Laudianos  Oodex.  See  Hanxtbcrifts  of  the 
Bible. 

Lauds. — ^In  the  Roman  Litui^gy  of  to-day  lauds 
designates  an  office  composed  of  psalms  and  canticles, 
usiuuly  recited  after  Matins. 

I.  The  Term  Lauds  and  the  Hour  op  the  Of- 
fice.— ^The  word  Lauds  (i.  e.  praises)  explains  the 
particular  character  of  this  office,  the  end  of  which  is 
to  praise  God.  All  the  Canonical  Hours  have,  of 
course,  the  same  object,  but  Lauds  may  be  said  to 
have  Uiis  cluuucteristio  par  excellence.  The  name  is 
certainly  derived  from  the  three  last  psalms  in  the 
office  (cxlviii,  cxlix,  cl),  in  all  of  which  the  word 
laudate  is  repeated  frequently,  and  to  such  an  extent 
that  originally  the  word  Lauda  designated  not,  as  it 
does  nowadays,  the  whole  office,  but  only*  the  end, 
that  is  to  sav,  these  three  psalms  with  the  conclusion. 
The  title  Afi>ot  (praises)  has  been  retained  in  Greek. 
St.  Benedict  also  employs  this  term  to  designate  the 
last  three  psalms:  poet  hoc  [viz,  the  canticle]  aequantur 
Laudee  (Regula,  cap.  xiii).  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies the  Office  of  the  Lauds  was  called  Matutinunif 
which  has  now  become  the  special  name  of  another 
office,  the  Night  Office  or  Vigils,  a  term  no  longer 
used  (see  Matins).  Little  b^  little  the  title  Lauds 
was  applied  to  the  whole  office,  and  supplanted  the 
name  of  Matins.  In  the  ancient  authors,  however, 
from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  or  seventh  century,  the 
names  MatuHnum,  Laudes  maiviiruBj  or  Malutini 
hymnif  are  used  to  designate  the  office  of  daybreak  or 
dawn,  the  Office  of  Matins  retaining  its  name  of  Vig- 
ils. The  reason  of  this  confusion  of  names  is,  perhaps, 
that  originally  Matins  and  Lauds  formed  but  a  single 
office,  the  Night  Office  terminating  only  at  dawn. 

In  the  liturgy,  the  word  Lauds  has  two  other  mean- 
ings: It  sometimes  signifies  the  Alleluia  of  the  Mass; 
thus  a  Council  of  Tol^o  (IV  Council,  c.  xii)  formally 
pronounced:  "Lauds  are  sun^  after  the  Epistle  and 
before  the  Gospel''  (for  this  mterpretation  compare 
Mabillon,  *'De  Liturgia  gall.",  I,  iv).  Saint  Isidore 
sajrs :  *'  Laudes,  hoc  est.  Alleluia,  canere  *'  (De  div.  offic, 
xiii).  The  word  Lauds  also  designates  the  public 
acclamations  which  were  sung  or  touted  at  tne  ac- 
cession of  princes,  a  custom  which  w^as  for  a  long  time 
observed  in  the  Christian  Church  on  certain  occasions. 

II.  The  Office  in  Various  Liturgies. — In  the 
actual  Roman  Liturgy,  Lauds  are  composed  of  four 
psalms  with  antiphons  (in  reality  there  are  usually 
seven,  but,  foUowmg  the  ordinary  rules,  psalms  with- 
out the  Gloria  and  antiphon  are  not  counted  sepa- 
rately), a  Canticle,  Capitulum,  Hymn,  Versicle,  the 
Bencdictus  with  Antipnon,  Oratio,  or  (Collect,  and,  on 
certain  days,  the  Preces,  or  Prayers  and  Vcrsicles. 
The  psalms,  unlike  those  of  Matins  and  Vespers,  are 
not  taken  in  the  order  of  the  Psalter,  but  are  chosen 
in  accordance  with  special  rules  without  reference 
to  their  position  in  the  Psalter.  Thus  the  psalm 
**  Miserere  mei  Deus"  (Pe.  1)  is  said  every  day  on 
which  a  feast  does  not  occur.  The  psalms  ''Deus^ 
Deus  mens"  (Ps.  Ixii)  and  "Deus  miscreatur  nostn 
et  benedicat  nobis"  (Ps.  Ixvi),  and  finally  the  last 
three  psalms,  "Laudate  Dominum  de  coelis'',  "Can- 
tate  Domino  canticum  novum'',  and  "Laudate 
Dominum  in  Sanctis  ejus"  (Pss.  cxlviii-cl),  are 
recited  every  day  without  exception.  As  we  have 
remarked,  it  is  from  these  last  that  this  office  derives 
its  name.  It  will  be  noticed  that,  in  general,  the  other 
psalms  useil  at  Lauds  have  also  been  chosen  for  special 


reasons,  beoauaeone  or  other  of  their  verses  (xmtains  an 
allusion  eitiier  to  the  break  of  day,  or  to  the  Resur- 
rection of  Christ,  or  to  the  prayer  of  the  morning, 
which,  as  we  shall  presently  point  out,  are  the  raisan 
iTitre  of  this  office.  Such  are  the  verses:  "  Deus  Deus 
mens  ad  te  de  luce  vigilo";  "Deus  misereatur  nostri 
.  .  .  illuminet  vultum  suum  super  nos";  "Mane 
astabo  tibi  et  videbo";  "Emitte  lucem  tuum  et  veri- 
tatem  tuam";  "Exitus  matutinum  et  vespere  de- 
lectabis";  "Mane  sicut  herba  transeat,  mane  fioreat 
et  transeat " ; "  Ad  annuntiandmn  mane  misericordiam 
tuam  ",  ete.  Another  characteristic  of  this  office  are 
the  canticles  which  take  place  between  the  psalms 
bdi-lxvi  and  the  last  three  psalms.  This  collection  of 
seven  canticles  from  the  Old  Testament  (Canticle 
"  Benedicite",  Canticle  of  Isaias,  Canticle  of  Ezechias, 
Canticle  of  Anne,  the  two  Canticles  of  Moses,  the 
Canticle  of  Habacuc)  is  celebrated,  and  is  almost  in 
agreement  with  that  of  the  Eastern  Church.  St. 
£»)edict  borrowed  it  from  the  Roman  Church  and, 
having  designed  the  plan  of  the  Office  of  Lauds  in 
accoroance  with  that  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  pre- 
scribed a  special  canticle  for  each  day:  "Canticum 
unumquodque  die  suo  ex  prophetis,  sicut  psallit 
Ecclesia  Romana,  dicatur"  (Reg.,  xiii). 

To  these  canticles  the  Roman  Liturgy  adds,  as  the 
finale  to  this  office,  that  of  S^achary,  "Benedictus 
Dominus  Deus  Israel ",  which  is  recited  eveiy  da^  and 
which  is  also  a  canticle  to  the  Light,  viz.  dbrist: 
"  Hluminare  his  qui  in  tenebris  et  in  umbra  mortis  se- 
dent".  The  hymns  of  Lauds,  which  in  the  Roman 
Church  were  only  added  later,  also  form  an  inter- 
esting collection;  they  generally  celebrate  the  break 
of  day,  the  Resurrection  of  Christ,  and  the  spiritual 
light  which  He  has  made  to  shine  on  earth.  Tney  are 
very  ancient  compositions,  and  are  probably  anterior 
to  Saint  Benedict.  In  the  Ambrosian  Office,  and  also 
in  the  Mosarabic,  Lauds  retain  a  few  of  the  principal 
elements  of  the  Roman  Lauds — the  Benedictus,  can- 
ticles from  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  psalms  cxlviii, 
cxlix,  cl,  arranged,  however,  in  a  different  order  (cf. 
Dom  G.  Morin,  op.  cit.  in  bibliography).  In  the 
Benedictine  Lituigy,  the  Office  of  Lauds  resembles  the 
Roman  Lauds  very  closely,  not  ovly  in  its  use  of  the 
canticles  which  St.  Beneoict  admits,  as  we  have 
already  remarked,  but  also  in  its  general  construc- 
tion. The  Greek  office  corresponding  to  that  of  Lauds 
is  the  6p0pos,  which  also  signines  "morning";  its  com- 
position is  different,  but  it  nevertheless  retains  a 
few  elements  of  the  Western  Lauds-;-notabl^  the  can- 
ticles and  the  three  psalms,  cxlviii-cl, 'which  in  the 
Greek  Liturgy  bear  the  name  AIvoi  or  Praises,  corre- 
sponding to  tne  Latin  word  Laudes  (cf.  "Diet,  d'ar- 
cn^l.  chr6t.  et  de  lit.",  s.  v.  Ainoi;  "Horologion", 
Rome,  1876,  p.  65). 

III.  Lauds  in  the  Early  Christian  Ages  and 
THEIR  Origin. — Lauds,  or,  to  speak  more  precisely, 
the  Morning  Office  or  Office  of  Aurora  corresponding 
to  Lauds,  is  incontestably  one  of  the  most  ancient 
offices  and  can  be  traced  liack  to  Apostolic  times.  In 
the  sixth  century  St.  Benedict  gives  us  a  very  de- 
tailed description  of  them  in  his  Rule  (chap,  xii  and 
xiii) :  the  psalms  (almost  identical  with  those  of  the 
Roman  Liturgy),  the  canticle,  the  last  three  psalms, 
the  capitulum,  hymn,  versicle,  the  canticle  Benedic- 
tus, and  the  concluding  part.  St.  Columb^us  and  the 
Irish  documents  give  us  only  very  vague  information 
on  the  Office  of  Lauds  (cf.  "Regula  S.  Columbani", 
c.  vii,  "  De  cursu  psalmorum" '  in  P.  L.,  LXXX,  212). 
An  effort  has  been  made  to  reconstruct  it  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Antiphonary  of  Bangor,  but  this  docu- 
ment, in  our  opinion,  eives  us  but  an  extract,  and  not 
the  complete  office  (cf.  Cabrol  in  "Diet,  d'  archil,  et 
de  lit.",  8.  V.  Bangor,  Antiphonaire  de).  St.  Gregory 
of  Tours  also  makes  several  allusions  to  this  office, 
which  he  calls  Maiutini  hymni;  he  gives  us,  as  ite  con- 
stitutive parts,  psalm  1,  the  Benedicite,  the  thrse 


CONVENT  OF  MAR  SABA,  FROM  BROOK  OF  CEDRON 

(OXCE    KNOWN   AB   THE   ORBAT   LAURA) 


ULUBik 


39 


L4UBSNTIE 


psalms,  czlviii<-cl,  and  the  versicles  ("  Hist.  Franco- 
nim",  II,  vii,  in  P.  L.,  LXXI.  201,  256,  1034  etc. 
Cf.  B&umer-Biron,  "Hist,  du  br^v.  rom.",  I,  220- 
30).  At  an  earlier  period  than  that  of  the  fifth  and 
fourth  centuries,  we  find  various  descriptions  of  the 
Morning  Office  in  Cassian,  in  Melania  the  Younger, 
in  the  "  Per^rinatio  iEtheri»",  St.  John  Chrysostom, 
St.  Hilary,  Eusebius  (BSximer-Biron,  op.  cit.,  I,  81, 
114,  134,  140,  150-68,  208,  210). 

Naturally,  in  proportion  as  we  advance,  greater 
varieties  of  the  form  of  the  Office  are  foimd  in  the 
different  Christian  provinces.  The  general  features, 
however,  remain  the  same;  it  is  the  office  of  the  dawn 
(Aurora),  the  office  of  sunrise,  the  momins  office,  the 
morning  praises,  the  office  of  cock-crow  {GaUicinium, 
ad  galh  cantus),  the  office  of  the  Resurrection  of 
Christ.  Nowhere  better  than  at  Jerusalem,  in  the 
"Peregrinatio  Etherise",  does  this  office,  celebrated 
at  the  very  tomb  of  Christ,  preserve  its  local  colour. 
The  author  calls  it  hymni  matutinales;  it  is  considered 
the  principal  office  of  the  day.  There  the  hturgy  dis- 
plays all  its  pomps;  the  bishop  used  to  be  present  with 
all  his  cler^,  tne  office  being  celebrated  around  the 
Grotto  of  ttie  Holy  Sepulchre  itself;  after  the  psalms 
and  canticles  had  beensimg,  the  litanies  were  chanted, 
and  the  bishop  then  blessed  the  people.  (Cf.  Dom 
Cfabrol,  "  Etude  sur  la  Peregrinatio  Silvise,  les  Eglises 
de  Jerusalem,  la  discipline  et  la  liturgie  au  IV^  si^ 
cle",  Paris,  1895,  pp.  39,  40.  For  the  East  cf.  "De 
Virginitate",  xx,  m  P.  G.,  XXVIII,  275.)  Lastly, 
we  again  find  the  first  traces  of  Lauds  in  the  third, 
and  even  in  the  second,  century  in  the  Canons  of  Hip- 
polytus,  in  St.  Cyprian,  and  even  in  the  Apostolic 
Fathers,  so  much  so  that  B^Lumer  does  not  hesitate  to 
assert  that  Lauds  together  with  Vespers  are  the  most 
ancient  office,  and  owe  their  origin  to  the  Apostles 
(Bftumer-Biron,  op.  cit.,  I,  58;  cf.  56,  57,  64,  72  etc.). 

rV.  Stmbolibm  and  Reason  op  This  Office. — It 
is  easy  to  conclude  from  the  preceding  what  were  the 
motives  which  gave  rise  to  this  office,  and  what  its 
signification  is.  For  a  Christian  the  first  thought 
mdch  should  present  itself  to  the  mind  in  the  morning, 
is  the  thought  of  God;  the  first  act  of  his  day  should  be 
a  prayer.  The  first  gleam  of  dawn  recalls  to  our 
minds  that  Christ  is  the  true  Light,  that  He  comes  to 
dispel  spiritual  darkness,  and  to  reign  over  the  world. 
It  was  at  dawn  that  Christ  rose  from  the  tomb,  Con- 
queror of  Death  and  of  the  Night.  It  is  this  thought 
of  His  Resurrection  which  gives  to  this  office  its  whole 
signification.  Lastlv,  this  tranquil  hour,  before  day 
has  commenced,  ancl  man  has  again  plunged  into  the 
torrent  of  cares,  is  the  most  favourable  to  contempla- 
tion and  prayer.  Liturgically,  the  elements  of  Lauds 
have  been  most  harmoniously  combined,  and  it  has 
preserved  its  significance  better  than  other  Hours. 

Bona,  De.  Divina  Ptalmodia,  v,  in  0pp.  omnia  (Antwerp, 
1677),  pp.  705  »qq.;Commentaritu  hialoncua  in  Romanum  Bre- 
viarium  (Vaiice,  1724),  102;  Probst,  Bremer  u.  Brevierod>€t 
(Tubingen.  1868).  pp.  146. 173. 184. 188;  Idem,  Lehre  u.  Gd>et  in 
den  dre%  eraten  Jahrk.  (Tubingen.  1871);  Baumer.  Hist,  du  hr& 
viaire,  French  tr.  Biron.  I  (Paris,  1905),  68.  164.  etc.;  Batif- 
roL,  Hiai.  du  br&v.  romain  (Paris,  1803).  22  sqq.;  Dx7chbsnb, 
ChriaUan  Worship  (London,  1904).  448-9;  Hotham  in  Did. 
ChrisL.  Antiq.,  s.  v.  Office,  The  Divine;  Scudauore.  ibid.,  b.  v. 
Hourt  of  Prayer;  Monm.  Lee  Laudea  du  dimanche  du  IV*  au 
VII*  ai^eU.  in  Revue  Binidictine  (1889).  301-4;  BmoHAlf, 
Worka  (Oxford,  1855).  IV,  342.  548,  etc.  See  also  Brbviart: 
Hours,  Canonical;  VxaiLs;  Matins. 

F.  Cabrol. 

Laura. — ^The  Greek  word  laura  (Ka^pa)  is  em- 
ployed by  writers  from  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  to 
distinguish  the  monasteries  of  Palestine  of  the  semi- 
eremitical  type.  The  word  signifies  a  narrow  way  or 
passage,  and  m  later  times  the  quarter  of  a  town.  We 
find  it  used  in  Alexandria  for  the  different  portions  of 
the  city  grouped  around  the  principal  churches;  and 
this  latt^  sense  of  the  word  is  in  conformity  with 
what  we  know  of  the  Palestinian  laura,  which  was 
a  group  of  hennitages  surrounding  a  church. 


Although  the  term  laura  has  been  almost  exclusively 
used  with  re^rd  to  Palestine,  the  type  of  monastery  • 
which  it  designated  existed,  not  only  there,  but  in 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia;  in  Gaul;  in  Italy;  and  among 
the  (Celtic  monks.  The  type  of  life  led  therein  might 
be  described  as  something  midway  between  the  purely 
eremitical — inaugurated  by  St.  Paul  the  first  hermit — 
and  the  purely  cenobitical  life.  The  monk  lived  alone 
though  dependent  on  a  superior,  and  was  only  bound 
to  the  common  life  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  when 
all  met  in  church  for  the  solemn  Eucharistic  Liturgy. 
This  central  church  was  the  origin  of  what  was  after- 
wards called  the  axnobiumj  or  the  house  of  the  im- 
perfect, or  of  "the  children".  There  the  future  soli- 
tjuy  was  to  pass  the  time  of  his  probation,  and  to  it  he 
might  have  to  return  if  he  had  not  the  strength  for  the 
full  rigour  of  the  solitary  life.  The  lauras  of  Palestine 
were  originated  by  St.  Chariton,  who  died  about  350. 
He  founded  the  Laura  of  Pharan,  to  the  north-east  of 
Jerusalem,  and  that  of  Douka,  north-east  of  Jericho. 
But  most  of  the  lauras  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem 
owed  their  existence  to  a  Cappadocian  named  Sabas. 
In  483  he  founded  the  monastery  which  still  bears  his 
name,  Mar  Saba.  It  stands  on  the  west  bank  of  Q^ 
dron  and  was  once  known  as  the  Great  Laura.  We 
know  that  in  814  the  Laura  of  Pharan  was  still  flourish- 
ing, and  it  appears  that  on  Mount  Athos  this  type  of 
life  was  followed  till  late  in  the  tenth  century,  ft  gave 
way,  however,  to  the  cenobitic,  and  no  monastery  now 
extant  can  be  said  really  to  resemble  the  ancient  lauras. 

KrOlx.  in  Real  EncylopAdie  dir  Chriatlicher  AUerihiimer,  8.  v. 
Laura;  Butlsr,  Tho  iMuaiac  Iliaiory  of  Palladius,  I  (Part  2, 
London,  1901):  G&nier.  W«  de  Euthyme  le  grand. — Lea  moinea 
et  VSgliae  en  Pateatine  au  V»  aikde  (Pans.  1909). 

R.  Urban  Butler. 

Laurence  Johnson,  Blessed.  See  William  File  y, 

Blessed. 

Laurentie,  Pierre-S^bastien,  French  publicist; 
b.  at  Houga,  in  the  Department  of  Gers,  France,  21 
January,  1793;  d.  9  February,  1876.  He  went  to 
Paris  in  the  early  part  of  1817,  and  on  17  June  of  the 
same  year  enterea  the  famous  pious  and  charitable 
association  known  as  ''La  Congregation".  Through 
the  patronage  of  the  Royalist  writer  Michaud,  Lau- 
rentie  became  connected  with  the  editorial  stafif  of 
"La  Quotidienne '*,  in  1818;  and  in  1823  he  was  ap- 
pointed Chief  Inspector  of  Schools  (inspecteur  g^n^ 
ral  des  etudes),  with  the  functions  of  which  office 
he  was  able  to  combine  his  work  as  a  publicist.  His 
earliest  writings  wo^  for  him  a  great  reputation. 
They  were:  "De  I'i^loquence  publique  et  de  son  in- 
fluence" (1819);  "Etudes  litt^raircs  et  morales  sur 
les  historiens  latins"  (1822);  "De  la  justice  au 
XIX«  sidcle"  (1822);  "Introduction  k  la  philoso- 
phic" (1826);  "Considerations  sur  les  constitutions 
ddmocratiques "  (1826).  The  complaint  was  made 
against  the  last-named  of  these  works,  that  it  was 
aimed  at  the  Villi^le  Ministry,  and  censured  its  legis- 
lation in  regard  to  the  press.  This  charge,  together 
with  the  attacks  on  the  Ministry  which  appeared 
in  "La  Quotidienne"  and  the  fact  of  Laurentie's 
friendly  relations  with  Lamennais,  led  to  Laurentie's 
dismissal  from  the  oflice  of  Chief  Inspector  of 
Schools  (5  November,  1826).  "La  Quotidienne" 
supported  the  Martignac  Ministry  until  it  issued  the 
decrees  of  16  June,  1828,  against  the  Jesuits,  and 
the  'peiUa  s^inaires.  Laurentie  vigorously  opposed 
these  decrees.  He  purchased  the  old  Benedictine  col- 
lege of  Ponlevoy,  which  had  existerl  for  more  than 
seven  centuries  and  which,  ^-ith  the  colleges  of  Juilly, 
Sordze,  and  Venddme,  Napoleon  had  permitted  to 
continue  in  existence  side  by  side  ^-ith  the  univer^ 
sity.  Laurentie's  plan  was  to  take  advantage  of  this 
exceptional  official  authorization  (which  constituted 
a  breach  in  the  wall  of  the  state  university  monopoly) 
to  insure  the  prosperous  existence  of  one  independent 


LAXJBXJXTldB                           40  ULUSAimS 

educational  institution.  His  worl^  "Sur  I'^tude  et  Windisch  to  Constance  (q.  v.).  Besson  has  made  it 
I'enseigncment  des  lettres",  published  in  1828,  was  probable  that,  between  549  and  585,  the  see  was  di- 
understood  to  embody  the  programme  which  he  pro*  vided  and  the  real  seat  of  the  bishops  of  Windisch 
posed  to  follow  at  Ponlevoy.  transferred  to  Avenches  (Aventicum),  while  the  east- 
After  1830,  Laurentie,  oefeated  politically,  devoted  em  part  of  the  diocese  was  united  with  Constance, 
all  his  efforts  as  a  publicist  to  three  ^reat  causes:  According  to  the  Synod  of  M4con,  585  (Maassen,  L  c, 
(1)  freedom  of  education:  (2)  Legitimism;  (3)  the  163-73),  Bt.  Marius  seems  to  have  been  the  first  resi- 
oefence  of  religion.  (1)  For  the  nrst  of  these,  we  dent  Bishop  of  Avenches.  The  Chartularium  of  Lau- 
may  mention  his  "Lettres  sur  I'Mucation"  (1835-  sanne  (ed.  G.  Waitz  in  "Mon.  Germ.:  Scriptores", 
37),  his  "Lettres  smr  la  liberty  d'enseignement"  XXIV,  Hanover,  1879,  794;  also  in  '^Mtooires  et 
(1844),  and  ike  part  he  played,  in  1849  and  1850,  in  documents  publ.  par  la  Soci^t4  de  la  Suisse  Bo- 
regard  to  the  commission  which  prepared  the  Fal-  mande",  VI,  Lausanne,  1851,  29)  affirms  that  St. 
loux  Law;  also  his  treatise,  "L'Esprit  chr^tien  dans  Marius  was  bom  in  the  Diocese  of  Autun  about  530. 
les  etudes"  (1852).  his  book  on  **  Les  Crimes  de  F^du-  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Avenches  in  Mav,  574,  and 
cation  frangaise"  (1872),  and  his  successful  efforts  for  died  31  December,  594.  (For  his  epitaph  in  verse, 
freedom  of  higher  education  (1875).  (2)  In  support  formerly  in  the  chiurch  of  St.  Thyrsius  at  Lausanne, 
of  the  second  of  these  causes  he  wrote  the  pamphlet,  sen  "Mon.  Germ.:  Script.",  XXIV,  795.)    To  him  we 


Czar"  (1862),  "  L'Ath^isme  social  et  TEglise,  schisme  or  possibly  not  before  610. 

du  monde  nouvcau"  (1869).    Inspired  oy  the  same  Lausanne  was  originally  a  suffragan  of  Lyons  (cer- 

cause,  Laurentie  also  contributed,  under  Hie  Mon-  tainly  about  the  seventh  century),  later  of  Besangon, 

archy  of  July,  to  "Le  R4novateur''  and  "La  Quoti-  from  which  it  was  detached  by  the  French  CJoncordat 

dienne".    Again,  between  1848  and  1876,  the  battle  of  1801.    In  medieval  times  the  diocese  extended  frotai 

for  the  principle  of  Legitimism  went  on  day  after  day  the  Aar,  near  Soleure,  to  the  northern  end  of  the  Val- 

in  the  columns  of  the  Rojralist "  L'Union"^nd  in  con-  ley  of  St.  Imier,  thence  along  the  Doube  and  the  ridge 

nexion  with  this  campaign  Lamrentie's  "Histoire  des  of  the  Jura  to  where  the  Aubonne  flows  into  the  Lake 

dues  d'Orldans"  was  published  in  1832,  handling  Uie  of  Geneva,  and  thence  along  the  north  of  the  lake  to 

Orleans  family  with  ^reat  severity,  and  follow^  by  Villeneuve.  whence  the  boundary-line  followed  the 

the  ten  volumes  of  his  "  Histoire  de  France"  (1841-  watershed  oetwecn  Rhone  and  Aar  to  the  Grimsel,  and 

55),  a  kind  of  historical  illustration  of  his  political  doc-  down  the  Aar  to  Attiswil.    Thus  the  diocese  included 

trines.     (3)  As  early  as  1836  Lamrentie  conceived  the  the  town  of  Soleure  and  part  of  its  territory,  that  part 

idea,  in  defence  of  religion,  of  a  Catholic  encyclopedia  of  the  Canton  of  Berne  which  lay  on  the  left  baoK  of 

which  he  prefaced  with  a  Catholic  theory  oi  the  the  River  Aar,  also  Biel.  the  Valley  of  St.  Inuer, 

sciences.     In  1862  he  published  a  pamphlet  attacking  Jougiie,  and  Les  Longevillcs  in  the  Franche-Comt^, 

scientific  atheism.     His  "  Histoire  de  FEmpire  Ro-  the  counties  of  Neuch&tel  and  Valangin,  the  greater 

main"  (1862)  is  an  apolog^r  for  infant  Chnstianity,  part  of  the  Canton  de  Vaud,  the  Canton  of  FriD0Uig» 

and  his  "  Philosophie  de  la  pridre"  (1864)  contains  the  the  County  of  Gruy^re,  and  most  of  the  Bemese  Ober- 

outpouring  of  a  devout  souL     ^  land.    The  present  Diocese  of  Lausanne  includes  the 

As  an  octogenarian,  Laurentie  was  the  confidant  of  Cantons  of  Fribourg,  Vaud,  and  NcuchAtel. 

the  Comte  de  Chambord,  whose  rights  he  daily  cham-  Of  the  bishops  who  in  the  seventh  century  succeeded 

gioned  in  "L'Union".    His  "Souvenirs",  left  un-  St.  Marius  almost  nothing  is  known.    Between  694 

nished  at  his  death,  were  published  by  his  grandson  and  800  only  three  bishops  are  known:  Arricus, 

in  1893.    "  He  was  an  honour  to  his  party  and  to  the  present  at  the  Council  of  Chalon-«ur-Sa6ne  (Maassen, 

press",  wrote  Louis  Veuillot.     From  the  beginning  t  c,  208-14),  Protasius,  elected  about  651,  and  Chil- 

to  the  end  of  his  career  he  was  an  anti-Gallican  mon-  me^isilus,  about  670.    From  the  time  of  Charlema^e 

archist,  never  seeking  in  his  theory  of  the  Throne  and  until  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  the  following  bish- 

the  Altar  a  means  of  making  the  Altar  subservient  ops  of  Lausanne  are  mentioned:  Udalricus  (Ulrich), 

to  the  Throne,  but  advocating  the  liberty  of  the  a  contemporary  of  Cliarlemagne;  Fredarius  (about 

Qiurch  and  of  education.  814);  David  (827-50),  slain  in  combat  with  one  of  the 

Ladrbntie^  Soumirainjdiu  (Para.  1893);  Grandmaison,  lorcls  of  Dcgerfelden:  Hartmann  (851-78);  Hicrony- 

La  Congrigalvm,  1801-1830  (Pans.  1889).  200-74;  Veuiixot,  _,,„   /07Q  qo\       T>i«  Tn/vaf   f1i«fin«rinfilir»f1   nmnnsr  fJiA 

Dem«T«m«an(7«».in  (Paris,  1909),  82, 83  ^^  ^^''*~}'il\    ^^^  most  distmguisned  among  tne 

Georges  Gotatt  subsequent  bishops  are:  Heinrich  von  Lenzburg  (a. 

1019),  who  rebuilt  the  cathedral  in  1000;  Hugo  (1019- 

Laurentius,  Antipopb.    See  Syaimachus,  8aist,  37),  a  son  of  Rudolf  III  of  Burgundy,  in  1037  pro- 

PoPB.  claimed  the  "Peace  of  God";  Burkart  von  Oltingen 

(1057-89),  one  of  the  most  devoted  adherents  of 

Lausanne  and  Oeneya,  Diocese  of  (Lattsaxnen-  Henry  IV,  with  whom  he  was  banished,  and  made  the 

618  ET  Genevexsis),  in  Switzerland,  immediately  sub-  pilgrimage  to  Canossa;  Guido  von  Mcrlen  (1130-44), 

ject  to  the  Holy  See.  a  correspondent  of  St.   Bernard;  St.  Amadeus  of 

I.  Lausanne. — ^According  to  the  most  recent  in-  Hauterive,  a  Cistercian  {1144-^59),  who  wrote  homilies 

vestigations,  particularly  those  of  Marius  Besson,  the  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  (P.  L.,  CLXXXVIII, 

origin  of  the  See  of  Lausanne  can  be  traced  to  the  1277-1348);  Boniface,  much  venerated  (1231-39),  for- 

ancicnt  See  of  Windisch  (Vindonissa).    Bubulcus,  the  mcrly  a  master  in  the  University  of  Paris  and  head  of 

first  Bishop  of  Windisch,  appeared  at  the  imperial  the  cathedral  school  at  Cologne,  resigned  because  of 

Synod  of  Epao  in  Bunrundy,  m  517  (Maassen,  "Con-  physicd  ill-treatment,  afterwisirds  auxiliary  bishop  in 

oDia  ffivi  merov."  in  '^on.  Germ.  Hist.:  Leg.",  Ill,  Brabant   (see  Ratzinger  in  "Stimmen  aus  Mariar 

L  Hanover,  1893, 15-30).    The  second  and  last  known  Laach",  L,  1896,  10-23,  139-57);  the  Bionedictine 

Bishop  of  Windisch  was  Gramatius  (Grammatius),  Louis  de  la  Palud  (1432-40),  who  took  part  in  the 

who  signed  the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of  Clermont  in  Councils  of  Constance  (1414),  Pavia-Siena   (1423), 

635  fMaassen,  L  c.,  pp.  65-71),  of  Orleans,  541  (Maas-  Basle  (1431 — )  and  at  the  last-named  was  chosen,  in 

sen,  1.  c,  86-99),  ana  that  of  Orleans.  549  (Maassen.  January,  1432,  Bishop  of  Lausanne,  against  Jean  de 

L  c,  99-1 12).    Hitherto  it  has  generally  been  believed  Prangiiis,  the  chapters  choice;  Palud  was  later  vice- 

tbat  shortly  after  this  the  see  was  transferred  from  chaTT)l>erlain  of  the  conclave  whence  Anuideus  VIII  of 


LltrSAMtt  4 

S&T07  emerged  as  the  aati-pope,  Felix  V,  by  whom  he 
was  made  a  cordioftl;  George  of  Saluizo,  who  pul>- 
lished  ^yoodical  constitutiona  for  the  reform  of  the 
clergy;  Cardinal  GiuUano  delta  Rovero  (1472-76),  who 
in  1603  ascended  the  papal  throne  aa  Julius  II. 

Meanwhile  the  bishops  of  Lauuanne.  who  had  been 
Counts  irf  Vaud  since  the  time  of  Rudolf  III  of  Bur- 
gundy (1011),  and  until  1218  subject  only  to  imperial 
authority^  were  in  1270  made  princes  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  but  their  temporal  power  only  ex- 
tended over  a  small  part  of  the  diocese,  namely,  over 
the  city  and  district  of  Lausanne,  as  well  as  a  (ew 
towns  and  villages  in  the  Cantons  of  Vaud  and  Kri- 
bourg;  on  the  other  hand,  the  bishops  possessed  many 
feoffees  among  the  moat  distinguished  of  the  patrician 
families  of  Western  Switaeriand.  The  guardians  of 
the  ecclesiastical  property  (advocali,  avouee)  of  the 


The  Cantons  of  Vaud,  XeucLiilel,  and  lienie,  w«ra 
entirely  lost  to  the  See  of  Lausanne  by  the  Refornur 
tion.  By  the  French  Constitution  Civile  du  Clei^ 
(1790)  the  parishes  of  the  French  Jura  fell  to  the  Dio- 
cese of  Belfey,  and  thia  waa  confirmed  by  the  Concor- 
dat of  1801.  In  1814  the  parishes  of  Soleure,  in  1828 
those  of  the  Bemeae  Jura,  and  in  1864  also  Ihat  dis- 
trict of  Beme  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Aar  were  at- 
tached to  the  See  of  Basle.  In  compensation,  Piua 
VII  aadgned,  in  a  papal  brief  of  20  September,  1819, 
the  city  of  Geneva  and  twenty  parishes  belonging  to 
the  old  Diocese  of  Geneva  (which  in  1815  had  become 
Swias)  to  the  See  of  I-auaanne.  The  bishop  (in  1815 
Petrus  Tobias  Yenni)  retained  his  residence  at  Fri- 
bourg,  and  sine*  1821  has  home  the  t  itlo  and  arms  of  the 
bishops  of  Lausanne  and  Geneva.  His  vicar  general  r©- 
sides&tUeneva.and  is  always  parish  priest  of  that  city. 


of  kyburg,  lastly,  the  counts  (later  dutes)  of  Savoy. 
These  guardians,  whose  only  duty  originally  was  the 
protectimi  of  the  diocese,  enlargcti  their  jurisdiction 
at  the  expense  of  the  dioceaan  rights  and  even  filled 
the  episcopal  see  with  members  of  iheir  families. 
Weanacmte  quarrels  nsulted,  during  which  the  city 
of  Lauaanoe,  with  t)ie  aid  of  Beme  and  Fribourg,  ac- 
quired new  righto,  and  gradually  freed  itself  from 
episoopal  suierainty.  When  Bishop  Sebastian  de 
Htmtfaueoa  (1517-fiO)  took  sides  with  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  in  a  battle  against  Beme,  the  Bemeae  used  this 
as  a  pretext  to  seize  the  city  of  I^kuaanne.  On  31 
March,  1636,  Hans  Frani  Niigeli  entered  Lauaanne  as 
«onqimor,  abolished  Catbolicism,  and  began  a  re- 
ligious revolution.  The  bishop  was  obliged  to  fly,  the 
enJesiaatical  treasure  was  takea  to  Beme,  the  cathe- 
dnJ  chapter  was  dissolved  (and  has  never  been  le- 
estaUislMd),  wlule  the  cathedral  was  given  over  to 
PretestontiHn.  Biahop  Sebastian  died  an  exile  in 
1660,  and  his  three  suoceaaora  were  likewise  exilea.  It 
WM  only  in  1610,  under  Biahop  Joharm  VII  of  Watte- 
Tille,  tfakt  the  see  was  i>rovisionBlly  re-eatablished  at 
FrOxnirg,  where  it  has  ainoe  remained. 


IT.  Geneva  (Qenata,  or  Grneva,  also  Janta  and 

GF.NUA),capitalof  the  Swiss  canton  of  the  sanke  name, 
situated  where  the  Rhone  Ijsues  from  the  Luke  of 
Geneva  (Locus  Lemanta),  first  appears  in  history  as  a 
border  town,  fortified  against  the  Helvetians,  wliich 
the  Romans  took  in  120  a.  c.  In  a.  d.  443it  wan  taken 
by  Burgundy,  and  with  the  latter  fell  to  the  Franks  in 
534.  In  88S  the  town  was  part  of  the  new  Kingdom 
of  Burgundy,  and  with  it  was  taken  over  in  1033  by 
the  German  Emperor.  According  to  legendary  ae- 
counts  found  in  the  works  of  Gregorio  Lcti  ("Historia 
Genevrina",  Amsterdam,  I63S)  and  Besson  ("M6- 
mobes  pour  I'histoire  eccl^aiaatique  dcs  dioceses  de 
Geneve,  Tarantaise_,  Aoste  et  llauricnne",  Nancy, 
1759;  new  ed.  Moutiera,  1871),  Geneva  was  Christian- 
ized by  Dionj^iua  Areopagita  and  Paracodus,  two  of 
the  seventy-two  diaciplea,  in  the  time  of  Bomilian; 
Dionyaius  went  thence  to  Paria,  and  Paracodus  be- 
came the  first  Bishop  of  Geneva.  This  legend,  bow- 
ever,  is  fictitious,  as  is  that  which  makes  St.  Naiarius 
the  first  Biahop  of  Geneva,  an  error  arising  out  of  the 
similarity  between  the  Latin  namea  GeTiava  (Geneva) 
and  <renuo  (Genoa,  in  Italy).  The  so-called  "Cata> 
logue  de  St.  Pierre",  which  ^ves  St.  Diogenus  (Dio- 
genes) aa  the  first  Biahop  of  Geneva,  ia  untrustwortlyr. 


tkVUXSt  4 

A  letter  of  St.  Euchcrius  to  Solviua  makes  it  almost 
oeTtiunthatSt.Isaac(c,400}wa8thefirBt  bishop.  In 
440  St.  SaJonius  appears  as  Bishopof  Geneva;  he  wasa 

son  of  St.  Euchenus,  to  whom  the  latter  dedicated  his 
"  Instructiones  ";  he  took  part  in  the  Coiincilsof  Orange 
(441),  Vaigon  (442),  and  Arlea  (about  455),  and  is  aup- 


lished  in  P.  L.,  LII,  967  sqq.,  993  sqq.  as  works  of  i  . 
otherwise  unknown  bishop,  Saloniua  of  Vienne).  Lit^ 
tie  is  known  about  the  followioE  bishops:  Theoplastus 
(about  475),  to  whom  St.  Sidonius  Apollinaris  ail- 
dresseda  letter;  Domitianus  (l^fore  500),  under  whora 


of  Soleure  tranaferpcd  to  Geneva,  where  she  built  a 
basilica  in  hia  honour;  St.  Maximua  (about  512-41),  a 
friend  of  Avitus,  Archbishop  of  \'ieniie,  and  ("yprinn  of 
Toulon,  with  whom  he  ivas  in  correspondence  (Wawra 
in  "Tilbinger  Theolcg.  QuartaJBchrift",  iJiXXV. 
1905,  576-94). 
Bishop  Pappulus 
eent  the  priest  Thori- 
biusoshissubstitute 
to  the  Svnod  of  Or- 
leans (541).  Bishop 
&ilonius  II  is  only 
known  from  the  eig- 
naturea  of  the  ^noda 
of  Lyons  (570)  and 
Paris  (573),  and 
Bishop  Cariatto,  in- 
B  tailed  by  King  (jun- 

§  resent  at  the  two 
ynods  of  Valenoe 
and  BUcon  in  685. 

From  the  begin- 
ning the  See  of  Ge- 
neva was  a  suffragan 
of  Vienna.  The 
bishops  of  Geneva 
had  been  princes  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire  since  1154,  but  had  to 
maintain  a  long  strugE'e  for  their  independence 
against  tJie  guardians  (navoeart)  of  the  see,  the  counts 
of  Geneva  and,  later,  the  counts  of  Savoy,  In  1290 
the  latter  obtained  the  right  of  installing  the  viee- 
domimu  of  the  diocese — the  official  who  exercised 
minor  jurisdiction  in  the  town  in  tlie  bishop's  name. 
In  1387  Bishop  Adh^mar  Fabry  granted  the  to^vn  its 
great  charter,  the  basis  of  its  communal  splf-govem- 
ment,  which  every  bishop  on  his  accession  was  ex- 
pected to  confirm.  When  the  line  of  the  counts  of 
Geneva  became  extinct,  in  1394,  and  the  House  of 
Savoy  came  into  possession  of  (heir  territory,  assurn- 
ing,  after  1416,  the  title  of  Duke,  the  new  djiiasty 
BOURht  by  every  means  to  bring  the  cilv  of  Geneva 
under  their  power,  particularly  by  elevating  members 
of  their  own  family  to  the  episcopal  see.  The  city 
protected  itself  by  union  with  the  Swiss  Federation 
{Eidgeno»sen»chaft),  uniting  itself,  in  1526,  with  Berne 
and  FribouTg.  The  Reformation  plunged  Geneva  into 
new  entanglements:  while  Berne  favoured  the  intro- 
duction of  the  new  teaching,  and  demanded  liberty 
of  preaching  for  the  Eeformere  Farel  and  Froment, 
Catholic  Fribourg,  in  IKH,  renounced  its  alliance  with 
Geneva.     Calvin  went  to  Geneva  in  1536  and  began 

Ssteniaticaiiy  to  preach  his  doctrine  there.  By  his 
eocratic  "Reign  of  Terror"  he  succeeded  in  forcing 
himself  upon  Geneva  as  absolute  ruler,  and  converted 
the  citv  mto  a  Protestant  Home.  As  early  as  1533 
ths  bishop  had  been  obliged  to  leave  his  residence, 
never  to  return;  in  1534  he  fixed  his  see  at  Gex,  in  1S35 
»t  Annecy  Tlie  Apostolic  leal  and  devotion  of  St.  Fran- 
oil  de  Sales,  who  was  bishop  of  Geneva  from  1602  to 
lUItiestond  toGatholici«ma  lai^e  part  of  th*  diooaae . 


Nyon,  also,  often  erroneously  considered  a  sepamtA 
diocese,  belonged  to  Geneva  Under  Charlemagne 
Tarantaise  was  detached  from  Geneva,  and  became  a 
separate  diocese.  Before  the  Reformation  tlie  8ee  of 
Geneva  ruled  over  8  chapters,  423  parishes,  9  abbeys, 
and  68  priories.  In  1802  the  diocese  waa  united  with 
that  of  Chambiry.  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna  the 
territory  of  Geneva  was  extended  to  cover  16  BAToy- 
ard  and  6  French  parishes,  with  more  than  16,000 
Catholics;  at  the  same  time  it  was  admitted  to  the 
Swiss  Federation.  The  Congress  expressly  provided 
— and  the  same  proviso  was  included  in  tlie  Treaty 
of  Turin  (16  March,  1816)— that  in  these  territories 
transferred  to  Geneva  the  (Catholic  religion  was  to  be 
protected,  and  that  no  changes  were  to  be  made  in  ex- 
isting conditions  without  agreement  with  the  Holy 
"--  "*  -  VII  next  (1819)  united  the  city  of  Geneva 
.th  the  Diooeee  of  Lausanne,  white 
the  rest  of  the  an- 
cient Diocese  of  Ge- 
(outside  of 
Switzerland)  was  re- 
coniKtituted,  in  1822, 
as  the  Diocese  of 
Annecy.  The  Great 
Council  of  Ckmeva 
(cantonal  council) 
afterwards  ignored 
the  responsibilities 
tiius  undertaken;  in 
imitation  of  Napo- 
leon's "OrKonic  Ar- 
ticles' Xsee  Ann  cues. 
The  OnOANic) ,  it  in- 
sisted upon  the 
"Placet",  or  pre- 
vious approval  of 
publication,   for  all 

Eapal  documents. 
atholic  indigna- 
tion ran  high  at 
the  civil  measures  taken  against  Marilley,  the  parish 
priest  of  (jeneva,  and  later  bishop  of  the  see.  Still 
greater  indignation  was  aroused  among  the  Cath- 
olics by  the  injustice  created  by  the  KidtwkampJ, 
which  obliged  them  to  contribute  to  the  budget  of  the 
Protestant  Church  and  to  that  of  the  Old  Catholic 
Church,  while  for  their  own  religious  needs  they  did 
not  receive  the  smallest  pecuniary  aid  from  the  public 
treasury.  On  30  June,  1907,  most  of  the  Catholics  of 
Geneva  voted  for  the  separation  of  Church  and  State. 
By  this  act  of  separation  they  were  assured  at  least  a 
negative  equality  with  Protestants  and  Old  Catholics. 
Since  then  the  Canton  of  Geneva  has  given  aid  to  no 
creed  out  of  either  the  state  or  the  mimieipal  revenues. 
The  Protestants,  however,  have  been  favoured,  for  to 
them  a  lump  compensation  of  800,000  francs  (about 
1160,000)  was  paid  at  the  outset,  whereas  the  Catho- 
lics— in  spite  01  the  international  agreements  assuring 
financial  support  to  their  religion,  either  from  the 
public  funds  or  from  other  sources — received  nothing. 
III.  Lausannr  and  Geneva, — Bishop  Yenni's  (d.  8 
December,  1845)  succcssorwasEtienneMarill^,  De- 
posed, in  1848,  by  the  Cantons  of  Berne,  Geneva, 
Vaud,  and  Nouchfltel,  owing  to  serious  differences  with 
the  Radical  regime  at  Fribourg,  he  was  kept  a  prisoner 
tor  fifty  days  in  the  castle  of  ChiJJon,  on  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  anil  then  spent  eight  years  in  exile  at  Divonne 
(France) ;  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  his  diocese  10 
Deceml>er,  1856.  In  1864  Pius  IX  appointed  tte 
vicar-general  of  Geneva,  Gaspard  Mermillod,  auxiliary 
bishop,  and  in  1873  Vicar  Apostolic,  of  Geneva,  thus 
detaching  the  Genevese  territory  from  the  diocese  and 
making  it  a  vicariate.  This  new  Apostolic  vicariate 
was,  howevw,  not  reoogniwd  bf  dther  tha  St«l«Couiir 


ULUSON 


43 


IJLU20N 


cil  of  Geneva  or  the  Swiss  Federal  Council,  and  Mer- 
millod  was  I^tnished  from  Switserland  by  a  decree  of 
17  February,  1873.  When  the  Holy  See  condemned 
this  measure,  the  Government  answered  on  12  De- 
cember, 1873,  by  expelling  the  papal  nuncio.  After 
Bishop  Marilley  had  resigned  his  diocese  (1879)  Moh- 
sign  ir  Cossancicy,  provost  of  the  theological  seminary 
at  Fribourg,  was  elected  Bishop  of  Lausanne  and 
Geneva,  and  after  his  death,  Mermillod.  Thus  the 
Apostolic  Vicariate  of  Geneva  was  given  up,  the  con- 
flict with  the  Government  ended,  and  the  decree  of  ex- 
pulsion ai^nst  Mermillod  was  revoked.  When,  in 
1890,  Leo  XIII  made  Mermillod  a  cardinal,  he  removed 
to  Rome.  The  Holy  See  then  appointed  the  present 
bishop,  Monsignor  Joseph  Deruas,  and  he  was  conse- 
cratea  at  Rome,  19  March^  1890,  by  his  predecessor. 
Mgr.  Denial  was  bom  13  May,  1826,  at  Choulex  in  the 
Cfuiton  of  Geneva,  studied  theology  at  Fribourg  and 
Annecy,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1850.  For  a  time 
he  was  vicar  at  Grand  Sacconex,  near  Geneva,  and 
then  cur^  at  Rolle,  in  the  Canton  of  Vaud,  and  at  Lau- 
sanne. He  was  present  at  the  Vatican  Council  with 
Bishop  Marilley.  As  bishop  he  worked  in  the  spirit  of 
conciliation,  and  was  successful  in  remedying  the  ills 
of  the  KuUurkampf  in  the  Canton  of  Geneva. 

Statistics. — ^The  present  Diocese  of  Lausanne-Geneva 
comprises  the  Cantons  of  Fribourg,  Geneva,  Vaud,  and 
Neuchfttel,  with  the  exception  of  certain  parishes  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rhone  belonging  to  the  Diocese 
of  Sion  (Sitten).  According  to  Bticni  (see  bibliog- 
raphy) and  the  ''Dictionnaire  g^graphique  de  ia 
Suisse"  (Neuch&tel,  1905),  III,  49  sqq.,  the  diocese 
numbers  approximately  434,049  Protestants  and  232,- 
056  Catholics;  conseauently,  the  latter  form  some- 
what more  than  one-tnird  of  the  whole  pjopulation  of 
the  bishopric  The  Catholics  inhabit  principallv  the 
Canton  ot  Fribourg  (excepting  the  Lake  District)  and 
the  country  parishes  transferred  to  Geneva  in  1815, 
four  communes  in  the  Canton  of  Neuchdtel,  and  ten 
in  the  Canton  of  Vaud.  The  Catholic  population  in 
the  Cantons  of  Fribourg  and  Geneva  consists  princi- 
pally of  farmers,  in  both  the  other  cantons  it  is  also 
recruited  from  the  labouring  classes.  The  Catholics 
are  distributed  among  193  parishes,  of  which  162  are 
allotted  to  Lausanne,  31  to  Geneva.  The  number  of 
secular  priests  is  390,  those  belonging  to  orders  70. 
llie  religious  orders  and  congregations  are  almost  en- 
tirely in  the  Canton  of  Friboure.  The  Capuchins  have 
numasteries  at  Fribourg  and  Bulle,  and  hospices  at 
Romont  and  Landeron;  since  1861  the  Carthusians 
have  been  in  possession  of  their  old  convent  of  Val- 
Sainte,  suppressed  in  the  eighteenth  century.  The 
Franciscans  conduct  the  German  classes  in  the  Fri- 
bourg G3rmnasium.  The  Marists  and  the  Congre^ 
tjon  of  the  Divine  Saviour  (Societas  Divini  Salvatons) 
have  establishments  at  Fribourg.  The  female  congre- 
gations represented  in  the  diocose  are:  Cistercians  at 
Maigrauge,  near  Frilxnirg,  and  Fille-Dieu,  near  Romont; 
Dominicans  at  Estavayer:  Sisters  of  Charity  (Hos- 
pital Sisters)  at  Fribourg,  Estavayer,  and  Neuch&tel, 
(Theodosians  of  the  Holy  Cross)  at  FViboure,  Uebers- 
torf,  St.  Wolfgang  and  Neuchdtel,  (of  St.  V/ncent  de 
Paul)  at  FrilySurg,  Chatel-St-Denis,  Billens,  and  Ta- 
fers;  Capucines  at  Montoi^,  near  Fribourg.  The 
Visitandmes  and  the  Ursulines  conduct  each  a  girls' 
scho(d  at  Fribourg;  the  Teaching  Sisters  of  ^e  Holy 
Cross,  of  Menzingen  and  Ingenbohl,  conduct  several 
schools  for  girls  (among  them  the  Academy  of  the 
Holy  Cross  at  Fribourg  attached  to  the  university); 
they  are  also  employed  as  teachers  in  maiw  of  the 
village  Bchods.  Tne  Filles  de  I'CEuvre  de  St.  Paul  (not 
properly  religious)  have,  among  other  works,  a  Cath- 
olic bookstore  at  Fribourg,  and  a  well-arranged  print- 
ing house.  Among  the  more  important  educational 
establishments  of  the  diocese,  besides  those  alr^Eidy 
meotionedi  are:  the  University  of  Fribourg  [see  F^- 
aouBO  OSwimncLAKD),  Univjbhhi'it  op};  the  theo- 


logical semmary  of  St.  Charles  at  Fribourg,  with  seven 
ecclesiastical  professors;  the  cantonal  school  of  St. 
Michel,  also  at  Fribourg,  which  comprises  a  German 
and  French  gymnasium,  a  Realschule  (corresponding 
somewhat  to  the  English  first-grade  schools)  and 
commercial  school,  as  well  as  a  lyceum,  the  rector  of 
which  is  a  clergyman.  This  school  has  at  present 
(1910)  about  8(KI  pupils,  with  40  ecclesiastical  and  as 
many  lay  professors.  Three  other  cantonal  univer- 
sities exist  in  the  diocese:  Geneva  (founded  b}r  Calvin 
in  1559,  and  in  1873  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  imiversity 
with  five  faculties);  Neuchdtel  (1866,  academ}^;  1909, 
university);  Lausanne  (1537,  academy;  university 
since  1890,  with  five  faculties).  Geneva  and  Lau- 
sanne both  have  cantonal  Protestant  theological 
faculties,  Neuchdtel  a  "Faculty  de  th^logie  de  T^- 
glise  ind^pendante  de  T^tat".  For  the  government 
of  the  diocese  there  are,  besides  the  bishop,  two  vicars- 
general,  one  of  whom  lives  at  Geneva,  the  other  at 
Fribourg.  There  are,  moreover,  a  provicariua  gene" 
raliSf  who  is  also  chancellor  of  the  diocese,  and  a  secre- 
tary. The  cathedral  chapter  of  Lausanne  (with  32 
canons)  was  suppressed  at  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  has  never  been  re-established,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  choice  of  a  bishop  rests  with  the  Holy 
See.  In  1512  Julius  II  established  a  collegiate  chapter 
in  the  chureh  of  St.  Nicholas  at  Fribourg,  which  is  im« 
mediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  with  a  provost 
appointed  by  the  Great  Council,  also  a  dean,  a  cantor, 
and  ten  prebends.  This  collegiate  church  takes  the 
place  of  the  diocesan  cathedral,  still  lacking,  since  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Pierre  at  Geneva  and  that  of  Notre 
Dame  at  Lausanne  were  given  over  to  Protestantism 
at  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 

Besides  works  cited  under  CALViNTsif  and  Fribourg.  see:— 
On  Lausanne,  Scbmxtt,  Mimoirea  hiatoriqtiea  aurU  diocese  de 
Latuanne,  ed.  Ubemaud  in  Mimorial  de  Fribourg^  V,  VI  (Fri* 
bouiK,  1858-59):  Qenoud,  Lee  Sainle  de  la  Suieee  fran^aiee 
(Bar-le-Duc,  1882);  Deluon,  DitiionfMire  hiet.  et  etcUiet.  dee 
paroieeee  com.  du  canton  de  Fribourg  (13  vols.,  Fribourg,  1884— 
1903) ;  SscRirrAN.  Hiet.  de  la  cathidrale  de  Laueanne  (Lausanne, 
1889);  Ddprac,  La  Cathidrale  de  Laueanne  (Lausanne,  1906); 
Stammler,  Der  Domechatz  von  Laueanne  (Bern,  1894),  French 
tr.  by  Qallbt  (Lausanne,  1902);  BOchi,  Die  kath.  Kirche  in 
der  iSchwtixJiMvanchf  1902),  56-67;  Doxjuerqxjk,  Laueanne  au 
tempa  de  la  Riformatton  (Lausanne,  1903);  Holder,  Lee  Vieitee 
j^aetoralee  dane  le  dioekee  de  Laueanne  depute  la  fin  du  16*  eiicle 
^uequ'h  vera  le  milieu  du  19*  eUcle  (FribourK,  1903) ;  Bbsson, 
Kecherchea  aur  lee  oripinee  dee  ivichie  de  Oentve^  Laueanne,  Sion 
et  leura  j^emiera  titulairee  juequ*au  didin  du  6*  eilcle  (Fribouiis 
and  Pans,  1906)  (contains  a  copious  bibliography,  pp.  230-44); 
Idrii,  Contribution  a  VhiUoire  du  dioc^ae  de  Laueanne  eoue  la 
domination  franque,  634-888  (Fribourg,  1908);  Directorium  Di' 
(Bceeie  Laueanneneie  et  Oeneveneie  in  annum  1910  (Fribourg, 
1910). 

On  Geneva,  cf.  the  older  literature  in  Chbyauer,  Topo-Bibl,, 
1284  sqq.  Also,  Fleubt,  Hietoire  de  Viglise  de  OenHe  (3  vols., 
Geneva,  1880-81) :  Lafrabse,  Etude  eur  la  liturgie  dane  Vancien 
diodee  de  OenHe  (Geneva  and  Paris,  1901) ;  Duchesne,  Faetee 
ipieoopavx  de  Cancienne  Oaule,  I  (2nd  ed..  Pans,  1907),  226 
sqq.;  De  Girard,  Le  Droit  dee  catfuniquea  romaine  de  Qen^ve  au 
buaoet  dee  euUee  (Geneva,  1907) ;  De  la  Rive,  La  Siparation  de 
VEgliee  H  de  VEtat  h  OenHe  (Paris,  1909);  Martin,  La  Situa* 
tion  du  catholicieme  ii  Geneve  1816-1907  (Lausanne,  1909); 
S[peiser],  Genf  und  die  katholieche  Kirche  im  19.  Jahrhunderi 
repuL.'ihed  from  the  Neuen  Zarcher  Nachrichten  (1909),  nos. 
344,346. 

Gregob  Reinholo. 

Lamon,  Jean  de,  fourth  governor  of  Canada,  b.  at 
Paris,  1583;  d.  there,  16  Feb.,  1666.  He  was  the  son  of 
Francois  de  Lauzon  and  IsabcIIe  Lotin.  In  1613  he 
was  councillor  of  the  Parlement  of  Paris;  master  of 
petitions  (1623);  appointed  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  In- 
tendant  of  the  Company  of  New  France,  he  was 
lauded  by  Champlain  for  obtaining  the  restoration  of 
Quebec  taken  by  the  Kertk  brothers  (1629).  Lau- 
zon's  position  enabled  him  to  secure  for  his  sons  Im- 
mense domains  in  Canada,  including  the  seigniories  of 
Lauzon  (opposite  Quebec),  de  la  Citi^re,  with  sixty 
leagues  of  frontage  on  the  right  shore  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  the  Island  of  Montreal,  later  ceded  to  La 
Dauversidre,  one  of  the  foimders  of  Ville  Marie.  His 
important  office  and  services  merited  him  a  good  recep- 
tioQ  as  governor  (1651).   Times  were  critical.  Lanaocu 


ULxmm 


44 


UkVASO 


scholar,  able  magistrate  and  financier,  <H*ganised  the 
regular  administration  of  dvil  and  criminal  justice, 
and  provided,  from  the  fur-trade  at  Tadoussac,  for 
the  civil  and  military  list,  besides  furnishing  pensions 
for  the  Jesuits,  Ursulines,  and  hospital-nuns.  But 
unused  to  war  and  already  aged,  he  could  not  subdue 
the  Iroquois,  whose  audacious  crueltv  made  several 
victims  imder  the  walls  of  Quebec.  Although  his  eld- 
est son,  Jean,  destined  like  Dollard  to  an  heroic  death, 
represented  him  wherever  danger  threatened,  Lauzon 
resigned  before  the  expiration  of  a  second  term  of 
office  (1656),  leaving  the  government  ad  interim  to  a 
younger  son,  Charles  de  Lauzon-Chamy.  Lauzon  is 
credited  for  his  probity,  virtue,  exemplary  life,  and 
great  zeal  for  God's  interests  and  the  conversion  of 
savages;  but  he  lacked  experience,  decision  under 
trials,  and  had  assumed  the  direction  of  the  colony 
under  too  adverse  circumstances. 

Ferland,  Colors  d'hialoire  du  Canada  (Quebec,  1882) ;  RoT, 
Bx8toire  de  la  aetgneurie  de  Lauzon  (Levis,  1897);  Garneau. 
Hutoire  du  Canada  (Montreal.  1882);  Rocbbmontbix,  Le« 
Jituitea  et  la  NouveUe-France  (Paris,  1896). 

LioNBii  Lindsay. 

Lauson,  Pierre  de,  a  noted  missionary  of  New 
France  in  the  eighteenth  century,  b.  at  Poitiers,  26 
Sept.,  1687;  d.  at  Quebec,  5  Sept.^  1742.  Though 
sometimes  mentioned  as  Jean,  in  his  official  acts  ne 
invariably  signed  Pierre.  He  joined  the  Jesuits  at 
Limoges,  24  Nov.,  1703,  and  after  ordination  was  sent 
to  Canada  in  1716.  From  1716  to  1718  he  was  Father 
Daniel  Richer's  assistant  at  Lorette,  where  he  studied 
the  Huron-Iroquois  language.  He  did  missionary 
duty  at  Sault  St.  Louis  (Caughnawaga)  from  1718  to 
1731,  with  the  exception  of  the  scholastio  year  1721- 
22,  when  he  replaced  Father  Francois  Le  Brun  as 
instructor  in  the  royal  school  of  hyorography  in  the 
college  at  Quebec,*  as  the  exhausting;  labours  of  the 
mission  had  imdermined  his  health.  His  Iroquois  In- 
dians clamoured  for  his  return,  and  on  12  May,  1722, 
they  formally  petitioned  Governor  Vaudreuil  and  the 
Intendant  B^gon  to  that  efifect.  These  in  turn,  per- 
suaded that  it  was  he  alone  who,  on  the  occasion  of  a 
change  in  the  village  site,  had  prevented  two-thirds 
of  the  Indians  from  moving  away  and  settling  within 
easy  reach  of  the  English,  urged  the  superior  to  send 
him  back,  and  in  1722  he  returned  to  Sault  St.  Louis. 
It  was  none  too  soon,  for  the  spirit  of  revolt  was 
spreadine  among  the  Caughnawaga  Iroquois,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  menace  of  again  quartering  upon  them  a 
French  garrison,  an  ever  profific  cause  of  debauchery 
and  disorder.  He  made  his  solemn  profession  of  the 
four  vows  at  Sault  St.  Louis  on  2  Feb.,  1721. 

In  1723  he  was  named  superior  of  the  Caughnawaga 
mission,  and  the  ability  he  displayed  in  governing  dur- 
ing the  nine  succeeding  y^ears  determined  the  general, 
Fnincis  Ketz,  to  place  him  in  1732  over  the  whole  Can- 
ada mission.  This,  according  to  established  custom  in 
Canada  entailed  the  duties  of  rector  of  the  college  at 
Quebec.  During  his  term  of  office,  which  lasted  seven 
years,  he  crossed  over  to  France  (1733)  in  quest  of 
recruits.  Amon^  those  whom  he  brought  back  with 
him  was  the  sainUy  Father  Jean-Pierre  Aulneau, 
massacred  in  1736  at  the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  Mgr 
Dosquet  of  Quebec,  returned  at  the  same  lime,  bring- 
ing with  him  three  Sulpicians.  The  party  embarked 
29  May  and  reached  Quebec  16  Aug.,  after  a  distress- 
ing voyage  of  eighty  days.  Terrific  winds  and  pesti- 
lential disease  marlced  the  long  journey.  De  Lauson, 
besides  ministering  to  the  sick,  as  did  the  other  priests 
on  boardj  was  appointed  boatswain's  mate,  for  the 
ecclesiastics  did  not  shirk  their  share  of  the  work.  In 
September,  1739,  he  resumed  his  missionary  labours 
with  the  Caughnawaga  Iroquois,  but  owing  to  failing 
strength  he  was  recalled  to  Quebec  in  1741,  where, 
after  a  short  illness  of  two  and  a  half  days,  he  died  in 
the  following  year. 

Jones.  Aulnmtu  Collect,  pMrim;    MSS.  doeumeoUt  and 


oatakicuM  in  St.  Maiy'e  College  Arehivee;.   Paris  Arekiwmk 


Ahthttr  Edward  Jones. 


Layabo,  the  first  word  of  that  portion  of  Pa. 
said  by  the  celebrant  at  Mass  while  he  washes  hia 
hands  after  the  Offertory,  from  which  word  the  whole 
oeremon^r  is  named. 

The  principle  of  washing  the  hands  before  celebrat- 
ing the  noly  Liturgy — at  first  an  obvious  practioed  pre- 
caution of  cleanness,  then  interpreted  also  symboli- 
cally— occurs  naturally  in  all  rites.  In  the  Eastern 
rites  this  is  done  at  the  beginning  as  part  of  the  vest- 
ing; it  is  generally  accompanied  by  the  same  fragment 
of  Ps.  XXV  (vv.  6-12)  said  in  the  West  after  the  Offei^ 
tory.  But  in  the  "  Apost.  Const.",  VIII,  1 1,  the  hands 
of  the  celebrants  are  washed  just  before  the  Hit^miaftftl 
of  the  catechumens  (Brightman,  13),  in  the  Syriac  and 
Coptic  rites  after  the  creed  (ib.,  82  and  162).  Q^  of 
Jerusalem  also  mentions  a  washing  that  takes  place  in 
sight  of  the  people  (Cat.  Myst.,  v).  So  also  in  the 
Roman  Rite  the  celebrant  washes  his  hands  before 
vesting,  but  with  another  prayer  (*'  Da,  Domine,  vir- 
tutem  ,  etc.,  in  the  Missal  among  the  "  Orationes  ante 
Missam").  The  reason  of  the  second  washing,  during 
the  Mass,  at  Rome  was  no  doubt  the  special  need  for 
it  after  the  long  ceremony  of  receiving  the  loaves  and 
vessels  of  wine  from  the  people  at  the  Offertory  (all  of 
which  is  absent  from  the  Eastern  rites).  The  first 
Roman  Ordines  describe  a  general  washing  of  hands 
by  the  celebrant  and  deacons,  who  have  received  imd 
carried  the  offerings  to  the  altar,  immediately  after 
they  have  done  so  ("  Ordo  Rom.  I ",  14;  "  Ordo  of  St. 
Amand"  in  Duchesne.  "Origines  du  Culte",  4^.  etc.; 
in  the  St.  Amand  Orao  the  Pontiff  washes  his  nands 
both  before  and  after  the  Offertory).  There  is  as  yet 
no  mention  of  any  psalm  or  prayers  said  at  the  time. 
In  the  Gallican  Rite  the  offenngs  were  prepared  before 
Mass  began,  as  in  the  East;  so  there  was  no  Offertory 
nor  place  for  a  Lavabo  later.  At  Milan  there  is  now  an 
Offertory  borrowed  from  Rome,  but  no  washing  of 
hands  at  this  point;  the  Mozarabic  Liturgy  also  has  a 
Romanizing  Offertory  and  a  washing,  but  without  any 
prayer  ("Missale  Mixtum",  P.  L.,  LXXXV,  538). 
The  Roman  Rite  had  in  the  Middle  Ages  twa  washing 
of  the  hands  at  the  Offertorv,  one  iust  before,  while  the 
deacon  spread  the  corporal  on  the  altar,  one  imme- 
diately alter  the  incensing  that  follows  the  offertory 
(Durandus,  "Rationale",  IV,  28;  Benedict  XIV,  "Do 
SS.  Missse  Sacrif.",  II,  11).  The  first  of  these  has  now 
disappeared.  The.  second  was  accompanied  by  the 
verses  6-12  of  Psalm  xxv.  This  psalm  is  first  men- 
tioned by  the  medieval  commentators  (e.  g.  Durandus, 
loc.  cit.).  No  doubt  it  was  said  from  very  early  times 
as  a  private  devotion  obviously  suitable  for  the  ooca- 
sion.  We  have  noted  that  it  accompanies  the  wash- 
ing before  the  Liturgy  in  the  Byzantine  Rite.  Benedict 
XIV  notes  that  as  late  as  his  time  (eighteenth  century) 
"in  some  churches  only  some  verses  are  said"  (loc. 
oit.),  although  the  Missal  requires  that  all  (that  is 
from  V.  6. to  the  end)  be  recited.  CyrU  oi  Jerusalem 
(loc.  cit.)  already  explains  the  washing  as  a  symbol  ot 
purity  of  the  soid;  all  the  medieval  writers  (Durandus, 
loc.  cit.;  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  "Summa  Theol.",  Ill, 
Q.  Ixxxiii,  art.  5,  ad  l^''^;  ete.)  insist  on  this  idea. 

The  present  rule  is  this :  At  high  Mass  (or  sung  Mass), 
as  soon  as  the  celebrant  has  incensed  the  alter  after 
the  Offertory  and  has  been  incensed  himself  at  the 
Epistle  side,  he  remains  there  while  his  hioids  are 
washed  by  the  acolytes,  who  must  be  waiting  by  the 
credence-table.  The  first  acolyte  pours  water  from 
the  cruet  over  his  fingers  into  the  httle  dish  provided, 
the  second  then  hands  him  the  towel  to  dry  the  fin- 
gers. Meanwhile  he  says :  "  Lavabo  inter  innooentes  ". 
ete.,  to  the  end  ci  the  psalm,  with  *'  Gloria  Patri  "  ana 
"Sieuterat".  The  Gloria  is  left  out  in  Maawe  for  the 


ULYAL 


45 


LAVAL 


dead  and  in  Blasaes  de  tempore  from  Passion  Sunday  to 
Holy  Saturday  exclusively  ("Ritus  celebrandi '',  VII, 
6,  in  the  Missal).  A  bishop  at  high  Mass  wears  the 
*'  precious"  mitre  {mitra  pretiosa)  while  he  is  incensed 
and  washes  his  hands  (Caerim.  Episc.,  II,  8, 64) ;  in  this 
case  a  larger  silver  jug  and  basm  are  generally  used, 
thou^  the  "  Cserimoniale  Episcoporum"  does  not 
mention  them.  At  low  Mass,  since  there  is  no  incense, 
the  celebrant  goes  to  the  Epistle  side  and  washes  his 
hands  in  the  same  way  immediately  after  the  prayer 
"  Veni  sanctificator  ".  For  his  convenience  the  altar- 
card  on  the  Epistle  side  contains  the  prayer  said  when 
the  water  is  blessed  before  it  is  put  into  the  chalice 
("Deus  qui  humanse  substantis'')  and  the  verses 
"Lavabo^,  etc. 

QiBS,  DoM  ktnliat  MeMfonfmr  (Freibuis  im  Br.,  1897),  502-05; 
BxNBDicT  XIV,  De  SS,  Mt—m  Sacrificio,  II,  11  (ed.  Schneidkb, 
Mains.  1879,  pp.  14^-48);  Durandxts,  Rationale  divinorum  offi- 
IV,  28,  DB  HsBDT,  S.  Liiwrgia  praxu,  I  (9th  od.,  Lou- 


Tain.  1894),  307-08;  464-65;  Duchxsnb,  Orients  du  CviU 
€krHien  (Paris.  1898).  167,  443. 

Adbian  Fortescue. 

• 

Laval,  DiocE«E  of  (Valus  Guidonis)  includes 
the  DepaEurtment  of  La  Mayenne.  Until  1855  the 
territory  of  this  diocese  was  annexed  to  Le  Mans. 
Since  the  seventeenth  century  the  creation  of  a  See  of 
Laval  had  been  under  consideration.  A  constitu- 
tional bishopric  existed  there  for  a  short  time  during 
the  Revolution ;  and  two  titular  incumbents,  Vilar 
and  Doriodot,  occupied  the  position.  In  1S46  the 
creation  of  the  see  was  decided  upon,  but  was  not 
carried  out  until  after  the  death  of  Bishop  Bouvier  of 
Le  Mans  in  1854.  A  Bull  of  Pius  IX,  30  June,  1855, 
established  the  See  of  Laval.  The  apologist  Emile 
Bougaud  (q.  v.)  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Laval  in 
February,  1888,  and  died  a  few  months  later.  The 
request  of  the  Holy  See  in  1904  for  the  resignation 
of  Bishop  Pierre  Victor  Geav  (1896-1904)  was  one  of 
the  reasons  assigned  by  the  French  Republic  for 
breaking  with  the  pope  and  preparing  the  separation 
o£  Church  and  State.  During  the  French  Revolution, 
Laval  was  captured  by  the  Vendeans  on  22  October, 
1793,  after  widch  the  diocese  became  the  seat  of  the 
"Chouannerie",  a  movement  similar  to  theVendean 
but  less  aristocratic,  the  **  Chouans  "  consisting  almost 
entirely  of  peasants  who  wore  a  picture  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesiis  on  their  arm  or  their  breast  and  fougjbt 
for  the  liberty  of  their  priests  and  for  the  royaUst 
cause,  without,  however,  avoiding  frequent  acts  of 
brigandM^e.  They  were  organized  into  bands  by  a 
eertain  Jean  Cottereau,  called  Jean  Chouan  (1757- 
1794)  and  after  his  death  continued  their  adven- 
turous resistance  till  1796.  For  the  principal  saints 
ven»ated  in  the  Diocese  of  Laval,  see  Le  mans;  only 
those  whose  memories  are  closely  associated  with  the 
present  confines  of  the  diocese  are  here  mentioned: 
St.  Constantianus,  a  monk  of  Micy,  who  founded  the 
monastery  of  Lasisay,  at  the  same  time  that  St.  Er- 
neus,  St.  Bohemad,  and  St.  Alveus,  also  monks  of 
ICcy,  were  foimding  the  monasteries  of  Ceaul^, 
Saint-Bomer,  Saint  Auvieu  in  the  forest  of  Passais, 
on  the  borders  of  the  Departments  of  Mayenne 
and  rOme  (sixth  century),  the  deacons  Sts.  Serenus 
and  Serenic,  hermits  of  Saulges,  who  belong  to  the 
seventh  century.  Blessed  Merolus,  a  native  of  Evron 
and  chorepiscopus  of  Saulges,  later  Bishop  of  Le 
Mans,  is  of  the  eighth  century,  and  the  hermit  St. 
Simeon  of  Vauc6  of  the  ninth.    Bemier  (1764-1806), 

Eishop  of  Origans,  one  of  the  negotiators  of  the  con- 
irdat  and  Cardinal  de  Cheverus,  Bishop  of  Boston, 
Maas.  and  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux  (1768-1836),  were 
natives  of  the  diocese. 

Two  councils  were  hdd  at  Laval  m  1207  and  1242 
and  four  at  ChAteau  Gontier  in  1231,  1253,  1268  and 
1336  for  the  restoration  of  discipline.  The  prindpal 
pikrimages  in  the  diocese  are:  Notre-Dame  de  F^ 
at  Laval,  a  shriDie  of  great  antiquity;  Notr^Dane  de 


r£j»ne  at  Evron.  About  648  a  pilmm  bearing  a 
rehquary  containing  a  relic  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
stopped  at  a  sanctuary  which  had  been  erected  in  her 
honour  by  St.  Thuribius,  second  Bishop  of  Le  Mans, 
and  hung  the  reliquary  on  a  hawthorn  bush.  Sub- 
seciuent  miracles,  it  is  said,  induced  St.  Hadouindus, 
Bishop  of  Le  Blans,  to  build  there  a  second  shrine 
and  a  monastery.  In  the  last  half  century  more 
than  100,0(X)  people  visited  Notre-Dame  de  TEpine. 
Notre-Dame  des  Freux  at  Bellebranche,  Notre-Dame 
d'Av^nidres,  and  Notre-Dame  de  CourM!fo6se  at  Fou- 

Serolles  date  from  the  twelfth  century.  Notre-Dame 
es  Bob  at  dJontest  dates  from  the  mteenth  century. 
Notre-Dame  de  la  Mariette  at  Beaumont,  Notre-Dame 
de  la  Crueat  St- Martin  du  Limet,  and  Notre-Dame  du 
Ch^ne  at  St-Martin  de  Conn^.  date  from  the  six- 
teenth century.  Notre-Dame  de  la  Tremblaye  at  Daon 
(since  1660),  Notre-Dame  de  Bon  Secours  at  Craon 
Saint  Nicholas  (since  1709),  and  since  1871  two  im- 

g>rtant  pilgrimages,  Notre-Dame  Auxiliatrice  de  la 
ucraie  at  Burest  and  Notre-Dame  d'Esp^rance  at 
Pontmain. 

Before  the  application  of  the  Associations  Law  of 
1901,  there  were  Jesuits,  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  Jesus  and'  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary,  and 
various  orders  of  teaching  brothers  in  this  diocese.  The 
Trappists  are  still  at  the  monastery  of  Notre  Dame  du 
Port  Salut,  at  Entrammes.  The  principal  communi- 
ties of  women  originating  in  this  diocese  are:  the 
Ursulines  of  Chateau  Gontier,  founded  in  1630  for 
teaching;  the  Hospitaller  nuns  of  the  Mercy  of  Jesus 
founded  at  Ch&teau  Gontier  in  1674;  the  Sisters  of 
Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  hospitaller  nuns  found^  in  1816 
by  Thdr^se  Agathe  Rondeau,  a  poor  working  woman 
known  as  "Good  Mother  Th^r^";  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  Notre-Dame,  teachers  and  hospitallers, 
founded  in  1682  by  Madame  Thulard.  The  mother- 
house  of  this  community  established  at  Evron  in  1901, 
coimts  1700  members  and  184  institutions  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Laval  and  137  outside  the  diocese.  In  1908 
there  remained  twenty  communities  of  women  in  this 
see.  At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  reli- 
^ous  orders  maintained  here  27  infant  schools,  2 
institutes  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  1  orphanage  for  boys 
and  6  for  girls;  4  work  rooms,  12  hospitals  or  alms 
houses;  6  nouses  whose  members  care  for  the  sick  in 
their  homes  and  4  houses  for  retreats.  In  1908  the 
Diocese  of  Laval  numbered  305,457  inhabitants;  31 
parishes;  265  "succursales";  210  vicariates,  and  705 
secular  priests. 

CouANiER  DE  Launat,  Vie  De  Mgr  C.  Wicart^  premier  Svique 
de  Laval,  et  hietaire  de  Virectum  de  cet  Mchi  (Laval,  1888); 
BouiLLiER,  Reeherrhes  hietoriauee  eur  Vfgliee  el  la  paroiese  de  la 
Trinity  de  LatnZ  (ibid.,  1845) ;  Couanier  de  I^unat,  Legendaire 
ou  vie»  dee  eainU  du  dioc^ae  de  Laval  (ibid..  1891);  Idem,  PHe' 
rinagee  et  Sanctuairee  didiie  ii  la  Sainte  Vierge  dana  le  dioeiae  de 
Laval  (ibid., 8.  d.):  Chevalier,  Topobibl.,  pp.  1647-48. 

Georoes  Goyau. 

Laval  F&AN^oiB  de  Montmorency,  first  bishop  of 
Canada,  b.  at  Montigny-sur-Avre,  30  April,  1623,  of 
Hu^ues  de  Laval  and  JVIichelle  de  P^ricard;  d.  at 
Quebec  on  6  May,  1708.  He  was  a  scion  of  an  illus- 
trious family,  whose  ancestor  was  baptized  with 
Clovis  at  Reims,  and  whose  motto  reads:  "Dieu  ayde 
au  premier  baron  chrestien.''  He  studied  under  the 
Jesuits  at  La  Fl^he,  and  learned  philosophy  and 
theology  at  their  college  of  Clermont  (Paris),  where  he 

i'oined  a  group  of  fervent  youths  directed  by  Father 
)agot.  This  congregation  was  the  ^erm  of  the  Sem* 
inaiy  of  Foreign  Missions,  famous  in  the  history  of 
the  Church,  and  of  which  the  future  seminary  of  Que- 
bec was  to  be  a  sister  institution.  His  two  older 
brothers  having  died  in  battle,  Francois  inherited  the 
family  title  and  estate.  But  he  resisted  all  worldly 
attractions  and  a  mother's  entreaties,  and  held  fast  to 
his  vocation.  After  ordination  (1647),  he  filled  the 
office  of  archdeacon  at  Evreux.  The  renowned  Jesuit 
misajooaiy,  Alexander  de  Rhodes,  having  obtained 


lAYAL 


46 


L4YAL 


from  Innocent  X  the  appointment  of  three  vioara 
ApK)stolic  for  the  East,  Laval  was  chdsen  for  the  Ton- 
quin  mission.  The  Portuguese  Court  opposed  the  plan, 
and  from  1655  to  1658  the  future  bisnop  lived  at  the 
"  Hermitage  "  of  Caen,  in  the  practice  of  piety  and  good 
works,  emulating  the  example  of  the  prominent  fig- 
ures of  that  period  of  religious  revival,  Oher,  Vincent 
of  Paul,  Bourdoise.  Eudes,  and  others,  several  of  whom 
were  his  intimate  friends.  This  solitude  was  a  fitting 
preamble  to  his  apostolic  career.  Appointed  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  'Sew  France,  with  the  title  of  Bishop  (rf 
Petrsea,  Laval  was  consecrated  on  8  Dec.,  1658.  by  the 
papal  nuncio  Piccolomini  in  the  abbatial  churcn  of  St- 
Germain-des-Pr^s,  Paris.  He  landed  on  16  June, 
1659,  at  Quebec,  which  then  counted  hardly  500  in- 
habitants, the  whole  French  population  of  Canada  not 
exceeding  2200  souls. 

Laval's  first  relation  to  the  pope  (1660)  breathes  ad- 
miration for  the  natural  grandeur  of  the  country, 
courage  and  hope  for  the  future,  and  praise  for  the 
seal  of  the  Jesuits  From  the  outset  he  had  to  assert 
his  authority,  which  was  contested  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Rouen,  from  whose  province  came  most  of  the  col- 
onists, and  whose  pretensions  were  favoured  by  the 
court.  Laval  claimed  j  urisdiction  directly  from  Rome. 
This  conflict,  which  caused  trouble  and  uncertainty, was 
ended  when  the  See  of  Quebec  was  definitively  erected 
by  Clement  X  into  a  regular  diocese  depending  solely 
on  Rome  (1674).  But  the  hardest  struggle,  the  trial 
of  a  life-time,  was  against  the  liquor-traffic  with  the 
Indians.  The  problem,  on  whose  solution  depended 
the  civilization  and  salvation  of  the  aborigines  and  the 
welfare  of  New  France,  was  rendered  more  arduous  by 
the  intense  passion  of  the  savage  for  firewater  and  the 
lawless  greed  of  the  white  trader.  Laval,  after  ex- 
hausting persuasive  measures  and  consulting  the  Sor- 
bonne  theologians,  forbade  the  traffic  under  pain  of 
excommunication.  The  civil  authorities  pleaded  in 
the  interest  of  commerce,  the  eternal  obstacle  to  tem- 
perance. First  d'Avaugour  relaxed  the  severity  of 
prohibition,  but,  through  Laval's  influence  at  court, 
was  recalled.  De  M^sy,  who  owed  his  appointment  to 
the  bishop,  first  favoured,  but  then  violently  opposed 
his  authority,  finally  dying  repentant  in  his  arms. 
His  successors,  envious  of  clerical  authority  and  ovei^ 
partial  to  commercial  interests,  obtained  from  the 
king  a  mitigated  legislafion.  Thus,  the  Intendant 
Talon  and  Frontenac,  notwithstanding  their  states- 
manship and  bravery,  were  imbued  with  Gallicanism 
and  too  zealous  for-their  personal  benefit.  The  vice- 
roy de  Tracy,  however,  seconded  the  bishop's  action. 

At  this  period  the  Diocese  of  Quebec  comprised  all 
North  America,  exclusive  of  New  England,  the  At- 
lantic sea-board,  and  the  Spanish  colonies  to  the  West, 
a  territory  now  divided  into  about  a  hundred  dioceses. 
Laval's  zeal  embraced  all  whom  he  could  reach  by  his 
representatives  or  by  his  personal  visitations.  In  sea- 
son and  out  of  season,  he  made  long  and  perilous  jour- 
neys by  land  and  water  to  minister  to  his  flock.  His 
fatherly  kindness  sustained  the  far-oflf  missionary. 
"  His  heart  is  always  with  us  ".  writes  the  Jesuit  Dab- 
Ion.  He  was  a  protector  ana  guide  to  the  religious 
houses  of  Quebec  and  Montreal.  He  was  deeply  at- 
tached to  the  Jesuits,  his  former  teachers,  and  recalled 
to  Canada  in  1670  the  Franciscan  R6collets,  who  had 
first  brought  thither  the  Go.spel.  By  the  solemn  bap- 
tism of  Garakonti6,  the  Iroquois  chief,  an  efficacious 
promoter  of  the  true  Faith  was  secured  among  his 
Barbarous  fellow-countrymen,  who  received  the  black- 
robed  Jesuit  and  gave  many  neophytes.  Laval's  fore- 
sight made  him  foster  the  most  cherished  devotions 
of  the  Church:  belief  in  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
the  titular  of  his  cathedral,  and  the  cult  of  the  Iloly 
Family,  which  flourished  on  Canadian  soil  (Encyclical 
of  Leo  XIII).  He  was  a  devout  client  of  St.  Anne, 
whose  shrine  at  Beaupr^  was  rebuilt  in  1673.  As  a 
patron  of  education  Laval  occupiee  a  foremost  rank. 


At  that  early  period,  with  a  handful  of  colonists  and 
scanty  resources,  he  organixed  a  complete  system  of 
instruction:  primary,  technical,  and  classical.  His 
seminary  (16i63)  and  little  seminary  (1668)  trained 
candidates  for  the  priesthood. 

An  industrial  school,  foimded  at  St-Joachim  (1678), 
provided  the  colonjr  with  skilled  farmers  and  crafts- 
men. To  these  institutions,  and  particularly  to  the 
seminary,  destined  to  become  the  university  which 
bears  his  name,  he  gave  all  his  possessions,  including 
the  seigniory  of  Beauprd  and  Isle  J^us.  In  view  of 
the  future  he  built  the  seminary  on  a  relatively  large 
scale,  which  excited  the  envy  and  criticism  of  Fronte- 
nac.  No  regular  parishes  having  been  yet  established, 
the  clergy  were  attached  to  the  seminary,  and  thence 
radiatedr  everywhere  for  parochial  or* mission  work, 
even  as  far  as  the  Illinois.  The  tithes,  after  much  dis- 
cussion and  opposition,  had  finally  been  limited  to  the 
twenty-sixth  bushel  of  grain  harvested,  an  enactment 
still  legally  in  force  in  the  Province  of  Quebec.  These 
tithes  were  paid  to  the  seminary,  which,  in  return,  pro- 
vided labourers  for  Christ's  vineyard. 

Laval's  patriotism  was  remarkable.  The  creation 
of  the  Sovereign  Council  in  lieu  of  the  Company  of 
New  France  was  greatly  due  to  his  uifluence,  and  con- 
duced to  the  proper  administration  of  justice,  to  the 
progress  of  colonization,  and  the  defence  of  the  coun- 
try against  the  ever-increasing  ferocity  and  audacity 
of  the  Iroquois.  He  later  concurred  in  obtaining  the 
regiment  of  Carignan  for  the  last-named  object  (1665). 
Exhausted  by  thirty  years  of  a  laborious  apostolate, 
and  convinced  that  a  younger  bishop  would  work  more 
efficaciousljr  for  God's  glory  and  the  good  of  souls, 
he  resigned  in  1 688.  His  successor,  Abb4  de  St-Vallier, 
a  virtuous  and  generous  prelate,  did  not  share  all  his 
Mews  regarding  the  administration.  Laval  might  have 
enjoyed  a  well-earned  retreat  in  France,  whither  he 
had  sailed  for  the  fourth  time.  He  preferred  returning 
to  the  scene  of  his  labours,  where  many  opportunities 
occurred  of  displajnng  his  zeal  during  the  many  years 
of  St-Vallier's  absence,  five  of  which  were  spent  in  cap- 
tivity in  England.  During  that  period,  the  seminary 
was  twice  burned  (1701  and  1705)  to  Laval's  intense 
sorrow,  and  rebuilt  through  his  energy  and  gener- 
osity. The  end  was  near.  The  last  three  years  he 
spent  in  greater  retirement  and  humility,  and  died  in 
tne  odour  of  sanctity. 

His  reputation  for  holiness,  though  somewhat 
dimmed  after  the  Conquest,  revived  during  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and,  the  cause  of  his  canonization  hav- 
ing been  introduced  (1890),  he  now  enjoys  the  title  of 
Venerable.  Laval  has  been  accused  of  attachment  to 
his  own  authority  and  disregard  for  the  rights  of  civil 
authority,  a  reproach  that  savours  somewhat  of  the 
Gallican  spirit  of  the  rulers  of  the  time,  and  of  the  his- 
torians who  endorsed  their  prejudices.  The  truth  is 
that  he  had  to  protect  his  flocK  from  the  greed  and  self- 
ishness of  worldly  potentates  for  whom  material  in- 
terests were  often  paramount;  to  defend  the  immu- 
nities of  the  Church  apiinst  a  domineering  Frontenac, 
who  pretended  to  arraign  clerics  before  his  tribunal, 
and  oblige  missionaries  to  secure  a  passport  for  each 
change  of  residence,  and  refused  the  bisliop  the  rank 
due  to  his  dimity  and  sanctioned  by  the  king,  in  the 
council  of  which  the  prelate  was  the  chief  founder,  the 
soul  and  hfe.  In  an  age  when  churchmen  like  Ma«- 
arin  and  Richelieu  virtually  ruled  the  State,  Laval's 
authority,  always  exercised  for  the  country's  weal, 
was  prooably  not  exorbitant.  He  was  loyal  to  thf 
Crown  when  superior  rights  were  not  contradicted, 
and  received  nought  but  praise  from  the  Grand  Ma- 
narque.  The  charge  of  ambition  and  arbitrariness  is 
equally  groundless.  In  the  Sovereign  Council,  Laval 
showea  prudence,  wisdom,  justice,  moderation.  His 
influence  was  always  beneficent.  Although  firm  and 
inflexible  in  the  accomplishment  of  duty,  he  was  rea^y 
to  consult  and  follow  competent  advice.    He  was  of 


UL  VALETTE 


47 


L4YAL 


the  race  of  Hildebrand,  and  to  him  likewise  might 
have  been  applied  the  text:  "Dilexisti  justitiam  et 
odisti  iniquitatem.  **  His  sole  ambition  was  to  be  a 
bishop  according  to  God's  heart.  His  spirit  and  prac- 
tice of  mortification  and  penance,  his  deep  humility, 
his  lively  faithj  his  boundless  charity  towards  the  poor, 
rank  him  among  the  most  holy  personages. 

GoASCLiN,  Vie  de  Afar  de  Laval  (Quebec,  1890);  Garnrau, 
Hitioire  du  Canada  (Montreal,  18S2) ;  Febland,  Cottra  d'hiatoire 
du  Canada  (Quebec,  1882) ;  Rochbmonteix,  Les  Jisuitea  et  la 
Nouvelle-Fmnce  (Paris,  1896);  Mabie  de  l'In carnation,  Le<- 
trea  (Toumai.  1870);  Souvenir  dee  fUea  du  Monument  Laval 
(Quebec.1908).  LlONEL  LiNDSAT. 

La  Valette,  Jean  Parisot  de,  forty-eighth  Grand 
Master  of  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
salem; b.  in  1494;  d.  in  Malta,  21  August,  1568.  He 
came  from  an  old  family  of  Southern  France,  several 
members'  of  which  had  been  camtouls  (chief  magis- 
trates) in  Toulouse.  When  still  very  yoimf  he  en- 
tered the  Order  of  St.  John  as  a  knight  of  the  Lan- 
guage of  Provence.  After  the  taking  of  Rhodes  by  the 
Sul&n  Soliman  (1522),  the  order  had,  in  1530,  settled 
in  Malta  which,  with  the  city  of  Tripoli,  the  emperor 
Charles  V  had  made  over  to  them  in  full  sovereignty. 
Here  the  knights  devoted  themselves  to  fighting  the 
corsairs  of  Barbary,  who  were  upheld  by  the  Turkish  - 
Sultan.  During  this  struggle  La  Valette  made  his 
first  campaign,  and  soon  rose  to  the  highest  ranks  in 
the  order.  In  1537  he  was  appointed  conmiander  and 
governor  of  Tripoli.  In  that  city,  exposed  to  the  at- 
tacks of  the  famous  Dragut,  chief  of  all  the  corsairs 
of  Africa,  La  Valette  displayed  his  power  of  organiza- 
tion, re-establishing  discipline  among  the  C&istian 
and  Moorish  troops,  driving  useless  persons  out  of  the 
town,  and  punishing  blasphemers,  a^  was  no  longer 
in  Tripoli  when  it  was  taken  by  Dragut  in  1556. 

La  Valette  was  unanimouslv  chosen  (18  Aug.,  1557) 
to  succeed  Claude  de  la  Sangle  as  grand  master.  He 
re-established  his  authority  over  the  provinces  of 
Germany  and  of  Venice,  which  had  refused  to  pay  the 
taxes  levied  by  general  chapters,  but  was  unable  to  • 
secure  from  the  Q>uncil  of  Trent  a  confirmation  of  the 
order's  privileges,  and  the  restitution  of  commanderies 
usurped  by  Protestants.  Lastly,  he  ardently  devoted 
himself  to  fighting  the  Moslems.  In  1560  he  formed 
an  alliance  with  Juan  de  la  Cerda,  Admiral  of  Philip  11, 
to  recover  Tripoli,  but  the  Spanish  scjuadron  wasted 
time  in  the  useless  conquest  of  the  island  of  Jerba. 
The  Moors  of  Barbary,  commanded  by  PiaM  and 
Dragut,  destroyed  22  warships  of  the  Christians,  and 
14,000  Christians  were  killed  or  died  of  disease. 
Thanks  to  La  Valette*s  intrepidity,  the  galleys  of  the 
order  were  able  to  save  several  Christian  ships  and  to 
capture  many  corsairs.  At  his  own  private  expense 
La  Valette  had  two  galleys  built  and  the  wealthier 
commanders  followed  his  example.  The  vessels  of  the 
order  were  commanded  by  experienced  navigators, 
like  Romegas,  who  knew  all  the  ports  and  even  the 
smallest  bays  of  the  Mediterranean. 

This  naval  strength  soon  made  itself  feared  by  the 
Moors  of  Barbary  and  even  by  the  Turks.  The  Ivnights 
of  Malta  having  aided  Garcia  of  Toledo  to  take  pos- 
session of  Valez  de  la  Gomera  (southeast  of  the  present 
Spanish  military  station  of  Penon-de- Valez  in  the 
Rif),  the  alarmed  Moors  appealed  to  Constantinople. 
Before  long  the  Maltese  squadron  gained  a  bloody 
.victory  between  the  Islands  of  Zante  and  Cephalonia, 
and  captured  a  Turkish  galleon  manned  by  200  jani- 
zaries and  laden  with  precious  merchandise;  and 
^nthin  five  years  they  had  taken  50  Turkish  vessels. 
The  Sultan  Soliman,  exasperated,  ordered  all  his 
available  vessels  to  assemble  before  Malta,  where 
Dragut  and  the  corsairs  were  invited  to  join  them. 
Spies  were  sent  to  examine  the  fortifications.  Don 
Garcia  de  Toledo,  Viceroy  of  Sicily,  ha\'inff  obtained 
secret  information  of  all  this,  warned  La  Valette  and 
endeavoured  to  induce  Philip  II  to  assist  in  the  de- 


fence of  Malta.   La  Valette  summoned  all  the  knights 
of  Christendom,  raised  2000  men  in  Italy,  and  ob- 
tained from  Don  Garcia  two  companies  of  Spanish 
troops.    The  inliabitants  of  Malta  were  organized  as  a 
militia;  every  priory  sent  money,  and  600  knights 
from  all  the  provinces  of  the  order  hastened  to  the 
rescue.    La  Valette  displayed  extraordinary  activity, 
planning  fortifications,  helping  the  diggers  with  his 
own  hands,  inspecting  magazmes,  andattending  to 
the  smallest  details.    He  told  the  assembled  knights 
that  they  had  now  entered  upon  a  struggle  between 
the  Gospel  and  the  Koran,     After  receiving  Holy 
Communion,  all  vowed  to  shed  their  blood  in  defence ' 
of  the  Faith.    But  the  Order  of  Malta  was  poorly  sup- 
ported in  this  crisis  by  the  Christian  prmces.    The 
King  of  Spain  alone  promised  assistance,  which,  how- 
ever, was  not  ready  when  the  Turkish  fleet,  commanded 
by  Mustapha,  appeared  before  Malta  on  18  May, 
1565.    It  consistea  of  159  warships  manned  by  30,000 
janizaries  or  spahis,  and.  a  large  number  of  vessels 
were  employed  to  carry  the  siege  train.   The  defenders 
of  Malta  were  700  knights,  with  8500  mercenaries  and 
enrolled  citizens  and  peasants. 

Mustapha  attacked  the  fort  of  St.  Elmo,  and  Dragut 
joined  him  with  13  gallevs.  In  spite  of  the  Mal^se 
artillery,  in  spite  of  the  heroism  of  the  besieged,  the 
Turks  succeeaed  in  taking  that  fort  on  23  June,  after 
an  assault  lasting  seven  hours.  Thousands  of  Turks 
and  the  famous  Dragut  died  in  the  encoimter.  Mus- 
tapha, exasperated  by  the  resistance,  ordered  the 
hearts  of  the  wounded  knights  to  be  torn  out  of  their 
bodies.  La  Valette,  on  his  side,  had  all  the  Turkish 
prisoners  beheaded  and  forbade  any  more  prisoners  to 
be  taken.  From  that  time  the  town  proper  and  all  the 
fortfl  were  surrounded.  On  18  August  tne  Turks  tried 
to  enter  by  a  breach  in  the  wall,  but  were  driven  back 
after  six  hours'  fighting.  La  Valette  himself,  pike  in 
hand,  charged  them,  leading  his  knights.  On  23 
August  another  assault  resulted  in  the  taking  of  the 
Castille  bastion,  but  La  Valette  spent  that  night  con- 
structing new  defences.  At  last,  on  7  September,  the 
relieving  fleet  of  Don  Garcia  de  Toledo  arrived.  After 
four  months  of  fighting,  Mustapha,  disheartened, 
raised  the  sie^e;  he  had  lost  more  than  20,000  men,  and 
abandoned  his  hea\*v  artillery.  Malta  was  saved,  and 
the  heroism  of  La  Valette  at  last  awakened  Europe 
from  its  torpor.  All  the  princes  sent  their  congratu- 
lations; the  pope  offered  him  a  cardinal's  hat,  which 
he  refused;  300  noblemen,  among  them  Brantome, 
came  and  offered  him  their  services.  To  protect  the 
island  from  any  future  attack,  the  grand  master  had 
another  town  ouilt  upon  the  site  of  Fort  St.  Ellmo 
(1566).  ThLs  was  the  city  of  Valette  (or  Valletta), 
which  made  Malta  impregnable,  and  which  was  still 
sufficiently  strong  in  1798  to  check  Bonaparte.  The 
last  years  of  Valette's  life  were  saddened  oy  conflicts 
with  the  pope,  but  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  his 
seventv-fourth  year,  he  was  busy  preparing  "  for  some 
great  deed  of  war  and  of  conquest"  (Brantome). 

Brantobce,  Oranda  capitainea  frunrois,  V  (Paris,  .806),  215- 
39;  Idem,  Dea  CouronncU  fran^oia: Ricii  du  voyage  i!€  Braninme  h 
Maltc  (Paris,  1870),  407-410;  Coleccidn  de  documentoa  inrditoa, 
XXVI.  XXIX  (Madrid,  1870)  (letters  of  La  Valette):  Vehlot. 
Histoire  dea  chev  liera  hospitaliera.  III,  IV  (Paris,  1726):  Forne- 
BON^  Histoire  dePhUippe  II,  I  (Paris,  1881),  376-^9.— For  bibli- 
ography of  the  siege  of  Miha,  see  Pohler,  Bibliotheca  HiatO' 
ivco-militana,  I  (Leipzig,  1880).  163-64. 

Louis  Br^hier. 

Layal  Uniyersity  of  Quebec. — ^The  University  of 
Laval  was  founded  in  1852  by  the  Seminary  of  Que- 
bec; the  royal  charter  granted  to  it  by  Queen  Victoria 
was  signed  at  Westmmster,  8  December,  1852.  By 
the  Biill  "Inter  varias  soUicitudines",  15  April,  1876, 
Pius  IX  completed  the  university  by  according  it  can- 
onical erection  together  with  the  most  extensive  privi- 
leges. In  virtue  of  this  Bull  the  university  has  as  its 
protector  at  Rome  the  Cardinal  Prefect  of  Propa- 
ganda.   The  control  of  doctrine  and  discipline  de- 


LM.7A2,  4 

Tolves  upoD  a  superior  council  composed  of  the  arch- 
bishop and  biafaope  of  the  Province  of  Quebec,  under 
the  presidency  of  the  Archbishop  of  Quebec,  who  is 
himself  chancellor  of  tlie  university.  By  the  terms 
of  the  royal  charter  the  Visitor  of  the  Lavu  University 
is  always  the  Catholic  Archbishop  of  Quebec,  who  has 
the  right  of  veto  in  regard  to  all  regiuations  and  ap- 

g)intmente.  This  shows  in  what  a  broad  spirit  the 
ngliah  Government  pertnlts  the  Catholic  French 
Canadians,  without  other  supervision  than  that  of  on 
archbishop  of  their  Church  and  nationality,  to  organ- 
ize their  university  education.  The  royal  charter  in- 
deed guarantees  li1>erty  of  huher  education.  By  this 
charter  the  office  of  rector,  the  most  important  m  the 
university,  belongs  of  right  to  the  superior  of  the  Sem- 
inary of  Quebec.  This  position  is  temporary,  since 
the  superior  of  the  seminaiy,  who  is  elected  for  three 
years  and  is  eligible 
for  reflection  after 
this  term.cannothold 
office  for  more  than 
six  consecutive  years, 
except  with  speoiaj 
authorization  from 
the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thorities. The  char- 
ter also  provides  for 
the  establishment  of 
a  council  which,  co 
jointly  with  the  re 
tor,  shall  conduct  tl 
administration  of  tl 
university.  This 
council  is  composed 
of  ail  the  directors  of 
the  seminary  and  of 
the  three  oldest  pro- 
fessors of  each  fac- 
ulty. It  is  em- 
powered to  make 
whatever  statutes 
and  rules  it  judges 
suitable,  i 


i  XATU 

tension  of  the  faculties  of  the  uiiiver«ty  wm  made  in 
favour  of  Montreal,  the  archbishop  of  which  was 
named  vice-chancellor  of  the  university.  The  decree 
'.' Jamdudum"  of  2  Februarv,  1889,  modified  in  some 
respects  the  constitution  of  the  Montreal  branch  of 
the  university.  The  direction  of  this  branch  is  now 
confided  to  a  vice-rector  propoeed  to  the  univeisity 
council  of  Quebec  by  the  bishops  of  the  ecclesiastical 
Province  of  Montreal.  The  branch  baa  thus  becoma 
nearly  independent  of  the  mother  university. 

The  academic  year  comprises  nine  months,  and  is 
divided  into  three  terms.  Instruction  is  given  by 
titular  professors,  associate  professors,  and  instructors. 
Only  tne  titular  professors  are  professors  in  the  re- 
quired sense  of  the  ciiartcr,  and  as  such  may  be  roan- 
bers  of  the  university  council.  The  physical  museum 
for  the  use  of  the  faculty  of  arts  at  Quebec  is  x-ery 
complete.  Itinoludu 
nearly  fifteen  hun- 
dred instruments  in 
all  the  branches  of 
physics,  among  them 
most  of  the  apparatus 
for    the    demonstra- 

coveries.  The  miner- 
atogical  museum  is 
rich  in  specimens. 
EapcciaJly  remark- 
able is  a  valuable 
Sieral  collection  of 
nadian  minerals 
and  rocks.     Thegeo- 

tains  more  than  two 
thousand  specimens. 
In  the  botanical  mu- 
seum there  are  a  com- 
plete collection  ot 
Canadian  woods  used 
I  industry,  and  hav- 


LlVAI.   Uhi 


condition  that  these  enactments  contain  nothing  con- 
trary to  the  laws  of  the  United  Kingdom  or  to  those 
of  Canada. 

The  university  comprises  the  four  faculties  of  theol- 
ogy, law,  medicine,  and  arts.  Each  faculty  is  pro- 
vided with  a  special  council  which  discusses  and  sub- 
mits to  the  university  council  all  questions  which  most 
directly  interest  one  or  the  other  of  these  faculties. 
The  professors  of  tlie  faculty  of  theology  are  named  by 
the  visitor;  all  the  others  are  appointed  by  the  council. 
The  degrees  which  may  fcie  obtamed  by  students  in 
each  of  these  faculties  are  those  of  bachelor,  master, 
licentialc,  and  doctor.  Good  conduct  is  an  essential 
condition  for  securing  deerees.  In  order  that  the 
^atcst  number  of  classictd  colleges  may  profit  by  its 
right  of  conferring  diplomas  granted  by  the  royal  char- 
ter, and  may  sIho  take  a  more  direct  interest  in  its 
work,  the  university  received,  in  virtue  of  a  provision 
of  this  charter,  the  power  to  affiliate  with  itself  such 
public  educational  establishments  of  the  province  as  it 
may  desire  on  the  conditions  laid  down  by  the  coun- 
cil. At  present  all  the  houses  of  secondary  education 
in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  except  the  Jesuit  College  at 
Montreal,  have  sought  and  obtained  this  affiliation. 
The  College  of  St.  Dunstan,  Cbarlottetown,  Prince 
Edward  Island,  has  also  secured  for  its  students  the 
advantages  and  privileges  attached  to  the  examina- 
tions for  the  universitv  baccalaureate.  To  Laval 
University  are  also  affiliated  the  Polytechnic  School 
of  Montreal,  the  School  of  Dental  Surgery,  the  School 
ot  Pharmacy,  the  French  Velerinan- School,  and  the 
Central  School  of  Surveying  of  Queoec. 

Conformably  to  a  decision  of  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Propsgitnda,  dut«d  1  February,  1876,  an  ex- 


ing 

value,  several  collec- 
tions of  exotic  woods,  amooK  osiers  a  very  remarkable 
collection  of  woods  sold  in  the  English  rnarkets,  and  a 
fine  collection  of  artificial  fruits  and  mushrooms.  The 
herbarium  of  the  University  of  Quebec  contains  more 
than  twelve  thousand   plants.     The  soological  mu- 


cious  birds  or  birds  of  prey  is  nearly  complete  as  re- 
gards Canadian  species,  not  including  several  rare 
exotic  specimens.  The  entomological  collection  now 
numbers  more  than  fifteen  thousand  species  of  insects 
from  all  parts  of  the  world;  the  numismatic  museum, 
over  eleven  thousand  coins  and  medals;  the  library, 
nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  volumes. 
Students  and  strangers  have  access  to  it  for  purposes 
of  study  every  day  except  Sunday.  The  Art  Gallery 
contains  nearly  four  hundred  pictures,  many  of  them 
of  great  value.  Among  them  arc  canvases  signed  by 
renowned  artists  such  as  Salvator  Rosa,  Lesucur,  Lan- 
tranc,  Pousain,  Van  Dyck,  Pugct,  Vemel,  Romanelli, 
Albano,  Parrocel,  Lebrun,  etc. 

The  principal  building  of  the  University  at  Quebec, 
generally  called  Lava!  University,  iw  that  in  which  the 
courses  in  law  and  arts  are  held  and  in  which  the  mu- 
seums and  the  library  are  located.  It  is  five  stories 
high  and  more  than  three  hundred  feet  long.  The 
theological  faculty  resides  in  a  more  recent  edifice  two 
hundred  and  sixty  feet  long  and  five  stories  hi^.  ^  It 
accommodates  over  one  hundred  students,  besides 
forty  professors  attached  to  the  establishment.  The 
natqts  of  the  rectors  of  the  university  since  its  foundac 
tioit  are  as  follows;  Abb«  h.  3.  Casault,  Mgr  E.  A. 


lAVAHT 


49 


ULVJJIT 


TMchereau,  Mgr  M.  E.  M^thot,  Mgr  T.  E.  Hame!, 
Mgr  J.  C.  K.  Laflamme,  Mgr  O.  E.  Mathieu,  and  Abb6 
A.  Gosselin.  Di^ring  190^-09  four  hundred  and 
twenty-one  students  attended  the  various  faculties, 
while  the  number  who  followed  the  courses  at  Mon- 
treal was  much  larger. 

O.  E.  Mathieu. 

Lavant  (Lavantina),  an  Austrian  bishopric  in  the 
southern  part  of  Stjrriai  suffragan  of  Salzburg.  The 
orig^inal  seat  of  the  bishopric  lay  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Carinthia  in  the  valley  of  the  Lavant.  It  was  here 
that  Ebeihard  11,  Archbishop  of  Salzbiu^,  estab- 
lished, 20  Aug.,  1212,  at  St.  Anar&,  with  the  consent  of 
Pope  Innocent  III  and  Emperor  Frederick  II,  a  col- 
Iwate  chapter,  the  canons  of  which  followed  the  Rule 
oTSt.  Augustine;  its  members  were  chosen  from  the 
cathedral  chapter  of  Salzburg.  On  account  of  the 
great  remoteness  and  the  difficulty  of  travelling,  the 
archbishop,  about  the  year  1223.  asked  Pope  Hon- 
orius  III  to  allow  Jbim  to  found  a  oishopric  at  St.  An- 
di&.  After  the  pope  had  had  the  archbishop's  re- 
quest examined  bv  commissioners,  and  had  given  his 
consent,  Eberhard  drew  up  the  deed  of  foundation,  10 
May,  1228,  wherein  he  secured  the  possession  of  the 
episcopal  chair  for  himself  and  his  successors  in  per- 
petuity. He  named  as  first  bishop  his  court  chaplain 
ulrich,  who  had  formerly  been  priest  of  Haus,  in 
Styria  (d.  1257). 

In  the  deed  of  foundation  of  the  new  bishopric,  no 
boundaries  were  defined.  In  a  deed  of  Arcnbishop 
Frederick  II  of  Salzburg  of  1280,  seventeen  parishes, 
situated  partlv  in  Carinuiia  and  partly  in  Styria,  were 
describea  as  oelonging  to  Lavant;  the  extent  ef  the 
diocese  was  rather  smiul,  but  the  bishops  also  attended 
to  the  office  of  vicar-general  of  the  Archbishops  of 
Salzburg  for  some  scattered  districts;  they  also  fre- 
quently attended  to  the  office  of  Vicedom  (bishop's 
aeputy  in  secular  affairs)  at  Friesach.  The  tenth 
biuiop.  Dietrich  Wolfhauer  (1318-32),  is  mentioned 
in  deeos  as  Uie  first  prince-bishop;  he  was  also  secre- 
tary of  Frederick  III  the  Handsome,  of  Austria,  and 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  MOhldorf  in  1322.  Since 
the  twenty-second  bishop,  Theobald  Schweinbeck 
(1446-63),  the  bishops  have  borne  without  intermis- 
sion the  title  of  prmce.  The  following  prominent 
bishops  deserve  special  mention:  the  humanist  Johann 
I  von  Rott  (1468-82),  died  as  Prince-Bishop  of  Bres- 
lau;  Geoig  II  Agrikola  (1570-84),  who  after  1572  was 
also  at  the  same  time  Bishop  of  Seckau;  Georg  III 
Stob&us  von  Palmbuig  (1584-1618),  a  worthy  pro- 
motor  of  the  Counter-Reformation;  Maximilian  (Ran- 
dolph Freiherr  von  Kienbuig  (1654-65),  did  much  to- 
wards increasing  the  financi^  resources  of  the  diocese. 

By  the  new  regulations  under  Emperor  Joseph  II, 
several  bishoprics  were  added  to  the  Diocese  of  La- 
vant. Prince-Archbishop  Michael  Brigido  of  Laibach 
in  1788  ceded  a  number  of  parishes  in  the  southern 
part  of  what  is  now  the  Diocese  of  Lavant;  and  the 
district  of  Volkermarkt,  which  was  afterwards  a^ain 
detached,  was  added  to  the  bishopric  at  that  time. 
The  present  extent  of  the  diocese  was  brought  about 
by  the  circumscription  of  1  June,  1859.  The  valley  of 
the  Lavant  and  the  district  of  Volkermarkt  in  Carin- 
thia fell  to  Gurk;  in  consequence  of  which  the  Dis- 
trict of  Marburg  was  traxisferred  from  Seckau  to 
Lavant;  since  then  the  diocese  comprises  the  whole  of 
aou^em  Styria.  By  the  decree  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Consistory  of  20  May,  1857,  the  see  of  the  bishop 
was  removed  from  St.  Andrft  to  Marburg;  the  parish 
church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  in  that  place  being 
erected  into  a  cathedral,  and  the  title  "of  Lavant 
bdn|(  preserved.  On  4  Sept.,  1859,  Bishop  Anton 
Martm.  Slomschek  (1846-62)  made  his  solemn  entry 
into  Marburg.  His  suocessors,  Jakob  Maximilian 
Stepischnegg  (1862-89),  and  Michael  Napotmk  (since 
1889)  have  shown  great  zeal  for  the  promotion  of  the 


spiritual  life  by  introducing  reli^ous  orders  and  found- 
ing educational  and  chariUible  institutions  and  clubs. 
But  the  most  beneficial  work  done  for  the  religious  life 
of  the  diocese  was  that  of  the  diocesan  synods,  hejd  by 
Stepischnegg  (1883),  and  by  Napotnik,  who  followed 
his  example  (1896, 1900, 1903,  and  1906). 

The  bishopric  is  divided  into  24  deaneries,  and 
numbered  (1909)  223  parishes,  200  chaplaincies  (48 
unoccupied),  7  unoccupied  offices  and  benefices,  375 
priests  engaged  in  the  cure  of  souls,  39  secular  priests 
and  53  r^udar  cleigy  in  other  positions,  37  clergy 
without  office,  675  churches  and  chapels,  and  521,896 
souls.  The  cathedral  chapter,  which  is  four-fifths 
Slovene  and  one-fifth  German,  consists  of  one  mitred 
cathedral  provost,  one  mitred  cathedral  dean,  and 
five  canons.  The  old  cathedral  chapter,  which  was 
composed  of  the  canons  of  the  Augustinian  order,  was 
dissolved  in  1808,  and  its  property  was  assigned  to  the 
*'  Religionsfond''  founded  by  Joseph  II;  in  1825  a  new 
catliedral  chapter  was  provisionally  erected,  and  defin- 
itively so  in  1847.  Besides  the  actual  canons,  there  are 
six  stiedls  for  honorary  canons  (four  temporarily  va- 
cant). The  council  is  composed  of  six  advisors;  the 
Srince-bishop  is  the  presiaent.  In  the  theological 
iocesan  college  there  are  eleven  lecturers;  the  epis- 
copal priests'  seminarv  numbers  (1909)  4  classes,  with 
42  students;  the  *'Maximilianum-Viktorinum'',  an 
episcopal  seminary  for  boys,  8  classes,  with  80  students. 
Eight  clerical  teachers  taught  in  7  state  schools. 

In  the  diocese  there  arc  the  following  establish- 
ments of  religious  orders:  1  monastery  of  Minorites  of 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  at  Pettau  (founded  1 239) ,  with  nine 
fathers;  4  Franciscan  monasteries,  with  31  fathers,  23 
lay  brothers,  and  5  clerical  novices;  1  Capuchin  mon- 
astery at  Cilli  (foimded  1611),  with  6  fathers,  and  4  lay 
brothers:  2  mission  houses  of  the  Fathers  of  St.  Vin- 
cent de  JPaul,  with  8  priests,  and  10  lay  brothers;  1 
Trappist  abbey,  Maria  Eriosung,  at  Heichenburg 
(founded  1881  by  French  Trappists),  with  21  fathers, 
and  48  brothers.  Orders  of  women :  Sisters  of  CTiarity 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  82,  in  6  establisliments,  who 
are  dedicated  to  the  nursing  of  the  sick;  School  Sisters 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  1  mother- 
house,  14  afl&liated  houses,  190  sisters;  School  Sisters 
from  the  mother-house  of  Algersdorf,  Graz,  9,  with  1 
institution;  1  magdalen  asylum,  with  17  canonesses, 
and  15  lay  sisters:  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  the  Holy  Cross, 
3,  with  ohe  establishment;  Sisters  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  9,  with  one  hospital;  1  Carmelite  Convent  of 
Perpetual  Adoration  (10  sisters).  The  School  Sisters 
conduct  a  training  school  for  female  teachers,  1  ly- 
ceum,  11  girls'  schools,  5  boarding-schools,  6  kinder- 
gartens, 2  orphan  asylums,  2  schools  of  domestic 
economy,  and  one  home  for  servant-girls.  There  are 
36  Catholic  clubs  and  confraternities  in  the  diocese, 
besides  25  associations  for  the  building  and  adorn- 
ment of  churches. 

The  most  prominent  ecclesiastical  buildings  in  the 
diocese  are:  the  cathedral  and  parish  churcli  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  at  Marburg,  which  was  begun  in 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  as  a  Romanesque 
basilica,  rebuilt  after  1520  in  the  Gothic  style,  again 
restored  after  the  fire  in  1601,  and  once  more  in  1885; 
the  provostship  and  parish  church  of  St.  Georg,  at 
Pettau,  erectea  in  the  Gothic  style  about  1314;  the 
abbey  and  parish  church  of  St.  Daniel,  at  Cilli,  dates 
from  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century;  and  the 
shrine  of  St.  Maria  der  Wiiste,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Marburg  (built  1628),  in  the  baroque  style. 

Tjlnol,  Reihe  der  Biackofe  von  Lavant  (IQacenfurt,  1841): 
Stepischneoo,  Georg  111.  Stohiiua  von  Palmburg,  FUrstbuchof 
von  Lavant  in  Archiv.  fQr  Kunde  osterreichiacher  Oeachichlaquel- 
Un  (1856);  QeOa  et  Statuta  Synod.  dueceMncB,  1896  (Marbuqi, 
1807);  Die  Zweite  Didceaansjfnode  (Marburg.  1896);  Ecclena 
Lavantinm  Synodua  diacesana  1905  (^larburs*  1^04);  Synod^^* 
dioBoemna  1906  (Marbuxg.  1907);  Ktrchlxchea  Verordnungtblatl 
far  die  Lavanter  Didcese;  Permnialaland  de»  Bistuma  Lavant  in 
Steiermark  Jur  daa  Jahr  1909  (Marbuif*  1909). 

Joseph  Lins. 


LAVERDIt&E 


50 


LAVIGEUE 


Layerdidre,  Charlbs-Honob£,  French-Canadian 
historian,  b.  at  Chateau-Richer,  Province  of  Quebec, 
1826;  d.  at  Quebec,  1873.  After  his  ordination  (1851) 
he  was  attached  to  the  Quebec  Seminary,  where  he  had 
studied  the  classics  and  theolofi;y,  and  he  remained 
there  till  his  death.  He  utilizea  his  varied  talents  in 
teaching  belles-lettres,  physics,  chemistry,  mathemat- 
ics, music,  and  drawing.  His  favourite  pursuits  were 
Canadian  history  and  archaeology.  Although  his  orig- 
inal writings  were  few,  including  a  school  history  of 
Canada  and  some  historical  pamphlets,  he  supervised 
the  re-editing  of  several  most  important  works,  which 
are  the  very  sources  of  Canadian  history.  Conspicu- 
ous among  these  are  the  "Relations  des  J^suites" 
(1858),  with  erudite  and  exhaustive  analytical  tables; 
the  "Journal  des  J^suites'*  (1871);  and  finally,  the 
realization  of  his  most  ardent  wish,  "  Les  CEuvres  de 
Champlain"  of  which  he  wrote  the  introduction  and 
countless  annotations  of  great  historical  exactness  and 
value.  He  often  spent  a  day  in  verifying  a  single  date 
or  the  spelling  of  a  name.  WTien  the  recently  com- 
pleted edition  was  entirely  destroyed  by  fire,  Laver- 
di^re  calmly  remarked  that  some  misprints  that  had 
escaped  his  vigilance  might  be  avoided  in  a  new  edi- 
tion. His  thorough  knowledge  of  plain-song  enabled 
him  to  publish  a  series  of  liturgical  works.  He  was  of 
a  mild  and  amiable  character,  esteemed  by  all  who 
knew  him.  His  mastery  of  Canadian  history,  espe- 
cially the  period  from  1500  to  1700,  gave  his  assertions 
great  authority. 

Annuaire  de  VUnxversUf  Laval  (Quebec,  1874);  Faucher 
DB  St -Maurice,  L'AbbS  Chanea- Honors  Laverdicre  (Quebec, 
1874). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 

Lay^rendrye,  Piehre  Gaul/tier  de  Varennes, 
SiEUR  de,  discoverer  of  the  Canadian  West,  b.  at 
Three  Rivers,  Quebec,  17  Nov.,  1685;  d.  at  Montreal, 
6  Dec.,  1749.  His  early  manhood  was  passed  as  a 
soldier  in  the  service  of  France,  and  he  was  wounded 
on  the  battlefield  of  Malplaquet.  Later  he  returned 
to  his  native  country  and  engaged  in  the  fur  trade. 
As  a  step  towards  the  exploration  of  the  Pacific,  or  the 
Western  Sea  as  it  was  then  called,  he  established  three 
trading  posts  west  of  Lake  Superior,  i.  e.  Forts  St. 
Pierre,  on  Rainy  River  (1731),  St.  Charles  on  the  Lake 
of  the  Woods  (1732),  and  Maurepas,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Winnipeg  River  (1734).  A  sincere  Christian,  and 
having  at  heart  his  own  religious  interests  as  well  as 
those  of  his  men,  he  had  taken  with  him  Father 
Charles  M.  Mesaiger,  a  Jesuit,  who  did  not  go  farther 
than  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  where  he  was  succeeded, 
in  the  summer  of  1735,  by  Father  Jean  P.  Aulneau  de 
La  Touche. 

This  young  priest  having  temporarily  left  for  the 
east  (8  June,  1736)  with  Lavdrendrye's  eldest  son, 
Jean-Baptiste,  and  nineteen  "voyagcurs'*,  in  quest 
of  much  needed  provisions,  the  entire  party  was 
slain  on  an  island  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  on  the 
very  day  of  their  departure.  Lav6rendrye  prudently 
resisted  the  pressing  solicitations  of  the  natives,  burn- 
ing to  avenge  on  the  Sioux,  the  authors  of  the  mas- 
sacre, the  wrong  done  to  the  French.  Then,  in  spite  of 
his  many  debts  occasioned  by  explorations  and  estab- 
lishments for  which  he  had  no  other  funds  than  the 
desultory  returns  of  the  fur  trade  in  an  unorganized 
coimtry,  he  went  on  with  the  task  entrusted  to  his 
patriotism  bv  the  French  court.  On  24  September, 
1 738,  he  reached  the  exact  spot  where  now  stands  Win- 
nipeg, and,  ascending  the  Assiniboine  to  the  present 
site  of  Portage  la  Prairie,  he  built  there  a  post  which 
he  caUed  Fort  La  Reine.  Thence  he  made  for  the  south, 
and  by  the  end  of  1738  he  was  at  a  Mandan  village  on 
\he  Upper  Missouri.  Early  in  the  spring  of  the  follow- 
ing year,  he  sent  north  one  of  his  sons,  who  discovered 
Luces  Manitoba,  Dauphin,  Winnipegosis,  and  Bour- 
boni  and  erected  a  fort  on  Lake  Daupnin.    Meantime 


La  v^ndiye  had  had  to  repair  to  Montreal  to  ocmie  to 
an  imderstanding  with  his  creditors.  On  his  return 
to  the  west  he  took  with  him  the  Jesuit  Father  Claude 
G.  Coquart,  the  first  priest  to  see  the  confluence  of  the 
Assiniboine  with  the  Red  River  and  reside  at  what  is 
now  Portage  la  Prairie  (1741).  In  the  spring  of  17^ 
he  commissioned  two  of  his  sons,  Pierre  Gauthier,  dii 
the  Chevalier,  and  Fran9ois,  to  explore  the  country  as 
far  west  as  they  could  possibly  go.  In  the  company  of 
savages  who  had  never  seen  a  white  man,  thev  reached, 
after  many  perils,  one  of  the  spurs  of  the  Rocky 
Moimtains,  which  the^  partially  scaled  (12  Jan.,1743). 
The  desertion  of  their  native  guides,  terrified  at  the 
unexpected  discovery  of  a  village  of  their  traditional 
enemies,  alone  prevented  further  progress.  The  ex- 
plorers must  have  penetrated  to  a  point  in  the  north- 
west comer  of  what  is  now  Montana.  Lav4rendr>'e 
was  naturally  endowed,  it  is  true^  with  inuomi- 
table  energy,  but  he  was  struggling  against  too 
heavy  odds.  Dragged  before  the  law  courts  by 
the  Montreal  merchants  whom  he  could  not  pay, 
and  accused  by  others  of  thinking  more  of  filthy  lucre 
than  of  discoveries,  and  ill  sustained  by  the  Paris 
authorities,  he  had  to  give  up  his  work  (1744),  after 
consecrating  to  it  the  thirteen  best  years  of  his  life. 
Gradually  his  worth  became  recognised  at  Paris,  and 
honours  were  bestowed  upon  him  oy  the  French  king. 
He  was  on  the  eve  of  resuming  his  explorations  when 
he  died,  and  was  buried  in  the  vault  of  Notre-Dame, 
Montreal. 

An  upright  man  and  a  good  Christian,  Lav^ren- 
drye  was  considerably  more  than  a  mere  explorer. 
No  less  than  six  fur -trading  stations  attested  to 
his  efficiency  as  an  organizer.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  numerous  personnel  of  "  voyageurs"  whom  these 
posts  necessitated  eventuallv  gave  rise  to  that  won- 
derful race,  the  M^tis,  which  was  in  after  years  to 
glay  such  an  important  part  in  the  history  of  Central 
anada. 

DuoAS,  V Quest  Canadien  (Montreal,  1896);  Laitt,  Path' 
Anders  of  the  West  (Toronto,  1904):  Prud'uommb.  Pierre  O.  de 
Varennes,  Sieur  de  La  Virendrye  (()ttawa,  1905);  Burpub,  The 
Search  for  the  Western  Sea  (Toronto,  1908)  {  Marsh,  Where  the 
Buffalo  roamed  (Toronto.  1908) ;  Moricb,  Dtctionnaire  historioue 
des  Canadiens  et  des  Mitts  Francais  de  V  Quest  (Quebec.  190b): 
Idbm,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Western  Canada  (To- 
ronto, 1910). 

A.   0.   MORICE. 

Layerlochdre,  Jean-Nicolas,  missionary,  b.  at  St. 
Georges  d'Esp^rance,  Grenoble,  France,  6  Dec.,  1812; 
d.  at  Temiscaming,  Canada,  4  Oct.,  1884.  He  began 
his  religious  life  as  a  lay  brother  in  the  Congregation  of 
the  Oblates,  but  feeling  called  to  evangelize  the  natives 
of  Canada,  he  was  allowed  to  studv  for  the  priesthood, 
and  was  ordained  5  May,  1844,  at  L'Acadie^  near  Mon- 
treal. He  was  sent  in  succession  to  Abittibbi,  Moose 
Factory,  and  other  posts  on  Hudson  Bay,  where  he 
laboured  for  the  conversion  of  the  native  tribes. 
Alone,  or  in  collaboration  with  others,  he  published  a 
number  of  devotional  books  in  Indian.  Btis  letters  in 
the  **  Annales  de  la  Propagation  de  la  Foi"  attracted 
wide  attention,  and  his  reputation  as  a  zealous  mis- 
sionary spread  throughout  Catholic  Europe  to  such  an 
extent  that  he  was  ultimately  recognized  as  the  Apos- 
tle of  Hudson  Bay.  A  stroke  of  palsy  intemiptea  his 
labours  in  the  course  of  1851. 

Soullerin,  LePhre  Laverlochhre  (Paris,  s.  d.);  Annales  de  la 
Propagation  die  la  Foi,  passim. 

A.  G.  MoRicE. 

LayiaUe,  Peteb  Joseph.  See  Louisville,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

Lavigerie,  Chables-Martial-A'llemand,  French 
cardinal,  b.  at  Huire  near  Bayonne,  13  Oct.,  1825;  d. 
at  Algiers,  27  Nov.,  1892.  He  studied  at  the  diocesan 
seminary  of  Larressore,  then  went  to  St.  Nicolas-du- 
Chardonnet  in  Paris,  and  finally  to  St.  Sulpice.  Or- 
dained On  2  June,  1849,  he  devoted  the  first  years  bf 


LAViaiBIS 


51 


LAVianuE 


his  pieethood  to  higher  studies  at  the  newly  founded  laboura  mnged  far  beyond  the  vast  teiritoriee  placed 

Ecdle  dee  Carmee,  takmg  at  the  Sorbonne  the  doetoi^  under  hia  jurisdiction.    Klein  (Le  Caidinal  Lavigerie, 

ateaoflett«re  (1850),  and  of  theology  (1^53),  to  which  p.  2B8)  deecribes  minutely  the  many  ways  in  which  he 

be  added  lat«r  the  Roman  doctorates  of  civil  and  Krved  the  best  interests  of  France  in,  and  out  of;  Af- 

conon  law.    Appointed  chaplain  ot  Sainte-Genevi^e  riea.     He  will,  however,  be  beat  remembered  by  the 

in  1853,  aasociatc  ptofeesor  of  church  history  at  the  leading  rflle  he  played  in  furthering  the  policy  of  Leo 

Sorbonne  in  1SS4,  and  titular  of  the  chair    in  lf!57,  XIII  with  regard  to  French  Catholica,  and  in  pro- 

lavigerie  did  not  confine  his  actii-ity  to  his  chap-  moling  the  anti-slavery  movement. 
laJncy  or  chair,  but  took  a  leading  part  in  the  orpini-         Tinctured  with  tJaliicanism  through  hia  early  asBO- 

zation  of  the  students'  eerclea  catholiquee,  and  of  ciation  with  the  Sorbonne,  Lavigerie  modified  hia 

I'tEuvre  desfeoles  d'Orient,     Ah  direct  or  of  the  latter  viewaduringhisstay  at  Rome,  and  his  attitude  at  the 

be  collected  large  nums  for  the  benefit  of  the  Oriental  Vatican  Council  is  fully  expressed  by  the  promise  he 

Christiana  persecuted  by  the  Druses,  and  even  went  to  made  his  clergy  "  to  be  with  Peter  ",    When  Leo  XIII, 

Syria  to  BuperintendpereonflUy  the  distribution  of  the  by  hia  Encychcala  "Nobihasima  Gallorum  gens"  of  8 

funda  (ISflO).    His  bnlliant  Befvices  were  rewarded  by  Feb.,  1884,  and  "Sapientia!  ffitflmip"  nf  3  Feb..  1890. 

rapid  promotion,  first  in  1861  to  the  Roman  Rota,  and  directed  the  French  Catholics 


be  generously  pxit  aside  other 
poUtical  aJfihationa  and  again 
■■waH  with  Peter".  A  groat 
sensation  was  created  when 
at  Algiers,  on  12  Nov.,  1890, 
he  proclaimed  before  a  vast 
Bsaemblagc  of  French  ofGciala 
the  obligation  for  French  Cath- 
olics of  sincerely  adhering  to 
the  republican  form  of  gov- 
ernment. The  famous  "  toast 
d'AJger"  waa  the  object  ot 
harsh  criticism  and  even  vitu- 
peration from  the  monarchist 
element.  With  hia  usual 
vehemence  Cardinal  Lavigerie 
anawered  by  his  "  Lettre  k  ua 
catht^tque",  in  which  he  not 
only  impugned  theprctenders 
— the  Comtc  de  Chambord, 
the  Comte  Ue  Paris,  and' 
Prince  Niipoli5on— but  even 
hinted  that  monarchy  was  an 
outgrown  institution.  In  this 
he  may  have  gone  too  tar,  but 
in  the  main  point  it  was 
proved  later  by  Cardinal  Ram- 
polla's  letter  of  28  NovenJDer, 
IS90.  and  Pope  Leo's  Encycli- 
cal "Inter  innumeraa"  ot  16 
Feb.,  IK92,  that  Lavigerie  had 
been  the  aclf-sacriticing 
apokesman  of  the  pope. 

The  auppression  of  slaveiy 
had  been  the  subject  of  Lavi- 
^ric's  first  pastoral  letter  at  .Algiers.  When  Leo 
XIII  in  his  Encyclical  tc  the  bishops  of  Brazil  (5  May, 
1-S88)  appealed  tn  the  world  in  bchalt  of  the  slaves,  the 
Primate  of  Carthage  was  tile  first  to  respond.  In 
_.  in  which  was  to  bring  his  heroic  missionarieaintri  the  spite  of  age  and  infirmities  he  visited  the  capitala  of 
very  heart  of  the  Dark  Continent,  and  reault  in  the  Europe,  teihng  of  the  horrors  of  -African  slavery  and 
erection  of  five  vicariates  Apostolic  in  Equatorial  Af-  urging  tlie  formation  of  anti-Hlavery  societie.s.  The 
rica.  Tn  thoae  many  burdens— made  heavier  by  the  international  "Conference"  of  Brussels,  1890.  prac- 
eonae^uencee  (felt  even  in  Algeria)  of  the  Franco-  tically  adopted  I^avigerie's  suggestions  as  to  the  lioat 
Prussian  war,  the  withdrawal  of  government  finan-  means  of  achieving  the  desired  abolition,  and  the 
lupport,   and   the  threatened   extension  to  the     "CongrSsde  Paris",  called  the  aame  year  by  the  car- 

' '  '       dinal  himself,  ahowed  great  enthusiasm  and  verified 

Lavigerie's  saying:  "  pour  a:iuvcr  I'Afrique  int^rieure, 
il  faut  sou  lever  la  colore  du  monde." 

After  the  "toast  d'.\lger"  and   the  "Congres  de 
'"''■'■  health,   relired  to  .Al- 

„ - — -      ^ —  __ ,. saddened  by  theoftcu 

iate.  Cardinal  in  1881,  he  became  the  first  primiite  ot  unjust  criticism  of  hia  cherished  jMuject^the  "  fteres 
the  ne«dv  restored  See  of  Carthage  in  1«84,  retaining  plonnicrs  du  Sahara" — the  death  of  many  of  his  inis- 
meanwhite  the  See  of  Algiers.  "  I  shall  not  upvk  one  sionaries,  and,  alwve  all,  the  passing  ot  Ugaiidu  under 
ifay's  re-st"  waa  the  rrmark  of  Lavigrrie  wlicn  he  tlie  control  of  the  sectarian  Imperial  Ea.-it-.\frican 
landed  on  African  soil.  He  carrie<l  onl  lluit  piomisc  ('ompany.  He  die<l  at  .Algiers  as  prepamtiims  were  . 
to  the  letter.  While  Notre-Dame  tl'.Afrique  at  Al-  being  made  tor  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  hia 
gfm.  the  BaBilica  of  St.  Ixiuta  at  (^irthage,  and  the  -African  episcopate.  The  daily  prea.t  throughout  the 
Cathedralof  St.  Vincent  de  Paulnl  I'lini.s  will  stand  as  world  eulogiiud  liim.  who  had  forbidden  all  eulogies 
woounwuts  of  his  prodigiuua  activity  in  Africa,  his    at  hia  tuneral,  and  the  "Moniteur  du  Rome"  ti.«i.'<-^'$ 


a  yearn  later  to  the  See  of 
Nancy.  From  the  lieginning 
ot  hia  episcopate  he  displa^i'ed 
that  genius  of  organiialion 
which  is  the  characteristic  of 
his  life.  The  foundation  of 
collegtt  at  Vic,  Blamont,  and 
Lun^ville;  the  establishment 
at  Nancy  of  a  higher  institute 
(or  clenca  and  of  a  Maison 
d'^tudiants  for  law  students; 
the  organiiation  of  the  episco- 
pal curia:  the  pubUcaUon  of 
the  "  Recu^  des  Ordomiaiices 
^piacopales,  atatuta  et  rigle- 
menta  du  diocdse  de  Nancy", 
were  but  the  first  fruita  ^  a 

Eromi^ng  episcopate,  when 
e  was  transferred  to  Algiers 
on37UAidi,  1867. 

.\a  Aichbiihop  of  Algiers  he 
promptly  revened  the  pcriiey 
of  neutrality  towards  the  Hoe- 
Icms  imposed  upon  his  pred- 
ecessors by  the  French  au- 
ttiorities,  and  inaugurated  a 
strong  movement  of  assimila- 
tion and.  converaion.  With 
the  help  of  the  White  Fathers 
and  01  the  White  Sistem, 
whom  he  founded  for  the  pur- 
pose, he  established  and 
maintained  at  great  coxt 
orphan  asylums,  iniluatria! 
srfiofds,  boBpitals,  and  agricul- 
tural settlements,  wherein  the  .Arabs  could  l)e  brought 
underthe  influence  of  the  {iofliM'l.  Appointed  as  early 
as  1868  Apostolic  Delegale  of  H'pstern  Sahara  and  the 
Sudan,  he  began  in  1S74  the  work  nl  southward  expan- 


African  colonies  of  anti-religious  legi.station  passed 
France— lavigerie  added  other  eares:  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Diocese  of  Constantina,  1S71;  the  founda- 
tion at  St.  Anne  of  Jerusalem  of  a  clerical  seminary 
tor  the  Oriental  missions,  1378,  and,  after  tljooccupa>-     Paris",  Ijavigerie,  broken 
tionof  Tunis  bj^  France,  the  government  of  tliat  vicar-     giera. 


K  (Parii,  ISSSl. 
,  IBOSI.udnKii 


Bummariied  his  Ufa  by  sajin^  that,  in  a  few  y«an  of 
incredibla  activitv,  he  had  laid  out  woric  for  geaera- 
tiona.  An  able  scnolar  and  an  orator  of  the  first  order, 
Lavigerie  was  also  a.  writer.  Beaides  some  scholastic 
productions  destiuad  for  his  pupils  at  the  Ecole  des 
Cannes  (184H),  we  have  from  his  pen  a  doctorate 
thesis:  "EBsaisurl'ficolechr^tienned'Edesse"  (Paris, 
1850);  several  contributions  to  the  '-' Bibilotb^que 
pieuse  et  instructive  &  I'usage  de  la  jeunesae  chj^ 
tienne"  (Paris^  1853);  "Ezpos^  des  erreurs  doctrin- 
aiee  du  Jana^niame"  (Paris,  18CS),  an  abridgment  of 
his  leesons  at  the  8orbonne;  "Decreta  concjlii  pro- 
vincialis  Algeriensis  in  Africa"  (1873);  a  large  num- 
ber of  discourses,  pamphlets,  or  reports,  some  of  which 
were  embodied  m  the  two  volumes  of  his  "(Euvrea 
choisies"  (Paris,  1834);  " Documents pourlafoodation 
de  I'ceuvre  antiesclavadste "  (St.  Cloud,  1889),  etc. 
BauhiIIITi,  Le  Cardinal  Lamgirit  iPaiia,  1896  and  ISBR): 
Kleih,  Lt  Cardinal  Lavittrit  rt  tta  amra  (FAfrtfut  (Toara, 
18DI  and  1897);  de  LAcaysE.  Lt  Card,  liavietHt  In  Lt  Comt- 
madanl  [Sept..  1900):  DE  Coucville,  Lt  Cardinal  Lavigiria 
iPam.  1905) -.P tan,  U  Cardinal  lAivigirit.  la  Ti 
dottrint  in  Bioira  SactrdolaUi  CatUrmpommt* 

Cbubsenmiyeii,    Vingl-cinii  annirt  d'tjiiicoait  

S«  atw  PioLrr,  Let  Mutiont  d'Afrimu  (Pu^  IBOS), 

poriwlicfili  H  tte  RuUHin  dra  Munotu  d-Algtr.  the  Mi*linu 
d' Afriipie  dtt  Pirn  BlatKM,  the  Buli^in  official  d*  la  SacCtUanti- 
tKlavagiite  dt  France, 

3.  F.  SOLUBB. 

Lavigne,  Chables.    See  Trincomali,  Diocksb  or. 

Lavoisior,  ANToiNE-LAintENT,  chemist,  philoao- 
pher,  economist;  h.  in  Paris,  26  August,  1743;  guillo- 
tined 8  May,  1794.  He  wwi  the  son  of  Jean-Antoine 
Lavoisier,  a  lawyer  of  distinction,  and  Emilie  Punctis, 
who  belonged  to  a  rich  and  influential  family,  and  who 
died  when  Ant^lne-Laurent  was  five  years  old.  His 
early  years  were  most  carefully  guarded  by  his  aunt, 
'Mile  Constance  Punctis,  to  whom  he  was  devotedly  at- 
tached; and  through  lier  asaiijtance  he  was  secured  the 
advantage  of  a  good  education.  He  attended  the  Col- 
Uge  Mazarin,  which  was  noted  for  its  faculty  of  science, 
and  here  he  studied  mathematics  and  astronomy 
under  Abb£  dc  la  Caillc,  who  had  built  an  observatory 
at  the  college  after  having  won  renown  by^neasuring 
an  arc  of  the  meridian  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
by  determining  the  length  of  the  eeoond's  pendulum, 
and  by  his  catalogue  of  the  stars.  Young  Lavoisier 
also  received  instruction  from  Bernard  de  Jussieu  in 
botany,  fromOucttardingcologvand  mineralogy,  and 
from  Rouelle  in  chemistry.  In  logic  he  was  inmienced 
by  the  writings  of  Abb^  de  Condillac,  as  he  fre<)uently 
aeknowledRca  in  his  "Traits  EltoentairedeChimie. 
He  began  hia  career  by  entering  the  profession  of  tho 
law,  but  soon  abandoned  this  to  return  to  his  favourite 
studies  of  chemistry  and  roineralogy.  His  first  scien- 
tific communication  to  the  Academy  was  upon  the 
composition  and  properties  of  gypsum  and  pister  of 
Paris,  and  this  is  to-day  a  classic  and  a  valuable  eon- 
tribution  to  our  knowledge  of  crystallixing  cements. 
He  early  learned  to  look  to  the  balance  for  teip  in  the 
definition  of  facta,  and  found  its  great  value  particu- 
larly when  he  began  to  study  the  phenomena  wo  now 
know  under  the  terms  combustion  or  oxidaOioa,  aad 
reduction  or  deoxidation. 

The  most  advanced  chemical  philosophers  of  his  day 
taught  that  there  was  something  in  eveiy  combustible 
substance  which  was  driven  out  by  the  burning,  that 
the  reduction  of  an  oxide  of  a  metal  to  the  metallic 
state  meant  the  absorption  of  this  substance  or  princi- 
ple, which  Stahl  haa  called  phlogiston.  Lavoisier 
studied  the  teaching  of  the  phlogistonists,  but  having 
also  a  mastery  of  physics  and  of  pneumatic  experi- 
mentation he  became  dissatisfied  with  their  theory. 
He  seised  upon  two  important  discoveries,  that  of 
oxygen  by  Priestley  (1774),  and  that  of  the  compound 
nature  of  water  by  Cavendish  (1781)  and  by  a  mas- 
lerly  stroke  of  gcmus  reconciled  disoordant  appearances 
Sfia  threw  the  light  of  day  upon  every  phase  of  t^e 


world's  reacting  elements.  His  theory,  for  a  long 
time  thereafter  known  as  the  antifdiknsts'  tJieoiy, 
was  really  the  reverae  of  that  of  the  prntwiBtonista, 
'  "'raply  that  something  pondoabk  wasab- 


in  the  weight  of  a  metallic  substance  when  burned 
was  equal  to  the  decrease  in  the  weight  of  the  air 
used;  that  most  substances  thus  bummg  were  eon- 
verted  into  acids,  or.  metals  into  metallic  oxides. 
Priestley  had  called  this  absorbed  subetance  or  gas  de- 
phlogisticated  air;  Scheele  called  it  empyreal  air;  I*- 
voisier  "air  strictly  pure  "or  "very  respirable  air"  as 
distinct  from  the  other  and  non-respirable  constituent 
of  tbeatmospbere.  Later,  he  called  it  oxygen  because 
it  was  acid-making  (ifi't,  and  yftniiat). 

So  great  a  change  ensued  in  experimental  chemistiy, 
and  in  theory  and  nomenclature,  and  such  a  mass  Of 
facts  was  co-ordi- 
nated  and  ex* 
plained  by  Lavoi- 
sier that  he  has 
been  justly  called 
"the  father  of 
modem  chemis- 
try". 

He  was  the  first 
to  explain  defi- 
nitely, the  forma- 
tion of  acids  and 
salts,  to  enunciate 
the  principle  of 
conservation  as 
set  forth  by  chem- 
ical equations,  to 
develop  quantita- 
tive analysis,  gas 
analysis,  and  cal- 
orimetry,   and    to 


iNE-L*oaiNr  Latoisieb 


creat«  a  consistent 
system  of  chemical 
nomenclature.  He  made  deep  researches  in  oiganie 
chemistry,  and  studied  the  metabolism  of  organic  com- 
pounds. His  memoirs  and  contributions  to  the  Acad- 
emy were  of  extraordinary  number  and  variety.  His 
life  in  other  fields  was  romantic,  full  of  interest  and  a 
■ocial  triumph,  but  sadly  destined  to  end  in  tragedy. 
Happily  manied,  and  having  (he  aid  of  his  wife  even 
to  the  extent  of  employing  her  in  the  prosecutbn  and 
recording  of  his  expenmente,  he  drew  around  hie  fire- 
tude  and  to  his  libraiy  at  the  State  Gunpowder  Works 
a  circle  of  brilliant  French  savants  and  distinguished 
travellers  from  other  lands.  Early  in  his  career  he 
felt  the  need  of  increasing  his  resources  to  meet  tlie 
necessities  caused  by  his  scientific  experiments.  With 
this  in  view  he  Iwcame  a  deputy  /ermier-gfni'ral, 
whereby  his  income  was  much  incrcssed.  But  join- 
ing this  association  of  State- protected  tax-collectors 
Old  V  prepared  the  way  for  many  years  of  bitt«r  attack 
and  a  share  of  the  public  odium  attaching  to  their 
privilege.     He  headed   many   public  comnussions  ro- 

Suiring  scientific  investigation,  he  aimed  at  bringing 
ranee  to  such  a  state  of  agricultural  and  industritu 
expansion  that  the  peasant  and  the  working-man 
would  have  profitable  employment  and  the  small 
landed  proprietor  relief  froKi  burdensome  taxes 
hitherto  purposely  increased  to  make  grants  to 
corrupt  favourites  of  the  Court,  Having  incurred 
the  hatred  of  Marat  he  found  himself,  together  with 
his  fellow /(Tmterj-ffinfraJ,  growing  more  and  more 
unpopular  during  the  terriole  days  of  the  Revo- 
lution. Finally  in  1764  ho  was  imprisoned  with 
twenty-seven  others.  A  farcical  trial  speedUy  fol- 
lowed, in  which  he  was  charged  with  "incivism"  in 
that  he  had  damaged  public  health  by  adding  water  to 
tobacco.  He  and  hia  companions,  amongst  them 
Jacques  Alexis  Paulie,  bis  lathei^in-law,  were  con- 


L4W 


53 


L4W 


denmed  to  death.  Lavoisier,  who  was  devotedly  at- 
tached to  him,  was  obliged  to  stand  and  see  M. 
Paulie's  head  fall  under  the  guillotine,  8  Mav,  1794. 
Lavoisier  was  then  51  years  old.  His  biographers  say 
little  as  to  his  last  hours.  Grimaux  relates  that  all  the 
oondemned  men  were  silent  and  carried  themselves 
with  dignity  and  courage  in  the  face  of  death.  What 
Lavoisier's  sentiments  were  can  be  assumed  from  a 
passage  in  Grimaux  (p.  53)  who  had  been  the  first 
biographer  to  obtain  access  to  Lavoisier's  papers. 
"lUised  in  a  pious  family  which  had  given  many 
priests  to  the  Cnurch,  he  liad  held  to  his  beliefs.  To 
Edward  Kins,  an  English  author  who  had  sent  him  a 
oontroversiafwork,  he  wrote, '  You  have  done  a  noble 
thing  in  upholding  revelation  and  the  authenticity  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  you  are 
using  for  the  defence  precisely  the  same  weapons 
whidi  were  once  used  for  the  attack."'  His  goods 
and  chattels  and  all  his  scientific  instruments  were 
listed  and  appropriated  on  the  day  followinj^  his  exe- 
eution,  though  Mme  Lavoisier  succeeded  m  having 
tome  restored  to  her.  She  was  childless  and  long  sur- 
vived him. 

TtoBFB  in  Contemporary  Review^  Antoine  LaurerU  Lavoisier 
Cpio.^  1800);  Gbimadx,  Lawiaier  174^1791  (Paris,  1888); 
Tsoam,  Pneatley,  CavendUh,  Lavoieier  ana  La  Revoltdion 
Ckimitue  in  Brit.  Aaeoe.  Address  (Leeds,  1890);  Bebthblot, 
La  B€9olviion  Ckimique  (Paris.  1880);  Kopp,  Entdedeung  der 
Qmme  an  der  neueren  Zeit  (1874) ;  Hofbb,  Histoire  de  la  Chimie, 
U,  400;  TON  Mbtvb,  Qeschichte  der  Chemie  (Leipsis.  1888); 
Lavcukib,  Mimoirts  de  Chimie  (1805);  (Eavres  de  Lavoisier, 
wibftilMiH  by  the  Ministiy  of  Public  Instruction  (Paris,  1864-8); 
DuMASf  Lepims  sur  la  Phuosophie  Chimioue, 

C.  F.  McKenna. 


^ — ^I.  CJoNCEPT  OF  Law. — A.  By  law  in  the 
widest  sense  is  understood  that  exact  guide,  rule,  or 
authoritative  standard  by  which  a  being  is  moved  to 
•etaon  or  hdd  back  from  it.  In  this  sense  we  speak  of 
law  even  in  reference  to  creatures  that  are  incapable  of 
thinking  or  willing  and  to  inanimate  matter.  The 
Book  Of  Proverbs  (ch.  viii)  says  of  Eternal  Wisdom 
that  it-  was  i^resent  when  (jod  prepared  the  heavens 
and  when  with  a  certain  law  and  compass  He  en- 
elosed  the  depths,  when  He  encompassed  the  sea  with 
its  boimds  and  set  a  law  to  the  waters  that  they  should 
not  pass  their  hmits.  Job  (xxviii,  25  soq.)  lauds  the 
wisdom  of  (}od  Who  made  a  we^ht  for  tne  winds  and 
weighed  the  vraiter  by  measure,  Who  gave  a  law  for  the 
lain  and  a  way  for  the  souncUng  storms. 

Duly  experience  teaches  that  all  things  are  driven 
l^  their  own  nature  to  assume  a  determinate,  con- 
stant attitude.  Investigators  of  the  natural  sciences 
hold  it  to  be  an  established  truth  that  all  nature  is 
ruled  by  universal  and  constant  laws  and  that  the  ob- 
ject of  the  natural  sciences  is  to  search  out  these  laws 
and  to  make  plain  their  reciprocal  relations  in  all  di- 
rections. All  bodies  are  subject,  for  example,  to  the 
law  of  inertia,  i.  e.  they  persist  in  the  condition  of  rest 
or  motion  in  which  they  may  be  until  an  external 
cause  changes  this  condition.  Kepler  discovered  the 
kws  according  to  which  the  planets  move  in  elliptical 
orbits  around  the  sun,  Newton  the  law  of  gravitation 
by  which  all  bodies  attract  in  direct  proportion  to 
their  mass  and  inversely  as  to  the  sc^uare  of  the  di^ 
tanoe  between  them.  The  laws  which  govern  light, 
heat,  and  electrioitv  are  known  to-day.  (!liemistr^, 
biology,  and  physiolo^  have  also  their  laws.  Tlie  sci- 
entific tonnuuB  in  which  scholars  express  these  laws 
are  only  laws  in  so  far  as  they  state  what  processes 
actually  take  place  in  the  objects  under  consideration, 
for  law  implies  a  practical  rule  according  to  which 
things  act.  These  scientific  formulae  exert  of  them- 
arives  no  influence  on  things;  they  8hnd|y  state  the 
eondition  in  which  these  ^ings  are.  Tne  laws  of 
nature  are  nothing  but  the  forces  and  tendencies  to  a 
deiominate,  constant  method  of  activity  implanted 
fay  the  Creator  in  the  nature  of  thin^,  or  the  unvary- 
mg,  homogeneous  activity  itself  which  is  the  effect  of 
tiiafc  tendency.    The  word  law  is  used  in  this  latter 


sense  when  It  Is  asserted  that  a  natural  law  has  been 
changed  or  suspended  by  a  miracle,  f^or  the  miracle 
does  not  change  the  nature  of  things  or  their  constant 
tendencv;  the  Divine  power  simply  prevents  the 
things  from  producing  their  natural  effect,  or  uses 
them  as  means  to  attaming  an  effect  surpassing  their 
natural  powers.  The  natural  tendency  to  a  deter- 
minate manner  of  activity  on  the  part  of  creatures 
Uiat  have  neither  the  power  to  think  nor  to  will  can  be 
called  law  for  a  twofold  reason:  first,  because  it  forms 
the  decisive  reason  and  the  controlling  guide  for  the 
activities  of  such  creatures,  and  consequently  as  re- 
gards irrational  creatures  fulfils  the  task  which  de- 
volves upon  law  in  the  strict' sense  as  regards  rational 
beings;  and  further,  because  it  is  the  expression  and 
the  effect  of  a  rational  lawgiving  will.  Law  is  a  prin- 
ciple of  regulation  and  must.  Tike  every  regulation, 
be  traced  l^k  to  a  thinking  and  wiUing  being.  This 
thinking  and  willing  being  is  the  Oeator  and  Regula- 
tor of  all  things,  God  Himself.  It  may  be  said  that 
the  natural  forces  and  tendencies  placed  in  the  nature 
of  creatures,  are  themselves  the  law,  the  permanent 
expression  of  the  will  of  the  Eternal  Overseer  Who  in- 
fluences creatures  and  guides  them  to  their  appointed 
ends,  not  by  merely  external  influences  but  by  their 
innate  inclinations  and  impulses. 

B.  In  a  stricter  and  more  exact  sense  law  is  spoken 
of  only  in  reference  to  free  beings  endowed  with  rea- 
son. But  even  in  this  sense  the  expression  law  is  used 
sometimes  with  a  wider,  sometimes  with  a  more  re- 
stricted meaning.  By  law  are  at  times  understood  all 
authoritative  standards  of  the  action  of  free,  rational 
beings.  In  this  sense  the  rules  of  the  arts,  poetry, 
grammar,  and  even  the  demands  of  fashion  or  etiquette 
are  called  laws.  This  is,  however,  an  inexact  and  ex- 
aggerated mode  of  expression.  In  the  proper  and 
strict  sense  laws  are  the  moral  norms  of  action,  oinding 
in  conscience,  set  up  for  a  public,  self-governing  com- 
munity. This  is  probably  the  original  meaning  of  the 
word  law  J  whence  it  was  gradually  transferred  to  the 
other  kinds  of  laws  (natural  laws,  laws  of  art).  Law 
can  in  this  sense  be  defined  with  St.  Thomas  Acjuinas 
(Summa  Theol.,  I-II,  Q.  xc,  a.  4)  as:  A  regulation  in 
accordance  with  reason  promulgated  by  the  head  of 
a  community  for  the  sake  of  the  common  welfare. 

Law  is  first  a  regulation,  i.  e.  a  practical  principle, 
which  aims  at  ordering  the  actions  of  the  members  oi 
the  conmiunity.  To  obtain  in  any  community  a  uni- 
fied and  systematized  co-operation  of  all  there  must 
be  an  authority  that  has  the  right  to  issue  binding 
rules  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  members  of  the 
community  are  to  act.  The  law  is  such  a  binding 
rule  and  draws  its  constraining  or  obligatory  force 
from  the  will  of  the  superior.  Both  because  the  su- 
perior wills  and  so  far  as  he  wills,  is  law  binding.  Not 
every  regulation  of  the  superior,  however,  is  binding, 
but  only  those  in  accordance  with  reason.  Law  is  the 
criterion  of  reasonable  action  and  must,  therefore, 
itself  be  reasonable.  A  law  not  in  accordance  with 
reason  is  a  contradiction.  That  the  Divine  laws  must 
of  necessity  be  reasonable  and  just  is  self-evident,  for 
the  will  of  God  is  essentially  holy  and  just  and  can 
only  command  what  is  in  harmony  with  the  Divine 
wisdom,  justice,  and  holiness.  Human  laws,  how- 
ever, must  be  subordinate  to  the  Divine  law,  or  at 
least,  must  not  contradict  it,  for  human  authority  is 
only  a  participation  in  the  supreme  Divine  power  of 

government,  and  it  is  impossible  that  God  could  give 
uman  beings  the  right  to  issue  laws  that  are  unrea- 
sonable and  in  contravention  of  His  will.  Further, 
law  must  be  advantageous  to  the  coinmon  welfare. 
This  is  a  universally  acknowledged  principle.  That 
the  Divine  laws  are  advantageous  to  the  common  wel- 
fare needs  no  proof.  The  ^lorv  of  the  Creator  is, 
truly,  the  final  goal  of  the  Divine  laws,  but  God  desirei 
to  attain  this  glory  by  the  happiness  of  mankind. 
Human  laws  must  also  be  useful  to  th^  c/c^s^eii^^nr^ 


LAW 


54 


LAW 


fare.  For  laws  are  imposed  upon  the  community  as 
such,  in  order  to  guide  it  to  its  goal;  this  goal,  how- 
ever, is  the  common  welfare.  Further,  laws  are  to 
reeulate  the  members  of  the  commumty.  This  can 
only  come  about  bv  all  striving  to  attain  a  common 
goal.  But  this  goal  can  be  no  other  than  the  conunon 
welfare.  Consequently  all  laws  must  in  some  way 
serve  the  common  welfare.  A  law  plainly  useless  or 
a  fortiori  injurious  to  the  community  is  no  true  law. 
It  could  have  in  view  only  the  benefit  of  private  indi- 
viduals and  would  consequently  subordinate  the  com- 
mon welfare  to  the  welfare  of  mdividuals,  the  higher 
to  the  lower. 

Law  therefore  is  distinguished  from  a  command  or 
precept  by  this  essential  application  to  the  common 
welfare.  Every  law  is  a  form  of  command  but  not 
every  command  is  a  law.  Every  binding  rule  which  a 
superior  or  master  eives  to  his  subordinates  is  a  com- 
mand; the  command,  however,  is  only  a  law  when  it  is 
imposed  upon  the  community  for  the  attainment  of 
the  common  welfare.  In  addition,  the  command  can 
be  given  for  an  individual  person  or  cose.  But  law  is 
a  permanent,  authoritative  standard  for  the  commu- 
nity, and  it  remains  in  force  until  it  is  annulled  or  set 
aside.  Another  condition  of  law  is  that  it  should  pro- 
ceed from  the  representative  of  the  highest  public  au- 
thority, Ix;  this  a  single  person,  several  persons,  or 
finally  the  totality  of  all  tne  members  of  the  commu- 
nity, as  in  a  democracy.  For  law  is,  as  already  said,  a 
binding  rule  which  regulates  the  community  for  the 
attainment  of  the  common  welfare.  This  regulation 
pertains  either  to  the  whole  community  itself  or  to 
those  persons  in  the  highest  position  upon  whom  de- 
volves the  guidance  of  the  whole  community.  No 
order  or  unity  would  be  possible  if  private  individ- 
uals had  the  Iil>erty  to  impose  binding  rules  on  others 
in  regard  to  the  common  welfare.  This  right  must  be 
reserved  to  the  supreme  head  of  the  community.  The 
fact  that  law  is  an  emanation  of  the  liighest  authority, 
or  is  issued  by  the  presiding  officer  of  the  community 
by  virtue  of  his  authority,  is  what  distinguishes  it  from 
mere  counsels,  requests,  or  admonitions,  which  presup- 
pose no  power  of  jurisdiction  and  can,  moreover,  oe 
addressed  by  private  persons  to  others  and  even  to 
superiors.  Laws,  finally,  must  be  promulgated,  i.  e. 
mode  known  to  all.  Law  in  the  strict  sense  is  im- 
posed upon  rational,  free  beings  as  a  controlling  j^ide 
for  their  actions:  but  it  can  be  such  only  when  it  has 
been  proclaimecl  to  those  subject  to  it.  From  this 
arises  the  general  axiom:  Lex  non  promulaata  non  ohli- 
QcU—^  law  which  has  not  been  promulgated  is  not 
uinding;.  But  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  pro^ 
xnulgation  that  the  law  be  made  known  to  every  indi- 
vidual; it  suffices  if  the  law  be  proclaimed  to  the  com- 
munity as  such,  so  that  it  can  come  to  the  notice  of 
all  members  of  the  community.  Besides,  all  laws  do 
not  require  the  same  kind  of  promulgation.  At  pres- 
ent, laws  are  considered  sufficiently  promulgated  when 
they  are  published  in  official  journals  (S&te  or  im- 
perial gazettes,  law  records,  etc.). 

In  addition  to  the  moral  law  as  treated  above,  it  is 
customary  to  speak  of  moral  laws  in  a  wider  sense. 
Thus  it  is  said  it  is  a  moral  law  that  no  one  is  willingly 
deceived,  that  no  one  lies  without  a  reason,  that  every 
one  strives  to  learn  the  truth.  But  it  is  only  in  an  un- 
real and  figurative  sense  that  these  laws  are  called 
moral.  They  are  in  reality  only  the  natural  laws  of 
the  human  will.  For  although  the  will  is  free,  it  re- 
mains subject  to  certain  inborn  tendencies  and  laws, 
within  which  bounds  alone  it  acts  freely,  and  these 
laws  are  called  moral  only  because  they  bear  on  the 
activities  of  a  free  will.  Therefore  they  are  not  ex- 
pressed bv  an  imperative  "must".  They  merely 
state  that  by  reason  of  inborn  tendencies,  men  are  ac- 
customed to  act  in  a  ffiven  way,  and  tliat  such  laws 
are  observed  even  by  those  who  have  no  knowledge  of 
them. 


To  understand  still  better  the  significance  of  moral 
law  in  the  strict  sense,  henceforth  the  sole  sense 
intended  in  this  article,  two  conditions  of  such  law 
should  be  considered.  It  exists  first  in  the  intellect 
and  will  of  the  lawgiver.  Before  the  lawgiver  issues 
the  law  he  must  apprehend  it  in  his  mind  as  a  practi- 
cal principle,  and  at  the  same  time  perceive  that  it  is  a 
reasonable  standard  of  action  for  his  subjects  and  one 
advantageous  to  the  common  welfare.  He  must  then 
have  the  will  to  make  the  observance  of  this  principle 
obligatory  on  those  imder  him.  Finally,  he  must 
make  known  or  intimate  to  those  under  him  this  prin- 
ciple or  authoritative  standard  as  the  expression  of 
his  will.  Strictly  construed,  legislation  in  the  active 
sense  consists  in  this  last  act,  the  command  of  the  su- 
perior to  the  inferiors.  This  command  is  an  act  of  the 
reason,  but  it  necessarily  presupposes  the  aforesaid 
act  of  the  will  and  receives  from  the  latter  its  entire 
obligatory  force.  The  law,  however,  does  not  attain 
this  obligatory  force  until  the  moment  it  is  made 
known  or  proclaimed  to  the  community.  And  this 
brings  us  to  the  point  that  law  can  be  considered  ob- 
jectively, as  it  exists  apart  from  the  lawgiver.  At  this 
stage  law  exists  either  in  the  mind  of  the  subjects  or  in 
any  permanent  token  which  preserves  the  memoiy  of 
it,  e.  g.  OS  found  in  a  collection  of  laws.  Such  out- 
ward tokens,  however,  are  not  absolutely  necessary  to 
law.  God  has  written  the  natural  moral  law,  at  least 
in  its  most  general  outlines,  in  the  hearts  of  all  men, 
and  it  is  otjiigatory  without  any  external  token. 
Further,  an  external,  permanent  token  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  human  laws.  It  suffices  if  the 
law  be  made  known  to  the  subjects,  and  such  knowl- 
edge can  be  attained  by  oral  tradition. 

II.  Obligation  Lmposed  by  Law.— Law  (in  the  strict 
sense)  and  command  are  pre-eminently  distinguishexl 
from  other  authoritative  standards  of  action,  inasmuch 
as  they  imply  obligation.  Law  is  a  bond  imposed 
upon  the  subjects  by  which  their  will  is  bound  or  in 
some  way  brought  under  compulsion  in  regard  to  the 
performance  or  the.  omission  of  definite  actions. 
Aristotle,  therefore,  said  long  ago  that  law  has  a  com- 
pelling force.  And  St.  Paul  (Rom.,  xiii,  1  sqq.) 
teaches  that  we  are  bound  to  obey  the  ordinances  of 
the  authorities  not  only  through  fear  but  also  for  con- 
science' sake.  In  what  then  does  this  obligation 
which  law  imposes  upon  us  consist?  Modem  ethical 
systems  which  seek  to  construct  a  moraUty  indepen- 
dent of  God  and  religion,  are  here  confronted  by  an  in^ 
explicable  riddle.  The  utmost  paina  have  been  taken 
to  construct  a  true  obligation  without  regard  to  God. 
According  to  Kant  our  reason  itself  is  the  final  source 
of  obligation,  it  obliges  us  of  itself,  it  is  nomothetic 
and  autonomous,  and  the  absolute  form  in  which  it 
commands  us  is  tlie  categorical  imperative.  We  are 
obliged  to  fulfil  the  law  omy  on  account  of  itself  or  be- 
cause it  is  the  law  of  our  reason;  to  do  something  be- 
cause another  has  commanded  us  is  not  moral,  even 
should  this  other  be  God.  This  view  is  entirely  un- 
tenable. We  do  not  owe  obedience  to  the  laws  of 
Church  and  State  because  we  bind  ourselves  thereto, 
but  because  their  superior  authority  obliges  us.  The 
child  owes  obedience  to  its  parents  not  because  it  en- 
gages so  to  do  but  because  the  authority  of  the  par- 
ents obliges  it.  Whoever  asserts  that  man  can  bind 
only  himself,  strikes  at  the  root  of  all  authority  and 
asserts  the  principle  of  anarchism.  Authority  is  the 
ri^ht  to  issue  to  others  binding,  obligatory  regulations. 
Whoever  maintains  that  none  can  put  more  than 
himself  under  obligation  denies,  thereby,  all  authority. 
What  is  said  of  human  authority  is  equally  valid  of  the 
Divine  authority.  We  owe  adoration,  obedience,  and 
love  to  God,  not  because  we  engage  so  to  do,  but 
because  God  obliges  us  by  His  commands.  The  as- 
sertion that  to  do  something  because  God  has  com- 
manded us  is  heteronomy  (subjection  to  the  law  of 
another)  and  therefore  not  moral,  implies  in  principlt 


ULW  55  LAW 

the  deetructioQ  of  all  religion,  which  in  its  essence  rests  tions.    This  conoept  originally  arose  only  in  regard  to 

upon  the  subjection  of  the  creature  to  his  Creator.  actions  which  were  quickly  followed  by  external  pun- 

The  adherents  of  the  Kantian  autonomy  can  also  ishments.  Gradually,  by  association  of  ideas,  it  was 
be  asked  whether  man  binds  himself  of  necessity  or  also  connected  with  other  actions  imtil  then  per- 
voluntarily?  If  voluntarilyi  then  he  can  at  any  formed  or  avoided  purely  on  account  of  their  natural 
moment  annul  this  obligation;  conseauently,  in  a  consequences.  Through  evolution,  howaver,  he  goes 
practical  sense,  no  obligation  exists.  If  of  necessity,  on  to  say,  the  idea  of  compulsion,  owing  only  to  con- 
the  question  arises  whence  comes  this  necessiW  to  fusion  or  false  generalization,  tends  to  disappear  and 
bind  oneself  unconditionally?  To  this  question  Kant  eventually  is  found  only  in  rare  cases.  Spencer 
has  no  answer  to  give.  He  refers  us  to  an  undemon-  claimed  to  have  found,  even  to-day,  here  ana  there 
strable  and  incomprehensible  necessity.  He  says:  men  who  regularly*do  good  and  avoid  evU  without  any 
*'A11  human  reason  is  incapable  of  explaining  how  idea  of  compulsion.  Most  modem  writers  on  ethics,  who 
pure  reason  may  be  practical  (imposing  obligation),  do  not  holcl  to  a  positive  Christian  point  of  view,  adopt 
.  .  .  Thus,  it  is  true,  we  do  not  comprehend  the  prac-  these  Spencerian  ideas,  e.  g.  Laas,  von  Gizycki,  Paul- 
tical,  unconditioned  necessity  of  the  moral  imperative,  sen,  Leslie,  Fouill^,  and  many  ot)}ers.  Spencer  and 
but  we  do,  however,  comprehend  its  incomprenensibil-  his  followers  are  nevertheless  wrong,  for  their  explana- 
ity,  which  is  all  that  can,  m  fairness,  be  demanded  from  tion  of  duty  rests  on  entirely  imtenable  premises.  It 
a  philosophy  that  seeks  to  reach  the  principles  which  presupposes  that  the  animal  has  already  a  conscience, 
mark  the  limit  of  human  reason''  [/'Grundleg.  zur  that  man  does  not  differ  essentially  from  the  animal, 
Metaphys.  der  Sitten",  ed.  Hartenst«in,  IV  (1838),  that  he  has  gradually  developed  from  a  form  of  ani- 
91-93].  Kant,  who  without  hesitation  sets  aside  sil  mal,  that  he  possesses  no  essentially  higher  spiritual 
Christian  mysteries,  in  this  way  imposes  upon  us  in  powers,  etc.  Moreover,  their  explanation  of  duty  is 
philosophy  a  mystery  of  his  own  invention.  Kant's  meaningless.  No  one  will  assert  of  a  man  that  he  acts 
views  contain  a  germ  of  truth,  which,  however,  they  from  duty  if  he  abstains  from  certain  actions  through 
distort  until  it  can  no  longer  be  recognized.  In  order  fear  of  police  penalties,  or  the  anger  of  his  fellow-men. 
that  a  human  law  may  be  obligatory  upon  us  we  must  Besides,  what  is  the  meaning  of  an  obligation  that  is 
have  in  ourselves  from  the  beginninjz  the  conviction  only  an  accidental  product  of  evolution,  destined  to 
that  we  are  to  do  good  and  avoid  evil,  that  we  are  to  disappear  with  the  progress  of  the  latter,  and  for  dis- 
obey rightful  authority,  etc.  But  the  further  ques-  regarding  which  we  are  responsible  to  no  superior? 
tion  now  arises,  whence  do  we  receive  this  conviction?  In  contiast  with  these  modem  and  untenable  hv- 
From  God,  our  Creator.  Just  as  our  whole  being  is  an  potheses  the  Christian  theistic  conception  of  the  world 
image  of  Grod,  so  also  is  our  reason  with  its  powers  and  explained  long  since  the  origin  and  nature  of  duty  in  a 
inborn  tendencies  an  image  of  the  Divine  Reason,  and  fully  satisfactory  manner.  From  eternity  there  was 
our  cognitions  which  we  involuntarily  form  in  con-  present  to  the  Spirit  of  God  the  plan  of  the  govern- 
sequence  of  natural  tendency  are  a  participation  in  ment  of  the  world  which  He  had  resolved  to  create, 
the  Divine  wisdom, — are,  it  may  be  said,  a  streaming  This  plan  of  government  is  the  eternal  law  (lex  aterna) 
in  of  the  Divine  light  into  the  created  reason.  This  is,  according  to  which  God  guides  all  things  towards  their 
indeed,  not  to  be  so  understood  as  though  we  had  in-  final  goal:  the  jglorifying  of  God  and  the  eternal  happi- 
nate  ideas,  but  rather  that  the  ability  and  inclination  ness  of  mankind.  But  the  Creator  does  not  move 
are  inborn  in  us  by  virtue  of  which  we  spontaneously  creatures,  as  men  do,  simply  by  external  force,  by 
form  universal  concepts  and  principles,  both  in  the  pressure,  or  impact,  and  the  like,  but  h}r  tendencies 
theoretical  and  practical  order,  and  easily  discern  that  and  impulses  which  He  has  implanted  in  creatures 
in  these  practic^ed  principles  the  will  of  the  Supreme  and,  what  is  more,  in  each  one  according  to  itis  indi- 
Director  of  all  things  manifests  itself.                     •  vidual  nature.     He  guides  irrational  creatures  by 

The  Kantian  philosophy  has  now  but  few  adherents;  blind  impulses,  inclimitions,  or  instincts.     He  can- 
most  champions  of  independent  ethics  seek  to  explain 
the  origin  of  duty  by  experience  and  development. 

Typical  of  writers  on  ethics  of  this  school  are  the  which  in  the  act  of  creation  He  im{)l 

opinions  of  Herbert  Spencer.    This  philosopher  of  man  heart.     As  soon  as  man  attains  to  the  use  of 

evolution  believed  that  he  had  discovered  already  in  reason  he  forms,  as  already  indicated,  on  account  of 

animals,  principally  in  dogs,  evidences  of  conscience,  innate  predispositions  and  tendencies,  the  most  gen- 

especially  the  beginnings  of  the  consciousness  of  dut^,  eral  moral  principles,  e.  g.  that  man  is  to  do  good  and 

the  idea  of  obligation.     This  consciousness  of  duty  is  avoid  evil,  that  man  is  to  commit  no  injustice,  etc. 

further  developed  in  men  by  the  accumulation  of  ex-  He  also  easily  understands  that  these  commands  do 

periences  and  inheritance.     Duty  presents  itself  to  us  not  depend  on  his  own  volition  but  express  the  will  of 

as  a  restraint  of  our  actions.   There  are,  however,  se v^  a  higher  power,  which  regulates  and  guides  all  things, 

eral  varieties  of  such  restraints.    The  inner  restraint  is  By  these  commands  (the  natural  moral  law)  man 

developed  by  induction,  inasmuch  as  we  discern  by  re-  shares  in  a  rational  manner  in  the  eternal  law;  they 

peated  experience  that  certain  actions  have  useful,  are  the  temporal  expression  of  the  eternal,  Divine  law. 

others  injurious  results.    In  this  way  we  are  attracted  The  natural  moral  law  is  also  the  foundation  and  root 

to  the  one,  uid  frightened  away  from  the  other,  of  the  obligation  of  all  positive  laws.    We  recognize 

Added  to  this  is  the  external  restraint,  the  fear  of  evil  that  we  cannot  violate  the  natural  moral  law,  and  the 

results  or  punishments  which  threaten  us  from  with-  positive  laws  that  are  rooted  in  it,  without  acting  in 

out  and  are  threefold  in  form.    In  the  earliest  stageis  opposition  to  the  will  of  God,  rebelling  against  our 

of  development  man  has  to  abstain  from  actions  Creator  and  highest  Master,  offending  Him,  turning 

through  fear  qf  the  anger  of  uncivilized  associates  away  from  our  final  end,  and  incurrmg  the  Divine 

(social  sanction).  ,  At  a  nigher  stage  man  must  avoid  judgment.    Thus  man  feels  himself  to  be  always  and 

many  actions,  because  such  would  be  punished  by  a  ever^nvhere  bound,  without  losing  his  freedom  in  a 

powerful  and  bold  associate  who  has  succeeded  in  physical  sense,  to  the  order  appomted  him  by  God. 

making  himself  chief  (state  sanction).    Finally,  we  He  can  do  evil  but  he  ought  not.    If  of  his  own  will  he 

have  in  addition  the  fear  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  es-  violates  God's  law  he  brings  guilt  upon  himself  and 

pecially  of  the  dead  chiefs,  who,  it  was  believed,  lin-  deserves  punishment  in  the  eyes  of  the  all-wise,  all- 

gered  near  and  still  inflicted  punishment  upon  many  holy,  and  absolutely  just  God.    Obligation  is  this  ne- 

actions  displeasing  to  them  (religious  sanction),    llie  cessity,  arising  from  this  knowledge,  for  the  human 

external  restraint,  L  e.  the  fear  of  punishment,  created  will  to  do  good  and  avoid  evil. 
in  mankind,  as  yet  little  developed,  the  concept  of        III.  Classification  of  Laws. — A.  The  actual,  di- 

eompcilsUm,  df  obligation  in  relation  to  certain  ac-  rect  effect  of  law  is  obligation.    According  to  the 


LAW 


M 


tM9 


varieties  of  dut>  imposed,  law  is  classified  as:  com- 
manding, prohioitive,  permissive,  and  penal.  Ck)m- 
manding  laws  (leges  affirmoHvoi)  make  the  perform- 
ance of  an  action,  of  something  positive,  obligatory; 
prohibitive  laws  {leges  ne^cUivce),  on  the  other  hand, 
make  oblig&tor^  an  omission.  The  principle  holds 
good  for  prohibitive  laws,  at  least  if  they  are  absolute, 
Bke  the  commands  of  the  natural;  moral  law,  (*'Thou 
shalt  not  bear  false  witness",  **Thou  shalt  not  com- 
mit adultery",  etc.)  that  they  are  always  and  for  ever 
obligatory  (leges  negativce  obligant  semper  et  mo  sem^ 
per — negative  laws  bind  always  and  forever),  i.  e.  it 
IS  never  permissible  to  perform  the  forbidden  action. 
Conunandinf  laws,  however,  as  the  law  that  debts 
must  be  paid,  alwSys  impose  an  obligation,  it  is  true, 
but  not  for  ever  (l^es  affipnatiwB  obUgant  semper^  sed 
non  pro  semper— affirmative  laws  are  binding  alwavs 
but  not  forever  J,  that  is,  they  continue  always  to  be 
laws  but  they  do  not  oblige  one  at  everv  moment  to 
the  performance  of  the  action  commanded,  but  onlv 
at  a  certain  time  and  under  certain  conditions.  All 
laws  which  inflict  penalties  for  violation  of  the  law 
are  called  penal,  whether  they  themselves  directly 
define  the  manner  and  amount  of  penalty,  or  make  it 
the  duty  of  the  judge  to  inflict  according  to  his  judg- 
ment a  just  punishment.  Laws  purely  penal  (le^es 
mere  pcenales)  are  those  which  do  not  make  an  action 
absolutely  obligatory,  but  simply  impose  penalty  in 
case  one  is  convicted  of  transgression.  Thus  they 
leave  it,  in  a  certain  sense,  to  the  choice  of  the  subject 
whether  he  will  abstain  from  the  i>enal  action,  or 
whether,  if  the  violation  is  proved  against  him,  he  will 
submit  to  the  penalty.  The  objection  cannot  be 
raised  that  purely  penal  laws  are  not  actual  laws  be- 
cause they  create  no  bounden  duty,  for  they  oblige  the 
violator  of  the  law  to  bear  the  punishment  if  the 
authorities  apprehend  and  convict  him.  Whether 
a  law  is  a  purely  penal  law  or  not  is  not  so  easy  to  de- 
cide in  an  individual  case.  The  decision  depends  on 
the  will  of  the  lawgiver  and  also  upon  the  general 
opinion  and  custom  of  a  community. 

B.  In  treating  of  promulgation  a  distinction  has  to 
be  made  between  natural  moral  law  and  positive  law. 
The  first  is  proclaimed  to  all  men  by  the  natural  light 
of  reason;  positive  laws  are  made  known  by  special 
outward  signs  (word  of  mouth  or  writing).  The  nat- 
ural moral  law  is  a  law  inseparable  from  the  nature 
of  man;  positive  law,  on  the  contrary,  is  not.  In  re- 
gard to  the  origin  or  source  of  law,  a  distinction  is 
made  between  Divine  and  human  laws  according  as 
they  are  issued  directly  by  God  Himself  or  bv  men  in 
virtue  of  the  power  granted  them  by  God.  If  man  in 
issuing  a  law  is  simply  the  herald  or  messenger  of 
God,  the  law  b  not  human  but  Divine.  Thus  the  laws 
which  Moses  received  from  God  on  Mount  Sinai  and 
proclaimed  to  the  people  of  Israel  were  not  human 
but  Divine  laws.  A  distinction  is  further  made  be- 
tw^een  the  laws  of  Church  and  State  according  as  they 
are  issued  by  the  authorities  of  the  State  or  of  the 
Qiurch.  Laws  are  divided  as  to  origin  into  prescrip- 
tive and  statute  law.  Prescriptive,  or  customaiy, 
law  includes  those  laws  which  do  not  come  into  exis- 
tence by  direct  decree  of  the  lawgiving  power,  but  by 
long  continued  custom  of  the  community.  Yet  every 
custom  does  not  give  rise  to  a  law  or  a  right.  In  order 
to  become  law  a  custom  must  be  univereal  or  must,  at 
least,  be  followed  freely  and  with  the  intention  of 
raising  it  to  law  by  a  considerable  part  of  the  popula- 
tion. It  must  further  be  a  custom  of  long  standing. 
Finally,  it  must  be  useful  to  the  common  welfare,  be- 
cause this  is  an  essential  requisite  of  every  law.  Cus- 
tom receives  its  bindine,  obligatory  force  from  the 
tacit  or  legal  approval  of  the  lawgiver,  for  every  true 
law  binds  those  upon  whom  it  is  imposed.  Only  he 
can  impose  a  binding  obligation  on  a  community  on 
whom  the  supervision  of  it  or  the  power  of  jurisdiction 
over  it  devolves.    If  the  legislative  power  Ix^longs  to  a 


people  itself  it  can  impoee  obligation  upon  itself  as  t 
whole,  if  it  has  not  this  power  the  obligation  oan  only 
be  formed  with  the  consent  of  the  lawgiver  (see  Co*- 
tom;. 

A  classification  of  law,  as  limited  to  law  adminis- 
tered in  the  courts,  and  familiar  to  Roman  jurispru- 
dence, is  that  of  law  in  the  strict  sense  and  equity 
(jiis  strictum  et  jus  cequum  et  honum).  Ekjuity  is  often 
taken  as  synonymous  with  natural  justice.*  In  this 
sense  we  say  that  equity  forbids  that  anyone  be 
judged  unheard.  Frequently,  however,  we  speak  of 
equity  only  in  reference  to  positive  laws.  A  human 
lawgiver  is  never  able  to  foresee  all  the  individual  cases 
to  which  his  law  will  be  applied.  Consequently,  a 
law  though  just  in  general,  may,  taken  literally,  loul 
in  some  unforeseen  cases  to  results  which  agree  neither 
with  the  intent  of  the  lawgiver  nor  with  natiural  jus- 
tice, but  rather  contravene  them.  In  such  cases  the 
law  must  be  expounded  not  according  to  its  wording 
but  according  to  the  intent  of  the  lawgiver  and  the 
general  principles  of  natuml  justice.  A  reasonable 
mwgi ver  could  not  desire  this  law  to  be  followed  liter- 
ally in  cases  where  this  would  entail  a  violation  c^  the 
pnnciples  of  natural  justice.  Law  in  the  strict  sense 
{jus  strictum)  is,  therefore,  positive  law  in  its  literal 
interpretation;  equity,  on  the  contrary,  consists  of  the 
principles  of  natural  justice  so  far  as  they  are  used  to 
explain  or  correct  a  positive  human  law  if  this  is  not  in 
harmony  with  the  former.  For  this  reason  Aristotle 
(Ethica  Nicomachea,  V,  x)  calls  eouity  the  correction 
(iTay6p$(afM)  of  statute  or  written  law. 

St.  Thomab,  Summa  Theologica,  I-II.  Q.  xc  sqq.;  Suabks, 
De  Itffibua  et  legUlatore  Deo,  I;  Latmann,  Theologto  morali^,  I, 
tract,  iv;  Bouqcillx)N,  Theologia  /undamcntalU,  no.  52  sqq.; 
Taparelli,  Saoffio  ieoretico  di  dirxUo  naturale,  I,  b.  03  sqq.; 
Meyer.  Orundaiitze  der  Sittlichkeii  und  dea  Rechta  (1868):  Idem. 
Inatitutionea  juria  naturalxa,  I  (Freiburg,  1006),  no.  218  sqq.; 
Wy.RNE,  Jtia  Decretaliutn,  I  (Rome,  1808).  70  sqq.:  ScBimNi 
Philoaophia  moralxa^  I  (Turin,  1801),  104  sqq.;  Lehmkuhl. 
Theolooia  tnoralia,  I,  67  sqq.;    Rickabt,  Moral  Phitoaophy  or 


and  RiqhU  of  Man  (London,  18S8);  (^athrein,  Moralphxloao- 
phie,  I  (Freiburs,  1004),  332  sqq.:  Sciileiermacher,  Ueberden 
Vnterachied  von  SiUenoeaeiz  und  Naturgeaetz  ^Berlin,  1825); 
Zeller,  Begriff  und  BegrHnduno  der  aUUichen  UeaeUe  (Bcriin, 
1883);  Lackner,  Wie  unieracfieidet  aich  daa  Sxttenotaets  vom 
Naturgeaetz:  Spes cer,  Principlea  of  Ethica:  I,  Data  of  Ethica 
(London,  1881),  N-ii;  Paduben,  Svatem  der  Ethik,  I  (Berlin, 
1000).  320  sqq.  V.  CaTHREIN. 

• 

Law.  Canon. — ^This  subiect  will  be  treated  under 
the  following  heads:  I.  General  Notion  and  Divi- 
sions. II.  Canon  Law  as  a  Science.  III.  Sources  of 
Canon  Law.  IV.  Historical  Development  of  Texts 
and  Collections.  V.  Codification.  VI.  Ecclesiastical 
Law.    VII.  The  Principal  Canonists. 

I.  General  Notions  and  Divisions. — Canon  law  n 
the  body  of  laws  and  rej^ations  made  by  or  adopted 
by  ecclesiastical  authonty,  for  the  government  or  the 
Christian  organization  and  its  members.  The  word 
adopted  is  here  used  to  point  out  the  fact  that  there  are 
certain  elements  in  canon  law  borrowed  by  the  Church 
from  civil  law  or  from  the  writings  of  private  individ- 
uals, who  as  such  had  no  authority  m  ecclesiastical 
society.  Canon  is  derived  from  /rawln',  i.  e.  a  rule  or 
practical  direction  (not  to  speak  of  the  other  meanings 
of  the  word,  such  as  list  or  catalogue),  a  term  whicn 
soon  acquired  an  exclusively  ecclesiastical  significi^ 
tion.  In  the  fourth  century  it  was  applied  to  the 
ordinances  of  the  councils,  and  thus  contrasted  with 
the  word  vf>pjoi,  the  ordinances  of  the  civil  authori- 
ties; the  compound  word  **Nomocanon"  was  given  to 
those  collections  of  regulations  in  which  the  laws  for- 
mulated by  the  two  authorities  on  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters were  to  be  foimd  side  by  side.  At  an  early  period 
we  meet  with  expressions  referring  to  the  body  of 
ecclesiastical  legislation  then  in  process  of  formation: 
canoneSf  ordo  canonicus,  sanctio  carumica;  but  the  ex- 
pression "canon  law'*  Ot**  canonicum)  becomes  cur- 
rent only  about  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century, 
being  used  in  contract  with  the  "civil  law"  Qus 


L4W 


67 


L4W 


tivUe),  and  later  we  have  the  "  Corpus  juris  canonici ", 
B8  we  have  the  "Corpus  juris  civuis''.  Canon  law  is 
also  called  "ecclesiastical  law"  (  jus  ecdeaiasticum) ; 
however,  strictly  speaking,  there  is  a  slight  difference 
of  meaning  between  the  two  expressions:  canon  law 
denotes  in  particular  the  law  of  the  "Corpus  Juris", 
including  the  regulations  borrowed  from  Koman  law; 
whereas  ecclesiastical  law  refers  to  all  laws  made  by 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities  as  such,  including  those 
made  after  the  compiling  of  the  "Corpus  Juris" 
(BSfipQller,  "Kirchenrecht",  3).  Contrasted  with 
the  unperial  or  Cnsarian  law  (Jua  ccesareum),  canon 
law  is  sometimes  styled  pontifical  law  (Jus  pontifir 
cium),  often  also  it  is  termed  sacred  law  ^U8  sacrum), 
and  sometimes  even  Divine  law  (jus  divinum:  c.  2, 
De  privil.)>  as  it  concerns  holy  things,  and  has  for  its 
object  the  wellbeing  of  souls  in  the  society  divinely 
established  by  Jesus  Christ. 

Canon  law  may  be  divided  into  various  branches, 
according  to  the  points  of  view  from  which  it  is  con- 
ffldered:  (1)  If  we  consider  its  sources,  it  comprises 
Divine  law,  including  natural  law,  based  on  the  nature 
of  things  and  on  the  constitution  ^ven  by  Jesus  Christ 
to  His  Church;  and  human  or  positive  law,  formulated 
by  the  legislator,  in  conformity  with  the  Divine  law. 
We  shall  return  to  this  later,  when  treating  of  the 
sources  of  canon  law.  (2)  If  we  consider  the  form  in 
which  it  is  found,  we  have  the  written  law  (jvs  scrip- 
turn)  comprising  the  laws  promul^ted  by  the  com- 
petent authorities,  and  the  unwntten  law  (jiAS  turn 
acriptum),  or  even  customary  law,  resulting  irom 
practice  and  custom;  the  latter  however  became  less 
miportant  as  the  written  law  developed.  (3)  If  we 
consider  the  subject  matter  of  the  law,  we  have  the 
public  law  (jus  j^licum)  and  private  law  (jus  privor 
turn) .  This  division  is  explained  in  two  different  ways 
by  the  different  schools  of  writers:  for  most  of  the  ad- 
herents of  the  Roman  school,  e.  g.  Cavagnls  (Instit.  jur. 
publ.  eccL,  Rome,  1906, 1,  8),  public  law  is  the  law  of 
the  Church  as  a  jperfect  society,  and  even  as  a  perfect 
society  such  as  it  has  been  established  by  its  Divine 
founder:  private  law  would  uierefore  embrace  all  the 
regulations  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  concern- 
ing the  internal  organization  of  that  society,  the  func- 
tions of  its  ministers,  the  rkhts  and  duties  of  its  mem- 
bers. Thus  understood,  the  public  ecclesiastical  law 
would  be  deriv^  almost  exclusively  from  Divine  and 
natural  law.  On  ^le  other  hand,  most  of  the  adher- 
ents of  the  Genuaii  school,  following  the  idea  of  the 
Roman  law  (Inst.,  I  I,  4;  "Publicum  jus  est  quod  ad 
statum  rei  Roma  :  d;  ectat:  privatum  quod  ad  priva- 
torum  utilitatem"),  acfine  public  law  as  the  body  of 
laws  determining  t  e  riehts  and  duties  of  those  in- 
vested with  ecclesias  caTauthoritv,  whereas  for  t^em 
fjfivate  law  is  tliat  wiiich  sets  lortn  the  rights  and  du- 
ties of  individuals  as  such.  Public  law  would,  there- 
Core,  directly  intend  the  welfare  of  society  as  such,  and 
indirectly  that  of  its  members;  while  private  law 
would  look  primarily  to  the  wellbeing  of  the  individual 
and  secondarily  to  that  of  the  communitv. 

(4)  Public  law  is  divided  into  external  law  (jta  ex- 
ternum) and  internal  law  (jus  internum).  External 
law  determines  the  relations  of  ecclesiastical  society 
with  other  societies,  either  secular  bodies  (the  rela- 
tions therefore  of  the  Church  and  the  State)  or  reli- 
gious bodies,  that  is,  interconfessional  relations.  In- 
ternal law  is  concerned  with  the  constitution  of  the 
Church  and  the  relations  subsisting  between  the  law- 
fuUy  constituted  authorities  and  their  subjects.  (5) 
Considered  from  the  point  of  view  of  its  expression, 
canon  law  may  be  divided  into  severaJ  branches,  so 
doselv  allied,  that  the  terms  used  to  designate  them 
are  often  employed  almost  indifferently:  common  law 
and  special  law;  universal  law  and  particular  law; 
general  law  and  singular  law  (jus  commune  el  speciale; 
tu$  wnivarsaie  ei  parUctdare;  rus  generale  et  singvlctre), 
Xi  18  ea^  to  point  out  the  difference  between  thei^; 


the  idea  is  that  of  a  wider  or  a  more  limited  scope;  to 
be  more  precise,  common  law  refers  to  things,  univer* 
sal  law  to  territories,  general  law  to  persons;  so  regular 
tions  affecting  only  certain  things,  certain  territories, 
certain  classes  of  persons,  bein^  a  restriction  or  an  ad- 
dition, constitute  special,  particular,  or  singular  law. 
and  even  local  gr  mdividual  law.  This  exceptional 
law  is  often  referred  to  as  a  privilege  (privHegium,  lex 
jjrivata),  though  the  expression  is  applied  more  usu- 
ally to  concessions  made  to  an  indivicfual.  The  com- 
mon law,  therefore,  is  that  which  is  to  be  observed 
with  regard  to  a  certain  matter,  unless  the  legislator 
has  foreseen  or  granted  exceptions;  for  instance,  the 
laws  regulating  oencfices  contain  special  provisions 
for  benefices  subject  to  the  right  of  patronage.  Uni- 
versal law  is  that  which  is  promulgated  for  the  whole 
Church;  but  different  countries  and  different  dioceses 
may  have  local  laws  limitins;  the  application  of  the 
former  and  even  derogating  From  it.  Finally,  differ- 
ent classes  of  persons,  the  cleig>',  religious  orders,  etc., 
have  their  own  laws  which  are  superadded  to  the  gen- 
eral law. 

(6)  We  have  to  distinguish  between  the  law  of  the 
Western  or  Latin  Church,  and  the  law^  of  the  Eastern 
Churches,  and  of  each  of  them.  Likewise,  between 
the  law  of  the  Catholic  Church  and  those  of  the  non- 
Catholic  Christian  Churches  or  confessions,  the  Anjgli- 
can  Church  and  the  various  Oriental  schismatical 
Churches.  (7)  Finally,  if  we  look  to  the  history  or 
chronological  evolution  of  canon  law,  w^e  find  three 
epochs:  from  the  beginning  to  the  "Decretum"  of 
Uratian  exclusively;  from  Gratian  to  the  Council  of 
Trent;  from  the  Council  of  Trent  to  our  day.  The 
law  of  these  three  periods  is  referred  to  respectively  as 
the  ancient,  the  new,  and  the  recent  law  (jils  anti- 
quum,  novum,  novissimum),  though  some  writers  pre- 
fer to  speak  of  the  ancient  law,  the  law  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  the  modem  law  (Laurentius, "  Instit.",  n.4^. 

II.  Canon  Law  as  a  Science. — As  we  shall  see  in 
treating  of  the  gradual  development  of  the  material  of 
canon  law  (seeoelow,  IV),  though  a  l^islative  power 
has  always  existed  in  the  Church,  and  though  it  has 
always  been  exercised,  a  long  period  had  necessarily  to 
elapse  before  the  law^s  were  imuced  to  a  harmomous 
systematic  body,  serving  as  a  basis  for  methodical 
study  and  giving  rise  to  general  theories.  In  the  first 
place,  the  legislative  authority  makes  laws  only  when 
circumstances  require  them  and  in  accordance  with  a 
definite  plan.  For  centuries,  nothing  more  was  done 
than  to  collect  successively  the  canons  of  councils,  an- 
cient and  recent,  the  letters  of  popes,  and  episcopal 
statutes;  guidance  was  sought  for  in  these,  when  ai^- 
pgous  cases  occurred,  but  no  one  thought  of  extract- 
ing ceneral  principles  from  them  or  of  systematizing 
all  the  laws  then  in  force.  In  the  eleventh  century 
certain  collections  group  under  the  same  headings  the 
canons  that  treat  of  the  same  matters;  however,  it  is 
only  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  that  we  meet 
in  the  "  Decretum"  of  Gratian  the  first  really  scientific 
treatise  on  canon  law.  The  School  of  Bologna  had 
just  revived  the  study  of  Roman  law;  Gratian  sought 
to  inaugurate  a  similar  study  of  canon  law.  But, 
while  compilations  of  texts  and  ofiicial  collections  were 
available  for  Roman  law,  or  "Corpus  juris  civilis". 
Gratian  had  no  such  assistance.  He  therefore  adoptea 
the  plan  of  inserting  the  texts  in  the  body  of  his  gen- 
eral treatise;  from  uie  disordered  mass  of  canons,  col- 
lected from  the  earliest  days,  he  selected  not  only  the 
law  actually  in  force  (eliminating  the  regulations 
which  had  fallen  into  desuetude,  or  which  were  re- 
voked, or  not  of  general  application)  but  also  the  prin- 
ciples; he  elaborated  a  system  of  law  wliich,  however 
incomplete,  was  nevertheless  methodical.  The  science 
of  canon  law,  i.  e.  the  methodical  and  co-ordinated 
knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  law,  was  at  length  estab- 
lished. 
Gratis'?  "P^retum"  wi^s  a  wonderful  work;  wel*- 


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68 


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corned,  taught  and  glossed  by  the  decretiats  at  Bo- 
logna and  later  in  the  other  schools  and  universities, 
it  was  for  a  long  time  the  text-book  of  canon  law. 
However  his  plan  was  defective  and  confusing,  and, 
after  the  day  of  the  glosses  and  the  strictly  literal  com- 
mentaries, it  was  abandoned  in  favour  of  the  method 
adopted  by  Bernard  of  Pa  via  in  his  *'  Breviarium"  and 
by  St.  Raymund  of  Pennafort  in  the  official  collection 
of  the  "Decretals"  of  Gr^ory  IX,  promulgated  in 
1234  (see  Corpus  Juris  Canonici).  These  collec- 
tions, which  did  not  include  the  texts  utilized  by  Gra- 
tian,  grouped  the  materials  into  five  books,  each  di- 
vided mto  "titles",  and  under  each  title  the  decretals 
or  fragments  of  decretals  were  grouped  in  chronologi- 
cal onier.  The  five  books,  the  subject  matter  of 
which  is  recalled  by  the  well-known  verse:  "judex, 
judicium,  clerus,  connubia,  crimen"  (i.e.  judge,  judg- 
ment, clergy,  marriages,  crime),  did  not  display  a  very 
logical  plan;  not  to  speak  of  certain  titles  tnat  were 
more  or  less  out  of  place.  They  treated  successively 
of  the  depositaries  of  authority,  procedure,  the  clergy 
and  the  things  pertaining  to  them,  marriage,  crimes 
and  penalties.  In  spite  of  its.  defects,  the  system  had 
at  least  the  merit  of  being  official;  not  only  was  it 
adopted  in  the  latter  collections,  but  it  served  as  the 
basis  for  almost  all  canonical  works  up  to  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  even  to  our  day,  ccpecially  in  the  univer- 
sities, each  of  which  had  a  faculty  of  canon  law. 

However  the  method  of  studying  and  teaching 
gradually  developed:  if  the  early  decretalists  made 
use  of  the  elementary  plan  of  the  gloss  and  literal  com- 
mentary, their  successors  in  composing  their  treatises 
were  more  independent  of  the  text;  they  commented 
on  the  titles,  not  on  the  chapters  or  the  words;  often 
thev  followed  the  titles  or  chapters  only  nomi- 
nally and  artificially.  In  the  sixteenth  century  they 
tried  to  apply,  not  to  the  official  collections,  out  in 
their  lectures  on  canon  law  the  method  and  division 
of  the  "Institutes"  of  Justinian:  persons,  things,  ac- 
tions or  procedure,  crimes,  and  penalties  (Institutes,  I, 
ii,  12).  This  plan,  popularized  by  the  "  Institutiones 
juris  canonici  of  Lancellotti  (1563),  has  been  fol- 
lowed since  by  most  of  the  canonist  authors  of  "  Insti- 
tutiones" or  manuals,  though  there  has  been  consid- 
erable divergency  in  the  sub-divisions;  most  of  the 
more  extensive  works,  however,  preserved  the  order 
of  the  "Decretals".  This  order  will  also  be  followed 
in  the  redaction  of  the  forthconain^  code.  In  recent 
times  many  text-books,  especially  m  Germany,  have 
adopted  onginal  plans.  In  the  sixteenth  century  too. 
the  study  of  canon  law  was  developed  and  improved 
like  that  of  other  sciences,  by  the  critical  spirit  of  the 
age:  doubtful  texts  were  rejected  and  the  raison 
aHre  and  tendency  or  intention  of  later  laws  traced 
back  to  the  customs  of  former  days.  Canon  law  was 
more  studied  and  better  understood;  writings  multi- 
plied, some  of  an  historical  nature,  others  practical, 
according  to  the  inclination  of  the  authors.  In  the 
universities  and  seminaries,  it  became  a  special  study, 
though  as  might  be  expected,  not  always  held  in  equal 
esteem.  It  may  be  noted  too  that  the  study  of  civil 
law  is  now  frequently  separated  from  that  of  canon 
law,  a  result  of  the  changes  that  have  come  over  soci- 
ety. On  the  other  hand,  in  too  many  seminaries  the 
teaching  of  ecclesiastical  law  is  not  sufficiently  distin- 
guished from  that  of  moral  theology.  The  publication 
of  the  new  general  code  of  canon  law  will  certainly 
bring  about  a  more  normal  state  of  affaire. 

The  first  object  of  the  science  of  canon  law  is  to  fix 
the  laws  that  are  in  force.  This  is  not  difficult  when 
one  has  exact  and  recent  texts,  drawn  up  as  abstract 
laws,  e.  g.  most  of  the  texts  since  the  Council  of  Trent, 
and  as  will  be  the  case  for  all  canon  law  when  the  new 
code  is  published.  But  it  was  not  so  in  the  Middle 
Ages;  it  was  the  canonists  who,  to  a  large  extent, 
formulated  the  law  by  extracting  it  from  the  accumu- 
lated mass  of  texts  or  by  generalizing  from  the  indi- 


vidual deoisioDs  in  the  early  collections  of  decretals. 
When  the  law  in  force  is  known  it  must  be  explained, 
and  this  second  object  of  the  science  of  canon  law  is 
still  unchanged.  It  consists  in  showing^  the  true  sense, 
the  reason,  the  extension  and  application  of  each  law 
and  each  institution.  This  necessitates  a  careful  and 
exact  application  of  the  triple  method  of  exposition, 
historical,  philosophical,  and  practical:  the  first  ex- 
plains the  law  in  accordance  with  its  source  and  the 
evolution  of  customs;  the  second  explains  its  princi- 
ple; the  last  shows  how  it  is  to  be  applied  at  present. 
This  practical  application  is  the  object  of  Jurispru- 
dence, which  collects,  co-ordinates  and  utiuzes,  for 
more  or  less  analo^us  cases,  the  decisions  of  the  com- 
petent tribunal.  From  this  we  may  learn  tJie  position 
of  canon  law  in  the  hierarchy  of  sciences.  It  is  a  judi- 
cial science,  differing  from  the  science  of  Roman  law 
and  of  civil  law  inasmuch  as  it  treats  of  the  laws  of  an- 
other society;  but  as  this  society  is  of  the  spiritual 
order  and  in  a  certain  sense  supematiural,  canon  law 
belongs  also  to  the  sacred  sciences.  In  this  category 
it  comes  after  theology,  which  studies  and  explains 
in  accordance  with  revelation,  the  truths  to  be  be- 
lieved: it  is  supported  by  theology,  but  in  its  turn  it 
formulates  the  practical  rules  toward  which  theology 
tends,  and  so  it  has  been  called  "  theologia  practica  , 
"theologia  rectrix".  In  as  far  as  it  is  practical  the 
science  of  canon  law  is  closely  related  to  moral  theol- 
o^;  however,  it  differs  from  the  latter  which  is  not 
directly  concerned  with  the  acts  prescribed  or  for- 
bidden by  the  external  law,  but  only  with  the  recti- 
tude of  human  acts  in  the  light  of  the  last  end  of  man, 
whereas,  canon  law  treats  ofthe  external  laws  relating 
to  the  good  order  of  society  rather  than  the  workings 
of  the  individual  conscience.  Juridical,  historicfU, 
and  above  all  theological  sciences  are  most  useful  for 
the  comprehensive  study  of  canon  law. 

III.  SotJRCEs  OF  Canon  Law. — ^Thds  expression  has 
a  twofold  meaning;  it  may  refer  to  the  sources  from 
which  the  laws  come  and  which  give  the  latter  their 
judicial  force  {fonles  juris  eaaendi);  or  it  may  refer  to 
the  sources  where  canon  law  is  to  be  found  (fontes 
juris  cogno8cendi)y  i.  e.  the  laws  themselves  such  as 
they  occur  in  the  texts  and  various  codes.  Tliese 
sources  are  also  called  the  material  and  the  formal 
sources  of  canon  law.  We  shall  consider  first  the 
sources  under  the  former  aspect. 

The  ultimate  source  of  canon  law  is  God,  Whose 
will  is  manifested  either  by  the  very  nature  of  thinp 
(natural  Divine  law^),  or  by  Revelation  (positive  Di- 
vine law).  Both  are  contained  in  the  Scnptures  and 
in  Tradition.  Positive  Divine  law  cannot  contradict 
natural  law;  it  rather  confirms  it  and  renders  it  more 
definite.  The  Church  accepts  and  considers  both  as 
sovereign  binding  laws  whicn  it  can  interpret  but  can- 
not modify;  however,  it  does  not  discover  natural  law 
by  philosophic  speculation;  it  receives  it,  with  posi- 
tive Divine  law,  from  God  through  His  inspired 
Books,  though  this  does  not  imply  a  confusion  of  the 
two  kinds  of  Divine  law.  Of  the  Old  Law  the  Church 
has  preserved  in  addition  to  the  Decalogue  some  pre- 
cepts closely  allied  to  natural  law,  e.  g.  certain  matri- 
monial impediments;  as  to  the  other  laws  given  by 
God  to  His  chosen  people,  it  considers  them  to  have 
been  ritual  and  declares  them  abrogated  by  Jesus 
Christ.  Or  rather,  Jesus  Christ,  the  Lawriver  of  the 
spiritual  society  founded  by  Him  (Con.  Trid..  Sess. 
Vl,  "De  justif.  ,  c^.  xxi),  nas  replaced  them  by  the 
fundamental  laws  which  He  gave  His  Church.  This 
Christian  Divine  law,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  is  foimd  in 
the  Gospels,  in  the  Apostolic  writings,  in  the  living 
Tradition,  which  transmits  laws  as  well  as  dogmas. 
On  this  positive  Divine  law  depend  the  effiential 
principles  of  the  Church's  constitution,  the  primacy, 
the  episcopacy,  the  essential  elements  of  Divine  wor- 
ship and  the  SjEMjraments,  the  indissolubility  of  mar- 
riage, etc. 


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59 


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Again,  to  attain  its  sublime  end,  the  Giurch,  en- 
dowed by  its  Founder  with  leeislative  ix)wer,  makes 
laws  in  conformity  with  natural  and  Divine  law.  The 
sources  or  authors  of  this  positive  ecclesiastical  law 
are  essentially  the  episcopate  and  its  head,  the  pope, 
the  successors  of  the  Apostolic  Collie  and  its  divinely 
appointed  head,  Saint  Peter.  They  are,  properly 
speaJdng,  the  active  sources  of  canon  law.  Their  ac- 
tivity is  exercised  in  its  most  solemn  form  by  the  cecu- 
memcal  councils,  where  the  episcopate  united  with  its 
head,  and  convoked  and  presided  over  by  him,  with 
him  defines  its  teaching  and  makes  the  laws  that  bind 
the  whole  Church.  The  canons  of  the  oecumenical 
councils,  especially  those  of  Trent  (see  Councils)  hold 
an  exceptional  place  in  ecclesiastical  law.  But,  with- 
out infrmging  on  the  ordinary  power  of  the  bishops, 
the  pope,  as  head  of  the  episcopate,  possesses  in  him- 
self the  same  powers  as  the  episcopate  united  with  him. 
It  is  true  that  the  disciplinary  and  legislative  power 
of  the  popes  has  not  always,  in  the  course  of  centuries, 
been  exercised  in  the  same  manner  and  to  the  same 
extent,  but  in  proportion  as  the  administration  be- 
came centralized,  tneir  direct  intervention  in  legisla- 
tion became  more  and  more  marked;  and  so  the  sov- 
ereign pontiff  is  the  most  fruitful  source  of  canon  law; 
he  can  abrogate  the  laws  made  by  his  predecessors  or 
by  oecumemcal  councils;  he  can  legislate  for  the  whole 
church  or  for  a  part  thereof,  a  country  or  a  given  body 
of  individuals;  if  he  is  morally  bound  to  take  advice 
and  to  follow  the  dictates  of  prudence,  he  is  not  le- 
gally obliged  to  obtain  the  consent  of  any  other  pei^ 
son  or  persons,  or  to  observe  anv  particular  form;  his 
power  18  limited  only  by  Divine  law,  natural  and  posi- 
tive, dogmatic  and  moral.  Furthermore,  he  is,  so  to 
say,  the  living  law,  for  he  is  considered  as  having  all 
law  in  tiie  treasury  of  his  heart  ("  in  scrinio  pectoris"; 
Boniface  VIII,  c.  i,  "  De  Constit.",  in  VI^).  From  the 
earliest  a^es  the  letters  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  con- 
stitute, with  the  canons  of  the  councils,  the  principal 
element  of  canon  law,  not  only  of  the  Roman  Church 
and  its  immediate  dependencies,  but  of  all  Christen- 
dom; they  are  everywhere  relied  upon  and  collected, 
and  the  ancient  canonical  compilations  contain  a  large 
number  of  these  precious  "decretals**  (decreta,  atat- 
ukif  epistolcB  decreUdeSj  and  epistolce  synodicm) .  Later, 
tho  pontifical  laws  are  promulgated  more  usually  as 
constitutions,  Apostolic  Letters,  the  latter  being  classi- 
fied as  Bulls  or  Briefs,  according  to  their  external 
form,  or  even  as  spontaneous  acts,  "Motu  proprio*'. 
(See  BuLi^  and  Bbiefs.)  Moreover,  the  legislative 
and  disciplinary  power  of  the  pope  not  being  an  in- 
communicable privilege,  the  laws  and  regulations 
made  in  his  name  and  with  his  approbation  possess  his 
authority:  in  fact,  though  most  of  the  regulations 
made  by  the  Congregations  of  the  cardinals  and  other 
organs  of  the  Cuna  are  incorporated  in  the  Apostolic 
'Letters,  yet  the  custom  exists  and  is  becoming  more 

general  lor  legislation  to  be  made  by  mere  decrees  of 
be  Congregations,  with  the  papal  approval.  These 
are  the  Acts  of  the  Holy  See"  (Acta  Sanctss  Sedis), 
and  their  object  or  purpose  permitting,  are  real  laws 
(see  Roman  Curia). 

Next  to  the  pope,  the  bishops  united  in  local  coun- 
cils, and  each  of  them  individually,  are  sources  of  law 
for  their  common  or  particular  territory;  canons  of 
national  or  provincial  councils,  and  diocesan  statutes, 
constitute  local  law.  Numerous  texts  of  such  origin 
are  fotmd  in  the  ancient  canonical  collections.    At  the 

S resent  day  and  for  a  long  time  past,  the  law  has  laid 
own  clearly  the  powers  of  local  councils  and  of 
bishops;  if  their  oecrees  should  interfere  with  the 
common  law  they  have  no  authority  save  in  virtue  of 
pontifical  approbation.  It  is  well  known  that  dio- 
cesan statutes  are  not  referred  to  tlie  sovereign  pon- 
tiff, whereas  the  decrees  of  provincial  coimcils  are 
submitted  for  examination  and  approval  to  the  Holy 
See  (Const.  "Immensa"  of  Sixtus  V,  22  Jan.,  1587). 


We  may  liken  to  bishops  in  this  matter  various  bodiaf 
that  have  the  right  of  governing  themselves  and  thus 
enjoy  a  certain  autonomy;  such  are  prelates  with  terri- 
torial jurisdiction,  religious  orders,  some  exempt  chap- 
ters and  universities,  etc.  The  concessions  granted  to 
them  are  generally  subject  to  a  certain  measure  of 
control. 

Other  sources  of  law  are  rather  impersonal  in  their 
nature,  chief  among  them  being  custom  or  the  un- 
written law.  In  canon  law  custom  has  become  al- 
most like  a  legislator;  not  in  the  sense  that  the  people 
are  made  their  own  lawriver,  but  a  practice  followed 
by  the  greater  part  of  the  commumty,  and  which  is 
reasonable  and  fulfils  the  legal  requirements  for  pre- 
scription and  is  observed  as  obligatory,  acquires  the 
force  of  law  by  at  least  the  tacit  consent  of  the  legis- 
lator. Under  such  circumstances  custom  can  create 
or  rescind  a  legal  obligation,  derogate  from  a  law, 
interpret  it,  etc.  But  it  must  be  remarked  that  in«our 
days,  owing  to  the  fullv  developed  body  of  written 
law,  custom  plays  a  much  less  important  part  than  did 
the  practices  and  habits  of  early  Christian  times, 
when  there  was  but  little  written  law  and  even  that 
seldom  of  wide  application.  The  ci\nl  law  of  different 
nations,  and  especially  the  Roman  law,  may  be  num- 
bered among  the  accessory  sources  of  canon  law.  But 
it  is  necessary  to  explain  more  exactly  its  role  and  im- 
portance. Evidently  secular  law  cannot  be,  strictly 
speaking,  a  source  of  canon  law,  the  State  as  such  hav- 
ing no  competence  in  spiritual  matters;  yet  it  may 
become  so  by  the  more  or  less  formal  acceptation  of 
particular  laws  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  We 
pass  by  in  the  first  place  the  laws  made  bv  the  mutual 
agreement  of  both  parties,  such  as  the  legislation  of 
the  numerous  assemblies  in  the  Visigothic  kingdom, 
and  the  Frankish  kingdom  and  empire,  where  the 
bishops  sat  with  the  lords  and  nobles.  Such  also  is  the 
case  of  the  concordats  (q.  v.)  of  later  ages,  real  con- 
tracts between  the  two  powers.  In  these  cases  we 
have  an  ecclesiastico-civil  law,  the  legal  force  of  which 
arose  from  the  joint  action  of  the  two  competent  au- 
thorities. It  is  in  a  different  sense  that  Roman  law, 
Germanic  law,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  modem  law,  have 
become  a  subsidiary  source  of  canon  law. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Church  existed  for 
a  long  time  before  having  a  complete  and  co-ordinated 
system  of  law;  that  many  daily  acts  of  its  administra^ 
tion,  while  objectively  canonical,  were  of  the  same 
nature  as  similar  acts  in  civil  matters,  e.  g.  contracts, 
obligations,  and  in  general  the  administration  of  prop- 
erty; it  was  quite  natural  for  the  Church  to  accommo- 
date itself  in  these  matters  to  the  existing  laws,  with- 
out positively  approving  of  them.  Later  when  the 
canonists  of  the  twelfth  century  began  to  systematise 
the  ecclesiastical  law,  they  found  themselves  in  pres- 
ence, '^n  the  one  hand,  of  a  fragmentary  canon  law,  and 
on  the  other  hand  of  the  complete  methodical  Roman 
code ;  they  had  recourse  to  the  latter  to  supply  what  was 
wanting  m  the  former,  whence  the  maxim  adopted  by 
the  canonists  and  inserted  in  the ''  Corpus  Juris  ",  that 
the  Church  acts  according  to  Roman  law  when  canon 
law  is  silent  (cap.  1.  "De  novi  op.  nunc.*',  X,  i,  V, 
tit.  xxxii).  Moreover,  in  the  Teutonic  kingdoms  the 
clergy  followed  the  Roman  law  as  a  personal  statute. 
However,  in  proportion  as  the  written  canon  law  in- 
creased, Roman  law  became  of  less  practical  value  in 
the  Church  (cap.  28,  X,  "De  priv.^',  X,  lib.  V,  tit. 
xxxiii).  Canon  law,  it  may  be  said,  adopted  from 
Homan  law  what  relates  to  obligations,  contracts,  ju- 
diciary actions,  and  to  a  great  extent  civil  procedure. 
Other  Roman  laws  were  the  object  of  a  more  positive 
recognition  than  mere  usage,  i.  e.  thev  were  formally 
approved,  those,  for  instance,  which  though  of  secular 
origin,  concerned  ecclesiastical  things,  e.  g.  the  By- 
zantine ecclesiastical  laws,  or  again  laws  of  civil  origin 
and  character  but  which  were  changed  into  canon- 
ical laws,  e.  g.  the  impediment  of  marriage  arising 


LAW 


60 


L4W 


from  adoption.  The  juridical  influence  of  Teutonio  law 
was  mucn  less  important,  if  we  abstract  from  the  in- 
evitable adaptation  to  the  customs  of  barbarous  races, 
3ret  some  survivals  of  this  law  in  ecclesiastical  legisla- 
tion are  worthv  of  note:  the  somewhat  feudal  system 
of  benefices;  ihe  computation  of  the  d^rees  of  kin- 
dred; the  assimilating  of  the  pNenitential  practices  to 
the  system  of  penal  compensation  (u^eAr^e^;  finally, 
but  for  a  time  only,  justification  from  criminal  charges 
on  the  oath  of  guarantors  or  co-jurors  (De  purgatione 
canonica,  lib.  V,  tit.  xxxiv). 

Modem  law  has  only  a  restricted  and  local  influence 
on  canon  law,  and  that  particularly  on  two  points. 
On  the  one  hand,  the  Church  conforms  to  the  civil  laws 
on  mixed  matters,  especially  with  regard  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  its  property;  on  some  occasions  even  it 
has  finally  adoptea  as  its  own  measures  passed  by  the 
civil  powers  acting  independently ;  a  notaole  case  is  the 
French  decree  of  1809  on  the  "Fabriques  d'^lise". 
Chi  the  other  hand,  modem  legislation  is  indebted  to 
the  canon  law  for  certain  beneficial  measures:  part  of 
the  procedure  in  criminal,  civil,  and  matrimonial 
cases,  and  to  some  extent,  the  organization  of  courts 
and  tribunals. 

IV.  Historical  Development  op  Texts  and  Col- 
LECTioNs.—^nsidered  under  the  second  aspect,  the 
sources  of  canon  law  are  the  legislative  texts,  and  the 
collections  of  those  texts  whence  we  derive  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  Church's  laws.  In  order  to  appreciate  fully 
the  reasons  for  and  the  utility  of  the  great  work  of  codi- 
fication of  the  canon  law,  recentlv  begun  by  order  of 
Pius  X,  it  is  necessary  to  recall  tne  general  history  of 
those  texts  and  collections,  ever  increasing  in  number 
up  to  the  present  time.  A  detailed  accoimt  of  each  of 
the  canomcal  collections  is  here  out  of  place;  the  more 
important  ones  are  the  subject  of  special  articles,  to 
which  we  refer  the  reader;  it  will  suffice  if  we  exhibit 
the  different  stages  in  the  development  of  these  texts 
and  coUections,  and  make  clear  the  movement  to- 
wards centralization  and  unification  that  has  led  up 
to  the  present  situation.  Even  in  the* private  col- 
lections of  the  early  centuries,  in  which  the  series  of 
conciliarv  canons  were  merely  brought  together  in 
more  or  less  chronolo^cal  order,  a  constant  tendencv 
towards  unification  is  noticeable.  From  the  ninth 
century  onwards  the  collections  are  systematically  ar- 
rang;ed;  with  the  thirteenth  century  begins  the  first 
official  collections,  thenceforth  the  nucleus  around 
which  the  new  legislative  texts  centre,  though  it  is  not 
yet  possible  to  reduce  them  to  a  harmonious  and  co- 
ordinated code.  Before  tracing  the  various  steps  of 
this  evolution,  some  terms  require  to  be  explained. 

The  name  "canonical  collections''  is  given  to  all 
collections  of  ecclesiastical  legislative  texts,  because 
the  principal  texts  were  the  canons  of  the  councils. 
At  first  the  authors  of  these  collections  contented 
themselves  with  bringing  together  the  canons  of  the 
different  councils  in  chronological  order;  consequently 
these  are  called  "chronological"  collections;  in  the 
West,  the  last  important  chronological  collection  is 
that  of  Pseudo-Isidore.  After  his  time  the  texts  were 
arranged  according  to  subject  matter;  these  are  the 
"systematic"  collections,  the  only  form  in  use  since 
the  time  of  Pseudo-Isidore.  All  the  ancient  collec- 
tions are  private,  due  to  personal  initiative,  and  have, 
therefore,  as  collections,  no  official  authority:  each 
text  has  only  its  own  intrinsic  value;  even  the  "De- 
cretum"  of  Gratian  is  of  this  nature.  On  the  other 
hand,  official  or  authentic  collections  are  those  that 
have  been  made  or  at  least  promulgated  by  the  legis- 
lator. They  besin  with  the  "Compilatio  tertia  of 
Innocent  III;  the  later  collections  of  the  "Corpus 
Juris  ",  except  the  "  Extra va^antes  ",  are  official.  All 
the  texts  in  an  official  collection  have  the  force  of  law. 
There  are  also  general  collections  and  particular  col- 
lections: the  former  treating  of  legislation  in  general, 
ihe  latter  treating  of  some  special  Bubject,  for  in- 


stance, marriage,  procedure,  etc.,  or  even  of  the  local 
law  of  a  district.  Finally,  considered  chronolo^cally, 
the  sources  and  collections  are  classified  as  previous  to 
or  later  than  the  "Corpus  Juris". 

A.  Canonical  Collections  in  the  East, — Until  the 
Church  began  to  enjoy  peace,  the  written  canon  law  was 
very  meagre;  after  making  full  allowance  for  the  docu- 
ments that  must  have  perished,  we  can  discover  onhr 
a  fragmentary  law,  made  as  circumstances  demanded, 
and  aeyoid  of  all  system.  Unity  of  legislation,  in  as 
far  as  it  can  be  expected  at  that  period,  is  identical 
with  a  certain  unuonnity  of  practice,  based  on  ^e 
prescriptions  of  Divine  law  relative  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  Church,  the  liturgy,  the  sacraments,  etc. 
The  clergy,  organized  everywhere  in  the  same  wsy, 
exercisedalmost  everywhere  the  same  functions.  But 
at  an  early  period  we  discover  a  greater  local  disci- 
plinary uniformity  between  the  Churches  of  the  great 
sees  (Rome,  Carthage,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  later 
Constantinople)  and  the  Churches  depending  im- 
mediately on  them.  Further  it  is  the  disciplinary  de- 
cisions of  the  bishops  of  the  various  regions  that 
form  the  first  nucleus  of  local  canon  law;  these  texts, 
spreadii^  gradually  from  one  country  to  another  by 
means  of  tne  collections,  obtain  imiversal  dissemina- 
tion and  in  this  way  arc  the  basis  of  general  canon  law. 

There  were,  however,  in  the  East,  from  the  early 
days  up  to  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  certain  writ- 
ings, closely  related  to  each  other,  and  which  were  in 
reality  brief  canon  law  treatises  on  ecclesiastical  ad- 
ministration, the  duties  of  the  clergy  and  the  faithful, 
and  especially  on  the  liturgy.  We  refer  to  works  at- 
tributed to  the  Apostles,  very  popular  in  the  Oriental 
Churches,  though  devoid  of  official  authority,  and 
which  may  be  called  pseudo-epi^raphic,  rather  than 
apociyphal.  The  principal  writings  of  this  kind  are 
the  "  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  "  or  "  Didache  ", 
the  "Didascalia",  based  on  the  "Didache";  the 
"Apostolic  Constitutions",  an  expansion  of  the  two 
preceding  works;  then  the  "Apostolic  Church  Ordi- 
nance", the  "Definitio  canonica  SS.  Apostolorum", 
the  "Testament  of  the  Lord"  and  the  "Octateuch  of 
Clement";  lastly  the  "Apostolic  Canons".  Of  all 
this  literature,  only  the  "Apostolic  Canons"  were  in- 
cluded in  the  canonical  collections  of  the  Greek 
Church.  The  most  important  of  these  documents, 
the  "Apostolic  Constitutions",  was  removed  by  the 
Second  Canon  of  the  Council  in  Trullo  (692),  as 
having  been  interpolated  by  the  heretics.  As  to  the 
eighty-five  Apostolic  C^nons^  accepted  by  the  same 
council,  they  rank  yet  first  m  the  above-mentioned 
"Apostolic"  collection;  the  first  fifty,  translated  into 
Latin  by  Dionysius  Exiguus  (c.  5(X)),  were  included  in 
the  Western  collections  and  afterwards  in  the  "  Corpus 
Juris". 

As  the  later  law  of  the  separated  Eastern  Churches 
did  not  influence  the  Western  collections,  we  need  not 
treat  of  it,  but  go  on  to  consider  only  the  Greek  collec- 
tion. It  begins  early  in  the  fourth  century :  in  the  dif- 
ferent provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  to  the  canons  of  local 
councils  are  added  those  of  the  oecumenical  Council  of 
Nicsea  (325) ,  everywhere  held  in  esteem.  The  Province 
of  Pontus  furnished  the  penitentiary  decisions  of  An- 
cyraand  Neocsesarea  (314) ;  Antioch,  the  canons  of  the 
famous  Council "  in  encseniis  "  (341),  a  genuine  code  of 
metropolitan  oi^ganization;  Paphlagonia^  that  of  the 
ClTouncil  of  Gangra  (343),  a  reaction  against  the  first 
excesses  of  asceticism;  Phrygia,  the  fifty-nine  canons 
of  Laodicea  on  different  disciplinary  and  lituz|^cal 
matters.  This  collection  was  so  highly  esteemed  that 
at  the  0)uncil  of  Chalcedon  (451)  the  canons  were 
read  as  one  series.  It  was  increased  later  by  the 
addition  of  the  canons  of  Constantinople  (381),  with 
other  canons  attributed  to  it,  those  of  Ephesus  (431), 
Chalcedon  (451),  and  the  Apostolic  canons.  In  692 
the  Council  in  Trullo  passed  102  disciplinary  can- 
ons, the  second  of  which  enumerates  the  dements  of 


L4W  61  L4W 

the  oflkial  collection:  they  are  the  texts  we  have  just  Charlemagne  at  the  Diet  of  Aachen  in  802.  This  was 
mentioned,  together  with  the  canons  of  Sardica,  and  an  important  step  towards  the  centralisation  and  uni- 
of  Carthage  (419),  according  to  Dionysius  Exi^us,  fication  of  the  ecclesiasticallaw,  especially  as  the  Latin 
and  numerous  canonical  letters  of  the  great  bi£op6,  Catholic  world  hardly  extended  bevond  the  limits  of 
S8.  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  Greffory  Thaumaturgus,  the  empire,  Africa  and  the  south  of  Spain  having  been 
Basil,  etc.  If  to  these  be  add^  t£e  canons  of  the  two  lost  to  the  Church  through  the  victones  of  Islam. 
OBCumenieal  councils  of  Nicsea  (787)  and  Constanti-  (2)  The  canon  law  of  the  African  Church  was 
nople  (JM)  we  have  all  the  elements  of  the  definitive  strongly  centralised  at  Carthage;  the  documents  nat- 
couection  in  its  final  shape.  A  few  "  systematic  "  col-  urally  took  the  form  of  a  collection,  as  it  was  custom- 
lections  may  be  mentioned  as  pertaining  to  this  pe-  ary  to  read  and  insert  in  the  Acts  of  each  council  the 
riod:  one  containing  fifty  titles  by  an  unknown  author  decisions  of  the  preceding  coimcils.  At  the  time  of 
about  535;  another  with  twenty-five  titles  of  the  ec-  the  invasion  of  the  Vandals,  the  canonical  code  of  the 
elesiastical  laws  of  Justinian;  a  collection  of  fifty  titles  African  Church  comprised,  after  the  canons  of  Nicsea, 
dnwn  up  about  550,  by  John  the  Scholastic,  a  priest  of  those  of  the  Coimcil  of  Carthage  under  Bishop  Gratus 
Antioch.  Tlie  compilations  known  as  the  *'Nomocan-  (about  348),  under  Grenethlius  (390),  of  twenty  or 
ons"  are  more  important,  l)ecause  they  bring  together  twenty-two  plenary  councils  imder  Aurelius  (from  393 
the  civfl  laws  anci  the  ecclesiastical  laws  on  the  same  to  427),  ana  the  minor  coimcils  of  Constantinople. 
■objects;  the  two  principal  are  the  Nomocanon,  Unfortimately  these  records  have  not  come  down  to 
wronghr  attributed  to  John  the  Scholastic,  but  which  us  in  their  entirety;  we  possess  them  in  two  forms:  in 
dates  Rom  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  with  fifty  the  collection  of  Dionysius  Exiguus,  as  the  canons  of  a 
^tles;  and  another,  drawn  up  in  the  seventh  century,  "Concilium  Africanum^';  in  the  Spanish  collection,  as 
and  afterwards  augmented  by  the  Patriarch  Photius  those  of  eight  councils  (the  fourth  wronglv  attributed, 
in  883.  bein^  a  document  from  Aries,  dating  about  the  be- 

B.  The  Canonical  CoUections  in  the  West  to  Pseudo-  gimune  of  the  sixth  century').    Through  these  two 

Isidore, — In  the  West  canonical  collections  devel-  channels  the  African  texts  entered  into  W^tem  canon 

oped  as  in  the  East,  but  about  two  centuries  later,  law.    It  will  suflfice  to  mention  the  two  ''systematic" 

At  first  appear  collections  of  national  or  local  laws,  and  collections  of  Fulgentius  Ferrandus  and  Cresconius 

the  tendency  towards  centralization  is  partially  ef-  (q.  v.). 

fected  in  the  ninth  century.  Towards  the  end  of  the  (3)  The  Church  in  Gaul  had  no  local  rclisious  oen- 
fourth  century  there  is  yet  in  the  West  no  canonical  tre,  the  territory  bein^  divided  into  unstaole  king- 
collection,  not  even  a  local  one.  those  of  the  fifth  cen-  doms;  it  is  not  surprismg  therefore  that  we  meet  no 
tury  are  essentiallv  local,  but  all  of  them  )x)rrow  from  centralized  canon  law  or  universally  accepted  collec- 
the  Greek  councils.  The  latter  were  known  in  the  tion.  There  are  numerous  councils,  however,  and  an 
West  by  two  Latin  versions,  one  called  the  *'Hispana"  abimdance  of  texts;  but  if  we  except  the  temporary 
or  "  Ludorian",  because  it  was  inserted  in  the  Spanish  authority  of  the  See  of  Aries,  no  church  of  Gam  could 
canonical  collection,  attributed  to  St.  Isidore  of  Seville,  point  to  a  permanent  group  of  dependent  sees.  The 
the  other  called  the  "Itala"  or  "ancient"  fPrisca),  canonical  collections  were  fairly  numerous,  but  none 
because  Dionysius  Exiguus,  in  the  first  half  of  the  was  eenerally  accepted.  The  most  widespread  was 
sixth  century,  foimd  it  m  use  at  Rome,  and  beins  dis-  the  ''<QuesnelIiana",  called  after  its  editor  (the  Jan- 
satisfied  with  its  imperfections  improved  it.  Ahnost  senist  Paschase  Quesnel),  rich,  but  badly  arranged, 
all  the  Western  collections,  therefore,  are  based  on  the.  containing  many  Greek,  Gallic,  and  other  councils, 
same  texts  as  the  Greek  collection,  hence  the  marked  also  pontifical  decretals.  With  the  other  collections 
influence  of  that  collection  on  Western  canon  law.  it  save  way  to  the  *'Hadriana",  at  the  end  of  the 

(1)  At  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  the  Roman  eighth  century.     (4)  In  Spain,  on  the  contrary,  at 

Church  was  completely  organized  and  the  popes  had  least  after  the  conversion  of  the  Visigoths,  the  Church 

promulgated  many  legislative  texts;  but  no  collection  was  strongly  centralized  in  the  See  of  Toledo,  and  in 

of  them  had  yet  been  made.    The  only  extra-Roman  close  union  with  the  royal  power.    Previous  to  this, 

canons  recognized  were  the  canons  of  Nicaea  and  Sar-  we  must  note  the  collection  of  St.  Martin  of  Braga,  a 


adopted  as  ecclesiastical  law.    Towards  the  year  500  and  important  collection  of  the  Visigothic  Church. 

DionjTsius  Exiguus  compiled  at  Rome  a  double  collec-  The  latter,  beeun  as  early  as  the  council  of  633  and  in- 

tion,  one  of  the  councils,  the  other  of  decretals,  i.  e.  creased  by  the  canons  of  subsequent   coimcils,  is 

papal  letters.    The  former,  executed  at  the  request  of  known  as  the  "  Hispana"  or  *'  Isidoriana",  because  in 

Stephen,  Bishop  of  Salona,  is  a  translation  of  the  later  times  it  was  attributed  (erroneously)  to  St.  Isi- 

Greek  councils,  mcluding  Chalcedon,  and  begins  with  dore  of  Seville.     It  comprises  two  parts:  the  councils 

the  fifty  Apostolic  canons;  Dionysius  adds  to  it  only  and  the  decretals;  the  councils  are  arranged  in  four 

theLatintextofthecanonsofSardica  and  of  Carthage  sections:  the  East,  Africa,  Gaul,  Spain,  and  chrono- 

(419),  in  which  the  more  ancient  African  councils  logical  order  is  observed  in  each  sec  tion;  the  decretals, 

are  partially  reproduced.    The  second  is  a  coUection  104  in  number,  range  from  Pope  St.  Damasus  to  St. 

of  thirty-nine  papal  decretals,  from  Siricius  (384)  to  Gregory  (36fMK)4).     Its  original  elements  consist  of 

Anastasiua  II  (49fr-98).     (See  Canons,  Collections  the  Spanish  councils  from  Elvira  (about  300)  to  the 

OF  Ancibnt.)    Thus  joined  together  these  two  collec-  Seventeenth  Council  of  Toledo  in  694.    The  influence 

tions  became  the  canonical  code  of  the  Roman  Church,  of  this  collection,  in  the  form  it  assumed  about  the 

not  by  official  approbation,  but  by  authorized  prac-  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  when  the  False  Decretals 

tioe.    But  while  m  the  work  of  Dionysius  the  collec-  were  inserted  into  it,  was  veiy  great. 
tion  of  conciliary  canons  remained  unchanged,  that  of        (5)  Of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  w©  need  mention 

the  decretals  was  successively  increased;  it  continued  only  the  Irish  collection  of  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 

to  incorporate  letters  of  the  different  popes  till  alx)ut  century,  from  which  several  texts  passed  to  the  conti- 

the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  when  Adrian  I  gave  nent;  it  is  remarkable  for  including  among  its  canons 

(774)  the  collection  of  Dionysius  to  the  future  Em-  citations  from  the  Scriptures  and  the  Fathers  ''Col- 

pcror  Charlemaflme  as  the  canonical  book  of  the  Ro-  lectio  Hibemensis",  2nd  ed.,  Wasserschleben,  Leipzig, 

man  Oiureh.    This  collection,  often  called  the  *'  Dio-  1885).    (6)  The  collection  of  the  False  Decretals,  or  the 

Dysio-Hadriana",  was  soon  officially  received  in  all  Pseudo-Isidore  (about  850),  is  the  last  and  most  com- 

frankish  territory,  where  it  was  cited  as  the  "Liber  plete  of  the  "chronological"  collections,  and  there- 

Uuionum",  and  was  adopted  for  the  whole  empire  of  fore  the  one  most  utilized  by  the  authors  of  the  sub- 


XJkW  62  L4W 

sequent  **  systematic ''  collections;  it  is  the  "  Hispana"  are  in  P.  L.,  CLXI.  (1 1)  The  unedited  Spanish  col* 
or  Spanish  collection  together  with  apocryphal  de-  lection  of  Saragossa  (Csesar-augustana)  is  based  on 
cretsus  attributed  to  the  popes  of  the  first  centuries  these  works  of  Ives  of  Chartres.  (12)  Finally,  the 
up  to  the  time  of  St.  Damasus,  when  the  authentic  ''De  misericordia  et  justitia'^  in  three  books,  com- 
decretals  b^in.    It  exerted  a  very  great  influence    posed  before  1121  by  Algerus  of  Li^,  a  {general 

(see  False  Decretals).  (7)  To  conclude  the  list  of  treatise  on  ecclesiastical  discipline,  in  which  is  fore- 
collections,  where  the  later  canonists  were  to  gamer  shadowed  the  scholastic  method  of  Gratian,  reprinted 
their  materials,  we  must  mention  the  "Penitentials**     in  P.  L..  CLXXX. 

(q.  v.),  the  "Ordines"  or  ritual  collections,  the  "For-  D.  The  *'Decretum"  of  Gratian:  the  Decretists.— 
mularies",  especially  the  " Liber  Diurnus";  also  com-  The  " Concordantia  discordantium  canonum",  known 
I>ilations  of  laws,  either  purely  secular,  or  semi-ecclo-  later  as  '*  Decretum",  which  Gratian  published  at  Bo- 
siastical,  like  the  "Capitularies"  (cj.  v.).  The  name  logna  about  1148,  is  not,  as  we  consider  it  to-day,  a 
"capitula"  or  "capitularia''  is  given  also  to  the  collection  of  canonical  texts,  but  a  general  treatise,  in 
episcopal  ordinances  quite  common  in  the  ninth  cen-  which  the  texts  cited  are  inserted  to  help  in  establish- 
tury.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  author  of  the  False  ing  the  law.  It  is  true  that  the  work  is  very  rich  in 
Decretals  forged  also  false  "Capitularies",  under  the  texts  and  there  is  hardly  a  canon  of  any  importance 
name  of  Benedict  the  Deacon,  and  false  episcopal  contained  in  the  earlier  collections  (including  the  de- 
"  CapituJa  ",  under  the  name  of  Angilramnus,  Bishop  cisions  of  the  Lateran  Council  of  1 139  and  recent  papal 
of  Metz.  decretals)  that  Gratian  has  not  utilized.  His  ooject, 
C.  Canonical  Collections  to  tfie  Time  of  Gratian, —  however,  was  to  build  up  a  juridical  system  from  all 
The  Latin  Church  was  meanwhile  moving  towards  these  documents.  Despite  its  imperfections,  it  must 
closerunity;  the  local  character  of  canonical  discipline  be  admitted  that  the  work  of  Cfratian  was  as  near 
and  laws  gradually  disappears,  and  the  authors  of  perfection  as  was  then  possible.  For  that  reason 
canonical  collections  exhioit  a  more  personal  note,  it  was  adopted  at  Bologna,  and  soon  elsewhere,  as 
i.  e.  they  pick  out  more  or  less  advantageously  the  the  text -book  for  the  study  of  canon  law.  (For 
texts,  which  they  borrow  from  the  "chronological"  an  account  of  this  collection  see  Corpus  Juris 
compilations,  though  thev  display  as  yet  no  critical  Canonici;  Canons.)  We  may  here  recall  again  that 
discernment,  and  include  many  apocryphal  docu-  the  "Decretum"  of  Gratian  is  not  a  codification,  but 
ments,  while  others  continue  to  be  attributed  to  the  a  privately  compiled  treatise;  further,  that  the  build- 
wrong  sources.  They  advance,  nevertheless,  espe-  ing  up  of  a  general  system  of  canon  law  was  the  work 
cially  when  to  the  bare  texts  they  add  their  own  opm-  of  the  canonists,  and  not  of  the  legislative  authorities 
ions  and  ideas.    From  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  to  as  such. 

the  middle  of  the  twelfth  these  collections  are  very  Quite  as  the  professors  at  Bologna  commented  on 
numerous;  many  of  them  are  still  unpublished,  and  Justinian's  "Corpus  juris  civilis",  so  they  began  at 
some  deservedly  so.  We  can  only  mention  the  prin-  once  to  comment  on  Gratian 's  work,  the  personal  ele- 
cipal  ones.  ment  as  well  as  his  texts.  The  first  commentators  are 
(1)  A  collection  in  twelve  books,  compiled  in  North-  called  the  "Decretists".  In  their  lectures  (Lat.  lee- 
em  Italy,  and  dedicated  to  an  Archbishop  Anselm,  ^urcp,  readings)  they  treated  of  the  conclusions  to  be 
doubtless  Anselm  II  of  Milan  (833-97),  still  unedited j  drawn  from  each  part  and  solved  the  problems 
it  seems  to  have  been  widely  used.  (2)  The  "Libn  {a^ucestUmes)  arising  therefrom.  They  synopsized 
duo  de  synodalibus  causis"  oif  Regino,  Abbot  of  Priim  their  teaching  in  "glosses"  (q.  v.),  interlinear  at  first, 
(d.  915),  a  pastoral  visitation  manual  of  the  bishop  of  then  marginal,  or  they  composed  separate  treatises 
the  diocese^  edited  by  Wasserschleben  (1840).  (3)  known  as"  Apparatus  ,  "Summae"^  "Repetitiones", 
The  volummous  compilation,  in  twenty  books,  of  or  else  collected  "casus",  "qu«stiones",  "Margar- 
Burchard,  Bishop  of  Worms,  compiled  between  1012  it»",  "Breviaria",  etc.  The  principal  decretists  are: 
and  \QQ2f  entitl^  the  "CoUectarium",  also  "Decr^*  Paucapalea,  perhaps  the  first  disciple  of  Gratian, 
tum",  a  TnAnuAl  for  the  use  of  ecclesiastics  in  their  whence,  it  is  said,  the  name  "palea"  given  to  the  ad- 
ministry;  the  nineteenth  book,  "  Corrector  "  or  "  Med-  ditions  to  the  "  Decretum  "  (his  "Summa  "  was  edited 
icus",  treats  of  the  administration  of  the  Sacrament  by  Schulte  in  1890);  Roland  Bandinelli,  later  Alex- 
of  Penance,  and  was  often  current  "as  a  distinct  work,  ander  III  (his  "Summa"  was  edited  by  Thaner  in 
This  widely  circulated  collection  is  in  P.  L.,  CXL.  At  1874) :  OmniIx)nus,  1 185  (see  Schulte,  "  De  Decreto  ab 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  there  appeared  in  Omnioono  abbreviato",  1892),  John  of  Faenza  (d. 
Italy  several  collections  favouring  the  reform  of  bishop  of  that  city  in  1190);  Rufinus("  Summa  "'edited 
Gregory  VII  and  supporting  the  Holy  See  in  the  in-  by  Singer,  1902);  Stephen  of  Toumai  (d.  1203;  "Sum- 
vestiture  strife;  some  of  the  authors  utilized  for  ma"  ^ted  by  Schulte,  1891);  the  great  canonist 
their  works  the  Roman  archives.  (4)  The  collection  of  Huguccio  (d.  1210;  "Summa"  is  being  edited  by  M. 
Anselm,  Bishop  of  Lucca  (d.  1086),  in  thirteen  books,  Gillmann);  Sicard  of  Cremona  (d.  1215):  John  the 
still  unedited,  an  influential  work.  (5)  The  collection  Teuton,  really  Semeca  or  Zemcke  (d.  1245; ;  Guido  de 
of  Cardinal  Deusdedit,  dedicated  to  Pope  Victor  III  Baysio,  the  "archdeacon"  (of  Bologna,  d.  1313); .and 
(1087),  it  treats  of  the  primacy  of  the  pope,  of  the  especially  Bartholomew  of  Brescia  (d.  1258),  auUior 
Roman  clerg>',  ecclesiastical  property,  immunities,  of  the  "gloss"  on  the  "Decretum"  in  its  last  form, 
and  was  edited  by  Martinucci  m  1869,  more  recently  E.  Decretals  and  Decretalists, — While  lecturing  on 
and  better  by  Wolf  von  Glanvell  (1905).  (6)  The  Gratian's  work  the  canonists  laboured  to  complete  and. 
"Breviarium  of  Cardinal  Atto;  edited  by  Mai,  elaborate  the  master's  teaching;  with  that  view  they 
"Script,  vet.  nova  collect.",  VI,  app.  1832.  (7)  The  collect^  assiduously  the  decretals  of  the  popes,  and 
collection  of  Bonizo,  Bishop  of  Sutri,  in  ten  books,  especially  the  canons  of  the  (scumenical  coimcils  of 
written  after  1089,  still  unedited.  (8)  The  collection  the  Lateran  (1179, 1215);  but  these  compilations  were 
of  Cardinal  Gregory,  called  by  him  "Poly carpus",  in  not  intended  to  form  a  complete  code,  they  merely 
eight  books,  written  before  1120,  yet  unedited.  (9)  centred  round  and  supplemented  Gratian's  "  Decre- 
In  France  we  must  mention  the  small  collection  of  tum";  for  that  reason  these  Decretals  are  known  as 
Abbo,  Abbot  of  Fleury  (d.  1004),  in  fifty-two  chapters,  the  "Extravagantes",  i.  e.  outside  of,  or  extraneous 
in  P.  L.,  CXXXIX;  and  especially  (10)  the  collections  to,  the  official  collections.  The  ^ve  collections  thus 
of  Ives,  Bishop  of  Chartres  (d.  1115  or  1117),  i.  e.  the  made  between  1190  and  1226  (see  Decretals),  and 

Collectio  trium   partium",    the   "Decretum",  es-  which  were  to  serve  as  the  basis  for  the  work  of  Greg- 

•eciaJly  the  "  Panormia  ",  a  short  compilation  in  eight  ory  IX,  mark  a  distinct  step  forward  in  the  evolution 

fo)ks,  extracted  from  the  preceding  two  works,  and  of  canon  law:  whereas  Gratian  had  inserted  the  texts 

widely  used.   The  "Decretum"  and  the  "Panormia"  in  his  own  treatise,  and  the  canonists  wrote  their 


L4W                                   63  L4W 

^orks  without  indudiDg  the  texts,  we  have  now  com*  of  the  Council  of  Vienne  (1311-12);  it  was  published 
pilations  of  supplemental^  texts  for  the*  purpose  of  in  1317  by  his  successor  John  XXII  and  was  called  the 
teaching,  but  woich  nevertheless  remain  qwte  dis-  "Clementin®'\  This  was  the  last  of  the  medieval 
iinct;  m  addition,  we  at  last  find  the  legislators  official  collections.  Two  later  compilations  included 
takingpart  officially  in  editing  the  collections.  While  in  the  "Corpus  Juris''  are  private  works,  the  ''Ex- 
the^Breviarium"  of  Bemara  of  Pa  via,  the  first  to  travagantes  of  John  XXII",  arranged  in  1325  by  Zen- 
exhibit  the  division  into  five  books  and  into  titles,  zelin  ae  Cassanis,  who  glossed  them,  and  the  **  Extra- 
which  St.  Rayo&imd  of  Pennafort  was  later  to  adopt,  vagantes  communes",  a  belated  collection;  it  was  only 
is  the  work  of  a  private  individual,  the  ' '  Compilatio  in  the  edition  of  the  "  Corpus  Juris  "  by  Jean  Chappuis, 
tertia"  of  Izmocent  III  in  1210,  and  the  "  Compilatio  in  1500,  that  these  collections  found  a  fixed  form.  The 
(^uinta"  of  Honorius  III,  in  1226,  are  official  collec-  "Sextus"  was  glossed  and  commented  by  Joannes  An- 
tions.  Thouffh  the  popes,  doubtless,  intended  only  to  dreee,  called  the  "fons  et  tuba  juris"  (d.  1348),  and 
give  the  pro^ssors  at  Bologna  correct  and  authentic  by  Cardinal  Jean  Le  Moine  (Joannes  Monachus,  d. 
texts,  they  nevertheless  acted  officially;  these  collec-  1313),  whose  works  were  often  printed, 
tions,  however,  are  but  supplements  to  Gratian.  \Vhen  authors  speak  of  the  *' closing"  of  the  "Cor- 
Thjs  is  also  true  of  tlie  great  collection  of  **  Deere-  pus  Juris",  they  do  not  mean  an  act  of  the  popes  for- 
tals"  of  Gregory  IX  (see  Decretaxs  and  Corpus  bidding  canonists  to  collect  new  documents,  much  less 
Juris  Canonici).  The  pope  wished  to  collect  in  a  forbiduing  themselves  to  add  to  the  ancient  collec- 
more  uniform  and  convenient  manner  the  decretals  tions.    But  the  canonical  movement,  so  active  after 


'Utury, 

sities  of  Bologna  and  Paris.    He  did  not  wish  to  sup-  vourable  to  the  compiling  of  new  canonical  collections; 

press  or  supplant  the  "Decretum"  of  Gratian,  but  but  there  were  more  direct  causes.    The  special  ob- 

this  eventually  occurred.    The  "  Decretals"  of  Greg-  ject  of  the  first  collections  of  the  decretals  was  to  help 

oiy  IX,  though  composed  in  great  part  of  specific  de-  settle  the  law,  which  the  canonists  of  Bologna  were 

cisions,  represented  m  fact  a  more  advanced  state  of  trying  to  svstematize;  that  is  why  they  contain  so 

law;  furthermore,  the  collection  was  sufficiently  ex-  many  specific  decisions,  from  which  the  authors  gath- 

tensive  to  touch  almost  every  matter,  and  could  serve  ered  general  principles;  when  these  had  been  asccr- 
as  a  basis  for  a  comj " 
gave  rise  to  a  senes 
works,  as  the  **Decretum' 

these  were  more  important  since  they  were  based  oh  when  thev  are  the  statement  of  a  general  law.    Any 

more  recent  and  actual  legislation.    The  commenta-  changes  deemed  necessary  could  be  made  in  teaching 

tors  of  the  Decretals  were  known  as  Decretalists.   The  without  the  necessity  of  recasting  and  augmenting  the 

author  of  the  *' gloss"  was  Bernard  de  Botone  (d.  already  numerous  and  massive  collections. 

1263);  the  text  was  commented  on  bv  the  most  dis-  F.  From  the  Decretals  to  the  Present  Time, — ^After 

tinfuished  canonists;  fcimong  the  best  known  previous  the  fourteenth  century,  except  for  its  contact  with 

to  9ie  sixteenth  century,  we  must  mention,  after  Ber-  the  collections  we  have  just  treated  of,  canon  law 

nard  of  Pa  via  ("  Summa"  edited  by  Laspeyres,  1860),  loses  its  unity.    Hie  actual  law  is  found  m  the  works 

Tancred,  archdeacon  of  Boloena,  d.  1230  C^Summa  de  of  the  canonists  rather  than  in  any  specific  collec- 

liatrimonio",   ed.   Wundernch,    1841);   Godfrey  of  tion;  each  one  gathers  his  texts  where  he  can;  there 

Trani  (1245);  Sinibaldo  Fieschi,  later  Innocent  IV  is  no  one  general  collection  sufficient  for  the  pur- 

(1254),  whose  *' Apparatus  in  quinque  libros  decre-  pose.    It  is  not  a  case  of  confusion,  but  of  isolation 

talium"  has  been  frequently  reprinted  since  1477;  and  dispersion.     The  sources  of  law  later  than  the 

Henry  of  Susa,  later  Cardinal-BiBhop  of  Ostia  (d.  "Corpus  Juris"  are  the  decisions  of  councils,  es- 

1271),  hence  "Hostiensis";  his** SummaHostiensis",  pecially  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (1545-1563),  which 

or  "Summa  aurea"  was  one  of  the  best  known  ca-  are  so  varied  and  important  that  by  themselves  they 

Doni(»l  works,  and  was  printed  as  early  as  1473;  Mpr  form  a  short  code,  though  without  much  order;  the 

liufl  de  Fuscarariis  (d.  1289);  William  Durandus  {d,  constitutions  of  the  popes,  numerous  but  hitherto 

1296,  Bishop  of  Mende),  sumamed  "Speculator",  on  not  officially  collected,  except  the  "Bullarium"  of 

account  of  nis  important   treatise  on  procedure,  the  Benedict  ^V  (1747) ;  the  Kules  of  the  Apostolic 

"Specidum  judiciale",  printed  in  1473;  Guido  de  Chancery  (q.  v.);  lastly  the  decrees,  decisions,  and 

Baysio,  the    archdeacon",  already  mentioned;  Nico-  various  acts  of  the  Roman  Congregations,  jurispru- 

las  de  Tudeschis  (d.  1453),  also  known  as  "Abbas  dence  rather  than  law  properly  so  called.    For  local 

siculus  "  or  simply  "  Panormitanus  "  (or  also  "  Abbas  law  we  have  provincial  councils  and  diocesan  statutes. 

junior  seu  modemus")  to  distinguish  him  from  the  It  is  true  there  have  been  published  collections  of  coun- 

"  Abbas  antiquus",  whose  name  is  imknown  and  who  cils  and  Bullaria.    Several  Roman  Congregations  have 

commented  on  the  Decretals  about  1275);  Nicolas  also  had  their  acts  collected  in  official  publications; 

left  a  "Lectura"  on  the  Decretals,  the  Liber  Sextus,  but  these  are  rather  erudite  compilations  or  rcper- 

and  the  Clementines.  tories.    We  are  to-day  farther  away  than  ever  from  a 

For  some  time  longer,  the  same  method  of  collecting  single  accurate  code  of  ecclesiasticstl  law,  owing  to  the 

was  followed;  not  to  speak  of  the  private  compilations,  mass  and  variety  of  documents,  and  also  because  no 

the  popes  continued  to  keep  up  to  date  the  "  Decre-  regulation  is  presumed  abrogated  imless  it  is  abro- 

taLs    <H  Gregory  IX;  in  1245  Innocent  IV  sent  a  col-  gated  expressly  by  a  new  law.    From  this  one  can 

lection  of  forty-two  decretals  to  the  universities,  or-  appreciate  the  utilitv  as  well  as  the  difficulty  of  the 

dering  them  to  be  inserted  in  their  proper  places;  in  edification  undertaken  by  Pius  X. 

1253  ne  forwarded  the  "initia"  or  first  words  of  the  V.  Codification — The  method  followed,  both  by 

authentic  decretals  that  were  to  be  accepted.    Later  private  individuals  and  the  popes,  in  drawing  up  ca- 

Gregory  X  and  Nicholas  III  did  likewise,  but  with  nonical  collections  is  rather  that  of  a  co-ordinated  com- 

little  profit,  and  none  of  these  brief  supplementary  col-  pilation  or  juxtaposition  of  documents  than  codifica- 

lections  survived.    The  work  was  again  undertaken  tion  in  the  modem  sense  of  the  word,  i.  e.  a  redaction 

by  Boniface  VlII,  who  had  prepared  and  published  an  of  the  laws  (all  the  laws)  into  an  orderly  scries  of  short 

official  ooUection  to  complete  tne  five  existing  books;  precise  texts.     It  is  true  that  antiquity,  even  the 

this  was  known  as  the  "Sextus"   (Liber  Sextus).  Roman  law,  did  not  offer  any  model  diifferent  from 

dement  V  also  had  prepared  a  collection  which,  in  that  of  the  various  collections;  that  method,  however, 

•ddltioii  to  his  own  decretals,  contained  the  decisions  long  since  ceased  to  be  useful  or  possible  in  canon  law. 


LAW                                  64  LAW 

Since  the  "closing''  of  the  ''Corpus  Juris"  two  at-  definition  of  .St.  Thomas  (I,  2,  q.  00,  a.  1}  a  law  is  a 
tempts  have  been  made;  the  first  was  of  little  use,  not  reasonable  ordinance  for  the  common  good,  promul- 
being  official;  the  second,  was  official,  but  was  not  gated  by  the  head  of  the  community.  Ecclesiastical 
brought  to  a  successful  issue.  In  1590  the  juriscon-  law  therefore  has  for  its  author  the  head  of  the  Chris- 
suit  rierre  Mathieu,  of  Lyons,  published  under  the  tian  community  over  which  he  has  jurisdiction  strictly 
title  ''Liber  septimus''  a  supplement  to  the  ''  Corpus  so  called;  its  object  is  the  common  welfare  of  that 
Juris",  di video  according  to  the  order  of  the  books  community,  although  it  may  cause  inconvenience  to 
and  titles  of  the  Decretals.  It  includes  a  selection  of  individuals;  it  is  adapted  to  the  obtaining  of  the  corn- 
papal  constitutions,  from  Sixtus  IV  to  Sixtus  V  (1471-  mon  welfare,  which  maplies  that  it  is  ph3rsically  and 
1590),  but  not  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  morally  possible  for  the  majority  of  the  commimity  to 
Tins  compilation  was  of  some  service,  and  in  a  certain  observe  it;  the  legislator  must  mtend  to  bind  his  sub- 
niunber  of  editions  of  the  ''Corpus  Juris"  was  in-  jects  and  must  make  known  that  intention  clearfv; 
eluded  as  an  appendix.  As  soon  as  the  official  edition  finally  he  must  brin^  the  law  imder  the  notice  of  the 
of  the  "  Corpus  Juris  "  was  published  in  1582,  Gregory  community.  A  Law  is  thus  distinguished  from  a  coun- 
XIII  appointed  a  commission  to  brin^  up  to  date  and  sel,  w^hich  is  optional  not  obligatory;  from  a  precept, 
complete  the  venerable  collection.  Sixtus  V  hastened  which  is  imposed  not  on  the  community  but  on  indi- 
the  work  and  at  length  Cardinal  Pinelli  presented  to  vidual  menibers;  and  from  a  regulation  or  direction, 
Clement  VIII  what  was  meant  to  be  a  ''^Liber  septi-  which  refers  to  accessory  matters, 
mus".  For  the  purpose  of  further  studies  the  pope  The  object  therefore  of  ecclesiastical  law  is  all  that 
had  it  printed  in  1598:  the  pontifical  constitutions  and  is  necessary  or  useful  in  order  that  the  society  ma^ 
the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  were  inserted  in  it  attain  its  end,  whether  there  be  question  of  its  orgam- 
in  the  order  of  the  Decretals.  For  several  reasons  zation,  its  working,  or  the  acts  ot  its  individual  mem- 
Clement  VIII  refused  to  approve  this  work  and  tKe  bers;  it  extends  also  to  temporal  things,  but  only 
project  was  definitively  aoandoned.  (An  abridged  indirectly.  With  regard  to  acts,  the  law  obliges  the 
edition  of  this  "Liber  Septimus"  of  Clement  VlII  individual  either  to  perform  or  to  omit  certain  acts: 

this 
little 

tinning  to  grow  worse.  have  "permissive"  laws,  or  laws  of  forbearance;  fi- 

Many  times  during  the  nineteenth  century,  espe-  nally,  tne  law  in  addition  to  forbidding  a  given  act 

cially  at  the  time  of  the  Vatican  Council  (Collectio  may  render  it,  if  performed,  null  and  void;  these  are 

Lacensis,  VII,  826),  the  bishops  had  ureed  the  Holy  "irritant"  laws.     Laws  in  general,  and  irritant  laws 

See  to  draw  up  a  complete  collection  of  the  laws  in  in  particular,  are  not  retroactive,  unless  such  is  ex- 


force,  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  day.   It  is  true,  their  pressly  declared  by  the  l^islator  to  be  the  case.    The 

requests  have  been  complied  with  in  r^ard  to  certain  publication  or  promulgation  of  the  law  has  a  double 

matters;  Pius  X  in  his  "Motu  proprio    of  19  March,  aspect:  law  must  be  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the 

1904,  refers  to  the  constitution  "ApoBtolicse  Sedis"  community  in  order  that  the  latter  may  be  able  to 


religious  congregations  with  simple  vows.  *  These  and  erly  so  called  (see  PROMULaATiON).  Whatever  may 
several  other  recent  documents  were,  moreover,  be  said  about  the  forms  used  in  the  past,  to-day  Hie 
drawn  up  in  short  precise  articles,  to  a  certain  extent  promulgation  of  general  ecclesiastical  laws  is  effected 
a  novelty,  and  the  beginning  of  a  codification.  PiusX  exclusively  by  the  insertion  of  the  law  in  the  official 
has  at  lexigth  official^  ordered  a  codification,  in  the  publication  of  the  Holy  See,  the  "Acta  Apostolic® 
modem  sense  of  the  word,  for  the  whole  canon  law.  Sedis",  in  compliance  with  the  Constitution  "Pro- 
In  the  first  year  of  his  pontificate  he  issued  the  Motu  mulgandi",  of  rius  X,  dated  29  September,  1908,  ex- 
Proprio  "Arduum",  (De  Ecclesi®  legibus  in  unum  cept  in  certain  specifically  mentioned  cases.  The  law 
redigendis) ;  it  treats  of  the  complete  codification  and  taKcs  effect  and  is  binding  on  all  members  of  the  corn- 
reformation  of  canon  law.  For  this  purpose  the  pope  mXinity  as  soon  as  it  is  promulgated,  aDowing  for  the 
has  requested  the  entire  episcopate,  grouped  in  prov-  time  morally  necessary  for  it  to  become  known,  unless 
inces,  to  make  known  to  him  the  reforms  they  desire,  the  le^lator  has  fixed  a  special  time  at  which  it  is  to 
At  the  same  time  he  appointed  a  commission  of  con-  come  mto  force. 

suitors,  on  whom  the  initial  work  devolves,  and  a  com-  No  one  is  presumed  to  be  ignorant  of  the  law;  only 

mission  of  cardinals,  charged  with  the  study  and  ap-  ignorance  of  fact,  not  ignorance  of  law,  is  excusable 

proval  of  the  new  texts,  subject  later  to  the  sanction  (Keg.  13  jur.  in  VI°).    Ever^'one  subject  to  the  l^gis- 

of  the  sovereign  pontiff.    The  plans  of  the  various  lator  is  bound  in  conscience  to  observe  the  law.    A 

titles  liave  been  confided  to  canonists  in  eveiry  coun-  violation  of  the  law,  either  by  omission  of  by  act,  if 

try.    The  general  idea  of  the  future  Code  includes  punishable  with  a  penalty  (q.  v.).    These  penalties 

(after  the  preliminary  section)  four  main  divisions:  may  be  settled  beforehand  by  the  legislator,  or  they 

persons,  things  (with  subdivisions  for  the  sacraments,  may  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  judge  who  imposes 

sacred  places  and  objects,  ete.),  trials,  crimes  and  them.    A  violation  of  the  moral  law  or  what  one's 

penalties.    It  is  practically  the  plan  of  the  "  Institu-  conscience  judges  to  be  the  moral  law  is  a  sin;  a  vio- 

tiones  ",  or  manuals  of  canon  law.    The  articles  wiU  be  lation  of  the  exterior  penal  law,  in  addition  to  the  sin, 

numbered  consecutively.    The  first  part  of  this  great  renders  one  liable  to  a  punishment  or  penalty;  if  the 

work  is  now  almost  finished.    It  is  impossible  to  say  will  of  the  legislator  is  only  to  oblige  tne  offender  to 

what  modifications  and  reforms  will  be  made  in  the  submit  to  the  penalty,  the  law  is  said  to  be  "purely 

ancient  law;  we  can,  however,  expect  from    this  penal";  such  are  some  of  the  laws  adopted  by  civil 

great  work,  to  the  immensity  of  which  {amplitudo  et  legislatures,  and  it  is  generally  admitted  that  some 

moles)  Pius  X  makes  allusion,  the  best  results  for  the  ecclesiastical  laws  are  of  this  kind.     As  baptism  is  the 

study  and  practice  of  ecclesiastical  law.  gate  of  entrance  to  the  ecclesiastical  sociefy,  all  those 

VI.  Ecclesiastical  Law. — The  sources  of  canon  who  are  baptized,  even  non-Catholics,  are  m  principle 

law,  and  the  canonical  writers,  give  us,  it  is  true,  rules  of  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  Church;  in  practice  the 

action,  each  w^ith  its  specific  object.    We  have  now  to  question  arises  only  when  certain  acts  of  neretics  and 

consider  all  these  lai^-s  in  their  common  abstract  ele-  schismatics  come  before  Catholic  tribimals;  as  a  gen- 

ment,  in  other  words  Ecclesiastical  Law,  its  charac-  eral  rule  an  irritant  law  is  enforced  in  such  a  cajse, 

teristics  and  its  practice.    According  to  the  excellent  imless  the  legislator  has  exempted  them  from  its  ob- 


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servance,  for  instance,  for  the  f onn  of  marriage.  Gen- 
eral lawSi  therefore,  bind  all  Catholics  wherever  they 
may  be.  In  the  case  of  particular  laws,  as  one  is  sul>-, 
ject  to  them  in  virtue  of  one's  domicile,  or  even  quasi- 
domicile,  passing  strangers  are  not  subject  to  them, 
except  in  the  case  of  acts  performed  within  the  terri- 
tory. 

The  r61e  of  the  legislator  does  not  end  with  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  law;  it  is  his  office  to  explain  and 
interpret  it  ^declaratiOf  interpretatio  legis).  The  in- 
terpretation IS  "official"  (cnUfientica)  or  even  "neces- 
sary", when  it  is  given  by  the  legislator  or  by  some 
one  authorized  by  him  for  that  purpose;  it  is  "cus- 
tomary", when  it  springs  from  usage  or  habit;  it  is 
"doctrinal",  when  it  is  based  on  the  authoritvof  the 
learned  writers  or  the  decisions  of  the  tribunals.  The 
official  interpretation  alone  has  the  force  of  Law.  Ac- 
cording to  the  result,  the  interpretation  is  said  to  be 
"comprehensive,  extensive,  restrictive,  correct! ve^" 
expressions  easily  understood.  The  legislator,  and  m 
the  case  of  particular  laws  the  superior,  remains  mas- 
ter of  the  law;  he  can  suppress  it  either  totally  (abro- 
gation), or  partiallv  (derogation),  or  he  can  combine  it 
with  a  new  law  which  suppresses  in  the  first  law  all 
that  is  incompatible  witn  the  second  (abrogation). 
Laws  co-exist  as  far  as  they  are  reconcilable;  the  more 
recent  modifies  the  more  ancient,  but  a  particidar  law 
is  not  suppressed  by  a  general  law,  unless  the  fact  is 
stated  expressly.  A  law  can  also  cease  when  its  pur- 
pose and  end  cease,  or  even  when  it  is  too  difficult  to 
be  observed  by  the  generality  of  the  subjects;  it  then 
falls  into  desuetude  (see  CusrroM). 

In  every  society,  but  especially  in  a  societv  so  vast 
and  varied  as  the  Church,  it  is  impossible  for  every 
law  to  be  applicable  always  and  in  all  cases.  Without 
suppressing  the  law,  the  legislator  can  permanently 
exempt  from  it  certain  persons  or  certam  groups,  or 
certam  matters,  or  even  extend  the  rights  of  certain 
subjects;  all  these  concessions  are  known  as  privileges 
(q.  v.).  In  the  same  manner  the  legislator  can  dero- 
gate from  the  law  in  special  cases;  this  is  called  a  dis- 
pensation (q.  v.).  Indults  or  the  powers  that  the 
bishops  of  the  Catholic  world  receive  from  the  Holy 
See,  to  regulate  the  various  cases  that  may  arise  in  the 
administration  of  their  dioceses,  belong  to  the  cate- 
gory of  privileges;  together  with  the  dispensations 
granted  airectfy  by  the  Holy  See,  they  eliminate  any 
excessive  rigidity  of  the  law,  and  ensure  to  ecclesias- 
tical legislation  a  marvellous  facility  of  application. 
Without  imperilling  the  rights  and  prerogatives  of  the 
legislator,  but  on  the  contrary  strengthening  them,  in- 
dmts  impress  more  strongly  on  the  law  of  the  Church 
that  humane,  broad,  mercifid  character,  mindful  of 
the  welfare  of  souls,  but  also  of  human  weakness, 
which  likens  it  to  the  moral  law  and  distingiiishes  it 
from  civil  legislation,  which  is  much  more  external 
and  inflexible. 

VII.  The  Principal  Canonists. — It  is  impossible 
to  draw  up  a  detailed  and  systematic  catalogue  of  all 
the  works  of  special  value  in  the  study  of  canon  law; 
the  most  distinguished  canonists  are  the  subject  of 
special  articles  in  this  Enctclopedia.  Those  we  have 
mentioned  as  commentators  of  the  ancient  canon- 
ical collections  are  now  of  interest  only  from  an  his- 
torical point  of  view;  but  the  authors  who  have  writ- 
ten since  the  Council  of  Trent  are  still  read  with 
profit;  it  is  in  {heir  great  works  that  we  find  our  prac- 
tioU  canon  law.  Among  the  authors  who  have  written 
on  special  chapters  of  the  "Corpus  Juris",  we  must 
mention  (the  date  refers  to  the  first  edition  of  the 
works):  Prospero  Fagnani,  the  distinguished  secre- 
tary of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Council,  "Jus 
canonicum  seu  oommentana  absolutissima  in  quinque 
librosDecretalium"  (Rome,  1661);  Manuel  Gonzalez 
T^ei  (d.  1649),  "Commentaria  perpetua  in  singulos 
testus  juris  canonici"  (Lyons,  1673);  the  Jesuit  Paul 
l4iymann,  better  known  as  a  moral  theologian,  "Jus 


canonicum  seu  commentaria  in  lihros  Dccretalium** 
(Dillingen,  1666) ;  Ubaldo  Giraldi,  Clerk  lU^ular  of  the 
Pious  Schools,  "Expositio  juris  pontificu  juxta  re- 
centiorem  EcclesisB  disciplinam"  (Rome,  1769). 

Among  the  canonists  who  have  followed  the  order 
of  the  titles  of  the  Decretals:  the  Benedictine  Louis 
Engel,  professor  at  Salzburg,  "  Universum  jus  canon- 
icum secundum  titulos  libr.  Decretalium  "  (Salzburg, 
1671)  \  the  Jesuit  Ehrenreich  Pirhing, "  Universum  jus 
canomcum"  etc.  (Dillingen,  1645);  the  Franciscan 
Anaclet  Reiffenstuel,  "Jus  canonicum  universum" 
(Freising,  1700) ;  the  Jesuit  James  Wiestner,  "  Institu- 
tiones  canonic®"  (Munich,  1705);  the  two  brothers 
Francis  and  Benedict  Schmier,  both  Benedictines  and 
professors  at  Salzburg;  Francis  wrote  "  Jurisprudentia 
canonico-civilis"  (Salzburg,  1716);  Benedict:  "Liber 
I  Decretalium;  Lib.  II  etc."  (Salzburg,  1718);  the 
Jesuit  Francis  Schmalzgrueber,  "Jus  ecclesiasticum 
universum"  (Dillingen,  1717);  Peter  Leuren,  also  a 
Jesuit,  "Forum  ecclesiasticum"  etc.  (Mainz,  1717); 
Vitus  Pichler,  a  Jesuit,  the  successor  of  Schmalz- 
grueber, "Summa  jurisprudentiae  sacrae"  (Augsburg, 
1723);  Eusebius  Amort,  a  Canon  Regular,  "Elementa 
juris  canonici  veteris  et  modemi"  (Ulm,  1757);  Amort 
wrote  also  amon^  other  works  of  a  very  personal  char- 
acter, "De  origme,  progressu  .  .  .  indulgent iariim " 
(Augsbm^,  1735);  Carlo  Sebastiano  Berardi,  "Com- 
mentaria m  jus  canonicum  universum  "  (Turin,  1766) ; 
also  his  "Institutiones"  and  his  great  work  "Gratiani 
canonesgenuiniabapocryphisdiscreti",  (Turin,  1752); 
James  Anthony  Zallinger,  a  Jesuit,  "Institutiones 
juris  ecclesiastici  maxime  privati"  (Augsburg,  1791), 
not  so  well  known  as  his  "Institutionum  juris  natur- 
alis  et  ecclesiastici  publici  libri  guinque"  (Augsburg, 
1784).  This  same  method  was  followed  again  in  the 
nineteenth  century  by  Canon  Filippo  de  Angelis, 
" Prselectiones  juris  canonici",  (Rome,  1877);  by  his 
colleague  Francesco  Santi, "  PrsBlectiones",  (Ratisbon, 
1884  •  revised  by  Martin  Leitner,  1903) ;  and  E.  Grand- 
clauae,  "Jus  canonicum"  (Paris,  1882). 

The  plan  of  the  "Institutiones",  in  imitation  of 
Lancelotti  (Perugia,  1563),  has  been  followed  by  very 
many  canonists,  among  whom  the  principal  are:  the 
learned  Antonio  Agustin,  Archbishop  of  Tarragona, 
" Epitome  juris  pontificii  veteris"  (Tarragona,  1587); 
his  "De  emendatione  Gratiani  dialogorum  libri  duo" 
(Tarragona,  1587),  is  worthy  of  mention;  Claude 
Fleury,  "Institution  au  droit  eccl^siastique"  (Paris, 
1676);  Zeger  Bernard  van  Espen,  "Jus  ecclesiasticum 
universum"  (Colore,  1748);  the  Benedictine  Dom- 
inic Schram,  "Institutiones  juris  ecclesiastici"  (Au^ 
burff,  1774);  Vincenzo  Lupoli,  "Juris  ecclesiastici 
praJectiones"  (Naples,  1777);  Giovanni  Devoti,  tit- 
ular Archbishop  of  Carthage,  "  Institutionum  canon- 
icarum  libri  quatuor"  (Rome,  1785);  his  "Commen- 
tary on  the  Decretals"  has  only  the  first  three  books 
(Rome,  1803);  Cardinal  So^lia,  "Institutiones  juris 
privati  et  publici  ecclesiastici"  (Paris,  1859)  and  "  In- 
stitutiones juris  publici",  (Loreto,  1843);  D.  Craisson, 
Vicar-General  of  Valence,  "Manuale  compendium 
totius  juris  canonici"  (Poitiers,  1861).  School  man- 
uals in  one  or  two  volumes  are  very  numerous  and  it  is 
impossible  to  mention  all.  We  may  cite  in  Italy  those 
of  G.  C.  Ferrari  (1847);  Vecchiotti  (Turin,  1867);  De 
Camillis,  (Rome,  1869) ;  Sebastiano  Sanguinetti,  S.  J. 
(Rome,  1884);  Carlo  Lombardi  (Rome,  1898);  Gug- 
Uelmo  SebastianelU  (Rome,  1898),  etc.  For  German- 
speaking  countries,  Ferdinand  Walter  (Bonn,  1822); 
F.  M.  Permaneder,  1846;  Rosshirt,  1858;  George 
Phillips  (Ratisbon,  1859:  in  addition  to  his  large  work 
in  eignt  volumes,  1845  sq.);  J.  Winckler,  1862  (spe- 
cially for  Switzerland) ;  S.  Aichner  (Brixen,  1862)  spe- 
cially for  Austria;  J.  F.  Schulte  (Greissen,  1863) ;  F.  H. 
Vering  (Freiburg-im-B.^  1874);  Isidore  Silbemagl 
(Ratisbon,  1879);  H.  Laemmer  (Freiburg-im-B., 
1886);  Phil.  Hergenroether  (Freiburg-im-B.,  1888); 
J.  Hollweck  (Freibuig-im-B.,  1905);  J.  Laurentiui? 


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66 


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(Freibiu^g-im-B.,  1903);  D.  M,  Pnimmer,  1907;  J.  B. 
•Sfigmaller  (Freiburg-im-B.,  1904).  For  France:  H. 
Icard,  Superior  of  Saint-Sulpice  (Paris,  1867);  M. 
Bargilliat  (Paris,' 1893);  F.  Deshayes, "  Memento  juris 
ecclesiastici"  (Paris,  1897).  In  Belgium:  De  Braban- 
d^re  (Bruges,  1903).  For  English-speaking  countries: 
Smith  (Sew  York,  1890);  Gignac  (Quebec,  1901); 
Taunton  (London,  1906).  For  Spain:  Marian  Aguilar 
(Santo  Domingo  de  la  Cahsaaa,  1904);  Cionzales 
Ibarra  (Valladolid,  1904). 

There  are  also  canonists  who  have  written  at  con- 
siderable length  either  on  the  whole  canon  law,  or  on 
special  parts  of  it,  in  their  own  particular  manner;  it  is 
difficult  to  give  a  complete  list,  but  we  will  mention: 
Agostino  Barbosa  (d.  1639),  whose  works  fill  at  least 
30  volumes;  Cardinal  J.  B.  Luca  (d.  1683),  whose  im- 
mense "Theatrum  veritatis"  and  "Relatio  curiae 
romanse"  arc  his  most  important  works;  Pignatelli, 
who  has  touched  on  all  practical  questions  in  his 
"  CJonsultationes  canonicae  ,  11  folio  volumes,  Geneva, 
1668;  Prospero  Lambertini  (Pope  Benedict  XIV),  per- 
haps the  greatest  canonist  since  the  Council  of  Trent 
((J.  V.) ;  in  the  nineteenth  century  we  must  mention  the 
different  writings  of  Dominique  Bo\;Lix,  15  volumes, 
Paris,  1852  sq.;  the  "  ICirchenrecht"  of  J.  F.  Schulte, 
1856  and  of  Rudolf  v.  Scherer,  1886;  and  above  all  the 
great  work  of  Franz  Xavier  Wemz,  General  of  the 
Society'  of  Jesus,  "Jus  decretalium"  (Rome,  1898  sq.). 
It  is  miposcible  to  enumerate  the  special  treatises. 
Among  repertoires  and  dictionaries,  it  will  suffice  to 
cite  the  *'Prompta  Bibhotheca"  of  the  Franciscan 
Ludovico  Ferraris  (Bologna,  1746);  the  "Diction- 
naire  de  droit  canoni(^ue"  of  Durand  de  Mai  Dane 
(Avi^on,  1761),  contmued  later  by  Abb6  Andr6 
(Pans,  1847)  etc.;  finely  the  other  encyclopedias  of 
ecclesiastical  sciences  wherein  canon  law  has  been 
treated. 

On  ecclesiastical  public  law,  the  best-known  hand- 
books are,  with  Soglia,  T.  M.  Salzano,  *'Lezioni  di 
diritto  canonico  pubbhco  et  privato"  (Naples,  1845); 
Cardinal  Camillo  Tarquini,  Juris  ecclesiastici  pub- 
lici  institutiones"  (Rome,  1860);  Cardinal  Felice  tJav- 
^nis,  "Institutiones  iuris  publici  ecclesiastici" 
(Rome,  1888);  Mgr  Adolfo  Giobbio,  "Lezioni  di  di- 
plomazia  ecclesiastical'  .(Rome,  1899);  Enunan.  de  la 
Pena  y  Femdndez,  "Jus  publiciun  ecclesiasticum" 
(Seville,  1900).  For  an  historical  view,  the  chief  work 
is  that  of  Pierre  de  Marca,  Archbishop  of  Toidouse, 
"De  Concordia  sacerdotii  et  imperii"  (Paris,  1641). 

For  the  history  of  canon  law  considered  in  its 
sources  and  collections,  we  must  mention  the  brothers 
Pietro  and  Antonio  Ballerini  of  Verona,  "De  antiquis 
coUcctionibus  et  coUectoribus  canoniun"  (Vemce, 
1757);  among  the  works  of  St.  Leo  I,  in  P.  L.,  LIII; 
the  matter  has  been  recast  and  completed  by  Fried- 
rich  Maassen,  "Geschichte  der  Quellen  und  der  Lit- 
eratur  des  kanonischen  Rechts  im  Abendland",  I, 
(Graz,  1870) ;  for  the  history^  from  the  time  of  Gratian 
see  J.  F.  Schulte,  "Geschichte  der  Quellen  und  der 
Literatur  des  kanonischen  Rechts  von  Gratian  bis 
zum  Gegenwart"  (Stuttgart,  1875  s(i.),  and  "Die 
Lehre  von  der  Quellen  des  katholiscen  Kirchen- 
rechts"  (Giessen,  1860);  Philip  Schneider,  "Die 
Lehre  von  den  Kirchenrechtsquellen "  (Ratisbon, 
1892),  Adolphe  Tardif,  "Histoire  des  sources  du  droit 
canonique  (Paris,  1887);  Franz  Laurin,  "Introduc- 
tio  in  Corpus  Juris  canonici"  (Freiburg,  1889).  On 
the  history  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  institutions, 
the  principal  work  is  "Ancienne  et  nouvelle  disci- 
pline de  I'Kglise"  by  the  Oratorian  Louis  Thomassin 
(Lyons,  1676),  translated  into  Latin  by  the  author, 
"Vetus  et  nova  disciplina"  (Paris,  1688).  One  may 
consult  with  profit  A.  J.  Binterim,  "  Die  vorzQglich- 
sten  Denkwttrdigkeiten  der  christkatolischen  Kirche" 
(Mainz,  1825);  the  "Dizionario  di  erudizione  storico- 
ecclesiastica  by  Moroni  (Venice,  1840  sq.);  also  J. 
W.Bickell,  "Geschichte  des  Kirchenrechts "  (Gies- 


sen, 1843);  E.  Loening,  "Geschichte  des  deutschen 
Kirchenrechta  (Strasburg,  1878);  R.  Sohm.  "Kir- 
chenrecht,  I:  Die  geschichtliche  Grundlagen    (1892). 

A.  BOUDINHON. 

Law,  CrviL,  Influence  op  the  Church  on. — 
Christianity  is  essentially  an  ethical  religion;  and,  al- 
though its  moral  principles  were  meant  dii^ectly  for 
the  elevation  of  the  indi\adual,  still  they  could  not  fail 
to  exercise  a  powerful  infiuence  on  such  a  public  insti- 
tution as  law,  the  crystallized  rule  of  human  conduct. 
The  law  o^Rome  escaped  this  influence  to  a  large  ex- 
tent^ because  much  of  it  wa«  compiled  before  Chris- 
tiamty  was  recognized  by  the  pubhc  authorities.  But 
the  leaes  barbarorum  were  more  completely  interpene- 
tratea,  as  it  were,  by  Christian  influences;  thev  re- 
ceived their  definite  form  only  after  the  several  na- 
tions had  submitted  to  the  gentle  yoke  of  Christ.  This 
influence  of  the  Church  is  particularly  noticeable  in 
the  following  matters: 

^1)  Slavery, — The  condition  of  the  slaves  was  meet 

Eitiablc  in  the  ages  of  antiquity.  According  to  Roman 
kw  and  usage  a  slave  was  considered,  not  as  a  himian 
b^ng,  but  as  a  chattel,  over  which  the  master  had 
the  most  absolute  control,  up  to  the  point  of  inflict- 
ing death.  Gradually,  the  spirit  of  Christianity  re- 
stricted these  inhuman  rights.  From  the  time  of  the 
Emperor  Antoninus  Pius  (138-61)  a  master  was  pun- 
ished if  he  killed  his  slave  without  reason,  or  even 
practised  on  him  excessive  cruelty  (Instit.  Just.,  lib. 
I.  tit.  8;  Dig.,  lib.  I,  tit.  6,  leges  1,2).  The  emperor 
Constantine  (306-37)  made  it  homicide  to  kill  a  slave 
with  malice  aforethought,  and  described  certain  modes 
of  barbarous  punishment  by  which,  if  death  followed, 
the  guilt  of  homicide  was  incurred  (Cod.  Just.,  lib. 

IX,  tit.  14).  A  further  relief  consisted  in  facilitating 
the  manumission  or  liberation  of  slaves.  According  to 
several  laws  of  Constantine  the  ordinary  formalities 
could  be  dispensed  with  if  the  manumission  took  place 
in  the  churcn,  before  the  people  and  the  sacred  minis- 
ters. The  clei^  were  permitted  to  bestow  freedom 
on  their  slaves  m  their  last  will,  or  even  by  simple 
word  of  mouth  (Cod.  Just.,  lib.  I,  tit.  13,  leges  1, 2). 
The  Emperor  Justinian  I  (527-65)  gave  to  freed  per- 
sons the  full  rank  and  rights  of  Roinan  citizens,  and 
abolished  the  penalty  of  condemnation  to  servitude 
(Cod.  Just.,  lib.  VII,  tit.  6;  Nov.,  XXII,  cap.  viii;  Nov. 
LXXVIII.  pnef.  capp.  i,  li").  Similar  provisions  were 
found  in  the  Barbarian  coaes.  According  to  the  Bur- 
gundian  and  Visi^othic  laws  the  murder  of  a  slave  was 
punished;  emancipation  in  the  church  and  before  the 
priest  was  permitted  and  encouraged.  In  one  point 
they  were  ahead  of  the  Roman  law;  they  reco^ized 
the  legality  of  the  marriage  between  slaves,  m  the 
Lombardic  law,  on  the  authority  of  the  Scriptural 
sentence:  "Wliom  God  liath  joined  together,  let  nc 
man  put  asunder."  The  Church  could  not  directly 
abolish  slavery;  she  was  satisfied  with  admitting  the 
slaves  within  her  pale  on  a  footing  of  eciuality  with 
others,  with  counselling  patience  and  submission  on 
the  part  of  the  slave,  forbearance  and  moderaHon  on 
that  of  the  master.  Otherwise  she  concurred  in  the 
civil  legislation,  or  even  went  beyond  it  in  some  cases. 
Thus,  the  killing  of  a  slave  was  severely  punished 
(Counc.  of  Elvira,  A.  d.  300,  Can.  v;  Counc.  of  Epaon, 
A.  D.  517,  Can.  xxxiv);  a  fugitive  slave  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  the  church  was  to  be  restored  to  his  master 
only  on  the  latter 's  promise  of  remitting  the  punish- 
ment (Counc.  of  OrL^ans,  a.  d.  511,  Can.  iii,  c.  vi, 

X,  lib.  Ill,  tit.  49);  marriage  between  slaves  was  recog- 
nized as  valid  (Counc.  of  Chalons,  a.  d.  813,  Can.  xxx; 
c.  i,  X,  lib.  IV,  tit.  9) ;  and  even  the  marriage  be- 
tween a  free  person  and  a  slave  was  ratified,  provided 
it  had  been  contracted  with  full  knowledge  (Counc.  of 
(}ompi6gne,  a.  d.  757,  Can.  viii). 

(2)  Paternal  Authority  {Potestas  Paterna), — Accord- 
ing to  the  Roman  law  the  power  of  the  father  over  his 


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children  was  as  absolute  as  that  of  the  master  over 
his  slaves:  it  extended  to  their  freedom  and  life.  The 
harsher  features  of  this  usage  were  gradually  elimi- 
nated. Thus,  according  to  the  laws  of  different  em- 
perors, the  killing  of  a  child  either  by  the  father  or  by 
the  mother  was  declared  to  be  one  of  the  greatest 
crimes  (Cod.  Theod.,  Ub.  IX.  tit.  14,  15;  Cod.  Just., 
lib.  IX,  tit.  17;  Dig.,  Ub.  XL VIII,  tit.  9,  lex  1).  Cruel 
treatment  of  chil^en  was  forbidden,  such  as  the  fus 
Hberoa  noxa  dandif  i.  e.,  the  right  of  handing  children 
over  to  the  power  of  someone  ipjured  by  them  (Instit. 
Just,  lib.  IV,  tit.  8) ;  children  could  not  be  sold  or  given 
away  to  the  power  of  others  (Cod.  Just.,  lib.  IV,  tit. 
43,  lex  1) ;  children  that  were  sold  by  their  father  on  ac- 
count of  poverty  were  to  be  set  free  (Cod.  Theod.,  lib. 
Ill,  tit.  3,  lex  1) ;  finally,  all  children  exposed  by  their 
parents  and  fallen  into  servitude  were  to  become  free 
without  exception  (Cod.  Just.,  lib.  VIII,  tit.  52,  lex  3). 
The  son  of  a  family  was  entitled  to  dispose  in  his  last 
will  of  the  possessions  acquired  either  m  military  ser- 
vice (peculium  ccutrense),  or  in  the  exercise  of  an  office 
{peetuium  quasi  castrense),  or  in  any  other  way  (In- 
stit. Just.,  lib.  II,  tit.  11;  c.  iv,  VI,  lib.  Ill,  tit.  12). 
The  children  could  not  be  disinherited  at  the  simple 
wish  of  the  father,  but  onlv  for  certain  specified  rea- 
scms  based  on  ingratitude  (Nov.  CXV.  cc.  iii  sqq.). 

(3)  Marriage, — In  the  ancient  law  of  Rome  the 
wife  was,  like  the  rest  of  the  familv,  the  property  of 
the  husband,  who  could  dispose  of  her  at  will.  Chris- 
tianity rescued  woman  from  this  degrading  condition 
by  attributing  to  her  equal  rights,  and  by  making  her 
the  companion  of  the  husband.  This  equality  was  in 
part  recognised  by  imperial  laws,  which  gave  to 
women  the  right  of  controlling  their  property,  and  to 
mothers  the  right  of  guardianship  (Cod.  Theod.,  lib. 
II,  tit.  17,  lex  1 ;  lib.  Ill,  tit.  17,  lex  4).  The  boundless 
liberty  of  divorce,  which  had  obtained  since  the  time 
of  Augustus,  was  restricted  to  a  certain  n\m[iber  of 
cases.  The  legislation  of  the  Emperors  Constantine 
and  Justinian  on  this  subject  did  not  come  up  to  the 
standard  of  Christianity,  but  it  approached  it  and  im- 
posed a  salutary  check  on  the  free  desire  of  husband 
or  wife  for  separation  (Cod.  Theod.,  lib.  Ill,  tit.  16, 
lex  1;  Cod.  Just.,  lib.  V,  tit.  17,  leg.8, 10, 11).  Woman 
was  h^hly  respected  among  the  barbarian  nations; 
and  with  some,  like  the  Visigoths,  divorce  was  for- 
bidden exc^t  for  adultery. 

(4)  Wills  and  Testaments. — ^The  canon  law  intro- 
duced various  modifications  in  the  regulations  of  the 
civil  law  concerning  last  wills  and  testaments;  among 
them  there  is  one  ^raich  enforced  a  particular  fairness 
in  favour  of  the  necessary  heirs,  such  as  children.  Ac- 
cording to  Uie  Roman  law,  one  who  became  heir  or 
l^atee  with  the  condition  of  &  fideicommisaum  (i.  e., 
ot  transmitting  his  inheritance  or  legacy  to  another 
after  his  death)  had  the  right  of  deducting  the  fourth 
part  from  the  inheritance  or  legacy,  which  was  not 
transmitted;  this  fourth  part  being  known  as  the 
Trebellian  quarter.  Again,  the  necessary  heirs,  such 
as  children,  nad  a  claim  on  a  certain  part  of  the  inher- 
itance. If  it  hap'pened  that  the  share  of  the  necessary 
heir  was  bmtiened  with  h  fideicommissum,  then  the 
necessary  heir  was  entitled  only  to  deduct  the  part 
coming  to  him  as  a  necessary  heir,  but  not  the  Tre- 
bellian quarter  (Cod.  Just.,  lib.  VI,  tit.  49,  lex  6).  The 
canon  law  modified  this  provision  by  enjoining  that 

^the  necessary  heir  in  sucn  a  case  was  entitled  first  to 
*the  deduction  of  his  natural  share  and  then  also  to  the 
deduction  of  the  Trebellian  quarter  from  the  rest  of 
the  inheritance  ^.  16, 18,  X,  lib.  Ill,  tit.  26). 

(5)  Property  Rights. — According  to  a  provision  in 
the  Roman  law,  a  man  who  was  forcibly  ejected  from 
hb  property  could,  in  order  to  recover  it,  apply  the 
procesB  known  as  the  interdidtan  unde  vi  against  the 
one  who  ejected  hhn  directly  or  indirectly,  i.  e., 
against  him  wfaoperpetrated  the  act  of  ejection  or  who 
enimidled  H^    Bui  he  could  take  action  against  the 


heirs  of  those  who  ejected  him  only  in  so  far  as  they 
were  enriched  by  the  spoliation,  and  nunc  against  a 
third  owner,  who  meanwhile  had  obtained  possession 
of  his  former  property  .(Dig.,  lib.  XI.VIII,  tit.  16,  lex  1 
tit.  17,  lex  3).  The  canon  law  modified  this  unfair 
measure  by  decreeing  that  he  who  was  despoiled  of 
his  property  could  insist  first  on  being  reinstated;  if 
the  matter  were  brought  to  the  courts,  ne  could  allege 
the  exceptio  apoliif  or  the  fact  of  spoliation;  and,  fi- 
nally, he  was  permitted  to  have  recourse  to  the  law 
against  a  third  owner  who  had  acquired  the  property 
with  the  knowledge  of  its  unjust  origin  (c.  18,  X, 
lib.  II,  tit.  13;  c.  1,  VI,  lib.  II,  tit.  5). 

(6)  Contracts. — The  Roman  law  distinguished  be- 
tween pacts  (pacta  7ivda)  and  contracts.  The  former 
could  not  be  enforced  by  law  or  a  civil  action,  while 
the  latter,  being  clothed  m  special  judicial  solemnities, 
were  binding  before  the  law  and  the  civil  courts. 
Against  this  distinction  the  canon  law  insists  on  the 
obligation  incurred  by  any  agreement  of  whatever 
form,  or  in  whatever  manner  it  may  have  been  con- 
tracted (c.  1,  3,  X,  lib.  I,  tit.  35). 

(7)  Prescriptions.-^The  Roman  law  admitted  the 
right  of  prescription  in  favour  of  him  who  had  been  in 
good  faith  only  at  the  beginning  of  his  possession;  and 
it  abstracte<l  altogether  from  the  good  or  bad  faith  in 
either  party  to  a  civil  action,  if  it  were  terminated  by 
prescription.  The  canon  law  required  the  good  faith 
in  him  who  prescril)cd  for  all  the  time  of  his  posses- 
sion; and  it  refused  to  acknowledge  prescription  in  the 
case  of  a  civil  action  against  a  possessor  of  bad  faith 
(cc.  5,  20,  X,  lib.  II,  tit.  26;  c.  2,  VI,  lib.  V,  tit.  12,  De 
Reg.  Jur.).     (See  Prescription.) 

(8)  Legal  Procedure. — ^Tho  spirit  of  Christianity 
made  itself  felt  in  the  treatment  of  criminals  and  pris- 
oners. Thus  prisoners  were  not  to  be  subjected  to  in- 
human maltreatment  before  their  trial  (Cod.  Theod., 
lib.  IX,  tit.  3,  lex  1);  criminals  already  sentenced  were 
not  to  be  branded  on  the  forehead  (fjod.  Theod.,  lib. 
IX,  tit.  40,  lex  2) ;  the  bishops  received  the  right  of 
interceding  for  prisoners  detained  for  lighter  offences, 
and  to  obtain  their  freedom  on  the  feast  of  Easter; 
they  were  likewise  empowered  to  visit  the  prisons  on 
Wednesdays  or  Fridays  in  order  to  see  that  tlie  magis- 
trates heaped  no  extra  afilictions  on  the  prisoners 
(Cod.  Theod.,  lib.  IX,  tit.  38,  leges  3, 4, 6-8;  Cod.  Just., 
lib.  I,  tit.  4,  leges  3, 9, 22, 23).  To  all  this  may  be  added 
the  recognition  of  the  right  of  asylum  in  the  churches, 
which  prevented  a  hasty  and  vindictive  administra- 
tion of  justice  (Cod.  Theod.,  lib.  IX,  tit.  15,  lex  4). 
A  great  evil  among  the  Germanic  nations  was  the  trial 
by  ordeals,  or  juc^j^ments  of  God.  The  Church  was 
unable  for  some  time  to  suppress  them,  but  at  least 
she  tried  to  control  them,  placed  them  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  priests,  and  gave  to  them  a  Christian  ap- 
pearance by  prescribing  special  blessings  and  cere- 
monies for  such  occasions.  The  popes,  however,  were 
always  opposed  to  the  ordeals  as  implying  a  tempting 
of  God;  aecrees  to  that  effect  were  enacted  by  Nich- 
olas I  (858-67),  Stephen  V  (885-91),  Alexander  II 
(1061-73),  Celestine  III  (1191-98),  Innocent  III 
(1198-1216),  and  Honorius  III  (1216-27)  (cc.  22,  20, 
7,C.  II,  q.  5;  cc.  1,  3,  X,  lib.  V,  tit.  35;  c.  9,  X,  Ub.  Ill, 
tit.  50).  Another  evil  consisted  in  the  feuds  or  san- 
guinary conflicts  between  private  persons  in  revenge 
for  injuries  or  murders.  The  Church  could  not  stop 
them  altogether,  owing  to  the  conditions  of  anarchy 
and  barbarism  prevailing  among  the  nations  in  the 
Middle  Ages;  but  she  succeeded  at  least  in  restricting 
them  to  certain  periods  of  the  year,  and  certain  days 
of  the  week,  by  what  is  known  as  the  treuga  Dei,  or 
"Truce  of  God".  By  this  institution  private  feuds 
were  forbidden  from  Advent  te  the  Octave  of  Epiph- 
any, from  Septuagesima  Sundav  until  the  Octave  of 
Pentecost,  and  from  sunset  of  tV^ednesday  until  sun- 
rise of  Monday.  Laws  te  that  effect  were  enacted  as 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  in  neaxW 


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all  countries  of  Western  Europe — in  France,  Germany, 
Italy,  Spain,  England.  The  canon  law  insisted  on 
certain  principles  of  fairness:  thus,  it  acknowledged 
that  a  civil  action  might  extend  sometimes  over  three 
years,  against  the  ordinary  rule  (c.  20,  X,  lib.  II,  tit. 
1);  connected  questions,  such  as  disputes  about  pos- 
sessions and  the  right  of  property,  were  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  same  coiut  (c.  1,  X,  lib.  II,  tit.  12;  c.  1, 
X,  lib.  II,  tit.  17) ;  a  suspected  jud^e  could  not  be  re- 
fused, unless  the  reasons  were  manifested  and  proved 
(c.  61,  X,  lib.  II,  tit.  28);  of  two  contradictory  sen- 
tences rendered  by  different  judges  the  one  favouring 
the  accused  was  to  prevail  (c.  26,  X,  lib.  II,  tit.  27); 
the  intention  of  appealing  could  be  manifested  outside 
of  the  court  in  the  presence  of  good  men,  if  anyone 
entertained  fear  of  the  judge  (c.  73,  X,  lib.  II,  tit.  28). 
(9)  Legislation^  Government^  and  Administration  of 
Justice. — The  Church  was  allowed  to  exercbe  a  wide 
influence  on  civil  law  by  the  fact  that  her  ministers, 
chiefly  the  bishops  and  abbots,  had  a  laree  share  in 
framing  the  leges  barbarorum.  Practically  all  the 
laws  of  the  barbarian  nations  were  written  under 
Christian  influences;  and  the  unlettered  barbarians 
willingly  accepted  the  aid  of  the  lettered  clergy  to  re- 
duce to  writing  the  institutes  of  their  forefathers. 
The  co-operation  of  the  clergy  is  not  expressly  men- 
tioned in  all  the  codes  of  this  kind:  in  some  only  the 
learned  in  the  law,  or,  again,  the  proceres,  or  nobles,  are 
spoken  of;  but  the  ecclesiastics  were,  as  a  rule,  the 
only  learned  men,  and  the  higher  clergy,  bishops  and 
abbots,  belonged  to  the  class  of  the  nobles.  Eccle- 
siastics— priests  or  bishops — were  certainly  employed 
in  the  composition  of  the  "Lex  Romana  Visigotho- 
rum"  or  **Breviarium  Alarici*',  the  '^Lex  Visigotho- 
rum"  of  Spain,  the  "Lex  Alamannorum",  the  "Lex 
Bajuwariorum",  the  Anglo-Saxon  laws,  and  the  ca- 
pitularies of  the  Frankish  kings  (cf.  Stobbe,  "Gesch. 
der  deut.  Rechtsquellen",  I).  The  bishops  and  ab- 
bots also  had  a  great  share  in  the  government  of 
states  in  the  MidcQe  Ages.  They  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  great  assemblies  common  to  most  of  the  Ger- 
manic nations;  they  had  a  voice  in  the  election  of  the 
kings;  they  performed  the  coronation  of  the  kings; 
they  lived  much  at  the  Court,  and  were  the  chief  ad- 
visers of  the  kings.  The  office  of  chancellor  in  Eng- 
land and  in  the  medieval  German  Empire  was  the 
highest  in  the  State  (for  the  chancellor  was  the  prime 
mmister  of  tb^  king  or  emperor,  and  responsible  for  all 
his  public  acts;  it  was  the  chancellor  who  annulled  in- 
iquitous decrees  of  the  king  or  emperor,  and  righted  all 
that  was  wrong) ;  and  this  office  was  usually  entrusted 
to  an  ecclesiastic,  in  Germany  generally  to  a  distin- 

Siished  bishop  (cf.  Stubbs,  "Constitutional  History  of 
upland'',  I;  Waitz,  "Deutsche  Verfassunesge- 
schichte'',  VI).  The  bishops  also  had  a  great  snare 
in  the  administration  of  justice.  As  in  the  East  so 
also  in  the  West,  they  had  a  general  superintendence 
over  the  courts  of  justice.  They  always  had  a  seat  in 
the  highest  tribunal;  to  them  the  injured  parties  could 
appeal  in  default  of  justice;  and  they  had  the  power  to 
punish  subordinate  judges  for  injustice  in  the  absence 
of  the  king.  In  Spain  they  had  a  special  chaise  to 
keep  continual  watch  over  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice, and  were  summoned  on  all  great  occasions  to  in- 
struct the  judges  to  act  with  pietv  and  justice.  What 
is  more,  they  often  acted  directly  as  judges  in  tem- 
poral matters.  By  a  law  of  the  Emperor  Constantine 
(321)  the  parties  to  a  litigation  could,  by  mutual  con- 
sent, appeal  to  the  bishop  in  any  stage  of  their  ju- 
dicial tontroversv;  and  by  a  further  enactment  (331) 
either  party  coujd  do  so  even  without  the  consent  of 
the  other.  This  second  part,  however,  was  again  ab- 
rogated by  subsequent  legislation. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  bishops  acted  likewise  as 
judges,  both  in  civil  and  in  criminal  matters.  In  civil 
matters  the  Church  drew  to  its  jurisdiction  all  things 
of  a  mixed  character — ^the  causa  spirituali  annexas, 


9 

which  were  partly  temporal  and  partly  ecclesiastical. 
Criminal  matters  were  brought  oefore  the  bishop's 
court,  which  was  held  usually  in  connexion  with  the 
episcopal  visitation  throughout  the  diocese  (cf.  Sfig- 
mdller, "  Lehrbuch  des  Kirchenrechts",  III,  668  s^q^. 
The  methods  employed  by  the  ecclesiastical  or  episco- 
pal courts  in  a  ludicial  process  were  such  that  they 
served  as  a  model  for  secular  courts.  At  the  begin- 
ning the  proceedings  were  very  simple;  the  bishop  de- 
cided the  case  presented  to  him  witn  the  advice  of  the 
body  of  presbyters,  but  without  any  definite  formal- 
ities. After  the  twelfth  century  the  Church  elaborated 
her  own  method  of  procedure,  with  such  comparative 
perfection  that  it  was  imitated  to  a  large  extent  hy 
modem  courts.  Several  principles  pre^mled  in  this 
regard:  first,  all  essential  parts  of  a  trial  were  to  be  re- 
corded in  writing — such  as  the  presentation  of  the 
complaint,  the  citation  of  the  defendant,  the  proofs, 
the  deposition  of  witnesses,  the  defence^  and  the  sen- 
tence; secondlv,  both  parties  were  entitled  to  a  full 
opportunity  of  presenting  all  material  relating^  to  the 
accusation  or  to  the  defence;  thirdly,  the  parties  in  a 
litigation  had  the  right  of  appealing  to  a  higher  court 
after  the  lapse  of  the  ordinary  term  for  a  trial  (which 
was  two  years) ;  the  party  dissatisfied  with  the  deci- 
sion was  permitted  to  appeal  within  ten  days  after  the 
rendering  of  the  sentence  (cf .  Sfigmiiller,  "  Lehrbuch 
des  Kirchenrechts'*,  III,  668  sqq.). 

(10)  Sacred  Scripture  in  Legislation. — A  last  in- 
stance of  the  influence  of  Christianity  on  legislation  is 
found  in  the  appeal  to  the  books  of  Sacred  Scripture  in 
support  of  civil  laws.  In  the  Roman  law  there  is 
hardly  any  reference  to  Scripture.  And  that  is  not 
surprising,  since  the  spirit  of  Roman  legislation,  even 
under  the  Christian  emperors,  was  heathen,  and  the 
emperor — the  princijns  voluntas — was  conceived  of  as 
the  supreme  and  ultimate  source  of  legislation.  On 
the  contrary,  the  codes  of  the  barbarian  nations  are 
replete  with  quotations  from  Scripture.  In  the  pro- 
logue to  several  of  them  reference  is  made  to  the  legis- 
lation given  by  Moses  to  the  Jewish  people  (cf .  Stobbe, 
"Gesch.  der  deut.  Rechtsquellen",  I,  67).  Mention 
has  been  made  above  of  a  Ix>mbardic  law  which  recog- 
nizes the  legality  of  marriages  among  slaves  on  the 
authority  of  the  Scriptural  text:  "Wnom  God  hath 
joined  together,  let  no  man  put  asunder  "  (Matt.,  xix, 
6;  Mark,  x,  9).  Many  other  examples  may  be  found, 
e.  ^.,  in  the  "  Leges  Visijgothorum  and  in  the  captu- 
laries  of  the  Frankish  kings,  where  almost  every  hook 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  is  resorted  to  for  argu- 
ment or  illustration.  It  will  suffice  to  open  the  pajgee 
in  the  editions  of  these  codes  by  Zeumer,  Boretius, 
and  Krause,  in  the  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  L^es'',  sect. 
I,  1,  Sect.  II,  1,  2,  where  the  exact  references  to  the 
Scriptural  passages  are  marked  in  foot-notes. 

Besides  the  wor&,  already  quoted,  of  Stvbbb  and  Waiti. 
see  Permaneder  in  Kxrchenlex.,  s.  v.  Civilrecht  vend  Civil' 
proteaa,  Einfluaa  der  Kxrche  auf  dieteWen;  Milman,  Hittory  of 
Latin  Chriatianity,  I  (New  York,  1896):  Schaft,  Hiaiory  of  Ike 
Christian  Church,  III  (5th  ed..  New  York,  1803):  QLAsaotf. 
Hiatoire  du  droit  H  dea  inalitutiona  de  la  France,  I  (Paris,  1887); 
DiQBT,  Morea  Catholici,  or  Agea  of  Faith  (3  vols.,  London,  1841- 
47);  Genqler.  Einfluaa  d.  Chriitenthuma  aufd.  deutache  RediU- 
leben  (Erlangen,  1884);  Kober,  Einfiuaa  d.  Kirche  u.  thrar 
Oeaetzgebimg  auf  Oesittung  .  .  .  im  Mittelalter  in  Tab.  TheoL 
Quartalachrift  (1888).  443,  466;  TROPLONa,  De  VinAuenee  du 
ckriatianiame  aur  U  droit  romain  (reprint,  Toure,  1003);  Grupp, 
Culturgeach.  dea  MiUelaliers  (Stuttgart,  1894-97);  AllaxOj  Laa 
Eaclavea  chrltiena  (Paris,  1900) ;  Kurth,  Oriainea  de  la  dmliaa- 
tion  modeme  (Paris,  1898);  Ratzinger,  Oeach.  d.  kirchl.  Armen- 
pflege  (Freiburg,  1884);  Lalxxmakt,  Hiat.  de  la  eharitS  (Paris,  • 

Francis  J.  Schasfbr. 

Law,  Common  (Lat.  communis^  general,  of  general 
application;  lexy  law).  The  term  is  of  English  origin 
and  is  used  to  describe  the  juridical  principles  and 
general  rules  regulating  the  possession,  use  and  inheri- 
tance of  property  and  the  conduct  of  individuals,  the 
origin  of  wluch  is  not  definitely  knowq^  which  have 
been  observed  since  a  remote  period  of  antiquity,  and 


LAW 


69 


LAW 


which  are  based  upon  immemorial  iisages  and  the  de- 
taeioQB  of  the  law  courts  as  distinct  from  the  lex 
9cnpta;  the  latter  consisting  of  imperial  or  kingly 
edicts  or  express  acts  of  legislation.  That  pre-eminent 
English  lawyer  and  law-writer,  Sir  *WilIiam  Black- 
stone,  states  in  his  *' Commentaries  upon  the  Laws  of 
England"  that  the  common  law  consists  of  rules 
properly  called  leges  non  scripUB,  because  their  ori^nal 
institution  and  authority  were  not  set  down  in  writing 
as  Acts  of  Parliament  are,  but  thev  receive  their  bino- 
ing  power  and  the  force  of  laws,  by  long  immemorial 
usage,  and  by  their  universal  reception  throughout  the 
kingdom;  and,  quoting  from  a  famous  Roman  author, 
Aulus  Gellius,  he  follows  him  in  defining  the  common 
law  as  did  Gellius  the  Jus  non  scriptum  as  that  which 
is  "tacito  illiterate  hominum  consensu  et  moribus  ex- 
pressum"  (expressed  in  the  usage  of  the  people,  and 
accepted  by  the  tacit  imwritten  consent  of  men). 

Wnen  a  community  emerges  from  the  tribal  con- 
dition into  that  degree  of  social  development  which 
constitutes  a  state  and,  consequently,  the  powers  of 
government  become  defined  with  more  or  less  distinct- 
ness as  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial,  and  the  ar- 
bitration of  disputes  leads  to  the  establishment  of 
courts,  the  commimity  finds  itself  conscious  of  certain 
rules  regarding  the  conduct  of  life,  the  maintenance  of 
liberty,  and  the  securitv  of  property  which  come  into 
heiDf  at  the  very  twilight  of  civilisation  and  have  been 
consistently  observed  from  age  to  age.  Such  were  the 
usages  and  customs,  having  the^  force  of  law  which  be- 
came the  inheritance  of  the  English  people  and  were 
first  compiled  and  recorded  by  Alfred  the  Great  in  his 
famous  "Dome-book"  or  "Liber  JudiciaUs",  pub- 
lished by  him  for  the  general  use  of  the  whole  King- 
dom. That  famous  depositoiy  of  laws  was  referred  to 
in  a  certain  declaration  of  King  Edward,  the  son  of 
Alfred,  with  the  injunction :  "  Omnibus  qui  reipublicse 
prsBSunt  etiam  atque  etiam  mando  ut  omnibus  aequos  se 
pnebeant  judices,  perinde  ac  in  judiciali  hbro  scnptum 
habetur:  nee  quicquam  formident  quin  jus  commune 
audacter  libereque  dicant"  (To  all  who  are  charged 
with  the  administration  of  public  affairs  I  give  the 
ei^ress  command  that  they  show  themselves  in  all 
things  to  be  just  judges  precisely  as  in  the  Liber  Judi- 
dalis  it  is  written;  nor  shall  any  of  them  fear  to  de- 
clare the  common  law  freely  and  courageously). 

In  modem  times  the  existence  of  the  "Liber  Judi- 
dalis"  was  the  subject  of  ^reat  doubt,  and  such  doubt 
was  expressed  by  many  writers  upon  the  constitutional 
history  of  England,  including  lx)th  Hallam  and  Tur- 
ner. After  their  dav  the  manuscript  of  the  work  was 
brouf^t  to  light  and  waspublished  both  in  Saxon  and 
English  by  the  Record  Commissioners  of  England  in 
the  first  volume  of  the  books  published  by  them  under 
the  title, "  The  Ancient  Laws  and  Institutes  of  Eng- 
land". The  profound  religious  spirit  which  governed 
King  Alfred  and  his  times  clearly  appears  from  the 
fact  that  the  "Liber  JudiciaHs"  began  with  the  Ten 
Commandments,  followed  by  many  of  the  Mosaic  pre- 
cepts, added  to  which  is  the  express  solemn  sanction 
given  to  them  by  Christ  in  the  Gospel: "  Do  not  think 
that  I  am  come  to  destroy  the  law,  or  the  prophets;  I 
am  not  come  to  destroy  but  to  fulfil. "  After  quoting 
the  canons  of  the  Apostolic  Council  at  Jerusalem,  Al- 
fred refers  to  the  Divine  commancbnent, "  As  ye  would 
that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  also  to  them",  and 
then  declares,  "  From  this  one  doom,  a  man  may  re- 
member that  he  judge  every  one  righteously,  he  need 
heed  no  other  doom-book."  The  original  code  of  the 
common  law  compiled  by  Alfred  was  modified  by  reason 
of  the  Danish  invasion,  and  from  other  causes,  so  that 
when  the  eleventh  century  began  the  common  law  of 
England  was  not  uniform  but  consisted  of  observances 
of  different  nature  prevailing  in  various  districts,  viz: 
Meicen  Lage,  or  Mercian  laws,  governing  many  of  the 
midland  counties  of  England  and  those  Ix)rdoring 
Upon  Wales,  the  country  to  which  the  ancient  Britons 


had  retreated  at  the  time  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  invasion. 
These  laws  were,  probably,  influenced  by  and  inter- 
mixed with  the  British  or  Druidical  customs.  An- 
other distinct  code  was  the  West-Saxon  Lage  (Laws 
of  the  West-Saxons)  governing  counties  in  the  south- 
em  part  of  England  irom  Kent  to  Devonshire.  This 
was,  probably,  identical  for  the  most  part  with  the 
code  which  was  edited  and  published  by  Alfred.  The 
wide  extent  of  the  Danish  conquest  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  Dane  Lage,  or  Danish  law.  was  the  code 
which  prevailed  in  the  rest  of  the  mialand  counties 
and,  also,  on  the  eastern  coast.  These  three  systems  of 
law  were  codified  and  digested  by  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor into  one  system,  which  was  promulgated 
throughout  the  entire  kingdom  and  was  universally 
observed.  Alfred  is  designated  by  early  historians 
as  Legum  Anglicanarum  Conditor;  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor as  Legum  Anglicanarum  Restilutor. 

In  the  days  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  the  courts  of 
justice  consisted  principally  of  the  county  courts. 
These  county  courts  were  presided  over  by  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese  and  the  ealdorman  or  sherm,  sitting  en 
banc  and  exercising  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil  juris- 
diction. In  these  courts  originated  and  developed  the 
custom  of  trial  by  jury.  Prior  to  the  invasion  led  by 
WiUiam  the  Norman,  the  common  law  of  England  pro- 
vided for  the  descent  of  lands  to  all  the  males  without 
any  right  of  primogeniture.  Military  service  was  re- 
quired in  proportion  to  the  area  of  each  free  man's 
land,  a  system  resembling  the  feudal  system  but  not 
accompanied  by  all  its  hardships.  Penalties  for  crime 
were  moderate;  few  capital  punishments  being  in- 
flicted and  persons  convicted  of  their  first  offence  be- 
ing aUowed  to  commute  it  for  a  fine  or  weregild;  or  in 
default  of  payment,  by  surrendering  themselves  to 
life-long  bondage.  The  legal  system  which  thus  re- 
ceived form  under  the  direction  of  the  last  Saxon  King 
of  England,  was  common  to  all  the  realm  and  was 
designated  .as  "  Jus  commune  "  or  Folk-right. 

In  contradistinction  to  English  jurisprudence  the 
Civil  Law  of  Rome  prevailed  throughout  tne  Continent. 
William  the  Conqueror  brought  with  him  into  England 
jurists  and  clerics  thoroiighly  imbued  with  the  spirit 
of  the  civil  law  and  distinctly  adverse  to  the  English 
^tem.  However,  the  ancient  laws  and  customs  of 
England  prevailing  before  the  Conquest,  withstood 
the  shock  and  stress  of  opposition  and  remained  with- 
out impairment  to  any  material  extent.  The  first 
great  court  of  judicature  in  England  after  the  Con- 
quest was  the  Aula  Regis  or  Eang's  Court  wherein  the 
king  either  personally  or  constructively  administered 
justice  for  the  whole  kingdom.  The  provision  in 
Magna  Charta  to  the  effect  that  the  King's  Court  of 
Justice  should  remain  fixed  and  hold  its  sessions  in  one 
certain  place,  instead  of  being  a  peripatetic  institu- 
tion, constitutes  historic  evidence  of  the  existence  of 
such  a  court  and,  also,  gives  expression  to  the  public 
discontent  created  by  the  fact  that  its  sessions  were 
held  at  various  places  and  thus  entailed  great  expense 
and  trouble  upon  litigants.  In  later  days,  the  Aula 
Regis  became  obsolete  and  its  functions  were  divided 
between  the  three  great  common-law  courts  of  the 
realm,  viz;  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas,  and  the  Court  of  Exchequer.  The 
Court  of  King's  Bench  was  considered  the  highest  of 
these  three  tribunals,  although  an  appeal  might  be 
taken  from  the  decisions  thereof  to  the  House  of  Lords. 
The  Court  of  Common  Pleas  had  jurisdiction  over  or- 
dinary civil  actions,  while  the  Court  of  Exchequer  was 
restricted  in  its  j  urisdiction  to  causes  affectin  g  tne  royal 
revenues.  Besides  these  courts  the  canon  law  was 
administered  by  the  Catholic  clergy  of  England  in  cer- 
tain ecclesiastical  courts  called  "  CurisB  Christianitatis  " 
or  Courts  Christian.  These  courts  were  presided  oyer 
by  the  archbishop  and  bishops  and  their  derivative 
officers.  The  canon  law  at  an  early  date  laid  down 
the  rule  that ' '  Sacerdotes  a  regibus  honorandi  sunt«  non 


XJLW                                    70  XJ^W 

telicandi,  "i.e.  the  clergy  are  to  be  honoured  by  kings,  ing  of  the  ecclesiastical  state  and  of  eodesiaBtical  pep- 

t  not  to  be  judged  by  them,  based  on  the  tradition  sons  "and  all  manner  of  errors,  heresies,  sehisma, 

that  when  some  petitions  were  brought  to  the  Em-  abuses,  offences,  contempts  and  enormities".    This 

peror  Constantine,  imploring  the  aid  of  his  authority  court  was  the  agent  by  which  most  oppressive  acts 

against  certain  of  his  bishops  accused  of  oppression  were  committed  and  was  justly  abolish^  by  statute, 

and  injustice,  he  caused  the  petitions  to  be  burned  in  16  Car.  I,  c.  XI.    An  attempt  was  made  to  revive  it 

their  presence  bidding  them  farewell  in  these  words,  during  the  reign  of  King  James  II. 

"  Ite  et  inter  vos  causas  vestras  discutite,  quia  dignum  The  Chiuxh  of  England  was  the  name  given  to  that 

non  est  ut  nos  judicemus  deos"  (judge  your  own  portion  of  the  laity  and  clergy  of  tl^  Caw(^c  Church 

cases;  it  is  not  meet  that  we  should  judge  sacred  men),  resident  in  England  during  the  da3r8  of  the  Anglo- 

The  ecclesiastical  courts  of  England  were:  (1)  The  Saxon  monarchy  and  during  the  history  of  England 

Archdeacon's  Court  which  was  the  lowest  in  point  of  under  William  the  Conqueror  and  his  successors  down 

i'urisdiction  in  the  whole  ecclesiastical  polity.  It  was  to  the  time  when  Henry  VIII  assumed  unto  himself 
leld  by  the  archdeacon  or,  in  his  absence,  before  a  the  position  of  spiritual  and  temporal  head  of  the 
judge  appointed  by  him  and  called  his  official.  Its  English  Church.  Prior  to  the  time  of  Heniy  VIII,  the 
jurisdiction  was  sometimes  in  concurrence  with  and  Church  of  England  was  distinctly  and  avowedly  a  part 
sometimes  in  exclusion  of  the  Bishop's  Court  of  the  of  the  Church  universal.  Its  prerogatives  and  its  con- 
diocese,  and  the  statute  24  Henr.  VlII,  c.  XII,  pro-  stitution  were  wrought  into  the  fibre  of  the  common 
vided  for  an  appeal  to  the  court  presided  over  by  the  law.  lis  ecclesiastical  courts  were  recognized  by  the 
bishop.  (2)  The  Consistory  Court  of  the  diocesan  common  law — the  jus  publicum  of  the  kingd<Hn — and 
bishop  which  held  it^  sessions  at  the  bishop's  see  for  clear  recognition  was  accorded  to  the  right  of  appeal  to 
the  trial  of  all  ecclesia^stical  causes  arising  within  the  the  sovereign  pontiff;  thuspractically  making  the  pon- 
diocese.  The  bishop's  chancellor,  or  his  commissary,  tiff  the  supreme  judge  for  fmgland  as  he  was  for  the  r^ 
was  the  ordinary'  judge;  and  from  his  adjudication  an  mainder  of  Christendom  in  all  ecclesiastical  causes, 
appeal  lay  to  the  archbishop  of  the  province.  (3)  The  The  civil  courts  rarelv  sought  to  trench  upon  the  do- 
CJourt  of  Arches  was  a  court  of  appeal  belonging  to  the  main  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  conflict  arose  only 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  tne  judge  of  such  court  when  the  temporalities  of  the  church  were  brought 
was  called  the  Dean  of  the  Arches  because  in  ancient  within  the  scope  of  litigation.  The  common  law  is 
times  he  held  court  in  the  church  of  St.  Mary  le  bow  chiefly,  however,  to  be  considered  in  reference  to  its 
(Sancta  Maria  de  arcubus),  one  of  the  churches  of  protection  of  purely. human  interests-  As  such  it 
liondon.  (4)  The  Court  of  Peculiars  was  a  branch  of  pro\'ed  to  be  powerful,  efficient  and  imposing.  The 
and  annexed  to  the  Court  of  Arches.  It  hml  jurisdio-  Court  of  King's  Bench,  Common  Pleas  and  the  Ex- 
tion  over  all  those  parishes  dispersed  throughout  the  chequer,  together  with  the  High  Court  of  Chancery, 
Provinceof  Canterbury- in  the  midst  of  other  dioceses,  were  justly  famous  throughout  Christendom.  The 
which  were  exempt  from  the  ordinary's  jurisdiction  original  Anglo-Saxon  juridical  system  offered  none  but 
and  subject  to  the  metropolitan  only.  All  ecclesiasti-  simple  remedies  comprehended,  for  the  most  part,  in 
cal  causes  arising  within  these  peculiar  or  exempt  ju-  the  award  of  damages  for  any  civil  wrong  and  in  the 
risdictions  were,  originally,  cognizable  by  this  court,  delivery  to  the  proper  owners  of  land  or  chattels 
From  its  decisions  an  appeal  lay,  formerly,  to  the  wrongfully  withheld.  Titles  of  an  equitable  nature 
pope,  but  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  this  right  of  were  not  recognized  and  there  was  no  adequate 
appeal  was  abolished  by  statute  and  therefor  was  sub-  remedy  for  the  breach  of  such  titles.  The  preven- 
stituted  an  appeal  to  the  king  in  Chancery.  (5)  The  tion  of  wrong  by  writs  of  injunction  was  unknown. 
Prerogative  Court  was  established  for  the  trial  of  tes-  The  idea  of  a  juridical  restoration  of  conditions 
tamentaiy  causes  where  the  deceased  had  left  "  bona  which  had  been  disturbed  by  wrongful  act  as  well  as 
notabilia  (i.  e.  chattels  of  the  value  of  at  least  one  the  idea  of  enforcing  the  specific  performance  of  con- 
hundred  shillings)  within  two  different  diocr^es.  In  tracts  had  never  matured  into  either  legislation  or 
that  case,  the  probate  of  wills  belonged  to  the  arch-  judicial  proceedings.  Such  deficiencies  in  the  juriS' 
bishop  of  the  province,  by  way  of  special  prerogative,  prudence  of  the  realm  were  gradually  supplied,  under 
and  all  causes  relating  to  the  wills,  administrations  or  the  Norman  kings,  by  the  royal  prerogative  exercised 
legacies  of  such  j)ersons  were,  originally,  cognizable  through  the  agency  of  the  lord  chancellor  by  special 
therein  before  a  ludge  appointed  by  tHe  archbishop  adjudications  based  upon  equitable  principles.  In  the 
and  called  the  Judge  of  the  Prerogative  Court.  From  course  of  time,  a  great  Court  of  Clianceiy  came  into 
■  this  court  an  appeal  lay  (until  25  Henr.  VIII,  c.  XIX)  being  deriving  its  name  from  the  fact  that  its  presiding 
to  the  pope;  and  after  that  to  the  king  in  Chancery,  judge  was  the  lord  chancellor.  In  this  court  were 
These  were  the  ancient  courts.  After  the  religious  administered  all  the  great  principles  of  equity  jiuis- 
revolution  had  been  inaugurated  in  England  by  prudence.  The  lord  chancellor  possessed  as  one  of  his 
Henry  "\T[ II,  a  sixth  ecclesiastical  court  was  created  by  titles  that  of  Keeper  of  the  King's  Conscience;  and, 
that  monarch  and  designated  the  Court  of  Delegates  hence,  the  High  Court  of  Chancery  was  often  called  a 
(jvdices  delegati)^  and  such  delegates  were  appointed  Court  of  Conscience.  Its  procedure  did  not  involve 
by  the  king's  commission  under  his  great  seal,  issuing  the  presence  of  a  jury  and  it  differed  from  the  courts  of 
out  of  chancer}',  to  represent  his  royal  person  and  to  common  law  in  its  mode  of  proof,  mode  of  trial,  and 
hear  ordinary  ecclesiastical  appeals  brought  before  mode  of  relief.  The  relief  administered  was  so  ample 
him  by  virtue  of  the  statute  which  has  lx?eii  mentioned  in  scope  as  to  be  conformable  in  all  cases  with  the 
as  enacted  in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  his  reign.  This  absolute  requirements  of  a  conscientious  regard  for 
commission  was  frequently  filled  with  lords,  spiritual  justice.  Among  the  most  eminent  of  the  Chancellors 
and  temporal,  and  it^  personnel  was  always  composed  of  England  was  Sir  Thomas  More  who  laid  down  lus 
in  part  of  judges  of  the  courts  at  Westminster  and  of  life  rather  than  surrender  the  Catholic  Faith,  and  Lord 
Doctors  of  the  Civil  Law.  Supplementary  to  these  Bacon  who  was  the  pioneer  in  broadening  the  scope  of 
courts  were  certain  proceedings  under  a  special  tribu-  modem  learning.  After  the  time  when  courts  became 
nal  called  a  Commission  of  Review,  which  was  ap-  established  and  entered  upon  the  exercise  of  their 
pointed  in  extraordinary  cases  to  revise  the  sentences  various  functions,  the  common  law  developed  gradu- 
of  the  Court  of  Delegates;  and,  during  the  reign  of  ally  into  a  more  finished  system  because  of  the  fact 
Elizabeth,  another  court  was  created,  called  the  Court  that  judicial  decisions  were  considered  to  be  an  exposi- 
of  the  King's  High  Commission  in  C'ases  Ecclesiastical,  tion  of  the  common  law  and,  consequently,  were  the 
This  court  was  created  in  onler  to  supply  the  place  of  chief  repository  of  the  law  itself.  For  this  reason  the 
the  popt^'s  appt^llato  jnristiiction  in  reganl  to  causes  observance  of  preoetlenta  is  a  marked  feature  in  Eng- 
appcrtaining  to  the  reformation,  onlering  and  correct-  lish  jurisprudence  and  prevails  to  a  much  greater  ex« 


XJLW 


71 


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tent  than  under  other  ^tems.  As  the  law  is  deemed 
to  be  contained  in  the  decisions  of  the  courts,  it  neces- 
sarily follows  that  the  rule  to  be  observed.in  any  partio- 
ular  proceeding  must  be  found  in  some  prior  aecision. 

Wnen  ^e  period  of  English  colonization  in  America 
began,  the  aborigines  were  found  to  be  wholly  uncivil- 
lE^  and,  consequently,  without  any  system  of  juris- 
prudence, whatsoever.  Upon  the  theory  that  the 
English  colonists  carried  with  them  the  entire  svstem 
of  the  English  law  as  it  existed  at  the  time  of  their 
migration  from  the  fatherland,  the  colonial  courts 
adopted  and  acted  upon  the  theory  that  each  colony, 
at  the  very  moment  of  its  inception,  was  sovemed  by 
the  legal  system  of  England  mcluding  me  juridical 
principles  administered  by  the  common  law  courts 
and  by  the  High  Court  of  Chancery.  Thus,  law  and 
equity  came  hand  in  hand  to  America  and  have  since" 
beoi  the  common  law  of  the  former  English  colonies. 

When  the  thirteen  American  colonies  achieved  their 
independence,  the  English  common  law,  as  it  existed 
with  its  legal  and  eouitable  features  in  the  year  1607, 
was  universallv  held  by. the  courts  to  be  the  common 
law  of  each  of  the  thirteen  states  which  constituted 
the  new  confederated  republic  known  as  the  United 
States  of  America.  As  the  United  States  have  in- 
creased in  number,  either  by  the  admission  of  new 
states  to  the  Union  carved  out  of  the  ori^nal  undivided 
territory,  or  by  the  extension  of  territorial  area  through 
purchase  or  conouest,  the  common  law  as  it  existed  at 
the  close  of  the  War  of  the  American  Revolution  has 
been  held  to  be  the  common  law  of  such  new  states 
with  the  exception  that,  in  the  State  of  Louisiana,  the 
civil  law  of  Rome,  which  ruled  within  the  vast  area 
originally  called  Louisiana,  has  been  maintained,  sub- 
ject only  to  subsequent  legislative  modifications.  The 
I)ominion  of  Canada  is  subject  to  the  common  law 
with  the  exception  of  the  Province  of  Quebec  and  the 
civil  laws  of  that  province  are  derived  from  the  old 
customary  laws  of  France,  particularly  the  Custom  <^ 
Paris,  in  uke  manner  as  the  laws  of  the  English-speak- 
ing provinces  are  based  upon  the  common  law  of  Eng- 
lana.  In  process  of  time,  the  customary  laws  have 
been  modined  or  replaced  by  enactments  of  the  Im- 
perial and  Federal  parliament  and  by  those  of  the 
provincial  parliament;  they  were  finally  codified  in 
the  year  1866  upon  the  model  of  the  Code  Napoleon. 
However,  the  criminal  law  of  the  Province  of  Quebec  is 
founded  upon  that  of  England  and  was  to  a  great 
extent  codified  by  the  federal  statute  of  1892.  Prac- 
tice and  procedure  in  civil  causes  are  governed  by  the 
Code  of  Civil  Procedure  of  the  year  1897. 

The  common  law  of  England  is  not  the  basis  of 
the  jurisprudence  of  Scotland ;  that  country  having 
adhered  to  the  civil  law  as  it  existed  at  the  time  of  the 
union  with  England  except  so  far  as  it  has  been  modi- 
fied b}r  subsequent  legislation.  The  English  common 
law  with  the  exceptions  which  have  been  noted  pre- 
vails throughout  the  English-speaking  world.  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  South  America,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  an  English  Colony  and  a  Dutch  Colony,  remain 
under  the  sway  of  the  civil  law.  The  common  law  of 
England  has  been  the  subject  of  unstinted  eulogy  and 
it  is,  undoubtedly,  one  of  the  most  splendid  embodi- 
ments of  human  genius.  It  is  a  source  of  profound 
satisfaction  to  Catholics  that  it  came  into  being  as  a 
definite  system  and  was  nurtured,  and  to  a  great  ex- 
tent admmistered,  during  the  first  ten  centuries  of  its 
existence  by  the  clergy  oT  the  Catholic  Church. 

Reevbs,  UitUny  of  the  EnglUh  Law  (Philadelphia,  1880); 
BLACKcrroinB,  Canunentaries  on  the  lAiwe  of  England,  Shars- 
WOOD  etOtUm  (Philadelphia,  1875);  Pollock  and  MArnuiKD. 
rik«  ffialm  of  J?n0ltc&  Law  (Boston.  1875);  Kent.  CommenlA- 
lift  upom  Anurican  Laiw  (12th  ed.,  Boston,  1873). 

John  Willey  Wilus. 

Law,  DzvxNB,  Moral  Aspect  op. — Di\'ine  Law  is 
that  which  is  enacted  by  God  and  made  known  to  man 
through  revelati(m.    We  distinguish  between  the  Old 


Law,  contained  in  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  New  Law, 
which  was  revealed  by  Jesus  Christ  and  is  contained  in 
the  New  Testament.  The  Divine  Law  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, or  the  Mosaic  Law,  is  commonly  divided  into 
civil,  ceremonial,  and  moral  precepts.  The  civil  legis- 
lation regulated  the  relations  of  the  people  of  God 
among  themselves  and  with  their  neighbours;  the 
ceremonial  r^a^ulated  matters  of  religion  and  the  wor- 
ship of  God;  the  moral  was  a  Divine  code  of  ethics. 
In  this  article  we  shall  confine  our  attention  exclu- 
sively to  the  moral  precepts  of  the  Divine  Law.  In  the 
Old  Testament  it  is  contained  for  the  most  part  and 
summed  up  in  the  Decalogue  (Ex.,  xx,  2-17;  Lev., 
xix.  3,  11-18;  Deut.,  v,  1-33). 

The  Old  and  the  New  Testament,  Christ  and  His 
Apostles,  Jewish  as  well  as  Christian  tradition,  agree 
in  asserting  that  Moses  wrote  down  the  Law  at  the 
direct  inspiration  of  God.  God  Himself,  then,  is  the 
lawgiver,  Moses  merely  acted  as  the  intermediary  be- 
tween God  and  His  people;  ho  merely  promulgated 
the  Law  which  he  had  been  inspired  to  write  down. 
This  is  not  the  same  as  to  say  that  the  whole  of  the  Old 
Law  was  revealed  to  Moses.  There  is  abundant  evi- 
dence in  Scripture  itself  that  many  portions  of  the 
Mosaic  legislation  existed  and  were  put  in  practice 
long  before  the  time  of  Moses.  Circumcision  is  an  in- 
stance of  this.  The  reli^ous  observance  of  the  seventh 
day  is  another,  and  this,  indeed,  seems  to  be  implied 
in  the  very  form  in  whicn  the  Third  Commandment  is 
worded:  '^Remember  that  thou  keep  holy  the  sabbath 
day."  If  we  except  the  merely  positive  determinations 
of  time  and  manner  in  which  religious  worship  was  to 
be  paid  to  God  according  to  this  commandment,  and 
the  prohibition  of  making  images  to  represent  God 
contained  in  the  first  commandment,  all  the  precepts 
of  the  Decalogue  are  also  precepts  of  the  natural  law, 
which  can  be  gathered  by  reason  from  nature  herself, 
and  in  fact  they  were  known  long  before  Moses  wrote 
them  down  at  the  express  command  of  God.  This  is 
the  teaching  of  St.  Paul — "  For  when  the  Gentiles,  who 
have  not  the  law,  do  by  nature  those  things  that  are  of 
the  law;  these  having  not  the  law  [of  Moses],  are  a  law 
to  themselves:  who  shew  the  work  of  the  law  written 
in  their  hearts^  their  conscience  bearing  witness  to 
them''  (Rom.,  li,  14, 15).  Although  the  subsbince  of 
the  Decalogue  is  thus  both  of  natural  and  Divine  law, 
yet  its  express  promulgation  by  Moses  at  the  com- 
mand of  God  was  not  without  its  advantages.  The 
great  moral  code,  the  basis  of  all  true  civilization,  in 
this  manner  became  the  clear,  certain,  and  publicly 
recognized  standard  of  moral  conduct  for  the  Jewish 
people,  and  through  them  for  Christendom. 

Because  the  code  of  morality  which  we  have  in  the 
Old  Testament  was  inspired  by  God  and  imposed  by 
Him  on  His  people,  it  follows  that  there  is  notning  in  it 
that  is  immoral  or  wrong.  It  was  indeed  imperfect,  if 
it  be  compared  with  the  higher  morality  of  the  Gospel, 
but,  for  all  that,  it  contained  nothing  that  Ls  blame- 
worthy. It  was  suited  to  the  low  stage  of  civilization 
to  which  the  Israelites  had  at  the  time  attained;  the 
severe  punishments  which  it  prcscrilxMl  for  trans- 
gressors were  necessary  to  bend  the  stiff  necks  of  a 
rude  people;  the  temporal  rewards  held  out  to  those 
who  observed  the  law  were  adapted  to  an  luispiritiial 
and  carnal  race.  Still  its  imperfections  must  not  be 
exaggerated.  In  its  treatment  of  the  poor,  of  strangers, 
of  slaves,  and  of  enemies,  it  was  vastly  superior  to  the 
civilly  more  advanced  Code  of  Hammurabi  and  other 
celebrated  codes  of  ancient  law.  It  did  not  aim  merely 
at  regulating  the  external  acts  of  the  people  of  God,  it 
curbed  also  licentious  though t.s  and  covetous  desires. 
The  love  of  Go<l  and  of  one's  neigh})our  was  the  great 
precept  of  the  Law,  its  summary  and  abridgment,  that 
on  which  the  whole  Law  and  the  Prophets  depended. 
In  spite  of  the  undeniable  superiority  m  this  respect  of 
the  Mosaic  I^iw  to  the  other  codes  of  antiquity,  it  has 
not  escaped  the  adverse  criticism  of  heretics  in  all  ages 


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72 


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and  of  Rationalists  in  our  own  day.  To  meet  this  ad- 
verse criticism  it  will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  a  few 
general  principles  that  should  not  be  lost  sight  of,  and 
then  to  treat  a  few  points  in  greater  detail. 

It  has  Always  l^n  freely  admitted  by  Christians 
that  the  Mosaic  Law  is  an  imperfect  institution;  still 
Christ  came  not  to  destroy  it  but  to  fulfil  and  perfect 
it.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  God,  the  Creator  and 
Lord  of  all  things,  and  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world, 
can  do  and  command  things  which  man  the  creature 
is  not  authorized  to  do  or  command.  On  this  principle 
we  may  account  for  and  defend  the  conmiand  givenl>y 
God  to  exterminate  certain  nations,  and  the  permis- 
sion given  by  Him  to  the  Israelites  to  spoil  the  Egyp- 
tians. The  tribes  of  Chanaan  richly  deserved  the  fate 
to  which  they  were  condemned  by  God;  and  if  there 
were  innocent  people  among  the  guil^,  God  is  the 
absolute  Lord  of  life  and  death,  and  He  commits  no 
injustice  when  He  takes  away  what  He  has  given. 
Besides,  He  can  make  up  by  ^fts  of  a  higher  oraer  in 
another  life  for  sufferings  which  have  been  p^atiently 
endured  in  this  life.  A  great  want  of  historical  per- 
spective is  shown  by  those  critics  who  judge  the  Mo- 
saic Law  by  the  humanitarian  and  sentimental  canons 
of  the  twentieth  century.  A  recent  writer  (Keane, 
*'The  Moral  Argument  against  the  Inspiration  of  the 
Old  Testament  in  the  Hibbert  Journal.  October, 
1905,  p.  155)  professes  to  be  very  much  shocked  by 
what  IS  prescribed  in  Exodus,  xxi,  5-6.  It  is  there 
laid  down  that  if  a  Hebrew  slave  who  has  a  wife  and 
children  prefers  to  remain  with  his  master  rather  than 
^o  out  free  when  the  sabbatiqal  year  comes  round,  he 
IS  to  be  taken  to  the  door-post  and  have  his  ear  bored 
through  with  an  awl,  and  then  he  is  to  remain  a  slave 
for  lite.  It  was  a  sign  and  mark  by  which  he  was 
known  to  be  a  hfelong  slave.  The  practice  was  doubt- 
less already  familiar  to  the  Israelites  of  the  time,  as  it 
was  to  their  neighbours.  The  slave  himself  probably 
thought  no  more  of  the  operation  than  does  a  South 
African  beauty,  when  her  lip  or  ear  is  pierced  for  the 
lip-ring  and  tne  ear-ring,  which  in  her  estimation  are 
to  add  to  her  charms.  It  is  really  too  much  when  a 
staid  professor  makes  such  a  prescription  the  ground 
for  a  grave  charge  of  inhumanity  against  the  law  of 
Moses.  Nor  should  the  institution  of  slavery  be  made 
a  (ground  of  attack  against  the  Mosaic  legislation.  It 
existed  everywhere  and  although  in  practice  it  is  apt 
to  lead  to  many  abuses,  still,  in  the  mild  form  in  which 
it  was  allowed  among  the  Jews,  and  with  the  safe- 
guards prescribed  by  the  Law,  it  cannot  be  said  with 
truth  to  be  contrary  to  sound  morality. 

Polygamy  and  divorce,  though  less  insisted  on  by 
Rationalist  critics,  in  reality  constitute  a  more  serious 
difficulty  against  the  holiness  of  the  Mosaic  Law  than 
any  of  those  which  have  just  been  mentioned.  The 
difficulty  is  one  which  has  engaged  the  attention  of  the 
Fathers  and  theologians  of  the  Church  from  the  begin- 
ning. To  answer  it  they  take  their  stand  on  the 
teaching  of  the  Master  in  the  nineteenth  chapter  of  St. 
Matthew  and  the  parallel  passages  of  Holy  Scripture. 
What  is  there  said  of  divorce  is  applicable  to  plurality 
of  wives.  The  strict  law  of  marriage  was  made  known 
to  our  first  parents  in  Paradise:  *"They  shall  be  two 
in  one  flesh^*  (Gen.,  ii.  24).  When  the  sacred  text 
says  two  it  excludes  polygamy,  when  it  says  one  flesh 
it  excludes  divorce.  Amid  tne  general  laxity  with 
regard  to  marriage  which  existed  among  the  Semitic 
tribes,  it  would  nave  been  difficult  to  preserve  the 
strict  law.  The  importance  of  a  rapid  increase  among 
the  chosen  people  of  God  so  as  to  enable  them  to  de- 
fend themselves  from  their  neighbours,  and  to  fulfil 
their  appointed  destiny,  seemed  to  favour  relaxa- 
tion. The  example  of  some  of  the  chief  of  the 
ancient  Patriarchs  was  taken  by  their  descendants 
as  being  a  sufficient  indication  of  the  dispensation 
granted  by  God.  With  grpecial  safeguards  annexed 
to  it  Moees  adopted  the  Divine  dispensation  on  ac- 


count of  the  hardness  of  heart  of  the  Jewish  people. 
Neither  polygamy  nor  divorce  can  be  said  to  be  con- 
trary to  the  primary  precepts  of  nature.  The  primary 
end  of  marriage  is  compatible  with  both.  But  at  least 
they  are  against  the  secondary  precepts  of  the  natural 
law:  contrary,  that  is,  to  what  is  required  for  the  well- 
ordering  of  human  life.  In  these  secondary  precepts, 
however,  God  can  dispense  for  good  reason  if  He  sees 
fit  to  do  so.  In  so  doing  He  uses  His  sovereign  author- 
ity to  diminish  the  right  of  absolute  equauty  which 
naturally  exists  between  man  and  woman  with  refer- 
ence to  marriage.  In  this  way,  without  suffering  any 
stain  on  His  holiness,  God  could  permit  and  sanction 
polygamy  and  divorce  in  the  Old  Law. 

Christ  is  the  author  of  the  New  Law.  He  claimed 
and  exercised  supreme  legislative  authority  in  spirit- 
ual matters  from  the  beginning  of  His  pubhc  life  until 
His  Ascension  into  heaven.  In  Him  the  Old  Law  had 
its  fulfilment  and  attained  its  chief  purpose.  The 
civil  legislation  of  Moses  had  for  its  object  to  form  and 
preserve  a  peculiar  people  for  the  worship  of  the  one 
true  God,  and  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  coming  of  the 
Messias  who  was  to  oe  bom  of  the  seed  of  Abraham. 
The  new  Kingdom  of  God  which  Christ  founded  was 
not  confined  to  a  single  nation,  it  embraced  all  the 
nations  of  the  ^ulh,  and  when  the  new  Israel  was  con- 
stituted, the  old  Israel  with  its  separatist  law  became 
antiquated ;  it  had  fulfilled  its  mission.  The  ceremonial 
laws  of  Moses  were  types  and  figures  of  the  purer, 
more  spiritual,  and  more  efficacious  sacrifice  and  sacra- 
ments of  the  New  Law,  and  when  these  were  instituted 
the  former  lost  their  meaning  and  value.  By  the  death 
of  Christ  on  the  Cross  the  New  Covenant  was  sealed, 
and  the  Old  was  abrogated,  but  until  the  Gospel  haa 
been  preached  and  duly  promulgated,  out  of  deference 
to  Jewish  prejudices^na  out  of  respect  for  ordinances, 
which  after  all  were  Divine,  those  who  wished  to  do  so 
were  at  liberty  to  conform  to  the  practices  of  the  Mo- 
saic Law.  When  the  Gospel  had  been  duly  promul- 
gated the  civil  and  ceremonial  precepts  of  the  Law  of 
Moses  became  not  only  useless,  but  false  and  super- 
stitious, and  thus  forbidden. 

It  was  otherwise  with  the  moral  precepts  of  the 
Mosaic  Law.  The  Master  expressly  taught  that  the 
observance  of  these,  inasmuch  as  they  are  prescribed 
by  nature  herself,  is  necessary  for  salvation — "If 
thou  wouldst  enter  into  life  keep  the  commandments  ". 
— those  well-known  precepts  of  the  Decalogue.  Ot 
these  commandments  those  words  of  His  are  especially 
true — "I  came  not  to  destroy  the  law  but  to  fulfil 
it."  This  Christ  did  by  insisting  anew  on  the  great 
law  of  charity  towards  God  and  man,  which  He  ex- 
plained more  fully  and  gave  us  new  motives  for  prac- 
tising. He  corrected  the  false  glosses  with  which  the 
Scribes  and  Pharisees  had  obscured  the  law  as  revealed 
by  God,  and  He  brushed  aside  the  heap  of  petty  ob- 
servances with  which  they  had  overloaded  it,  and 
made  it  an  intolerable  burden.  He  denounced  in  un- 
measured terms  the  externalism  of  Pharisaic  observ- 
ance of  the  Law,  and  insisted  on  its  spirit  being 
observed  as  well  as  the  letter.  As  was  suited  to  a  law 
of  love  which  replaced  the  Mosaic  Law  of  fear,  Christ 
wished  to  attract  men  to  obey  His  precepts  out  of 
motives  of  charity  and  filial  obedience,  rather  than 
compel  submission  by  threats  of  punishment.  He 
promised  spiritual  blessings  rather  than  temporal,  and 
taught  His  followers  to  despise  the  goods  of  this  world 
in  order  to  fix  their  affections  on  the  future  joys  of  life 
eternal.  He  was  not  content  with  a  bare  observance 
of  the  law,  He  boldly  proposed  to  His  disciples  the 
infinite  goodness  and  holiness  of  God  for  their  model* 
and  urged  them  to  be  perfect  as  their  heavenly  Father 
is  perfect.  For  such  as  were  specially  called,  and  who 
were  not  content  to  observe  the  commandments 
merely,  He  proposed  counsels  of  consummate  perfec- 
tion. By  observing  these  His  specially  chosen  fol- 
lowers, not  only  conquered  their  vices,  but  destroyed 


LAW 


73 


L4W 


the  roots  of  them,  by  constantly  denying  their  natural 

Sropensities  to  honoiirs,  riches,  and  earthly  pleasures, 
till  it  is  admitted  bv  Catholic  theologians  that  Christ 
added  no  new  merely  moral  precepts  to  the  natural 
law.  There  is  of  course  a  moral  obligation  to  believe 
the  truths  which  the  Master  revealed  oonceming  God, 
man's  destiny,  and  the  Church.  Moral  obligations,  too, 
arise  from  the  institution  of  the  sacraments,  some  ot 
which  are  necessarv  to  salvation.  But  even  here  noth- 
ing is  added  directly  to  the  natural  law;  given  the  rev- 
elation of  truth  by  God.  the  obligation  to  believe  it 
follows  naturally  for  all  to  whom  the  revelation  is 
made  known;  and  given  the  institution  of  necessary 
means  of  grace  and  salvation,  the  obligation  to  use 
them  also  follows  necessarily. 

As  we  saw  above,  the  Master  abrogated  the  dispen- 
sations which  made  polygamv  and  divorce  lawful  for 
the  Jews  owing  to  the  s]>ecial  circumstances  in  which 
they  were  placed.  In  this  respect  the  natural  law  was 
restored  to  its  primitive  integnty.  Somewhat  similarly 
with  regard  to  the  love  of  enemies,  Christ  clearly  ex- 
plained the  natural  law  of  charity  on  the  point,  and 
urged  it  against  the  perverse  interpretation  of  the 
Pharisees.  The  Law  of  Moses  had  expressly  enjoined 
the  love  of  friends  and  fellow-citizens.  But  at  the 
same  time  it  forbade  the  Jews  to  make  treaties  with 
foreigners,  to  conclude  peace  with  the  Anunonites, 
Moabites,  and  other  neighbouring  tribes;  the  Jew  was 
allowed  to  practise  usury  in  dealing  with  foreigners; 
God  promised  that  He  would  be  an  enem^r  to  the 
enemies  of  His  people.  From  these  and  similar  pro- 
visions the  Jewish  doctors  seem  to  have  drawn  the 
conclusion  that  it  was  lawful  to  hate  one's  enemies. 
Even  St.  Augustine,  as  well  as  some  other  Fathers  and 
Doctors  of  the  Church,  thought  that  hatred  of  ene- 
mies, like  polygamy  and  divorce,  was  permitted  to  the 
Jews  on  account  of  their  hardness  of  heart.  It  is 
clear,  however,  that,  since  enemies  share  the  same 
nature  with  us,  and  are  children  of  the  same  common 
Father,  they  may  not  be  excluded  from  the  love  which, 
by  the  law  of  nature,  we  owe  to  all  men.  This  ob- 
Kgation  Christ  no  less  clearly  than  beautifully  ex- 
pounded, and  taught  us  how  to  practise  by  His  own 
noble  example.  The  Catholic  Church  by  virtue  of  the 
commission  given  to  her  by  Christ  is  the  Divinely  con- 
stituted interpjreter  of  the  Divine  Law  of  both  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testament. 

St.  Thomab,  Summa  O^eologica  (Pannftt  1852);  Suarek,  De 
Letnbua  (Paris,  1856);  Fesch.  PreglecHones  dogmatica,  V  (Frei- 
buic.  1900) ;  ]^abbnbaubr,  Commentariut  in  Evangdia  (Paris, 
1882);  GiQOT^  Biblical  Lectures  (New  York,  1901);  Palmisri, 
De  Matrimonto  (Rome,  1880);  Pei/t,  HiaUnre  de  Vancien  Testa- 
ment (Paris,  1901);  von  HuiCMSUinBR,  Commentarius  in  Bxo- 
dum,  Leviticum,  ueut&vnomium  (Paris,  1897,  1901);  Vxoou- 
Boux,  Did.  de  la  Bible  (Paris,  1908);  Hastings.  Diet,  of  the 
BibU  CBdinbuigh,  1904). 

T.  Slater. 

Law,  International. — International  law  has  been 
defined  to  be  "  the  rules  which  determine  the  conduct 
of  the  general  body  of  civilized  states  in  their  dealings 
with  each  other"  (American  and  English  Encycl.  of 
Law) .  Different  writers  have  given  varying  views  of  the 
foundation  of  the  law  of  nations,  some  holding  that  it 
is  foimded  merely  upon  consent  and  usage,  and  others 
that  it  is  the  same  as  the  law  of  nature,  applied  to  the 
conduct  of  nations  in  the  character  of  moral  persons 
susceptible  of  obligations  and  laws.  Chancellor  Kent 
holds  that  neither  of  these  views  is  strictly  true;  that 
the  law  of  nations  is  purely  positive  law  founded  on 
usage,  consent,  and  agreement,  but  that  it  must  not  be 
separated  entirely  from  natural  jurisprudence,  since  it 
derives  its  force  "from  the  same  principles  of  ri^ht 
reason,  the  same  views  of  the  nature  and  constitution 
of  man,  and  the  same  sanction  of  Divine  revelation, 
as  those  from  which  the  science  of  morality  is  de- 
duced ".  It  follows,  then,  that  by  the  natural  law 
every  state  is  bouna  to  conduct  itself  towards  other 
states  In  accordance  with  the  rules  of  justice,  irre- 


spective of  the  general  rules  that  have  arisen  from  long 
established  custom  and  usage.  International  law  is  a 
part  of  the  law  of  the  land  of  which  the  courts  take 
judicial  notice,  and  municipal  statutes  are  construed 
so  as  not  to  infringe  on  its  doctrines.  ^  The  rules  of 
international  law  are  to  be  found  in  writers  of  recog- 
nized authority,  in  treaties  between  civilized  nations, 
in  the  decisions  of  international  tribunals,  in  state 
papers  and  diplomatic  corresoondence,  and  its  applica- 
tion is  to  be  sought  especially  in  the  decisions  of  the 
courts  of  the  different  nations  where  the  rules  have 
been  defined  in  Utigated  cases,  arising  especially  in  the 
admiralty  where  judgment  has  been  sought  m  prize 
cases.  The  first  great  modem  authority  on  the  sub- 
ject was  Grotius.  His  works  have  been  followed  by 
those  of  Puffendorf,  Burlamaqui,  Bynkershoek,  and 
Vattel.  The  works  of  these  learned  authors  have  been 
adapted  and  expanded  by  various  writers,  so  that  now 
there  is  a  vast  body  of  literature  upon  the  subject 
'  remesenting  great  learning  and  ability. 

The  law  oi  nations  is  essentially  the  product  of 
modem  times.  Ancient  nations  looked  upon  strangers 
as  enemies,  and  upon  their  property  as  lawful  prize. 
Among  the  Greeks  prisoners  of  war  might  lawfully  be 
put  to  death  or  sola  into  slavery  with  tneir  wives  and 
children,  and  there  was  no  duty  owed  by  the  nation  to 
a  foreign  nation.  Some  beginnings  of  diplomatic  in- 
tercourse mav  be  traced  in  the  relations  of  the  Greek 
states  towards  one  another,  by  agreements  relating  to 
the  burying  of  the  dead  and  the  exchange  of  prisoners, 
while  the  .^nphictyonic  Council  affords  an  instance  of 
an  attempt  to  institute  a  law  of  nations  among  the 
Grecian  states  themselves.  The  Romans  show 
stronger  evidence  of  appreciation  of  international  law, 
or  at  least  of  the  beginnings  of  it.  They  had  a  college 
of  heralds  charged  with  the  Fetial  Law  relating  to 
declarations  of  war  and  treaties  of  peace,  and  as  their 
power  and  civilization  grew,  there  came  an  apprecia- 
tion of  the  moral  duty  owed  by  the  state  to  nations 
with  which  it  was  at  war.  After  the  establishment  of 
the  empire,  especially  in  its  later  periods,  the  law  of 
nations  became  recognized  as  part  of  the  natural  rea- 
son of  mankind.  After  the  fall  of  the  empire  there 
was  a  relapse  into  the  barbarism  of  earlier  ages,  but. 
when  in  the  ninth  century  Charlema^e  consolidated 
his  empire  imder  the  influence  of  Christianity,  the  law 
of  nations  took  on  a  new  growth.  As  commerce  de- 
veloped, the  necessity  of  an  international  law  provid- 
ing tor  the  enforcement  of  contracts,  the  protection  of 
shipwrecked  sailors  and  property,  and  the  maintaining 
of  narbours,  became  more  apparent.  Various  codes 
and  regulations  containing  tnc  laws  of  the  sea  grad- 
ually developed,  the  most  famous  of  which  are  the 
''Judgments  of  016ron",  said  to  have  l)een  drawn  up 
in  the  eleventh  century  and  long  recognized  in  the  At- 
lantic ports  of  France  and  incorporated  in  part  in  the 
maritime  ordinances  of  Louis  XIV;  the  *  Consolato 
del  Mare",  a  collection  of  rules  applicable  to  questions 
arising  in  commerce  and  navigation  both  in  peace  and 
war,  probably  drawn  up  in  the  twelfth  centur>'  and 
founaed  upon  the  Roman  maritime  law  and  early 
maritime  customs  of  the  commercial  cities  of  the  Medi- 
terranean; the  *' Guidon  de  la  Mar",  which  dates  from 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  deals  with  the 
law  of  maritime  insurance,  prize,  and  the  regulations 

foveraing  the  issue  of  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal, 
n  addition  to  these  there  were  various  bodies  of  sea 
laws,  notably  the  maritime  law  of  Wisby,  the  customs 
of  Amsterdain,  the  laws  of  Antwerp,  and  the  constitu- 
tions of  the  Hanseatic  League.  Ail  of  these  codes  con- 
tained provisions  extracted  from  the  earliest  known 
maritime  code,  the  Rhodian  Laws,  which  were  incor- 
porated into  the  general  body  of  Roman  law,  and  were 
recognized  and  sanctioned  by  Tiberius  and  Hadrian. 
During  the  long  period  between  the  fall  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire  and  tne  definitive  beginning  of  modem 
European  states  the  greatest  influence  working  for  a 


LAW  74  L4W 

recognition  of  international  law  amon^  all  peoples  was  protect  the  Christian  Church.  .  .  .  The  Gospel  was  to 

the  Church.    A  common  faith,  imposing  tne  same  ob-  be  the  law  of  nations.    The  State  would  consolidate 

ligation^  upon  the  individual  members  of  the  Church  the  nations,  while  the  Church  would  sow  tiie  seeds  of 

among  all  nations,  obviously  tended  to  the  establish-  revealed  truth "  (Janssen,  "  History  of  the  German 

ment  and  recognition  of  rules  of  justice  and  morality  People  ",  II,  110  sq.) .    In  this  ideal  we  find  the  medie- 

as  among  the  nations  themselves;  and,  when  the  more  val  conception  of  the  State.    Although  the  ideal  was 

general  acceptance  of  the  obligations  of  Christianity  never  completely  realized,  yet  it  met  such  general  ac- 

became  the  rule,  it  followed  naturally  that  the  Head  ceptance  tnat  the  emperor  became  the  chief  protector 

of  the  Church,  the  pope  holding  the  Divine  commis-  of  law  and  order  and  the  arbiter  between  lesser  princes, 

sion,  should  become  the  universal  arbiter  in  disputes  The  growth  of  the  power  of  the  State  gradually  dimin- 

among  nations.    For  centuries  the  ^reat  o£Bces  of  ished  that  of  the  feudal  barons,  whose  petty  conten- 

state,  especially  those  having  to  do  with  foreign  rela-  tions  and  the  violence  of  whose  lives  were  a  hindrance 

tions,  wore  held  by  bishops  learned  in  canon  law,  and,  to  the  development  of  international  justice.     Until 

as  canon  law  was  based  upon  Roman  law  and  espe-  this  phase  of  the  beginnings  of  civilization  changed 

cially  adapted  to  the  government  of  the  Church  whose  there  was  little  to  ameliorate  the  brutality  of  conduct 

jurisdiction  was  not  Dounded  by  state  lines,  it  nat-  between  warring  peoples,  except  as  the  individual 

urally  suggested  many  of  the  rules  that  have  found  a  education  of  knights  in  chivalry  affected  their  conduct, 
place  in  mtemational  law.    The  pope  became  the        Another  influence  of  great  importance  in  the  forma- 

natural  arbitrator  between  nations,  and  the  power  to  tion  of  international  law  were  tne  general  councils  of 

which  appeals  were  made  when  the  laws  of  justice  and  the  Church,  affecting  as  they  did  all  Christian  nations 

morality  were  flagrantly  violated  by  sovereigns  either  and  laying  down  rules  of  faith  and  discipline  binding 

in  relation  to  their  own  subjects  or  to  foreign  nations,  alike  upon  individuals  and  governments.    The  history 

As  the  empire  founded  by  Charlemagne  gained  in  and  development  of  rules  of  international  law  from 

power  and  extent,  the  controversies  precipitated  by  these  early  beginnings  have  been  traced  to  contem- 

the  conflicting  claims  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  juris-  porary  times,  and,  notwithstanding  periods  when  the 

diction  developed  still  further  the  position  of  the  pope  influence  of  a  lofty  and  Christian  ideal  of  the  relations 

as  the  highest  representative  of  the  moral  power  of  between  nations  seems  almost  to  have  been  lost,  it 

Christendom.    It  has  been  justly  said  therefore  that,  will  appear  that  there  has  been  a  steady  advance  in 

*'  of  all  the  effects  of  Christianity  in  altering  the  polit-  the  recognition  of  the  existence  of  a  moral  law  of  na- 

ical  face  of  Europe  throughout  all  its  people,  and  tions  whose  sanction  is  the  public  opinion  of  the  worid. 

which  may  therefore  very  fairly  be  denominated  a  part  So  far  has  this  system  progressed  that  its  underlying 

of  its  Law  of  Nations,  none  are  so  prominent  to  ob-  principles  are,  in  the  main,  well-defined,  universally 

servation  during  these  centuries  as  those  which  sprang  recognized,  and  constantly  appealed  to,  both  in  times 

from  the  influence  and  form  of  government  of  the  of  war  and  in  times  of  peace,  by  all  civilized  nations. 


Church''  (\yard,  "Law  of  Nations  ,  II,  31).    At  first    Rules  governing  the  acciuisition  of  territorial  prop- 


pel 

known  as  the  Father  of  Christendom.  Under  the  Holy  m  the  affairs  of  foreign  nations,  have  all  been  measur- 
Roman  Empire  from  the  time  of  Otho  I,  as  is  point^ci  ably  settled ;  and  so  far  as  relates  to  the  rights  and  du- 
out  by  Janssen,  there  was  a  close  alliance  between  the  ties^  of  belligerents  and  of  neutral  states  in  declaring 
Church  and  the  State,  though  they  were  at  no  time  and  carrying  on  war,  the  fixing  of  the  character  d 
identical.  "Church  and  State",  he  says,  "granting  property*  the  regulating  of  the  effect  of  intercourse 
certain  presupposed  conditions,  are  two  necessary  between  individuals,  many  vexed  points  have  also 
embodiments  of  one  and  the  same  human  society,  the  been  carefully  defined  and  to  a  large  extent  settled. 
State  taking  charge  of  the  temporal  requirements,  and  Some  of  the  most  delicate  questions,  such  as  the  right 
the  Church  of  the  spiritual  and  supernatural.  These  to  visit  and  search  the  blockaded  ports  of  the  enemy, 
two  powers  would,  however,  be  in  a  state  of  continual  and  the  character  of  correspondence  permitted  be- 
contention  were  it  not  for  a  Divine  Law  of  equili-  tween  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  neutral  states  and  the 
brium  keeping  each  within  its  own  limits."  He  points  belligerents,  may  be  considered  as  well  settled  and 
out  further  that  the  original  cause  of  the  separation  recognized  by  decisions  of  the  highest  courts  of  all 
between  the  spiritual  and  temporal  powers,  as  "taught  civilized  nations  as  any  of  the  rules  of  municipal  law. 
by  Pope  Gelasius  at  the  end  of  the  nfth  century,  lies  in  Earnest  and  inteUigent  efforts  to  bring  about  a  per- 
the  law  established  by  the  Di\dne  founder  of  the  manent  court  of  arbitration  have  resulted  in  the  for- 
Church,  Who,  *  cognizant  of  human  weakness,  was  mation  of  an  international  tribunal  at  The  Hague, 
careful  that  the  two  powers  should  be  kept  separate,  which  has  already  l>een  accept-od  by  the  voluntary 
and  each  limited  to  its  own  province.  Christian  action  of  the  various  nations  as  a  proper  forum  for  the 
princes  were  to  respect  the  priesthood  in  those  things  decision  of  many  international  questions  specially  re- 
which  relate  to  the  soul,  and  the  priests  in  their  turn  ferred  to  it.  The  principles  of  arbitration  accepted  by 
to  obey  the  laws  made  for  the  preservation  of  order  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  in  the  settlement  of 
worldly  matters;  so  that  the  soldiers  of  God  shall  not  the  so-called  Alabama  Claims  and  the  frequent  agree- 
mix  in  temporal  affairs,  and  the  worldly  authorities  ments  between  the  contending  parties  over  questions 
shall  have  naught  to  say  in  spiritual  things.  The  of  boundary,  fisheries,  and  damages  to  private  prop- 
province  of  each  being  so  marked  out,  neither  power  erty  of  their  respective  citizens  or  subjects,  have  given 
shall  encroach  on  the  prerogatives  of  the  other,  but  emphasis  to  international  law.  Its  rules  have  en- 
confine  itsi'lf  to  its  own  limit.' "  forced  respect  for  private  property  on  the  part  of  con- 
"  While  it  is  recognized  that  the  kingdoms  of  this  tending  armies,  and,  under  certain  conditions,  when 
world,  as  opposed  to  the  one  universal  Church,  may  such  is  carried  by  ships,  have  forbidden  the  use  of  oer- 
exist  and  prosper  while  remaining  separate  and  inde-  tain  destructive  missiles,  and  in  very  many  ways  have 
pendent,  yet  it  was  thought  that  the  bond  with  the  alleviated  the  horrors  of  war.  While  there  must  al- 
Church  would  \xi  of  a  higher  nature  if  the  partition  ways  remain  questions  that  no  self-respecting  nation 
walls  l)etween  people  and  people  were  broken  down,  would  be  willing  to  submit  to  arbitration,  yet  the  field 
all  nations  joined  together  in  one,  and  the  unity  of  the  for  the  exercise  of  the  latter  is  indefinitely  great,  and. 
human  race  under  one  lord  and  ruler  acknowledged,  as  the  demands  of  modem  civilization,  the  means  or 
It  was  this  idea  which  inspired  the  popes  with  the  communication  between  nations,  and  the  develop- 
desire  to  found  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  whose  ment  of  trade  relations  increase,  questions  more 
Emperor  would  deem  it  his  highest  prerogative  to  frequently  arise  requiring  appeal  to  some  tribunal,  ao- 


LAW 


75 


UIW 


eeptable  to  both  parties,  whose  decision  shall  be  final 
aiid  absolute.  Until  the  revolt  against  the  Church  in 
the  first  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century^  this  power 
of  arbitration,  as  has  been  stated,  rested  in  the  pope. 
With  the  decline  of  recognition  of  this  moral  power, 
religious  sanctions  in  the  relations  between  nations 
have  gradually  lessened.  Instead  of  a  decision  of  the 
pope,  bearing  with  it  the  impress  of  the  revealed  truth 
of  religion,  the  agreements  of  modem  courts  of  arbi- 
tration or  other  referees  for  the  settlement  of  interna- 
tional disputes  have  for  their  sanction  the  general 
sense  of  justice  existing  naturally  among  men, 
strengthened  by  such  faith  in  revealed  religion  as  may 
exist  among  them  irrespective  of  the  teaching  of  the 
Church.  This  is  the  great  difference  between  the 
sanction  of  modem  international  law  and  that  existing 
previous  to  the  so-called  Refc»'mation.  Previous  to 
that  event  the  power  of  the  Church  was  exercised 
merely  in  a  moral  way  by  an  appeal  to  the  faith  and 
consciences  of  all  men  and  nations,  enforcing  the  de- 
crees of  the  arbiter  of  Christendom — the  pope. 

Controversy  concerning  this  arbitration  nas  been 
carried  on,  at  first  with  great  violence,  but  since  with  a 
calmer  and  fairer  recognition  of  the  exceeding  advan- 
tage to  nascent  civilization  of  such  power  as  that  exer- 
cised b3r  the  popes  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  has 
been  insisted  that  the  popes  not  alone  wished  to  vindi- 
cate their  supreme  spiritual  power^  but  cherished  a  de- 
sire to  reduce  all  princes  to  a  condition  of  vassalage  to 
the  Roman  See.  This  is  a  grave  error.  The  Church 
has  never  declared  it  to  be  an  article  of  faith  that  tem- 
poral princes,  as  such,  are  in  temporal  matters  subject 
to  the  pope.  The  confusion  or  thought  has  ansen 
from  the  fact  that  in  the  eyes  of  the  Church  the  kingly 
power  has  never  been  looked  upon  as  absolute  and  un- 
limited. The  rights  of  the  people  were  certainly  not 
less  important  than  those  of  the  ruler,  who  owed  them 
a  duty,  as  they  owed  a  duty  to  him.  They  did  not 
exist  for  his  benefit,  and  his  power  was  to  be  employed, 
not  for  his  own  ends,  but  for  the  welfare  of  the  nation. 
He  was  to  be,  above  all,  the  servant  of  God,  the  de- 
fender of  the  Church,  of  the  weak,  and  of  the  needy. 
In  many  states  the  monarch  was  elected  only  on  the 
eocpress  condition  of  professing  the  Catholic  Faith  and 
defending  it  against  attack.  In  Spain,  from  the 
seventh  to  the  fourteenth  century,  tne  king  had  to 
take  such  an  oath,  and.  even  when  it  was  no  longer 
formallv  administered^  ne  was  still  understood  to  be 
bound  by  the  obligation.  The  laws  of  Edward  the 
Confessor,  published  by  WiUiam  the  Conqueror  and 
his  suooessors,  expressly  provide  that  a  king  who  does 
not  fulfill  his  duties  towards  the  Church  must  forfeit 
his  title  of  king.  Kings  were  constantly  reminded 
that  their  temporal  power  was  given  them  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  Church,  and  that  they  should  imitate  King 
David  in  their  submission  to  God. 

With  this  intimate  relation  of  Church  and  State,  the 
dergy,  by  reason  of  their  education  and  force  of  char- 
acter and  the  respect  paid  to  them  because  of  their 
office,  took  an  active  part  in  the  civic  affairs  of  the 
various  nations,  and,  until  the  controversies  arose  be 
tween  them  and  the  emperors  who  succeeded  Charle- 
magne, Uie  civil  and  religious  powers  existed  harmoni- 
ously in  the  main.  Owing  to  the  limitations  of  human 
nature,  and  especially  because  the  support  of  both 
Church  and  State  necessarily  came  from  voluntary  or 
enforced  contributions  of  the  people,  causes  of  friction 
would  arise  from  time  to  time  between  the  two  pow- 
ers. The  decrees  of  the  councils  of  the  Church  were 
confirmed  as  la'^rs  of  the  empire  to  secure  their  being 
pot  in  force  by  the  civil  power,  and  the  sentence  was 
pronounced  at  Chalcedon  (451)  that  imperial  laws 
that  were  contrary  to  canon  law  should  be  null  and 
void.  Freedom  and  religion  were  mutually  supported 
because  the  Church,  in  which  religion  was  incorpor- 
ated, was  at  the  same  time  the  guardian  of  freedom. 
The  power  of  the  pqpe  as  Head  of  the  Church  Univer- 


sal 'gainetl  somewhat,  but  not  sufficiently  to  affect  in  a 
very  mark^  degree  his  influence  as  the  iicud  of 
Christendom  from  the  fact  of  his  becoming  a  temporal 
prince  during  the  eighth  century.  Again  and  again 
the  popes  have  declared  it  was  part  of  their  duty  to 
make  and  preserve  peace  on  all  sides;  to  mediate  be- 
tween royal  families;  to  hinder  wars  or  bring  them  to  a 
speedy  close;  to  defend  Christendom  against  the  in- 
cursions of  the  Mohammedans;  to  incite  Christian  na- 
tions to  carry  on  the  crusades  for  the  recovery  of  the 
Holy  Places  of  Jerusalem.  Whoever  felt  himself  op- 
pressed turned  to  the  Koman  See,  and,  if  it  did  not 
give  him  help,  the  pope  was  thought  to  have  neglected 
his  dutv.  "  In  an  age  ",  says  Lingard.  **  when  warlike 
gains  alone  were  prized,  Europe  would  have  sunk  into 
endless  w^ars  had  not  the  popes  striven  unceasingly  for 
the  maintonance  and  restoration  of  peace.  They  re- 
buked the  passions  of  princes,  and  checked  their  un- 
reasonable pretensions;  their  position  of  common  fa- 
ther of  Christendom  gave  an  authority  to  their  words 
which  could  be  claimed  by  no  other  mediator;  and 
their  legates  spared  neither  journeys  nor  labour  in 
reconciling  the  conflicting  interests  of  courts,  and  in 
interposing  between  the  swonis  of  contending  factions 
the  dive-branch  of  peace "  (History  of  England,  IV, 
72;  quoted  by  Hergenr6ther).  The  great  Protestant 
writer  Grotius  says:  "Quot  dissidia  sanata  sint  auc- 
toritate  Romanae  Sedis,  quoties  oppressa  innocentia 
ibi  prsEsidium  reperit,  non  alium  testem  quam  eun- 
dem  Blondellum  volo"  (Hergenrother,  "Church  and 
State",  pp.  286-7),  i.  e.,  how  many  quarrels  were 
healed  by  the  authority  of  the  Roman  See,  how  often 
oppressed  innocence  found  support  there,  the  same 
Blondel  abundantly  testifies. 

Much  misunderstanding  as  to  the  attitude  of  the 
popes  has  arisen  from  the  Bull  of  Pope  Alexander  VL 
when,  acting  at  the  solicitation  of  the  sovereigns  oi 
Castile,  he  drew  the  limits  of  a  line  from  the  North  to 
the  South  Pole,  100  Spanish  leagues  to  the  west  of 
the  most  westerly  island  of  the  Azores;  all  that  was 
east  of  the  line  belonged  to  Portugal,  and  all  that  was 
west  of  it  to  Spain.  By  this  decision  it  has  been  said 
that  the  maxim  **  de  extemis  non  iudicat  ecclesia"  has 
been  violated,  and  also  the  further  maxim  that  the 
conversion  of  subjects  to  the  Catholic  Faith  takes 
nothing  from  the  rights  of  infidel  princes.  The  true 
explanation  of  this  Bull  will  be  found  when  it  is 
remembered  that  the  pope  was  acting  as  arbitrator 
between  two  nations  of  explorers,  when  it  was  most 
desirable  that  a  line  of  demarcation  should  be  drawn 
between  the  fields  to  be  explored.  It  was  intended 
only  to  prevent  dissension  and  struggles  likely 
to  arise  from  rival  pretensions,  and,  since  by  its 
terms  it  precluded  any  Christian  prince  from  inter- 
fering within  the  boundaries  assigned  to  each  nation, 
it  was  a  powerful  preventive  of  wrong-doing.  It  be- 
ing admitted  that  sovereignty  over  uncivilized  peo- 
f)les  can  be  claimed  under  certain  conditions  by  civi- 
ized  nations,  the  pope  sought  only  to  regulate  the 
rights  of  such  nations  so  as  to  avoid  war.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind,  moreover,  that  the  principal  motive, 
as  professed  by  the  Spanish  explorers,  was  not  com- 
merce or  the  acquisition  of  wealth  alone,  but  the  con- 
version of  heathen  nations  to  the  Christian  Faith. 

It  will  appear  from  a  review  of  the  history  of  the 
centuries  from  the  accession  of  Charlemagne  to  the 
crown  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  until  modern  times, 
the  power  of  the  pope  as  tlie  supreme  and  common 
tribunal  between  nations  has  been  exercised  for  the 
advantage  of  mankind  in  the  extension  of  justice  to 
all.  In  England,  the  excommunication  of  King  John 
compelled  tlie  submission  of  a  monarch,  who,  accord- 
ing to  the  Protestant  writer  Ward,  had  "by  his  vio- 
lence and  depravity  drawn  down  upon  himself  the 
just  detestation  of  mankind".  In  the  example  of 
Emperor  Lothair  of  Lorraine  in  the  ninth  century,  an 
instance  may  be  found  of  an  intervention  of  the  pope 


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76 


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to  prevent  the  repudiation  by  this  monarch  of  his  IjIw- 
ful  wife  in  order  that  he  might  marry  another.  The 
pope  intervened  to  secure  the  release  of  Richard  I  of 
England  from  the  prison  of  the  Duke  of  Austria  and 
the  emperor.  By  his  interposition  in  1193  he  pro- 
cured the  Uberty  of  the  three  daughters  of  King  Tan- 
cred  of  Sicily,  who  had  been  unjustly  carried  off  and 
retained  captive  by  Emperor  Henry  VI.  So  in  the 
case  of  the  infant  son  of  tne  King  of  Aragon.  In  1214 
Simon  de  Montfort  was  compiled  to  surrender  his 

Srisoner  on  the  application  of  the  prince's  mother, 
[any  other  instances  of  equal  importance  show  the 
reverence  of  peoples  and  sovereigns  for  the  pope  and 
for  the  fearless  and  impartial  way  in  which  his  author- 
ity was  exercised.  The  same  author,  from  whom  these 
instances  have  been  quoted,  speaks  of  the  Councils  of 
the  Church.  He  says  they  were  "composed  of  dele- 
gates from  every  nation  of  Christianit^y,  and  under  this 
appearance  Europe  may  fairly  be  said  to  deserve  the 
appellation  which  has  sometimes  been  bestowed  upon 
it  of  a  Republic  of  States."  He  points  out  that  the 
two  Councils  of  Lyons  give  an  idea  of  '*  an  almost  per- 
fect Coiui;  of  Parliament  of  Christendom,  in  which  the 
affairs  of  sovereigns  were  discussed,  and  sovereigns 
themselves  proceeded  against,  under  all  the  forms  of  a 
regular  trial  and  sentence"  (Ward,  "Law  of  Nations", 
II,  55,  59). 

The  influence  of  the  structure  of  the  Roman  State, 
with  the  emperor  as  the  supreme  ruler  in  temporal 
matters,  educated  the  minds  of  the  northern  peoples, 
especially  the  Germans,  who,  on  the  fall  of  the 
Empire,  gradually  took  possession  of  its  former  ter- 
ritory, ^ter  the  acceptance  of  Christianity  as  the 
state  religion  in  the  reign  of  Constantine,  it  was  not 
difficidt  for  even  the  most  ignorant  of  men  to  grasp  an 
idea  of  the  dual  powers  ruling  hxmian  life — that  of  the 
sovereign  with  supreme  jurisdiction  in  temporal  mat- 
ters, and  that  of  tne  pope,  the  primate  of  all  the  bish- 
ops, the  successor  of  St.  Peter,  the  Head  of  the 
Church,  the  visible  representative  of  the  moral  power 
of  God  on  earth.  While,  in  his  human  capacity,  the 
pope  in  any  given  era  may  have  been  affected  by  the 
prevailing  habit  of  thought  of  that  era,  and  as  a  man 
nas  been  subject  to  the  limitations  of  our  common 
nature,  it  may  be  safely  said  of  the  papacy  that  no 
institution  ha^  had  so  profound  an  effect  upon  the 
evolution  of  the  laws  of  justice  and  right  in  the  con- 
duct of  nations,  and  that  without  such  a  power  of 
moral  influence  modem  civilization  would  not  have 
attained  a  higher  plane  than  that  of  Imperial  Rome. 
The  sense  of  duty  and  obligation,  which  is  a  cardinal 
principle  of  Christianity,  has  been  enforced  among 
princes  and  peoples,  so  that  even  in  our  day  the  va- 
rious nations,  although  to  a  great  extent  separated 
from  the  Catholic  Faith,  still  recognize  that  the  pope, 
as  the  head  of  the  most  venerable  and  most  numerous 
body  of  professed  Christians,  embodies  the  moral 
power  of  Christianity  and  must  be  respected  accord- 
mgly.  As  has  been  said  by  Hereenrother,  "the 
perfection  of  international  law  depends  upon  two  con- 
ditions: (1)  the  degree  in  which  the  notion  of  a  com- 
mon humanity  is  developed  among  nations;  (2)  the 
closeness  of  the  connexion  by  which  they  feel  them- 
selves imited.  Christendom  and  the  Church  have  had 
a  powerful  influence  upon  both  these  conditions.  Af- 
ter the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  it  created  amongst 
new  States  common  interests  and  an  international 
law,  which,  founded  upon  the  principles  and  laws  of 
ike  Church,  was  administered  by  her  and  her  Head  as 
an  international  tribunal  under  the  protection  of  the 
penalty  of  the  Church's  ban"  (Church  and  State,  369). 
In  giving  an  address  at  the  conference  held  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Civic  Federation  in  W^ashing- 
ton  on  18  Jan.,  1910,  EKhu  Root,  former  Secretary 
of  State  of  the  United  States,  said:  "Since  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  in  1815,  in  which  the  powers  of  Europe 
tor  the  first  time  undertook  to  deal  with  subjects  of  gen- 


eral interest  to  them,  as  distinct  from  specific  situiu 
tions  which  were  the  results  of  war,  up  to  three  years 
ago  there  had  been  over  one  himdred  and  twenty  con- 
gresses or  conferences  of  representatives  of  a  consider- 
able part,  practically  the  wnole  of  the  civilized  powers 
of  the  earth,  and  those  conferences  or  congresses  have 
accomplished  a  great  variety  of  things.  They  have 
established  an  international  postal  union;  they  have 
agreed  upon  and  put  into  force  rules  for  the  protection 
of  industrial  property,  patents,  copyrights,  and  trade- 
marks; they  have  estaolished  rules  for  sanitation  or 
control,  and,  to  some  degree,  the  prevention  of  dis- 
ease, under  which  each  country  binds  itself  to  so  legis- 
late and  so  enforce  its  laws  as  to  prevent  its  being  a 
nuisance  to  the  other  countries  with  whom  it  is  in 
conference.  They  have  united  iri  measures  for  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  for  the  abohtion  of  priva- 
teering, for  the  establishment  of  agreement  upon  rules 
of  the  private  international  law,  so  that  private  rights 
depending  upon  the  laws  of  different  countries  may  be 
recognized  and  dealt  with  under  uniform  rules;  itxey 
have  in  a  series  of  conferences  held  at  Geneva  estab- 
lished rules  for  the  enforcement  of  hmnane  principles 
for  the  conduct  of  war,  and  by  rules  adopted  at  The 
HaguC;  for  the  enforcement  of  humane  rules  in  the 
conduct  of  war  by  sea;  they  have  established  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  world  uniform  weights  and  meas- 
ures; they  have  agreed  upon  rules  designed  for  the 
prevention  of  the  white  slave  trade;  they  have,  by  a 
series  of  conferences,  a^ed  in  Europe  upon  a  num- 
ber, as  yet  a  comparatively  small  number^of  provi- 
sions for  the  protection  of  labour;  they  have  agreed 
upon  rules  for  telegraphic  communication,  rules  for  the 
protection  of  ocean  cables,  rules  for  the  government  of 
wireless  telegraphy." 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  sketch  that  all 
these  beneficent  results  have  followed  from  the  devel- 
opment of  the  Christian  idea  of  the  brotherhood  of 
mankind.  International  laws  like  all  other  systems, 
will  be  found  to  be  but  an  endeavour  to  bring  mto  the 
affairs  of  life  the  eternal  principles  of  right  at  all  times 
taught  by  the  Christian  Church.  For  the  actual  status 
of  Uie  Holy  See  concerning  conflicts  and  wars  be- 
tween Christian  nations,  peace,  peace  conferences,  and 
international  arbitration,  see  Papacy;  Peace;  Wab, 

Hebqenrother,  Catholic  Church  and  Christian  Stale  (Lon- 
doQ,  1876);  Jauget,  Did.  ApoloaUique  de  la  foi  caiholique 
(Paris,  1889),  8. V.  Alexandre  VIi  Ward,  Lata  of  Nationa  (Lon- 
don, 1795);  Kent,  Commentanea  (1884);  Mannino,  Interna- 
tional  Law  (London.  1875);  Davis,  The  Elements  of  Interna- 
tional Law  (New  York,  1908) ;  Wheaton,  International  LotPt  ed. 
Attat  (1904):  Lawrence,  International  Law  (1885):  American 
and  Enqliah  Encyclop.  of  Law  (IdOO) ;  Perrin,  Uordre  iniema- 
tional  (Paris,  1888);  Pradier-Fod^I:,  Traiti  de  droit  intemor 
iional  (Paris,  1885) ;  The  Peacemaker  of  the  Nations  in  The  Month 
(May,  1869);  Speech  of  Lord  Stanley  of  Alderlet  in  the 
House  of  Lords  (25  July,  1887);  letter  (1870)  of  Urquhart  to 
Pius  IX  in  Acta  Cone.  VcUicani;  in  Coll.  Lacensie,  VII;  Haxxs, 
The  Peace  Conference  at  The  Ilaque  (New  York,  1900),  and  cri- 
tique of  same  by  Shahan  in  Cath.Vniv.  Bulletin,  VII  (1901 ) ,  1-22. 

Walter  George  Smith. 
Law,  Moral.    See  Ethics;  Law,  Natural. 
Law,  Mosaic.    See  Mosaic  Legislation. 

Law,  Natural. — ^I.  Its  Essence. — In  English  this 
term  is  frequently  employed  as  equivalent  to  the  laws 
of  nature,  meaning  the  order  which  governs  the  activ- 
ities of  the  material  universe.  Amon^  the  Roman 
jurists  natural  law  designated  those  mstincts  and 
emotions  common  to  man  and  the  lower  animals, 
such  as  the  instinct  of  self-preservation  and  love  of 
offspring.  In  its  strictly  ethical  application — the 
sense  in  which  this  article  treats  it — the  natural  law 
is  the  rule  of  conduct  which  is  prescribed  to  us  bv 
the  Creator  in  the  constitution  of  the  nature  with 
which  He  has  endowed  us. 

According  to  St.  Thomas,  the  natural  law  is  "noth- 
ing else  than  the  rational  creature's  participation  in 
the  eternal  law"  (I-II,  Q.  xciv).  The  eternal  law  is 
God's  wisdom,  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  directive  norm 


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of  an  movement  and  action.  When  God  willed  to 
nve  existence  to  creatures,  He  willed  to  ordain  and 
direct  them  to  an  end.  In  the  case  of  inanimate 
things,  this  Divine  direction  is  provided  for  in  the 
nature  which  God  has  given  to  each;  in  them  deter- 
minism reigns.  Like  all  the  rest  of  creation,  man  is 
destined  by  God  to  an  end,  and  receives  from  Him  a 
direction  towards  this  end.  This  ordination  is  of  a 
character  in  harmony  with  his  free  intelligent  natiu^. 
In  virtue  of  his  intelligence  and  free  will,  man  is 
master  of  his  conduct.  Unlike  the  things  of  the 
mere  material  world  he  can  vary  his  action,  act,  or 
abstain  from  action,  as  he  pleases.  Yet  he  is  not  a 
lawless  being  in  an  ordered  universe.  In  the  very 
constitution  of  his  nature,  he  too  has  a  law  laid  down 
for  him,  reflecting  that  ordination  and  direction  of 
all  things,  which  is  the  eternal  law.  The  rule,  then, 
which  Uod  has  prescribed  for  our  conduct,  is  found 
in  our  nature  itself.  Those  actions  which  conform 
with  its  tendencies,  lead  to  our  destined  end,  and  are 
thereby  constituted  right  and  morally  good;  those 
at  variance  with  oin:  nature  are  wrong  and  immoral. 

The  norm,  however,  of  conduct  is  not  some  partic- 
ular element  or  aspect  of  our  nature.  The  standard 
Is  our  whole  human  nature  with  its  manifold  re- 
lationships, considered  as  a  creature  destined  to  a 
special  end.  Actions  are  wrong  if,  though  subserving 
tne  satisfaction  of  some  particular  need  or  tendency, 
they  are  at  the  same  tune  incompatible  with  that 
rational  harmonious  subordination  of  the  lower  to 
the  higher  which  reason  should  maintain  among  our 
conflicting  tendencies  and  desires  (see  Good).  For 
example,  to  nourish  our  bodies  is  rightj  but  to  in- 
dulge our  appetite  for  food  to  the  oetnment  of  our 
corporal  or  spiritual  life  is  wrong.  Self-preservation 
is  nght,  but  to  refuse  to  expose  our  life  when  the 
well-oeing  of  society  requires  it,  is  wrong.  It  is 
wrong  to  drink  to  intoxication,  for,  besides  being  in- 
jurious to  health,  such  indulgence  deprives  one  of  the 
use  of  reason,  which  is  intended  by  God  to  be  the 
guide  and  dictator  of  conduct.  Theft  is  wrong,  be- 
cause it  subverts  the  basis  of  social  life;  and  man's 
nature  requires  for  its  proper  development  that  he 
Uve  in  a  state  of  society.  There  is,  then,  a  double 
reason  for  calling  this  law  of  conduct  natural:  first, 
because  it  is  set  up  concretely  in  our  very  nature  it- 
self, and  second,  bBcause  it  is  manifested  to  us  by  the 
piirely  natural  medium  of  reason.  In  both  respects 
it  is  distinguished  from  the  Divine  positive  law,  which 
contains  precepts  not  arising  from  tne  nature  of  things 
as  God  has  constituted  them  by  the  creative  act,  but 
from  the  arbitrary  will  of  Goa.  This  law  we  learn, 
not  through  the  unaided  operation  of  reason,  but 
through  the  light  of  supernatural  revelation. 

We  may  now  analyse  the  natural  law  into  three 
constitutents:  the  discriminating  norm,  the  binding 
norm  (norma  obligans),  and  the  manifesting  norm. 
The  discriminating  norm  is,  as  we  have  just  seen, 
human  nature  itself,  objectively  considered.  It  is, 
80  to  speak,  the  book  in  which  is  written  the  text  of 
the  law,  and  the  classification  of  human  actions  into 
good  and  bad.  Strictly  speaking,  our  nature  is  the 
proximate  discriminating  norm  or  standard.  The 
remote  and  ultimate  norm,  of  which  it  is  the  par- 
tial reflection  and  application,  is  the  Divine  nature 
itself,  the  ultimate  groundwork  of  the  created  order. 
The  binding  or  obligatory  norm  is  the  Divine  author- 
ity, imposing  upon  the  rational  creature  the  obliga- 
tion of  living  in  conformity  with  his  nature,  and  thus 
with  the  imiversal  order  established  by  the  Creator. 
Contrarv  to  the  Kantian  theory  that  we  must  not 
acknowledge  any  other  lawgiver  than  conscience,  the 
truth  is  tlSit  reason  as  conscience  is  only  immediate 
moral  authority^  which  we  are  called  upon  to  obey, 
and  conscience  itself  owes  its  authoritv  to  the  fact  that 
it  IB  the  mouthpiece  of  the  Divine  will  and  iynperium. 
The  manifesting  norm  (norma  denuntians),  which 


determines  the  moral  quality  of  actions  tried  by  the 
discriminating  norm,  is  reason.  Through  this  faculty 
we  perceive  what  is  the  moral  constitution  of  our 
nature,  what  kind  of  action  it  calls  for,  and  whether 
a  particular  action  possesses  this  requisite  character, 

ll.  The  Contents  of  the  Natural  Law. — Radi- 
cally, the  natural  law  consists  of  one  supreme  and  uni- 
versal principle,  from  which  are  derived  all  our  natural 
moral  obligations  or  duties.  We  cannot  discuss  here 
the  many  erroneous  opinions  regarding  the  fimdamen- 
tal  rule  of  life.  Some  of  them  are  utterly  false — for 
instance,  that  of  Bentham,  who  made  the  pursuit  of 
utilitv  or  temporal  pleasure  the  foundation  of  the 
moral  code,  and  that  of  Fichte,  who  taught  that  the 
supreme  obligation  is  to  love  self  above  everything  and 
all  others  on  account  of  self.  Others  present  the  true 
idea  in  an  imperfect  or  one-sided  fashion.  Epicurus, 
for  example,  held  the  supreme  principle  to  be, "  Follow 
nature";  the  Stoics  inculcated  living  according  to 
reason.  But  these  philosophers  interpreted  their  prin- 
ciples in  a  manner  less  in  conformity  with  our  doctrine 
than  the  tenor  of  their  words  suggests.  Catholic 
moralists,  though  agreeing  upon  the  imderlying  con- 
ception of  the  Natural  Law,  have  differed  more  or  less 
in  their  expression  of  its  ftmdamental  formulae.  Among 
many  others  we  find  the  following:  *'  Love  God  as  the 
end  and  everything  on  account  of  Him";  "live  con- 
formably to  human  nature  considered  in  all  its  essen- 
tial respects";  "Observe  the  rational  order  estab- 
lished and  sanctioned  by  God  " ;  "  Manifest  in  your  life 
the  image  of  God  impressed  on  your  rational  nature." 
The  exposition  of  St.  Thomas  is  at  once  the  most  sim- 
ple and  philosophic.  Starting  from  the  premise  that 
good  is  what  pnmarily  falls  under  the  apprehension  of 
the  practical  reason — that  is  of  reason  acting  as  the 
dictator  of  conduct — and  that,  consequently,  the  su- 
preme principle  of  moral  action  must  nave  the  good  as 
its  central  idea,  he  holds  that  the  supreme  principle, 
from  which  all  the  other  principles  and  precepts  are 
derived,  is  that  good  is  to  be  done,  and  evil  avoided 
(I-II,  Q.  xciv,a.  2). 

Passing  from  the  primary  principle  to  the  subor- 
dinate principles  and  conclusions,  moralists  divide 
these  into  two  classes:  (I)  those  dictates  of  reason 
which  flow  so  directly  from  the  primary  principle  that 
they  hold  in  practical  reason  the  same  place  as  evident 
propositions  in  the  speculative  sphere,  or  are  at  least 
easily  deducible  from  the  primary  principle.  Such, 
for  instance,  are:  "Adore  God";  "Honour  your  par- 
ents"; "Do  not  steal";  (2)  those  other  conclusions 
and  precepts  which  are  reached  only  through  a  more 
or  less  complex  course  of  inference.  It  is  this  diffi- 
culty and  uncertainty  that  requires  the  natural  law 
to  be  supplemented  by  positive  law,  human  and  Di- 
vine. As  regards  the  vigour  and  binding  force  of  these 
precepts  ana  conclusions,  theologians  divide  them  into 
two  classes,  primary  and  secondary.  To  the  first  class 
belong  those  which  must,  under  all  circumstances,  be 
observed  if  the  essential  moral  order  is  to  be  main- 
tained. The  secondary  precepts  are  those  whose 
observance  contributes  to  the  public  and  private  good 
and  is  required  for  the  perfection  of  moral  develop- 
ment, but  is  not  so  absolutely  necessary  to  the  ratioi^- 
ality  of  conduct  that  it  may  not  be  lawfully  omitted 
under  some  special  conditions.  For  example,  imder 
no  circumstances  is  polyandry  compatible  with  the 
moral  order,  while  polygamy,  though  mconsistent  with 
human  relations  m  their  proper  moral  and  social 
development,  is  not  absolutely  incompatible  with 
them  imder  less  civilized  conditions. 

II.  The  Qualities  of  the  Natural  LAW.-;-(a)  The 
natural  law  is  universal,  that  is  to  say,  it  applies  to  the 
entire  human  race,  and  is  in  itself  the  same  for  all. 
Every  man,  because  he  is  a  man,  is  bound,  if  he  will 
confortn  t^  the  universal  order  willed  by  the  Creator, 
to  live  conformably  to  his  own  rational  nature,  and  to 
be  guided  by  his  reason.    However,  infants  and  in- 


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sane  persons,  wha  have  not  the  actual  use  of  their 
reason  and  cannot  therefore  know  the  law,  are  not 
responsible  for  their  failure  to  comply  with  its  de- 
mands, (b)  The  natural  law  is  immvlable  in  itself  and 
also  extrinsically.  Since  it  is  founded  in  the  very 
nature  of  man  and  his  destination  to  his  end — ^two 
bases  which  rest  upon  the  immutable  ground  of  the 
eternal  law — it  follows  that,  assuming  the  continued 
existence  of  human  nature,  it  cannot  cease  to  exist. 
The  natural  law  commands  and  forbids  in  the  same 
tenor  everywhere  and  always.  We  must,  however, 
remember  that  this  immutability  pertains  not  to  those 
abstract  imperfect  formulsB  in  which  the  law  is  com- 
monly expressed,  but  to  the  moral  standard  as  it 
applies  to  action  in  the  concrete,  surrounded  with  all 
its  determinate  conditions.  We  enunciate,  for  in- 
stance, one  of  the  leading  precepts  in  the  words:  "Thou 
shalt  not  kill ";  yet  the  taking  of  human  life  is  some- 
times a  lawful,  and  even  an  obligatory  act.  Herein 
exists  no  variation  in  the  law;  what  the  law  forbids  is 
not  all  taking  of  life,  but  all  unjust  taking  of  life. 
With  regard  to  the  possibility  of  any  cnange  by 
abrogation  or  dispensation,  there  can  oe  no  ques- 
tion of  such  being  introduced  by  any  authority  except 
that  of  God  Himself.  But  reason  forbids  us  to  think 
that  even  He  could  exercise  such  power;  because,  given 
the  hypothesis  that  He  wills  man  to  exist.  He  wills  him 
necessarily  to  Uve  conformably  to  the  eternal  law,  bv 
observing  in  his  conduct  the  law  of  reason.  The  Al- 
mighty, then,  cannot  be  conceived  as  willing  this 
and  simultaneously  willing  the  contradictory,  that  man 
should  be  set  free  from  the  law  entirely  through  its 
abrogation,  or  partially  through  dispensation  from  it. 
It  is  true  that  some  of  the  older  theologians,  followed 
or  copied  by  some  later  ones,  hold  that  God  can  dis- 
pense, and,  in  fact  in  some  instances,  has  dispensed 
from  the  secondary  precepts  of  the  natmtil  law,  while 
others  maintain  that  the  bearing  of  the  natural  law  is 
changed  by  the  operation  of  positive  law.  However, 
an  examination  of  the  argimients  offered  in  support  of 
these  opinions  shows  that  the  alleged  examples  of  dis- 
pensation are:  (a)  cases  where  a  change  of  conditions 
modifies  the  application  of  the  law,  or  (b)  cases  con- 
cerning obligations  not  imposed  as  absolutely  essential 
to  the  moralorder,  though  their  fulfilment  is  necessary 
for  the  full  perfection  of  conduct,  or  (c)  instances  of 
addition  made  to  the  law. 

#  As  examples  of  the  first  category  are  cited  God*s 
permission  to  the  Hebrews  to  despoil  the  Egyptians, 
and  His  command  to  Abraham  to  sacrifice  Isaac.  But 
it  is  not  necessary  to  see  in  these  cases  a  dispensation 
from  the  precepts  forbidding  theft  and  murder.  As  the 
Sovereign  Lord  of  all  things,  He  could  withdraw  from 
Isaac  his  right  to  life,  and  from  the  Egjrptians  their 
right  of  ownership,  with  the  result  that  neither  would 
the  killing  of  Isaac  be  an  unjust  destruction  of  life,  nor 
the  appropriation  of  the  Egyptians*  goods  the  unjust 
taking  of  another's  property.  The  classic  instance  al- 
leged as  an  example  of  (b)  is  the  legalization  of  polyg- 
amy amon^  the  Hebrews.  Polygamy,  however,  is  not 
under  all  circumstances  incompatible  with  the  essen- 
tial principles  of  a  rationally  ordered  life,  since  the 
chiei  ends  prescribed  by  nature  for  the  marital  union 
— the  propagation  of  the  race  and  the  due  care  and  ed- 
ucation of  offspring — may,  in  certain  states  of  society, 
be  attained  in  a  polygamous  union.  The  theory  that 
God  can  dispense  from  any  part  of  the  law,  even  from 
tJie  secondary  precepts,  is  scarcely  compatible  with  the 
doctrine,  whicn  is  the  common  teaching  of  the  School, 
that  the  natural  law  is  founded  on  the  eternal  law, 
and,  therefore,  has  for  its  ultimate  ground  the  immu- 
table essence  of  God  himiself.  As  regards  (c),  when 
positive  law,  human  or  Divine,  imposes  obligations 
which  only  modify  the  bearing  of  the  natural  law,  it 
cannot  correctly  be  said  to  change  it.  Positive  law 
may  not  ordain  anything  contrary  to  the  natural  law, 
from  which  it  draws  its  authority;  but  it  may — and 


this  is  one  of  its  functions — determine  with  more  pre- 
cision the  bearing  of  the  natural  law,  and  for  good  rea- 
sons, supplement  its  conclusions.  For  examine,  in  the 
eyes  of  the  natural  law  mutual  verbal  agreement  to  a 
contract  is  sufiicient;  yet,  in  many  kincb  of  contract, 
the  civil  law  declares  that  no  agreement  shall  be  valid, 
unless  it  be  expressed  in  writmg  and  signed  by  the 
parties  before  witnesses.  In  estaolishing  this  rule  the 
civil  authority  merely  exercises  the  power  which  it  de- 
rives from  the  natural  law  to  add  to  the  operation  of 
the  natural  law  such  conditions  as  the  common  good 
may  call  for.  Contrary  to  the  almost  universaUy  re- 
ceived doctrine,  a  few  theologians  held  erroneously 
that  the  natural  law  depends  not  on  the  essential  neces- 
sary will  of  God,  but  upon  EKs  arbitrary  poGiitive  will, 
and  taught  consistently  with  this  view,  that  the  nat- 
ural law  may  be  dispensed  from  or  even  abrogated  by 
God.  The  conception,  however,  that  the  moral  law  is 
but  an  arbitrary  enactment  of  the  Creator,  involves 
the  denial  of  any  absolute  distinction  between  right 
and  wrong — a  denial  which,  of  course,  sweeps  away 
the  very  foundation  of  the  entire  moral  order. 

III.  Our  Knowledge  of  the  Law. — Founded  in 
our  nature  and  revealed  to  us  by  our  reason,  the  moral 
law  is  known  to  us  in  the  measure  that  reason  brings 
a  knowledge  of  it  home  to  our  understanding.  The 
question  arises:  How  far  can  man  be  ignorant  of  the 
natural  law,  which,  as  St.  Paul  says,  is  written  in  the 
human  heart  (Rom.,  ii,  14)?  The  general  teaching  of 
theologians  is  that  the  supreme  and  primary  principles 
are  necessarily  known  to  every  one  naving  the  actual 
use  of  reason.  These  principles  are  really  reducible  to 
the  primary  principle  which  is  expressed  by  St.  Thomas 
in  tne  form:  "Do  good  and  avoid  evil'*.  Wherever 
we  find  man  we  find  him  with  a  moral  code,  which  is 
foimdcd  on  the  first  principle  that  good  is  to  be  done 
and  evil  avoided.  When  we  pass  from  the  universal 
to  more  particular  conclusions,  the  case  is  different. 
Some  follow  immediately  from  the  primary,  and  are 
so  self-evident  that  they  are  reached  without  any  com- 
plex course  of  reasoning.  Such  are,  for  example: 
"  Do  not  commit  adultery  " ;  "  Honour  your  parents  ". 
No  person  whose  reason  and  moral  nature  is  ever  so 
little  developed  can  remain  in  ignorance  of  such  pre- 
cepts except  through  his  own  fault.  Another  cla^  of 
conclusions  comprises  those  which  are  reached  only  by 
a  more  or  less  complex  course  of  reasoning.  These 
may  remain  unknown  to,  or  be  misinterpreted  even 
by  persons  whose  intellectual  development  is  consid- 
erable. To  reach  these  more  remote  precepts,  many 
facts  and  minor  conclusions  must  be  correctly  appre- 
prcciated,  and,  in  estimating  their  value,  a  person  may 
easily  err,  and  conse(|uently,  without  moral  fault, 
come  to  a  false  conclusion. 

A  few  theologians  of  the  seventeenth  and  eij^hteenth 
centuries,  following  some  older  ones,  maintained  that 
there  cannot  exist  in  anyone  practical  ignorance  of  the 
natural  law.  This  opinion  however  has  no  weight 
(for  the  controversy  see  Bouquillon,  *'Theologia  Fun- 
damentalist, n.  74).  Theoretically  speaking,  man  is 
capable  of  acquiring  a  full  knowledge  of  the  moral  law, 
which  is,  as  we  have  seen,  nothing  out  the  dictates  of 
reason  properly  exercised.  Actually,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  power  of  passion,  prejudice,  and  other 
influences  which  cloud  the  understanding  or  pervert 
tiie  will,  one  can  safely  say  that  man,  unaided  by  su- 
pernatural revelation,  would  not  acquire  a  full  and 
correct  knowledge  of  the  contents  of  the  natural  law 
(cf.  Vatican  Council,  Sess.  Ill,  cap.  ii).  In  proof 
we  need  but  recall  that  the  noblest  ethical  teaching 
of  pagans,  such  as  the  systems  of  Plato,  Aristotle, 
and  the  Stoics,  was  disfigured  by  ita  approbation  of 
shockingly  immoral  actions  and  practices. 

As  the  fundamental  and  all-embracing  obligation 
imposed  upon  man  by  the  Creator,  the  natural  law  is 
the  one  to  which  all  his  other  obligations  are  attached. 
The  duties  imposed  on  us  in  the  supernatural  law  come 


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home  to  us,  because  the  natural  law  and  its  exponent^ 
consdencei  tell  us  that,  if  God  has  vouchsafed  to  us  a 
supernatural  revelation  with  a  series  of  precepts,  we 
are  bound  to  accept  and  obey  it.  The  natural  law  is 
the  foundation  of  all  human  law  inasmuch  as  it  ordains 
that  man  shall  live  in  society,  and  society  for  its  con- 
stitution requires  the  existence  of  an  authority,  which 
shtkll  possess  the  moral  power  necessary  to  control  the 
members  and  direct  them  to  the  common  good.  Hu- 
man laws  are  valid  and  equitable  only  in  so  far  as  they 
correspond  wi^,  and  enforce  or  supplement  the  nat- 
ural law;  the^  are  null  and  void  when  they  conflict  with 
it.  The  Umted  States  system  of  equity  courts,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  those  engaged  in  the  administration 
of  the  common  law,  are  founded  on  the  principle  that, 
when  the  law  of  the  legislator  is  not  in  harmony  with 
the  dictates  of  the  natural  law,  equity  (cequitaSf  em- 
keia)  demands  that  it  be  set  aside  or  corrected.  St. 
Tliomas  explains  the  lawfulness  of  this  procedure. 
Because  human  actions,  which  are  the  subject  of  laws, 
are  individual  and  innumerable,  it  is  not  possible  to 
establish  any  law  that  may  not  sometimes  work  out 
unjustly.  Legislators,  however,  in  passing  laws,  at- 
tend to  what  commonly  happens,  though  to  apply  the 
conunon  rule  will  sometimes  work  injustice  and  defeat 
the  intention  of  the  law  itself.  In  such  cases  it  is  bad 
to  follow  the  law;  it  is  ^ood  to  set  aside  its  letter  and 
follow  the  dictates  of  justice  and  the  common  good 
(II-II,  Q.  cxx,  a.  1).  Logically,  chronologically,  and 
ontolo^cally  antecedent  to  all  human  society  for 
which  it  provides  the  indispensable  basis,  the  natural 
or  moral  law  is  neither — as  Hobbes,  in  anticipation  of 
the  modem  positivistic  school,  taught — a  product  of 
social  agreement  or  convention,  nor  a  mere  congeries 
of  the  actions,  customs,  and  ways  of  men,  as  claimed  by 
the  ethicists  who,  refusing  to  acknowledge  the  First 
Cause  as  a  Personality  with  whom  one  entertains  per- 
sonal relations,  deprive  the  law  of  its  obligatory  basis. 
It  is  a  true  law,  for  through  it  the  Divine  Mmd  im- 
poses on  the  subject  minds  of  His  rational  creatures 
their  obligations  and  prescribes  their  duties. 

On  this  subject  consult  Eh'Hics;  Conscience;  Good:  Dvtt; 
8umma  Theol..  I-II.  <^.  xci,  xciv;  I.  Q..  Ixxix,  a.  12;  Suarss, 
De  Legibta,  II,  v-xvn;  METBRt  Inatitutiones  Juris  NcUuralia, 
II.  The  natural  law  is  treated  in^  all  Catholic  text-books  of 
ethics.  A  good  exposition  in  English  will  be  found  in  Rickabt, 
Moral  Phiia9ovhy  (London,  1888):  Hill,  Ethxca  or  Moral  Phi- 
lo9ophy  ^Baltimore,  1888).  Consult  also:  Robinson.  Elements 
q/Amertean  Jurisprtidence  (Boston,  1900);  Liixy,  Right  and 
Wrong  (London.  1880):  Ming,  The  Data  of  Modem  Ethics 
iSxamined  (New  York,  1897):  Bouquillon,  Theologia  Moraiis 
FundameniaUs  (Ratisbon  ana  New  York.  1890);  Blackstone, 
Commemiaries,  1,  intiod.t  sec.  i. 

James  J.  Fox. 

Law,  Roman. — In  the  following  article  this  subject 
is  briefly  treated  under  the  two  heads  of:  I.  Principles; 
II.  Histoiy.  Of  these  two  divisions,  I  is  subdivided 
into:  A.  rersons;  B.  Things;  C.  Actions.  The  sub- 
divisions of  II  are:  A.  Development  of  the  Roman 
Law  (again  divided  into  periods)  and  B.  Subs^uent 
bifluence. 

I.  Principles. — ^The  characteristic  of  the  earlier  Ro- 
man law  was  its  extreme  formalism.  From  its  first 
secret  administration  as  the  law  of  the  privileged 
classes  it  expanded  until  it  became  the  basis  of  all 
civilized  le^  systems.  The  Roman  law  in  its  matu- 
rity recognized  a  definite  natural-law  theory  as  the 
ultimate  test  of  the  reasonableness  of  positive  law,  and 
repudiated  the  concept  that  justice  is  the  creature  of 
positive  law.  Cicero  (De  leg.,  I,  v)  tells  us  "Nos  ad 
justitiam  esse  natos,  neque  opinione  sed  natura  con- 
stitutum  esse  jus"  (i.  e.  Justice  is  natural,  not  the 
effect  of  opinion).  Justice  was  conformity  with  pjer- 
fect  laws,  and  jurisprudence  was  the  appreciation 
of  things  human  and  divine — the  science  of  the  just 
and  the  unjust,  but  always  the  science  of  law  with  its 
just  applTcation  to  practical  cases.  Law  was  natural 
or  positive  (man-made) ;  it  was  natural  strictly  speak- 
ing (instinctive)  t  or  it  was  natutal  under  the' Roman 


concept  of  the  jv^  gentium  (law  of  nations) — natural 
in  itself  or  so  universally  recognized  b^  all  men  that  a 
presumption  arose  by  reason  of  universality.  The 
Romans  attributed  slavery  to  the  jus  gentium  because 
it  was  universally  practised,  and  therefore  implied  the 
consent  of  all  men,  yet  the  definition  of  slavery  ex- 
pressly states  that  it  is  contra  naturam,  '^  against  na- 
ture". The  precepts  of  the  law  were  these:  to  live 
honestly;  not  to  in lure  another;  to  give  unto  each  one 
his  due.  Positive  law  wad  the  jus  civile,  or  municipal 
law,  of  a  particular  state. 

Gains  says  that  all  law  pertains  to  persons,  to  things, 
or  to  actions. 

A.  Persons. — Man  and  person  were  not  equivalent 
terms.  A  slave  was  not  a  person,  but  a  tiling;  a  per- 
son was  a  human  being  endowed  with  civil  status.  In 
other  than  human  beings  personality  might  exist  by  a 
fiction.  Status  was  natural  or  civil.  Natural  status 
existed  by  reason  of  natural  incidents,  such  as  post- 
humous or  already  bom  (jam  nati),  sane  and  insane, 
male  and  female,  infancy  and  majority.  Civil  status 
had  to  do  with  liberty,  citizenship,  and  family.  If 
one  had  no  civil  status  whatever,  he  had  no  personal- 
ity and  was  a  mere  thing.  Men  were  either  free  or 
slaves:  if  free  they  were  either  free  bom  or  freedmen. 
Slaves  were  bom  such  or  became  slaves  either  by  the 
law  of  nations  or  by  civil  law.  By  the  law  of  nations 
they  became  slaves  bv  reason  of  captivity;  by  civil 
law,  by  the  status  of  their  parents  or  in  the  occasional 
case  where  they  permitted  themselves  to  be  sold  in 
order  to  participate  in  the  price,  if  they  were  over 
twenty  years  of  age.  An  ungrateful  freedman,  again, 
might  become  a  slave,  as  mignt  one  condemned  to  in- 
voumtary  servitude  in  punishment  for  crime.  Free- 
bom,  in  the  later  law,  were  such  as  were  bom  of  a 
mother  who  was  free  at  conception,  at  birth,  or  at  any 
time  between  conception  and  birth.  Freedmen  were 
former  slaves  who  had  been  emancipated  under  one  of 
several  forms.  They  owed  obseguium — i.  e.,  respect 
and  reverence — to  their  former  masters.  The  Lex 
iElia  Sentia  placed  restrictions  on  emancipation  by 
minors  and  m  fraud  of  creditors.  The  Lex  Fusia 
Caninia  restricted  the  right  of  manumission  propor- 
tionately to  the  number  of  slaves  owned. 

Men  were  either  citizens  or  foreigners  (peregrini), 
perhaps  more  accurately '  *  denizens ' ' .  Assuming  that 
one  had  civil  status,  he  might  be  either  sui  juris  (his 
own  master)  or  alieni  juris  (subject  to  another) .  The 
power  to  which  he  was  subject  was  termed  a  potestas: 
slaves  were  under  the  dominical  power,  and  children 
were  under  the  pairia  potestas  exercised  by  a  male 
ascendant;  the  marital  power  was  termed  manus  (i.  e., 
"the  hand",  signifying  force). 

Slaves  were  at  first  insecure  in  their  lives,  but  later 
the  master's  power  of  life  and  death  was  taken  away. 
They  were  in  commerce  and  might  be  sold,  donated, 
bequeathed  by  legacy,  alienated  by  testament,  or 
manumitted.  They  had  nothing  of  their  own,  and 
whatever  was  acquired  through  them  accrued  to  the 
masters.  Only  very  rarely  could  they  bring  their 
masters  into  legal  relations  with  third  persons. 

The  patemalpower  over  children  (descendants)  was 
a  close  patriarcnal  relationship,  dating  from  remote 
antiquity  and  at  first  extending  to  life  and  death.  Be- 
tween paterfamilias  and  filius  familias  (father  and 
son),  no  obligation  was  legally  enforceable  (see  Pre- 
judicial action  below^).  During  his  lifetime  the  pater-- 
/amilias  was  the  owner  of  accessions  made  by  the 
filius  familias.  The  later  law,  however,  reco^zed  a 
quasi-partnership  of  blood  and  conceded  an  mchoate 
ownership  in  the  paternal  goods,  which  was  ^iven  ex- 
pression m  the  system  of  successions.  A  child  untler 
power  might  have  the  administration  of  separate  goods 
called  his  peculium.  The  paterfamilias  did  not  part 
with  the  ownership.  The  military  and  quasi-military 
peculium  became  a  distinct ,  separate  property.  Even 
the  slave  at  his  master's  sufferance  might  enjoy  a 


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pecidium.  The  paternal  power  was  stripped  of  the 
power  of  life  and  death,  the  right  of  punisnment  was 
moderated,  and  the  sale  of  children  was  restricted  to 
cases  of  extreme  necessity.  In  the  earlier  law,  it  had 
been  permitted  to  the  father  to  give  over  his  child  (as 
he  might  give  over  a  slave)  to  some  person  injm^ed 
through  the  act  of  the  child,  and  thus  escape  liability. 
With  the  growth  of  humane  sentiment,  the  noxal  ac- 
tion in  the  case  of  children  was  abolished.  Between 
parents  and  children,  only  affirmative  or  negative 
actions  on  the  question  of  miation  or  the  existence  of 
the  paternal  power  were  permitted.  The  paternal 
power  was  held  only  by  males,  and  extended  indefi- 
nitely downward  during  the  lifetime  of  the  patriarch: 
i.  e.,  father  and  son  were  under  the  patria  potestas  of 
the  grandfather.  The  potestas  was  in  no  wise  in- 
fluenced by  infancy  or  majority.  In  the  case  given, 
upon  the  death  of  the  CTandfather  the  paternal  power 
woiild  fall  upon  the  father.  The  patria  'ootestas  was  ac- 
quired over  children  bom  in  lawful  wedlock,  by  legiti- 
mation, and  by  adoption. 

Marriage  (huptice  or  connubium)  was  the  association 
or  community  of  life  between  man  and  woman,  for  the 
procreation  and  rearing  of  offspring,  validly  entered 
mto  between  Roman  citizens.  It  was  wont  to  be  pre- 
ceded by  spansalia  (betrothal),  defined  as  an  agree- 
ment of  future  marriage.  Sponsalia  might  be  ver- 
bally entered  into,  and  required  no  solemnities.  The 
mutual  consent  of  the  spouses  was  requisite,  and  the 
object  of  marriage  was  kept  in  mind  so  that  marriage 
with  an  impotent  person  (castratus)  was  invalid:  the 
parties  must  have  attainea  puberty,  and  there  could 
De  but  one  husband  and  one  wife.  It  is  true  that 
more  or  less  continuous  extra-matrimonial  relations 
between  the  same  man  and  woman  in  the  absence  of 
any  other  marriage  were  considered  as  a  kind  of  mar- 
riage, under  the  jv^  gentium,  by  the  jurists  of  the  sec- 
ond and  third  centuries.  The  cannubium,  or  Roman 
marriage,  was  for  Roman  citizens:  matrimonium 
existed  among  other  free  persons,  and  corUvbemium 
was  the  marital  relation  of  slaves.  The  latter  was  a 
status  of  fact,  not  a  juridical  status.  Marriage  might 
be  incestuous,  indecorous,  or  noxal:  incestuous,  e.  g., 
between  blood  relations  or  persons  between  whom 
affinity  existed;  indecorous,  e.  g.,  between  a  freeman 
and  a  lewd  woman  or  actress;  noxal,  e.  g.,  between 
Christian  and  Jew,  tutor  or  curator  and  ward,  etc. 

Cognation  or  blood  relationship  is  indicated  by  de- 
grees and  lines;  the  degree  measures  the  distance  be- 
tween cognates,  and  the  line  shows  the  series,  either 
direct  (ascending  or  descending)  or  collateral;  the 
collateral  line  is  cither  equal  or  unequal  in  the  descent 
from  the  common  ancestor.  In  the  direct  line,  in  both 
civil  and  canon  law,  there  are  as  many  degrees  as  there 
are  generations.  In  the  collateral  line  there  is  a 
difference:  by  civil  law,  brother  and  sister  are  in  the 
second  degree,  although  each  is  only  one  degree  re- 
moved from  the  common  ancestor,  the  father;  by 
canon  law,  they  are  in  the  first  degree.  The  civil  law 
counts  each  degree  up  to  the  common  ancestor  and 
then  down  to  the  other  collateral.  The  canon  law 
measures  the  cognation  of  collaterals  by  the  distance 
in  degrees  of  the  collateral  farthest  removed  from  the 
common  ancestor.  Uncle  and  niece  are  three  degrees 
distant  by  civil  law;  by  canon  law  they  are  only  two 
degrees  removed.  Aflanity  is  the  artificial  relation- 
ship which  exists  between  one  spouse  and  the  cognates 
of  the  other.  Affinity  has  no  degrees.  By  Roman 
law,  marriage  in  the  direct  line  was  prohibited;  in  the 
collateral  line  it  was  prohibited  in  the  second  degree. 

Marriage  was  usually  accompanied  by  the  dowry, 
created  on  behalf  of  the  wife,  and  by  donations  propter 
nuptias,  on  behalf  of  the  husband.  The  dowry  (dos) 
was  what  the  wife  brought  or  what  some  other  person 
on  her  behalf  siipplied  towards  the  expenses  of  the 
married  state.  Property  of  the  wife  in  excess  of  the 
dowry  was  called  her  paraphernalia.    The  dowry  was 


profective,  if  it  came  from  the  father;  adventitious,  if 
from  the  wife  or  from  any  other  source.  The  husband 
enjoyed  its  administration  and  control,  and  aU  of  its 
fruits  accrued  to  him.  Upon  the  dissolution  of  the 
marrii^  the  profective  dowry  might  be  reclaimed  by 
the  wile's  father,  and  the  adventitious  by  the  wife  or 
her  heirs.  Special  actions  existed  for  the  enforcement 
of  dotal  agreements. 

The  offspring  of  incest  or  adultery  could  not  be  le- 
gitimated. Adoption,  whieh  imitates  nature,  was  a 
means  of  acquiring  the  paternal  power.  Only  such 
persons  as  in  nature  might  have  oeen  parents  could 
adopt,  and  hence  a  difference  of  eighteen  years  was 
necessary  in  the  aees  of  the  parties.  Adoption  was  of 
a  minor,  and  could  not  be  for  a  time  only.  Similar  to 
adoption  was  adrogation,  whereby  one  sui  juris  sub- 
jected himself  to  the  patria  potestas  of  another. 

The  paternal  power  was  dissolved  by  the  death  of 
the  ancestor,  in  which  case  each  descendant  in  the  first 
degree  became  sui  juris;  those  in  remoter  degrees  fell 
imder  the  paternal  power  of  the  next  ascendant.  Upon 
the  death  of  the  grandfather,  his  children  became  sui 
juris,  and  the  grandchildren  came  under  the  power  of 
their  respective  fathers.  Loss  of  status  (capitis  di- 
minution media  or  maxima),  involving  loss  oi  liberty 
or  citizenship,  destroyed  the  patemaTpower.  Eman- 
cipation and  adoption  had  a  similar  effect. 

One  might  be  sui  juris  and  yet  subject  to  tutorship 
or  curatorship.  Pupillary  tutorship  was  a  personal 
public  office  consistmg  in  the  education  ana  in  the 
administration  of  the  ^oods  of  a  person  sui  juris,  but 
who  had  not  yet  attained  puberty.  Tutorship  was 
testamentary,  statutory,  or  dative:  testamentary 
when  validly  exercised  in  the  will  of  the  paterfamilias 
with  respect  to  a  child  about  to  become  sui  juris,  but 
under  puberty.  A  testamentary  tutor  could  not  be 
appointed  by  the  mother  nor  by  a  maternal  ascendant. 
The  agnates,  who  were  an  important  class  of  kinsmen, 
in  the  early  Roman  law  were  cognates  connected 
through  males  either  by  blood  relationship  or  by  the 
artfficial  tie  of  agnation.  Statutory  tutorship  was 
that  which  the  law  immediately  conferred,  as  the 
tutorship  of  agnates,  of  patrons,  etc.  The  first  statu- 
tory tutors  were  the  agnates  and  gentiles  called  to 
tutorship  by  the  Twelve  Tables.  Justinian  abolished 
the  distinction  in  this  respect  between  agnates  and 
cognates,  and  called  them  promiscuously  to  the  statu- 
tory tutorship. 

Similar  to  tutorship,  although  distinct  in  its  inci- 
dents, was  curatorship.  In  tutorship  the  office  ter- 
minated with  the  puberty  of  the  ward.  The  interpo- 
sition of  the  tutor's  auctoritas  in  every  juridical  act 
was  reauired  to  be  concurrent,  both  in  time  and  place. 
He  had  no  power  of  ratification,  nor  could  he  supply 
the  auctoritas  by  letter  or  through  an  agent.  Curators 
were  given  to  persons  sui  juris  after  puberty  and  be- 
fore they  had  reached  the  necessary  maturity  for  the 
conduct  of  their  own  affairs.  Curators  were  appointed 
also  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  for  the  insane  and  for 
prodigals.  The  curator  of  a  minor  was  given  rather 
to  the  goods  than  to  the  person  of  his  wara;  the  cura- 
tor's consent  was  necessary  to  any  valid  disposition 
of  the  latter's  goods.  Tutors  and  curators  were  re- 
auired to  give  security  for  the  faithful  performance  of 
uieir  duties  and  were  liable  on  the  quasi-contractua! 
relationship  existing  between  them  and  their  wards. 
In  certain  cases  the  law  excused  persons  from  these 
duties,  and  provision  was  made  for  the  removal  of 
persons  who  nad  become  "suspect ". 

In  the  law  of  persons,  status  depended  upon  liberty, 
citizenship,  and  family;  and  the  corresponding  losses 
of  status  were  known  respectively  as  capitis  aiminu- 
tio  maxima,  media,  and  minima.  The  minima,  by  a 
fiction  at  least,  was  involved  even  when  one  became 
sui  juris,  although  this  is  disputed. 

B.  Things. — ^Things  were  divini  vet  humani  juris 
(i.  e.,  governed  by  divine  or  by  human  law).    Things 


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Bocrce  were  publicly  consecrated  to  the  gods;  places  of 
burial  were  ^things  rdigiosce;  things  mncUB  were  so 
called  because  protected  by  a  penal  sanction — ^thus 
the  city  walls,  gates,  ditch,  etc.  were  aanctce.  None  of 
these  could  be  part  of  an  individual's  patrimony,  be- 
cause they  were  considered  as  not  in  commerce. 

Things  humani  juris  were  the  things  with  which  the 
private  law  concerned  itself.  Things  are  conunon 
when  the  ownership  is  in  no  one,  anof  the  enjoyment 
open  to  all.  In  an  analogous  wav,  things  are  public 
wnen  the  ownership  is  in  the  people,  and  the  use  in  in- 
dividu^s.  The  air,  flowing  water,  the  sea,  etc.  were 
things  common  to  all,  and  therefore  the  property  of 
none.  The  seashore,  rivers,  gates,  etc.,  were  public. 
Private  things  were  such  as  were  capable  of  private 
ownership  and  could  form  part  of  tne  patrimony  of 
individuals.  Again,  thin^  were  collective  or  singular. 
The  once  important  distinction  between  res  mancipi 
and  nee  mancipi  was  suppressed  by  Justinian.  Res 
mancipi  were  those  things  which  the  Romans  most 
highlyprized:  Italian  soil,  rural  servitudes,  slaves, 
etc.    Tnese  required  formal  mancipation. 

Things  were  either  corporeal  or  incorporeal:  cor- 
pora were  those  quce  tangi  possunt  (which  can  be 
touched — tangible).  Detention  or  naked  possession 
of  a  thing  was  the  mere  physical  faculty  of  disposing  of 
it.  Possession  was  the  detention  of  a  corporeal  thmg 
coupled  with  the  animus  dominiiy  or  intent  of  owner- 
ship. It  might  be  in  good  faith  or  in  bad:  if  there  was 
a  just  title,  tne  possession  was  just:  if  not,  unjust.  A 
true  possession  was  possible  of  a  corporeal  thing  oi^y ; 
quasi-possession  was  the  term  employed  in  reference 
to  an  incorporeal  thing,  as  .a  right.  The  jus  posses- 
sionis  was  the  entirety  of  riehts  which  accrued  to  the 
possession  as  such.  The  advantages  of  possession  as 
mdependent  of  ownership  were  as  follows:  the  pos- 
sessor had  not  the  burden  of  producing  and  proving 
title;  sometimes  he  enjoyed  the  fruits  of  the  thing;  he 
retained  the  thing  until  the  claimant  made  proof;  he 
stood  in  a  better  position  in  law  than  the  claimant, 
and  received  the  decision  where  the  claim  was  not 
fully  established;  the  possessor  might  retain  the  thing 
bv  virtue  of  the  jus  reteniionist  until  reimbursed  for 
chaises  and  outlays;  the  possessor  in  eood  faith  was 
not  liable  for  culpa  (fault).  One  might  not  recover 
possession  by  violence  or  self-help. 

A  right  in  re  was  a  real  right,  valid  against  all  the 
world;  a  right  ad  rem  was  an  obligation  or  personal 
right  against  a  particular  person  or  persons.  Rights 
in  re  were  ownership,  inheritance,  servitudes,  pledge, 
etc.  Ownership  was  quiritarian  or  bonitarian:  qmri- 
tarian,  when  acquired  by  the  jus  civile  only  available 
to  Roman  citizens;  bonitarian,  when  acquired  by  any 
natural,  as  distinguished  from  civil,  means.  This  dis- 
tinction was  removed  by  Justinian.  There  could  be 
co-ownership  or  sole  ownership. 

The  modes  of  acquiring  ownership  were  of  two 
genera,  arising  from  natuml  law  and  from  civil  law. 
One  acquired,  by  natural  law,  in  occupation,  acces- 
sion, perception  of  fruits,  and  by  tradition  (delivery). 
Occupation  occurreii  in  acquisition  by  hunting,  fishing, 
capture  in  war,  etc.  The  right  of  post-liminium  was 
the  recovery  of  rights  lost  through  capture  in  war,  and 
in  proper  cases  applied  to  immoveables,  moveables, 
ana  to  the  status  of  persons.  Finding  was  also  a 
means  of  occupation,  since  a  thing  completely  lost  or 
abandoned  was  res  nuUius,  and  therefore  belonged  to 
the  first  taker. 

Accession  was  natural,  industrial,  or  mixed.  The 
birth  of  a  child  to  a  slave  woman  was  an  instance  of 
natural  accesdon;  so  also,  was  the  formation  of  an 
island  in  a  stream.  This  accrued  to  the  riparian 
owners  proportionately  to  their  frontage  along  the 
side  of  the  river  towards  which  the  island  was  formed. 
Alluvion  was  the  slow  increment  added  to  one's  ripar- 
ian property  by  the  current.  Industrial  accession  re- 
quired human  intervention  and  occurred  by  adjunctio, 
IX.— 6 


spedficatio,  or  commixtio^  or  by  a  species  of  the  latter, 
confusio.  Mixed  accession  took  place  by  reason  of  the 
maxim:  Whatever  is  planted  on  the  soil,  or  connected 
with  it,  belongs  to  the  soil. 

In  perception  of  fruits  the  severance  or  taking  of 
revenue  might  be  by  the  owner  or  by  another,  as  by 
the  usufructuary,  the  lessee  (in  locatio-conductio),  by 
the  creditor  (in  antichresis),  and  by  the  possessor  in 
good  faith. 

Tradition  was  the  transfer  of  possession  and  was  a 
corporeal  act,  where  the  nature  of  the  object  per- 
mitted. CJorporeal  things  were  moveables  or  immove- 
ables. In  modem  civil  law,  incorporeal  things  are 
moveables  or  immoveables,  depending  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  property  to  which  the  rights  or  obligations 
attach.  In  Roman  law  obligations,  rights,  and  ao- 
tions  were  not  embraced  in  the  terms  moveables  and 
immoveables. 

The  vindicatory  action  (rei  vindiccUio)  went  to  the 
direct  question  of  ownership,  and  ownership  was  re- 
quired to  be  conclusively  proved.  Complete  proof  of 
ownership  was  often  extremely  difficult,  or  impossible, 
and  the  Frsetor  Publicius  devised  the  actio  pMiciana 
available  to  an  acquirer  by  just  title  and  in  good  faith, 
but  who  could  not  establish  the  ownership  of  his 
author.  It  was  available  to  such  an  acquirer  against 
a  claimant  who  possessed  infirmiure  jure. 

Ownership  {dominium)  is  an  absolute  right  in  re, 
A  servitude  (sometimes  called  a  dismemberment  of 
ownership)  was  a  constituted  right  in  the  property  of 
another,  whereby  the  owner  was  bound  to  suffer 
something,  or  abstain  from  doing  something,  with  re- 
spect to  his  property,  for  the  utility  of  some  other  per- 
son or  thing.  A  servitude  was  not  a  service  of  a  per- 
son, but  of  a  thing,  and  to  adjoining  land  or  to  a 
person.  Servitudes  due  to  land  were  real  (predial), 
while  servitudes  due  to  a  person  as  such  were  personal. 
There  were  servitudes  which  might  be  considered  as 
either  real  or  personal,  and  others,  again,  which  could 
only  be  personal,  such  as  usufruct,  use,  habitation, 
ana  the  labour  of  slaves.  A  real  servitude  existed 
when  land  was  servient  to  land.  Such  a  servitude 
was  either  urban  or  rural,  depending  not  so  much  on 
whether  the  servitude  was  exercised  in  the  city  or 
country  as  upon  its  relation  to  buildings.  Servitudes 
consisted  in  something  essentially  passive,  in  patiendo 
vd  in  non  faciendo;  never  in  jaciendo.  Servitudes 
which  consisted  in  patiendo  were  affirmative  and  those 
in  rum  faciendo  were  negative.  Servitudes  could  arise 
by  agreement,  last  will,  or  prescription. 

There  were  numerous  urban  predial  servitudes:  as 
onus  ferendi,  by  which  one's  construction  was  bound 
to  sustain  the  columns  of  another  or  the  weight  of  his 
wall;  tigni  immittendi,  the  right  to  seat  one's  timbers 
in  his  neighbour's  wall;  projiciendi,  the  right  to  over- 
hang one's  timbers  over  the  land  of  another,  although 
in  no  way  resting  on  the  other's  soil;  protegendi,  a 
similar  right  of  projecting  one's  roof  over  another's 
soil.  The  servitudes  stiUicidii  and  fluminis  recipiendi 
were  similar:  stiUicidium  was  the  right  to  drip;  and 
fluminis  recipiendi,  the  right  to  discharge  rainwater 
collected  in  canals  or  gutters.  The  servitude  ottiiw 
non  toUendi  was  a  restriction  on  the  height  of  a  neigh- 
bour's construction  while  altius  toUendi  was  an  affirma- 
tive right  to  carry  one's  construction  higher  than 
otherwise  permitted.  Servitudes  of  light  and.  pros- 
pect were  of  similar  nature. 

Rural  predial  servitudes  were  iter,  actus,  via,  aqtuB- 
ductus,  and  the  like.  The  servitude  of  iter  (way)  was 
an  eight-foot  roadway  in  the  stretehes,  with  accom- 
modation at  the  turns.  It  included  the  right  of  driv- 
ing vehicles  and  cattle,  and  the  lesser  right  of  foot- 
passage.  Actus  was  a  right  of  trail  of  four  feet  in 
which  cattle  or  suitable  narrow  vehicles  might  be 
driven.  Iter  was  a  mere  right  of  path.  In  these 
servitudes  the  lesser  was  included  in  the  greater.  The 
nature  of  the  right  of  aquaductus  is  obvious,  as  well 


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as  the  various  servitudes  of  drawing  water,  of  driving 
cattle  to  water,  of  pasturage,  of  burning  lime,  of  dig- 
ging sand  or  gravel,  and  the  like.  Servitudes  of  this 
character  could  be  extinguished  by  the  consolidation 
of  ownership  of  both  servient  and  dominant  estate  in 
the  same  owner,  and  by  remission  or  release;  by  non- 
user  for  the  prescriptive  period,  and  by  the  destruction 
of  the  dominant  or  servient  estate. 

Usufruct  was  the  greatest  of  personal  servitudes; 
jret,  as  its  measure  was  not  the  stnct  personal  needs  of 
its  subject,  it  exceeded  a  personal  servitude.  During 
the  period  of  enjoyment  it  was  almost  ownership,  and 
was  described  as  a  personal  servitude  consisting  in  the 
use  and  enjoyment  of  the  corporeal  things  of  another 
without  change  in  their  substance.  Usvsfructus  was 
the  right  ulendi^  fmendi,  salva  substantia.  In  a  strict 
sense  it  applied  only  to  corporeal  things  which  were 
neither  consumed  nor  dimimshed  by  such  use.  After 
Tiberius,  a  quasi-usufruct  (as  of  money)  was  recog- 
nized. Monev,  although  not  consumable  naturaliter, 
was  consumable  civUiter.  Usufruct  could  arise  by 
operation  of  law,  by  judicial  decision  (as  in  partition), 
by  convention,  by  laist  will,  and  even  by  prescription. 
The  natural  or  civil  death  of  the  usufructuary  ex- 
tinguished the  right,  as  did  non-user  and  the  complete 
loss  of  the  thing. 

Use  and  habitation  were  lesser  rights  of  the  same 
general  nature.  Ustis  was  the  right  to  use  the  things 
of  another,  but  only  to  the  extent  of  the  usee's  necessi- 
ties, and  always  sdva  substantia.  Habitation  was  the 
right  of  dwelhng  in  another's  building  in  those  apart- 
ments which  were  intended  for  habitation,  salva  sub- 
stantia (i.  e.,  without  substantial  modification).  The 
personal  servitude  operce  servorum  embraced  every 
utility  from  the  labour  of  another's  slave  or  slaves. 
"The  actions  from  servitudes  were  confessoria  or  nega- 
toriay  in  assertion  of  the  servitude  or  in  denial  of  it. 

Ownership  might  further  be  acquired  by  usucap- 
ion (usucapio)  and  prescription  for  a  long  period. 
Prescription  (a  slight  modification  of  the  older  usu- 
capion) is  the  dispensing  with  evidence  of  title,  and  is 
acquisitive  when  it  is  the  means  of  acquiring  owner- 
ship and  extinctive  (divestitive)  when  it  bars  a  right  of 
action.  Acquisitive  prescription  reauired  (1)  a  thing 
subject  to  prescription,  (2)  good  faitn,  (3)  continuous 
possession,  and  (4)  the  lapse  of  the  prescribed  time. 

Again,  ownership  could  be  acquired  by  donation, 
the  gratuitous  transfer  of  a  thing  to  another  person. 
Donations  were  mortis  causa  or  inter  vivos,  and  the 
former  was  in  reality  a  conditional  testamentary  dis- 
position and  very  similar  to  a  legacy,  while  the  latter 
did  not  require  the  death  of  the  donor  for  its  perfec- 
tion. A  species  of  donation  inter  vivos  was  the  donatio 
propter  nuptias  from  the  husband. 

T/he  juridical  consequence  of  ownership  is  the 
power  of  alienation,  and  yet  the  law  limited  certain 
owners  in  this  respect.  The  husband  owned  the 
dowry,  but  was  suDJect  to  restrictions;  the  pupil 
under  tutorship  was  owner,  but  without  power  to 
alienate,  except  probably  in  the  single  case  ota  sister's 
dowry.  Even  where  one  was  owner  without  these 
specific  limitations,  if  he  had  conceded  rights  in  re  to 
another,  he  could  not  alienate  prejudicially  to  such 
other:  thus,  the  pledge  debtor  could  not  prejudice  the 
rights  in  re  of  the  pledge  creditor. 

Acquisition  could  be  made,  not  only  personally,  but 
through  children  and  slaves;  and,  m  the  later  law, 
through  a  mandatory  or  procurator.  Acquisition 
could  be  made  of  possession,  of  ownership,  and  of  the 
right  of  pledge. 

Succession. — Succession  to  a  deceased  person  was 
either  testate  or  intestate:  particular  things  were  ac- 
quired by  legacies  or  by  trust-bequests  (fidei-comn 
missa),  A  universal  succession  was  an  inheritance. 
The  Twelve  Tables  recognized  the  right  of  testation, 
and  the  civil  law  later  conceived  of  a  partnership  ot 
blood  in  both  testate  and  intestate  successions.    The 


praetor's  intervention  was  frequent  in  testamentary 
matters;  and  in  equitable  cases  he  soften^  the  rigour 
of  the  law  and  gave  the  possessio  bonorum.  A  testa- 
ment was  the  legally  declared  last  will  in  which  an 
heir  was  instituted.  Some  departure  from  the  strict 
formalities  was  permitted  in  the  case  of  soldiers'  wills. 
The  right  of  testament  was  active  and  passive.  Per- 
sons generally  who  were  under  no  incapacity  could 
make  a  will;  those  prohibited  were  such  as  had  some 
defect  of  status,  some  vice  or  defect  of  mind,  or  even 
some  sufficient  defect  of  body,  and  those  guilty  of 
crime  or  improbity.  The  passive  right  of  testament 
was  the  right  to  take  under  a  will.  Heirs  were  volun- 
tary or  necessary  (forced).  In  the  early  freedom  of 
the  law,  Romans  might  disinherit  without  cause;  later, 
this  liberty  was  restricted  to  disherison  for  just  cause, 
and  a  legitima^  or  statutory  provision,  was  prescribed. 
Disherison  was  the  express  exclusion  from  the  whole 
inheritance  of  one  who  was  entitled  to  the  legiHma, 
One  was  prceteritus  who  was  neither  instituted  an  heir 
nor  disinherited.  Since  disherison- was  required  to  be 
express,  one  conditionally  instituted  was  only  preter- 
mitted. Further,  disherison  required  exclusion  from 
all  heirs  and  from  every  degree.  Under  the  early 
law,  sons  were  required  to  be  excluded  by  name; 
daughters  and  grandchildren  could  be  excluded  by 
class.  The  later  law  required  that  all  children  should 
be  deprived  by  name.  Justinian  enumerated  the 
"  just'  causes  of  disherison  in  Novel  cxv ;  they  are  sub- 
stantially the  same  in  the  modem  civil  codes. 

The  instituted  heir,  as  successor  to  the  universal 
rights  of  the  decedent,  was  required  to  have  passive 
t^tamentary  capacity  at  the  time  of  the  will  and  at 
the  time  of  the  acath;  the  intervening  period  was  of 
no  consequence.  It  was,  however,  requisite  that  he 
should  retain  capacity  from  the  time  of  the  death  until 
the  taking  of  the  inheritance.  In  a  conditional  in- 
stitution of  the  heir,  capacity  was  necessary  at  the 
time  of  the  will,  at  the  time  of  the  death,  and  at  the 
time  of  the  happening  of  the  condition.  Slaves  as 
well  as  freemen  could  oe  instituted  heirs,  and,  in  the 
case  of  a  slave  the  gift  of  liberty  was  implied.  Un- 
certain and  indeterminate  persons  might  he  instituted 
if  they  could  be  rendered  certain ;  such  were  the  poor, 
the  municipalities,  and  licit  corporations.  Where  co- 
heirs were  instituted  without  definite  shares,  they 
took  equally.  The  heir  might  be  instituted  abso- 
lutely or  conditionally,  but  not  merely  for  a  time.  A 
physically  impossible  condition,  negatively  added, 
left  the  institution  absolute;  in  general,  tne  condi- 
tions annexed  were  various  and  quite  similar  to  the 
classes  of  conditions  known  to  the  modern  civil  law. 
Where  one  of  several  co-heirs  failed  to  take,  his  por- 
tion accrued  to  the  others  as  a  matter  of  law,  without 
their  knowledge  and  even  against  their  wiQ:  this  was 
called  the  ju^  accrescendi. 

As  already  intimated,  the  testator  mi^ht  institute 
one  or  several  heirs;  if  all  were  instituteaat  the  same 
time,  they  were  direct  heirs;  but  one  might  be  direct 
and  the  other  substituted  by  way  of  fidei-commissum. 
Again,  the  testator  could  suDstitute  an  heir,  in  case  the 
first  should  not  take.  Direct  substitution,  therefore, 
was  the  institution  of  a  second  heir,  in  case  the  first 
failed  to  take:  with  respect  to  the  person  making  the 
substitution,  it  was  eitner  military  or  non-military. 
The  case  in  which  the  substitution  was  intended  to 
take  place  classed  it  as  vulgar,  pupillary,  or  c[uasi- 
pupillary:  vulgar  was  the  ordinary  substitution  in 
which  one  was  named  to  take,  in  case  the  first  "heir  de- 
faulted or  died ;  pupillary,  was  where  an  heir  was  insti- 
tuted to  succeed  a  child  under  pubeijy  (since  such 
child  could  not  make  a  will,  the  parent  in  a  sense  made 
two  wills,  one  for  himself  to  the  child  and  one  for  the 
child  in  case  the  latter  should  die  before  puberty). 

Testaments  were  vitiated  in  several  ways:  nuUum, 
void  from  the  begining,  where  there  was  a  defect  in  the 
institution  of  the  heir  or  incapacity  in  the  teetator; 


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inpt^uMf  not'  legally  executed  and  hence  void;  rup- 
hun,  by  revocation  or  by  the  agnation  of  a  posthumous 
diild,  either  natural  or  civil;  irruptunif  where  the 
testator  had  lost  the  civil  status  necessary  for  testa- 
tion; deatUtUum,  where  the  heir  defaulted  because 
dead  or  unwilling,  or  upon  failure  of  the  condition; 
ndssumf  as  the  consequence  of  a  legal  attack  upon  an 
undutif  ul  will. 

It  has  been  said  that  heirs  were  either  necessary  or 
voluntary:  necessary  heirs  were  either  such  as  could 
not  be  pretermitted  or  such  as  were  forced  to  accept. 
These  were  again  sui  el  neceaaarii  or  necessarii  omy. 
The  former  were  children  under  the  patria  potesias,  and 
they  were  aui  because  one's  own,  and  necessarii,  be- 
cause the  civil  law  made  them  forced  heirs,  although 
the  prsdtor  ^ve  to  such  the  heneiicium  abstinenai. 
Voluntary  heirs  were  strangers  who  nad  a  perfect  right 
of  election  to  accept  or  reject  the  inheritance.  The 
praetor  conceded  to  the  heir  a  period  of  time  in  which 
to  balance  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the 
inheritance,  called  the  jus  ddiherandi.  Justinian 
added  to  this  the  benefit  of  inventory. 

Aside  from  the  inheritance  proper,  a  will  could  con- 
tain le^^ies  whereby  things  were  bequeathed  by  a 
single  title  and  hy  express  words;  they  could  be  im- 
perative or  precative.  Legacies  were  by  vindication, 
where  the  express  words  justified  a  direct  legal  claim 
by  the  legatee;  bv  condemnation,  where  the  language 
condemned  or  ordered  the  heir  to  transmit  the  legacy; 
by  prcBceptio,  where  a  legacy  was  left  to  one  only  of 
several  co-heirs;  and  stnendi  modo,  by  permissive 
words.  As  in  the  case  of  joint-heirs,  the  jus  accres- 
cendi  existed  also  amon^  joint-legatees. 

By  reason  of  the  ambulatory  character  (as  Hcin- 
eccius  terms  it)  of  man's  will,  legacies  and  trust-be- 
quests (fideircommissa)  were  subject  to  ademption  and 
tmnsfer  to  another  legatee.  The  Lex  Falcidia,  which 
created  the  statutory  fourth  portion,  applied  to  lega- 
cies as  well  as  to  other  testamentary  provisions. 
Fidei^commissa  were  created  by  precative  words  ad- 
dressed to  the  conscience  of  the  heir,  and  were  at  first 
not  lesally  enforceable.  Trust-bequests  were  later 
g^ven  I^al  sanction;  and  the^r  were  universal  or  of 
single  things.  The  modem  civil  law  is  hostile  to 
trusts  of  any  kind. 

If  a  last  will  contained  the  institution  of  an  heir, 
it  was  a  testament;  if  it  contained  less,  it  was  a  codi- 
dl.  Originally,  codicils  were  only  letters;  later,  they 
began  to  have  testamentary  force,  containing,  how- 
ever, nothing  which  pertamed  to  the  direct  insti- 
tution of  the  heir.  There  could  be  several  non- 
repugnant  codicils.  Not  only  could  they  contain  no 
institution  of  an  heir,  but  thev  could  not  provide  for 
disherison  or  substitution.  They  were  made  either  in 
connexion  with  a  will  or,  in  some  cases,  with  a  view  to 
the  intestate  succession  of  the  heir. 

If  there  was  an  invalid  will  or  no  will  at  all,  the  suc- 
cession was  intestate:  in  the  ancient  law  the  basis  of 
intestate  succession  was  the  peculiarly  Roman  arti- 
ficial family  made  up  of  the  agnates.  Emancipated 
childreoi  and  non-agnatic  cognates  did  not  succeed, 
since  they  were  no  part  of  the  family.  In  the  first 
rank,  the  heirs  were  the  decedent's  children  (natural 
or  adoptive)  who  took  per  capita^  in  the  nearest  degree 
and  per  stirpes,  or  bv  representation,  in  remot<?r  de- 
crees. Elmancipated.  children  had  no  claim  until 
Kter,  when  they  were  aided  by  the  prsetor's  edict, 
"  Unde  liberi ".  The  Twel vfe  Tables  provided  that,  in 
the  absence  of  children,  the  nearest  agnate  should  be 
called:  this  was  known  as  the  statutory  sucession  of 
the  agnates.  Those  only  were  called  who  were  lx)und 
in  amation  to  the  deceased  through  males;  hence 
fenudes  beyond  sisters  were  not  called.  The  pnetor, 
however,  provided  for  the  more  remote  in  the  edict, 
"  Unde  cognati  "•  Agnates  by  adoption  enjoyed  the 
same  rights  as  agnates  by  nature.  The  nearest  agnate 
todc,  and  there  was  no  right  of  representation,  al- 


though here  again  the  prsetor  made  innovations  which 
were  supplemented  by  the  legislation  of  Justinian. 
The  father  did  not  succeed  to  the  son,  consistently 
with  the  idea  that  the  son  could  have  nothing  of  his 
own,  and,  where  the  father  took,  it  was  by  n^ht  of 
resumption.  The  father  succeeded  to  his  emancipated 
child,  not  as  an  agnate,  but  as  a  manumissor.  The 
mother  was  not  an  agnate,  and  did  not  succeed  to  her 
children,  nor  did  they  succeed  to  her.  Here,  again, 
changes  were  effected  by  the  edict,  "Unde  cognati", 
and  by  the  Senatus-consulta  Tertullianum  and  Or- 
phitianum.  The  former  senatv^'ConsuUum  provided 
that,  if  a  free  mother  gave  birth  to  three  chil(&en,  or  a 
freedwoman  to  four,  there  should  be  a  right  of  suc- 
cession, and  this  legislation  was  modified  by  Justinian 
even  more  favourably  to  the  mother.  The  Senatus- 
consultum  Orphitianum  was  the  complement  of  the 
other,  and  nrovideii  th.it  the  right  of  succession  be- 
tween mother  and  children  should  be  reciprocal. 
These  rights  were  extended  by  imperial  constitution 
to  grandchildren. 

If  agnates  were  wanting,  the  Twelve  Tables  called 
the  gentiles  in  the  next  rank,  and  not  the  cognates:  the 
praetor,  however,  in  the  edict  **Unde  cognati",  called 
the  cog^nates  in  this  rank. 

Servile  cognation  (that  contracted  in  slavery)  had 
been  an  impediment  of  marriage;  but  the  slave  wo- 
man, manumitted  with  her  chudren,  could  not  avail 
herself  either  of  the  Senatus-consultum  Tertullianum 
or  of  the  possession  of  goods  derived  from  the  edict 
"Unde  cognati".  Justinian  created  rights  of  suc- 
cession to  remedy  this  defect. 

The  former  master  or,  by  assignment  of  f reedmen, 
his  children,  stood  in  loco  jxirentis  to  the  freedman, 
and  succeeaed  to  his  patrimony.  Even  the  prede- 
ceased patron,  through  his  nearest  children  (repre- 
sentation being  excluded)  succeeded  to  the  goods  of 
his  former  slave.  Libertini,  freedmen,  were  restricted 
in  their  capacity  to  make  a  will.  The  prsetor  con- 
sidered it  no  more  than  equitable  that  the  libertinus 
should  leave  one-half  his  property  to  his  former  master. 
A  higher  equity  arose  where  the  freedman  left  children 
of  his  own,  and  in  this  case  the  patron  might  be  ex- 
cluded, the  whole  pjatrimony  going  to  the  treedman's 
children.  In  all  other  cases,  and  even  contra  tabulas, 
the  patron  took  one  half:  later,  in  special  circum- 
stances depending  upon  the  freedman  s  wealth,  Jus- 
tinian, developing  tne  principles  of  the  Lex  Fapia 
Foppsea,  increased  the  patron's  portion. 

The  prse tor's  intervention  in  succession  matters  did 
not  directly  overturn  the  provisions  of  the  ius  civile, 
but  he  devised  the  possessio  bonorum,  applicable  to 
both  testate  and  intestate  successions.  Justinian 
recognized  and  gave  sanction  to  three  kinds  of  jws- 
sessvo:  first,  contra  tabulas  (contrary  to  the  will), 
where  persons  had  been  inequitably  pretermitted; 
second,  secundum  tabulas;  third,  possession  of  an  in- 
testate's estate.  The  bonorum  possessor  was  not  an 
heir  in  accordance  with  jtLS  civile^  yet  he  enjoyed  all  of 
the  privileges  of  an  heir.  Justiman  placed  the  right 
of  succession  upon  a  basis  of  cognation,  or  blood  re- 
lationship, and  succession  by  right  of  blood  occurred 
in  four  orders  which  may  be  mdicated  as  follows:  First 
order  (a)  the  sui  heredes,  or  natural  heirs,  who  suc- 
ceeded in  virtue  of  the  con-dominium  in  the  inherit- 
ance; (b)  those  whose  strict  legal  right  had  been 
barred  (as  by  emancipation),  but  whom  the  praetor 
called  to  the  inheritance;  (c)  emancipated  sons  to 
whom  Justinian's  constitution  restored  natural  rights. 
Second  order,  (a)  statutory  heirs,  agnates;  (b)  persons 
entitled  under  the  Senatus-consultum  Tertullianum; 
(c)  tliose  entitled  under  the  Senatus-consultum 
Orphitianum.  Third  order,  the  cognates.  (Hein- 
eccius  gives  tables  of  descent  both  before  and  after 
Justinian's  legislation).  None  of  these  orders  being 
entitled  to  take,  the  estate  escheat-ed  to  the  fiscuSj  or 
public  treasury.    The  adjective  law  (below,  undex 


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C.  Actions)  supplied  various  forms  for  the  heredUas 
petitio,  CoUatiOj  or  the  return  of  advancements,  was 
required  in  order  that  there  might  be  a  fair  distri- 
bution. This  is  the  collation  of  the  modem  civil 
codes. . 

Another  means  for  the  acquisition  of  ownership  was 
adrogation,  whereby  a  person  sui  juris  was  adopted 
into  the  paternal  power  of  another.  Originally  the 
obligations  of  the  adrogatus  were  strictly  and  logically 
extinguished,  but  the  injustice  to  creditors  was  the 
subject  of  remedial  legislation. 

^ain,  one  might  acquire  the  goods  of  another  by 
9ecHo  or  venditio  bonorum,  a  sale  at  auction  for  the 
benefit  of  creditors. 

The  rights  ^win^  out  of  pledge  were  also  a  means 
for  the  acquisition  of  property.  This  institution  was, 
in  its  inception,  only  a  fiduciary  pact  without  means  of 
enforcement,  and  the  title  passed  to  the  pledge  credi- 
tor; later,  it  took  the  form  of  mgnusj  or  pledge  proper, 
whereby  the  creditor  was  placed  in  possession  of  a 
moveable  with  certain  duties  towards  the  debtor;  a 
form  of  the  same  contract  was  extended  to  immove- 
ables, and  this  was  known  as  antichresis.  In  anii- 
chresis  the  creditor  was  placed  in  possession  of  the  im- 
moveables and  obliged  to  pay,  first,  his  interests  and 
charges,  and  then  to  deduct  from  the  principal  debt 
whatever  he  received  as  revenue.  Hypothecay  or 
mortgage,  was  a  development  and  in  scientific  theory 
is  the  substructure  of  the  modem  law  of  mortgage. 
Privileges  were  akin  to  modem  civil-law  rights 
of  the  same  name  and  to  the  liens  of  the  common  law; 
but  possession  was  not  of  prime  importance. 

Pledge  was  extinguished  by  the  extinction  of  the 
principal  debt,  by  express  release,  by  expiration  of  the 
time,  by  destruction  of  the  thing  pledged,  etc.  The 
actions,  growing  out  of  it  were  the  Servian  and  general 
hypothecary,  or  quasi-Servian  action. 

Real  rights  (in  re)  differ  essentially  from  personal 
rights  (ad  rem)  J  or  obligations,  which  have  persons  as 
their  immediate  objects.  Even  these  have  things  as 
their  remote  objects,  since  they  tend  to  the  attainment 
of  a  thing  through  a  particular  person  and  by  reason 
of  their  being  usuaUy  convertible  into  a  money  value. 
Obligations  (dismissing  at  once  those  which  were 
purely  natural  and  hence  imenforceable)  were  broader 
than  either  contract  or  tort,  and  included  liability 
arising  from  both.  They  were  civil  or  praetorian,  and 
could  arise  from  contract,  quasi-contract,  delict,  and 
quasi-delict.  In  conventional  obligations  some  thmgs 
were  essential,  others  accidental.  Contractual  obliga- 
tions arose  through  delivery  of  a  thing,  through  woras, 
through  writing,  or  merely  through  tne  consent  of  the 
parties;  and  were,  accordingly,  contracts  re,  verbis,  lit- 
teris,  or  consensu. 

Contracts  re  were  the  bailments,  loan  for  use,  loan 
for  consumption,  deposit,  and  pledge. 

Contracts  verbis  were  entered  into  by  a  formal  stipu- 
lation consisting  of  a  direct  question  and  an  adequately 
responsive  answer.  They  could  take  immediate  effect, 
could  commence  in/uturo,  or  could  be  conditional. 
Stipulations  were  praetorian,  judicial,  common,  and 
Aouilian:  the  praetorian  and  judicial  were  scarcely 
voluntary.  The  common  stipulation  was  used  in 
the  ordinary  affairs  of  men  and  by  persons  in  fidu- 
ciary relationships  (e.  g.,  in  this  form  the  tutor 
»ve  security  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duties). 
The  Aquilian  stipulation,  in  connexion  with  acceptila- 
Uo,  was  a  means  of  general  release  for  the  dissolution  of 
any  obligation.  Stipulations  required  the  same  con- 
sensual elements  that  were  necessary  in  other  agree- 
ments, in  addition  to  their  own  peculiar  formalism.  If 
a  conditional  response  were  made  to  a  direct  question, 
the  stipulation  was  void;  so  also,  if  made  by  letter 
or  messenger.  The  relation  of  suretyship  could  be 
created  by  stipulation:  suretyship  was  an  accessory 
contract,  and  the  surety  was  known  as  the  fidei^ 
fussor.    Sureties  had  the  beneficium  divisionis,  which 


was  conceded  by  Hadrian.  They  enjoyed  also  the 
beneficium  ordinis,  invented  by  Justinian,  and  the 
beneficium  cedendarum  actionum,  or  subrogation  to  the 
ri^t  of  action  of  the  creditor  against  uie  principal 
debtor,  or  pro  rata  against  the  co-sureties. 

Contracts  litteris  took  their  juridical  efficacy  from 
writings,  which  evidenced  the  fact  that  an  obhgation 
subsisted  or  that  it  had  been  extinguished.  The 
latter  were  called  apochce.  Writing  evidencing  a  sub- 
sisting obligation  were  syngraphic  or  chirographic 
respectively,  as  they  expressed  a  mutual  or  a  unilat- 
eral obligation.  A  writmg  in  the  book  of  the  debtor 
which  supported  the  creditor's  entry  was  conclusive, 
and  even  the  creditor's  entry  created  a  strong  pre- 
sumption. 

Contracts  consensu  were  not  peculiar  in  that  they 
required  consent,  which  was  requisite  in  all  contracts. 
Their  peculiarity  was  in  the  fact  that  consent  alone 
sufficed.  They  were  five  in  number:  buying  and  sell- 
ing (emptio-venditio);  letting  and  hiring  (locaHo-oon- 
ductio);  the  emphyteuticary  contract;  partnership 
(sodetas);  and  mandate  (gratuitous  agency).  In  sale, 
there  was  necessary  the  consent  of  the  parties,  an 
object  and  an  agreed  price.  Letting  and  hiring  might 
be  considered  a  temporary'  sale,  and  the  essential  inci- 
dents of  a  valid  contract  were  the  same  as  in  sale. 
Emphyteusis  strictly  was  neither  a  sale  nor  a  letting; 
it  was  rather  a  quit-rent  lease  dependent  in  its  dura- 
tion upon  the  payment  of  the  agreed  canon.  Its 
special  incidents  were  a  quasi-ownership  in  the  tenant 
and  a  right  of  pre-emption  in  the  dominus.  Similar 
to  emphyteusis  was  the  right  of  superficies;  but  as  it 
applied  only  to  the  surface — that  is,  to  buildings — it 
was  less  permanent.  Partnership  was  general  or 
universal;  particular  or  special;  and.  finally,  singular. 
As  consent  was  of  its  essence,  withorawal  of  consent 
worked  its  dissolution.  Partnership  was  an  entity 
distinct  from  the  individual  partners;  it  gave  rise  to 
the  actio  pro  socio.  The  leonine  partnership  (sodetas 
leonina)  was  illegal.  Mandate  was  a  consensual  con- 
tract whereby  one  undertook  gratuitously  to  attend  to 
an  affair  for  another;  it  was  commissioned  agency 
and  was  an  actual  contract;  it  was  distinguishable 
from  negotiorum  gestio  (uncommissioned  agency)  in 
that  the  latter  belonged  to  quasi-contract.  It  gave 
rise  to  the  actio  niandati,  directa,  or  contraria. 

The  contracts  which  had  a  definite  name  and  form 
of  action  for  their  enforcement  were  nominate  con- 
tracts. There  were  others  termed  innominate  be- 
cause they  had  no  special  names:  these  were  summed 
up  in  the  four  formulae:  Do,  ut  des;  Do,  ut  facias; 
Facio,  ut  des;  and  Facio,  ut  facias.  They  were  en- 
forcea  by  the  general  action  in  factum  or  by  the  action 
prcBscriptis  verbis. 

All  of  the  foregoing  contracts,  nominate  and  in-' 
nominate,  were  contracts  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
but  there  was  another  class  of  relations  in  which  the 
law  imposed  duties  and  obligations  as  if  the  parties 
had  actually  contracted.  These  were  the  so-called 
quasi-contracts,  and  the  forms  were  negotiorum  gestio, 
tutorship,  inheritance,  administration  in  common, 
hereditaiis  aditio,  indebiti  solutio  (payment  under  mis- 
take of  fact),  and  a  few  others  of  similar  nature. 

Obligations  could  be  acauired  through  the  paternal 
and  dominical  powers  ana  through  mandataries.  A 
civil  obligation  once  constituted  could  be  extinguished 
by  an  exception  (plea  in  bar)  or  by  its  own  terms. 
Pleas  in  bar  were  divers  and  could  arise  from  a  will,  a 
contract  or  pact,  a  judicial  decision,  etc. 

The  means  of  extinction  common  to  all  obligations 
were:  solutio  (payment);  compensatio  (set-off);  con- 
fiisio  (merging  of  the  character  of  debtor  and  creditor) 
ablatio  et  consignatio  (tender) ;  rei  interitus  (loss  of  the 
thing);  novaiio  (substitution  ot  obhgations  as  to  per- 
son or  thing) ;  prasrriptio  (lapse  of  time) ;  and  furtner, 
in  proper  cases,  by  arc^ptilaiio  (release)  and  by  viutuui 
dissetisus  (mutual  change  of  intention). 


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The  pnetorian  resiUviio  in  integrum  was  an  equitable 
lestoration  of  the  parties  to  their  former  situation,  and 
could  be  invoked  for  metus  (duress),  dolus  (fraud), 
minority,  and  generally  by  all  who  had  suffered  hard- 
ship through  no  fault  of  their  own. 

Obligations  and  rights  of  action  arose  also  out  of 
ddidumj  which  was  the  voluntary  penal  violation  of 
human  law.  Delicts  were  either  actual  or  c|uasi- 
delicts — ^the  former  deliberate,  the  latter  neghgent. 
When  public,  they  were  crimes;  when  private,  torts. 
Instances  were:  furtum  (theft),  either  manifest  or  con- 
cealed; rapina  (robbery  with  violence);  damnum  in^ 
jfoia  datum  (injury  to  property);  and  injuria  (a  kind 
oi  outrage,  or  defamatory  wrong  by  worn  or  action). 
Jnfurtumf  the  thief  could  be  prosecuted  either  civilly 
or  criminallv,  and  in  the  civil  action  the  thin^^  or  the 
penalty  could  be  recovered.  The  Roman  criminal  law 
imposed  a  fine  to  the  fiacua  and  corporal  or  capi- 
tal punishment.  Justinian  abolished  mutilation  and 
capital  punishment  for  theft  and  substituted  fines 
and  exile.  Rapina,  like  furtumy  required  a  criminal 
intent.  Where  the  putative  owner,  in  the  belief  of 
ownership,  sought  to  recover  his  property  by  violence, 
this  was  not  robbery,  but  the  offence  against  public 
order  was  punished  by  the  loss  of  the  property  with- 
out, however,  any  fine  to  the  fiscus.  Damage  to  the 
property  of  another  injuria  datum  was  the  subject 
matter  of  the  Aquilian  Law,  and  the  damage  must 
have  been  inflicted  by  a  freedman;  if  by  a  slave,  it  was 
A  noxal  tort;  if  by  a  quadruped,  the  tort  and  liability 
were  designated  pauperies.  The  measure  of  damages 
in  injuria  depended  upon  the  atrocity  of  the  wrong  and 
the  status  of  the  parties;  the  right  of  action  accrued 
to  the  father  for  injuria  to  the  son;  to  the  husband, 
for  the  wife;  to  the  master,  for  the  slave,  etc.  Quasi- 
delictual  obligations  were  torts  or  wrongs  based  on 
culpa  (fault  or  negligence),  and  not  upon  dolus  (evil 
intent).  An  instance  was  where  anything  was  negli- 
gently or  carelessly  thrown  from  a  house  (dejecta  vet 
effusa).  Quasi-deuctual,  also,  were  the  obligations  of 
persons  employed  in  a  public  calling,  such  as  shi{)- 
masters  ana  innkeepers,  for  the  wrongful  acts  of  their 
servants. 

C.  Actions. — Adjective  Law. — An  action  was  the 
legal  means  for  the  enforcement  of  a  right,  and  the 
Roman  law  included  in  the  term  actio  both  the  ri^ht  of 
action  and  the  action  itself.  Actions  were  petitory, 
when  ihey  sought  to  recover  the  very  thing  in  con- 
troversy, or  possessory,  where  the  right  of  p>ossession 
only  was  in  issue.  Specific  nominate  actions  were 
provided  in  most  of  the  relations  between  men,  and 
^diere  the  relations  were  innominate  there  were  ac- 
Hones  in  factum,  prcescriptis  verbis,  and  condiciiones 
ex  lege. 

Aocordinff  to  their  origin,  actions  were  civil  or 
honorary,  the  latter  emanating  either  from  the  praetor 
or  from  tiie  sediles.  Civil  actions  were  either  directed 
or  uHles:  dvreda,  if  brought  in  the  express  words  of  the 
law  or  by  the  logical  paries;  tUileSy  if  brought  upon 
equitable  facts  not  within  the  strict  letter,  and  possi- 
hly.  in  the  case  of  a  ceded  action,  by  the  nominal 
plamtiff  for  the  use  of  the  real  plaintiff.  Actions 
aiming  to  establish  personal  status  were  called  pre- 
judicial. R^Eil  actions  were  vindicationes;  personal 
irere  condictiones, 

Rei  vindicatio  and  the  Publician  action  went  to  the 
question  of  ownership.  Succession  gave  rise  to  the 
hereditas  petUio  and  to  the  querela  inojficiosi.  Servi- 
tudes were  affirmed  or  denied  by  an  actio  confessoria 
or  negatoria.  In  pledge,  there  was  the  Servian  or 
quasi-Servian  action.  The  praetor  or  the  sedile  granted 
equitable  actions,  such  as  the  actio  ad  exhibendum  for 
the  production  of  moveables;  the  actio  in  factum  de 
edendo,  an  action  of  accoimt  against  bankers;  and  the 
redhtbitaria  and  quanH  minoris,  actions  for  redhibition 
ttid  abatement  of  the  price.  The  actions  based  on 
duress,  fraud,  and  minority  were  purely  equitable,  and 


there  was  a  condictio  sine  causa  in  cases  of  failure  of 
consideration.  This  may  be  considered  as  equitable 
or  as  growing  out  of  quasi-contract.  Indeea,  all  of 
the^  quasi-contractual  relations  had  their  appropriate 
actions.  Private  wrongs,  too,  were  redressed  in  suit- 
able forms  of  action.  In  delicts  the  recovery  might  be 
simply  the  value,  as  in  the  persecutory  actions;  or 
double  the  value,  as  in  the  actio  furti  nee  manifesti  and 
in  the  action  for  corrupting  a  slave.  In  some  in- 
stances, a  triple,  or  even  quadruple,  recovery  might  be 
had. 

Actions  founded  on  the  consensual  contracts  of 
sale,  hire,  emphyteusis,  partnership,  and  mandate, 
and  on  the  real  contracts  of  commodatum,  depositum, 
and  pignus  were  actions  bonce  fidei:  so  also,  the  actio 
proiscriptis  verbis  for  innominate  contracts  and  the 
quasi-contractual  actions  neyotiorum  gestorum,  fune- 
raria,  tutelce,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  personal  action  here- 
ditas petitio. 

The  actio  ex  stipulatu  and  the  condictio  ex  chiro' 
grapho  were  actions  of  strict  law  {stricli  juris). 

An  arbitrary  action  was  one  in  which  a  non-com- 

gliant  party  was  forced  to  comply  or  be  held  liable  in  a 
irger  discretionary  sum. 

Certain  exemptions  to  judgment  debtors  were 
favoured  by  the  Roman  law;  among  these  was  the 
beneficium  competentice. 

Ordinarily  tne  foundation  of  liability  was  personal, 
yet  one  might  incur  liability  through  the  act  of  an- 
other— ^as  a  son,  a  slave,  or  even  a  stranger.  The 
actio  quod  jussu  was  properly  brought  against  father  or 
master  for  an  act  done  by  his  order.  The  master  of  a 
ship,  whether  freeman  or  slave,  by  a  sort  of  necessary 
agency  could  incur  liability  for  the  ship-owner  and  the 
right  of  action  was  enforced  by  the  actio  exerdloria. 
Similar  in  theory  was  the  actio  institoria  which  was 
the  proper  form  in  which  to  bring  an  action  against 
one  who  had  placed  another  in  chai^ge  of  a  shop  for  the 
buying  and  selling  of  wares.  The  age  and  condition 
of  the  institor  were  immaterial.  The  praetor  ^ave  an 
actio  de  peculio  to  persons  who  contracted  with  son 
or  slave  in  respect  to  the  pecidium,  and  this  action  was 
effective  against  the  father  or  master  to  the  extent  of 
the  peculium. 

Aside  from  the  specific  remedies  sought  in  particular 
cases,  actions  were  perpetual  or  temporary,  aepending 
upon  the  lapse  of  time.  Perpetual  actions  were  or- 
dinarily such  as  were  barred  by  thirty  years'  prescrip- 
tion, while  temporary  actions  were  Barred  by  shorter 
periods. 

Exceptions  or  pleas  to  actions,  like  actions  them- 
selves, were  civil  or  prsetorian;  and  in  general  were 
perpetucB  and  peretnptorUe  (complete  pleas  in  bar) ;  or 
temporarice  (only  dilatory). 

The  developed  written  altercations,  or  pleadings,  of 
the  parties  were  as  f oUows :  the  actor  (plaintiff)  brought 
his  actio,  which  the  reus  (defendant)  met  with  his  ex- 
ceptio  (plea).  To  this  the  plaintiff  could  reply  with  a 
replicatio,  which  in  turn  might  be  met  with  a  dupli- 
catio,  and  in  exceptional  cases  the  pleadings  might  ad- 
vance to  a  triplicatio  and  a  quadruplicatio. 

The  interoicts  were  formulae,  or  conceptions  of 
words,  whereby  the  praetor,  in  an  invent  cause  or  in 
one  affecting  the  public  interest,  ordered  or  forbade 
something  to  be  done.  They  were,  in  effect,  pro- 
hibitory or  mandatory  injimctions;  they  were  pro- 
hibitoria,  as  against  violence  to  possession,  obstruct- 
ing a  public  place,  etc.;  they  were  restitutoria,  to 
restore  possession,  etc.;  and,  finally,  exhibitoria,  as 
for  the  production  of  a  free  man  or  for  the  production 
of  a  will.  The  object  to  be  attained  by  a  possessory 
interdict  was  to  receive,  to  retain,  or  to  recover  pos- 
session. The  interdicts  quorum  bonorum  and  quod 
legatorum  had  to  do  with  successions.  The  Salvian 
and  quasi-Salvian  interdicts  were  used  for  foreclosure 
in  pledge  obligations. 

(The  subject  of  Roman  criminal  law  is  beyond  the 


LAW  86  LAW 

scope  of  this  article;  its  most  concise  arrangement  is  nation  of  magistrates  to  formulate    i;iTittcn   laws, 

to  befoundinPothicr's^Pandectse:  depoenisJ')  In  303  decemvirs  were  appointed,  and  they  agreed 

II.  History  and  Sources. — ^A.  Its  Developmeni. —  upon  ten  tables  during  the  first  year  of  their  magis- 

The  classic  period  of  development  of  Roman  Law  was  tracy,  and  two  additional  tables  the  second  year.   The 

in  the  second  and  third  centuries  of  oiu*  era,  and  this  is  political  object  sought  by  the  plebeians,  namely,  the 

known  to  us  for  the  greater  part  through  the  compila-  lusing  of  both  classes  into  one,  was  not  attained: 

tions  of  Justinian,  in  the  sixth  centiuy.     In  the  form  private  rights,  however,  were  given  definite  form, 

given  it  by  Justinian,  the  Roman  Law,  through  the  re-  These  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  contained  the  ele- 

vivaJ  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  spread  ments  from  which,  in  process  of  time,  the  vast  edifice 

over  Europe  and  became  the  foimdation  of  modem  of  private  law  was  developed. 
European  law.  (2)  From  the  Twelve  Tables  to  Actium. — ^The  law 

The  history  of  Roman  law  has  been  variously  expanded  rapidly  and  commensurately  with  tie  ex- 
divided  into  periods.  One  division  is  into  the  Regal  pansion  of  Rome  in  territory  and  civilization.  The 
Period,  from  the  foundation  of  the  city,  the  Republi-  jurists,  however,  had  not  yet  the  imperiumy  or  power 
can,  until  the  time  of  Augustus,  and,  finally,  the  Im-  of  developing  the  law  through  judicial  legislation, 
perial,  closing  with  the  legislation  of  Justinian  in  the  The  growth  of  law  was  simply  the  result  of  mterpre- 
year  1280  (a.  d.  526)  from  the  foundation  of  the  city  tation  of  the  Twelve  Tables.  The  jurists  of  this 
(Howe) .  Again,  the  lapse  of  almost  1000  years,  from  period  were  skilled  lawyers  who  penetrated  the  spuit 
the  Twelve  Tables  to  the  reign  of  Justinian,  has  been  of  the  law,  but  were  not  free  to  aepart  from  it.  The 
divided  into  three  periods:  the  first,  a.  u.  c.  303-  few /^jFes  passed  by  the  people  in  assembly  had  practi- 
648;  the  second  a.  u.  c.  648-988,  the  splendid  age  cally  little  to  do  with  private  law.  The  Senate,  which 
from  the  birth  of  Cicero  to  the  reign  of  Alexander  was  really  an  administrative  body,  b^zan  to  assume 
Severus;  the  third,  from  Alexander  to  Justinian,  in  legislative  powers,  but  this  source  of  law  was  as  yet 
which  "the  oracles  of  Jurisprudence  were  almost  unimportant.  The  activity  of  the  jurisconsults  in 
mute"  (Gibbon).  A  better  division,  and  one  which  inter|)reting  the  Twelve  Tables  was  the  most  con- 
more  accurately  corresponds  with  the  growth  of  Ro-  spicuous  factor  in  the  growth  of  private  law,  and  their 
man  political  institutions,  gives  four  periods :  the  first,  labours  were  designated  by  the  same  term  which  desig- 
from  the  foundation  of  the  city  down  to  the  laws  of  nated  the  Twelve  Tables,  i.  e.,  jus  civile.  The  Roman 
the  Twelve  Tables;  the  second,  to  the  battle  of  Act-  magistrate,  however,  did  possess  the  imperium,  and, 
ium  (beginning  of  the  empire) ;  the  third,  from  the  whue  at  first  he  used  it  sparingly,  he  at  length  b^an 
battle  of  Actium  to  the  accession  of  Diocletian;  the  to  develop  an  equitable  juris<Bction,  giving  remeaies 
fourth,  from  Diocletian  to  the  death  of  Justinian  in  a  limited  numoer  of  cases  where  the  fus  civile  gave 
(565).  The  first  of  these  four  periods  is  that  of  in-  none.  He  proceeded  cautiously  and  upon  a  rational 
fancy;  the  second,  of  adolescence;  the  third,  of  ma-  theory,  and!,  since  he  could  not  introduce  chaos  into 
ture  age;  the  fourth,  of  senility  and  decay  (Ortolan;  the  law  by  varying  it  in  the  particular  case,  he  antici- 
Staedtier).  paled  its  defects  in  hypothetical  cases  and  announced 

(1)  From  the  Foimdation  of  Rome  to  the  Twelve  the  relief  which  he  would  give.    The  praetor  made  an 

Tables. — Our  knowledge  of  this  period  is  largely  con-  announcement  in  an  edict  upon  assuming  magistracy: 

jectural,  from  data  furnished  by  the  subsequent  period,  he  was  bound  by  his  edict,  yet  he  did  not  discard  the 

Roman  history  b^ns  with  pure  myth  and  fable,  then  edicts  of  his  predecessors,  and  in  this  sense  the  prsetor's 

passes  through  a  stage  of  blended  fable  and  fact,  and  edict  became  an  edictum  perpetuum,  i.  e.,  permanent, 

finally  becomes  history  properly  so  called.     The  his-  WTien  experience  showed  the  value  of  an  innovation, 

tory  of  Roman  Law  has  no  vital  interest  with  the  the  praetor  made  it,  and  thus  the  honorary  law  became 

petty  communities  and  subordinate  nationalities  that  a  developing  system,  modified  and  improved  from 

were  finally  absorbed  in  the  three  ethnological  ele-  year  to  year.     In  the  course  of  time  it  became  volu- 

ments,  Latin,  Sabine,  and  Etruscan,  with  which  the  minous.    Most  of  the  changes  wrought  by  the  praetor 

dawn  of  Rome's  legal  history  begins.     Of  these  three  were  inroads  (after  the  manner  of  the  I^glish  chan* 

elements  the  Etruscan  was  more  advanced  in  civiliza-  cellors),  upon  the  harsh  rigour  of  the  Twelve  Tables, 

tion,  witii  definite  religious  and  political  institutions  The  Twelve  Tables  were  deferentially  treated  by  the 

(Ortolan).    The  only  Etruscan  text  we  have  is  that  of  praetor,  whose  functions  were  constructive,  and  not 

the  nymph  Vegoia  {lasa  Veku)^  which  recognizes  the  destructive,  yet,  by  reason  of  his  imperium^  he  was  not 

right  of  property  and  protects  it  with  the  wrath  of  the  bound  by  the  jus  civile  in  the  drafting  of  his  edict. 

ds  (Casati).     It  is  customary  to  speak  of  certain  Hence  the  praetor  had  the  power  to  engraft  upon  Ro- 

jes  in  the  earliest  historical  period  as  leges  regice:  man  law  new  ideas  and  new  principles  derived  from 

whether  these  were  real  statutes  enacted  during  the  the  jus  gentium.    There  were  many  non-citicens  at 

regal  period  or  the  mere  formulation  of  customary  Rome,  and  non-Roman  relations  were  administered 

law  is  disputed  (Bruns,  introd.  note  to  "  Leges  Regiae  by  a  special  magistrate,  called  the  praUor  peregrinus, 

in  "Fontes  Jur.  Rom.  Antiqui  ")•    There  were  some  under  a  body  of  principles  which  were  conceived  to  be 

well  established,  though  crude  and  radical,  rules  of  common  to  all  men.    There  was  a  naturalness  and  an 

private  law,  such  as  the  harsh  paternal  power  and  the  equity  in  these  principles  in  which  all  men  were  pre- 

equally  drastic  right  of  the  creditor  over  his  unfortu-  sumed  to  concur.    This  was  in  striking  contrast  with 

nate  aebtor.     It  may  safely  be  affirmed  that  during  the  jus  civile^  and  the  contact  of  legal  ideas  began  to 

this  primitive  period  customary  law  was  the  only  law.  broaden  and  liberalize  Roman  law.    This  infiuence, 

Pomponius  says:  "  At  the  be^nning  of  our  city,  the  however,  had  not  yet  overpowered  the  jus  civile  at  the 

people  Degan  their  first  activities  without  any  fixed  close  of  this  second  period. 

law  and  without  any  fixed  rights:  all  things  were  ruled         (3)  From  Actium  (31  b.  c.)  to  Diocletian  (d.  a.  d. 

despotically  by  kings"  (2,  §1.  D.  1.  2).     In  the  next  313). — In  this,  the  classic  period,  the  science  of  law 

paragraph  he  speaks  of  the  so-called  leges  regixB  as  col-  reached  a  high  degree  of  perfection.    Leges  were  very 

lected  and  still  extant  in  the  book  of  Sextus  Papirius.  rare,  and  were  usually  measures  of  public  policy  to 

Again,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings  the  people  re-  which  some  slight  elements  of  private  law  were  mci- 

Borted  to  customary  law.    The  great  mass  of  historical  dental ;  such  were  the  legislative  measures  rewarding 

facts  prove  that  there  was  no  private  law  other  than  marriage  and  dealing  wiui  the  emancipation  of  slaves 

custom  down  until  this  period  closed  with  the  enact-  (Staedtler).    Senatus-consuUa,  on  the  contrary,  be- 

ment  of  the  Twelve  Tables  (Staedtler).     The  lack  of  a  came  of  increasing  importance,  and,  whereas  at  first 

precise  definition  of  their  rights  was  the  principal  their  constitutionsiity,  so  to  speak,  had  been  doubted, 

grievance  of  the    plebeians,   and  in  a.    u.   c.   292  they  were  fully  recognized  as  law.    Other  sources  were 

their  tribune,  Terentilius  Arsa,  proposed  the  nomi-  the  con^/t^u/tVmesprinctpum,  or  imperial  constitutions; 


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these  took  the  fonn  of  edicts,  mandates,  decrees,  and 
leeeripts.  The  edictal  legislation  of  the  magistrates 
(the  honorary  law)  had  b^^ome  so  voluminous  that  it 
was  incapable  of  further  growth;  it  wasj  moreover, 
out  of  harmony  with  changed  positive  legislation  and 
with  changed  oonditj^ons.  Salvius  Julianus  was  com- 
missioned py  Hadrian  to  revise  and  edit  it,  and  on  this 
revision  many  of  the  jurisconsults  made  their  com- 
mentaries ad  edietum.  In  the  literary  splendour  of  the 
Augustan  age  the  jurisconsults  took  high  rank;  their 
wonc  was  not  only  scientific,  but  literary,  and  it  has 
bc»en  said  that,  had  all  its  other  monuments  perished, 
classical  Latin  would  have  survived  in  the  fragments 
of  the  jurisconsults  of  this  period.  Augustus  granted 
to  the  most  eminent  in  law  the  startling  jus  respon- 
dendi,  i.  e.,  the  right  of  officially  giving,  in  the  name  of 
the  prince,  opinions  which  were  legally  binding  upon 
the  judge.  These  reaponsa  were  in  writing  and  were 
sealed  tefore  delivery  to  the  judge.  Among  the  cele- 
brated jurisconsults  were  Capito  and  Labeo,  foimders 
of  rival  schools  (2,  §  47,  D.  1.  2).  Others  were  Sal- 
vius Julianus  and  Sextus  Pompomus,  both  represented 
by  copious  fragments  in  the  Pandects.  In  tne  second 
oentu^  came  Gains,  of  whose  "  Institutes  "  those  of 
Justinian  are  only  a  recension.  In  1816  a  palimpsest 
was  discovered  by  Niebuhr  in  the  library  or  the  cathe- 
dral chapter  of  Verona.  On  it  were  some  compositions 
of  St.  Jerome,  in  places  superimposed  on  an  earlier 
writing,  which  proved  to  be  a  copy  of  the  lost  "In- 
stitutes "  of  Gains.  Gains  himsell  was  a  contempo- 
mry  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  but  scientific  Research 
has  fixed  the  date  of  this  copy  of  his  great  work  as  a 
little  earlier  than  the  time  of  Justinian^  in  the  sixth 
eentunr. 

In  the  third  century  lived  Papinian,  "the  Prince  of 
the  Jurisconsults '\  Ulpian  and  Paulus  also  were 
among  the  greatest  lawyers  of  the  period:  approxi- 
mately onoHsixth  of  the  Digest  is  made  up  of  frag- 
ments from  Ulpian,  while  raulus  is  represented  by 
Siwards  of  two  thousand  fragments  (Staedtler). 
odestinus  was  the  last  of  the  great  series.  We  have 
in  manuscript  part  of  an  elementary  work  by  Ulpian 
and  the  Institutes  of  Gains.  In  Justinian's  Digest  a 
veiy  large  part  of  the  writings  of  the  classical  jurists  is 
to  be  foimd.  Most  of  the  original  treatises  have  per- 
ished; two  thousand  of  these,  containing  three  million 
impunctuated  and  unspaced  lines,  were  abridged  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  lines  or  sentences. 
The  originals  became  useless  in  practice,  and  were  for 
the  greater  part  soon  lost.  A  number  of  classic  ju- 
rists are  represented  in  a  collection  of  341  fragments, 
discovered  m  the  Vatican  Library  in  the  early  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century  by  Cardinal  Mai,  and  edited  by 
him  at  Rome  in  1 823.  Another  edition  was  published 
in  Germany  in  1828,  under  the  title  "^Fragmenta  Vati- 
oana".  Fragments  of  the  classic  jurists  are  also  con- 
tained in  the  "Collatio  Mosaicarum  et  Romanarum 
Legum'',  known  also  as  the  "Lex  Dei",  compiled  in 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  They  are  found  also 
in  the *' Breviary  of  Alaric"  or  "Lex  Romana  Wisi- 
gothorum'',  which  contains  the  Sentences  of  Paulus 
and  the  excerpts  from  Papinian's ' '  Responsa' * .  Frag- 
ments from  the  iurisconsults  are  founa  in  the  "  Edie- 
tum Theodorici  '  or  "Lex  Romana  Ostrogothorum" 
and  in  the  "Lex  Romana  Burgundionum''  (see  below). 

(4)  From  Diocletian  (d.  313)  to  Justinian  (d.  565). — 
The  seat  of  an  absolute  monarchy  was  now  shifted 
from  Rome  to  Constantinople,  and  the  Empire  was 
divided  into  East  and  West.    Constructive  juris- 

Erudence  ¥ras  a  thins  of  the  past,  and  the  sources  of 
kw  were  merged  in  tne  will  of  the  prince.  The  edicts 
of  the  pretonan  prefect  were  given  the  same  effect 
as  the  imperial  constitutions,  which  were  concerned 
principally  with  public  law.  Private  law  was  vast 
and  diversified,  but  it  had  lon^  since  ceased  to  have 
any  stimulating  growth.  The  jus  civile,  expanded  by 
the  Ancient  jurists  in  the  interpretation  of  tne  Twelve 


Tables,  the  honorary  law  of  the  magistrates,  the  public 
legislative  acts  of  the  early  empire,  the  mass  of  im- 
perial constitutions,  and  the  writings  of  the  classic 
Jurisconsults,  composed  a  heterogeneous  jumble  of 
legal  materials  from  which  a  systematic  jurisprudence 
was  destined  to  arise.  An  attempt  was  made  in  the 
early  fifth  century  to  effect  a  workable  system,  and  the 
law  of  citations  was  adopted  by  which  the  relative 
authority  of  the  classic  jurists  was  posthumously 
fixed  by  statute.  Numerical  weight  of  authority  was 
done  away  with,  and  the  great  galaxy  were  the  recog- 
nized authorities,  although  other  jurists  mi^ht  be 
cited  if  approved  by  any  of  the  five.  Collections  of 
imperial  constitutions  were  made  at  an  interval  of 
fifty  years,  and  published  upder  the  names  of  the 
Gregorian  and  Theodosian  Codes  respectively;  the 
latter  was  republished  in  the  "  Breviary  of  Alaric  ". 
Something  at  least,  had  been  done  for  the  simplifica- 
tion of  a  difficult  legal  situation.  The  Eastern  and 
Western  emperors  thenceforward  agreed  to  mutually 
communicate  their  legislative  designs  for  simultaneous 
publicatioir in  both  empires,  and  these  future  projects 
were  to  be  Known  as  novellcB  constUuiiones. 

Upon  Justinian's  accession  there  were  in  force  two 
principal  sources  of  law:  the  imperial  constitutions 
and  the  classical  jurisprudence  operating  under  the 
law  of  citations  (Staedtler).  To  Justinian's  practical 
mind,  the  state  of  the  law  was  still  chaotic;  the  em- 
pire was  poor,  and  it  was  a  hardship  for  lawyers  to 
possess  themselves  of  the  necessary  MSS.  The  very 
bulk  of  the  law  produced  a  situation  analogous  to  that 
which  exists  in  common-law  jurisdictions  to-day,  and 
which  always  ushers  in  more  or  less  abortive  efforts 
towards  codification.  Justinian  undertook  to  make 
these  immense  materials  more  accessible  and  more 
responsive  to  the  practical  needs  of  his  empire.  That, 
in  the  opinion  of  some,  he  wronged  posterity  by 
destroying  the  original  sources,  is  entirely  beside  the 
mark.  He  has  been  lauded  as  a  great  lawgiver  when 
measured  by  the  needs  of  his  time  and  situation;  and. 
on  the  other  hand,  he  has  been  as  heartily  abused  and 
reviled  for  an  unscientific  iconoclast.  The  first  task 
of  the  commission  appointed  by  Justinian  was  to  edit 
the  imperial  constitutions  as  a  code,  published  under 
the  title,  *  *  Codex  Justiniani ' '.  After  this  the  emperor 
directed  the  compilation  of  a  complete  repository  of 
the  law  made  up  of  fragments  of  the  classical  writings 
strung  together  without  any  too  scientific  arrange- 
ment. This  work  is  the  great  treasury  of  juridical 
lore,  and  was  the  most  valuable  part  of  Justinian's 
compilation.  It  was  called  the  Digest"  or  "Pan- 
dects'*. Occasionallv  Tribonian,  who,  with  two  other 
jurists,  was  Intrusted  with  the  task,  complacently  or 
ignorantly  modified  the  text.  The  emperor  forbade 
commentaries  and  abbreviations. 

Upon  the  completion  of  the  Pandects,  Justinian, 
always  intelligently  interested  in  legal  education,  or- 
dered an  abndgment  of  the  Digest  for  the  purposes 
of  instruction;  these  are  the  Institutes  of  Justinian. 
The  Institutes  of  Gains  (see  above,  under  3)  furnished 
a  ready  model;  indeed,  the  Institutes  of  Gains  and 
those  of  Justinian  are  even  to-day  the  most  essential 
first  books  of  the  law.  The  first  araf  t  of  the  Code  was 
not  in  complete  harmony  with  the  Digest  and  the  In- 
stitutes, and  a  revision  of  it  became  necessaiy ;  this 
was  promulgated  as  the  "Codex  Repetitae  rraelec- 
tionis  '*.  The  second  edition  of  the  code  was  intended 
to  be  final,  and  upon  its  publication  Justinian  an- 
nounced that  any  new  imperial  legislation  would  take 
the  form  of  detached  constitutions  to  be  known  as 
"novels"  (rwvellce,  i.  e.  "new  ");  of  these  he  issued  a 
large  number,  but  two  only  (the  118th  and  127th) 
have  great  importance  for  modem  law. 

The  Justinian  conapilation  is  sometimes  elegantly 
termed  the  Imperial  Code;  it  is,  however,  more  accu- 
rate to  refer  to  it  as  the  "  Corpus  Juris  Civilis  ".  It  ifl 
the  whole  body  of  the  civil  law  comprising  the  foui 


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books  of  the  Institutes,  the  fifty  books  of  the  Digest, 
the  twelve  books  of  the  Code,  and  the  Novels.  Early 
editions  divide  the  Pandects  into  three  parts,  the 
pigestum  vetus,  the  Infortiatum,  and  the  Digestum 
novum.  The  labours  of  Justinian  have  come  down 
to  us  in  the  form  of  texts  of  the' so-called  glossators 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  glossators  worked  from 
earlier  manuscripts  and  harmonized  conflicting  texts 
into  a  generally  accepted  lectio  vulgata  (**  vulgate  ",  or 
*  *  common  reading  ").  We  have  one  text  known  as  the 
"Florentine Pandects"  which  dates  from  the  seventh 
century,  one  hundred  years  after  Justinian.  It  is, 
however,  in  all  probability,  only  one  of  the  texts  from 
which  the  glossators  worked,  and,  when  the  errors  of 
copyists  are  considered,  its  antiouity  should  not  en- 
title it  to  overrule  the  vulgate.  This  Florentine  text 
is  the  subject  of  legend,  ana  the  revival  of  the  study  of 
Roman  law  has  been  attributed  to  its  discovery. 
Saviffny  and  others  have  demonstrated  that  the  i-e- 
vivalwas  well  under  way  before  the  discovery  of  this 
codex.  The  publication  of  a  photographic  reproduc- 
tion of  the  Florentine  Pandects  was  b^un  at  Rome  in 
1902,  and  seven  of  the  ten  parts  are  alreafly  at  hand. 

In  what  had  been  the  Western  Empire,  Justinian  no 
longer  held  sway  at  the  date  of  the  promulgation  of  his 
laws;  the  subject  race  were,  however,  permitted  by 
their  barbarian  conquerors  to  retain  the  pre-Justinian 
law  as  their  personal  law.  The  conquerors  themselves 
caused  to  be  made  the  several  compilations  known  as 
the  "  Roman  Barbarian  Codes  "  (see  Lex).  Justinian 
did,  however,  effect  the  reconquest  of  Italy,  and  held 
it  long  enough  to  promulgate  his  laws.  Wnen  the  Os- 
trogoths agam  became  masters  they  left  the  legislation 
of  Justinian  undisturbed,  and  it  flourished  m  a  less 
corrupted  form  than  in  the  Eastern  Empire,  which 
was  its  logical  field.  The  Roman  law  of  Justinian 
superseded  the  barbarian  codes  and,  with  the  revival, 
was  taught  in  the  medieval  schools  and  thus  spread 
all  over  Europe. 

B.  Subsequent  Influence, — In  the  Eastern  Empire 
subsequent  changes  are  of  interest  to  the  historian 
rather  than  to  the  jurist.  There  was  a  lull  of  nearly 
three  centuries  after  the  death  of  Justinian,  until  Leo 
the  Philosopher  revised  the  legislation  and  published 
what  is  known  as  the  "Basilica".  While  Byzantine 
materials  throw  many  side  lights  upon  the  Roman 
legal  system,  they  are  relatively  unimportant,  though 
they  were  of  service  to  the  Humanists.  The  Eastern 
law  schools  only  (Constantinople  and  Berytus)  were 
subject  to  Justinian  at  the  time  of  his  constitution  on 
legal  education,  yet  he  speaks  of  Rome  as  a  royal  city 
and  prohibits  the  teachmg  of  law  elsewhere  than  in 
these  three  cities  (Ortolan).  Professors  of  law  had 
been  active  in  all  of  his  reforms:  Tribonian  was  a  pro- 
fessor of  law  and  an  able,  but  venal,  jurist,  whose 
career  had  much  resemblance  with  that  of  Bacon. 
Theophilus  was  also  a  professor  of  law  who,  like  Tri- 
bonian, had  taken  part  in  the  work  of  Justinian,  and 
he  coiiiposcd  a  paraphrase  of  the  Institutes  in  Greek. 
A  number  of  commentaries  in  Greek  were  produced 
and  an  abridgment  of  the  Novels.  The  greater  part 
of  the  Byzantine  writings  were  from  secondary  sources 
and  are  abridgments,  condensations,  manuals,  etc. 
Among  others  were  the  "  Enchiridium"  of  Isaurian 
law,  the  "Prochiron"  of  Basil,  and  the  revision  en- 
titled "Epanagoge";  and  the  revised  Basilica  from 
A.  D.  906  to  A.  D.  911.  In  the  composition  of  these 
collections  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  sources  were 
secondary  and  that  the  originals  of  Justinian  were  not 
directly  consulted.  The  Basilica  through  its  scholia 
or  annotations  grew  so  bulky  that  a  synopsis  of  it  was 
made,  and  this  continued  in  high  repute  until  the  fall 
of  the  empire,  in  1453,  when  the  Greek  legal  authori- 
ties were  supplanted  by  the  Mohanmiedan  Koran. 
Enough  of  personal  law  was  suffered  to  the  vanouished 
by  the  conqueror  to  constitute  the  historic  element 
and  principal  basis  of  Greek  civil  law  (Ortolan,  Morey). 


Greek  fugitives  also  carried  over  with  them  into  Italy 
and  elsewhere  the  relics  of  their  law,  and  many  manur 
scripts  are  still  extant:  of  these  the  Humanist  Cujas 
possessed  a  valuable  library.  Thus,  the  Greek  texts, 
while  of  little  value  to  the  glossators,  were  yet  a  po- 
tent factor  in  the  second  renaissance  of  Roman  law  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  This  was  of  service  to  the 
historical  and  philological  school,  the  inspirations  and 
traditions  of  which  are  still  active  in  modem  scholar- 
ship, particularly  that  of  Germany,  where,  as  Mon- 
treuil  wrote  fifty  years  ago,  the  French  school  is  re- 
found  in  the  labours  of  Reitz,  Ruhneken,  Biener, 
Witte,  Heimbach,  and  Zacharia. 

The  most  flourishing  school  of  law  following  the 
first  revival  of  Roman  law  was  that  of  Bologna,  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  eleventh  century.  Its  founder 
was  Imerius,  and  he  was  the  first  of  the  glossators. 
Placentinus  and  Vacarius  were  others  of  the  glossators. 
Vacarius  was  a  Lombard,  and  he  it  was  who  carried 
the  texts  of  Justinian  to  England  and  foimded  a  law 
school  at  Oxford,  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. The  glossators  known  as  the  four  doctors  all  be- 
longed to  Bologna;  and  that  school  accjuired  a  reputa- 
tion in  civil  law  equal  to  that  of  Paris  m  theology  and 
canon  law.  So  attractive  was  the  Roman  law  that  the 
clergy  had  to  be  restrained  from  its  study,  and  the 
study  of  canon  law  stimulated  by  a  decretal  in  1220 
(Morey),  The  early  Church  had  been  governed  by 
councils,  synods,  etc.  Collections  had  t^en  made  in 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centiuies,  but  it  was  only  in  the 
ninth  c&ntuiy  that  a  real  collection  of  ecclesiastical 
legal  documents  was  made.  There  began  to  be  col- 
lections of  decrees  of  the  popes,  and  the  revival  of 
Roman  law  at  Bologna  in  the  twelfth  century  gave 
impetus  to  a  systematic  canon  law.  About  1130 
Gratian,  a  Benedictine  monk,  made  the  compilation 
which  developed  into  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici'\ 
The  external  similarity  of  this  compilation  to  the 
"Corpus  Juris  Civilis"  is  thus  ^ven  by  Duck:  "The 
Roman  pontiffs  effected  that  m  the  Church  which 
Justinian  effected  in  the  Roman  Empire.  They 
caused  Gratian's  Decree  to  be  published  m  imitation 
of  the  Pandects;  the  Decretals  in  imitation  of  the 
Code;  the  Clementine  Constitutions  and  the  Extra va- 
gantes  in  imitation  of  the  Novels;  and  to  complete  the 
work  Paul  IV  ordered  Launcellot  to  prepare  Institutes 
which  were  published  at  Rome  imaer  Gregory  XIII, 
and  added  to  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici/'  (In  quali- 
fication of  this,  see  CV)rpu8  Juris  Canonici.  ) 

To  return  to  the  Roman  law,  the  school  of  the 
glossators  (of  whom  Accursius  in  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century  was  the  last)  was  succeeded  by 
the  school  of  which  Bartolus  of  Sasso  Ferrato  and  Al- 
ciat  were  representatives.  From  1340  ihe  Bartolists 
flourished  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  to  be  suc- 
ceeded in  turn  by  the  Humanist  school,  of  which 
Cujas  was  the  chief  ornament.  Until  the  sixteenth 
century  Roman  law  was  most  cultivated  in  Italy;  its 
glory  then  passed  to  France,  and,  in  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  centuries,  though  there  were  con- 
spicuous Dutch  jurists  of  great  ability  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  law,  it  may  fairly  be  said  to  belong  to  Ger- 
many during  that  period.  France,  Italy,  Belgimn,  and 
even  England,  however,  are  awakening  in  the  dawn 
of  the  twentieth  century. 

The  siu-vival  of  Roman-law  principles  was  in  great 
measure  due  to  the  principle  of  personality.  The 
Roman-Greek  law  had  not  oeen  entirely  supplanted 
by  the  Koran  in  the  Moslem  states,  such  as  Egypt  and 
Syria  (Amos).  In  modem  Egypt  there  has  been  a 
reaffirmation  of  many  Roman  principles  in  the  Civil 
Code  proposed  by  the  international  commission  which 
"harmonized  the  rules  of  Arabic  jurisprudence  which 
were  not  repugnant  to  European  legislation,  with  the 
chief  provisions  of  the  Code  Napoleon  ".  An  interest- 
ing Syrian  text  has  been  edited  by  Bruns  (Sjrrisch* 
Rdmisches  Rechtsbuch  aus  dem  15.  Jahrhundert). 


XJLWRXiroE                           89  UWEENOE 

ITua  principle  of  personality  permitted  by  the  kinp  t«  admiralty,  chancery,  and  ecclesiastical  law  there 

of  the  Visigoths,  Ostrogothe,  and  BuisunduuiB  sufficed  haa  never  been,  nor  could  there  well  be,  any  disposi- 

tokeepahvetheRomanlawin  the  West.     Except  as  tion  to  withhold  acknowledRment   to   Rome.     The 

to  the  municipalities,  the  Raman  political  system  had  practice  is  quite  common  of  reierring  to  the  chancellor 

been  destroyed.     The  concession  of  personal  law  to  as  the  prffitor.     This  indebtedness,  bo  begrudgingly 

Roman  subjects  and  tlie  influence  of  the  clergy,  who  acknowledged  by  many  early  English  jurists  in  a  mie- 

alwaya  preferred  to  claim  the  civil  law,  waa  atarrier  taken  sense  of  national  pride,  ia  now  frankly  admitted 

"  hetweeaRomanciviliiationand  barbarism"  (Morey).  by  all  who  lay  claim  to  a  knowledge  of  both  Civil  and 

In  the  miUtary  tenures  of  feudalism,  it  has  been  Common  law. 

attempted  to  trace  the  idea  of  two  distinct  ownerships,  A  "^'^  uJ't^^Srt^  "'  A^lSt^b^"  "  ""^^h^Mi"? 

the  dominium  emineng  and  the  d/>minium  mitgare,  to  ^*^^  ^lon  modem  aulboritative  civi[la™!°^™e  wotka  us 


the  Roman  contract  of  emphyteusis.      A  collection  of  fouod  on  the  ahetvcs  of  ■  gcxHl  American  milection  givea  h 

feudal  law  kliown  as  the  "  Consuetudines  Feudorum"  idea  of  tbeweallhot  this  liWralun;:— 

is  contained  aa  a  kind  of  appendix  in  most  editions  of  socimo;    Uoki;    BbiH?^' Dkcns;    Ci^t'^'CoLnnH^ 

the"Corpus".     In  the  Amsterdam  editionof  1681,  is  Cokb4t  (Com);    Cohnil:    Cobta:    Coduhoss:    Cud: 

the  note  after  the  second  book:  "  Hie  eat  finis  Feudo-  M"""i    02?"^^^;° 

rum  in  editione  vulgata"  (End  of  the  feudal  constitu-  FBieonKTi  Giuabu:'  Gldck:  GUtekbocb;   HIhel'   Hai^- 

tions  in  the  vulgate  edition).     The  third  book  is  miss-  r/LxTaiitiaoui;   Hbihbach:' HEuoa;  Hdhter;   fitiscHKi:; 

imt;  frajnnentsof  the  fourth  are  given,  as  well  as  parts  J™";   Imma:   JicaoBUH:  JoBBfe-DnvAi.:   Jom;    Lmbl; 

of  a  fifth  book,  reconstructed  by  Cujas,     In  feudaham  mSSSStI  Wo^uSTBBnck;  1^™.^:^™!!;.;   P^u^ 

the  institutions  of  Roman  law  and  Gcrmamc  customs  hobb;  Posts;  Ptchta;  Robt;  Sindabs;  Saviqnt;  Schbdrl; 

became  merged;   the  impress  of  the  former  upon  the  a™iaDT;  ScaDwisaiSTABDTiiR;  Voiot;  WACBTiiK;Wii.rEa; 

ETwia  St  impiy  oS,  o£  tenrnnoloBy;  with  the  ^S!S.     "'"""'■   "'"""""i  """"■■■■  "—"■ 

terminology  was  much  of  interpretation  and  illumi'  The  wriwr  of  this  utide  ukuowledgss  special  iadebtedueat 

natmg  piScipie.     It  would  be   raah   to  assert  that  injtspreparati™  w  toAEorijctt  Coi^.  J*i}«i(^«D«^^^ 

feudJisSi  ow^  more  to  Roman  public  law  than  to  ^^i^'™'  ^^^-  ""**"  ^^  '^  ™  '^'™  ^^  ^'^■ 

theories  and  analogies  drawn  from  the  private  law  of  Beinbcciub,   Bltmmia   Jvru   Civilii   [OflttiDgsn,    1787); 

Rome.     Charlemagne   favoured   the   eivil-law   ideas  MuniJWBBnCT.  Dadnra  Pnnd«cto™n  (H»llo.  IMB):   8oa«, 

which  savoured  of  imperialism,  and  adopted  Roman  ^it^^Jt^ll'^tX^fiS^Cu^^t  ul^  3^™ 

methods  of  adnuuistration.      The  German  emperors  i.aii:  (Lomlon.  1SU3);   Howe.  ,;iiidi«  in  lAiCinl  Laic  (Boston, 

also  found  in  Roman  legal  institutions  a  plausible  is^aj'  I)"''}-'-  ISi-  "Z"''^-  tP^'^w'S??';,  '"IS.^^S"' 

support  for  their  claim  tTthehnperial  power.     The  ?^MH™l*n?SJ  V^"  t^«.  t'?^^ii=  "l^3S 

predominant  influence  in  the  survival  of  Roman  pn-  isiMt):  Ahob.  H<tf.  and  rrtncipiesa/Aom.  law  (London.  1SB3). 

vate  law  in  alt  the  countries  of  central  and  southern  IipportRoi  tai-sjniilo  reprnductioM  of  qriginiU  i,-iu  are  the 

Europe  was  that  of  the  clergy.     In  all  national  codes  fg^^^RSj;^,  3"of'ths  M^^f  G««l  iZ^tZ  (lJ^I^ 

there  is  present  a  large  quantity  of  customary  law;  isos).    Among  the  approved  tEita  srs  the  following^  (olPre- 

yet,  in  concept  and  in  claaaification,  all  of  the  eivU  JuBUniao:   Gaius.  tr.  bj.  Meaw  (Londoo.  I8B3).  by  P<«t» 

^«  are  Ro^  though  and  through,  and  this  ia  as  f^'''^]^f''l-£t^.t^^\^^'-^^l}^f^'f^ 

true  of  the  German  civil  code  (and,  in  part,  of  the  Romarti  Jnl<7UiIinVann  (Fam.  1839);  Corpui  Jvrii  AMcjut- 

Japanese  code)  as  of  thoae  other  national  codes  which  "."'«?*', (•*"?"■  '^'':  /'!"""  i?™  jS™?"! ./."'»!»,( H't 

tn^their  immediale  parentage  to  the  Code  Napoleon  '^«-  ^^^^J^^^'^^^f^  JtJ'^IX  d^th 

and  their  remote  ancestry  to  the  Twelve  Tables.  (wo  vola,  in  English .  by  Prof.'mohrd,  of  Cunbndse.  have 

England,  from  a  purely  external  point  of  view,  is  appeiirod   (bis  un^moly  death  leaves  (he  complL'tion  to  an. 

less  indebted  to  the  Roman  system,  but  the  jurist  gpSh:  C^Mjt-i".^of\hi"  rV''"?"   .^^ 

trained  in  both  systems  is  at  no  paina  to  (hscower  ia  the  Gennsn  ed.  (Beriin.  ioo4-o8)  (/                    '          .it, 

analogies  and   runa   upon   evidence  of  the  common  Dw«(byHo»«BKH.C«(.byKK(jjoER   .                             m  .. 

law'slndebtcdness  at  every  step.     Anglo-Saxon  legal  5',"^iS",?|ro^™f^^,?th«  l™d'X  of  '^o^rAv^E  b^™S 

institutions  have  been  jealously  and  persiatentiyrepre-  du«d  a9imil(ii'eTi(ii>a]  (ext  the  Bnt  pan  uf  nhith  appearvd  in 

sented  as  in  no  wise  beholden  to  Rome.     This  is  to  be  \'""^-„  <•''  lli'pi'n  Ji.yimn„i,  itjite:    Edicium  Tluotodia.  ot 

accounted  for  in  part  by  a  peculiarity  in  the  mamier  ot  ^  «^?^  B^'^fiS'^^u^^n^^T^  isiiTl^^- 

administration  of  the  common  law.     With  its  narrow  mami  Wirioailiorum,  or  Brmaru  of  Alaric  hu  been  edited  by 

tradition  and  its  abject  rule  of  stare  decisU,  it  haa  HSmel  (L«piig,  1MB)  and,  more  rocratly  in  Spjun,     <rf)  Bv- 

offered  until  recently   at  leas^an  unattractive  field  S!^™  a.*^^  R:t^i!:^ilIv^!"if^^^^J^ 

for  histoncai  jurisprudence.     The  courls  and  lawyers  Uanvale  flonWeonim  (Ldpiig,  1819). 

of  the  common  law  have  always  been  intensely  practi-  Joseph  I.  Kellt. 
cal  and  have  accepted  their  system,  not  only  as  purely 

indi^enouB,  but  also,  in  the  words  of  the  Blackatonian  Iiawiance,  Saint,  martyr;  d,  10  August,  258.     St. 

tiadition,  as  "the  perfection  of  reason".     For  four  Lawrence,  one  of  the  deacons  of  the  Roman  Church, 

centuries  after  Casar's  conquest  Roman  law  held  sway  was  one  of  the  victims  of  the  persecution  of  Valerian 

in  Britain;  her  soil  was  trodden  by  the  great  Fapinian  in  258,  like  Pope  Sixtus  II  and  many  other  members 

himself,  and  poasibly  by  others  of  the  immortal  five  of  the  Roman  clergy.     At  the  beginning  of  the  month 

gSxavy).     There    ipust    indeed    have    remained    in  of  August,  258,  the  emperor  issued  an  edict,  com- 

ritain  a  substantial  deposit  of  Roman  law,  and  it  ia  manding  that  all  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  should 

not  to  be  affirmed  that  this  was  completely  destroyed  immediately  be  put  to  death  ("episeopi  et  presbs^ri 

by  aubaequent  invBsionB  or  by  the  conquest.     The  et   diacones   incontinenti   animadvertantur"  —  Cyp- , 

earliest  Ejulish  treatises  are  for  the  most  part  trans-  rian,  Epiat.  Ixxx,  1;  ed.  Hartel,  11,  839).    This  un- 

criptionsofRomanlaw:  such  was  the  book  of  Bracton  perial  command  was  immediately  carried  out  in  Rome. 

(GQterboch).     The  Roman  law  was  historically  in  the  On  6  August  Pope  Sixtus  II   was   apprehended   in 

earlyEnglishlawof  persons,  ot  property,  of  contracts,  one  of  the  catacombs,  and  executed  forthwith  ("Xis- 

and  of  procedure,  although  not  always  with  equal  turn  in  cimiterio  animadversum  aciatia  VIII  id.  Au* 

obviouaness.     While  it  had  little  in  common  with  the  gusti  et  cum   eo  diacones   quattuor."   Cyprian,   ep. 

taw  of  real  property,  we  are  fairly  justified  m  main-  Ixxx,  1;  ed.  cit.,  840),     Two  other  deacons,  Felieis- 

ttuning  that  Roman  law  has  always  continued  a  sub-  aimusandAgapitus,  were  putto  death  the aamcday.  In 

■tantial  ingredient  in  English  law,  from  the  Rornan  theRomanCaleniJaroffeastsofthcfourthcenturytheir 

occupation  down  to  the  time  when  we  can  cite  specific  feast  day  ia  on  the  same  date  (cf.  also  "  l.iljer  Pontifi- 

deeiBiODS  in  which  Roman  law  principles  were  en-  calls", Xy3lu!<Il,ed. Duchesne, I, Ifl.'i)-  Fourdavslaler, 

paftod  m  the  chancery  law  of  England.    ]n  respect  on  the  lOth  of  August  of  that  same  year,  Lawrence, 


LAWBEKOE 


90 


LAWBraOE 


the  Ust  of  the  seven  deacons,  also  HufFered  a  martyr'e  these  narrativee  a  Dumber  of  the  martyrs  of  the  Via 
death.  The  amiiversary  of  tbia  holy  martvr  falls  on  Tiburtina  and  of  the  two  CatacombB  of  St.  Gyriaca  in 
that  day,  accordmg  to  the  Almanac  of  Philocalua  for  agra  Verann  and  St.  Hippolytus  were  connected  in  a 
the  year  354,  the  inventory  of  which  contains  the  prin-  romantic  and  whoUy  legendary  fashion.  The  details 
cipal  feasts  of  the  Roman  martyrs  of  the  middle  ol  the  given  in  these  Acts  concerning  the  martvrdom  of  St. 
fourth  century;  it  also  mentions  the  street  where  his     lawrence  and  hia  activity  before  his  death  oaoDot 

S'ave  is  to  be  found,  the  Via  Tiburtina  ("IlII  id.  claim  any  credibility.  However,  in  spite  of  this  criti- 
ug.  Laurantii  in  Tiburtina";  Ruicart,  "Acta  sin-  cismof  the  lal«r  accounts  of  the  martyrdom,  Uiere  can 
Cera",  Ratiabon,  1859,  632).  The  itineraries  of  the  be  no  question  that  St.  Lawrence  was  a  real  hlatorical 
graves  of  the  Roman  martyrs,  as  given  in  the  seventh  personage,  nor  any  doubt  as  to  the  martyrdom  of  that 
century,  mention  the  burial-place  of  this  celebrated  venerated  Roman  deacon,  the  place  of  its  ooourrence, 
martyr  in  the  Catacomb  of  C^riaca  in  agro  Verano  and  the  daU  of  his  burial.  Pope  Damaaus  built  a 
(De  Rossi,  "Roma  Sott",  I,  178).  basilica  in  Rome  which  he  dedicated  to  St.  lAwmice; 

Suice  the  fourth  century  St.  Lawrence  has  been  one  this  is  the  church  now  known  as  tbstofSanLorenioin 
of  the  most  honoured  martyrs  of  the  Roman  Church-  Damaso.  The  church  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Lucina,  also 
Constantine  the  Great  was  the  first  to  erect  a  little  dedicated  ta  this  saint,  still  exists.  The  feast  day  of 
oratory  over  his  burial-place,  which  was  enlarged  and  St.  Lawrence  is  kept  on  10  August.  He  is  pictured  in 
beautified  by  Pope  Felagius  II  (579-90).  Pope  Six-  art  with  the  gridiron  on  which  be  is  supposed  to  have 
tus  III  (432-10)  built  a  large  basilica  with  three  naves,  been  roasted  to  death. 
the  apse  leaning  against  the 
older  church,  on  the  summit 
of  the  hill  where  he  was  buried. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  Hon- 
orius  III  made  the  two  build- 
ings into  one,  and  so  the  bas- 
ilica of  San  LoronBO  remains 
to  this  day.  Pope  St.  Damssus 
(386-84)  wrote  a  panegyric 
in  verse,  which  was  engraved 
in  marble  and  placed  over  his 
tomb(lhm, "  Damasi epigram- 
mato",  Leipzig,  1895, 37,  num. 
32).  Two  contemporaries  of 
the  last-named  pope,  St.  Am- 
brose of  Milan  and  the  poet 
Prudentius,  give  particular 
details  about  St.  Lawrence's 
death.  Ambrose  relates  (De 
ofHciis  min.,  xxviii)  that  when 
St.  Lawrence  was  asked  for  the 
treasures  of  the  Church  he 
brought  forward  the  poor, 
among  whom  he  had  divided 
the  treasure,  in  place  of  alms; 
also  that  when  Pope  Sixtua  II 
was  led  away  t«  his  death  he 
comforted  Lawrence,  who 
wished  to  share  his  martyr- 
dom, by  saying  that  be  would 
follow  h'im  in  three  davs.  Tbc 
saintly  Bishop  of  Milan  also 
Bbites  that  St.  Ijawrence  was 
burned  to  death  on  a  grid- 
iron (De  ofiic.   xli).     In  like 


~  "^^pm 

»_ 

111 

1 

u 

1B95),  3fl9  sqq.:  Au-ahd,  Hiihirt 
dtt  ttrrtfrulioru.  III  (PuH.  1387). 
8S  nqq,:  Fhanchi  db  Cavaukm.  S. 
Lorauo  e  \l  jiippKtio  della  artairola 
in  R'M.  Quarlalxtirifl  (1900).  ISS 
Hqq,:  .Mahucchi,  BanJiQtietti  tatistf 
dckomf  (Rome,  1002),  4a5Kig.,419 
Bqci„  4rfl  sqcj. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Itawranca,  Saint,  second 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  d. 
2  Feb.,  ei9.  For  the  putic- 
ulars  of  his  life  and  pontif- 
icate we  rely  exclusively  on 
Venerable  Bede's  "History" 
details    added     by     medieval 


Lt  LuDlwth  PbIicc.  Engl, 


,  but  with  r 


T 


,   Hymnus 


they  may  possibly  embody 
ancient  traditions.  According 
to  Bt.  Bede,  he  was  one  of 
the  original  missionaries  who 
leftRomewithSt.  Augustine  in 
595andfinallylandedmThanet 

immated       in  697.      After  St.  Augustine 

^  had  been  consecrated  be  sent 

St.   Lawrence   back  to  Rome, 

the  pope  the  news  of  the  c 

■■'and  his  pcop 
ask  for  direc 


^ rtain  questions. 

in  this'  passage  of  the  historian  St.  Lawrence  is  re- 
ferreil  to  as  iireabyler,  in  ilistinction  to  Peter  who 


The  meeting  between  St.  Lawrence  and  Pope  Six-  ferreil  to  as  iireaL^.-. , ,__    .     _  _ 

tus  II,  when  the  latter  was  being  led  to  execution,  called  munadtiie.  From  this  it  lias  been  conjectured 
related  by  St.  Ambrose,  is  not  compatible  with  tbc  that  he  was  a  secular  priest  and  not  a  monk;  out  this 
contemporaneous  reports  about  the  persecution  of  conclusion  bun  been  questioned  by_Bene<liotine_writers 
Valerian.  The  manner  of  bis  execution— burning  on  such  as  KIrohara  in  the  Middle  A'ges  and  Mabillon  in 
a  red-hot  gridiron — also  gives  rise  to  grave  doubts,  kter  times.  When  St.  Clregory  had  decided  the  ques- 
Thc  narrations  of  Ambrose  and  Prudentius  are  tions  asked,  St.  Lawn'nce  returned  to  Britain  bearing 
"  founded  rather  on  oral  tradition  than  on  written  ac-  the  replies,  and  he  remained  with  St.  Augustine  shar- 
counts.  It  is  quite  possible  that  between  the  year  ing  his  work.  That  saint,  shortly  before  his  death 
258  and  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  popular  legends  which  probably  took  place  in  6(M,  consecrated  St. 
may  have  grown  up  about  this  highly  venerated  Lawrrnce  us  btsbop,  lest  the  infant  Church  should  l>e 
Roman  deacon,  and  some  of  these  legends  have  left  for  a  time  without  a  pastor.  Of  the  new  arch- 
been  preserved  by  these  two  authors.  We  have,  in  any  bishop's  episcopate  Bede  writes;  "Ijiwrencc,  liaving 
case,  no  means  of  verifying  from  earlier  sources  the  attained  the  dignity  of  archbishop,  strove  most  vigor- 
details  derived  from  St.  Ambrose  and  Prudentius,  ously  to  add  to  the  foundations  of  the  Church  which 
or  of  ascertaining!  to  what  extent  such  details  arc  he  tad  seen  so  nobly  laid  and  to  forward  the  work  by 
supported  by  earlier  historical  tradition.  Fuller  ac-  frequent  wortls  of  holy  exhortation  and  by  the  eon- 
counts  of  tlic  miirtjTilom  of  SI.  I^wrcnce  were  com-  stiiTif  fXiimple  of  bis  ilevoted  ialvnir."  The  only  ex- 
posed,  probably,  curly  in  the  sixth  century,  and  in  taut  genuine  di>cument  relating  to  him  is  tbc  frai^ient 


ST.  LAWRENCE  BEING  ORDAINED  DEACON  BY  8IXTUS  II 

FR/L   ANQEUCO VATICAN 


preserved  by  Bede  of  the  letter  he  addressed  to  the  simplicity  Mid  poverty.    He  was  greatly  respected 

Celtic  biabopB  exhortins  them  to  peace  and  unity  with  both  in  Italy  and  elsewhere  by  the  digmtariea  ot  both 

Rome.    The  death  of  King  Ethelbert  in  616  was  (ot-  Church  and  State.     He  tried  to  foster  the  religious 

towed  by  a  heathen  reaction  under  his  son  Eadbald,  life  by  his  sennona  as  welt  aa  by  his  writings.    The 

and  under  the  sons  of  Scliert  who  became  Idngs  of  the  Diocese  of  Castello  belonged  to  the  Patriarchate  of 

East  Saxons.    Saints  Mellitus  and  Justus,  bishops  of  Grado.    On  8  October,  1451,  Nicholas  V  united  the 

the  newly-founded  Sees  of  London  and  Rochester,  Seeof Castellowith thePatriarchat«of  Grado.and the 

took  refuge  with  St.  Lawrence  at  Canterbury  and  see  of  the  patriarch  was  transferred  to  Venice,  and 

urged  him  to  fiy  to  Gaul  with  them.    They  departed,  Lawrence  was  named  the  first  Patriarch  of  Venice,  and 

and  he,  discouraged  by  the  undoing  of  St.  Augustine's  exercised  his  office  till  his  death  somewhat  more  than 

work,  was  preparing  to  follow  them,  when  St.  Peter  four  years  later.     His  beatification  was  ratified  by 

appeared  to  him  in  a  vision,  blaming  him  for  thinking  Clement  VII  in  1524,  and  he  n'as  canonized  in  1090  by 

en  leaving  hia  flock  and  inflicting  stripes  upon  him.  Alexander  VIII.     Innocent  XII   appointed   5  Sep- 


In  the  morning  he  hastened 
to  the  king,  exhibiting  his 
wounded  boch'  and  relating 
his  vision.  This  led  to  the 
convetmon  of  the  kinji,  to  the 
recall  of  Saints  Mellitus  and 
Justus,  and  to  their  persever- 
ance in  their  work  of  evan- 
gelizing Kent  and  the  neigh- 
bouring provinces.  These 
events  occurred  about  617  or 
618,  and  shortly  afterwards 
St.  Lawrence  died  anil  was 
buried  near  St.  Augustine  in 
the  north  porch  of  St.  Peter's 
.\bbey  church,  afterwards 
known  as  St.  Augustine's. 
His  festival  is  observed  in 
England  on  3  February. 

Bkdb.      BiMoTXa     EccittituHea 
aaitii    Analormn,   I.    uvii;    II, 
BAM,  Hi^oria  Afanae- 


inAaa.    It 
id..  Fab™ 


.  1858):  , 


I   SS. 


.  Do- 


ii:  IftCBBS  in  Did.  ChriM.  Biog.. 
a  V.  Laurtntiui  (3S);  Hunt  in 
Dtrt.  HaL  Btog.,  m.  v.  Lamftnct. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Lawnnea  Jnatlnian, 
Saint,  Biediop  and  first  Pa- 
triarch of  Venice,  b.  in  1381, 
and  d.  8  January,  1456. 
He  was  a  descendant  of 
the  Giustiniani,   a,  Venetian 

Etrician  family  which  num- 
red  several  saints  among 
its  members.  I.awrencc'g 
pious  mother  sowed  the 
seeds  of  a  devout  religious 
life  in  the  boy's  youth.  In 
1400  when  he  Was  about 
nineteen  years  old,  he  en- 
tered the  monastery  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.     taincd   permission   to 

Augustine  on  the  Island  of  Alga  near  Venice.    Inspite     Giendalough;  in  that ^ ^ 

of  his  youth  he  excited  admiration  by  his  poverty,  thirteen  years,  conspicuous  for  his  piety  and  learning, 
mortifications,  and  fervour  in  prayer.  At  that  time  So  great  was  his  reputation  in  the  eyes  of  the  com- 
the  convent  was  changed  into  a  congregation  of  secu-  munitv  that  on  the  death  of  Alil>ot  Dunlaing,  early  in 
lar  canons  living  in  community.  After  his  ordination  1154,  he  was  unanimously  called  to  preside  over  the 
in  1406  Lawrence  was  chosen  prior  of  the  community,  Abbey  of  St.Kevm.  Dermot,  King  of  Leinster,  mar-' 
and  shortly  after  that  general  of  tho  congregation,  ried  Mor,  sister  of  St,  Lawrence,  and,  though  his  char- 
He  gave  them  their  constitution,  and  was  so  zealous  in  acter  has  been  painted  in  dark  colours  by  the  native 
spreading  tbe  same  that  he  Was  looked  upon  as  the     annalists,  he  was  a  great  friend  lo  the  Church.     He 


tember  for  the  celebration 
of  his  feast.  The  saint's 
ascetical  writings  have 
often  been  published,  first 
in  Brescia  in  1506,  later  la 
Paris  in  1524,  and  in  Basle 
in  1660,  etc.  We  are  in- 
debted to  his  nephew,  Ber- 
nardo Giusliniani,  for  his 
biography. 
BehnarddsJcbtiniancb,  ,pput- 

tini^i  (Venice?  1574",'"s"iuS!! 

De  n'fu  aairforum.  ed.  1618,  I. 

12a-3£:    Ada   SS.,    Jani  KTy    I. 

bbl-Si;  BiHioDitra  haarforavh'ca 

lalfT.a.  ed.  BnujNnwtB.II.  1708; 

BuUaritan  Romanan,  ad.  Tachih.. 

V,  107  aaa.\    Edbel.  Uirntrtkia 

■•  lica  fPiorti  ari/ll.  134-290; 

,  Summonm  PimtiJIcun,  il- 

umviniram  .  .,.  di  b.  Lau- 


J.  P.  KntscH. 


Lawnnce  O 'Toole  (Loit- 
c\N  Ua  Toathail)  Saint, 
confessor,  b.  about  1128,  in 
the  present  Co,  Kildare;  d. 
14  Nov.,  IISO,  at  £u  in 
Normandy;  canonized  in 
1225  by  HonoriiLH  III.  Hit 
father  was  chief  of  Hy 
Murray,  and  his  mother 
one  of  the  (.'Ian  O'Byme. 
At  the  age  of  ten  be  was 
taken  asa  hosta^  by  Dermot 
McMurrogh,  King  of  Lein- 
ster. In  1140  the  boy  ob- 
iter the  monastic  school  of 
.lley-eanctuary  he  studied  for 


prelate  restored  churches,  established 


12  May,  1433,  he  was  raised  to  the  Bishopric  of  Cas-  (Co.  Kilkenny!  and  at  Agbiade  (Co.  ('ariow),  in  1151. 
._.!_     rjn. 1 . .._  1  .1      .1  .  1 ,!  .    .     jjg  ^1^  founded  an  abbey  for  Cistercian  monks  at 

Baliinglaas,  and  an  abliey  for  Austin  canons  at  Fcma. 
St.  Lawrence,  through  humility,  deelined  the  See  of 

Giendalough  in  1160,  but  on  the  death  of  Gregory, 


vents,  and  reformed  the  life  of  the  canons.    But  above 

all  be  was  noted  for  his  Christian  charity  and  his 

hounded  liberality.    All  the  monev  he  couhl  raisf 

bestowed  upon  tbe  poor,  while  be  himaelf  ted  a  life  of    tbe  vacant 


X,  and  wa&  cuiuiccratcd  iu Christ  Chuich 


LAXZ8M 


92 


LAY 


cathedral  by  Gilla  Isu  (Grelasius),  Primate  of  Annagh, 
early  in  the  following  year.  This  ap]>ointment  of  a 
native-bom  Irishman  and  his  consecration  by  the  suc- 
cessor of  St.  Patrick  marks  the  passine  of  Scandinav- 
ian supremacy  in  the  Irish  capital,  and  the  emancipa- 
tion from  canonical  obedience  to  Canterbury  which 
had  obtained  under  the  Danish  bishops  of  Dublin. 
St.  Lawrence  soon  set  himself  to  effect  numerous  re- 
forms, commencing  by  converting  the  secular  canons 
of  Christ  Church  cathedral  into  Aroasian  canons 
(1163).  Three  years  later  he  subscribed  to  the  foun- 
dation charter  of  All  Hallows  priory,  Dublin  (founded 
by  Kins  Dermot),  for  the  same  order  of  Austin  can- 
ons. Not  content  with  the  strictest  observance  of 
rules,  he  wore  a  hair  shirt  underneath  his  episcopal 
dress,  and  practised  the  greatest  austerity,  retinng 
for  an  annual  retreat  of  forty  days  to  St.  Kevin's  cave, 
near  Glendalough.  At  the  second  siege  of  Dublin 
(1170)  St.  Lawrence  was  active  in  ministration,  and 
he  showed  his  political  foresight  by  paying  due 
deference  to  Henry  II  of  England,  during  that  mon- 
arch's stay  in  Dublin.  In  April^  1178,  he  entertained 
the  papal  legate.  Cardinal  Vivian,  who  pr^ided  at 
the  Synod  of  Dublin.  He  successfully  negotiated  the 
Treaty  of  Windsor,  and  secured  good  terms  for  Rod- 
eric,  King  of  Connacht.  He  attended  the  Lateran 
Council  in  1179,  and  returned  as  legate  for  Ireland. 
The  holy  prelate  was  not  long  in  Dubun  till  he  deemed 
it  necessary  again  to  visit  Kmg  Henry  II  (impelled  by 
a  burning  charitv  in  the  cause  of  King  Roderic),  and 
he  cross^  to  England  in  September  of  that  year. 
After  three  weeks  of  detention  at  Abingdon  Abbey, 
St.  Lawrence  followed  the  English  King  to  Normandy. 
Taken  ill  at  the  Augustinian  Abbey  of  Eu,  he  was 
tended  by  Abbot  Osbert  and  the  canons  of  St.  Victor; 
before  he  breathed  his  last  he  had  the  consolation  of- 
leaming  that  Kin^  Henry  had  acceded  to  his  request. 
Messxnobam.  Flonlegium  (Paris,  1624);  O'Hanlon,  Life  of 
St.  Lawrence  O'Toole  (Dublin,  1S57);  Hbalt,  Ireland's  Ancient 
Schools  and  Scholars  (4th  ed.,  Dublin,  1902). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Laxism.    See  Theology,  Moral. 

Lay  Abbot  {aJbhaiocomeSy  abbas  laicuSt  abbas  miles), 
a  name  used  to  designate  a  layman  on  whom  a  king  or 
someone  in  authoritv  bestowed  an  abbey  as  a  reward 
for  services  rendered;  he  had  charge  of ^ the  estate  be- 
longing to  it,  and  was  entitled  to  Sart  of  the  income. 
This  baneful  custom  had  a  bad  effect  upon  the  life  of 
the  cloister.  It  existed  principally  in  the  Prankish 
Empire  from  the  eighth  century  tifl  the  ecclesiastical 
reforms  of  the  eleventh.  Charles  Martel  (q.  v.)  was 
the  first  to  bestow  extensive  ecclesiasticai  property 
upon  laymen,  political  friends,  and  warriors  who 
had  helped  him  in  his  campaigns.  At  an  earlier 
period  the  French  Merovingians  Imd  bestowed  church 
tajids  on  laymen,  or  at  least  allowed  them  their  pos- 
session ana  use,  though  not  ownership.  Numerous 
83niods  held  in  France  in  the  sixth  ana  seventh  cen- 
turies passed  decrees  a^inst  this  abuse  of  church 
property.  The  French  kmgs  were  also  in  the  habit  of 
appointing  abbots  to  monasteries  which  they  had 
founded;  moreover,  many  monasteries,  though  not 
founded  by  the  king,  placed  themselves  under  royal 
patronage  in  order  to  snare  his  protection,  and  so  oe- 
came  possessions  of  the  Crown.  This  custom  of  the 
Merovmgian  rulers  of  disposing  of  church  property  in 
individual  cases,  as  also  that  of  appointing  abl)ots  to 
monasteries  founded  by  or  belonging  to  themselves, 
was  taken  as  a  precedent  by  the  French  kings  for  re- 
warding laymen  with  abbeys,  or  giving  them  to  bishops 
in  commendam.  Under  Charles  Martel  the  Church 
was  greatly  injured  by  this  abuse,  not  only  in  her  pos- 
sessions, but  also  in  her  religioiis  life.  St.  Boniface 
and  later  Hincmar  of  Reims  picture  most  dismally 
the  conse<iuent  tlownfall  of  church  discipline,  ana 
though  St.  Boniface  tried  sealously  and  even  success- 


fully to  reform  the  Frankish  Church,  the  bestowal  of 
abt!eys  on  secular  abbots  was  not  entirely  aliolished. 
Under  Pepin  the  monks  were  permitted,  in  case  their 
abbey  should  fall  into  secular  hands,  to  go  over  to  an- 
other community. 

Charlemagne  also  frequently  gave  church  property, 
and  sometimes  abbeys,  in  feudal  tenure.  It  is  true 
that  Louis  the  Pious  aided  St.  Benedict  of  Aniane  in 
his  endeavours  to  reform  the  monastic  life.  In  order 
to  accomplish  this  it  was  necessary  to  restore  the  free 
election  of  ablx)ts,  and  the  appointment  as  well  of 
blameless  monks  as  heads  of  the  monastic  houses. 
Although  Emperor  Louis  shared  these  principles,  he 
continued  to  bestow  abbeys  on  lajrmen,  and  his  sons 
imitated  him.  The  important  Abbey  of  St.  Riquier 
(Centula)  in  Picardy  had  secular  abbots  from  the 
time  of  Charlemagne,  who  had  given  it  to  his  friend 
Angilbert,  the  poet  and  the  lover  of  his  daughter  Ber- 
tha, and  father  of  her  two  sons  (see  Angilbert, 
Saint).  After  Angilbert's  death  in  814,  the  abbey 
was  given  to  other  laymen.  Under  such  influences 
the  CSiurch  was  bound  to  suffer;  frequently  the  abbeys 
were  scenes  of  worldliness  and  revelry.  Various  syn- 
ods of  the  ninth  century  passed  decrees  against  this 
custom;  the  Synod  of  Dieaenhofen  (October,  844)  de- 
creed in  its  tlurd  canon,  that  abbeys  should  no  longer 
remain  in  the  power  of  laymen,  but  that  monks  should 
be  their  abbots  (Hefele,  "Konziliengeschichte",  2nd 
ed.,  IV,  110).  In  like  maimer  the  Synods  of  Meaux 
and  Paris  (845-846)  complained  that  the  monasteries 
held  by  laymen  had  fallen  into  decay,  and  emphasised 
the  king's  duty  in  this  respect  (op.  cit.,  IV,  116).  But 
abbeys  continued  to  be  bestowed  upon  laymen  espe- 
cially in  France  and  Lorraine,  e.  g.  St.  Evre  near  Toul, 
in  the  reign  of  Lothaire  I.  Lothaire  II,  however, 
restored  it  to  ecclesiastical  control  in  858,  but  the 
same  king  gave  Bonmoutier  to  a  layman;  and  the 
Abbeys  of  St.  Germain  and  St.  Martin,  in  the  Diocese 
of  Toul,  were  also  given  to  secular  abbots.  In  the  Dio- 
cese of  Metz,  the  Abbey  of  Gorze  was  long  in  the  hands 
of  laymen,  and  imder  them  fell  into  decay.  Stavelot 
and  Malm^y,  in  the  Diocese  of  Li^ge,  were  in  the 
eleventh  century  bestowed  on  a  certain  Count  Ragin- 
arius,  as  also  St.  Maximin  near  Trier  on  a  Count  Adal- 
hard,  etc.  (Hauck,  "  Kirchengeschichte  Deutsch- 
land",  II,  598).  In  888  a  Synod  of  Mainz  decreed 
(can.  xxv)  that  the  secular  abbots  should  place  able 
provosts  and  provisors  over  their  monasteries. 

Coimcils,  however,  were  unable  to  put  an  end  to  the 
evil;  in  a  synod  held  at  Trosly,  in  the  Diocese  of  Sois- 
sons,  in  909,  sharp  complaints  were  made  (ch.  iii) 
about  the  lives  of  monks;  many  convents,  it  was  said, 
were  governed  by  laymen,  whose  wives  and  children, 
soldiers  and  dogs,  were  housed  in  the  precincts  of  the 
religious.  To  better  these  conditions  it  was  neces- 
sary, the  synod  declared,  to  restore  the  regular  abbots 
and  abbesses;  at  the  same  time  ecclesiastical  canons 
and  royal  capitularies  declared  laymen  quite  devoid  of 
authority  in  church  affairs  (Hefele,  op.  cit.,  IV,  572- 
73).  Lay  abbots  existed  in  the  tenth  century,  also  in 
the  eleventh.  Gosfred,  Duke  of  Aquitainc,  was  Abbot 
of  the  monastery  of  St.  Hilary  at  Poitiers,  and  as  such 
he  published  the  decrees  issued  (1078)  at  the  Synod  of 
Poitiers  (Hefele,  op.  cit.,  V,  1 16).  It  was  only  through 
the  so-called  investitures  conflict  that  the  Church  was 
freed  from  secular  domination;  the  reform  of  religious 
and  ecclesiastical  life  brought  about  by  the  papacy, 
put  an  end  to  the  bestowal  of  ablwys  upon  laymen. 

Thomaahinuh,  Vetus  et  ?u)tx»  eeclesia  disciplina  circa  t»eneficia, 
part  II.  lib.  II.  c.  12  sqq.  (Lyons.  1705,  686-622);  Hefele. 
Historj/  of  the  Councils;  Digbt.  Ages  of  Faith;  Fouter,  British 
Mona»ticism;  LnvoARD,  Historjf  of  England  (Dublin.  1878); 
D' Alton,  History  of  Ireland;  Stuart  and  Coleman.  History  of 
the  Diocese  of  Armagh. 

J.  P.  KiRSC'H. 

Lay  Baptism.    See  Baptism,  sub-title  XITI. 
Xiay  Benefice.    See  Commjsndatoby  Abbot. 


ULT 


93 


LAY 


Lay  Brothers. — ^Religious  occupied  solely  with 
m^nni^l  labouT  and  with  the  secular  affairs  of  a  monas- 
tery or  friary.  They  have  been  known,  in  various 
places  and  at  various  times,  hs/ratres  conversi,  laid 
oarbcUif  iUitercUi,  or  tdiotoBf  and,  though  members  of 
their  respective  orders,  are  entirely  distinct  from  the 
choir  monks  or  brothers,  who  are  devoted  mainly  to 
the  opus  Dei  and  to  study.  There  is  some  dispute  as 
to  the  origin  of  lay  brothers.  They  are  first  heard  of 
in  the  eleventh  century,  and  are  stated  by  Mabillon  to 
have  been  first  instituted  by  St.  John  Gualbert  at  Val- 
lombrosa,  about  1038.  But,  though  the  name  con- 
vert is  first  applied  to  religious  of  this  kind  in  the  life 
of  St.  John  Uualbert,  written  by  the  Bl.  Andrea 
Strumensis  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  it 
seems  certain  they  were  instituted  before  the  f oimding 
of  Vallombrosa.  St.  Peter  Damian  indicates  that 
servants  who  were  also  religious  were  set  apart  to  per- 
form the  manual  labour  at  Fonte  Avellana,  which  was 
founded  about  the  year  1000,  while,  at  the  monastery 
of  Fonte  Buono,  at  Camaldoli,  founded  about  1012, 
there  were  certainly  brethren  who  were  distinct  from 
the  choir  monks,  and  were  devoted  entirely  to  the 
secular  needs  of  the  house. 

In  early  Western  monasticism  no  such  distinction 
existed.  The  majority  of  St.  Benedict's  monks  were 
not  clerics,  and  all  performed  manual  labour,  the  word 
conversi  being  used  only  to  designate  those  who  had 
received  the  fiabit  late  in  life,  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  obiaH  and  nutriti.  But  bv  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century  the  time  devoted  to  study  had 
greatly  increased,  a  larger  proportion  of  the  monks 
were  in  Holy  orders,  while  great  numbers  of  illiterate 
persons  embraced  the  religious  life.  At  the  same  time 
it  was  found  necessary  to  regulate  the  position  of  the 
famuli,  the  hired  servants  of  the  monastery,  and  to 
include  some  of  these  in  the  monastic  familv.  So  in 
Ital^  the  lay  brothers  were  instituted,  and  we  find 
similar  attempts  at  organization  at  the  abbey  of  St. 
Benignus,  at  Dijon,  under  William  of  Dijon  (d.  1031) 
and  Kichard  of  Verdun  (d.  1046),  while  at  Hirschau 
the  Abbot  William  (d.  1091)  gave  a  special  rule  to  the 
fratres  barboH  and  exteriores.  At  Cluny  the  manual 
work  was  relegated  mostly  to  paid  servants,  but  the 
Carthusians,  the  Cistercians,  the  Order  of  Grandmont, 
and  most  subsequent  religious  orders  possessed  lay 
brothers,  to  whom  they  committed  their  secular  cares. 
At  Grandmont,  indeed,  the  complete  control  of  the 
order's  property  by  the  lay  brothers  led  to  serious  dis- 
turbances, and  finally  to  the  ruin  of  the  order;  but 
the  wiser  regulations  of  the  Cistercians  provided 
against  this  danger  and  have  formed  the  model  for  the 
later  orders.  The  English  Black  Monks  have  made 
but  slight  use  of  lay  brothers,  finding  the  service  of 
paid  attendants  more  convenient;  but  Father  Taun- 
ton was  mistaken  in  his  assertion  that  "  in  those  days 
in  English  Benedictine  monasteries  there  were  no  lay 
brothers",  for  they  are  mentioned  in  the  customaries 
of  St.  Augustine's  at  Canterbury  and  St.  Peter's  at 
Westminster. 

Lay  brothers  are  now  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  re- 
ligious orders.  They  are  mostly  pious  and  laborious 
persons,  usuallv  drawn  from  the  working  classes  of  the 
community,  who,  while  unable  to  attain  to  the  degree 
of  learning  rec]uisite  for  Holy  orders,  are  yet  drawn  to 
the  religious  life  and  able  to  contribute  by  their  toil  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  house  or  order  of  their  vocation. 
Not  selclom  they  are  skilled  in  artistic  handicrafts, 
sometimes  they  are  efficient  administrators  of  tem- 
poral possessions,  always  they  are  able  to  perform 
domestic  services  or  to  follow  agricultural  pursuits. 
The  Cistercians,  especially  their  lay  brethren,  are  fa- 
mous for  their  Skill  in  agriculture,  and  many  a  now 
fertile  spot  owes  its  productiveness  to  their  unremit- 
ting labour  in  modern  as  well  as  in  medieval  times. 

Lay  brothers  are  usuallv  distinguished  from  the 
choir  brethren  by  some  difference  in  their  habit:  for 


instance,  the  Cistercian  lay  brother  wears  a  brown 
habit,  instead  of  white,  with  a  black  scapular;  in  choir 
they  wear  a  large  cloak  instead  of  a  cowl;  the  Vallom- 
brosan  lay'  brothers  wore  a  cap  instead  of  a  hood,  and 
their  habit  was  shorter;  the  English  Benedictine  lay 
brothers  wear  a  hood  of  a  different  shape  from  that  of 
the  choir  monks,  and  no  cowl;  a  Dominican  lay 
brother  wears  a  black,  instead  of  a  white,  scapular. 
In  some  orders  they  are  required  to  recite  daily  the 
Little  Office  of  Our  Lady,  but  usually  their  office  con- 
sists of  a  certain  number  of  Paters,  Aves,  and  Glorias. 
Wherever  they  are  found  in  considerable  niunbers 
they  possess  their  own  quarters  in  the  monastery;  the 
domus  conversorum  is  still  noticeable  in  many  of  the 
ruins  of  English  monasteries. 

Lay  sisters  are  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  orders  of 
women,  and  their  origin,  like  that  of  the  lay  brothers, 
is  to  be  found  in  the  necessity  at  once  of  providing  the 
choir  nuns  with  more  time  for  the  Office  and  study, 
and  of  enabling  the  unlearned  to  embrace  the  religious 
life.  They,  too,  are  distinguished  by  their  different 
habit  from  the  choir  sisters,  and  their  Office  consists  of 
the  Little  Office  of  Our  Lady  or  a  certain  number  of 
Paters,  etc.  They  seem  to  have  been  instituted  earlier 
than  the  lay  brothers,  being  first  mentioned  in  a  life  of 
St.  Denis  written  in  the  ninth  century.  In  the  early 
medieval  period  we  even  hear  of  lav  brothers  at- 
tached to  convents  of  women  and  of  lav  sisters  at- 
tached to  monasteries.  In  each  case,  of  course,  the 
two  sexes  occupied  distinct  buildings.  This  curious 
arrangement  has  long  been  abolished. 

Bessb.  Le  Moine  Ben^ictin  (Ligug6,  1898),  190-1;  GrDtz- 
HACHER  in  Hjbrzog  u.  Hauck,  Realencyklopddie  (LeipzijS,  1903), 
s.  V.  Monchtum;  Heimbucher,  Die  Orden  u.  Kongregationen  der 
katholischen  Kirche,  I  (Paderbom,  1907),  268-271;  HAltot, 
Dictionnaire  des  Ordres  Rdiqieux  (Paris,  1863),  s.  v.  Hiraauge; 
Hergott,  Vetiu  DUciplina  Monaatica  (Paris,  1726);  Hoffman, 
Daa  Konversen-Institul  dea  Ciatercienaerordena  in  aeinem  Ur- 
aprung  und  aeiner  Oroaniaation  (FreiburK,  1905);  Mabillon, 
Acta  Sanctorum  O.S.B.  (Venice,  1732-40).  ssc.  Ill  (I),  v-ix: 
saec.  VI  (II),  xl-xli,  281,  733;  Mabillon,  Annalea  O^.B.,  IV 
(Lucca,  1739),  411;  Mart^ne,  De  arUiquia  Morutchorum  ritibua 
(Lyons,  1690);  Mart^nr  and  Durand,  Theaaurua  Novua  Ante- 
dotorum  (Paris,  1617).  IV,  1547-1(^2;  Mittarslli  and  Costa- 
DONi.  Annalea  Camatdulenaea  O.S.B.t  I  (Venice,  1755;  App., 
336-457;  Thompson.  Cuatomarv  of  Uie  Benedictine  Monaateriea  of 
St.  Auguatine,  Canterbury^  and  St.  Peter ,  Weatminater^  ed.  Henrt 
Bradsuaw  Society  (London,  1902-4);  Zocklbr,  Aakeaeund 
Monchtum,  403,  405,  407. 

Leslie  A.  St.  L.  Toke. 

Lay  Gommunion. — ^The  primitive  discipline  of  the 
Church  established  a  different  punishment  for  certain 
crimes  according  as  they  were  committed  by  laymen 
or  clerics.  The  former  entailed  a  shorter  and  ordina- 
rily lighter  penance  than  the  latter,  which  were  pim- 
ished  with  a  special  penalty.  The  lavman  was  ex- 
cluded from  the  community  of  the  faitnful,  the  cleric 
was  excluded  from  the  hierarchy  and  reduced  to  the 
lay  communion,  that  is  to  say,  he  was  forbidden  to 
exercise  his  functions.  The  nature  of  the  latter 
punishment  is  not  quite  certain.  According  to  one 
opinion,  it  consisted  in  excommunication,  together 
with  a  prohibition  to  receive  the  Blessed  Eucharist; 
according  to  another,  the  penitent  was  allowed  to 
receive  Holy  Communion,  out  only  with  the  laity. 
Canon  xv  of  the  so-called  Apostolical  Canons  (see 
Canons,  Apostolic)  forbids  any  priest,  residing  out- 
side his  diocese  without  authorization,  to  celebrate 
the  Holy  Sacrifice,  but  grants  him  permission  to 
receive  the  Eucharist  along  with  the  faithful.  The 
canon  Ixii  ordained  that  clerics  who  apostatized  dur- 
ing the  persecutions  were  to  be  received  among  the 
laity.  In  251,  a  letter  of  Pope  Cornelius  to  Fsu)ius, 
Bishop  of  Antioch,  informs  us  that  the  pope,  in 
presence  of  all  the  i>eople,  received  into  his  commim- 
lon,  but  as  a  layman,  one  of  the  bishops  guilty  of 
having  conferred  sacerdotal  ordination  on  the  heretic 
Novatian.  A  letter  of  St.  Cyprian  of  Carthage  men- 
tions a  certain  Trophimus,  who  was  admitted  to 
communion  among  the  laity.  It  would  be  easy  to 
mention  similar  cases,  in  wmch  we  find  it  stated  that 


ULY                                     94  LAY 

the  penitent  'was  admitted  to  receive  communion  purity  to  the  priest,  and  according  to  hto  Judgment 
among  the  laity.  The  Council  of  Elvira  (c.  300)  carefully  purify  ourselves  in  the  manner  and  time  he 
which  reveals  to  us  in  many  ways  the  rehgious  life  shall  fix'  (In  Ep.  Jacob,  c.  v;  P.  L.,  XCIII,  39). 
G^  an  entire  ecclesiastical  province,  in  canon  Ixxvi,  Clearly  Bede  did  not  consider  such  mutual  avowal  a 
^ropos  of  a  deacon,  mentions  the  same  discipline,  saccamental  confession;  he  had  in  mind  the  monas- 
'Diis  is  the  most  ancient  canonical  text  that  speaks  tic  confession  of  faultis.  In  the  eleventh  century 
of  the  custom  of  lay  communion.  We  do  not  cite  Laofranc  sets  forth  the  same  theory,  but  distinguishes 
the  Council  of  Cologne  (346)  since  its  authenticity  between  pubUc  sins  and  hidden  faults;  the  first  he  re- 
may  yet  be  questioned.  But  from  that  time  for-  serves  "to  priests,  by  whom  the  Church  binds  and 
ward  we  find,  in  a  series  of  councils,  declarations  looses'',  and  authorizes  the  avowal  of  the  second  to  all 
which  show  conclusively  that,  when  lay  communion  is  members  of  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  and  in  their 
mentioned,  there  is  Question  of  the  reception  of  the  absence  to  an  upright  man  (vir  mundus),  and  in  the 
Blessed  Eucharist.  Besides  the  Council  of  Sardica,  absence  of  an  upright  man,  to  God  alone  ('^Decelanda 
those  of  Hippo  (393),  canon  xli;  Toledo  (400),  canon  confess.",  P.  L.,  CL.  629).  So  also  Raoul  I'Ardent, 
iv;  Rome  (487)  canon  ii,  are  too  explicit  to  admit  of  after  having  declared  that  the  confession  of  grievous 
any  doubt  that  we  have  here  an  established  discipline,  faults  (criminalium)  should  be  made  to  a  priest,  de- 
We  may  also  cite  the  Councils  of  Agde  (506),  canon  clares  that  'Hhe  confession  of  venial  sins  may  be  made 
1;  Lerida  (524),  canon  v;  Orleans  (538),  canon  ii;  to  any  person,  even  to  an  inferior"  (cuUibet,  etiam 
etc.  minor!) ,  but  he  adds  this  explanation : ' '  We  make  this 

Speaking  generally,  the  expression  'May  com-  confession,  not  that  the  layman  ma^  absolve  us;  but 
munion"  does  not  necessarily  imply  the  idea  of  the  because,  by  reason  of  our  own  humiliation  and  accusar 
Eucharist,  but  only  the  condition  of  a  layman  in  tion  of  our  sins  and  the  prayer  of  our  brethren,  we  may 
communion  with  the  Church.  But  as  the  Eucharist  be  purified  of  our  sins"  (Hom.  Ixiv,  P.  L.,  CLV,  1900). 
was  granted  onlv  to  those  in  communion  with  the  Confession  to  laymen  made  in  this  way  has,  therefore. 
Church,  to  say  tnat  a  cleric  was  admitted  to  the  lay  no  claim  to  a  sacramental  character  and  provokes  no 
communion  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  he  received  theological  objection.  The  passage  from  Bede  is  fre- 
the  Holy  Eucharist.  The  person  who  passed  from  quently  quoted  by  the  Scholastics, 
the  condition  of  a  penitent  to  the  la}r  communion,  The  otner  text  on  which  is  based  the  second  form  of 
had  necessarily  to  be  received  by  the  bishop  into  the  confession  to  laymen,  is  taken  from  a  work  widely  read 
bosom  o(  the  Church,  before  being  admitted  to  com-  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  "  De  vera  et  falsa  pcBuitentia", 
munion.  There  are  no  groimds  for  supposing  that  imtil  the  sixteenth  century  imanimously  attributed  to 
this  transition  implied  an  intermediate  stage  in  which  St.  Augustine  and  quoted  as  such  (P.  L.,  XL,  1122). 
lie  who  was  admitted  to  the  communion  was  deprived  To-day  it  is  universally  regarded  as  apocryphal,  though 
of  the  Blessed  Eucharist.  This  discipline  applied  not  it  would  be  difficult  to  aetermine  its  author.  After 
only  to  those  who  were  guilty  of  a  secret  sin,  but  saying  that  "he  who  wishes  to  confess  his  sins  should 
also  to  those  who  had  for  some  time  belonged  to  an  seek  a  priest  who  can  bind  and  loose",  he  adds  these 
heretical  sect.  But  there  was  no  absolute  rule,  since  words  often  repeated  as  an  axiom:  "So  great  is  the 
the  Council  of  Nicsea  (325)  received  back  the  Nova-  power  of  confession  that  if  a  priest  be  wanting,  one 
tian  clergy  without  imposing  this  penalty  on  them,  may  confess  to  his  neighbour'  (tanta  vis  est  confes- 
while  we  see  it  enforced  in  the  case  of  the  Donatists.  sionis  ut,  si  deest  sacerdos,  confiteatur  proximo). 
In  modem  times  "lay  communipn"  is  sometimes  He  goes  on  to  explain  clearly  the  value  of  this  con- 
imposed,  but  only  in  exceptional  cases,  which  need  fession  made  to  a  layman  in  case  of  necessity:  " Al- 
not  be  treated  of  here.  though  the  confession  be  made  to  one  who  has  no 
ScuDAuoEE  in  Diet.  Christ.  Antiq.,  ■•  v*   „  power  to  loose,  nevertheless  he  who  confesses  his 

H.  Leclercq.  crime  to  his  companion  becomes  worthy  of  pardon 

through  his  desire  for  a  priest."     Briefly,  to  obtain 

Lay  OonfesBion. — ^This  article  does  not  deal  with  pardon,  the  sinner  performs  his  duty  to  the  best  of  his 

confession  by  la}anen  but  with  that  made  to  laymen,  ability,  i.  e.  he  is  contrite  and  confesses  with  the  desire 

for  the  purpose  of  obtainin|g  the  remission  of  sms  by  of  addressing  himself  to  a  priest;  he  hopes  that  the 

God.     it  has  no  practical  importance,  and  is  treated  mercy  of  God  will  supply  what  in  this  point  is  lacking, 

merely  from  an  historical  point  of  view.     It  is  found  The  confession  is  not  sacramental,  if  we  may  so  spe^, 

under  two  forms:  first,  confession  without  relation  to  except  on  the  part  of  the  penitent;  a  layman  cannot  be 

the  sacrament,  second,  confession  intended  to  supply  the  minister  of  absolution  and  he  is  not  regarded  as 

for  the  sacrament  in  case  of  necessity.     In  the  first  such.    Thus  understood  confession  to  laymen  is  im- 

instance,  it  consists  of  confession  of  vernal  sins  or  daily  posed  as  obligatory,  later  only  counselled  or  simply 

faults  which  need  not  necessarily  be  submitted  to  the  permitted,  by  the  greater  number  of  theologians  from 

power  of  the  keys;  in  the  second,  it  has  to  do  with  the  Gratian  and  Peter  Lombard  to  the  sixteenth  century 

confession  of  even  grievous  sins  which  should  be  de-  and  the  Reformation.     Though  Gratian  is  not  so  ez- 

clared  to  a  priest,  but  which  are  confessed  to  a  layman  plicit  (can.  78,  Dist.  I,  De  Poenit.;  can.  36,  Dist.    IV, 

because  there  is  no  priest  at  hand  and  the  case  is  ur-  De  Cons.),  the  Master  of  the  Sentences  (IV,  dist.  xvii) 

sent.     In  both  cases  the  end  sought  is  the  merit  of  makes  a  real  obligation  of  confession  to  a  layman  iir 

humiliation  which  is  inseparable  from  freely  performed  case  of  necessity.     After  having  demonstrated  that 

confession;  but  in  the  first  no  administration  of  the  the  avowal  of  sins  (confessio  oris)  is  necessary  in  order 

sacrament,  in  any  degree,  is  sought;  in  the  second,  on  to  obtain  pardon,  he  declares  that  this  avowal  should 

the  contrary,  sacramental  confession  is  made  to  a  lay-  be  made  nrst  to  God,  then  to  a  priest,  and  in  the  ab- 

man  for  want  of  a  priest.    Theologians  and  canonists  sence  of  a  priest,  to  one's  neighbour  (socio).    This 

in  dealing  with  this  subject  usually  have  two  historical  doctrine  of  Peter  Lombard  is  foimd,  with  some  differ- 

texts  as  a  basis.     The  optional  and  meritorious  con-  ences,  in  many  of  his  conmientators,  among  them, 

fession  of  slight  faults  to  any  Christian  is  set  forth  in  Raymond  of  Pef&afort,  who  authorizes  this  confession 

Venerable  Bede's  '  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  of  St.  without  making  it  an  obligation  (Summa,  III,  xxxiv, 

James":  "Confess  your  sins  one  to  another"  (Con-  84);  Albertus  Magnus  (in  IV,  dist.  xvii,  aa.  58,  59^, 

fitemini  alterutTum  peccata  vestra).     "It  should  be  who.  arguing  from  baptism  conferred  by  a  layman  m 

done",  says  the  holy  Doctor,  "  with  discernment;  we  case  of  necessity,  ascribes  a  certain  sacramental  value 

should  confess  our  daily  and  slight  faults  mutually  to  to  absolution  by  a  la>^man.     St.  Thomas  (in  IV,  dist. 

our  equals,  and  believe  that  we  are  saved  by  their  xvii,  q.  3,  art.  3,  sol.  2)  obliges  the  penitent  to  do  what 

daily  prayer.     As  for  more  grievous  leprosy  (mortal  he  can,  and  sees  something  sacramental  (guodam' 

Bin),  we  shcndd  according  to  the  law,  diacover  its  imr  modo  sacramerUalis)  in  his  confession;  he  adds,  aad 


L4Y 


95 


L4Y 


in  this  many  followed  him,  that  if  the  penitent  sur- 
vives he  should  seek  real  alxjolution  from  a  priest 
(cf.  Bonav.  in  IV,  sent.,  d.  17,  p.  3,  a.  1,  q.  1, 
and  Alex,  of  Hales,  in  IV,  ci.  19,  m.  1,  a.  1).  Scotus, 
on  the  other  hand  (in  dist.  xiv,  q.  4;  dist.  xvii, 
q.  1),  not  only  does  not  make  this  confession  obli|^a- 
tory,  but  discovers  therein  certain  dangers;  after  him 
John  of  Freiburg,  Durandus  of  Saint-Pour9ain,  and 
Astesanus  declare  this  practice  merely  licit.  Besides 
the  practical  manuals  lor  the  use  of  the  priests  may 
be  mentioned  the  *'  Manipulus  curatorum  of  Guy  dc 
Montrocher  ^1333),  the  S3modal  statutes  of  William, 
Bishop  of  Cahors,  about  1325,  which  oblige  sinners  to 
confess  to  a  layman  in  case  of  necessity:  all,  however, 
agree  in  Ba3rin^  that  there  is  no  real  absolution  and 
that  recourse  should  be  had  to  a  priest  if  possible. 

Practice  corresponds  to  theory;  in  tne  medieval 
ehansana  de  geates  and  in  annals  and  chronicles,  ex- 
amples of  such  confessions  occur  (see  Laurain.  "Dc 
r  intervention  des  laYques,  des  diacres,  et  des  abi3e88es 
dans  I'administration  de  la  Penitence '^  Paris,  1897). 
Thus,  Joinville  relates  (Hist,  de  S.  Louis,  §70),  that  the 
array  of  the  Christians  having  heon  put  to  flight  by 
the  Saracens,  each  one  confessed  to  any  pnest  he 
could  findi  and  at  need  to  his  neighbour;  he  himself 
thus  received  the  confession  of  Guy  d' Ybelin,  and  gave 
him  a  kind  of  absolution  saving:  "  Je  vous  asol  de  tel 
pooir  que  Diex  m'a  donnei  (I  absolve  you  with  such 
power  as  God  may  have  given  me).  In  1524  Bayard, 
wounded  to  death,  prayed  before  his  crpss-shaped 
sword-hilt  and  made  his  confession  to  his  "maistre 
d'ostel"  (Hist,  de  Bayard  par  le  loyal  servitcur,  ch. 
Ixiv-v).  Neither  theory  nor  practice,  it  will  readily 
be  seen,  was  erroneous  from  a  theological  point  of 
view.  But  when  Luther  (Prop,  danm.,  13)  attacked 
and  denied  the  power  of  the  priest  to  administer  ab- 
solution, and  maintained  that  laymen  had  a  similar 
power,  a  reaction  set  in.  The  heresy  of  Luther  was 
condenmed  by  Leo  X  and  the  Council  of  Trent;  this 
Council  (sess.  xiv,  cap.  6.  and  can.  10),  without  di- 
rectly occupying  itselt  witli  confession  to  a  layman  in 
case  of  necessity,  defined  that  only  bishops  and  priests 
are  the  ministers  of  absolution.  Sixteenth-century 
authors,  while  not  condemning  the  practice,  declared  it 
dangerous,  e.  ^.  the  celebratca  Martin  Aspilcueta  (Na- 
varrus)  (Enchirid.,  xxi,  n.  41),  who  witn  Dominicus 
Soto  says  that  it  had  fallen  into  desuetude.  Both 
theory  and  practice  disappeared  by  degrees;  at  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  century  there  remained  scarcely  a 
memory  of  them. 

MoRiN,  Comment,  hiidor.  de  discipL  in  adminisir.  aacram, 
Pamit.t  Vin  (Paris,  1C51),  c.  xxiii-iv;  (!!hardon,  Histoire  des 
Sacrementa;  la  P^Uence,  sect.  II,  c.  vii  (in  Mione,  Pat.  LcU., 
XX);  Lauhain,  op.  cit.;  Mart^nb,  Dean/tg.  ecel.  riWma  (Rouen, 
1700),  I,  a,  6,  n.  7;  and  II,  37;  and  Vacawt,  Dxct,de  ThMogie 
eath.,  I,  182;  KOnioer,  Die  Beiehl  nach  Ciisariua  von  Heister- 
baeh  (1906).  From  a  Protestant  point  of  view,  to  be  corrected 
by  the  foregoing.  Lka.  History  of  Auricular  ConfeMion^  I 
;PhiUdelphia,  1^).  218. 

A.  BOUDINHOX. 

Lay  Inyestitiire.    See  Investiture. 

Lasnuann,  Paul,  a  famous  Jesuit  moralist,  b.  in  1574 
at  Arzl,  near  Innsbruck;  d.  of  the  plague  on  13  Novem- 
ber, 1635,  at  Constance.  After  studying  jurispru- 
dence at  Ingolstadt,  he  entered  the  Jesuit  Onier  tnere 
in  1594,  was  ordained  priest  in  1(K)3,  taught  philosophy 
at  the  University  of  Ingolstadt  from  1C03-9,  moral 
theology  at  the  Jesuit  house  in  Munich  from  1609-25, 
and  canon  law  at  the  University  of  Dillirigen  from 
1625-32.  He  W'as  one  of  the  greatest  moralists  and 
canonists  of  his  time,  and  a  copious  writer  on  philo- 
sophical, moml,  and  juridical  subjects.  The  most  im- 
portant of  his  thirty-three  literary  productions  is  a 
compendium  of  moral  theology  ''Theologia  Moralis  in 
quinque  libros  partita''  (Munich,  1625),  of  which  a 
second  and  enlaiiged  edition  in  six  volumes  appeared 
hi  1626  at  the  same  place.  Until  the  second  quarter 
of  the  eightMnth  contuiy  it  was  edited  repeatedly 


(latest  edition,  Mainz,  1723),  and  was  extensively  used 
as  a  textbook  in  seminaries.  Especially  in  the  third 
edition  of  his  ''Theologia  Moralis",  Laymann  stands 
up  resolutely  for  a  milder  treatment  of  those  who  liad 
been  accused  of  witchcraft.  The  reason  whv  Lay- 
mann is  often  represented  as  an  advocate  of  the  hor- 
rible cruelties  practised  at  trials  for  witchcraft  Hes  in 
the  false  assumption  that  he  is  the  author  of  a  1x)ok 
entitled  ''Processus  juridicus  contra  sagas  et  vene- 
ficos"  (Cologne,  1629).  Quite  in  contrast  with  Lay- 
mann's  ''Theologia  Moralis  ■\  this  book  is  a  defence  of 
the  extreme  severity  at  trials  for  witchcraft.  Father 
Duhr,  S.J.,  has  now  proved  beyond  doubt  that  Lay- 
mann is  not  the  author  of  this  work.  See ' '  Zeitschrif t 
fur  katholischeTheologie",  XXIII  (Innsbruck,  1899), 
733-43;  XXIV  (1900),  585-92;  XXV  (1901),  166-8, 
XXIX  (1905),  190-2.  At  the  instance  of  Bishop 
Heinrich  von  KnOringen  of  Augsbui^,  Laymann 
wrote  ''Paciscompositio  inter  Pnncipes  et  Ordines 
Imi)erii  Romani  Catholicos  atque  Augustanae  Con- 
fessionis  adhserentes"  (Dillingen,  1629),  an  elaborate 
work  of  658  pages,  explaining  the  value  and  extent  of 
the  Religious  Peace  of  Augsbui^,  effected  by  King 
Ferdinand  I  in  1555.  Ailother  important  work  of  Lay- 
mann is  entitled  "  Justa  defensio  S.  Rom.  Pontificis, 
augustissimi  Csesaris,  S.  R.  E.  Cardinalium,  episco- 
porum,  principum  et  aliorum,  dcmum  minimse  Socie- 
tatis  Jesu,  in  causa  monasteriorum  extinctorum  et 
bonorum  ecclesiasticorum  vacantium  ..."  (DiUin- 
pen,  1631).  It  treats  of  the  Edict  of  Restitution, 
issued  by  Ferdinand  II  in  1629,  and  sustains  the  point 
that  in  case  of  the  ancient  orders  the  property  of  sup- 
pressed monasteries  need  not  be  restored  to  the  order 
to  which  these  monasteries  belonged,  because  each 
monastery  was  a  corporation  of  its  own.  Such  prop- 
erty, therefore,  may  be  applied  to  Catholic  schools  and 
other  ecclesiastical  foundations.  In  the  case  of  the 
Jesuit  Order,  however,  he  holds  that  all  confiscated 
property  must  be  restored  to  the  order  as  such,  l)ecause 
the  whole  Jesuit  Order  forms  only  one  corporation. 
His  work  on  canon  law,  *'Jus  Canonicum  seu  Com- 
mentaria  in  libros  decretales"  (3  vols.,  Dillingen, 
1666-98),  was  published  after  his  death. 

SoMMERVOGEL.,  Bibliothcque  de  la  Compaonie  de  JUus  (Bnu- 
sels  and  Paris.  1890-1909),  IV,  1582-94;  Schwickerath,^«»- 
tude  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  trials  for  witchcraft  in  American  Cath, 

guarterly  Review,  XXVII  (Philadelphia.  1902), 493-8;  Specht. 
eschichte  der  Universitdt  Dillingen  (Freiburg  im  Br..  1902), 

325.  etc.  Michael  Ott. 

Lay  Tithes. — Under  this  heading  must  be  dis- 
tinguished (1)  secular  tithes,  which  subjects  on  crown- 
estates  were  obliged  to  pay  to  princes,  or  tenants,  or 
vassals  on  leased  lands  or  lands  held  in  fief  to  their  land- 
lords {decinuE  oriaine  laicales),  and  (2)  ecclesiastical 
tithes,  which  in  the  course  of  time  became  alienated 
from  the  Church  to  lay  proprietors  {decima  ex  post 
laicalea  «.  scecularizaia).  There  is  question  here  only 
of  the  latter.  In  the  secularizations  initiated  under 
the  Merovingians  the  transference  of  ecclesiastical 

Eroperty  and  their  tithes  or  of  the  tithes  alone  to 
lymen  was  effected.  In  subsequent  times  church 
laiEids  with  their  tithes,  or  the  tithes  alone,  were  be- 
stowed even  by  bishops  and  abbots  on  laymen  to 
secure  servants,  vassals,  protectors  against  violence 
and  defenders  of  their  civil  rights.  Other  church 
property  with  tithes,  or  the  tithes  alone,  were  forcibly 
seized  by  laymen.  Finally,  the  development  of 
churches,  once  the  property  of  private  individuals, 
into  parish  churches  subject  to  the  bishop  gave  rise  to 
the  landlord  appropriating  the  tithes  due  to  the  parish 
church.  The  church  soon  took  measures  to  repress 
this  spoliation,  beginning  as  early  as  the  ninth  century 
at  the  Synod  of  Diedenhofen  (844;  cap.  iii,  5)  and  that 
of  Beauvais  (845;  cap.  iii,  6).  Gregory  VII  revived  in 
a  stricter  form  these  old  canons  at  the  Autumn  Synod 
of  1078,  demanding  that  the  laity  should  return  all 
tithes  to  the  Church,  even  though  they  had  been  givea 


cUred  aJI  who  refused  obedience  to  be  aacnlegi  (C.  1, 
C.  XVI,  q.  7).  Succeeding  popes  and  Hvnods  repeated 
this  order,  declaring  that  Church  tithes  lo  he  itiru 
divini  (C.  14,  X,  de  decim.,  Ill,  30);  that,  as  the  in- 
aUenable  source  of  income  of  the  parish  church,  they 
couid  not  be  transferred  to  another  church  or  monas- 
tery (C,  30,  X,dedecim.,III,  30);  that  they  could  not 
be  acquired  by  a  laymaa  through  prescription  or  in- 
heritance, or  otherwise  aUenated. 

But  it  waa  quite  impossible  for  the  Church  to  recover 
the  tithes  possessed  for  cen'  uries  by  lasTnen,  to  whom 
in  fact  they  had  been  in  many  cases  trwisferred  by  the 
Church  itself.  Laymen  gave  them  in  preference  to  the 
monastery  instead  o!  the  parish  church,  but  this  be- 
came thenceforth  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
bishop  (C.  3,  X,  de  privil.,  Ill,  33).^  The  decision  of 
the  Lateron  Council  (1179),  forbidding  the  alienation 
of  the  church  tithes  possessed  by  the  laity,  and  de- 
manding their  return  to  the  Church  (C.  19,  X,  de 
decim.,  Ill,  30),  waa  interpreted  to  mean  that  those 
ecclesiastical  tithes,  which  up  to  the  time  of  this  coun- 
cil wero  in  possession  of  Isymed,  might  be  retained  by 
them,  but  no  further  transference  should  take  place 
(C.  2.VX,  de  decim..  Ill,  30,  c.  2,  3  in  VI'",  h.  t^III, 
13).  But  even  this  could  not  be  carried  out.  There 
thua  existed  side  by  side  with  church  tithes  a  quantity 
of  lay  tithes;  the  latter  were  dealt  with  by  secular 
courts  as  being  purelv  secular  rights,  while  ecclesias- 
tical law  waa  applied  to  ecclesiastical  tithes.  How- 
ever, certain  of  the  obligations  imposed  by  the  (once) 
ecclesiastical  tithes  continued  to  bind  the  proprietor, 
even  tbourfi  he  were  a  layman.  Thus,  in  the  case  of 
church  buSdinxB,  the  Council  of  Trent  declared  that 
patrons  and  all"  (|ui  fructus  aliquos  ex  dictis  ecclesiia 
provenientes  percipiunt"  were  bound  secondarily  t« 
defray  the  cost  of  repair  (Sess.  XXI,  De  ref.,  c,  vii;  see 
Fabrica  Ecclesle).  When  there  is  a  doubt  as  to 
whether  the  tithes  in  question  are  ecclesiastical  or  lay^, 
the  reasonable  presumption  is  that  they  are  ecclesi- 

Fehk^is,   Bibl.  anonica  (Rorao.  1885-99),  s,  v.  Dedma; 
Pebels,  thet.Vci;.  Z(Anlm  im  tanjlinD.  firicA  (Berlin,    19M): 
"■    ■    ■       -  icopafH.UBrrlm.  1908),  114 

,jo<CWeininr,  1908). 
a  Baptist  SAuut'LLER. 

Laiarista.    See  MiaeiON,  Congreoatioh  op  thb. 

Luanu  (Gk.  Aifapot,  a  contraction  of  EXtdfj^wt— 
see  II  Mach.,  vi,  IS — meaning  in  Hebrew  "God  hath 
helped"),  the  name  of  two  persons  in  the  N.  T.;  a 
character  in  one  of  Christ's  parables,  and  the  brother 
of  Martha  and  Mary  of  Bethania. 

Laiahus  or  THE  Parable. — (l)  The  Story. — The 
dramatic  storyof  the  rich  man  and  the  beggar  (only  in 
Luke,  ivi,  19-31)  is  set  fortli  by  Christ  in  two  striking 
:  (a)  Their  Condition  Here.— The  rich 


indTay  there  all 
ihc  crumbs  that 
fel!  from  the  rich  man's  table,  but  received  none,  and 
was  loft  (o  the  dogs,  (b)  Their  Condition  Hereafter. 
— The  earthly  banquet  is  over;  the  heavenly  banquet 
is  begun,  Lazarus  partakes  of  the  banquet  in  a  place 
of  honour  (cf.  John,  xiii,  23).  He  reclines  his  head  on 
Abraham's  bosom.  The  rich  man  is  now  the  outcast. 
He  yearns  for  a  drop  of  water.  I  jiaarus  is  not  allowed 
to  leave  the  heavenly  banquet  and  t«nd  to  the  outcast, 
(2)  The  Meaning. — Catholic  excgetes  now  com- 
monly accept  the  story  as  a  parable.  It  is  also  legen- 
dary that  the  sorea  of  Laiarus  were  leprous.  'The 
purpose  of  the  parable  is  to  teach  ua  the  evil  result  of 
the  unwise  neglect  of  one's  opportunities.  Laianis 
was  rewarded,  not  because  he  was  poor,  but  for  his 
virtuous  acceptance  of  poverty;  the  rich  man  was 
punished,  not  because  he  was  rich,  but  for  vicious 
neglect  of  the  opportunities  given  him  by  bis  wealth. 


II.  Lazarus oftre  HntACt,B, — This  personaKe  was 
the  brother  of  Martha  and  Mary  of  Bethania;  all  three 
were  beloved  friends  of  Jesus  (John,  xi,  5).  At  the 
request  of  the  two  sisters  Jesus  raised  Lazarus  from 


the  dead  (John,  xi,  41-14).  Soon  thereafter,  the 
Saturday  before  Palm  Sunday,  Lasarue  took  part  in 
the  banquet  which  Simon  the  Leper  gave  to  Jesus  in 
Bethania  (Matt.,  xKvi,  6-16;  Mark,  xiv,  5-11;  John, 
xii,  l-ll).  Many  of  the  Jews  believed  in  Jesus  bo- 
cause  of  Laiarus,  whom  the  chief  priests  now  sought 
to  put  to  death.  The  Gospels  tell  us  no  more  dl 
Lazarus  (see  Lazarus  of  Bethany,  Saint). 

Walter  Dhuh. 

Luania,  Saikt,  Order  of,  op  Jerusalem. — The 
military  order  of  St.  Lasarus  of  Jerusalem  originated  in 
a  leper  hospital  founded  in  the  twelfth  century  by. 
the  crusaders  of  the  Ijitin  Kingdom.  Without  doubt 
there  had  been  before  this  date  leper  hospitals  in  the 
East,  of  which  the  Knights  of  St.  I,.azarus  claimed  to 
be  the  continuation,  in  order  to  have  the  appearance 
of  remote  antiquity  and  to  pass  as  the  oldest  of  all 
orders.  But  this  pretension  is  apocryphal.  These 
Eastern  leper  hospitals  followed  the  Rule  of  St.  Basil, 
while  that  of  Jerusalem  adopted  the  hospital  Rule  of 
St.  Augustine  in  use  in  the  West.  The  Order  of  St. 
Lazarus  was  indeed  purely  an  order  of  hospitAllers 
from  the  beginning,  as  was  that  of  St.  Jolm,  but  with- 
out encroaching  on  the  field  of  the  latter.  Because  of 
its  B[>eciBl  aim,  it  had  quite  a  different  organJEation. 
The  inmates  of  St.  John  were  merely  visitors,  and 
changed  constantly;  the  lepers  of  St.  I.,azarus  on 
the  contrary  were  condemnea  to  perpetual  seclusion. 
In  return  they  were  regarded  as  brothers  or  sisters  <A 


rule  which  imited  them  ii 


reli^^ous 


Ages  even  inL  _ _ „   .  . 

lepers.    It  is  not  proved,  though  it  has  been  asserted, 
that  this  was  the  case  at  Jerusalem. 

The  Middle  Ages  surrounded  with  a  touching  pity 
these  the  greatest  of  all  unfortunates,  these  miselu,  aa 
thev  were  called.  From  the  time  of  the  crusades, 
with  the  spread  of  leprosy,  leper  hospitals  became  very 
numerous  throughout  Europe,  so  that  at  the  death  m 
St.  Louis  there  were  eight  hundred  in  France  alone. 


LAZARUS 


97 


LAZARUS 


HoweveTi  these  houses  did  not  form  a  congregation; 
each  house  was  autonomous,  and  supported  to  a  great 
extent  by  the  lepers  themselves,  wno  were  oUiged 
when  entering  to  bring  with  them  their  implements, 
sjui  who  at  their  death  willed  their  goods  to  the  insti- 
tution if  they  had  no  children.  Many  of  these  houses 
bore  the  name  of  St.  Lazarus,  from  which,  however,  no 
dependence  whatever  on  St.  Lazarus  of  Jerusalem  Ls  to 
be  inferred.  The  most  famous,  St.  Lazarus  of  Paris, 
depended  solely  and  directly  on  the  bishop  of  tliat 
city,  and  was  a  mere  priory  when  it  was  given  by  the 
archbishop  to  the  missionaries  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
who  have  retained  the  name  of  Lazarists  (1632). 

The  Question  remains,  how  and  at  w^hut  time  the 
Order  of  St.  Lazarus  of  Jerusalem  became  a  military 
order.  This  is  not  known  exactly;  and,  moreover,  the 
historians  of  the  order  have  done  much  to  obscure  the 
question  by  entangling  it  w^ith  gratuitous  pretensions 
and  suspicious  documents. 

The  house  at  Jerusalem  owed  to  the  general  interest 
devoted  to  the  holy  places  in  the  Middle  A^es  a  rapid 
and  substantial  gro^^'th  in  goods  and  privileges  of 
•very  kind.  It  was  endoweii  not  only  by  the  sot- 
ereigna  of  the  Latin  realm,  but  by  all  the  states  of  Eu- 
rope. Louis  VII,  on  his  return  fn)m  the  Second 
Crusade,  |»ve  it  the  Chateau  of  Broigny,  near  Orleans 
(1154).  This  example  was  followed  bv  Henry  II  of 
England,  and  by  Elmperor  Frederick  1 1.  This  was 
the  origin  of  the  military  commanderies  whose  con- 
tributions, called  responsions,  flowed  into  Jerusalem, 
swollen  bv  the  collections  wliich  the  hospital  was 
authorized  to  make  in  Europe. 

The  popes  for  their  part  were  not  sparing  of  their 
favours.  Alexander  I V  recognized  its  existence  under 
the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine  (1255).  Urban  IV  as.su re<l 
it  the  same  immunities  as  were  granted  to  the  monas- 
tic orders  (1262).  Clement  IV  obliged  the  secular 
clergy  to  confine  all  lepers  wliatsocver,  men  or  women, 
clencs  or  lavmen,  religious  or  secular,  in  the  houses  of 
this  order  (1205). 

At  the  time  these  favours  were  granted,  Jenisalem 
had  fallen  again  into  the  hands  of  the  MussulniaiLs. 
St.  Lazarus,  although  still  called  *'of  Jerusalem''  had 
been  transferred  to  Acre,  where  it  had  l>een  ceded  ter- 
ritory by  the  Templars  (1240),  and  where  it  received 
the  confirmation  of  its  privileges  by  Urban  IV  (1201) . 

It  was  at  this  time  also  that  the  Order  of  St.  Laz- 
arus of  Jerusalem,  following  the  example  of  the  Order 
of  St.  John,  armed  comL)atants  for  the  defence  of  the 
remaining  possessions  of  the  Christians  in  Asia.  Their 
presence  is  mentioned  without  further  detail  at  the 
EEtttle  of  Gaza  against  the  Khwarizmians  in  1244,  and 
at  the  final  siege  of  Acre  in  1291 . 

As  a  result  of  this  catastrophe  the  leper  hospital  of 
St.  Lazarus  of  Jerusalem  disappeared;  however,  its 
eommanderies  in  Europe,  togetner  with  their  reve- 
nues, continued  to  exist,  but  hospitality  was  no  longer 
practised.  The  order  ceased  to  be  an  order  of  ho.-^ 
pitallers  and  became  purely  military.  The  knigiils 
who  resided  in  these  commanderies  liad  no  tasks,  and 
were  veritable  parasites  on  the  Christian  charitable 
foundations. 

Things  remained  in  this  condition  until  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Innocent  VIII,  who  suppressed  this  usoU^ss 
order  and  transferred  its  possessions  to  the  Knights 
of  St,  John  (1400),  which  transfer  was  reueweil  bv 
Pope  Julius  II  (1505).  But  the  Order  of  St.  John 
never  came  into  possession  of  this  property  except  in 
Germany. 

In  France,  Francis  I,  to  whom  the  Concordat  of  Loo 
X  (1519)  had  resigned  the  nomination  to  the  greater 
number  of  ecclesiastical  benefices,  evaded  the  Bull  of 
suppression  bv  conferring  the  commanderies  of  St. 
Lazarus  on  Knights  of  the  Order  of  St.  John.  The 
hot  nam«>d  vainlv  claimed  the  possession  of  these 
goods.  Their  chum  was  rejected  by  the  Parliament 
or  Paris  (1547). 
XX.— 7 


Leo  X  hims^  disregarded  the  value  of  this  BuU 
by  re-establishing  in  favour  of  Charles  V  the  priory  oi 
Capua,  to  which  were  attached  the  leper  ho-spitallers 
of  Sicily  (1517). 

Pius  IV  went  further;  he  annulled  the  Bulls  of  his 
predecessors  and  restored  its  possessions  to  the  order 
that  he  might  give  the  mastersliip  to  a  favourite. 
Giovanni  de  Castiglione  (1565).  But  the  latter  did 
not  succeed  in  securing  the  devolution  of  the  com- 
manderies of  France.  Pius  V  codifietl  the  statutes 
and  privileges  of  the  order,  but  reserved  to  himself  the 
right  to  confirm  the  appointment  of  the  grand  master 
as  well  as  of  t^e  beneficiaries  (1567).  He  made  an  at- 
tempt to  restore  to  the  order  its  hospitaller  character, 
by  mcorporating  with  it  all  the  leper  hospitals  and 
other  houses  founded  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Lazh 
arus  of  the  Lepers.  But  tliis  tardv  reform  was  ren- 
dered useless  by  the  subsequent  gradual  disappearance 
of  leprosy  in  Europe. 

Finally,  the  grantl  mastership  of  the  order  having 
been  rendered  vacant  in  1572  by  the  death  of  Castig- 
Hone,  Pope  Gregory  XIII  united  it  in  perpetuity  with 
the  Crown  of  Savoy.  The  reigning  duke,  Philibert  III, 
liastened  to  fuse  it  with  the  recently  founded  Siivoyan 
Order  of  St.  Maurice,  and  thenceforth  the  title  of 
Grand  Master  of  the  Order  of  Sts.  Maurice  and  I-.az- 
arus  was  hereditary  in  tliat  house.  The  pope  gave 
him  authority  over  the  vacant  commanderies  every- 
where, except  in  the  states  of  the  King  of  Spain,  which 
included  the  greater  part  of  Italv.  In  England  and 
Germany  these  commanderies  liad  been  8upi)ressed  by 
Protestantism.  France  remained,  but  it  was  refrac- 
tory to  the  claims  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  Some  years 
later  King  Henry  IV,  having  founded  with  the  appro- 
bation of  Paul  V  (1609)  the  Order  of  Notre-Dame  du 
Mont-Carmel,  liastened  in  turn  to  unite  to  it  the  va- 
cant possessions  of  St.  Lazarus  in  France,  and  such  is 
the  origin  of  the  title  of  "Knight  of  the  Koyal,  Mili- 
tary, and  Hospitaller  Onler  of  Our  Ladv  of  Mount 
C^fmel  and  St.  Lazarus  of  Jerusalem",  which  carried 
with  it  the  enjoyment  of  a  benefice,  and  which  was  con- 
ferred by  tlie  king  for  services  rendered. 

To  return  to  the  dukes  of  S:ivoy:  Gement  VIII 

grante(l  them  the  right  to  exact  from  ecclesiastical 

Ixjiicfices  jwnsions  to  the  sum  of  four  liun<lred  crowns 

for  the  i)enefit  of  knights  of  the  order,  dispensing  them 

from  celibacy  on  condition  that  they  should  oljserve 

the  statutes  of  the  order  and  consecrate  their  arms  to 

the  defence  of  the  Faith.     Besides  their  command- 

erioij  the  order  had  two  houses  where  the  knights 

might  live  in  common,  one  of  which,  at  Turin,  was  to 

contribute  to  combats  on  land,  while  the  other,  at 

Nice,  had  to  provide  galleys  to  tight  the  Turks  at  sea. 

But  wiien  thus  reduced  to  the  states  of  the  Duke  of 

Savoy,  the  onler  merely  vegetated  until  the  French 

Revolution,  which  suppressed  it.     In  ISlC  the  King  of 

Sanlinia.  Victor  Emmanuel  I,  re-established  the  titles 

of    Kniglit  and  Commander   of    Sts.  Maurice  and 

I^zarus,  as  simple  decorations,  accessible  without 

conditions  of  birth  to  both  civilians  and  military  men. 

DE  SiBKRT,  Hi^oire  de9  Ordrea  myaux  deXoire  Dame  de  MtrrU- 
Carmcl  tt  dc  St-Jjuzare  de  JCrumxlem  (Pari*,  1772;;  Fkiuiavd, 
PrC-in  hiftlorique  des  Onlrea  de  Si-Ijazare  et  deSt-MnurireCl.yonH. 


rizio  6  Lasaro  (Turin,  1855). 


Oil.  Mof:ller. 


Lazarus  of  Bethany,  Saint,  reputed  fir.-t  B:>h:p 


with  some  holy  women  anrl  otlurr'^  of  11:^  : ^'  :i>V 
were  put  out  to  sea  by  the  Jew^  ho-t  I!*.'  to  ^^T*^}^  » 
in  a  vessel  without  sails,  oars,  or  helm.  ^fYofcc* 
tnimcuJouB  y^yafe  Und^^l  in  proven<»  **  * 


LEAD                                 98  LSAOTJS 

<allecl  to-day  the  Saintes^MarieS.     It  is  related  that  }084) ;  Faili.on,  Man.  in6d.  »ur  VapostoUU  de  8te,  Maris  Mad» 

ttey  separated  there  to  go  and  preach  the  Gospel  in  'r^^%^f:;^o^,6r<t^ttio'l^Hti iS^^^nf&t. 

different  parts  of  the  south-east  of  Gaul.     Lazarus  of  lena  et  Martha  in  Provindam  appulau  ditaertatio  (Paris.  1  Wl); 

whom  alone  we  have  to  treat  here,  went  to  Marseilles,  »■  Mazenod.  Preuves  de  la  misnon  de  S.  Latare  h  MareeiUe  m 

and,  having  converted  a  number  of  its  inhabitants  to  iPIi^^^^i^  A^'AZi^liwiF'^Vp^i'  ^i^a^^^'qI^S*^^' 

/-»!    ._..      -i.^    1                 xi-   *     /!     A          X           -nv     •        xi-  Mem,  pour  eervtr  a  I  ntat.  ecciee.,  II  (Fans,  1694),  32—4:  L.  Du- 

Chnstiamty,  became  their  first  pastor.     During  the  chesnb.  Faeies  Spise.  de  Vane.  Gaule,  I  (Paris,  1894),  324-6. 

first  persecution  under  Nero  he  hid  himself  in  a  crypt,  341-4;  Mosm,  S.  Laware  et  8.  Maximin,  donnfea  nouvMee  eur 

over  which  the  celebrated  Abbey  of  St-Victor  was  con-  SSTd^Ti^STrF^iSef  F^f^^^  Um^i"^  '''"•  ^  "" 

structed  m  the  fifth  century.   In  this  same  crjyt  he  if^^  Cluonet. 
was  interred,  when  he  shed  his  blood  for  the  Faith. 

During  the  new  persecution  of  Domitian  he  was  cast  Lead,  Diocese  of  (Leadensis),  which  was  estab- 

into  pnson  and  beheaded  ma  spot  which  is  believed  Hshed  on  6  August,  1902,  comprises  aU  that  part  of 

to  be  identical  with  a  cave  beneath  the  pnson  Saint-  the  State  of  South  bakota  (U.  S.  A.)  west  of  thTMis- 

Lazare.    His  body  was    later  tmi^lated  to  Autun,  gouri  River-an  area  of  4L759  square  miles.    The 

and  buned  m  the  cathedral  of  that  town.     But  the  residence  of  the  bishop  is  at  Hot  Sprmgs.    The  tern- 


ftiuup,  tuia  tiauuiuii,  wmuii  vvc«  uuiieveu  lur  »everui  the  Uatholic  Indians  of  the  Sioux  Reservations.  As 
centuries  and  which  still  finds  some  advocates,  has  first  bishop,  the  Very  Rev.  John  N.  Stariha,  Vicar- 
no  sohd  foundation.  It  is  m  a  wnting,  contuined  General  of  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Paul,  was  chosen  and 
m  an  eleventh  century  manuscript  (Pans,  1767,  consecrated  in  St.  Paul,  28  October,  1902.  He  was 
Fonds  Notre^Dame,  101),  with  some  other  documents  born  in  the  Province  of  Krain  (Camiola),  Austria,  12 
relating  to  St.  Magdalen  of  V<Szelay  that  we  first  May,  1845.  Migrating  to  the  United  States  he  became 
read  of  Lazarus  m  connexion  with  the  voyage  that  affiliated  to  the  Diocese  of  St.  Paul,  where  for  many 
brought  Magdalen  to  Gaul.  Before  the  middle  of  years  he  was  pastor  of  the  Church  of  St.  Francis  de 
the  eleventh  century  there  does  not  seem  to  he  the  gales.  The  opening  of  the  Rosebud  Reservation  to 
slightest  trace  of  the  tradition  according  to  which  the  settlers  and  the  extension  of  railways  across  the  state 
Palestiman  saints  came  to  Provence.  At  the  begin-  attracted  many  emigrants  to  South  Dakota,  and  a 
rung  of  the  twelfth  century  perhaps  through  a  con-  number  of  new  parishes  were  established,  churches 
fusion  of  names,  it  was  believed  at  Aut;un  that  the  erected  in  these  new  towns,  and  missions  and  schools 
tomb  of  St.  Lazarus  w;as  to  be  found  in  the  cathedral  located  among  the  Indians.  In  1909,  Bishop  Stari- 
dedicated  to  St.  Nazanus.  A  search  was  made  and  re-  ha's  ill-health  and  age  determined  him  to  resign  the 
mams  were  discoverecl,  which  were  solemnly  trans-  gee,  and  he  returned  to  his  old  home  in  Austria  on  1 
lated  and  were  considered  to  be  those  of  him  whom  May  of  that  year.  On  11  April,  1910,  Pius  X  rati- 
Cnnst  raised  from  the  dead  but  it  was  not  thought  fied  the  appointment  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  F.  Busch, 
necessary  to  mquu-e  why  they  should  be  found  in  of  Excelsior,  Minnesota,  as  bishop.  The  religious 
France.  communities  in  the  diocese   include  the  Jesuit  and 

The  question,  however,  deserved  to  be  examined  Benedictine  Fathers  and  the  Benedictine  Sisters  and 

with  care,  seeing  that,  according  to  a  tradition  of  the  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis.     Statistics  (1909):  priests, 

Greek  Church,  the  bodv  of  St.  Lazarus  had  been  25  (regulars,  9);  churches  with  resident  priests,  18; 

brought  to  Constantinople,  just  as  all  the  other  saints  missions  with  churclies,  35;  schools,  5:  pupils,  1030; 

of  the  Palestinian  group  were  said  to  have  died  in  the  i  orphan  asylum,  21  inmates;  Catholic  population. 

Orient,  and  to  have  been  buried,  translated,  and  hon-  n  OOO  whites  and  6.500  Indians, 

oured  there.    It  is  only  in  the  thirteenth  century  that  Catholic  Newe  (New  York),  filee;  Catholic  Directory  (Milwau- 

the  belief  that  Lazarus  had  come  to  Gaul  with  his  two  kee,  1909).                                                  r?   \t 

sisters  and  had  been  Bishop  of  Marseilles  spread  in  j.homa8  F.  Meehan. 
Provence.    It  is  true  that  a  letter  is  cited  (its  origin  is 

uncertain),  written  in  1040  by  Pope  Benedict  IX  on  League,  The. — I.  The  Leaotjb  of  1576. — ^The  dis- 
the  occasion  of  the  consecration  of  the  new  church  of  content  produced  by  the  Peace  of  Beaulieu  (6  May, 
St-Victor  in  which  Lazarus  is  mentioned.  But  in  this  1576) ,wnich  restored  the  government  of  Picardy  to  the 
text  the  pope  speaks  only  of  relics  of  St.  Lazarus,  Protestant  Prince  de  Cond^  and  gave  him  P^ronne  to 
merely  calling  him  the  saint  who  was  raised  again  to  hold  as  a  security,  induced  d'Humit^res,  a  Catholic  who 
life.  He  does  not  speak  of  him  as  having  lived  in  commanded  the  city  of  P6ronne,  to  form  a  league  of 
Provence,  or  as  having  been  Bishop  of  Marseilles.  The  gentry,  soldiers,  and  peasants  of  Picardy  to  keep 
most  ancient  Provencal  text  alluding  to  the  episco-  Cond^  from  taking  possession  of  the  city.  D'Humi^res 
pacy  of  St.  Lazarus  is  a  passage  in  the  "  Otia  impe-  also  appealed  to  all  the  princes,  nobles,  and  prelates 
rialia"  of  Gervase  of  Tilbury  (1212).  Thus  the  belief  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  the  allies  of  the  nations  neigh- 
in  his  Proven9al  apostolate  is  of  very  late  date,  and  its  bouring  to  France.  Tliis  League  of  P^ronne  thus  as- 
supporters  must  produce  more  ancient  and  reliable  pired  to  become  international.  From  a  religious  point 
documentary  evidence.  In  the  crypt  of  St-Victor  at  of  view  it  aimed  at  supporting  Catholicism  in  France. 
Marseilles  an  epitaph  of  the  fifth  century  has  been  politically  at  restoring  the  **  ancient  franchises  ana 
discovered,  which  informs  us  that  a  bishop  named  liberties  against  the  royal  power.  Its  programme 
Lazarus  was  buried  there.  In  the  opinion  of  the  most  was  spread  tliroughout  France  by  the  efforts  of  Henri 
competent  archieologists,  however,  this  personage  is  de  Guise  (see  Guise),  and  Henry  III,  then  on  eood 
Lazarus,  Bishop  of  Aix,  who  was  consecrated  at  Slar-  terms  with  the  Gmses,  declared  himself  its  enief. 
seilles  about  407,  and  who,  having  had  to  abandon  his  Gregory  XIII  was  apprised  of  the  formation  of  the 
sec  in  411,  passed  some  time  in  Palestine,  whence  he  League  by  Jean  David,  an  advocate  of  the  Parliament 
returned  to  end  his  days  in  Marseilles.  It  is  more  than  of  Paris,  acting  for  the  Guises,  and  he  communicated 
likely  that  it  is  the  name  of  this  bi^op  and  his  return  the  fact  to  Philip  II.  But  when  the  Peace  of  Berge- 
frora'  Palestine,  that  gave  rise  to  the  legend  of  the  rac  (17  September,  1577)  between  Henry  III  and  the 
coming  of  the  Biblical  Lazarus  to  Provence,  and  his  Protestants,  curtailed  the  liljerties  accorded  them  by 
apostolate  in  the  city  of  Marseilles.  the  Edict  of  Beaulieu,  the  king  hastened  to  dLssolve 

Chevalier.  OaUia  christ.  nofw«..  II  (Paris,  1899),  l-«:  Ana*'  the  league  of  Pi^ronne  and  the  other  Catholic  leagues 

Ic-f. Bo/ten r. Vf (BniMcls,  1887). 88-;02: Douche, Vindicia filet  formed  after  its  example.    This  dissolution  was  the 

e#  ntetatvt  Promnna  pro  cadUtbw  tlhti*  lut^lartbus  reetUuendtt  n«niB«  nf  trrt^ai'  i*niniPin^  i^  a  norfnin  niiTnhAr  ftf  rovftl. 

(Air,  1644) ;  db  Cbantbloup.  L'apdlre  de  la  Provence  oulavie  ?^^^  ^  ?J^i  IP^^x  ^1°?,  ,    *  ^^^"^^^  number  Ot  rovai- 

iu  ghrieux  S.  LoMore,  premier  Mque  de  MareeOU  (Maneines,  uts,  who  neld  that  "all  leagues  and  assOOiatlOQS  in  * 


LEAGUC  99  LEAGUC 

monarohical  state  are  matters  of  grave  consequence,  because  immediately  after  the  assassination  of  Henry 

and  that  it  is  impossible  for  subjects  to  band  them-  III  the  Senate  had  decided  to  send  an  ambassador  to 

selves  together  without  preiudicmg  the  royal  supe-  Henry  of  Bourbon,  the  pope  sent  him  back  to  his  post, 

riority  ".    The  nobility  had  lacked  unanimity,  and  the  expressing  a  hope  that  the  Venetians  might  be  able  to 

cities  had  been  too  lukewarm  to  maintain  this  first  persuade  Menry  of  Bourbon  to  be  reconciled  with  the 

league.  Holy  See.   On  14  May,  1590,  the  papal  legate  Caetani 

fl.  The  League  of  1585. — ^The  death  of  the  Duke  blessed,  saluting  them  as  Machabees^  the  1300  monks 
of  Anlou  (10  June,  1584)  having  made  Henry  of  Bour-  who,  led  by  Rose,  Bishop  of  Senlis,  and  Pelletier, 
bon,  the  Protestant  King  of  Navarre,  heir  presumptive  Cur^  of  Saint-Jacques,  organiz^  for  the  defence  of 
to  Henry  III,  a  new  league  was  formecf  amone  the  Paris  against  Henry  of  Bourbon;  but,  on  the  other 
aristocracy  and  the  people.  On  the  one  hano,  the  hand,  the  pope  manifested  great  displeasure  because 
Dukes  of  Guise,  Mayenne,  and  Nevers  and  Baron  de  the  Sorbonne  had  declared,  on  7  May,  that,  even  "ab- 
Senecey  met  at  Nancv  to  renew  the  League,  with  the  solved  of  his  crimes*',  Henry  of  Bourbon  could  not  be- 
object  of  securing  the  recognition,  as  heir  to  the  come  King  of  France.  The  Leaguers  in  their  enthu- 
throne,  of  the  Cardinal  de  Bourbon,  who  would  extir-  siasm  had  denied  to  the  papal  authority  the  richt  of 
mtte  heresy  and  receive  the  Council  of  Trent  in  France,  eventually  admitting  Henry  of  Bourbon  to  the  Uirone 
Fhilip  II,  by  the  Treaty  of  Joinville  (31  December,  of  France.  They  found  new  cause  for  indignation  in 
1584),  promised  his  concurrence,  in  the  shape  of  a  the  fact  that  Sixtus  V  had  received  the  Duke  of  Lux- 
monthly  subsidy  of  50,000  crowns.  At  Paris,  on  the  embourg-Piney,  the  envoy  of  Henry's  party;  and 
other  hand,  Charles  Hotteman,  Sieur  de  Rochcblond,  Philip  II,  while  in  Paris,  caused  a  sermon  to  be 
"moved  by  the  Spirit  of  God",  Provost,  cur4  of  Saint  preached  against  the  pope. 

S6verin,  Boucher,  cur6  of  Saint  Benott,  and  Launoy,  a        But  when,  after  the  brief  pontificate  of  Urban  VII, 

canon  of  Soissons,  appealed  to  the  middle  classes  of  the  Gregory  XIV  became  pope  (5  December,  1590)  the 

cities  to  save  Catnolicism.     A  secret  society  was  League  and  Spain  recovered  their  influence  at  Rome, 

formed.     Rocheblond  and  five  other  leaguers  carried  Several  Briefs  dated  in  March,  1591,  and  two  "moni- 

on  a  propaganda,  gradually  organizing  a  Rttlc  armyat  toria  "  to  the  nuncio  Landriano  once  more  proclaimed 

Paris,  and  establishing  relations  with  the  Guises.    The  the  downfall  of  Henry  of  Bourbon.    The  prelates  who 

combination  of  these  two  movements — the  aristo-  sided  with  Henry,  assembled  at  Chartres,  in  Septem- 

cratic  and  the  popular — ^resulted  in  the  manifesto  of  ber,  1591,  protested  against  the  "monitoria"  and  ap- 

30  March,  1585,  launched  from  P^ronne  by  Guise  and  pealed  from  them  to  tne  pope's  maturer  information, 

the  princes  amounting  to  a  sort  of  declaration  of  war  The  gradual  development  oi  a  third  party  weakened 

against  Henry  III.     The  whole  story  of  the  League  the  League  and  hastened  the  approach  of  an  under- 

has  been  told  in  the  article  Guise.    We  shall  here  standing  between  Rome  -and  Henry  of  Bourbon  (see 

dwell  upon  only  the  following  two  points.  Henry  I V) .    Briefly,  the  Holy  See  felt  a  natural  sym- 

A.  Relations  between  the  Fopes  and  the  League, —  pathy  for  the  Catholic  convictions  in  which  the  League 

Gregory  XIII  approved  of  the  Lea^e  after  1584,  but  originated;  but,  to  the  honour  of  Sixtus  V,  he  would 

abstained  from  committing  himself  to  any  writing  in  not,  in  the  most  tragic  moments  of  his  pontificate, 

its  favour.     Sixtus  V   wished  the   struggle  against  compromise  himself  too  far  with  a  movement  which 

heresy  in  France  to  be  led  by  the  king  nimseff;  the  floufei  the  authority  of  Henry  III,  the  legitimate 

religious  zeal  of  the  Leaguers  pleased  him,  but  he  did  king;  neither  would  he  admit  the  maxim:  "Culpam 

notlike  the  movement  of  political  independence  in  re-  non  pocnam  aufert  absolutio  peccati^'   (Absolution 

lation  to  Henry  III.     Events,  however,  drove  Sixtus  blots  out  the  sin,  but  not  its  penalty),  in  virtue  of 

V  to  take  sides  with  the  Leaguers.     The  Bull  of  9  Sep-  which  certain  theologians  of  the  League  claimed  that 

tember,  1585,  by  which  he  declared  Henry  of  Bourbon  Henry  IV,  even  if  absolved  by  the  pope,  would  still  be 

and  the  Prince  of  Cond6  as  Protestants,  to  have  for-  incapable  of  succeeding  to  the  French  throne.     By 

feited  the  succession,  provoked  so  much  opposition  this  wise  policy,  Sixtus  prepared  the  way  far  in  ad.- 

from  the  Parliament,  and  so  spirited  a  reply  from  vance  for  the  reconciliation  which  he  hoped  for,  and 

Henry,  that  the  League,  in  its  turn,  recognized  the  which  was  to  be  realized  in  the  absolution  of  Henry  IV 

necessity  of  a  counterstroke.    Louis  d 'Orleans,  an  ad-  by  Clement  VIII. 

Yocate  and  a  leaguer,  imdertook  the  defence  of  the  B.  Political  Doctrines  of  the  League, — Charles  La- 
Bull  in  the  "  Avertissement  des  Catholiques  Anglais  bitto  has  found  it  possible  to  write  a  book  on  "La 
aux  Frangais  Catholiques'S  an  extremely  violent  D^ocratiesouslaLigue'\  The  religious  rising  of  the 
manifesto  against  Henry  of  Bourbon.  Madame  de  people  soon  took  shelter  behind  certain  political 
Montpensier,  a  sister  of  the  Guises,  boasted  that  she  theories  which  tended  to  the  revival  of  medieval  po- 
ruled  the  famous  preachers  of  the  League,  the  "  Satire  htical  liberties  and  the  limitation  of  royal  absolutism. 
M^nipp^''  presently  turned  them  to  ridicule,  while  In  1586  the  advocate  Le  Breton,  in  a  pamphlet  for 
in  their  turn  the  Leaguers  from  the  pulpits  of  Paris,  which  he  was  hanged,  called  Henry  III  "one  of  the 
attacked  not  only  Henry  of  Bourbon,  but  the  acts,  greatesthvpocrites  who  ever  lived",  demanded  an  as- 
the  morals,  and  the  orthodoxy  of  Henry  HI.  Such  sembly  of  the  States  General  from  which  the  royal  / 
preachers  were  Rose,  Bishop  of  Senlis,  Boucher  and  officers  should  )ye  excluded,  and  proposed  to  restore 
Ft^vost,  the  aforesaid  cur^, — ^the  latter  of  whom  all  their  franchises  to  the  cities.  Ideas  of  political 
caused  an  immense  picture  to  be  displayed,  represent-  autonomy  were  beginning  to  take  definite  shape.  The 
ing  the  horrible  sufferings  inflicted  upon  Catholics  League  wished  the  clergy  to  recover  those  liberties 
by  the  English  co-religionists  of  Henry  of  Bourbon,  which  it  possessed  before  the  Concordat  of  Francis  I, 
Other  preachers  were  de  Launay,  a  canon  of  Soissons,  the  nobility  to  regain  the  independence  it  enjoyed  in 
the  learned  Benedictine  G^n^brard,  the  controver-  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  cities  to  be  restored  to  a  cer- 
Bialist  Feuardent,  the  ascetic  writer  Pierre  Crespet,  and  tain  degree  of  autonomy.  After  the  assassination  of 
Guincestre,  cur6  of  Saint-Gervais,  who,  preaching  at  Guise,  a  crime  instigated  by  Henry  III,  sixty-six 
Saint-Barth^lemy  on  New  Year's  Day,  1589,  made  fdl  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  declared  that  the  king's  sub- 
irtio  heard  him  take  an  oath  to  spend  the  last  penny  jects  were  freed  from  their  oath  of  allegiance  and 
they  had  and  shed  their  last  drop  of  blood  to  avenge  might  lawfully  take  arms,  collect  money,  and  defend 
the  assassination  of  Guise.  By  these  excesses  of  the  the  Roman  religion  against  the  king;  the  name  of 
Leaguers  asginst  the  monarchical  principle,  and  by  the  Henry  III  was  erased  from  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  and 
murder  of  Henry  III  by  Jacques  Clement  (1  August,  replaced  by  the  "Catholic  princes".  Boucher,  cur^ 
1589),  Sixtus  V  was  compelled  to  assume  an  attitude  of  Saint-Benolt,  popularized  this  opinion  of  the  Sor- 
oC  extreme  reserve  towanis  the  League.  Tibe  nuncio  bonne  in  his  book  *  De  justa  Henrici  Tertii  abdica- 
Matteuxzi  having  thought  it  his  duty  to  leave  Venice  tione",  in  which  he  maintained  that  Henry  lU,  *'aa  A 


LSAOITE 


100 


UBAauc 


perjurer,  assassin,  inurdereri  a  sacrilegious  person, 
patron  of  heresv.  simoniac,  magician,  impious  and 
damnable",  could  be  deposed  by  the  Church;  that,  as 
"  a  perfidious  waster  of  the  public  treasure,  a  tyrant 
and  enemy  of  his  country  ",  he  could  be  deposed  by  the 
people.  Boucher  declared  that  a  tyrant  was  a  fero- 
cious beast  which  men  were  justified  in  killing.  It 
was  under  the  influence  of  these  theories  that  upon  the 
assassination  of  Henry  III  by  Jacques  Client  (I 
August,  1589),  the  mother  of.  the  Guises  harangued 
the  throng  from  the  altar  of  the  chm-ch  of  the  Corde- 
liers, and  glorified  the  deed  of  Clement.  These  exag- 
gerated ideas  served  only  to  justify  tyranny,  and  did 
not  long  influence  the  minds  of  men.  Moreover,  the 
"  Declaration"  of  Henry  IV  against  seditious  preachers 
(September,  1595)  ana  the  steps  taken  at  Kome  by 
Csurdinal  d'Ossat,  in  1601,  put  a  stop  to  the  political 
preachings  which  the  League  had  brought  into  fash- 
ion. The  memory  of  the  excesses  committed  imder 
the  League  was  afterwards  exploited  by  the  legists  of 
the  French  Crown  to  combat  Koman  doctrines  and  to 
defend  royal  absolutism  and  Gallicanism.  But,  con- 
sidering the  bases  of  the  League  doctrines,  it  is  impos- 
sible not  to  accord  them  the  highest  importance  in  the 
history  of  political  ideas.  Power,  they  said,  was  de- 
rived from  God  through  the  people,  and  they  opposed 
the  false,  absolutist,  and  Gallican  doctrine  of  the  Di- 
vine right  and  irresponsibility  of  kings,  such  as  Loiiis 
XIV  professed  and  practised;  and  they  also  bore  wit- 
ness to  the  perfect  compatibility  of  the  most  rigorous 
Roman  ideas  with  democratic  and  popular  aspirations. 
It  has  been  possible  to  trace  Certain  analogies  be- 
tween the  doctrines  of  the  League  and  Protestant 
brochures  like  Hotman^s  "Franco-Gallia"  and  the 
"VindicisB  contra  tyrannos"  of  Junius  Brutus  (Du- 

Slessis  Momay),  published  immediately  after  the 
[assacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  Indeed,  both  Hugue- 
nots and  Leaguers  were  then  seeking  to  limit  the 
royal  power;  but  in  the  Huguenot  projects  of  reform 
the  tendency  was  to  favour  the  aristocracy,  the  opti- 
mates;  they  would  not  allow  the  mob— the  mediastimis 
quilibet  of  whom  the  "  Vindiciaj"  speak  so  contempts 
uously — any  right  of  resistance  against  the  king;  the 
Leaguers,  on  the  contrary,  appealed  to  the  democracy. 
The  Huguenots  permitted  no  uprising  of  the  mere 
private  individual  save  with  "God's  special  calling"; 
the  Leapiers  held  that  every  man  was  called  by  God 
to  the  oefence  of  the  Church,  and  that  all  men  were 
equal  when  there  was  question  of  repelling  the  heretic 
or  the  infidel.  Hence,  in  his  work,  "Des  progrds  de 
la  revolution  et  de  la  guerre  contre  TEglise"  Lamen- 
nais  felt  free  to  write  (1829):  "How  deeply  Catholi- 
cism has  impressed  souls  with  the  sentiment  of  liberty, 
was  never  more  evident  than  in  the  days  of  tne 
League." 

See  the  bibliography  of  Guise;  also  Labitte,  De  la  dSmocratie 
chez  lea  prfdicateura  de  la  Ligve  (Paris,  1841);  Weill,  Lee 
tkimieM  eur  le  pouvoir  royal  en  France  pendant  le»  guerrte  de 
religion  (Paris,  1891);  Treuhann,  Die  Monarchomachen:  eine 
Darslellung  der  revolution^ren  SUuUslehren  dee  XVI,  Janrhun- 
derU,  1673-1699  (Leipzig,  1885). 

Georges  Goyau. 

League,  German  (Cathouc). — Onlv  three  y^ears 
before  the  League  was  established,  DuKe  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria  (d.  1651),  who  was  afterwards  its  leading- 
spirit,  declared  against  the  formation  of  a  confederacy 
of  the  Catholic  states  of  the  empire  in  Germany,  pro- 
posed^ by  the  spiritual  electors.  Soon  after,  how- 
ever, in  1(507,  he  emphasized  the  need  of  such  a  con- 
federacy, "in  order  that  each  may  know  how  far  he 
may  rely  on  the  others".  There  is  indeed  nothing 
more  natural  than  the  drawing  together  in  times  of 
discord  of  those  who  think  alike.  Besides,  the  Protest- 
ant *'  Union  **  was  inaugurated  in  May,  1608. 

Early  in  1608  Duke  Maximilian  started  negotiations 
with  the  spiritual  electors  and  some  of  the  Catholic 
•tAtes  of  the  empire,  with  a  view  to  the  formation  of  a 


union  of  the  Catholic  states.  On  5  May,  1608,  there 
was  a  eonference  on  this  question  in  the  Imperial  Diet 
at  Ratisbon,  which  amounted,  however,  only  to  an 
exchange  of  ideas.  Two  months  later  (5  July),  we 
find  the  spiritual  electors  assembled  at  Andemach  at 
the  invitation  of  the  Archbishop  of  Maine.  This 
assembly  was  really  held  to  consiaer  the  questicm  of 
the  imperial  succession,  but  the  proposed  League  was 
also  discussed,  and  a  tendency  was  manifested  in 
favour  of  the  confederacy  suggested  by  Maximilian. 
Opinions  were  even  expressea  as  to  the  size  of  the 
confederate  military  forces  to  be  raised.  Maximilian, 
who  took  the  most  active  part  at  the  Andemach 
conference,  afterwards  sought  among  the  neighbour- 
ing princes  members  for  the  proposed  Leajgue.  Sahi- 
bui^  showed  disapproval;  Wilrzhurs's  bishop  was 
not  much  more  encouraging,  but  uie  Bishops  of 
Augsburg,  Passau,  and  Ratisbon  concurred.  Until 
the  end  of  January^  1609,  however,  the  negotiations 
flagged.  About  this  time  Maximilian  won  over  the 
Catholic  states  of  Swabia  to  his  project,  and  on  5 
July  the  representatives  of  Augsburg,  Constance, 
Passau,  Ratisbon,  and  Wiirzburg  assembled  at  Mun- 
ich. Salzburg  was  not  invited  this  time,  and  Eich- 
stadt  still  hesitated.  Here  on  10  July,  1609,  the 
participating  states  concluded  an  alliance  "  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  Catholic  religion  and  peace  within  the 
Empire*'.  The  confederates  might  not  make  war  on 
each  other;  their  disputes  must  be  decided  either  by 
arbitration  within  the  confederacy,  or  by  the  laws  of 
the  Empire;  should  one  member  be  attacked,  the 
League  must  resort  to  arms,  or,  if  prevented  .from 
doing  this,  must  take  legal  steps.  Duke  Maximilian 
was  to  be  the  president  of  the  confederacy,  and  the 
Bishops  of  Augsburg,  Passau,  and  W(irzburg  his 
councillors.  The  League  was  to  continue  for  nine 
years. 

The  foundation  of  the  confederacy  was  at  last  laid, 
but  a  substantial  structure  was  certainly  not  erected 
at  Munich.  TTiis  was  not  the  fault  of  Maximilian,  but 
of  the  states,  which,  alwavs  cautious  and  dilatory, 
could  not  be  spurred  to  take  decisive  action.  On  18 
June,  16()9,  even  before  the  Munich  Diet,  the  Electors 
of  Mainz,  Cologne,  and  Trier  had  exchanged  opinions 
through  their  envoys  as  to  the  personnel  of  the  League 
and  the  size  of  the  confederate  army,  for  which  they 
proposed  20,000  men.  They  had  also  considered  the 
making  of  Maximilian  president  of  the  alliance,  and 
on  30  August  they  announced  their  adhesion  to  the 
Munich  agreement,  provided  that  Maximilian  ac- 
cepted the  Elector  of  Mainz  as  co-president.  As  the 
arch-chancellor  of  the  Empire,  the  latter  enjoyed  great 

Srestige,  and  was  in  a  position  to  exercise  great  in- 
uence;  consequently,  nis  support  could  scarcely  be 
termed  anything  less  than  essential  to  the  League. 
Indeed,  in  conformity  with  his  wishes,  the  emperor 
was  informed  of  the  foundation  and  aims  ot  the 
confederacy.  As  to  its  precise  object,  the  members 
themselves  were  not  quite  clear.  Maximilian,  there- 
fore, urged  the  convocation  of  a  general  meeting  of 
the  confederates  to  remove  all  misunderstandings. 
The  first  was  held  on  10  Feb.,  1610,  at  Wdrzbuiig. 
Except  Austria  and  Salzburc,  all  the  important 
Catholic  states  and  a  great  num  oer  of  the  smaller  ones 
sent  representatives.  The  organization  of  the  coali- 
tion, the  raising  of  a  confederate  army,  the  apportion- 
ment of  the  contributions  to  the  alliance,  and  the 
enlistment  of  foreign  mercenaries,  were  the  Questions 
under  discussion.  The  confederacy  receivea  the  of- 
ficial name,  De/enstv-  oder  Schirmvereinigung.  Only 
after  this  can  one  really  speak  of  a  Catholic  League. 
The  foreign  help,  on  which  they  principally  counted, 
seemed  a&eady  assured.  The  pope  and  the  King  of 
Spain,  who  had  been  informed  by  Maximilian  of  his 
plan  through  the  medium  of  Zuniga,  the  Spanish 
ambasaador  at  Prague,  were  both  favourably  disposed 
to^pi^utils  the  undertaking. 


LSAOUE 


101 


LEAans 


But  the  BucoesB  of  the  League  depended  primarily 
on  the  efiFective  co-operation  of  the  members  them- 
selves. This  broke  down  when  it  came  to  the  collec- 
tion of  contributions.  In  the  case  of  very  many  of 
the  members,  their  contribution  was,  in  the  words  of 
Maximilian,  nothing  but  a  "poor  prayer''.  Up  to 
April,  1610,  not  a  single  member  had  paid  his  quota, 
although  at  that  very  moment,  the  dispute  concerning 
the  Jmich  succession,  and  the  threatening  of  the 
Rhenish  principalities  by  the  troops  of  the  Union, 
uijgently  reouired  a  League  ready  for  war.  Disgusted 
with  the  indifference  of  the  members,  which  narrow- 
ness of  means  on  the  part  of  a  few  could  not  excuse, 
IfA-yimiliiLn  threatened  to  resign  the  presidentship.  His 
threat  at  once  achieved  this,  that  Spain,  whicn  had 
made  the  giving  of  a  subsidy  dependent  on  Austria's 
enrolment  in  the  League,  waived  this  condition,  and 
the  pope  promised  a  further  contribution  in  1 6 11 .  The 
conduct  of  the  Union  in  the  Jiilich  dispute  and  the 
warlike  operations  of  the  Union  army  in  Alsace, 
seemed  to  m^e  a  battle  between  Ix^ague  and  Union 
inevitable.  But  tbe  internal  affairs  of  the  League  were 
to  become  still  more  critical.  In  the  year  1613  the 
exertions  of  Cardinal  Klesl  at  an  assembly  of  the  con- 
federates in  Ratisbon  (where  the  Imperial  Diet  was 
also  sitting),  against  the  wishes  of  Duke  Maximilian 
but  very  much  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the 
£lector  of  Mains,  succeeded  in  bringing  about  the 
enrolment  of  Austria  in  the  League.  The  assembly 
now  appointed  no  less  than  three  war-directors:  Duke 
Maximilian,  and  Archdukes  Albert  and  Maximilian  of 
Austria.  The  object  of  the  League  was  now  declared 
"eine  christlich  rechtmSssige  Defension".  The  divi- 
sion of  leadership  did  not  conduce  to  increasing  the 
League's  power,  while,  by  Austria's  accession,  it 
became  entangled  in  her  difficulties,  already  very 
threatening  in  her  hereditary  domains. 

Duke  Maximilian,  who  attached  great  importance 
to  the  Lease's  fitness  for  war,  showed  his  disapproval 
ci  the  Ratisbon  resolutions  by  ref  usinff  to  accept  them, 
and  later  resi^c^  his  post  as  president,  when  Arch- 
duke Maximilian,  of  Austria,  the  third  director,  pro- 
tested against  the  inclusion  of  the  Bishop  of  Augsburg, 
and  the  Provost  of  Ellwangen  in  the  Bavarian  Direc- 
tory, and  was  supported  in  his  protest  by  Mainz  and 
T^ier,  On  27  May,  1617,  he  formed  a  separate  league 
for  nine  years  with  Bamberg,  Eichst&dt,  Wurzbur^, 
and  the  rrovost  of  Ellwangen.  But  the  position  m 
Bohemia,  as  in  Lower  and  Upper  Austria,  gradually 
became  so  critical,  that  King  Matthias  at  the  end  of 
1618  strove  hard  with  Mainz  for  the  restoration  of  the 
League.  A  meeting  of  several  of  the  ecclesiastical 
states  met  the  emperor's  wishes  in  that,  at  Obcrwesel 
(Jan.,  1619),  they  decided  to  reconstruct  the  League, 
but  on  its  original  basis.  It  was  in  future  to  ^ve 
ofdy  two  groups:  the  Rhenish  under  the  presidency  of 
Mains,  and  the  Oberland  imder  Bavaria,  the  treasury 
and  the  military  command  were  to  be  considered  as 
separate.  Maximilian  might  only  lead  the  whole  of 
the  troops,  when  he  had  to  appear  in  the  Rhenish  dis- 
trict. After  Maximilian  had  made  sure  that  Austria 
would  not  again  claim  the  privilege  of  appointing  a 
third  director,  he  summonea  the  Oberland  states  to 
Munich,  where  on  31  May  the  Oberland  group  came 
again  into  life.  The  Rhenish  group  was  already  re- 
established at  Oberwesel.  The  two  groups  bound 
themselves  to  render  mutual  help  for  six  years. 

The  Kingdom  of  Bohemia,  in  a  state  of  insurrection 
from  1618,  deprived  Ferdinand  II  of  the  Bohemian 
crown,  and  gave  it  to  Elector  Palatine  I'rederick  V 
{26-27  Aug.,  1619).  Ferdinand's  sole  hope  of  recover- 
ing his  lands  now  lay  in  drastic  action.  On  the  way 
to  Frankfort  on  the  day  of  the  imperial  election  he 
had  already  consulted  personally  with  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria  on  the  projected  warlike  preparations. 
Ait&t  the  etection  Ferdinand  conferred  with  the 
q;uritual  electon  still  at  Frankfort  conceming  the 


support  of  the  League.  With  the  formation  of  a 
comederate  army  the  serious  activity  of  the  League 
bef^n.  The  critical  time,  which  Maximilian's  ctear 
vision  had  foreseen,  and  for  which,  with  characteristic 
energy,  he  had  been  long  making  provision,  made  him 
the  undisputed  leader  of  Catholic  Germany.  On  8 
Oct.,  1619,  Ferdinand  and  Maximilian  came  to  an 
agreement  at  Munich  over  the  support  of  the  League, 
and  the  separate  support  of  Bavaria.  The  latter 
supplied  7000  men  to  the  confederate  army,  whose 
strength  was  fixed  at  an  assemblv  at  WOrzburg  in  Dec., 
1619,  as  21,000  infantry  and  4000  cavalry. 

In  July,  1620,  the  League  army  totalled  about 
30,000  men,  to  which  tlie  Protestant  Union  could 
only  oppose  about  10,000.  This  superiority  at  once 
helped  the  League  to  a  diplomatic  victory  o^'er  the 
Umon,  with  which  an  agreement  was  come  to,  whereby, 
during  the  war  in  Austria  and  Bohemia,  hostilities 
between  the  parties  of  both  alliances  in  Germany 
should  cease.  Bavaria  and  the  L^kgue  had  thus  their 
whole  military  forces  free  to  support  the  emperor. 
On  3  July  the  arrangement  had  been  made  with  the 
Union;  on  24  July  Tilly  had  already  begun  his  inarch 
into  Upper  Austria.  That  there  was  no  decisive 
battle  till  8  November  was  due  to  the  over-cautious 
and  procrastinating  imperial  field-marshal,  Buquoy. 
Even  before  Prague  he  was  still  averse  to  a  battfe. 
That  one  was  fought  was  due  to  Maximilian  and 
Tilly.  With  the  victory  of  the  combined  confederate 
and  imperial  armies  over  the  Bohemians  at  Prague 
the  first  stage  of  the  League's  activity  durinj^  the 
Thirty  Years  War  ended.  Its  subsequent  history 
is  closely  involved  in  that  of  the  Thirty  Years  War 
(q.  v.).  The  strength  of  the  League  principally  lay  in 
Maximilian's  personality,  and  in  the  resources  of  his 
excellently  administered  country.  But  for  Max>» 
milian  (q.  v.)  the  League  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Thirty  Years  War  would  probably  have  been  just  as 
disorganized  a  body  as  its  opponent,  the  Union. 

Brief e  v.  Akten  zurOeach.  des  dreisaigjiihr,  Kriegea  zur  Zeil 
dea  vorwaltendcn  Einflusaea  der  WiUelabacher:  voL  VII:  Von 
der  Abretae  Erzh.  Leopolda  nach  jQlich  bia  zu  den  Werbwiifen 
Herzog  Afaxim.  von  B.  im  M&rz  WW,  ed.  Stievb  and  revised  by 
Matr  (Munich,  1905);  vol.  VIII:  Von  den  ROalunoen  Herzog 
Maxim,  von  B.  hia  zum  Aufbruch  der  Paaaatier.ed.  Stievi:  and 
revised  by  Matr  (Munich,  1908)*  vol.  IX:  Vom  Einfall  dea 
Paaaauer  Kriegavolka  bia  zum  Niimberger  KurfuatenUig,  od. 
Chroust  (Munich,  1903);  vol.  X:  Der  Auagang  der  Regienmo 
Rudolfa  II.  u.  die  An^inge  dea  Kaiaera  MaUhiaa,  ed.  Chroust 
(Munich,  1906);  vol.  XI:  Der  Reichatag  wn  WIS,  ed.  Chroust 
(Munich,  1909);  BCrqer.  LigapoHtik  dea  Mainzer  Kurftlraten 
J  oh.  Schweickhard  v.  Cronbera  W04-WIS  in  Wiirzburger  Studien 
fie,  I;  Cornelius, Zur. GeacK. der  GrUndunqder  detUachen Liga 
(Munich,  1863);  GcVrz,  Die  Kriegakosten  Bayema  u.  der  Li- 
gaatAnde  im  dreiaaigjohr.  Kriege  in  Foraehungen  tur  Oeach, 
Batfema,  XII;  Gothein,  Deutachland  vor  dem  dreiaaigjuhr, 
Krxege  (Leipzig,  1908);  Janbhen-Pastor,  Oeach,  dea  detUachen 
Volkea  aeit  dem  A  uagange  dea  MiUelaltera,  vol.  V:  Die  kirchluJi- 
pol.  Revolution  v.  ihre  Bekdmpfung  aeit  der  VerkUndigung  der 
JConkordienformel  1630  bia  zum  Beginn  der  dreiaaigj&hr.  Kriegee 
(15th  and  16th  improved  ed.,  Freiburg,  1902);  Ritter, 
Deutache  Oeach.  im  ZeUcdter  der  Oegenref,  u.  dea  dreiaaigiiihr, 
Kriegea  {t555-WJ^),  II  (WSe-WW)  (Stuttgart,  1895),  III 
(Stuttgart  and  Beiim,  1908);  Stievb,  KurfUriA  Maxim.  I,  von 
B.  in  Abhandlungent  Vorir&ge  tt.  Reden  (Leipzig,  1900);  Idem, 
Daa  "Contobuch  der  DetUachen  Liga  in  DeutMne  Zeitachr.  /Or 
OeaehichtaiDiaaenaehaft,  X  (1893);  Wolf,  Oeach.  Maximilians  /. 
u.  aeiner  Zeit,  II  (Munich,  1807). 

J.  Kraft. 

League  of  the  Gross ,  The,  a  Catholic  total  absti- 
nence confraternity  founded  in  London  in  1873  by 
Cardinal  Manninfi;  to  unite  Catholics,  both  cler^  and 
laity,  in  the  warfare  ai^ainst  intemperance,  ana  thus 
improve  religious,  social,  and  domestic  conditions, 
especially  among  the  working  classes.  The  original 
and  chief  centres  of  the  league  are  London  and  Liver- 
pnool,  and  branches  have  been  organized  in  the  va- 
rious cities  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  in  Aus- 
tralia. The  fundamental  rules  of  the  league  are:  (1) 
that  the  pledge  shall  be  of  total  abstinence,  and  taken 
without  limit  as  to  time;  (2)  that  only  Catholics  can 
be  members;  (3)  that  all  members  shall  live  as  good, 
practical  Catholics;  (4)  that  no  one  who  is  not  a  prac- 


LEAMDER  102  LSATIMWOBTH 

tical  Catholic  shall,  as  long  as  he  fails  to  practise  his       Leap  Yeftr.    See  Calkndab,  Revoric  of  the. 
religion,  hold  any  office  in  the  league.   The  pope  has        Leayenworth,  Diocese  of  (Leavenwobthensis), 


At  his  request,  ten  years  later  the  Holy  See  divided 

*       J       m  a     'tt    a  i.' i.       r^v  x   'x     i_     i.  the  dioccse  into  three:  Wichita,  Concordia,  and  Lea V- 

Leander  of  Se^e,  Saint,  bishop  of  that  city,  b.  at  enworth.    Leavenworth  was  then  restricted  to  the  43 

Carthage  about  534,  of  a  Roman  family  estabhshed  m  counties  lying  east  of  Republic,  Ooud,  Ottawa,  Saline, 

that  city;  d  at  Seville,  13  March,  600,or  601.    Some  McPherson,  Harvey,  Se^wick,  and  Sumner  Ooxmiiea. 

historians  claim  that  hw  father  Seyenan  was  duke  or  j^^  diocese  had  an  are*  of  28,687  sq.  m.,  with  a  total 

governor  of  Carthage,  but  St.  Isidore  simply  states  population  in  1890,  of  901,536.  Authorised  by  the  Holy 

that  he  was  a  citizen  of  that  city.    The  famihr  emi-  §ee^  Bishop  Fink  on  29  May,  1891,  took  up  his  residence 

grated  from  Cartlmge  about  o54  and  went  to  Seville.  ^  j^^^,^  ci^y,  Kans.,  and  the  dioce»B  was  named 

The  eminent  worth  of  the  children  of  .Se venan  would  ^fter  this  city  for  some  years.     Apostolic  letters  dated 

seem  to  indicate  that  they  were  reared  m  distinguished  j  j^     1397^  further  diminished  the  territory  of  the 

wirroundmgs     Seyenan  had  three  sons,  Leander  Isi-  diocese  in  favour  of  Concordia  and  Wichita.     It  now 

dore,  and  Fulgentius  and  one  daughter,  Florentma.  includes  only  the  Counties  of  Anderson,  Osage,  Potta- 

St.  Loander  and  St.  Isidore  both  became  bishops  of  watomie,  Shawnee,  Wabaunsee,  Wyandotte,  Jackson, 

Seville;  St.  Fulgentius,  Bishop  of  Carthagena,  and  St.  Jefferson,  Linn,  Lyon,  Marshall,  Miami,  Nemaha,  Atl 

Florentma,  a  nun  who  directed  forty  convents  and  one  ^hison.  Brown,  Coffey,  Doniphan,  Douglas,  Franklin, 

thousand  nuns.  It  has  been  also  believed,  but  wrongly,  Johnson,  and  Leavenworth ;  an  arek  of  12,594  sq.  miles, 
that  Theodosia,  another  daufjhter  of  Sevenan,  became        jhe  first  missionary  to  the  wild  Indians  of  the  plains, 

the  wife  of  the  V^igothic  kmg,  Leovigild     lender  ^jthin  the  present  borders  of  Kansas,  was  Father  Juan 

became  at  first  a  Benedictme  monk,  and  then  in  579  ^e  Padilla.     He  obtained  the  martyr's  crown  just 

Bishop  of  Seville.    In  the  meantune  he  founded  a  fifty  years  after  Columbus  discovered  the  New  Worid. 

oelebraledschwl,  which  soon  became  a  centre  of  learn-  xhe  firsv  permanent  Indian  missions  in  these  parts 

M  and  orthodoxy.    He  assisted  the  Princes  In^n-  ^ere  established  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  among  the  Pot- 

this  to  convert  her  husband  Hermenegild,  the  eldest  tawatomies  and  Osages.    The  latter  originSly  dwelt 

son  of  Loovigild,  and  defended  the  convert  against  his  ^^  both  sides  of  theMissouri.    They  knew  of  Father 

father's  cruel  reprisals.    In  endeavouring  to  save  his  Marquette  and  had  implored  Father  Gravier  to  preach 

country  from  Arianism,  Leander  showed  him^lf  an  to  them.    Two  Franciscan  friars  had  been  among 

orthodox  Christian  and  a  far-sighted  patriot.    Ebciled  them  in  1745.     Bishop  Duboure  promised  them  mis- 

bjrLeoyi^ild,  he  withdrew  to  Byzantium  f^^^  sionaries  in  1820.    The  Pottawatomies  came  from 

582.    It  IS  possible  but  not  proved,  that  ho  sought  to  Michigan  and  Indiana.     Some  hundreds  of  them  had 

rouse theEmperorTibenustotakeuparmsagainstthe  been  baptized  by  the  Rev.  S.  T.  Badin  of  Kentucky, 

Anan  king:    m  anv  case  the  attempt  was  without  the  first  priest  ordained  in  the  United  States.     In  In- 

result.    He  profited,  however,  by  his  stay  at  Byzan-  ^i^na.  Father  Descilles  was  succeeded  among  the  Pot-  • 

tium  to  compose  important  works  agamst  Ananism,  tawatomies  by  Father  Petit,  who  accompanied  them 

and  there  became  acquainted  with  the  future  Gregory  to  the  confines  of  their  new  reservation  in  the  Indian 

the  Great,  then  le^te  of  Pelagius  II  at  the  Byzantine  Territory,  which  then  included  Kansas.    The  Indian 

court.    A  close  friendship  thenceforth  united  the  two  converts  were  confirmed  by  Bishop  P.  Kenrick  in  1843, 

men,  and  the  correspondence  of  St.  Gregory  with  St.  ^nd  by  Bishop  Barron  in  1845.     An  Indian  priest  of  the 

Leander  remains  one  of  the  latter  s  great  titles  to  Oklahoma  Diocese  is  descended  from  the  Pottawato- 

honour.    It  is  not  known  exactly  when  Lender  re-  ^ies  and  was  bom  in  I^nsas.     In  1845  by  the  zealous 

tomed  from  exJe.    L^vigild  put  to  death  his  son  eflfortsofthe  Jesuit  missionaries,  Catholic  prayer-books 

Hermenegild  m  585,  and  himself  died  in  589.  in  the  Pottawatomie  dialect  were  given  to  the  Indians. 

In  this  decisive  hour  for  the  future  of  Spam,  Leander  Manual  trainmg  schools  for  giris  and  boys  had  been 

did  most  t»  ensure  the  religious  unity,  the  fervent  established  some  years  previously.    The  latter  were 

faith,  and  the  bngd  culture  on  which  was  based  its  conducted  by  the  Jesuits.    Bishop  Rosati  wrote  from 

kter  greatncM.    He  had  a  share  m  the  converaon  of  Europe  that  Gregory  XVI  would  be  delighted  to  have 

Reccared,  and  never  ceased  to  exercise  over  him  a  ^  SacW  Heart  school  among  the  IndW     In  the 
deep  and  beneficial  influence     At  the  Third  Council      g^r  1841  the  Religious  of  thi  Sacred  Heart  opened 

of  Toledo  where  Visigothic  Spam  abjured  Arianism,  ^  g^hool  among  the  Pottawatomies  under  the  leader- 

Leander  dehvered  the  closing  sermon      On  his  return  ship  of  Mother  Philippine-Rose  Duchesne.     Manual 

from  this  council,  Leander  convened  an  imp^nt  training  schools  were^tablished  among  the  Osages 

svnod  m  his  metropolitan  city  of  ScviHe  (Cone.  Hi«p.,  -^  ^^f     jj^^  ^3^  the  boys'  school  was  underSie 

I),  and  never  afterwards  ceased  his  efforts  to  consoli-  conduct  of  the  Jesuits;  but  the  giris'  school  was  in 

date  the  work,  in  which  his  brother  and  succe^r  St.  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Loretto. 
Isidore  was  ^  foUow  him.    Leander  received  the  pal-        j^^^g^  ^^s  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesias- 

hum  in  August,  599.    There  remain  unfortunately  of  tical  superiors  of  Louisiana  until  St.  Louis  was  made 

this  writer  superior  to  his  brother  Isidore,  only  two  ^^  episcopal  see.     The  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  In- 

works:       De    institutione   virgmum   et   contemptu  dian  Territory  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  included 

mundi     a  monastic  rule  composed  for  his  sister,  and  the  present  states  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Oklahoma; 

Homilia  ,^fp^""'?P?^..ecclesia;   ob   conversionem  that  part  of  North  and  South   Dakota  west  of  the 

P^.w'^'Ti^'^'r^^  St.  Isidore  wrote  of  his  Missouri  River,  Wyoming,  Montana,  and  a  part  of 

I^Tl^  Ii..nl      1^1^  T^'Z  ^^^.^^'^^  ^l^  eminent  Colorado.  It  was  placed  uSder  R t.  Rev.  John  B.^idge, 

J^«o    ^l  L    f  /?^    ^-^  ^^  w  J'n"f2''^  ^y  ^'^u  ^"  S.J.,  who  was  anointed  vicar  Apostolic,  and  conte- 

\^^\^^L^liVJ^  and  zeal  the  Gothic  people  hiive  crated  Bishop  ofliWnia.  in  St.  Ix)uis,  25  Mareh,  1851. 

been  converted  from  Amnism  to  the  Catholic  faith"  Accompanied  by  Father  Paul  Ponziglione,  8. J.,  who 

(Descnpt.eccles.,xxviu).  ,„  ^   ,   „  ,  was  to  devote  himself  for  fortv  years  t?the  Indians  and 

Ao1.^:'colfJS^^'^T^4An;f^^^  lt?/^^^>^.^il'^  settle!^  of  the  new  ^^cariate  Bishop 

orada,  IX ;  Bodrret.L Vco/c  chritienne  de  SHUle  9ou3  la  mo-  D/liesK  amved  among  the  Pottawatomies  on  the  Kan- 

norcAte  dea  V^tht  (Paris.  1 855) ;  Mo.vtalembert.  Le«  Moin^a  sas  Ki ver,  where  now  stands  St.  Marv's  College,  in  May 

i^'S^IG^  Q'iin°ES-Zi.^:rKo7SS^«^%'Si^',i^  of  tl^t  J-e^V    The  founder  of  the  PottawatWie  n;ii- 

Kirchenprov.  Botica  m  Znttch.  fur  u^ssenschaftl.  Theol.,  Ill  sion  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  Father  Clumian 

C19W).  PiBBRE  SuAU.  Hoecken,  S.J.,  while  ascending  the  Miseouri  Rivw 


LEATIMWOBTH 


103 


LEAVEMWOBTH 


with  Father  P.  J.  de  Smedt,  died  of  cholera,  at  the 
ace  of  forty-three  years  (19  June,  1851),  fifteen  of 
which  were  passed  among  the  Indians  in  the  Missouri 
VaUey. 

Bishop  Mi^ge  was  born  18  September,  1815,  at  La 
Foret,  Upper  i&voy,  Italy.  He  studied  classics  and  phi- 
losophy at  the  diocesan  seminary  of  Moutiers  where  his 
elder  brother  Urban  was  a  teacher  for  over  forty  years. 
He  entered  the  Societ>^  of  Jesus  at  Milan  23  Oct., 
1836;  was  ordained  priest  7  Sept.,  1847,  at  Rome, 
where  he  was  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Roman 
College.  Driven  from  Italy  by  the  political  troubles 
of  the  following  year,  he  was  sent  at  his  own  recjuest 
to  the  Indian  Missions  in  the  United  States.  In  1849 
he  was  assistant  pastor  of  St.  Charles's  church  at  St. 
Charles,  Missouri.  In  1850  he  was  socius  of  the  master 
of  novices  at  Florissant.  He  also  taught  moral  theol- 
ogy there.  The  vicariate  subjected  to  his  jurisdiction 
in  1851  consisted  mostly  of  Indian  missions.  There 
were  five  churches,  ten  Indian  Nations,  and  eight 
priests,  with  a  CathoUc  population  of  almost  5000,  of 
whom  3000  were  Indians.  He  was  an  indefatigable 
missionary,  traversing  on  horseback  and  by  wagon  for 
years  the  wild  remote  regions  over  which  his  people 
were  scattered,  visiting  the  Indian  villages,  forts,  trad- 
ing posts,  and  growing  towns.  In  August,  1855,  there 
were  seven  CathoUc  ^milies  in  Leavenworth^  and  he 
moved  his  residence  from  the  Pottawatomie  mission, 
to  this  city  for  a  permanent  location  to  minister  to  the 
fast  increasing  tide  of  inmiigration  that  had  turned  to 
Kansas.  In  1856  the  Benedictines  began  a  founda- 
tion at  Doniphan,  near  Atchison,  but  a  short  time 
afterwards  they  established  a  priory  and  a  college  in 
the  latter  city.  They  were  followed  by  the  Carme- 
lites in  1864.  Father  Theodore  Heimann,  a  German, 
who  later  joined  the  Carmelite  Fathers;  Father  J. 
H.  Defoun,  from  Savoy;  and  Father  Am])rose  T. 
Butler,  from  Ireland  were  among  the  first  secular 
priests  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  Bishop  Midge, 
who  was  represented  at  the  second  Plenary  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore,  and  went  to  Rome  in  1853.  He  as- 
sisted at  provincial  councils  in  St.  Louis  in  1855  and 
1858.  The  bishop  soon  had  a  parochial  school  wherever 
there  was  a  resident  priest.  He  built  a  noble  cathedral 
at  Leavenworth.  Before  leaving  for  the  (Ecumenical 
CouncH  of  the  Vatican,  he  appointed  the  Very  Rev. 
L.  M.  Fink,  Prior  of  St.  Benedict's,  vicar-general  in 
spiritualibus,  and  Father  Michael  J.  Corbett,  admin- 
istrator in  Umporalibtis.  Nebraska  was  formed  into 
a  separate  vicariate  in  1857;  but  the  jurisdiction  of 
Bishop  Midge  over  the  new  vicariate  (which  included 
the  present  states  of  Nebraska,  part  of  the  Dakotas, 
Wyoming,  and  Montana)  continued  until  May,  1859. 
The  increase  in  the  Kansas  Territory-,  which  extended 
west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  was  steady.  Desiring 
to  return  to  the  ranks  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  Bishop 
Midge  petitioned  to  be  allowed  to  resign  his  epi8<ff>pal 
jurisdiction,  and  in  1871  a  coadjutor  was  given  him  in 
the  Very  Rev.  liOuis  M.  Fink,  prior  of  the  Benedictine 
monastery  at  Atchison,  and  who  had  as  a  priest 
worked  on  the  missions  in  Pennsylvania,  Kentucky, 
New  Jersey,  and  Illinois.  He  was  consecrated  at  Chi- 
cago 11  June,  1871,  titular  Bishop  of  Eucarpia. 

Bishop  Midge  then  went  on  a  begging  tour  in  aid  of 
the  vicariate  and  spent  three  years  collecting  in  South 
America.  His  petition  to  be  allowed  to  resign  was 
granted  in  December,  1874,  when  he  retumoxl  to  his 
order,  being  assigned  to  the  house  of  studies  at  Wood- 
stock, Maryland.  In  1877  he  was  sent  to  Detroit 
where  he  founded  a  college  and  remained  until  1880, 
when  he  wa*?  appointed  spiritual  director  at  Wood- 
stock for  three  years.     Hero  he  died  21  July,  188-1. 

In  1874  Bishop  Fink  took  charge  of  the  vicariate 
on  the  resignation  of  Bishop  Midge;  and  22  May,  1877, 
it  was  estabhshed  as  the  Diocese  of  Leavenworth,  and 
his  title  was  transferred  to  this  see.  He  was  born  12 
July,  1834,  at  Triftersberg,  Bavaria,  and  emigrated  in 


boyhood  to  the  United  States.  He  entered  the  Bene* 
dictine  Order  in  September,  1852,  and  was  ordained 
priest  at  St.  Vincent's  Abbey,  Beatty,  Pennsylvania, 
27  May,  1857.  When  he  assumed  jurisdiction  in  1874, 
there  were  within  the  boundaries  of  Kansas  65 
priests,  88  churches,  3  colleges,  4  academies,  1  hos- 
pital, 1  orphan  asylum,  13  parish  schools  with  1700 
gupils;  and  conmiunities  of  Benedictine,  Jesuit,  and 
armehte  priests;  of  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
of  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  of  Sisters  of  Charity,  and 
of  Sisters  of  Loretto;  with  a  Catholic  population  of 
nearly  25,000.  In  1887  there  were  in  Kansas  137 
priests,  and  216  churches.  The  decrees  of  the  second 
diocesan  synod  are  admirable.  The  two  new  dioceses 
of  Wichita  and  Concordia  took  from  the  diocese  over 
69,000  sq.  miles.  The  parochial  schools  were  placed 
under  the  supervision  of  a  diocesan  board  that  selects 
textbooks,  and  examines  teachers  and  pupils.  He 
fostered  the  Association  of  the  Holy  Childhood,  the 
sodalities  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  the  Holy  Angels; 
established  the  Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Family 
throughout  the  diocese,  and  acted  as  diocesan  director 
of  the  League  of  the  Sacred  Heart.    Bishop  Fink  took 

{)art  in  the  Third  Council  of  Baltimore,  and  sedu- 
ously  endeavoured  to  enforce  its  decrees.  He  con- 
tinued to  promote  the  progress  of  the  Church  imtil 
his  death,  17  March,  1904. 

There  were  then  110  priests,  100  chiuxjhes,  13  sta- 
tions and  chapels,  37  parochial  schools,  4000  pupils, 
35,000  Catholics.  On  his  demise  the  Very  Rev. 
Thomas  Moore,  who  had  been  vicar-general  since 
1899,  was  made  Apostolic  administrator. 

The  successor  of  Bishop  Fink  was  the  Very  Rev. 
Thomas  F.  Lillis,  Vicar-General  of  the  Diocese  of 
Kansas  City,  who  was  bom  at  I^xiugton,  Missouri,  in 
1862,  and  ordained  priest  in  1885.  He  was  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  Leavenworth,  in  Kansas  City,  27 
December,  1904.  His  episcopjal  administration  of  the 
Leavenworth  Diocese  was  eminentlv  successful.  The 
growth  of  the  Ch  urch  under  his  j  urisoiction  was  marked 
by  the  foundation  of  new  congregations,  and  the 
building  of  churches  and  parochial  schools.  Cathohc 
societies  were  strengthened  and  the  diocesan  statutes 
revised  to  enforce  the  decrees  of  the  Third  Plena^ 
Council  of  Baltimore  under  present  conditions.  He 
adopted  practical  means  of  enforcing  the  papal  "  Motu 
Proprio  ,  on  Church  music.  In  March,  1910,  he  was 
appointed  coadjutor  to  the  Bishop  of  Kansas  City, 
Missouri,  cum  jure  successionis. 

Statistics. — Orders  of  men :  Benedictines,  Carmelites, 
Franciscans,  Jesuits.  Women:  Sisters  of  St.  Bene- 
dict, Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  St.  Frances,  Sisters 
of  the  Poor  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Oblate 
Sisters  of  Providence  (coloured),  Ursuline  Sisters,  Fe- 
liciun  Sisters,  PVanciscan  Sisters,  Sisters  of  the  Pre- 
cious Blood.  Priests,  143  (regulars,  71) ;  churches  with 
resident  priests  76,  missions  with  churches  46,  stations 
7,  chapels  8,  brothers  71,  sisters  160;  diocesan  semi- 
nary 1 ,  seminary  for  religious  1 ;  colleges  and  academies 
for  boys  2,  students  750;  academies  for  young  ladies 
3,  pupils  325,  parochial  schools  39,  pupils  5700;  high 
schools  2;  orphan  asylums  2,  inmates  l.'iO;  young  peo- 
ple under  Catholic  care,  6900;  hospitals,  4;  Catholic 
population  56,000.  The  Ursuline  academy  at  Paola 
with  30  sisters  was  founded  from  Louisville  in  1895. 
Mt.  St.  Scholastica's  convent,  established  in  1863  sub- 
ject to  a  prioress,  has  one  hundred  and  seventy-five 
professed  sisters  with  schools  in  the  Dioceses  of  Con- 
cordia, Davenport,  Kansas  City.  Sioux  City,  and  Leav- 
enworth with  3680  pupils.  They  conduct  an  acad- 
emy at  Atchison.  The  Sisters  of  Charitv  have  a 
mother-house  at  St.  Mary's  Academy  at  Leavenworth 
since  1858.  There  are  over  500  Sisters  conducting 
establishments  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Santa  F^,  and  in 
the  Dioceses  of  Denver,  (jreat  Falls,  Helena,  and 
Leavenworth,  with  8000  patients  yearly  in  hospitals, 
525  orphans,  and  6000  pupils.    St.  Margaret's  Hoe- 


t.  Benedict's  Abbey,  Atchison,  lounded 


T  fifty 


e  Benedictine  Fathers  conduct  St.  Benedict' 
College,  a  boarding  school  with  300  pupils.  St.  Mary's 
College,  a  boarding  school  with  450  pupils,  conducted 
b^  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  ig  the  development  of  the  Mia- 
Bion  School  which  the  Jesuits  established  among  the 
Pottawatomie  Indiana  in  1841.  There  are  churches 
for  the  Crofltians,  Slovaks,  Slovenians,  Poles,  Bo- 
hemians, and  Germans,  as  well  as  for  the  English- 
speaking  congregations.  The  majority  aS  the  Cath' 
olics  in  the  diocese  are  Irish  and  Germans  who  came  to 
America  over  fifty  years  ago,  and  tlicir  descendants. 
A  goodly  proportion  of  the  cler^  ordained  durmg  the 
paflt  twenty-five  years  are  natives  of  the  state  Sev 
eraJ  of  the  clergy  are  still  active,  after  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century  of  pastoral  duties.  TheRt  Rev 
Mgr  Ant.  Kuhls,  ordained  in  1863,  retired  to  St  Mar^ 
garet's  Hospital  after  forty-five  years  of  EealouB  work 
(See  Duchesne,  pHiijpws-E-RoaE;  KANaAS  ) 

DCFOtiHl.  Onginal  Dinriii  and  LMrrt  aJJauit  MunoiHina, 
Catholic  DircctoTv.  I36I-I9W:  CtAilRi,  Liwi  of  Oir  Drccattd 
BUIiopi  of  tht  "-■'-'-  "■-  -  I    -  -•--  >■--■--■  -.  -"    .. 


H  UBBUIOV 

mon,  9300.  Deposits  due  to  glacier  formations  m^ 
be  observed  at  the  top,  but  no  one  has  as  yet  reached 
the  actual  snow  line.  Between  Lebanon  and  Antt- 
libaous  extends  the  table-land  of  Be<)^'a,  5  to  9  miles 
broad.about  70  miles  long,  never  rising  to  any  height , 
considered  by  many  the  true  Ccelesycia.  The  plain  of 
Lebanon  (D.  V.  Libanus)  mentioned  in  Joe.,  zi,  17, 
and  xii,  7,  is  probably  MerJ  'Aiyun.  The  southern  ana 
central  parts  are  very  fertile  to-day.  Near  Ba'albek 
is  the  watershed  (about  3800  f^t)  between  south  and 
north,  between  the  Nahr  el-'Aei  (Orontes)  and  the 
Nahr  el-Lltlni  (not  the  Leontes),  which  latter  aa 


York.  1888).  All  mo.:  HEUsa.  Biol.  Curt,  i,f  Iht 
arrhu  in  U.  S.  (^liTwBukee,  ISBS);  Watim  H. 
Louis,  MiBBOuri).  files.  J    A    ° 


Shorter 


possibly,  Ramanu;  Gr.  Jil^rat),  modem  Jehel  _ 
ndn,  or  "White  Mountain"  (Semitic  root  laban)  so 
called  from  the  snow  which  covers  the  highest  peaks 
during  almost  the  entire  year,  or  from  the  Imiestone 
which  glistens  white  in  the  distance.  The  centre  of 
the  great  mountain  range  of  Central  Svna  which 
stretches  from  N.N.E.  to  S.S.W.  almost  parallel  v-  th 
tiie  sea  for  about  95  miles  from  33°  20'  to  34  40  is 
separated  in  the  south  by  the  Q&simiye  from  the  Gah 
lean  hill-country;  in  the  north,  by  the  Nahr  el  Keblr 
from  Jcbel  el-Ansarieh.  It  consists  of  two  parallel 
mountain  chains  of  the  same  formation;  the  western, 
or  Lebanon  proper,  called  Jebei  el-gharbi;  the  east- 
ern, known  as  Jebel  e!-sharqi  (the  Antilibanus  of  the 
Greeks).  The  primeval  mass  was  cleft  asunder  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  Tertiary  formation  (Pliocene), 
forming  the  northern  part  of  the  Jordan  fissure, 
which  extends  southward  to  the  Red  Sea. 

Geologically  there  are  four  strata,  which  are  easily 
distinguishable  in  the  deeply  rent  ravines.  The  first 
stratum,  consisting  of  a  laj'cr  of  limestone  (Araya 
limestone),  about  980  feet  m  thicltneas,  is  sparingly 
strewn  with  fossils  {cidaris  glanduTta,  corals  and 
sponges),  and  belongs  to  the  Cenoman,  earliest  of  the 
Upper  Jura.  Above  it  lies  a  richly  fossilized  com- 
posite (Cephalopoda)  of  sandstone,  from  650  to  1630 
feet  in  thickness,  and  clay  marl,  divided  by  layers  of 
chalky  deposit  (Trigonia  or  Nubian  sandstone)  from 
the  Cenoman.  Basaltic  masses  of  lava  appear  in  the 
sandstone.  Peat,  iron  ore,  and  traces  of  copper  are 
also  found,  and  fossilized  resin  in  the  coal  schiste. 
The  third  layer  of  Lebanon  limestone  (about  3580 
feet  thick)  is  characterized  at  the  base  by  abundant 
ovster  beds  or  by  hippurite  limestone  (Cenonian- 
TSiron).  One  peeuliarity  is  the  slate  of  Ilakcl,  con- 
taining fossil  fishes,  found  also  in  the  marly  limestone 
of  SShil  'Alma.  In  Antililianus  (the  BeqS'a),  and  on 
the  outer  edges  of  Lebanon,  a  fourth  stratum  of  Sen- 
onian  (not  over  330  feet  in  thickness)  appears  in  flinty 
chalk  and  limestone. 

The  highest  peaks  of  these  mountuns  are  in  the 
Wesl<?m  chain.  They  rise  in  the  Art  Libndn  to  a 
height  of  more  than  9800  feet,  as  Dahr  el-Qodlb; 
Jcbel  Makmal;  Dahr  cl-Duhab  (Qarn  Sauda),  about 
10,000  feet.  Exact  measurementa  are  wanting.  To- 
wards the  south  the  ele\-af  ion  is  not  so  great:  Jcbcl-e! 
Huneitira.  0130:  Jebel  Sannin,  8500  feet.  In  Anti- 
libanus the  Tala'  at  MOsa  is  8710  feet  in  height;  Her- 


Nahr  el-QAsimiye  empties  into  the  sea  a  httle  to  the 
north  of  Tyre.  The  western  slope  of  Lebanon  has 
many  springs  and  rivers  which  pierce  the  limestone 
after  a  partly  subterranean  course,  e.  K-  the  Nahr  el- 
Kelb.  From  south  to  north  we  come  m  succession  to 
the  Nahr  el-Zaherfini;  Nahr  e!-'Awali;  Nahr  Dflmttr 
(Tamyras);  Nahr  Beirut  (Magoras);  Nalir  el-Kelb 
(Lykus),  at  the  mouth  of  which  Egyptian,  As^rian, 
Greek,  and  Latin  inscriptions  are  found;  Nahr  Ibrlt- 
hlm  (Adonis),  at  whose  source  was  AfjEa(Apheka),  the 
celebrated  temple  of  Venus  n-ith  iia  lewd  and  bloody 
cult,  destroyed  by  Constantine;  finally  the  Nahr 
el-Joz,  and  Nahr  Qadisha.  The  eastern  slope  and  the 
AntiUbanus  are  less  favoured.  In  the  north  and  east  of 
Antilibanus  there  is  great  scarcity  of  water.  Towards 
the  south  there  arc  a  few  tributaries  of  the  lit^ni, 
chiefly  the  celebrated  BaradA,  the  river  of  Damascus 
(with  'Ain  Hje),  the  Abana  of  Holy  Writ  (IV  Kings, 
V,  12).    Hermon  feeds  the  three  sources  of  the  Jord^. 

The  Wcinity  of  the  sea  causes  proportionate  damp-  ' 
ness  and  warmth  on  the  western  side.  The  mountaios 
are  frequented  aa  summer  resorts  on  account  of  their 
agreeable  climate.  In  the  Beqd'a  the  winter  is  apt  to 
be  sharp.  During  severe  winters  the  snow  descends 
to  the  most  outlying  spurs  of  the  Lebanon.  Along  the 
coast,  frost  is  unusual.  In  October  the  rainy  season 
ushers  itself  in  with  sudden  and  violent  showers. 
From  December  until  February  there  are,  on  an  aver- 
age, twelve  rainy  days.  In  May  rain  is  infrequent. 
The  effects  of  the  rainstorms,  which  are  frequently  of 
tropical  violence  and  accompanied  by  thunder  and 
lightning,  are  seen  in  the  excetu^ive  erosion  of  the  viJ- 
leys.  "The  natural  bridges  are  also  the  result  of  ero- 
sion, for  instance  those  of  'Aqflra  and  Jisr  el-^ajar 
(with  a  span  of  about  130  feet;  more  than  65  over  the 
Neba'  el-Leben). 


LlBBittTft 


105 


UB  BULMt 


In  tlie  western  region,  where  water  is  plentiful,  the 
flora  is  abundant  ana  of  great  variety.  In  prehistoric 
times  the  entire  range  as  far  as  the  coast  was  covered 
with  forests.  According  to  the  Old  Testament  and 
profane  literature,  the  I^banon  was  renowned  for  its 
abundance  of  wood.  Cedar,  pine,  maple,  linden,  and 
oak  made  the  possession  of  the  mountains  lucrative. 
Solomon  and  Hiram,  Egyptian  and  Assyrian,  profited 
by  these  resources.  To-dajr,  through  senseless  plun- 
der and  the  progress  of  cultivation,  Lebanon  has  been 
largely  robbed  of  its  ancient  splendour.  Cedar  is 
found  in  but  few  places,  although  all  the  climatic  con- 
ditions for  a  successful  growth  are  at  hand.  Large 
tracts  are  now  used  for  cultivating  plants;  and  olive, 
fig,  and  mulberry  trees  constitute  the  wealth  of  to-day. 
Pomegranate,  peach,  apricot  (in  Damascus  and  vicin- 
it^jr),  almond  trees,  walnuts,  quinces,  and  other  vari- 
eties of  fruit  flourish.  The  grape  ripens  at  an  altitude 
of  nearly  5000  feet.  The  cultivation  of  the  vine  has 
developed  advantageously.  Grain  flourishes  at  an  al- 
titude of  6200  feet,  out  is  little  cultivated.  A  number 
of  sweet-scented  shrubs  deserve  mention:  myrtle, 
oleander,  sage,  lavender,  etc.,  to  which  fragrant  plants 
the  Old  Testament  attributes  part  of  the  fame  of  Leb- 
anon. On  the  west,  in  general,  the  flora  of  the  Medi- 
terranean is  found,  and,  on  the  heights,  Alpine  flora. 
On  the  eastern  slope,  in  northern  Beqa'a  and  in  Anti- 
libanus,  with  their  dry,  severe  climate,  the  flora  is 
that  of  the  steppes. 

The  prehistoric  fauna  was  very  different  from  that 
of  to-day;  stag,  deer,  bison,  the  wild  horse,  wild  boar, 
Ivnx,  lion,  bear,  and  wild  goat  Inhabited  the  forests. 
As  remotely  as  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  times,  Ix*b- 
anon  was  celebrated  as  a  royal  hunting;-g[round.  To- 
day the  number  of  deer  is  greatlv  diminished;  bears, 
wolves,  and  panthers  are  rare,  fiyenas,  jackals,  and 
wild  boars  are  more  frequent.  The  birds  are  not  as 
well  represented.  Songsters  are  rare.  Wild  doves, 
rock  ptarmigan,  eagles,  and  hawks  are  more  often 
found.  Reptiles  are  fairly  numerous.  Serpents,  often 
venomous,  abound,  and  also  lizards  (chameleon, 
gecko). 

Traces  of  human  occupation  are  found,  dating  from 
prehistoric  times.  Not  only  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Q&simiye  to  Tripolis,  but  also  in  the  mountains  and  in 
Beqd'a  J  genuine  neolithic  and  palseolithic  remains  have 
been  discovered.  Broken  human  bones  su^st  the 
cannibalism  of  the  aborigines.  In  historic  tunes  the 
Amorrhites  appeared,  whilst  in  the  period  of  the 
Israelite  kings  the  Phoenicians  exercised  dominion 
over  the  Lebanon,  and  Solomon  had  buildings  erected 
there  (III  Kin^,  v,  6  sqq.;  ix,  19).  Later  tne  Itura&- 
ans  occupied  Lebanon,  and  in  Christian  times  the 
Maronites.  The  bloody  persecutions  of  1860  result<>d 
in  some  improvement  m  the  condition  of  part  of  the 
country,  chiefly  throi^h  the  interference  of  France. 
Tlie  iudependent  province  of  Lebanon  has  a  Christian 
sovemor  named  by  the  sultan  and  approved  l>y  the 
Powers.  BetedcUn,  near  Der  el-Qamar,  is  the  seat 
of  government.  The  inhabitants  in  1900  numbered 
about  400,000;  the  greater  part  are  Catholic  Maronites; 
about  8  per  cent,  Greek  Uniats;  13  per  cent,  Orthodox 
Greeks;  12  per  cent,  Druaes;  4  per  cent,  Shiit«  Meta- 
wiles:  3  per  cent,  Sunnites.  The  spirit  of  travel  has 
seized  the  Maronites,  who  seek  profit  in  Eg>'pt,  the 
United  States,  or  in  Latin  America,  returning  later  to 
their  mountains. 

Ecclesiastically,  the  Maronites  arc  subject  to  a  pa- 
triarch who  lives  in  -the  monastery  of  Qannobin. 
Numerous  convents,  some  of  them  wealthy,  are  scat- 
tered over  the  hills;  they  maintain  schools  and  have 
set  up  printing-presses.  Higher  instruction  is  siven 
chiefly  by  European  priests,  but  those  of  native  oirth 
take  an  active  part.  The  American  Protestant  mis- 
sions have  long  since  entered  into  competition.  For 
the  education  of  the  girls,  native  teaching  sisters 
(Ifariamettes)  are  employed  jointly  with  Europeans. 


In  times  of  peace  the  Christian  administration  haid 
obtained  good  results.  Safety  and  order  have  been 
established,  and  a  great  deal  has  been  done  for  com- 
merce. The  high  road  from  Beirut  to  Damascus 
(about  70  miles)  was  built  in  1862,  and  other  roads 
later,  e.  g.  that  following  the  coast,  that  from  Beirut 
to  Jezztn,  from  Je^zln  to  Saida,  etc.  In  1895  the  first 
railroad  was  opened  from  Beirut  to  Damascus  (90 
miles),  which  in  Lebanon  reaches  an  elevation  of  4850 
feet,  and  in  Antilibanus  4570  feet.  The  branch  line 
from  RayAq  to  Qaleb  was  opened  in  1906.  Further 
plans  are  being  considered,  principally  for  a  better 
connexion  with  Beqd'a. 

Thomson,  The  Land  and  the  Book  (London,  1886),  sections  on 
Lebanon  and  Damascus ;  Burton  and  Drake,  Unexplored 
Syria,  2  vols.  (London,  1872);  Porter,  Five  Years  in  Damaa- 
ciM,  2  vols.  (London,  1855);  Baedeker,  Palestine  and  Syria 
(4th  ed.,  Leipzig,  lOCiS);  Post,  Flora  o J  Syria,  Palestine,  ar^ 
Sinai  (Beirut,  1896) ;  Kitter,  Erdkunde  von  Asien,  VIII  (Ber- 
lin, 1855);  Fraah,  Drei  Monate  im  Libanon  (Stuttgart,  1876); 
Idem,  Aus  dem  Orient  (2nd  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1878);  Diencr, 
Libanon  (Vienna,  1886);  Zumopfen,  La  PhHiicie  avant  lea 
Ph^iciens  (Beirut,  1900);  Cuinet,  Syrie,  Liban  et  Palestine 
(Paris,  1896-1902) ;  Zcmoffen,  L*aoe  de  la  pierre  en  Phenicie  in 
Anthropos,  III  (1908),  431-55;  Blanckenhorn,  Abriss  der 
Goologie  Syriens,  Attneiiland  (Berlin,  1905);  Idem,  Ueber  die 
Steinzeit  imd  die  Feuersteinpeirefakten  in  Syricn-Paldstina  in 
Zeitschrift  far  Ethnologie,  XXXVII  (1905),  447-68. 

A.  Merk. 
LebbflBUB.    See  Jude,  Saint. 

LebeduSftltular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  of  Ephe- 
sus.  It  was  on  the  coast,  ninety  stadia  to  the  east  of 
Gape  Myonnesus,  and  120  west  of  Colophon.  According 
to  rausanius,  the  town  was  inhabited  oy  Carians  when 
the  lonians  immigrated  there  under  the  guidance  of 
Andrsemon,  a  son  of  Codrus.  Strabo,  however,  states  it 
was  colonized  by  Andropompus,  and  that  it  previously 
bore  the  name  of  Artis.  It  became  a  flourishing  city 
by  its  commerce,  and  was  famous  for  its  mmenu 
springs,  but  was  nearly  destroyed  by  Lysimachus, 
who  transported  the  population  to  Ephesus.  Under 
the  Romans,  however,  it  flourished  anew,  became  the 
meeting  place  of  the  actors  of  all  Ionia,  and  festivals 
were  celebrated  in  honour  of  Dionysus.  It^s  remains, 
of  little  interest,  are  seen  near  Hypsili  Hissar,  in  the 
caza  of  Sivri  Hissar,  vilayet  of  Smyrna.  Lobedus  ap- 
pears in  *'Notitia)  episcopatum"  as  an  episcopal  see, 
suffragan  of  Ephesus  until  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries.  Three  bishops  only  are  known:  Cyriacus, 
who  witnessed  the  Robber  Council  of  Ephesus,  449; 
Julian,  represented  by  his  metropolitan  at  Chalcedon 
in  451;  Theophanes  or  Thomas,  who  attended  the 
Council  of  Ni«8ea,  787. 

Lequien,  Oriens  Chridianvs,  I,  725;  Chandler,  Asia  Minor, 
125;  Smith,  Did,  Oreek  and  Roman  Geog.,  s.  v. 

S.  P£tridi:s. 

Le  Blant,  Edmond-Frederic,  French  arch8Fx>lo- 
gist  and  historian,  b.  12  August,  1818;  d.  5  July,  1897 
at  Paris.  He  studied  law  and  haWng  qualified  to  prac- 
tice, hc5  obtained  in  1843  a  situation  in  the  customs 
under  the  Finance  Board.  This  position  assured  his 
future  and  he  was  free  to  follow  his  scientific  inclina- 
tions. During  a  voyage  through  Italy  (1847)  he 
visited  the  Kircher  Museum,  and  his  intercourse  with 
G.  B.  de  Rossi  determined  him  to  undertake  in  France 
the  scientific  work  which  the  founder  of  Christian 
archsBolo^  had  undertaken  in  Rome.  As  early  as 
1848  Le  Blant  was  commissioned  to  collect  the  in- 
scriptions of  the  earliest  days  of  C'hristianity  in  Gaul, 
and  like  de  Rossi,  he  made  an  investigation  of  manu- 
scripts, printed  books,  museums,  churches,  and  the 
Gallo-Roman  cemeteries.  In  1856  appeared  the  first 
volume  of  his  "Recueil  dos  inscriptions  chr^tiennes 
des  Gaules  ant^rieuros  au  VIII*  si^cle  ".  The  second 
volume  of  the  work  (Paris,  1865)  obtained  for  its  au- 
thor his  election  as  a  member  of  the  Academic  des 
Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres.  A  third  volume  ap- 
peareci  in  1892  under  the  title  of  "  Nouveau  Recueil  . 
In  the  course  of  his  researches  Le  Blant  did  not  over- 


LEBBtJN 


lOG 


LEBwnr 


look  any  questiom*  raised  by  his  documents.  lie  wrote 
learned  articles  on  the  method  of  Christian  epigraphy, 
on  Christian  art,  on  the  origin,  progress,  popular  be- 
liefs, and  moral  influence  of  Christianity  in  ancient 
Gaul.  When  he  resigned  his  post  as  sub-commis- 
sioner of  the  customs  (1872)  he  continued  to  devote 
himjself  to  his  favourite  studies. 

He  tried  to  gather  into  one  "  Corpus"  the  Christian 
sarcophagi  of  which  so  many  have  oeen  preserved  in 
the  south  of  France.  In  1878  he  published  in  Paris 
his  "Etudes  siu*  les  sarcophages  Chretiens  de  la  ville 
d' Aries",  which  was  followwl  by  a  second  work 
"Etudes  sur  les  sarcophages  chr^tiens  de  la  Gaule" 
(Paris,  1886).  In  the  introduction  he  treats  of  the 
form,  ornamentation,  and  iconography  of  these  monu- 
ments; he  dwells  upon  the  relationship  between  the 
sarcophagi  of  Aries  and  those  of  Rome,  and  the  differ- 
ence oetween  them  and  those  of  the  south-west  of 
France,  in  which  he  finds  more  distinct  signs  of  local 
influence.  His  studies  and  his  personal  tastes  led  him 
to  take  an  interest  also  in  the  history  of  the  j>er8ecu- 
tions  and  the  martyrs.  In  numerous  WTitings  he 
treats  in  particular  of  the  iudicial  bases  of  the  perse- 
cutions and  the  critical  value  of  the  Acts  of  the  Mar- 
tyrs. These  studies  were  crowned  by  his  fine  work 
"Pers^^cuteurs  et  Martyrs"  (Paris,  1893),  in  which  he 
displays  his  scientific  knowledge  of  history  and  his 
deep  Christian  convictions.  In  1883,  Le  Blant  became 
director  of  the  Ecole  Fran^aise  at  Rome.  As  such,  his 
name  figures  honourably  between  that  of  GefTroy  and 
of  Mgr  Duchesne.  In  audition  to  his  works  mentioned 
above  we  may  mention  his  collaboration  with  Jacque- 
mart  in  "Histoire  artistique,  industrielle  et  com- 
merciale  de  la  porcelaine  (Paris,  1862);  "Manuel' 
d'^pigraphie  chrfetienne  "  (Paris,  1869) ;  "  Les  Actes  des 
martyrs,  Supplement  aux  *Acta  sincera'  de  Dom 
Ruinart"  (Paris,  1882). 

Waxxon,  Notice  sur  la  vie  Hie*  travaux  de  E.  Fr.  Le  Blant  in 
Compte  rendu  Acad.  Inscr.  et  Bellea-Lcttres,  I  (Paris.  1900),  609- 
44;  Hauvette,  Notice  nicrologique  aur  Edmond  Le  Blant  in 
Bull.  aSoc.  Antiquairea  de  France  U899),  59-77;  Prou,  Biblio- 
graphie  dee  cmvrea  d" Edmond  Le  Blant,  ibid.,  79-123. 

R.  Maere. 

I«ebnin,  Charles,  French  historical  painter,  b.  in 
Paris,  1619;  d.  at  the  Gobelin  tapestry  works,  1690. 
This  great  designer,  whose  fertility  was  so  wonderful, 
received  his  first  instruction  in  art  from  his  father,  and 
at  the  age  of  eleven  was  placed  in  the  studio  of  Vouet. 
There  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Poussin,  and  in  1642 
accompanied  him  to  Italy,  remaining  there  four  years. 
On  his  return,  he  was  for  a  while  at  Lyons,  and  then 
settled  down  in  Paris.  His  skill  soon  brought  him 
before  the  notice  of  the  eminent  personages  of  iiis  day, 
and  he  received  an  important  commission  from  Fou- 
auet,  and  painted  a  large  picture  for  Queen  Anne  of 
Austria,  wno  in  return  gave  liim  her  portrait  set  in 
diamonds.  Cardinal  Mazarin  introduced  him  to  Louis 
XIV,  and  he  speedily  became  a  very  popular  person 
at  court,  and  neld  almost  unlimited  sway  over  all 
artistic  matters  after  the  death  of  Le  Sueur.  He  was 
intimately  concerned  in  1648  in  the  foundation  of  the 
Academy,  and  when  the  king,  under  the  advice  of 
Colbert,  founded  the  Gobelin  tapestry  works  in  1662, 
Lebrun  was  appointed  director,  and  was  styled  "a 
person  skilful  and  intelligent  in  the  art  of  painting,  to 
make  designs  for  tapestry,  sculpture,  and  other  works, 
to  see  that  they  were  correctly  rendered,  and  to  direct 
and  overlook  all  the  workmen  employed".  Lebrun 
was  responsible^for  designing  almost  all  the  important 
cartoons  for  th*e  early  work  of  the  Gobelin  factory, 
but  beyond  that,  he  was  responsible  for  decoration 
and  for  statues  at  Versailles,  for  a  long  series  of  alle- 
gorical paintings,  and  for  decoration  work  at  Sceaux, 
Versailles,  and  Marly.  When  Colbert  died  in  1683, 
Lebrun  lost  his  gjeat  patron,  and  during  the  last  few 
years  of  his  life,  he  withdrew  from  court,  and  fell  into 
a  condition  of  melancholv  which  continued  until  the 


time  of  his  death.  Ue  was  a  great  scenic  artist.  in« 
s{)ired  by  grand  ideas,  a  man  of  unceasing  energy, 
with  a  fine  colour  sense,  and  good  knowledge  of  deco- 
ration, but  his  work  was  somewhat  heavy,  and  the  in- 
fluence he  exercised  over  French  art  was  not  wholly  to 
its  advantage.  In  designing  tapestry,  his  art  was  well 
employed,  and  he  will  be  remembered  more  for  his 
splenclid  designs  for  the  Gobelin  work  than  for  his  own 
paintings. 

Laoordaire,  Notice  hidorique  eur  lee  Manufacturee  impirialea 
de  Tapisseriea  dea  Oobdimt  et  de  Tavis  de  la  Savonnerie 
(Paris,  1853,  1873);  Coub,  Tape^ry  ana  Embroidery  (London, 
1888);  Thomson.  Hiatorv  of  Tapeatry  (London.  1906);  Bon- 
NAFFK.  Fouquet  (Paris,  1882);  Montault.  Tapeatrieapreaerved 
by  Rome  (Arras.  1879);  Dubos,  Beauvaia  Tapeatry  (Beauvaia. 
1834). 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Lebwin  (Lebuinus  or  Liafwin),  Saint,  Apostle  of 
the  Frisians  and  patron  of  De  venter,  b.  in  England  of 
Anglo-Saxon  parents  at  an  unknown  date;  d.  at  De- 
venter,  Holland,  about  770.  Educated  in  a  monastei^ 
and.  fired  by  the  example  of  St.  Boniface,  St.  Willi- 
brord,  and  other  great  English  missionaries,  Lebwin 
resolved  to  devote  his  life  to  the  conversion  of  the 
(Germans.  After  his  ordination  he  proceeded  to 
Utrecht,  and  was  gladly  welcomed  by  Gregory,  third 
bishop  of  that  place,  who  entrusted  him  with  the  mis- 
sion of  Overyssel  on  the  borders  of  Westphalia,  and 
save  him  as  a  companion  Marchelm  (Marcellinus),  a 
disciple  of  St.  Willibrord.  Hospitably  received  by  a 
widow  named  Abachilda  (Avaerhilt),  he  fearlessly 
preached  the  Gospel  among  the  wild  tribes  of  the  dish 
trict,  and  erected  a  little  chapel  at  Wulpe  (Wilpa)  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Yssel.  As  the  venerable  person- 
ality and  deep  learning  of  the  missionary  quickly  won 
numbers,  even  of  the  nobles,  to  the  Faith,  it  soon  be- 
came necessary  to  build  at  Deventer  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  river  a  larger  church,  after  which  a  residence 
for  Lebwin  was  also  erected.  This  state  of  undis- 
turbed development  of  his  little  fold  was  not,  however, 
to  continue.  Lebwin's  wonderful  success  excited 
great  hostility  amonj^  the  pagans;  ascribing  his  con- 
versions to  witchcraft,  they  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  predatory  and  anti-Christian  Saxons,  burned  the 
church  at  Deventer,  and  dispersed  the  flock.  Having 
with  difiBculty  managed  to  escape,  Lebwin  deter- 
mined to  voice  the  claims  of  Christianity  at  the  na- 
tional a^embly  of  the  Saxons.  To  this  the  three 
estates  of  each  gau  sent  twelve  men  as  representatives, 
and  with  it  the  decision  of  all  important  matters 
rested.  Setting  out  for  Marclo  near  the  Weser  in 
Saxony,  where  the  assembly  was  held,  Lebwin  was 
hospitably  entertained  by  a  noble  named  Folchert 
(Folklwrt),  apparently  a  Christian,  w^ho  vainly  strove 
to  dissuade  him  from  his  purpose.  Clad  in  priestly 
vestments  and  bearing  the  crucifix  in  one  hand  and 
the  Gospels  in  the  other,  Lebwin  appeared  in  the 
midst  of  the  assembled  Saxons,  while  they  were  en- 
caged with  their  sacrifices  to  their  false  deities.  Hav- 
mg  boldly  proclaimed  the  One  True  God,  the  Creator 
of  all,  he  warned  them  that,  if  they  obstinately  ad- 
hered to  their  idolatry,  ''a  bold,  skilful,  and  mighty 
king  would  advance  upon  them  like  a  raging  torrent, 
destroy  everj'thing  with  fire  and  sword,  brmg  want 
and  banishment  into  their  territories,  send  their  wives 
and  children  into  slavery,  and  make  the  remainder 
submit  to  the  yoke  of  his  domination.'*  Enraged  at 
these  words,  the  Saxons  demanded  that  this  enemy  of 
their  religion  and  land  should  expiate  his  reckless 
offence  by  death,  and  they  prepared  to  slay  him 
with  stakes  torn  from  the  thickets  and  sharpened, 
but  he  made  his  escape.  An  old  nobleman,  Buto, 
reminded  the  assembly  that,  while  ambassadors 
from  the  Normans,  Slavs,  and  Frisians  had  been 
always  honourably  received  and  dismissed  in  peace, 
they  were  now  insulting  and  threatening  with  death 
the  ambassador  of  the  Highest  God,  of  whose 
mightiness  the  present  wonderful  deliverance  of  His 


LE  0AMX7S                             107  LEGOS 

«ervaat  from  instant  death  was  sufficient  evidence,  suet.    The  Sorbonne  niade  him  doctor  of  theology  at 

Convinced  by  this  speech,  the  Saxons  pjromised  hence-  the  age  of  eighteen.    The  fact  of  his  consorting  with 

forth  to  respect  the  rights  of  Christianity.    On  his  such  men  as  Benserade,  Vivonne,  and  Bussy  drew 

return  to  Fnesland,  Lebwin  rebuilt  the  church  at  De-  unon  him  the  severity  of  Mazarin,  and  he  was  for  a 

venter,  and  found  there  his  last  resting-place.    That  wnile  exiled  to  Meaux.     Recalled  through  the  in- 

he  died  before  776  is  certain,  since  in  that  year  tjie  fluence  of  Coll>ert,  he  retired  in  1665  to  La  Trappe 

Saxons  made  a  fresh  inroad  into  the  district  and  burnt  with  de  Ranc^,  and  passed  from  his  former  levity  to  an 

the  church,  but,  in  spite  of  the  most  careful  search  for  asceticism  that  led  him  to  Port-Royal.    The  pubhca- 

three  days,  were  unable  to  discover  the  saint's  body,  tion  of  his  letters  by  Ingold  shows  that  Jansemsm  was 

St.  Ludger  (q.  v.)  rebuilt  the  chiutjh  a  few  years  later,  with  Le  Camus  more  a  matter  of  personal  sympathy 

and  found  the  saint's  remains.    Lebwin  is  commem-  and  spiritual  discipline  than  of  doctrinal  tenets.  Made 

orated  by  the  Church  on  12  November.  a^inst  his  will  Bishop  of  Grenoble  in  1671,  he  proved 

-r^B'^Pv"^?!'^*^  aourc«  for  Lebwin's  biography  arejHucBAi^  himself  zealous  almost  to  excess  in  reforming  abuses 

(918-7o),  Vila  a.  L^uinx  m  Surius,  VUa  SS.,  VI,  277-86,  and  •     v.:«  j:^««««      t«  *k^  »ir»:.  ^f  ♦k«  <(.x»»i»  »  u«  ^^4^^A 

k  abbi4viat«d  form  in  Mon.  Oeim.  SS.,  ll,  360-4;  tr.  in  m  his  dioccse.    In  the  affair  of  the     regale    he  acted 

CHBssT.CAurcA/fiAtoryo/BrOtoni/.XXIV.  vii;RADBOD,£cto0a  as  intermediary  between  Rome  and  Versailles,  and 

ei  Sarmo  (on  Lebwin)  mHvjuva,\h  ^9;  \i^^  showed   creditable   courage   before   the   omnipotent 

iZ^.ii:;^^rD^'dlkJ'^B^:s.  ^:^i'e^'nlV'^''^"^'^  Louis  Xiy     innocent  XI^  havmg  made  him  ca^niinal 

Thomas  Kennedy.  instead  of  Harlay,  presented  by  the  king,  he  was  not 

allowed  till  1689  to  go  to  Rome  to  receive  the  insignia 

La  0*mns,EMiLB-PAUirO>N8TANT-ANGE,  preacher,  of  his  dignity.    Le  Camus  founded  in  the  Diocese  of 

theologian,  scripturist,  Bishop  of  La  Rochelle  and  Grenoble  two  seminaries  and  several  charitable  insti- 

Saintes,  b.  at  Paraza,  France,  24  August,  1839;  d.  at  tutions.     Besides  a  "Recueil  d'ordonnances  syno- 

Malvisade,  near  Castelnaudary,  France,  28  Septem-  dales"  we  have  from  him  the**  Ddfensede  la  Viiginit^ 

ber,  1906.     He  made  his  preparatory  studies  at  Car-  perpdtuelle  de  la  Mdre  de  Dieu "  (Paris,  1680),  and 

cassonne,  and  then  entered  tne  theological  seminary  numerous  letters  published  by  Ingold. 

of  St-Sulpice  at  Paris.      In  1861  he  went  to  Rome,  BELLirr, //M^oircduCany truiZL«<7amuj»  (Paris,  1886);  Saintb- 

where  he  received  hte  doctorate  in  theology,  and  in  the  f^^^fl^T^'^^^'U^^t^^^i^Vl^^^^fZ^ 

following  year,  20  December,  1862,  he  was  ordained  ^e  to  vie  de  M.  U  dardiruii  Le  Camua  (l*am.  1720);  Incjold, 

priest  at  Carcassonne,  France.      He  at  once  revealed  Lettres  du  Card.  Le  Camus  in  Bulletin  de  V Academic  DelphinoiM, 

remarkable  oratorical  powers,  and  in  1867  he  was  in-  ^nd  senes,  I.  J,  F.  Soluer. 
vited  to  preach  the  Lenten  sermons  at  Avignon,  for  *  xi  #  • 
which  he  was  made  honorary  canon.  This  same  hon-  -Le  Oaron,  Joseph,  one  of  the  four  pioneer  imssiODr 
our  was  again  conferred  upon  him  somewhat  later  by  anes  of  Canada  and  first  missionanr  to  the  Ilurons 
Mgr  Las  Cazes,  Bishop  of  Constantme  (Algeria),  who  (q-  v.),  b.  near  Paris  in  1586;  d.  m  France,  29  March, 
also  chose  Le  Camus  as  his  theologian  at  the  Vatican  1632.  He  embraced  the  ecclesiastical  state  and  was 
Council.  In  1875  Le  Camus  was  appointed  assistant  chaplam  to  the  Duke  of  Orl^ns.  When  that  pnnce 
duwtor  of  the  Dominican  school  at  Sorez,  France,  but  died,  Le  Caron  joined  the  RecoUects  and  made  his 
soon  after  he  became  head  of  the  new  school  of  St.  profession  m  1611.  On  24  April,  1615,  he  sailed  from 
Francis  de  Sales,  which  he  established  at  Castelnau-  Honfleur,  reached  Canada  on  25  May,  and  unmedi. 
dary.  Here  he  laboured  until  1887,  when  he  resigned  ately  went  to  Sault  St.  Louis.  After  a  short  tune  he 
his  position  as  director  in  order  to  devote  himself  ex-  travelled  to  Quebec,  provided  hunself  with  a  portable 
clufli vely  to  the  study  of  the  New  Testament.  To  ^^^^  service,  returned  to  the  Sault,  and  went  into  the 
equip  hunself  properly  for  this  study,  and  especially  to  land  of  the  Hurons,  bemg  the  first  to  visit  their  settle- 
study  the  topography  of  the  Holy  Land,  he  made  his  ments  and  preach  the  Gospel.  He  stayed  with  them 
first  journey  to  the  East  in  the  following  year  (1888).  about  a  year,  and  was  again  among  them  m  1623.  In 
This  was  followed  by  several  other  visits,  and  the  re-  1616  he  returned  to  France  to  look  after  the  spiritual 
suite  of  his  travels  and  studies  were  published  at  var-  and  material  mter^ts  of  the  colony.  The  fol  owing 
ious  times.  While  pursuing  his  Scriptural  studies,  spring  saw  him  m  Canada  again,  as  provmcial  com- 
Le  Camus  also  found  time  to  preach  several  ecclesias-  missary.  During  the  wmtere  of  1618  and  1622  he 
tical  retreats  at  Lyons,  Montpellier,  Paris,  and  Rome,  evangelized  the  Montagnais  of  Tadousac.  In  1625  he 
In  1897  he  was  elected  theological  canon  of  Carcas-  was  once  more  in  trance,  returned  to  Canada  a  year 
Sonne,  and  on  6  April,  1901,  he  received  his  appoint-  later,  was  elected  superior  of  his  order  at  Quebec,  and 
ment  as  Bishop  of  La  Rochelle  and  Saintes.  He  was  ^Ued  this  office  until  the  capture  of  Quebec  by  the 
consecrated  at  Carcassonne,  2  July,  1901,  by  Cardinal  Enelish  in  1629,  when  he  and  his  colleagues  were  sent 
Lecot.  Even  as  bishop,  Le  Camus  continued  his  work  back  to  France  by  the  conquerors. 
on  the  New  Testament,  and  also  pubhshed  several  let-  Le  Caron  was  a  saintly  man,  given  to  the  practice  of 
ten  and  pamphlete  on  ecclesiastical  topics.  austerities,  but  gentle  towards  others.  He  died  of  the 
His  more  important  works  are:  "La  Vie  de  Notre-  plague  in  the  convent  of  Ste-Marguerite  in  France. 
Swgneur  J&us<:airist",  3  vols.,  6th  ed.,  1901  (trans-  We  owe  to  him  the  first  dictionary  of  the  Huron  lan- 
Ut^»H  infy>  F.n<r1i»h   rUrmAn   anH  TtAlinn^•  "Vnviuroa  Kuagc.    The  * '  Bibliothcca  Uuiversa  Frauciscaua"  of 


••  Yraie  et  1«  ausse  HJxegese '  ; "  Lettre  sur  la  i?  ormation  wruu?  aiso    v^uajrimoiua  x\  u vw  r  muuias    v^^xupiiuut 

Ecclfeiastique  des  S^minaristes";  "Lettre  r^lant  la  of  New  France).  .  «  ^    .  ,^.,.,  vr  .  «   . . 

rfonraniaaUon    des    dtudes    eccl^iastiques";    "M6-  ^^j^frechronol.deJapwmncedeSt-D^^^^ 

^*'!***^^T^       -  ^    .-V^    1         '''^^*^"«»'M     1      »    J      ,  Mortuologe  dc8  ItrcoUcte  dc  la  province  de  St-Denis  {ISLie  Bev&i' 

move  addresse  a   MM.    les  deputes  membres  de   la  t^enth- century  MS.,   in  the  archives  of  Quebec  seminary); 

Commission  des  Congregations".  Champlain,  CEuvres.  ed.  Laveroikre  (6  vols..  Quebec,  1870); 

BuUetin  Trimettriel  des  Anciena  Elkvea  de  St-SuMce,  n.  xliii  SAOARD,//i«toireduCana<to,ed.TR083(4  vols..  Paris,  18^^ 

(16  Nov„  1906),  460-64;  New  York  Review,  II,  n.  lii,  496;  II,  S^R^'Q-  PrrmicrEtabltsaement  de  la  Fox  dans  la  Nouvelle  France 

vl,  773-60.  (2  vols..  Pans.  1691). 

F.  X.  E.  Albert.  Oporic-M.  Jouve. 

Le  Ctamiui,  Etienne,  French  cardinal,  b.  at  Paris,  Lecce,  Diocese  of  (LiaENSis),  suffragan  of 
1632;  d.  at  Grenoble,  1707.  Through  the  influence  of  Otranto.  Lecce,  the  capital  of  a  province  in  Terra 
his  fa^r,  Nicolas  le  Camus,  a  state  councillor,  he  was  d'Otranto  in  Apulia,  seven  and  a  half  miles  from  the 
when  still  very  younff  attached  to  tb«  court  as  al-  sea,  is  an  industrial  and  commercial  city  (tobacco, 
of  the  long,  and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Bos-  grain,  wine,  oil,  woven  goods).    Marble  quarries  are 


USOLXRO                              108  UBOLERO 

ta  the  vicinity.    Extensive  ruins  of  megalithic  struo  in  view,  founded  (1617)  the  Order  of  the  Christian 

tares  in  its  territory  prove  that  it  was  inhabited  at  a  Militia.    Pdre  Joseph  even  wrote  an  epic  poem  on  this 

very  remote  period.    It  was  known  to  the  ancients  as  subject,  *'  La  Turciade. "  But  the  conflict  between  the 

Lupise,  and  then  had  a  port,  enlarged  bv  Hadrian  and  Habsburgs  and  the  Bourbons,  as  well  as  the  new 

Marcus  Aurelius.    Near  Lecce  is  the  village  of  Rugge,  prospects  of  the  Mantuan  succession  open  to  Qiarles 

the  ancient  Rudiee,  birthplace  of  Enniu&     In  the  de  Nevers  caused  the  crusade  scheme  to  fail.    Pdre 

time  of  the  Normans,  Lecce  became  the  seat  of  a  Joseph  then  became  Richelieu's  confidential  political 

countship,  some  of  its  counts  being  famous,  notably  agent,  hoping  that,  with  the  Bourbons  victorious,  and 

Tiuicred  (d.  1194),  who  contested  with  Heniy  YI  the  peace  established  in  Europe,  it  would  finally  be  possi- 

Kin^om  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  Gautier  de  Brienne,  ble  to  march  against  the  Turks.    His  scheme  was  to 

cousm  of  Tancred.    Under  Charles  V,  to  whom  a  tri-  weaken  both  the  Protestants  and  the  House  of  Aus- 

umphal  arch  was  erected  in  the  city,  Lecce  received  tria,  both  of  whom  he  considered  enemies  of  the  peace 

new  life,  and  the  features  of  that  epoch  arc  retained  to  of  Europe.    He  wished  France  to  use  the  Protestants 

this  day.    For  this  reason  Lecce  is  one  of  those  cities  to  weaken  the  House  of  Austria,  and  the  House  of 

that  have  preserved  a  characteristic  and  uniform  style  Austria  to  weaken  the  Protestants, 

of  architecture.    Of  the  more  ancient  buildings  there  Richelieu  sent  him  to  Rome  in  1625,  to  negotiate 

remains  only  the  church  of  SS.  Nicola  and  Cataldo,  regardmg  the  rival  claims  of  the  Orisons  and  Spain  in 

outside    the    city,    in     Romanesque  style    (1180).  Valtellina.    In  1630  he  was  sent  to  the  Diet  of  Ratis- 

The  cathedral  of  S.  Oronzio  (first   built  in  1114  by  bon  to  give  quiet  support  to  the  opposition  of  the 

Goffredo  d'Alta villa),  in  its  present  form,  and  the  German  princes  to  the  claims  of  Emperor  Ferdinand, 

church  of  S.  Domenico  are  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  to  strengthen  the  bonds  of  alliance  between 

S.  Croce  of  the  dxteenth — all  in  baroque  style.     The  France  and  the  Elector  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  head 

cathedral  tower  is  about  240  feet  high,  and  serves  yet  of  the  Catholic  League.    On  the  morrow  of  the  Diet  of 

as  a  lighthouse  for  ships  plying  between  Otranto  and  Ratisbon,  Germany  was  divided  between  a  powerless 

BrindisL    Until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen-  emperor  and  two  parties,  one  Catholic,  the  other  Prot- 

tury  there  was  a  signal  on  its  summit  to  give  warning  estant,   both  equally  hostile  to  the  empire.    Pdre 

of  pirate  ships.    The  Palazzo  dclla  Intendenza,  once  Joseph  laboured  to  obtain  the  neutrality  of  the  Duke 

the  abbey  of  the  Celestines,  is  noteworthy.   Mention  of  Bavaria  and  of  the  Catholic  League  m  view  of  the 

must  also  be  made  of  the  manufacture  of  tobacco  in  invasion  of  Gustavus    Adolphus,  protector  of  the 

the  ancient  Dominican  convent.    The  historian  Scip-  Protestants;  he  even  had  hopes  of  forming  an  alliance 

ione  Ammirati  and  the  painter  Matteo  da  Lecce  (six-  between  Maximilian  and  Gustavus  Adoljmus.    After 

teenth  century)  were  natives  of  Lecce.  The  Christian  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  war  became  inevita- 

religion,  it  is  said,  was  first  introduced  by  St.  Oron-  able  between  France  and  the  Habsburgs,  and  it  broke 

tins,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher  converted   by  St.  out  in  1635.    Henceforth  instead  of  pressing  on  Riche- 

Pai^.    St.  Leucius  is  also  venerated  as  bishop  and  lieu  his  own  broad  political  views,  P^re  Joseph  was 

martyr.    But  a  bishop  of  Lecce  is  first  mentioned  in  content  to  support  the  makeshift  policy  imposed  b^ 

1057,  in  the  person  of  Teodoro  Bonsecolo.     Other  circumstances  on  the  cardinal.    Tne  desire  for  tem- 

bishops  of  note  were  Roberto  Vultorico  (1214),  who  torial  expansion,  which  at  that  time  governed  French 

restored  the  cathedral;  Tommaso  Anmiirati  (1429);  policy,  was  Richelieu's  rather  than  P^re  Joseph's. 

Ugolino  Martelli  (1511),  a  linguist;  Giambattista  Cas-  The  latter  however,  eagerly  followed  the  progress  of 

tromediani  (1544),  wno  founded  the  hospital  and  the  French  troops  and,  in  the  cardinal's  name,  kept  up 

other  institutions  for  children  and  the  poor;  Luigi  an  active  correspondence  with  the  generals  and  min- 

Pappacoda  (1639),  who  rebuilt  the  cathedral,  which  isters.    Tradition  represents  the  cardinal  as  bending 

contains  his  statue  in  marble;  Antonio  Pignatelli  over  his  dyin^  friena  and  saying  to  him:  '*P^re  Jo- 

(1672),  later  Innocent  XII,  who  founded  the  seminary  seph,  Brisach  is  ours  ".    As  a  matter  of  fact  the  taking 

of  Lecce.  of  Brisach,  which  occurred  on  17  Dec,  1638,  could  not 

The  diocese  has  32  parishes  with  100,000  souls,  8  have  been  known  in  Paris  on  the  next  morning,  the 

religious  houses  of  men  and  16  of  women,  10  schools  date  of  the  death  of  Pdre  Joseph;  but  the  tradition 

for  Dovs,  and  6  for  girls.  such  as  it  is,  svmbolizes  the  close  bond  which  patri- 

D»  SiMONE.  Lecce  ei  svoidintomi  (Lecce,  1874);  Cappei/-  otism  created  between  these  two  men. 

MTO.  Le  Chtese  d  Italia,  XXI.                          Benioni  ^^^*^®  *^®  religious  idea  of  a  crusade  inspired  the 

secular  policy  of  Pdre  Joseph,  intense  sacerdotal  and 

Lederc  da  Tremblay,  Fran(X)is,  a  Capuchin,  Apostolic  zeal  characterizea  him  amid  all  his  political 
better  known  as  Pi:RE  Joseph,  b.  in  Paris,  4  Nov.,  preoccupations.  At  his  suggestion  d'Orl^ans-Longue- 
1577;  d.  at  Rueil,  18  Dec.,  1638.  Owing  to  the  influ-  ville  reformed  the  Benedictine  Order  at  Fontevrault 
ence  of  his  kinsman  the  Constable  de  Montmorency,  he  and  founded  the  congregation  of  Our  Lady  of  Calvwy, 
appeared  at  court  at  the  age  of  eighteen  with  the  title  of  for  whose  nuns  he  wrot«  many  books  of  pietjr.  He 
Baron  de  Maffliers,  and  served  in  the  armies  of  Henry  opposed,  even  more  openly  than  Richelieu,  Richer's 
IV  against  Spain.  On  2  Feb.,  1599  he  became  a  C^lican  doctrines.  Pere  Joseph  also  founded  Capu- 
Capuchin  novice.  He  was  provincial  of  the  Capuchins  chin  missions  for  the  conversion  of  Protestants,  in 
of  Touraine  in  Sept.,  1613,  and  took  part  in  1616  in  the  Poitou,  Dauphin^,  the  Cevennes,  Languedoc,  Pro- 
negotiations  of  Loudun  between  Marie  de  Medicis  and  vence,  and  later  in  the  East.  The  sending  of  P^re 
the  malcontents  led  by  the  Prince  de  Cond^.  To  the  Pacifique  to  Constantinople  in  1624,  with  the  title  of 
future  Cardinal  de  Richelieu  he  furnished  the  oppor-  "Prefect  of  Eastern  Missions"  was  the  beginning  of 
tunity  of  a  conference  with  Cond^,  the  first  service  vast  spiritual  conquests  by  the  Capuchins  in  the 
rendered  by  Richelieu  to  Marie  de  MedicLs  and  to  the  Archipelago,  the  Greek  peninsula,  and  Asia  Minor. 
State.  In  this  way  Pdre  Joseph  appears  at  the  opening  From  Paris  Pdre  Joseph  directed  this  work,  and  in 
of  Richelieu's  political  career.  The  r61e  of  Pdre  1633  there  were  ten  Eastern  missions.  It  was  he  also 
Joseph  has  recently  been  studied  anew  by  Abb6  De-  who,  in  1633^  sent  Pdre  Agathange  of  Venddme  to 
douvres  and  M.  Fagniez.  Their  researches  prove  that  found  a  mission  in  Egypt;  this  same  father  in  1637 
Pdre  Joseph  remained  true  to  the  medieval  idea  of  attempted  but  in  vain  to  establish  a  mission  in  Abys- 
Christendom.  He  had  visions  of  a  crusade  that  would  sinia;  finally  Pdre  Joseph  tried,  but  unsuccessfully,  to 
combine  all  Europe,  and  the  purpose  of  his  visit  to  establish  a  mission  of  French  Capuchins  in  Morocco. 
Home  in  1616  was  to  discuss  with  Paul  V  the  schemes  Faqnik*.  LeP.  Joaeph  et  Richelieu  (2  vob..  Paris.  1894);  Db- 

of  the  Duke  of  Neverg^  who  wasplanning  to  unite  W^,;Sr!h^)f-i'^^^^srh^;i'^cS:S::^'i^:i^^^ 

against  the  Turks  the  Mamots  of  Morea  and  the  Slav  Marie,  LePheJoteph  et  U  SacrfCceur  (Angera.  1899). 

Iiopulations  of  the  Balkans,  and  with  this  enterprise  Georges  Qotau. 


isauutoQ 


109 


LE  OOZ 


LMlsrcq,  Chbebhen,  a  Franciscan  R^collet  and 
one  of  the  meet  aealous  missionaries  to  the  Micmac  of 
Canada,  also  a  distinguished  historio^pher  of  Nou- 
Telle  France.  A  Fleming  by  birth,  he  loincd  the  prov- 
ince of  the  R^collets  of  St.  ^toine,  in  Artois,  and  went 
to  Canada  in  1675;  on  11  October  of  that  year  he  was 

gut  in  charge  of  the  Micmac  mission  by  Mgr  de  Laval, 
[e  learned  the  lan^ua^e  of  that  tribe  and  devoted  him- 
self to  its  evangelization.  His  superiors  sent  him  to 
fYance  in  1680  on  business  connected  with  the  Fran- 
ciscan missions  in  Canxula ;  he  returned  in  the  following 
spring  with  letters  authorizing  the  foundation  pf  a  con- 
vent m  Montreal,  whither  he  went  during  the  summer 
of  1681  to  carry  out  this  work.  In  the  month  of 
November  he  went  back  to  the  Micmac  mission,  where 
he  passed  in  all  twelve  years  of  his  life.  In  autumn. 
1686  he  returned  finally  to  France,  where  he  filled 
various  positions  of  authority  in  the  Artois  province  of 
his  order.  The  date  of  his  death,  like  that  of  his  birth, 
is  unknown,  but  he  was  still  living  in  1698.  After  his 
return  to  France,  he  completed  two  works  which  he  pub- 
lished at  Paris  in  1691.  They  are:  (1)  "Premier  6ta- 
blissement  de  la  foy  dans  la  Nouvelle-Francc",  2  vols, 
in  12mo.  The  first  volume  contains  fourteen  unnum- 
bered leaves  and  559  pages;  the  second  458  pa^es. 
This  work  is  now  very  rare  and  commands  a  high  price. 
It  may  be  divided  into  three  part^.  The  first  contains 
the  early  history  of  Nouvelle-France,  the  introduction 
of  Catholicism  into  that  country,  and  describes  the  la- 
bours of  the  first  missionaries  in  Canada,  the  Rdcollcts. 
This  part  ends  at  the  year  1629  on  the  taking  of  Que- 
bec b^  the  English.  The  second  part,  from  1632  till 
1670  mclusive,  continues  the  history  of  the  colony,  re- 
lates the  spreuading  of  the  Faith  amone  the  native 
tribes  through  the  devoted  labours  of  the  Jesuit 
Fathers,  and  tells  of  the  return  of  the  Rdcollets  to 
Canada  and  their  new  foundation  of  the  convent  of 
Notre-Dame  des  Anges  at  Quebec.    The  third  part 

S'ves  one  of  the  best  accounts,  and  in  certain  matters 
le  only  account  of  the  travels  and  discoveries  of  de 
La  Salle,  and  ends  with  the  victory  of  the  French  over 
the  English  at  ihe  siege  of  Quebec  in  1690.  The  work 
has  been  criticized,  Cnarlevoix  complaining  that  Le- 
clercq  treats  onlv  of  the  religious  affairs  in  which 
the  Ililcollets  took  part,  and  even  ascribing  to  Fron- 
tenac  a  share  in  the  authorship  of  the  work;  but  the 
authenticity  of  the  documents  on  which  the  author 
relied  for  his  information  has  never  been  impugned; 
and  it  remains  an  important  source  for  the  hiistory  of 
.  Canada  and  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  North  America. 
An  English  translation  by  John  Gilmary  Shea,  was 
published  at  New  York  in  1881,  containing  an  account 
of  the  author,  portraits,  map,  views,  and  facsimile. 

(2)  "NouvelJe  relation  de  la  Gasp^ie",  1  vol.  in 
12mo,  also  published  at  Paris,  in  1691,  by  Auroy, 
contains  four  unnumbered  leaved  and  572  pages.  This 
book  describes  the  scenes  of  the  Apostolic  la1)ours  of  the 
lealous  author  from  1675  till  168G.  It  relates  the  mis- 
nonary  efforts  of  Leclercq  and  some  other  RdcoIIets 
around  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  the  Baie  des  Cha- 
kurs,  and  in  New  Brunswick.  But  the  author  de- 
scribes in  particular  the  life,  customs,  and  beliefs  of 
the  savages  (called  by  him  by  the  general  name  of 
Gaspesians)  who  then  inhabited  these  regions.  It  is 
an  important  work,  though  of  mere  local  interest. 
From  it  we  learn  that  Leclercq  invented  a  system  of 
writing  by  which  he  taught  the  Micmac  Indians  to 
read  their  own  language.  Very  probably  these  hiero- 
glyphics have  been  preserved,  and  are  to  l>e  found  in  the 
Micmac  writing  which  still  exist.  It  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  W.  F.  Ganong,  with  an  account  of 
the  author  am  illustrations  (1  vol.,  Edinburgh,  1910). 

Arthivei  of  tha  ArehbMopric  of  Quebec:  Leclercq,  Prtmier 
MnbluBonent  lU  la  toy  dann  la  NouveUe-France  (Paris,  1091); 
Idem.  NouvdU  rtlatum  dg  la  OaspSne  (Pam.  1601);  Hennepin. 
Noureau  voyaqe,  eU.  (Utrecht,  169<>):  Reveillaud,  IlisUnrt 
tknnohifique  d*  la  NtrnvtUe-France  (Paris.  ISS  ). 

Odorio-M.  Join'E. 


Lecoy  de  La  Marche  (Kichabxx-Albxbt)^  French 
historian;  b.  at  Nemours,  1839;  d.  at  Pans,  1897i 
He  left  the  Ecole  des  Chortes  in  1861,  and  was 
appointed  archivist  of  the  Department  of  Haute 
Savoie.  In  1864  he  went  to  Pans  as  archivist  in  the 
historical  section  of  the  Archives  Nationales;  he  was 
also,  for  many  years,  professor  of  French  history  at  the 
Catholic  Institute  in  Paris.  Lecoy  de  La  Marche  was 
gifted  with  rare  qualities  as  a  writer  and  scholar,  and 
what  is  still  more  remarkable,  he  never  separated  the 
research  for  and  the  diffusion  of  historical  truth  from 
the  defence  and  propagation  of  religious  truth.  His 
masterpiece  is  liis  "  (Ilhaire  fran^aise  au  moyen  &ge " 
rParis,  1868),  which  was  awarded  a  prize  by  the 
Acad^mie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres.  It  has 
served  as  a  model  for  many  books  on  this  subject,  but 
has  remained  to  this  day  the  standard  work  of  its  kind. 
It  consists  of  three  parts:  "Les  pr^dicateurs;  les 
sermons;  la  socidt^  d*apr^  les  sermons".  Part  I  be- 
gins with  a  summary  of  the  history  of  preaching  in  the 
primitive  Church,  and  in  France  previous  to  the 
eleventh  century,  and  then  gives  an  exhaustive  history 
of  the  French  preachers  in  the  following  centuries, 
especially  the  thirteenth.  Part  II  deals  with  the  audi- 
ences, the  time  and  the  place  of  preaching,  and  the 
various  kinds  of  sermons.  Part  III,  which  is  perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  section  of  the  book,  is  a  study  ci 
French  society  in  the  Bliddle  Ages  as  it  appears  in  the 
light  of  the  sermons.  Kings,  lords,  bishops,  priests, 
monks,  burgesses,  peasants,  men  and  women,  pass 
before  our  eyes,  with  their  characteristic  traits  and 
weaknesses.  Lecoy  de  La  Marche  also  published: 
"L'acad^mie  de  France  k  Rome"  (1874);  "Le  roi 
Ren^,  sa  vie,  son  administration  "  (1875) ;  "  Anecdotes 
historiques,  etc."  (1876);  "La  Soci6t^  au  XIII* 
sidcle"  (1880);  "Saint  Martin"  (1881);  "Les  manu- 
scrits  et  la  miniature  "  (1884);  "  Relations  politiques 
de  la  France  et  du  royaume  de  Majorque  "  (1892),  etc. 

Reime  des  quesliona  hiUoriquea  (Paris,  1807). 

Pierre  Marique. 

Le  Ck>i,  Claude,  French  bishop,  b.  at  Plou^vea- 
Parzay  (Finist^re),  1740;  d.  at  Villevieiix  (Jura),  1815. 
Pupil,  then  professor,  and  finally  principal  of  the  Ck|l- 
l^ge  ae  Quimper.  he  took  the  constitutional  oath  in 
1791,  was  elected  schismatic  Bishop  of  Ille-et-Vilaine. 
and  wrote  in  defence  of  his  election — declared  null  ana 
void  by  the  pope— ;**  Accord  des  vrais  principes  de  la 
morale  et  de  la  raison  sur  la  Constitution  civile  du 
cleig6".  Elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly  he 
showed  courage  and  ability  in  defending  against  the 
majority  Catholic  colleges,  the  ecclesiastical  costume, 
ana  even  Christian  marriage.  His  moderation  drew 
upon  him  the  severity  of  the  Convention,  and  he  spent 
fourteen  months  in  the  prison  of  Mont-Saint-MicheU 
Later,  under  the  Directory,  the  vigour  with  which  he 
opposed  the  substitution  oi  the  decadi  for  the  Christiaa 
Sunday  came  near  causing  his  deportation.  Under  the 
Concordat,  Le  Coz  was  one  of  the  Constitutional  bish- 
ops whom  the  force  of  circumstances  compelled  the 
Iloly  See  to  recognize,  and  he  became  Archbishop  of 
Besan^on.  There  is  a  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  hb  re- 
tractation: Bemier,  the  ecclesiastical  diplomat  who 
negotiated  the  rehabilitation  of  the  jurors,  thought  it 
best,  in  order  to  avoid  delay,  not  to  make  a  clear  meii- 
tion  of  the  manner  of  retractation  required  by  Pius  VII; 
as  a  consequence,  I^e  Coz  denied  ever  having  retracted, 
and  the  awkwanlnessof  the  situation  was  ended  oi^ 
by  a  personal  interview  between  Le  Coz  and  Pius  VII, 
in  wliich  both  were  seen  weeping  but  of  which  neither 
ever  spoke.  As  scliismatic  Bishop  of  Ille-et-Vilaine, 
Le  Coz  failed  in  his  endeavour  to  organize  the  new 

Erovince  of  which  he  was  the  metropolitiin;  otherwisB 
e  proved  a  zealous  administrator  and  even  a  chari- 
table pastor.  As  Archbishop  of  Besan^on  he  displayed 
some  ffood  qualities,  but  nis  sad  antecedents,  the 
doubt  nanging  over  hb  conversion,  and  the  presenot 


LKOTERN 


110 


ZAnnoiiABY 


in  his  archiepisoopal  palace  of  too  many  ex- juror 
priests,  detracted  considerably  from  the  effectiveness 
of  his  ministry.  The  strange  mixture  of  truth  and 
error,  of  good  and  evil  in  Le  Coz's  life,  is  partly  ex- 
plained by  his  intensely  Gallican  education,  which 
caused  him  to  adopt  with  apparent  sincerity  and  to 
maintain  with  imconquerablo  obstinacy  tne  most 
schismatic  views.  His  Gallicanism,  whicn  made  him 
90  haughty  toward  the  pope,  found  him  almost  cring- 
ing before  the  various  political  regimes  which  suc- 
ceeded one  another  during  his  episcopate.  In  an  age 
full  of  confusion,  we  should  give  some  credit  to  Le 
Coz  for  sometimes  having,  even  against  the  all-FK)wer- 
ful  Abb4  Grdgoire.  defended  the  cause  of  religion  in 
the  "Annales  de  la  Religion",  in  which  he  was  an 
assiduous  collaborator,  and  in  his  **Correspondance", 
part  of  which  has  been  published  by  hi  j  oioCTapher. 

RoussEL,  Jj€  Coz,  Svique  d  Ille-et-Vilaine  (Pa'.Ts,  s.  d.);  Idem, 
Correfpondance  de  Le  Cox  (Paris,  1000);  Pisami,  Le  Coz  in  RS- 
pertoire  biographique  de  V  Episcopal  Constituiionnel  (Paris,  1907) . 

J.  F.  SOLLIER. 

Lectern  (Lecturn,  Letturn,  Lettern,  from 
legere,  to  read),  support  for  a  book,  reading-aesk,  or 
bookstand,  a  solia  and  permanent  structure  upon 
which  the  Sacred  Books,  which  were  generally  large 
and  heavy,  were  placed  when  used  by  tne  ministers  of 
the  altar  in  liturgical  functions.  In  early  days  only 
one  such  structure  was  employed;  later,  two  were 
erected,  one  at  the  northern  wall  of  the  choir,  and  an- 
other on  the  opposite  side.  From  the  former  the 
sermon  was  delivered  by  the  priest,  and  also  by  the 
bishop,  unless  he  spoke  from  nis  cathedra;  here  de- 
crees of  synods  were  promulgated,  censures  and  ex- 
communications pronounced,  the  diptychs  read,  the 
Gospel  chanted  by  the  deacon,  and  all  those  parts  of 
the  lituigy  were  simg  which  belonged  to  the  deacon's 
office.  Tne  other,  somewhat  longer  but  not  so  high, 
was  divided  into  two  compartments  or  stories — the 
higher,  facing  the  altar,  was  used  by  the  sulxleacon 
when  reading  the  Epistle ;  in  the  other,  facing  the  nave, 
the  other  lessons  were  read.  A  third  lectern  was  useu 
in  some  churches  for  the  sermon.  Some  of  these  were 
built  of  marble,  others  of  wood,  highly  adorned  with 
silver  and  ^old,  enamelled,  and  set  with  precious  stones, 
covered  with  bronze  plates  and  carvings  in  ivory.  Be- 
sides those  mentioned  under  Ambo,  we  find  among  the 
treasures  of  the  Abbey  of  Saint-Riquier  "lectoria  tria 
ex  marmore,  aigento  et  auro  fabricata"  (P.  L., 
CLXXrV,  1257).  One  in  the  court  of  the  church  of 
St.  Pantalaemon  in  Thessalonica  is  held  to  be  the 
oldest.  On  its  lower  part  is  found  in  relief  the  Ma- 
donna and  Child,  seated  on  a  throne  and  surrounded 
by  shepherds  and  the  three  Magi,  and  on  the  super- 
structure are  symbolic  representations.  The  upper 
part  of  the  lectern  in  S.  Apollinare  Nuovo  at  Ravenna 
IS  old  and  fairly  complete.  Another,  well  preserved 
and  richly  decorated,  a  donation  of  Henry  II,  is  at 
Aachen.  Movable  lecterns  were  also  made  of  wood, 
bronze,  or  polished  brass.  A  bronze  lectern  inlaid 
with  ivory,  made  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century  by  Suger,  Abbot  of  St.  Denis,  was  in  the  shape 
of  an  eagle  whose  outspread  wings  held  the  book. 
Eagle-shaped  lecterns  were  also  numerous  in  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries  in  England.  Samples, 
but  not  going  back  later  than  the  fifteenth  century, 
are  found  at  Aachen,  DQsseldorf,  St.  Severin's  at  Co- 
logne, etc.  A  lectern  of  neatly  wrought  iron,  in  the 
dmpe  of  an  X,  which  can  be  folded,  is  in  the  Mus(^ 
Cluny  at  Paris.  The  Carthusians  of  Dijon  had  a  lec- 
tern which  was  a  large  column  of  copper,  in  renais- 
sance style,  supporting  a  phoenix  surrounded  by  the 
four  animals  of  the  Prophet  Ezechiel.  In  some  the 
figure  of  a  deacon  holds  tne  book. 

The  Synods  of  MQnster  (1279V  Li^ge  (1287).  and 
Cambrai  (1300)  prescribed  that  the  Mis.sal,  enveloped 
in  a  linen  cloth,  should  be  laid  on  the  altar.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  a  cu.shion  came  into 


use.  The  oldest  notice  of  a  stand  for  the  Missal  ift 
found  in  an  inventory  of  the  cathedral  of  Angers  of 
the  year  1297  (Zeitschrift  fOr  christliche  Kunst,  X, 
175) .  All  such  lecterns  were  covered  on  festivals  with 
rich  cloths  of  silver  and  gold.  At  the  present  day 
lecterns  are  in  use  as  Missal-stands  and  for  the  reading 
of  the  prophecies  on  Holy  Saturday  and  Pentecost 
Saturday,  for  the  chanting  of  the  Passion,  the  singing  of 

the  "  Exultet ",  and  the  reading  of  the  lessons  in  choirs. 
DucHBSNB.  Chriaiian  Worahip  (London,  1904),  114, 169, 353; 
RocKj  Chiarch  of  our  FcUkera,  I  (London,  1903)^  106;  Kbadb. 
GeschxcfUe  der  chrisUichen  Kunstt  II  (FreibuiK  im  Br.,  1897), 
482;  BiNTBRiM,  DenkwUrdiakeUetit  IV,  i,  70 

Francis  Mershhan. 

Lectionary  (Lectionarium  or  Legenda),  is  a  term  of 
somewhat  vague  si^iificance,  used  with  a  good  deal 
of  latitude  by  liturgical  writers.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  in  the  early  Middle  Ages  neither  the  Liturgy 
of  the  Mass,  nor  the  Divine  Office  recited  by  moiu& 
and  other  ecclesiastics  in  choir,  were  to  be  found, 
as  in  the  Missal  and  the  Breviary  of  the  present  day, 
complete  in  one  volume.  Botn  for  the  Mass  and 
for  the  Office  a  variety  of  books  were  used,  for  it 
was  obviously  a  matter  of  convenience  when  books 
were  both  bulky  and  costly  to  produce,  that  the 
prayers,  e.  g.  which  the  priest  had  to  say  at  the  altar, 
should  be  contained  in  a  different  volume  from  the 
antiphons  to  be  sung  by  the  choir.  The  word  lection- 
ary,  then,  in  its  wider  sense,  is  a  term  which  may  be 
correctly  applied  to  any  liturgical  volume  containing 
passages  to  be  read  aloud  in  the  services  of  the  Church. 
In  tlus  larger  signification  it  would  include  all  Script- 
ural books  written  continuously,  in  which  readings 
were  marked,  such  as  the  "  Evangeliaria"  (also  often 
known  as  "Tcxtus")»  as  well  as  books,  known  also 
as  "Plenaria",  containing  both  Epistles  and  (jos- 
pels  combined,  such  as  are  commonly  employed  in  a 
high  Mass  at  the  present  day,  and  also  those  collections, 
either  of  extracts  from  the  Fathers  or  of  historical 
narrations  about  the  martyrs  and  other  saints,  which 
were  read  aloud  as  lessons  in  the  Divine  Office. 
This  wider  signification  is,  however,  pjerhaps  the  less 
usual,  and  in  practice  the  term  lectionary  is  more 
conmionly  used  to  denote  one  of  two  things:  (1)  the 
book  containing  the  collection  of  Scriptural  readings 
which  are  chanted  by  the  deacon,  subaeacon,  or  a  lec- 
tor during  Mass;  (2)  any  book  from  which  the  read- 
ings were  taken  which  are  read  aloud  in  the  Office  of 
Matins,  after  each  noctum  or  group  of  psalms.  With 
regard  to  these  last  the  practice  seems  to  have  varied 
greatlv.  Sometimes  collections  were  made  containing 
just  the  extracts  to  be  used  in  choir,  such  as  we  find 
them  in  a  modem  Breviary.  Sometimes  a  large 
volume  of  patristic  homilies  (known  also  as  ser-- 
monarium)  or  historical  matter  w^as  employed^  in 
which  certain  passages  were  marked  to  lie  used  as 
lessons.  This  last  custom  seems  more  particularly  to 
Imve  obtained  with  regard  to  the  short  biographical 
accounts  of  martyrs  and  other  saints,  which  in  our 
modem  Breviary  form  the  lessons  of  tne  second  noc- 
tum. In  this  connexion  the  word  legenda  in  particu- 
lar is  of  common  occurrence.  The  Bollandist  Ponce- 
let  is,  consequently,  inclined  to  draw  a  distinction 
between  the  *'  L^enda*'  and  the  '  Lectionarium"  (see 
Analecta  Bollandiana,  XXIX^  13).  The  -Legenda", 
also  called  **Passionarium",  is  a  collection  of  narra- 
tives of  variable  length,  in  which  are  recounted  the  life, 
martyrdom,  translation,  or  miracles  of  the  saints. 
This  usually  forms  a  large  volume,  and  the  order  of 
the  pieces  in  the  collection  is  commonly,  though  not 
necessarily,  tliat  of  the  calendar.  A  few  such '  *  Legen- 
dsB  "  come  down  from  quite  the  early  Middle  Ages,  out 
the  vast  majoritv  of  those  now  preserved  in  our  libra- 
ries belong  to  tne  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth 
centuries.  The  earliest  is  the  "Codex  Vclseri",  MS. 
Lat.  3514,  of  the  Royal  Library  at  Munich,  written 
probably  before  the  year  700.    When  these  books 


UOTOB 


111 


■ll'llMIll 


IWSXI 


wer%  used  in  choir  duriiiff  Office  the  reader  either  read 
certain  definitelv  marked  passages,  indicated  by 
markings  of  which  our  existing  manuscripto  constantly 
show  traces,  or,  in  the  earlier  periods  especially^  he 
read  on  until  the  abbot  or  priest  who  presided  gave 
him  the  signal  to  stop.  After  the  thirteenth  century 
however,  this  type  of  book  was  much  more  rarely 
transcribed.  It  was  replaced  by  w^hat  may  conven- 
iently be  called  for  distmction's  sake  the  *'Lectiona- 
rium  par  excelleficef  a  book  which  consisted  not  of 
entire  narratives,  but  only  of  extracts  arranged  ac- 
cording to  feasts,  and  made  expressly  to  be  read  in  the 
Office.  It  may  be  added  that  about  the  same  period 
the  still  more  comprehensive  liturgical  book,  known  to 
us  so  familiarly  as  the  Breviary  (q.  v.)  also  began  to 
make  its  appearance.  In  the  early  centuries  the 
Scriptural  passages  to  be  read  at  Mass,  whether  taken 
from  the  Gospels,  the  Epistles,  or  the  Old  Testament, 
were  very  commonly  mcluded  in  one  book,  often 
called  a  Comes  "  or  **  Liber  Comicus  ".  But  no  con- 
stant or  uniform  practice  was  followed,  for  sometimes 
the  Epistles  and  Lessons  were  read  from  a  continuous 
text  equipped  with  rubrics  indicating  the  different 
days  for  which  the  passages  were  intended — ^this  is  the 
case  with  the  famous  *'Epistolarium"  of  St.  Victor 
of  Capua  in  the  sixth  century;  sometimes  Lessons, 
Epistles,  and  Gospels  were  all  transcribed  in  their 
proper  order  into  one  volume,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
*  Liber  Comicus"  of  the  Church  of  Toledo  lately 
edited  by  Dom  Morin,  or  of  the  Lectionnaire  de 
Luxeuil,  published  by  Mabillon  in  his  ''Liturgia 
Galhcana  . 

Baudot.  Les  Lectionnairea  in  Science  ei  Reliffion  ^aris,  1007), 
noo.  4d3, 464;  Sauea  in  Buchderoer,  Kirchlichea Uandlex.^  a.  v. 
Lektionar;  Morin,  Liber  Comicus,  introduction  (Mareclsous, 
1883):  and  many  articles  of  tho  same  writer  in  Revtie  B&rUdic' 
tine:  PoNCELBT  in  Analecta  BoUandiana,  XXIX  (Brussels, 
1010).  1-48;  Bbissel.  EnttAehungder  Perikopen  dee  rrim.  Mesa- 
buchea  (Freibuiis  ioQ  Bn^lOO?);  Ranke,  Daa  kirch.  Perikojten- 
System  (Berlin,  1847);  Wordsworth  and  Littlehales,  Old 
Service  Book*  of  the  EngliA  Church  (London,  1904). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Lector. — A  lector  (reader)  in  the  West  is  a  clerk 
having  the  second  of  the  four  minor  orders.  In  all 
E^astem  Churches  also,  readers  are  ordained  to  a  minor 
order  preparatory  to  the  diaconate.  The  primary 
reason  for  a  special  class  of  readers  was  the  need  of 
some  persons  sufficiently  educated  to  be  able  to  read 
the  books  in  church,  for  the  Christians  continued  the 
Jewish  practice  of  reading  the  Sacred  Books  publicly. 
The  first  mention  of  a  Christian  liturgical  reader  is  by 
Justin  Martyr  (d.  about  165)  in  I  ApoL,  Ixvii,  3,  4. 
The  homily  known  as  "  II  Clem,  ad  Corinthios "  also 
contains  a  reference  to  a  lector,  dvayivii<rK<av  (xix,  1). 
The  position  of  reader  was  honourable  and  dignified. 
It  involved  a  higher  standard  of  education  than  that 
of  most  offices.  Although  Justin  says  that  the  bishop 
preached  the  sermon,  it  appears  that  the  reader  him- 
self often  went  on  to  expound  what  he  had  read.  As 
the  idea  obtained  that  a  special  blessing  and  dedica- 
tion should  be  given  to  everyone  who  performs  an 
office  for  the  Church,  the  reader  too  was  instituted  by 
prayers  and  some  ceremony.  Readers  were  blessed 
and  set  apart,  as  were  the  fossores  who  dug  graves,  the 
nokirii  who  kept  registers,  and  widows.  AH  the  group 
of  rituals  that  depend  on  the  "Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions" contain  the  rite  of  ordaining  readers.  "  Apost. 
Const.",  viii,  xxii.  tells  the  bishop  to  ordain  a  reader 
by  laying  on  his  hand  and  saying  a  prayer,  which  is 
given.  The  derived  documents  however  forbid  an 
imposition  of  hands.  ("Epitome  Const.  Ap.",  xiii; 
Funk.  "Didascalia",  Paderborn,  1905,  II,  p.  82;  see 
also  the  "Egyptian  Church  Order".  V,  ib.,  p.  105). 

During  the  first  centuries  all  the  lessons  in  the 
liturgy,  including  the  Epistle  and  Gospel,  were  read 
bv  the  lector.  Cornelius  I  (251-53)  in  a  letter  to 
fwius  of  Antioch  mentions  that  the  Churcli  of  Rome 
has  forty-two  acolytes  and  fifty-two  cxorclsUj,  readers 


and  doorkeepers.  (Denzinger,  "  Enchiridion  '*,  n.  15}. 
In  the  fourtn  century  in  Africa  the  Church  of  Cirta 
had  four  priests,  three  deacons,  four  suodeacons.  and 
seven  readers.  The  account  of  the  persecution  (  Ges* 
ta  apud  Zenophilum"  printed  in  the  appendix  to  Op- 
tatus  of  Mileve  in  the  Vienna  edition  ot  Corp.  Script, 
eccl.  lat.",  XXVI,  185-97)  describes  how  the  readers 
kept  the  sacred  books  which  the  magistrate  demanded 
to  be  given  up  (p.  1 87) .  An  old  set  of  Western  canons, 
ascribed  (wrongly)  to  a  supposed  Council  of  Carthage 
in  398,  but  really  of  the  sixth  centurj",  gives  forms  for 
all  ordinations.  Canon  8  is  about  our  subject : "  When 
a  reader  is  ordained  let  the  bishop  speak  about  him 
(facial  de  Ulo  verbum)  to  the  people,  pointing  out  his 
faith  and  Ufe  and  skill.  After  this,  while  the  people 
look  on,  let  him  g^ve  him  the  book  from  which  he  is  to 
read,  saying  to  him:  Receive  this  and  be  the  spokes- 
man (relator)  of  the  word  of  God  and  you  shall  have, 
if  you  do  your  work  faithfully  and  usefully,  a  part  with 
those  who  have  administered  the  word  of  God  "  (Den- 
zinger, op.  cit.,  n.  156).  But  gradually  the  lectorate 
lost  all  importance.  The  deacon  obtained  the  office 
of  reading  the  Gospel;  in  the  West  the  Epistle  bo- 
came  the  privilege  of  the  subdeacon.  In  the  East- 
em  Churches  this  and  other  lessons  are  still  supposed 
to  be  read  by  a  lector,  but  everywhere  his  office  (as  all 
minor  orders)  may  be  supplied  by  a  layman.  The 
lector  is  still  mentioned  twice  in  the  Roman  Missal. 
In  the  rubrics  at  the  beginning  it  is  said  that  if  Mass  be 
sung  without  deacon  and  subdeacon  a  lector  wearing 
a  surplice  may  sing  the  Epistle  in  the  usual  place;  but 
at  the  end  he  does  not  kiss  the  celebrant's  hand  ("Ri- 
tus  celebr.  Missam",  vi,  8).  On  Good  Friday  the 
morning  8er\'ice  begins  with  a  prophecy  read  by  a  lec- 
tor at  the  place  where  the  Epistle  is  usually  read  (first 
rubric  on  Good  Fridav). 

Everywhere  the  order  of  reader  has  become  merely 
a  stepping-stone  to  major  orders,  and  a  memory  oi 
early  days.  In  the  Roman  Rite  it  is  the  second  minor 
order  (Ostiarius,  Lector^  Exordsta^  AcolyUius).  The 
minor  orders  are  conferred  during  Mass  after  the  first 
Lesson;  but  they  may  be  given  apart  from  Mass,  on 
Sundays  or  doubles,  in  the  morning.  The  lectorate 
involves  no  obligation  of  celibacy  or  of  any  other  kind. 
The  Byzantine  Office  will  be  found  in  the  "  Eucholo- 
gion  "  (Ei^xoX^ioy  t6  /x^a,  Venetian  8th  edition^  1898, 

Ep.  186-87).    The  Armenians  (Gregorian  and  Lniate) 
ave  adopted  the  Roman  svstem  of  four  minor  orders 
'exactly.    Their  rite  of  ordaining  a  reader  also  con- 
sists essentially  in  handing  to  him  the  book  of  the 

Epistles. 

WxELAND,  Die  Oenetiache  Entwickduno  dcr  eog.  Ordinet 
minorea  in  den  S  eraten  Jahrhundertcn  in  R^miache  Quartahrhrift, 
Suppl.  no.  7  (Rome,  1892);  Harnack.  Vber  dm  Vraprunp  dea 
Ledorala  u.  dcr  anderen  niederen  Weihen  in  Texle  u.  Unter' 
auchungent  II,  5. 

Adrian  Fortescub. 

Ledochowski,  Miecislas  Halka,  count,  cardinal, 
Archbishop  of  Gnesen-Posen,  b.  at  Gorki  near  San- 
domu-  m  Russian  Poland,  29  October,  1822;  d.  at 
Rome,  22  July,  1902.  After  studying  at  Radom 
and  Warsaw,  he  entered  the  Accademia  dei  Nobili 
Ecclesiastici  in  Rome  in  1842,  and  was  ordained  priest 
13  July,  1845.  He  became  domestic  prelate  of  Pius 
IX  in  1846,  auditor  of  the  papal  nunciature  at  Lisbon 
in  1847,  Apostolic  delegate  to  Colombia  and  Chile 
in  1856,  nuncio  at  Brussels  and  titular  Archbishop  of 
Thebes  in  1861,  and  finally  Archbishop  of  Gnesen- 
Posen  in  December,  1865.  He  was  preconized  on  8 
January,  1866,  and  enthroned  on  22  April  of  the  same 
year.  Being  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Ki^^  oi 
Prussia,  he  was  sent  to  Versailles  by  Pius  IX  in 
November,  1870,  to  ask  the  services  of  Prussia  for 
the  re-establishment  of  the  Pontifical  States,  and  to 
offer  the  services  of  the  pope  as  mediator  between 
France  and  Germany,  but  his  mission  proved 
fruitless. 


112 


Shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the  German  KvUur* 
kampf,  toe  Prussian  Government,  without  the  knowl- 
edge or  co-operation  of  Ledochowski,  passed  an  ordi- 
nance that,  after  Easter,  1873,  all  religious  instruction 
in  Posen  should  be  imparted  in  the  German  language 
only.  It  was  but  natural  that  the  Polish  people 
should  object  to  such  an  unjust  ordinance,  especially 
since  most  of  the  children  were  either  entirely  igno- 
rant of  the  German  lan^age  or  understood  it  only 
with  difficulty.  When  the  Government  ignored  the 
urgent  request  of  the  archbishop  to  revoke  the  ordi- 
nance, he  issued  a  circular  on  23  February,  1873,  to  the 
teachers  of  religion  at  the  higher  educational  insti- 
tutions, ordering  them  to  use  the  vernacular  in  their 
religious  instructions  in  the  lower  classes,  but  per- 
mitting the  use  of  the  German  language  in  the  higher 
classes,  beginning  with  the  secunda.    Pius  IX  ap- 

S roved  this  act  of  the  archbishop  in  a  Brief  dated  24 
[arch,  1873.  All  the  teachers  of  religion  were  obedi- 
ent to  their  archbishop  and,  in  consequence,  the 
Government  deprived  them  of  their  positions.  Ke- 
lson being  thus  no  longer  taught  at  many  institu- 
tions, the  archbishop  erected  private  religious  schools, 
but  in  an  ordinance  of  17  September,  1873,  the  Govern- 
ment forbade  all  pupils  of  the  higher  institutions  to 
obtain  religious  instruction  at  these  private  schools. 
As  all  protests  of  the  archbishop  proved  useless,  he  dis- 
regarded the  unjust  ordinances  of  the  Government, 
and,  after  being  fined  repeatedly,  he  was  finally 
ordered  on  24  Isovember,  1873,  to  present  his  resig- 
nation. The  archbishop's  answer  was  that  no  tem- 
poral court  had  the  right  to  deprive  him  of  an  office 
which  God  had  imposed  upon  him  through  His  visi- 
ble representative  on  earth.  Before  he  was  formally 
deposed,  he  was  arrested  between  3  and  4  o'clock  in 
the  morning  of  3  February,  1874,  and  carried  off  to  the 
dungeon  of  Ostrowo,  because  he  refused  to  pay  the 
repeated  fines  imposed  upon  him.  While  in  prison,  he 
was  created  cardinal  by  Pius  IX  on  13  March,  1874. 
The  Prussian  Government  declared  him  deposed 
on  15  April,  1874.  On  3  February,  1876,  he  was  re- 
leased from  prison,  but  was  ordered  to  leave  Prussia. 
He  continued  to  rule  his  diocese  from  Rome,  and  was 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  "arrogating  episcopal 
rights"  on  three  occasions,  viz.,  9  Feb.  and  26  May. 
1877,  and  7  Nov.,  1878.  After  being  appointed 
aecretarjr  of  papal  Briefs  in  1885  he  voluntarily  re- 
signed his  archdiocese  in  the  interests  of  peace.  In 
1892  he  became  Prefect  of  the  Propaganda,  an  office 
which  he  held  until  his  death.  An  official  reconcilia- 
tion between  the  cardinal  and  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment took  place  when  Emperor  William  II  visited 
Rome  in  1893. 

BrCck,  Geachichte  der  katholiachen  Kin-he  in  Deutschland  im 
19.  Jahrhundfrt,  IV  (Mainz,  1901),  147-50  et  alibi:  Hor.AN  in 
The  Iri§h  Ecdeaiastical  Review^  fourth  series,  XII  (Dublin, 
1902),  289-301. 

Michael  Off. 

Leeds  (Loinis),  Diocesb  of  (Loidensis),  em- 
braces the  West  Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  and  that  part 
of  the  city  of  York  to  the  south  of  the  River  Ouae. 
Though  one  of  the  fourteen  dioceses  now  comprised 
in  the  Province  of  Westminster,  it.  was  not  erected  at 
the  time  of  the  restoration  of  the  English  hierarchy  by 
Pius  IX  in  1&50.  For  in  that  year  the  Holy  See, 
whilst  anticipating  and  providing  for  its  ultimate 
division,  created  for  Yorki*hire  the  See  of  Beverley, 
with  jurisdiction  over  the  entire  county  then  known 
to  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  as  the  Yorkshire  Dis- 
trict. As  that  of  Lancashire,  this  vicariate  had  Ixien 
made  in  1840  by  Gregory  XVI  out  of  a  portion  of  the 
original  Northern  District,  first  establislied  by  Inno- 
cent XI,  in  1688. 

Dr.  John  Briggs,  President  of  St.  Cuthbert's  College, 
Durham  (1832-36),  and  last  vicar  Apostolic  of  this 
extensive  territory,  wliich  included  seven  counties 
of  the  North  of  England,  and  the  Isle  of  Man,  was,  in 


1833,  eonsecrated  as  Bishop  of  Trachis  in  parUbfiimp 
and  coadjutor  of  the  Northern  District,  to  which  hs 
succeeded  in  1836.  In  1839  he  returned  the  number 
of  CathoUcs  within  his  vicariate  as  about  180,000,  of 
whom  only  13,000  were  in  Yorkshire.  Having  in 
1840  been  appointed  to  the  Yorkshire  District,  Dr. 
Bri^s,  by  a  aecree  of  Propaganda  approved  by  Pius 
IX,  23  Sept.,  1850,  was  translated  from  Tracms  to 
Beverley,  which  see  he  resigned,  7  Nov.,  1860.  He 
died  at  York,  4  Jan.,  1861.  Eventually  senior  bishop 
of  the  restored  hierarchy,  his  episcopate  was  one  long, 
heroic  struggle  to  provide  schools  and  churches  lor  an 
ever-growing  destitute  Catholic  population — ^the  out  - 
come  of  many  years  of  Irish  immigration.  So  early  as 
1838,  Bishop  Brings  deplored  th^t  great  numbers  of 
his  people  were  witnout  pastors,  without  chapels,  and 
without  schools  for  their  children;  of  whom,  in  1845, 
he  stated  that,  in  Yorkshire  alone,  no  less  than  3000 
were  receiving  no  Catholic  education  whatsoever — 
a  class,  ten  years  later,  known  to  have  numbered, 
throughout  England  and  Wales.  120,000. 

Dr.  Briggs  was  succeeded  in  the  See  of  Beverley  by 
Dr.  Robert  Comthwaite,  canon  of  Hexham  and  New- 
castle, and  formerly  rector  of  the  English  College. 
Rome  (1851-57).  He  was  consecrated  by  Cardinal 
Wiseman,  10  Nov.,  1861.  Subsequently,  Dr.  Com- 
thwaite obtained  from  Rome  a  Brief,  dated  20  Dec., 
1878,  though  not  published  until  6  Feb.,  1879,  dividing 
the  Diocese  of  Beverley  into  those  of  Leeds  and  Middles- 
brough— that  of  Leeds  lying,  for  the  most  part,  to 
the  south  of  a  line  running  east  and  west  through  the 
County  of  Yorkshire,  marked  by  the  courses  of  the 
Humber,  the  Ouse,  and  the  Ure,  but  embracing  also 
a  small  [>ortion  of  the  county  north  of  the  Ouse  in- 
cluded within  the  parliamentary  division  of  the  West 
Riding.  Of  the  152  clergy  of  Beverley  (who  in  1850 
had  numbered  69)  98  were  transferred  to  Leeds;  of  its 
123  churches  and  cliapels  (which  twenty-nine  years 
before  were  61)  Beverley  surrendered  to  Leeds  85; 
whilst  of  its  141  schools  (in  1850  in  all  31)  105  were 
transferred  to  the  larger  of  the  two  new  dioceses, 
carrying  with  them  more  tlian  four-fifths  of  the 
15,677  children  formerly  in  attendance  within  the 
Diocese  of  Beverley. 

Dr.  Comthwaite  having  petitioned  the  Holy  See 
for  assistance,  he  received  as  coadjutor  Dr.  William 
Gordon,  a  member  oC  the  Leeds  Chapter,  and  after- 
wards his  vicar-general,  and  rector  of  the  diocesan 
seminary.  The  last  priest  ordained  by  Dr.  Briggs  in 
1859,  he  was  consecrated  as  Bishop  of  ArcadiopoUs 
in  partibus,  and  coadjutor  of  Leeds  cum  jure  succes^ 
sioniSf  24  Feb..  1890,  to  which  see  he  succeeded  upon 
the  death  of  liis  predecessor,  16  June,  1890.  His 
coadjutor,  Dr.  Joseph  Robert  Cowgill,  was  appointed 
fifteen  years  later  cum  iure  successionis.  At  that  time 
financial  agent  of  the  diocese^  and  canon  of  the  Chap- 
ter, he  was  consecrated  as  Bishop  of  Olenus  in  parti- 
bus,  30  Nov.,  1905. 

With  an  estimated  Catholicpopulation  of  about  106;- 
000,  mostly  operatives,  the  Diocese  of  Leeds  now  con- 
tains 138  churches  and  chapels,  served  by  163  clei^,  of 
whom  36  are  members  of  religious  orders  and  congrega- 
tions. Of  its  150  elementary  and  other  schools,  70  are 
taught  by  religious.  Among  other  memorials  of  Dr. 
Comthwaite's  episcopate,  l^sides  39  churches  and 
chapels,  and  its  diocesan  seminary  at  Leeds,  the  diocese 
possesses  houses  of  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  for 
the  aged  and  infirm,  at  Sheffield  and  Leeds;  industrial 
schools  for  boys  and  girls  at  Shibden  and  Sheffield; 
St.  Mary's  Orplianage  for  Girls  and  St.  Vuicent's 
Working  Bo>^'  Home,  at  Leeds;  and,  at  Boston  Spa, 
St.  John's  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Duml^ — one  of 
the  largest  of  its  kind,  and  in  efficiency  second  to  none 
in  the  kingdom.  During  Dr.  Gordon's  government 
of  the  diocese,  much-needed  secondary  schools  for 
boys  have  been  established  at  Leeds  and  Bradford: 
of  these,  St.  Michael's  College,  Leeds,  b^ing  erected 


113 


LE  Fivas 


1908-00,  at  a  cost  of  upwards  of  £18,000.  Provision 
Das  also  been  made,  during  this  period,  for  the  higher 
education  of  girls  at  Sheffield,  Leeds,  and  Bradfoid — 
the  Leeds  Centre  and  Teachers'  Training  College, 
under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  (Namur), 
representing  an  outlay  of  about  £15,000. 

Among  the  35  religious  houses  for  women,  within 
the  Diocese  of  Leeds,  special  interest  attaches  to  the 
seventeenth-centurv  Bar  Convent,  of  the  Institute  of 
Mary,  in  York,  rich  in  Catholic  associations  and  in 
relics  of  the  English  martyrs.  Of  the  numerous 
churches  more  recently  built,  particular  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  cathedral,  dedicated  to  St. 
Anne,  and  erected  at  Leeds,  in  1902-04,  from  the  de- 
signs of  J.  U.  Eastwood,  A.  R.  I.  B.  A.,  a  small  but 
unique  example  of  ''developed  Gothic";  and, among 
the  churches  of  earlier  date  architecturally  remarkable, 
St.  Mary's,  Sheffield  (1850)  and  St.  Mary's,  Leeds 
(1857),  are  both  fine  examples  of  the  Gothic  revival  of 
the  last  century.  And  with  these  mav  be  associated  St. 
Edward's,  Clinord  (1850),  a  small  church  in  the  Nor- 
man style,  worthy  of  the  ages  of  Faith,  erected  prin- 
cipally through  the  piety  of  descendants  of  the  Vener- 
able Kalph  Grimston,  martyred  under  Elizabeth  at 

York,  in  1598. 

Dioeeaan  Archives  of  Beverley  and  Leeds*  Bkadt,  Englith 
Catholic  Hierarchy  (London,  1883);  Wauoh,  The  Leeds  Missions 
(London,  1904);  Lanb-Fox,  Chronicles  of  a  Wharf eddLe  Parish 
(Fort  Augustufl,  1909). 

N,  Waugh. 

LefebTre,  Camille,  Apostle  of  tha  Acadians,  b.  at 
St.  Philippe,  P,  Q.,  1831;  d.  at  St.  Joseph,  N.  B.,  1895. 
The  son  of  sturdy  French-Canadian  peasants,  he  at- 
tended the  village  school  and  academy  until  he  was 
seventeeil,  became  a  primary  teacher  for  several  half- 
yearly^  terms,  prosecuted  his  study  of  Latin  at  St. 
Cyprien,  ana  m  1852  entered  the  Congregation  of 
the  Holy  Cross,  at  St.  Laurent,  near  ^lontreal.  Or- 
dained priest  in  1855,  he  served  8ucce^^sively  as  curate 
at  St.  Eustache  and  St.  Rose,  professor  at  St.  Lau- 
rent College,  and  missionary  in  the  Diocese  of  SU 
Hyacinth,  this  last  office  coming  to  him  as  the  nat- 
ural result  of  his  quite  exceptional  ability  as  a  pulpit 
orator.  His  real  life-work,  however,  began  only  in 
1864,  when,  in  accordance  with  an  agreement  be- 
tween .his  religious  superiors  and  Bishop  Sweeney  of 
St.  John,  he  took  charge  of  the  principal  Acadian  j)ar- 
ish,  Memramcook,  N.  B.,  and  forthwith  began  the 
foundation  of  St.  Joseph's  College.  Half  a  century 
ago,  the  French  Acadians  of  New  Brunswick,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  Prince  Edward  Island  were  admittedlv  an 
unimportant  factor  in  the  social  life  and  polity  of  those 
provinces.  From  the  time  of  the  great  expulsion  in 
1755,  they  had  been  constructively  deprived  of  all 
means  of  instruction,  in  public,  professional,  or  even 
commercial  life;  in  consequence,  an  Acadian  name 
rarely  if  ever  became  prominent.  Unquestionably 
looked  down  upon  by  their  English  and  non-Catholic 
neighbours  as  a  race  naturally  inferior  to  Anglo-Saxons 
and  Celts,  they  aoparentlv  acquiesced  in  the  fate  that 
doomed  them  to  be  mere  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers 
of  water.  With  the  advent  among  them  of  Father 
Lefebvre  and  the  establishment  of  St.  Joseph's  Col- 
lege, there  dawned  a  new  era,  and  in  the  brief  space  of 
three  decades  there  was  wrought  a  veritable  transfor- 
mation. 

Ilianks  mainly  to  his  initiative,  his  personal  service^ 
and  the  enthusiasm  with  which  he  imbued  his  fellow- 
workers  in  the  collie  and  the  leaders  of  the  people 
themselves,  Father  lifebvre  lived  to  see  the  practical 
servitude  and  inferiority  in  which  he  found  the  Aca- 
dians replaced  by  genuine  equality  and  freedom.  In 
ever-increasing  numbers  his  students  t<x)k  prominent 
places  in  the  business,  educational,  or  professional 
world,  gave  themselves  to  the  altar  or  pleaded  at  the 
bar,  entered  the  provincial  legislative  assemblies  and 
tbe  federal  parliament,  and  graced  the  bench  of  the 


Supreme  Court.  From  1864  to  1875  the  "Apostle  of 
the  Acadians"  encountered  trials,  reverses,  and  diffi- 
culties which  nothing  but  indomitable  energy,  coupled 
with  imwavering  confidence  in  God,  could  nave  en- 
abled him  to  survive.  During  these  years,  in  addition 
to  his  duties  as  college  president  and  pastor  of  Mem- 
ramcook, he  preached  missions  throughout  Acadia, 
served  several  terms  as  Provincial  of  his  Congregation, 
founded  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  and  was 
honoured  with  the  decree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  by 
Laval  University  and  tne  title  of  Apostolic  Missionary 
b^  Pius  IX.  His  death  occurred  in  Jan uary ,  1 895 ;  and 
within  two  years  St.  Joseph's  Alumni  erected  at  Mem- 
ramcook in  his  honour  a  handsome  §tonc  edifice,  the 
Lefebvre  Memorial  Hall.  "After  God",  says  his 
Acadian  biographer,  "he  loved  especially  the  (jongre- 
^ation  of  the  Holy  Cross  and  the  Acadian  people.  He 
IS  perhaps  the  purest  glory  of  the  former:  he  is  cer- 
tainly the  greatest  benefactor  of  the  latter. 

PoXRUCR,  Le  Phre  Lefeivre  H  VAcadie  (Montreal,  1898); 
SoRiN,  Circular  Ldters  (Notro  Dainc.  Ind.,  1880);  Album 
Souvenir  (Montreal,  1894). 

Arthub  Bakry  O'Neill. 

Lefdvre,  Family  op. — ^There  were  various  members 
of  the  Lefdvre  family  engage<l  in  tapestry  weaving  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  We  hear  of 
one  Lancelot  Lef  db  vre  as  one  of  the  masters  of  tapestry 
weaving  in  Brussels  and  in  Antwerp  in  1655;  and  in 
Italy,  in  1630,  we  read  of  a  certain  Pierre  le  Fdvre,  a 
master  tapestry  worker,  w^ho  was  a  native  of  Paris. 
It  is  not  known  whether  these  two  men  were  con- 
nected one  with  the  other,  and  of  their  personal  his- 
tory we  know  very  little.  Pierre  died  in  1669,  leaving 
a  son  Philip,  who  was  working  in  Florence  in  1677. 
In  1647,  Pierre  was  attracted  by  some  offers  made  him 
on  the  part  of  Henry  IV  of  France,  and  left  Florence 
for  Paris.  There  he  received  considerable  emolu- 
ments, was  styled  Tapissier  to  the  Iving,  and  provided 
with  a  workshop  in  the  Garden  of  the  Tuileries.  He 
is  known  to  have  gone  back  to  Florence  in  1650,  but  to 
have  returned  to  Paris  five  years  later;  he  probably 
lived  in  Florence  for  about  ten  years,  returnmg  there 
for  the  last  short  period  of  his  life.  His  son  Jean,  who 
came  with  him,  does  not  appear  to  have  ever  quitted 
France,  and  he  had  the  signal  honour,  on  the  estab- 
lislmient  of  the  Gobelin  factory,  of  directing  with  Jean 
Jans  the  high  warp  looms.  Jans  was  a  Flemish 
weaver,  but  had  come  to  Paris  to  work  in  the  royal 
buildings  in  1654,  and  he  had  charge  of  the  largest 
workshop  of  the  new  factory,  giving  employment  to 
sixty-seven  weavers,  exclusive  of  apprentices.  The 
second  workshop,  which  was  erected  in  the  Garden 
of  the  Tuileries,  was  the  one  conducted  bv  Jean  Le- 
fcvre,  and  he  appears  to  have  had  full  charge  of  it 
until  1770,  and  to  have  earned  for  the  Government  a 
very  large  sum  of  money.  The  fine  tapestry  entitled 
"Tlie  Toilet  of  a  Princess",  which  was  in  the  Spitzer 
collection,  was  the  work  of  Jean  Lefdvre,  and  three 
other  pieces,  representing  Bacchanalia,  bear  his  name 
on  their  selvedge.  One  of  his  most  wonderful  works 
was  entitled  "  The  Toilet  of  Flora  *\  a  sheet  of  tapestry 
now  preserved  at  the  Garde-meuble.  Cardinal  Maz- 
arin  possessed  one  of  his  hangings  entitled  "The  His- 
tory of  St.  Paul",  and  he  was  probably  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  two  series  entitled  "The  History 
of  Louis  XIV",  and  "The  History  of  Alexander". 

MuNTZ,  History  of  Tapestry  (London,  1885);  Thomson,  His- 
tory of  Tapestry  (London,  1906);  Lacordaire,  Notice  hv^to- 
rigue  sur  Us  Manufactures  impiriale^  de  Topiaseriet  des  Oobdins 
(Faris,  1853, 1873),  various  articles  in  La  Oazeite  des  Beaux  Arts. 

Gkorge  Chakles  Williamson. 
Lefdvre,  IIoNonF.    See  FAimi. 

Le  Fdvre,  Jacques,  a  French  theologian  and  con- 
troversialist, b.  at  Lisieux  towards  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century;  d.  1  July,  1716,  at  Paris.  He 
became  archdeacon  of  Ids  native  city  and  vicur-general 
of  the  Archbishopric  of  Bourges,  and  in  1674  received 


LEnVBS 


114 


LXIWItl 


the  doctorate  in  theology  from  the  Sorbonne,  His 
works  are  the  following:  "Entretiens  d'Eudoxe  et 
d*  Euchariste  sur  les  histoires  de  I'arianisme  et  des 
iconoclastes  du  P.  Maimbourg"  (Paris.  1674J.  The 
first  of  these  dialogues  was  condemned  and  burned. 
"  Motifs  invincibles  pour  convaincre  ceux  de  la  religion 
pr6tendue  r^form^**  (Paris,  1682),  in  which  Le  F^vre 
endeavours  to  show  that  there  is  fundamental  agree- 
ment between  Catholic  and  Protestant  teachings,  the 
differences  being  of  slight  importance  and  mostly 
verbal.  These  conciliatory  views  were  attacked  by 
Aniauld,  and,  in  answer.  Lie  F^vre  wrote  "R^plique  a 
M.  Amauld  pour  la  defense  du  livre  des  motifs  invin- 
cibles "  (1C85) .  Amongst  Le  Fdvre's  other  works  are: 
"  Conference  avec  un  ministre  touchant  les  causes  de  la 
separation  des  protestants"  (Paris,  1685);  "Instruc- 
tions pour  confirmer  les  nouveaux  convertis  dans  la 
foi  de  reglise"  (Paris,  1686);  "Recueil  de  tout  ce  qui 
s'est  fait  pour  et  centre  les  protestants  en  France" 
(Paris,  1686);  "Lettres  d'un  docteur  sur  ce  qui  se 
passe  dans  les  assemblies  de  la  facult6  de  th^ologie  de 
Paris'*  (Cologne,  1700).  These  letters  were  published 
anonymously  when  the  work  of  the  Jesuit  Father  Le- 
comte,  "  M^moires  sur  la  Chine  '*,  was  referred  to  the 
faculty  of  theology.  To  Father  Lallemant,  who  had 
defended  his  confrere  in  the  "Journal  historique.des 
assembl6es  tenuesenSorbonne",  Le  F6\Te  replied  in 
his  "Anti-journal  histori que  .  .  •";  and  he  also  pro- 
duced "  Animadversions  sur  Thistoire  ecciesiastique  du 
P.  No6l  Alexandre  "j  the  first  volume  of  which  was 
printed  at  Rouen  without  date  about  1680;  it  was 
seized  and  destroyed,  and  the  other  volumes  were  not 

published. 

HuRTER,  NoTnenctator;  NouvelU  biographie  gSn^rale,  XXX 
(Paris,  1858),  344. 

C.  A.  DUBRAY. 

Lefdvre  de  la  Boderie,  Gut,  French  Orientalist 
and  poet;  b.  near  Falaise  in  Normandy,  9  August, 
1541;  d.  in  1598  in  the  house  in  which  he  was 
bom.  At  an  early  age  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  Oriental  languages,  particularly  Hebrew  and 
Syriac.  After  much  travelling  in  different  provinces 
01  France  he  settled  down  to  iminterrupLed  study 
under  the  guidance  of  the  Orientalist  Guillaume  Pos- 
tel,  who  was  a  professor  in  the  Coll^ge  de  France. 
Guy  was  an  earnest  student  and  his  scientific  ardour 
was  intensified  by  the  religious  enthusiasm  of  his  char- 
acter. He  was  convinced  that  deep  study  and  full 
knowledge  were  the  surest  natural  mainstays  of  faith. 
He  felt,  too,  that  if  this  was  true  generally,  it  was  true 
in  a  very  special  way  in  regard  to  Biblical  work.  He 
became  an  Orientalist  therefore,  like  many  others,  be- 
cause he  was  an  apologist.  He  selected  Syriac  and 
Aramaic  generally  as  ms  spjecial  department  that  he 
might  come  nearer  to  the  mind  of  Cni*ist  by  the  study 
of  Christ's  vernacular.  His  first  published  work  of 
importance  was  a  Latin  version  of  tne  Syriac  New  Tes- 
tament published  in  1 560.  This  work  att racted  much 
attention,  and  in  1568  Guy  was  invited  by  Arias 
Montanus  to  assist  in  the  production  of  the  Antwerp 
Polyglot.  Guy  accepted  the  invitation  and  proceeded 
to  Antwerp  with  his  brother  Nicolas  who  was  also 
an  Orientalist. 

The  work  assigned  to  Guy  by  Arias  Montanus  was  the 
editing  of  the  Syriac  New  Testament.  He  examined  for 
this  purpose  a  new  S>Tiac  MS.  of  the  New  Testament 
whicn  Guillaume  Postel  had  brought  from  the  East. 
In  1572  appeared  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  Antwerp 
Polyglot  Bible  the  result  of  Lef^vre's  work,  entitled 
"  Novum  Testamentum  s>Tiace,  cum  versione  latina  ". 
This  work  included  the  collated  Syriac  text  and  Le- 
fdvre*s  previously  published  (and  now  amended)  Latin 
version.  Tliis  work  was  republished  by  I^  Jay  in 
1645  in  the  Paris  Polyglot.  In  1 572  Lcf^vre  publishe<l 
at  Antwerp  a  shortSyriac  text  which  he  had  found 
accidentally  thrown  together  with  the  Eastern  Bibli- 


cal MS.  above  mentioned.  This  text,  furnished  w'tD 
a  Latin  translation,  appeared  under  the  title  "D. 
Severi,  Alexandrini,  quondam  patriarchse,  de  Ritibus 
baptism!  et  sacrse  S3rnaxis  apud  Syros  Christianos  re- 
ceptis  liber".  Leflvre  teUs  us  (Epistola  dedicatoria, 
p.  4  f.)  that  he  published  this  text  to  illustrate  the 
agreement  of  the  ancient  Eastern  Church  with  the 
Western  in  the  important  matter  of  sacramental  ritual. 
To  make  the  little  text  useful  for  beginners  in  Syriac 
Leflvre  vocalized  the  text  and  added  at  the  foot  of  the 
page  a  vocalized  transliteration  in  Hebrew  characters. 
In  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Antwerp  Polyglot  appeared 
a  further  work  by  Leflvre,  "  Grammatica  chaldaica  et 
Dictionarium  Syro-Chaldaicum ",  In  the  same  year 
1572,  Lefdvre  published^  also  at  Antwerp,  a  short  intro- 
duction to  Syriac,  "Synacss  linguae  prima  elementa". 
This  work  has  no  scientific  value:  it  is  little  more  than 
an  account  of  the  names  of  the  consonants  and  vowel 
signs  with  a  few  easy  texts.  On  completing  his  worit 
in  Antwerp  in  1572  Lefdvre  returned  to  France  where 
he  soon  obtained  the  post  of  secretary  and  interpreter 
to  the  Duke  of  Alen^on.  In  this  position  he  was 
brought  into  close  contact  with  the  somewhat  radical 
thouglit  of  the  period.  His  associates  were  men  like 
Baif,  Dorat,  Ronsard,  Vauquelin  de  La  Fresnaye  etc. 
But  Lef6vre  remained,  in  spite  of  all,  a  strong  Catholic 
and  a  steady  enemy  of  Protestantism.  In  1584  he 
published  a  transliteration  in  Hebrew  characters  of  the 
Syriac  Nc^  Testament,  "Novum  J.  Chr.  Testamen- 
tum, syriace  Htteris  hebraicis.  cum  versione  latind 
interlincari ".  In  this  work  tne  Vulgate  and  Greek 
texts  were  printed  at  the  foot  of  the  page. 

But  Lef6vre  was  not  merely  a  philologist;  he  was 
also  a  poet.  His  poetic  flights,  nowever,  were  not 
high,  and  in  his  poetry,  as  in  his  Orientalia,  the  apolo- 
getic trend  of  his  thought  is  clear.  He  was,  as  his 
friend  Vauquelin  de  La  Fresnaye  said  of  him,  poHe 
tout  chresiien.  Among  his  more  important  poetic  per- 
formances are:  "  L'Encyclie  des  secrets  de  1  Etermt4 " 
(Antwerp,  1571),  an  apology  of  Christianity^;  "La 
Galliade,  ou  de  la  revolution  des  arts  et  sciences" 
(Paris,  1578;  2nd  ed.  1582),  which  celebrates  the  re- 
turn to  France  of  the  banished  sciences;  "H^mnes 
ecclesiastiques"  and  "Cantiques  spirituels  et  autres 
melanges  po^tiques'*  (Paris,  1578-1582),  many  of 
which  are  translations  from  the  Italian ;  "  L'Harmonie 
du  Monde  "  (Paris,  1582) ,  a  translation  of  a  Latin  work. 
Leflvre  published  in  his  last  years  an  immense  number 
of  translations  from  Latin,  Italian,  Spanish  etc.,  in 
verse  and  prose.  Most  of  these  translat i  ons  are  apolo- 
getic, and  few  of  them  are  of  any  value.  Lefevre 
shows  by  the  choice  of  his  life-work  that  his  thoughts 
were  ahead  of  his  time.  Of  his  life,  apart  from  his 
writings,  we  know  next  to  nothing.  It  nas  been  con- 
jectured from  some  words  of  his  in  a  poem  addressed 
to  Marguerite  de  France  that  he  was  an  ecclesiastic; 
and  it  has  been  said  that  Pope  Clement  VIII  wished  to 
make  him  a  cardinal.  But  Lefdvre  would  not  allow 
himself  to  be  led  away  in  his  last  days  from  his  books 
to  the  Roman  Court.  He  died  in  the  peaceful  family 
mansion  of  La  Boderie  in  1598.  An  epitaph  which  he 
wrote  for  himself  sums  up  his  life  work  simply  and 
well: 

Tandisque  j'ai  vescu,  j*ai  toujours  souhait^ 
Non  d'amasser  tr^sors,  mais  chercher  Verity. 

De  La  Fekriiire-Percy,  LcsLa  Boderie  (Paris,  1857);  NJtVB, 
Gu>t  Le  Ft-vre  de  Im  Boderie  (Brussels,  1862);  Nickron,  Mi- 
moires.  Vol.  XXXVIII,  303-314;  Goujet,  BikioUikque  Fn^n- 
^iee,  VI,  XIII. 

P.   BOYLAN. 

Lefdvre  d'Etaples,  Jacques,  frequently  called 
Faber  Stapulensis,  a  French  philosopher,  biSlical  and 
patristic  scholar,  b.  at  Etaples  in  Picardy,  about  1455; 
d.  at  Ndrac,  1536.  He  pursued  his  classical  studies  at 
the  University  of  Paris,  graduating  as  master  of  arta 
In  1492  he  made  a  journey  to  Italy.  His  protracted 
vi.<5its  to  Florence,  Rome,  and  Venice  were  devoted 


UBOA0IS8 


115 


UO^ 


Mt  ^. 


ehlefly  to  the  study  of  the  works  of  Aristotle.  On  his 
return  to  Paris  he  displayed  considerable  activity  as 
professor  in  the  college  of  Cardinal  Lemoine.  Amone 
his  disciples  were  the  Protestant  reformer  Farel  and 
the  later  bishops  Bri9onnet,  Roussel,  D'Arande,  Pon- 
cher.  In  1507  he  was  invited  to  the  monastery  of 
St.  Germain-de&-Pr63  near  Paris,  by  the  abbot  Bri- 
^onnet.  Here  he  resided  till  1520,  assiduously  study- 
ing the  Bible.  The  first-fruit  of  his  labours  was  his 
•^salterium  Quint uplex,  gallicum,  romanum,  hebrai- 
cum,  vetus,  conciliatum"  (Paris,  1509).  In  1517  and 
1519  he  published  at  Paris  two  critical  essays  on  Mary 
Magdalen,  "De  Maria  Magdalena"  and  "De  tribus  et 
unica  Magdalena  disceptatio  secunda  ".  In  these  writ- 
ings he  endeavoured  to  prove  that  Mary,  sister  of 
Lasarus,  Mary  Magdalen,  and  the  penitent  w^oman 
who  anointed  Christ's  feet  (Luke,  vii,  37)  were  three 
distinct  persons.  This  opinion,  new  at  the  time,  gave 
rise  to  a  violent  controversy;  refutations  by  No6l 
B^er,  syndic  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  John 
Fisheri  the  martyr-Bishop  of  Rochester,  appeared; 
they  were  followed  by  the  condemnation  by  the  Sor- 
bonne  in  1521.  The  preceding  year,  Lcfdvre  had  left 
Paris  for  Meaux,  where  his  friend,  Bri^onnet,  now 
bishop  of  this  city,  was  to  appoint  him  his  vicar-gen- 
eral in  1523.  He  continued  his  bibilical  studies,  pub- 
lishing the  "  0)mmentarii  initiatorii  in  f^uatuor  Evan- 
gelia'  (Paris,  1522);  a  French  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  (Paris,  1523),  and  of  the  Psalms  (Paris, 
1525);  an  explanation  of  the  Sunday  Epistles  and 
Gospels  (Meaux,  1525).  As  these  works  contained 
some  erroneous  views  and  revealed  the  author's  s>Tn- 
pathies  for  the  doctrines  of  the  so-called  reformers, 
they  again  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  Sor- 
bonne.  His  commentary  on  the  Gospels  was  con- 
denmed  in  1523,  and  only  the  timely  interposition  of 
the  king  shielded  him  temporarily  from  f  urtner  moles- 
tation. But  during  the  captivity  of  Francis  I,  which 
followed  the  battle  of  Pa  via  (February,  1525),  further 
proceedings  were  instituted  against  Ijcfdvre  for  his 
novel  doctrines  and  he  sought  safety  in  flight.  After 
the  king's  release,  he  was  recalled  from  exile  and 
appointed  librarian  in  the  royal  castle  of  Blois 
(1526).  Here  he  worked  at  his  translation  cf  the 
Old  Testament,  which  appeared  at  Antwerp  in  1528. 
In  1531,  he  accompanieii  Marguerite,  Queen  of  Na- 
varre, to  N^rac,  where  he  spent  the  last  years  of  his 
life.  Leffevre  was  a  strong  advocate  of  ecclesiatical 
reforms  but  did  not  deem  a  separation  from  the  Cath- 
olic Church,  of  which  he  always  remained  a  member, 
necessary  for  the  attainment  of  this  end.  Among  his 
non-biblical  writings  the  following  may  be  mentioned: 
"Theologia  vivificans,  Dionysii  coelestis  hierar- 
chia,  Ignatii  XV  epistolse,  Polycarpi  epistoiro" 
(Paris,  1498);  "Opera  complura  St^  Hilarii  episcopi" 
(Paris,  1510);  "Liber  trium  virorum  Hermai,  Ugue- 
tini  et  Roberti  triumque  spiritualium  virginum  Hilde- 
gardis,  Elizabethae  et  Mechtildis"  (Paris,  1513). 

Grap«  Jacobus  Faber  Stanulenvia  in  Zeitach.  fQr  Hist.  Theol. 
(1852),  3-88. 166-237:  Barnaud,  J.  Lefivre  d'Etaples  (Cahora, 
iOOO);  Pboosdiq,  /.  Lefcvre  cTEtaples,  voorgangcr  van  Calvijn, 
(Leydfen,  1906);  Bairo,  The  Rise  of  the  HuguenotSt  I  (Nemr 
York,  1907),  67-98. 

N.  A.  Weber. 


A  pious  bequest  differs  likewise  from  a  '*  donatio  xnor> 
tis  causa",  which  is  a  contract^  whereas  the  bequest  is 
made  by  a  unilateral  act.  It  is  distinguished,  nnally, 
from  a  foundation,  which  can  be  made  during  life  as 
well  as  by  provision  in  a  will,  and  which  always  im- 
poses on  the  favoured  establishment  obligationSi 
either  perpetual  or  of  fairly  long  duration.  A  legacy 
may  be  but  is  not  necessarily  a  foundation. 

n.  Right  op  the  Church  to  Receive  Legacies. — 
Natural  law,  no  less  than  Divine,  ordains  that  the  will 
of  the  faithful,  bequeathing  part  of  their  wealth  to  the 
Church  should  be  respected  (Instruction  of  Propa^ 
ganda,  1807,  in  "Collectanea  S.C.  de  P.  F.",  I,  Rome, 
1907,  n.  689) .  The  Church  was  established  by  God  as 
a  necessary  and  perfect  society,  since  its  object  is  to 
lead  men  to  their  last  end,  consequently,  it  can  uphold 
its  right  to  acquire  all  the  means  necessary  to  realize 
the  object  for  which  God  instituted  it.  Being  an  ex« 
temal  and  visible  society,  it  must  be  able  to  dispose  of 
temporal  goods  for  the  needs  of  Divine  service,  the 
support  of  its  ministers,  the  propagation  of  the  Faith, 
the  care  of  the  poor,  etc.  Therefore,  it  may  acciuire 
these  goods  by  all  legitimate  means,  and  ainong  these 
means  are  included  pious  bequests  or  legacies.  Nat- 
ural right  demands  that  the  goods  of  parents  dying 
intestate  should  pass  to  their  children,  and  in  many 
cases  it  is  a  duty  for  parents  to  leave  part  of  their  patr- 
rimony  to  their  children;  canon  law  recognizes  and ap» 
proves  of  this  duty.  But  there  is  no  serious  reason  for 
depriving  parents  of  the  right  to  dispose  by  will,  for  a 
pious  purpose,  of  those  goods  that  are  at  their  free  dis- 
posal as  long  as  they  are  alive.  While  profitable  to 
the  Church,  pious  bequests  are  not  less  so  to  the  do- 
nors "  for  the  salvation  of  their  souls",  in  the  words  of 
the  usual  testamentary  formula  of  the  Middle  Ages 
(Foumier,  "Lcs  officialit^s  au  moyen  ^ge'*,  Paris, 
1880,  p.  87).  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XX\^, 
Deer,  de  Purgatorio)  declares  that  pious  founda- 
tions are  a  means  of  relieving  the  sufferings  of 
purgatory.  The  First  Provincial  Council  of  Halifax 
applies  to  pious  bequests  those  words  of  the  Gospel: 
"Make  unto  you  friends  of  the  Mammon  of  iniquity; 
that  when  you  shall  fail,  they  may  receive  you  into 
everlasting  dwellings*'  (Luke  xvi,  9;  "Collectio  La- 
censis'*.  III,  Freiburg,  1875,  746).  Pious  bequests 
are  a  means  by  which  generous  souls  can  continue, 
after  their  decease,  their  jgood  works,  and  provide  for 
the  future  of  the  institutions  that  they  have  founded 
or  enriched.  Those  who  have  omitted  during  life  to 
fulfill  the  precept  of  charity  can  find  therein  a  way  of 
repairing  their  negligence  ("First  Provincial  Council 
of  Westminster",  1852,  XXV,  II;  "Collectio  La- 
censis".  III,  942).  Those,  finally,  who,  owing  to  daily 
cares  and  anxieties,  found  it  impossible  to  be  oountiful 
during  life,  may  yet,  if  only  at  the  hour  of  death,  co- 
operate in  the  relief  of  the  unfortunate,  and  assure 
their  neighbour  the  spiritual  advantages  of  Divine 


service. 


Legacies  (Lat.  Legato). — ^I.  Definition. — In  its 
most  restricted  sense,  by  a  pious  legacy  or  bequest 
Qeaatum  pium)  is  understood,  the  assignmg,  by  a  last 
will,  of  a  particular  thing  forming  j^art  of  an  estate,  to 
a  church  or  an  ecclesiastical  institution.  It  differs 
from  a  testament  in  favour  of  pious  works  {testament 
turn  ad  pias  catisas)  in  this,  that  in  a  testament  the 
favoured  institution  is  made  the  true  heir  of  the  testa- 
tor, continuing  as  it  were  his  person.  Moreover,  a 
testament  deals  with  the  whole  property,  the  patri- 
mony of  the  testator.  It  results  from  this  that  a 
rns  legacy  or  l)cqu^  need  not  necessarily  be  made 
the  body  of  a  will;  it  can  be  inserted  in  a  co<licil. 


III.  History. — ^The  charity  of  the  first  Cliristians 
led  them  to  despoil  themselves  while  alive  of  their  su- 
perfluous goods;  consequently,  mention  is  rarely  made 
of  pious  legacies  before  the  time  of  Constantino. 
After  that  emperor's  conversion  they  became  more 
prominent,  especially  after  the  law  of  the  year  321 
allowed  churches  to  receive  all  kinds  of  l^acies,  and 
granted  them  the  "factio  testamenti  passiva'*,  i.  e. 
the  right  of  being  made  heirs  (Theodosian  Code,  XVI, 
II,  lit.  iv).  Authors  are  not  agreed  on  the  import  of  a 
law  of  Theodosius  dated  June,  390,  forbidding  deacon- 
esses, who  were  ^-idows  and  had  children,  to  dispose  of 
their  goods  in  favour  of  churches  or  the  poor  (ibid. 
XX vii).  Many  authors  consider  it  an  important  re- 
striction of  the  right  recognized  by  Constantine  as  be- 
longing to  the  churches  (Foumeret,  "I^es  biens  d'E- 
elise  apres  les  4dits  de  pacification;  Ressources  dont 
I'Eglise  diaposa  pour  rcconstruire  son  patrimoine". 
Paris,  1902,  p.  84).    Others  see  in  it  only  a  means  of 


LEOA0I18 


116 


LxaAoixa 


protecting,  against  the  abuse  of  maternal  power,  the 
rights  of  the  children  to  the  succession  of  their  par- 
ents (ICnecht,  *'  System  des  Justinianischen  Kirchen- 
vermogensrechtes",  Stuttgart,  1905,  75-76).  In  any 
case,  Emperor  Marcian  restored  the  right  to  the 
churches  in  485  (Justinian  Code,  I,  II,  xiii).  Among 
the  Teutonic  peoples,  testamentaiy  liberalities  prop- 
erly so-called  seem  to  have  been  imknown,  but  the^ 
bad  an  arrangement  resembling  the  "  donatio  mortis 
causa"  of  the  Romans,  L  e.,  the  "cessiones  post 
obitum  '^  donations  which  the  donor  boimd  himself 
not  to  retract,  but  which  took  effect  only  on  his  death. 
In  virtue  of  the  Teutonic  principle  of  the  personal- 
ity of  law,  the  inhabitants  whom  the  Teutons  found 
settled  in  the  old  provinces  of  the  empire  they  con- 

Suered  could  continue  to  follow  the  Roman  law. 
a  this  wa>r  the  power  to  bequeath  to  pious  establish- 
ments was  introduced  among  the  Visigoths,  Burgundi- 
ans,  and  Bavarians,  while  in  Gaul  pious  bequests  were 
tolerated  in  fact  before  being  authorized  bylaw  (Loen- 
ing,  "Geschichte  d€#  deutschen  Kirchenrechts",  II, 
Strasburg,  1878, 655).  Several  synods  of  the  Frankish 
period  even  declare  the  validity  of  testaments, 
especially  those  of  ecclesiastics,  in  which  the  formalities 
prescribed  by  the  civil  law  had  not  been  observed  (Bon- 
droit, "  De  capacitate  possidendi  EcclesisB  setate  mero- 
vingica",  Louvain,  1900,  87  and  105).  (See  Dona- 
tions.) 

The  bishops  retained  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  right  of 
supervising  the  execution  of  pious  bequests,  which  had 
been  recognized  by  the  Justinian  Code  (I,  III,  xlv). 
This  right  was  even  extended,  and  in  several  regions 
the  ecclesiastical  tribunal  judged  of  the  validity  of 
wills  and  supervised  their  execution  (Fournier,  op.  cit., 
87;  Friedberp,  "De  finium  inter  Ecclesiam  et  Civit- 
atem  regundorum  judicio  quid  medii  ffivi  doctores 
etatuerint".  Leipzig,  1861,  124).  It  was  in  virtue  of 
this  right  that  Alexander  III  determined  the  condi- 
tions for  the  validity  of  wills  in  non-ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters (c.  X.,  "De  testamentis  et  ultimis  voluntatibus", 
X,  III,  xxvi.  See  Wemz,  "Jus  Decretalium",  III, 
Rome,  1901,  309).  This  same  pope  ordained,  follow- 
ing the  example  of  St.  Gregory,  that  the  ecclesiastical 
judge  was  to  decide  the  validity  of  pious  bequests 
not  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Roman 
law  but  with  the  decrees  of  canon  law  (cc.  iv,  xi, "  De 
testamentis  et  ultimis  voluntatibus",  X,  III,  xxvi). 
The  practice  of  pious  bequests  was  so  common  in 
the  Middle  Ages  that  it  seemed  improbable  that  any 
person  would  have  dispensed  himself  from  it.  This 
was  the  origin  of  the  right  of  bishops  in  certain 
places,  particularly  in  France  and  Southern  Italy,  to 
dispose,  in  favour  of  pious  objects,  of  part  of  the  goods 
of  an  intestate  deceased  person  (Fournier,  op.  cit., 
89).  The  generosity  of  the  faithful  built  and  en- 
dowed those  wonders  of  art,  the  monasteries  and 
churches,  as  well  as  the  many  charitable  institutions 
that  were  the  glory  of  the  medieval  Church,  and  that 
the  official  charity  of  the  State  has  succeeded  neither 
in  rivalling  nor  m  replacing.  It  was  not  until  the 
close  of  the  medieval  period  that  the  civil  power  be- 
gan to  restrict  the  acquisition  of  property  by  religious 
mortmain.  In  modem  times,  even  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries, wills  were  withdrawn  from  the  judicial  authority 
of  the  Church,  and  the  civil  power  finally  deprived  the 
latter  of  the  right  to  adjudicate  even  on  testamentary 
questions  relating  to  pious  bequests. 

IV.  Actual  Canonical  Legislation.— The  Church 
reserves  to  itself,  even  now,  an  exclusive  authority 
in  the  matter  of  pious  wHIb  and  legacies;  it  has  its 
own  legislation,  the  Roman  law  modified  on  several 
points  by  canon  law,  and  its  ecclesiastical  tribunals  to 
examine  the  questions  connected  therewith.  (1)  Be- 
sides persons  who  by  natural  law  or  in  virtue  of  the 
enactments  of  Roman  law  are  incapable  of  making  a 
will,  the  Church  refuses  to  accept- tlie  pious  bequests 
of  usurers  (c.  ii,  De  usuris,  in  \'I®,  V,  5),  of  heretics 


and  their  accomplices  (c  xiii,  De  luereticis,  X,  V»  7), 
and  of  those  who  are  euilty  of  attacks  on  the  cardinals 
(c.  v,  De  pcBnis,in  VI ,  V,  9).  In  practice,  the  Church 
refuses  at  the  present  time,  to  accept  the  bequests  of 
sinners  who  die  impenitent,  and  especially  of  usurers, 
in  order  not  to  be  enriched  by  their  ill-gotten  goods 
(Santi,  "Prselectiones  juris  canonici".  III,  Rome, 
1898,  224-25).  Religious  who  make  solemn  vows  of 
profession  are  permitted  to  make  wills  only  during  the 
two  months  preceding  their  solemn  profession;  other 
religious  must  conform  to  the  rules  of  their  congrega- 
tion. The  rules  {norma)  drawn  up  by  the  Con^regsr 
tion  of  Bishops  and  Regulars  for  the  approbation  of 
institutes  bound  by  sim^e  vows  (Rome,  1901)  forbid 
the  making  of  wills  after  religious  profession  without 
the  permission  of  the  Holy  ^c  or,  m  case  of  iirgency, 
without  the  authorization  of  the  bishop  or  the  supe- 
riors (Art.  120  and  122.  See  Vermeersch,  "Dc  reli- 
giosis",  I,  Bruges,  1902,  148). 

(2)  It  is  not  alone  bequests  made  to  churches  that 
enjoy  the  prerogatives  established  by  canon  law,  but 
also  those  made  to  monasteries,  reli^ous  houses,  and 
all  institutions,  whether  purely  religious  or  of  a  charit- 
able character  subject  to  the  direction  of  religious 
authorities.  However,  certain  religious  orders,  either 
because  they  practise  poverty  in  a  stricter  manner,  or 
in  virtue  of  their  constitution,  have  only  a  restricted 
right  to  acquire  property  by  legacy  or  will  (Santi,  op. 
cit.,  Ill,  238-9;  Wemz,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  322). 

(3)  The  heirs  of  the  testator  are  obliged  to  exe- 
cute pious  bequests,  even  if  they  have  not  been 
made  in  accordance  with  the  formaUties  prescribed 
under  penalty  of  nullity  by  the  civil  law,  pro- 
vided canon  law  considers  them  to  have  been  made 
validly.  The  State  has  an  incontestable  right  to 
prescribe  the  formalities  requisite  for  the  valid- 
ity of  wills  in  all  matters  falling  within  its  juris- 
diction, but  pious  legacies  and  bequests  for  pious 
purposes  are  under  the  exclusive  control  of  the 
Church.  This  principle  was  clearly  enunciated  by 
Alexander  III  in  the  decretal  "Relatum"  (c.  xi,  De 
testamentis  et  ultimis  voluntatibus,  X,  III,  xxvi). 
It  is  true  this  decretal  was  addressed  to  the  judges  of 
Velletri,  a  town  in  the  Papal  States,  but  its  force  can^ 
not  be  restricted  solely  to  the  territory  imder  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  pope,  and  the  insertion  of  the  decre- 
tal in  the  "Corpus  Juris*',  or  general  law  of  the 
Church ,  deprives  the  obj  ection  of  aU  force.  It  has  been 
urged  that  a  contrary  custom  had  abrogated  this  ca- 
nonical enactment,  and  that,  moreover,  only  natural 
equity  and  the  favour  shown  by  the  Church  to  pious 
bequests  have  caused  pious  legacies  made  with  a  neg- 
lect of  solemn  formalities  to  be  considered  vaUd.  llie 
constant  practice  of  the  Holy  See  proves  that  this  ar- 
gument is  not  conclusive.  On  10  January,  1901,  the 
Sacred  Penitentiaria  declared  that,  as  a  general  rule, 
it  considers  valid  and  binding  in  conscience  pious  be- 
quests which  the  civil  law  declares  void  on  account  of 
the  omission  of  extrinsic  formalities  prescribed  by  the 
civil  law.  Nevertheless,  in  such  a  case  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal authorities  are  generally  disposed  to  come  to 
terms  with  the  heirs  C' Acta  Sanctae  Sedis'*,  XXXIV, 
Rome,  1902,  384).  (See,  in  the  same  sense,  the  de- 
crees of  the  S.  C.  C.  "in  cans.  Arimin.'*,  13  September. 
1854;  "in  cans.  Hortana",  29  Februarj^  1855;  and 
reply  of  the  Penitentiaria,  23  June,  1844.J 

According  to  the  common  opinion  of  theologians, 
for  a  pious  Dequest  to  be  obligatory  in  conscience  it 
suffices  that  the  wish  of  the  testator  be  well  e»stab- 
lished,  e.  g.  by  a  holograph  or  a  \^Titing  merely  signed 
by  the  testator,  by  a  verbal  declaration  made  to  the 
heir  himself  or  before  two  witnesses  (a  single  testi- 
mony other  than  that  of  the  heir  would  be  insuffi- 
cient). If  it  be  urged  that  the  testator  has  revoked 
his  bequest,  the  fact  must  be  proved.  The  Congrega- 
tion ot  the  Council  decided,  16  March,  1900,  ui&t  a 
writing  containing  erasures,  which  is  only  a  draft  of  a 


LEOA0IX8 


117 


LEGAOIES 


will,  IB  not  a  sufficient  proof  that  the  testator  wished 
to  revoke  a  previous  will  (''Acta  Sanctse  Sedis'^ 
XXXII,  Rome.  1900-01,  202).  The  contrary  opin- 
ion is  now  held  onlv  bv  a  few  authorities  (Car- 
riftre,  "De  contractious  ,  n.  686,  Louvain,  1846; 
D'Annibale,  '^Summula  theologize  moralis'*,  IT,  n 
339,  Rome,  1892;  Boudinhon  in  "Le  Canonistc  con- 
temporain",  XXIV,  Paris,  1901,  734).  By  Roman 
law,  if  a  testator  knowingly  bequeathes  a  tlung  not  in 
his  possession,  it  was  equivalent  to  ordering  the  heir 
to  purchase  the  thing  for  the  legatee  or,  if  that  were 
impossible,  to  give  him  its  value.  A  decree  of 
Gregory  I  seems  to  overrule  this  decision  (c.  v.  De 
^  testamentis  et  ultimis  voluntatibus,  X,  III,  xxvi). 
But  it  ma^  be  replied  that  this  decree,  while  admitting 
the  principle  of  the  Roman  law,  intended  only  to  de- 
clare that  natural  equity  will  often  dispense  the  heir 
from  carrying  out  the  wish  of  the  testator  in  the  mat- 
ter (Santi,  op.  cit..  Ill,  242-245).  This  provision  of 
Roman  law  oeing  not  generally  known  in  our  day,  it 
is  lawful  to  presume  that  the  testator  made  a  mi^ 
take,  and  ih&t  the  bequest  is  therefore  void. 

(4)  The  Church  approved  the  provision  of  the 
Roman  law  prohibiting;  the  testator  from  disposing  of 
the  *'  pars  legitima"  which  the  laws  ordered  to  be  pre- 
serveu  to  the  heirs,  this  being  conformable  to  natural 
law.  Although  in  our  modem  codes  the  ''pars  legit- 
ima"  is  greater  than  it  was  in  the  Roman  law,  it  may 
be  presimied  that  the  Church  recognizes  the  ruling  of 
our  codes  in  the  matter.  All  bequests  exceeding  the 
amount  which  the  civil  law  allows  to  be  dispot^  of 
freely  by  the  testatoi^  may  therefore  be  reduced.  The 
provisions  of  the  Corpus  Jiuris  (cc.  xiv,  xv,  xx,  De 
testamentis  et  ultimis  voluntatibus,  X,  III,  xxvi) 
granting  the  bishop  the  "portio  canonica" — i.  e.  the 
quarter  of  all  pious  bequests  not  affected  by  the  testa- 
tor to  a  defimte  purpose — are  no  longer  in  force. 

(5)  The  bishop  can  compel  the  heirs  or  the  executors 
to  fulfil  the  last  wishes  of  the  deceased  in  the  matter  of 
pious  bequests  (c.  ii,  v,  xix,  "De  testamentis  et  ul- 
timis voluntatibus",  X,  III,  xxvi;  Council  of  Trent, 
Sess.  xxii,  **  De  reformations  " ;  c.  viii) .  He  is  also  the 
judge  of  the  first  instance  in  testamentary  cases  sub- 
mitted to  ecclesiastical  tribunals.  In  virtue  of  this  he 
has  the  right  to  interpret  the  terms  of  the  will,  but  any 
change  properly  so  called  of  the  wishes  of  the  deceased 
is  reserved,  we  think,  to  the  Holy  See,  which  can  make 
Buch  change  only  for  grave  reasons  (c.  ii,  "De  rcli- 
giosis  domibus".  III,  11,  in  "Clem.")*  The  Council  of 
Tirent  (Sess.  XXII,  De  reformatione,  c.  vi)  recognizes 
in  bishops  only  the  right  of  executing  a  change  m  the 
wil^made  by  the  pope;  this,  however,  does  not  prevent 
a  bishop  from  applying  to  another  object,  a  legacy  left 
for  a  definite  purpose  which  can  no  longer  be  executed 
in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  the  testator.  Propa- 
ganda grants  vicars  Apostolic  the  right  of  making 
changes  in  the  will  of  a  testator,  in  countries  where 
communication  with  Rome  is  very  difficult,  and  in 
eases  where  it  is  impossible  to  carry  out  the  testator's 
wish;  but  it  obliges  them  in  each  case  to  obtain  a  sul>- 
sequent  approval  of  their  act  by  the  Holy  See  (In- 
struction of  1807,  in  "Collectanea".  I,  n.  689).  The 
Constitution  "Romanos  pontifices"  of  8  May,  1881. 
km  down  certain  rules  concerning  the  interpretation 
of  the  terms  of  a  last  will  ("  Acta  et  decreta  concilii 
plenarii  Baltimorensis  III ",  Baltimore,  1886,  46, 225- 

227). 

V.  Wills  OF  Ecclesiastics. — ^While  canon  law  has 
never  forbidden  ecclesiastics  to  dispose  freely  of  their 
own  private  property,  it  has  always  maintained  the 
principle  that  the  superfluous  revenues  derive<l  from 
church  property  ought  to  be  devoted  to  religious  or 
charitable  purposes.  If  they  have  not  been  so  dis- 
posed of  during  his  lifetime  by  the  person  who  was  in 
receipt  of  them,  after  his  death  they  should  be  distrib- 
uted either  as  canonical  legislation  enacts  or  as  a 
pious  bequest.    During  the  first  centuries  of  the 


Church,  when  bishops  alone  had  the  admimstration 
of  ecclesiastical  property,  measures  were  taken  by  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities  to  prevent  its  dissipation  by 
the  heirs  of  the  bishops.  Justinian  forbade  bishops  to 
dispose  of  the  goods  acquired  by  them  after  their  pro- 
motion to  the  episcopacy,  excepting,  of  course,  their 
own  patrimonial  estate  (Novelhe,  CXaXI,  c.  xiii) .  The 
Third  Council  of  Carthage  (397)  had  already  legislated 
in  a  similar  sense  with  regard  to  ecclesiastics  (Bruns, 
"Canones  apostolonmi  et  conciHorum  veterum  so- 
lecti'*,  I,  Beriin,  1839,  134).  Moreover,  the  Theo- 
dosian  Code  assigned  to  the  Church  the  goods  of 
clerics  dying  intestate,  and  not  leaving  chfldren  or 
relatives  (V,  III,  lib.  i).  These  regulations  were  con- 
firmed by  the  popes  and  the  councils  (see  Decretum 
Gratiani,  II,  c.  xii,  q.  5,  "An liceat dericis tcstamenta 
conficere'*).  But,  as  early  as  the  sixth  century,  we 
learn  from  the  decrees  of  councils  that  abuses  had  al- 
ready crept  in:  ecclesiastics  and  even  bishops  were  at- 
tempting to  seize  ecclesiastical  property  on  the  death 
of  their  confreres  (Decret.  Gratian,  loc.  cit.,  q.  2); 
later,  it  was  the  turn  of  the  laity;  emperors,  prmces, 
lawyers,  and  patrons  claimed  a  right  to  the  spoils 
(Jus  spoilt  or  exuviarum). 

To  remedy  this  stato  of  affairs,  the  reforming  popes 
of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  forced  tlie  em- 
perors to  renounce  explicitly  their  right  to  the  spoils, 
and  the  Third  Council  of  Lateran  (1179)  as  well  as 
Alexander  III  made  certain  enactments  regarding  the 
estates  of  ecclesiastics;  the  latter  were  free  to  dispose 
of  their  own  patrimony,  the  "peculium  patnmo- 
niale",  as  canonists  call  it,  i.  e.,  all  ^oods  which  eccle- 
siastics acquired  by  inheritance,  will,  or  any  kind  of 
contract  soever,  but  independently  oi  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal character.  They  might  dispose  likewise  of  the 
"peculium  industriale"  or  "quasi  patrimoniale",  L  e. 
the  property  acquired  by  their  own  personal  activity. 
To  tnis  was  likened  the  "peculium  parsimoniale",  or 
that  portion  of  the  revenues  coming  from  ecclesiasti- 
cal benefices,  which  the  beneficiaiy  might  reasonably 
have  spent  on  himself,  but  which  he  economized 
(Santi,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  210).  But  he  was  forbidden  to 
dispose  of  the  "  peculium  l^eneficiale",  the  superfluous 
revenue  of  the  benefices  ho  held,  and  which  he  did  not 
distribute  in  good  works  during  his  life.  In  principle 
this  was  to  pass  to  the  church  in  which  the  ecclesiastic 
held  the  benefice.  However,  Alexander  III  does  not 
blame  the  custom,  where  it  exists,  of  bequeathing 
some  part  of  this  "peculium"  to  the  poor,  or  to  eccle- 
siastical institutions,  or  even,  as  a  reward  for  services 
rendered,  to  persons,  w^hether  relatives  or  not,  who 
have  been  in  the  service  of  tlie  deceased  cleric  (cc.  vii, 
viii,  ix,  *xii,  De  testamentis  et  ultimis  voluntatibus, 
X,  III,  xxvi). 

It  does  not  follow,  of  course,  that  the  law  was  ob* 
served;  the  "spolium"  remained  customary  among 
ecclesiastics,  especially  abbots  of  monasteries,  chap- 
ters, and  bishops  fc.  xl,  "De  electione"  in  VP,  I,  6;  c. 
ix,  "De  officio  ordinarii"  in  VP,  I,  16;  c.  i,  "De  ex- 
cessibus  prselatorum  ",  in  Clem.  V,  vi).  The  popes 
themselves  saw  in  it  a  means  of  increasing  their  rev- 
enues. As  early  as  the  fourteenth  century,  they  re- 
served to  the  Holy  See  that  portion  of  the  property  of 
ecclesiastics  which  the  latter  could  not  dispose  of 
freely,  with  certain  exceptions.  These  fiscal  meas- 
ures reached  their  highest  limits?  during  the  Western 
Schism.  They  met  with  vigorous  opposition  in 
France,  where  the  kings  rcfus'^d  to  admit  the  right  of 
the  pope,  and  also  in  the  councils  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  Nevertheless  the  popes  maintained  their 
claims  for  a  long  time  (see  tnc  Constitution  of  Pius 
IV  "Grave  nobis",  26  May,  1500  in  "Bullarum  am- 
plissima  collectio",  ed.  Cocquelines,  IV,  ii,  18;  that  of 
Pius  V  **Roinani  pontificis  providentia",  30  August, 
1587,  Ibidem,  394;  and  of  Grcgor\'  XIII,  "Officii",  21 
January,  1.577,  Ibidem,  IV,  iii,  330).  On  19  June. 
1817,  Pius  VIII  declared  that  Propaganda  was  entitled 


LEGAL 


118 


LEQATE 


to  all  revenue  of  the  "spolium"  (Collectanea,  I,  n. 
724).  On  the  other  hand,  even  when  the  legislation 
of  Alexander  III  was  introduced,  it  was  not  always  en- 
forced in  the  same  way;  in  some  places  the  ecclesias- 
tics could  dispose  of  their  ''peculium  beneficiale^'  in 
favour  of  pious  purposes;  in  others  they  were  granted 
full  testamentary  liocrty,  provided  they  made  a  leg- 
acy in  favour  of  pious  objects,  or  else  paid  a  certam 
sum  to  the  bishop  who  allowed  them  to  make  the  will. 
These  practices,  together  with  the  difficulty  of  dis- 
tinguishing, in  the  mheritance  of  an  ecclesiastic,  the 
amount  of  the  "patrimonium  beneficiale*',  eventually 
left  ecclesiastics  testamentary  freedom. 

However,  the  canonical  legislation  is  yet  substan- 
tially unchanged;  ecclesiastics  are  even  now  obliged  to 
bequeath  for  pious  purposes  the  superfluous  part  of 
the  revenues  from  their  Dcnefices  which  they  have  not 
distributed  during  their  life.  This  principle,  recalled 
by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Scss.  XXV,  De  reformatione, 
c.  i),  is  reasserted  in  most  provincial  councils  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  It  is  conmionly  admitted  that  it 
imposes  no  obligation  of  justice,  but  merely  one  based 
on  ecclesiasticsd  precept  (Santi,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  211; 
Wernz,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  210-11).  This  obligation  does 
not  exist  m  countries  where  there  are  no  benefices,  or 
where  benefices  strictly  so  called  are  notoriously  in- 
sufficient for  the  support  of  the  clergy  who  enjoy 
them.  Under  these  circumstances,  pious  bequests 
are  earnestly  recommended  to  ecclesiastics,  but  they 
are  never  ol)ligator>'  in  conscience.  For  the  special 
rules  regulating  the  wills  of  cardinals,  see  Santi,  op. 
cit.,  Ill,  227-34.  The  obligations  imposed  on  eccle- 
siastics, needless  to  say,  are  binding  on  their  heirs  in 
case  they  die  intestate.  Sometimes  this  matter  is  de- 
cided by  local  custom.  The  Provincial  Councils  of 
Vienna  (185S)  and  of  Prague  (1860)  decree  that  the 
estate  of  an  ecclesiastic  deceased  intestate  is  to  be  di- 
vided into  three  parts:  one  for  the  Church,  one  for  the 
poor,  and  the  third  for  the  relatives  of  the  deceased. 
If  the  deceased  was  not  possessed  of  any  ecclesiastical 
benefices,  only  one-third  of  the  estate  is  subject  to  the 
above  rule,  and  that  is  to  be  distributed  among  the 
needy,  but  should  the  heirs  of  the  deceased  belong  to 
that  class,  said  portion  may  be  given  to  them. 

See  the  commentaries  of  the  canonists  on  the  Third  Book  of 
the  Decretals,  titles  xxv,  xxvi,  and  xxvii;  ScnMALZORCEBER, 
Jua  canonicum  universunit  Hit  ii  (Rome,  1844),  462-607; 
Rbiffenstuel,  Jua  canonicum  univeraunij  IV  (Paris,  1867), 
362-567;  Hauti,  Prcilectionf a  juris  amonici.lll  (Rome,  1897), 
209-247;  Wernz, /ua  dccrefa/tum,  III  (Rome,  1901),  199-218, 
306-327;  SagmOluer,  Lehrbuch  dea  kathoHachen  Kirchenrechta 
(Freiburg.  1904), 764, 787-92:  Thomassincs,  Vetua  et  nova  erclc- 
aia diaciplina, pt.  Ill,  bk.  II  (Paris,  1691),  cc.  xxxviii-lvii;  Wao- 
ker.  Diaaertatio  de  teatamento  ad  piaa  cauaaa  (Leipzig,  1735); 
Thomas,  Daa  kanoniacfieTeatament  (Leipzig,  1897);  Wolff  von 
Olanvell,  Die  letzvoHlige  Vcrfuqunoen  nach  gemeinim  Kirch- 
lichen  Rechte  (Paderbom,  1900);  Fknelon,  Lea  fondationa  et  lea 
Habliaaementa  eccliaiaatiguea  (Paris,  1902);  Schmidt,  Theaaurua 
juria  eccUaiaatici,  IV  (Heidelberg,  1727),  382^40:  Sentis,  De 
jure  tealamentorum  a  clericia  aeaJtlaribua  ordinandorum  (Bonn, 
1862);  EiSENBERO.  Daa  Spolienrecht  am  Nachlass  der  Qcisi- 
lichen  (Marburg,  1886);  Hollweck,  Daa  Testament  der  Geiat- 
Hchen  nach  kirchlichen  und  hurgerlichen  Recht  (Mainz,  1901); 
Sam  ARAN,  La  jurisprudence  poniificale  en  matih^  de  droit  de 
dtpouille  (jua  apolii)  dana  la  seconde  moitiS  du  X7T'«  sxi-cle  in 
AulangeH  d*arch^ologie  et  d'histoire  (EcoU  fran^iae  de  Rome) 
XXn,  (Paris,  1902),  141  sq. 

A.  Van  Hove. 
Legal,  Emile  Joseph.    See  St.  Albert,  Diocese 

OP. 

Legate  (Lat.  legarCj  to  Bend)  in  its  broad  significa- 
tion means  that  person  who  is  sent  by  another  for 
some  representative  office.  In  the  ecclesiastical  sense 
it  means  one  whom  the  pope  sends  to  sovereigns  or 
governments  or  only  to  the  members  of  the  episcopate 
and  faithful  of  a  country,  as  his  representative,  to 
treat  of  church  matters  or  even  on  a  mission  of  honour. 
Hence  the  legate  differs  from  the  delegate,  taking  this 
term  in  a  strictlv  juridical  sense,  since  the  delegate  is 
one  to  whom  the  pope  entrusts  an  affair  or  many 
affairs  to  be  treated  through  delegated  jurisdiction 


and  often  in  questions  of  Utigatiou,  whereas  the  legate 
goes  with  ordinary  jurisdiction  over  a  whole  country 
or  nation.  The  canon  law  treats  of  delegates  of  the 
Holy  Sec,  delegaii  Sedis  Aposiolicoc  (Decret.,  lib.  I, 
tit.  xxix),  and  in  this  sense  even  bishops,  in  certain 
cases  determined  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  V, 
cap.  i,  De  Ref.,  etc.),  may  act  as  delegates  of  the  Holy 
See.  Nevertheless,  as  will  be  seen  later,  according  to 
the  present  discipline  of  the  Church,  a  delegate,  inas- 
mucn  as  he  is  sent  to  represent  the  Holy  See  in  some 
particular  country,  really  fills  the  office  of  a  legate. 
Since  the  jurisdiction  of  a  legate  is  ordinaiy,  he  does 
not  cease  to  be  legate  even  at  the  death  of  the  pope 
who  appointed  him^nd  even  if  he  arrived  at  hb  post 
after  tlie  death  of  that  pope. 

The  pope,  by  virtue  of  his  primacy  of  jurisdiction, 
has  the  right  to  send  legates  to  provide  for  the  unity 
of  Faith  and  for  ecclesiastical  disciplincj  and  to  choose 
them  at  will.  Though  self-evident,  this  authority  of 
the  pope  has  been  contested  from  a  very  early  period. 
Gregory  VII  (1073-S5)  reproved  the  claims  of  those 
who  wished  to  have  only  Ilomans  as  legates  and  not 
representatives  from  other  countries.  Paschal  II 
(1099-1118),  in  a  letter  to  Henry  II  of  England,  ^ev- 
ously  deplores  the  vexations  inflicted  on  the  pontifical 
legate,  and  maintains  the  right  of  the  pope  to  send 
such  representatives.  Jolm  XXII  (131(V-34)  declares 
unreasonable  and  contrary  to  the  authority  of  the 
pope  the  refusal  to  admit  a  papal  legate  without  the 
approval  of  the  sovereign.  And  there  are  not  wanting 
writers  who  denied,  some  wholly,  others  in  part,  such 
a  right  on  the  part  of  the  pope,  e.-  g.  Marc*  Antonio  de 
Dorainis,  Richer,  Febronius,  Eybel,  and  others.  This 
erroneous  claim  was  upheld  in  the  eighteenth  century 
by  four  archbishops  of  Germany,  those  of  Mainz, 
Trier,  Cologne,  and  Salzburg,  to  whom  Pius  VI  made 
the  famous  reply  of  14  November,  1789,  in  which  we 
read  that  one  of  the  rights  of  primacy  of  St.  Peter  is 
that  "By  virtue  of  his  Apostolic  prerogative,  while 
providing  for  the  care  of  all  the  lambs  and  the  sheep 
confided  to  him,  the  Roman  Pontiff  discharges  his 
Apostolic  duty  also  by  delegating  ecclesiastics  for  a 
time  or  permanently  as  may  seem  best,  to  go  into 
distant  places  where  he  cannot  go  and  to  take  bis 
place  and  exercise  such  jurisdiction  as  he  himself,  if 
present,  would  exercise".  Worthy  of  attention  also 
are  the  diplomatical  note  of  Cardinal  Consalvi  to  the 
Spanish  Government  (9  January,  1802),  which  treats 
01  the  character  of  the  A|>o8tolic  nuncio,  and  the  letter 
of  Cardinal  Jacoljini  (15  April,  1885)  to  the  same  Gov- 
ernment. The  Vatican  Cfouncil,  in  stating  the  true 
doctrine  concerning  the  primacy  of  the  pope  (Sess.  1 V, 
cap.  iii),  condemned  implicitly  the  said  errors.  The 
Constitution  "  Apostolicie  Sedis  ",  moreover,  contains 
(no.  5)  an  excommunication  reserved  speciaii  modo  to 
the  pope  against  those  who  harm,  expel,  or  unlawfully 
detain  legates  or  nuncios. 

Historical  Development  and  Division. — The 
popes  have  made  ase  of  this  right  from  the  earhest 
ages  of  the  Church.  The  first  example  was  the  send- 
ing by  Sylvester  I  of  legates  to  the  Council  of  Nicxa 
f 325) ;  afterwards  those  sent  to  the  Council  of  Sardica 
(345) ;  and  those  sent  by  Zosimus  I  to  Africa  (418),  to 
settle  certain  ecclesiastical  matters.  In  the  fourth 
century  we  find  the  first  example  of  a  papal  represen- 
tative sent  in  an  official  character^  i.  e.  tne  apocnsiarius 
(q.  v.),  or  responsolis,  Accordmg  to  Ilincmar  of 
Reims,  the  apocrisiarius  dates  back  to  the  time  of 
Constantine,  but  according  to  De  Marca  (De  Ord. 
Palatii,  cap.  xiii),  the  office  dates  from  the  Coimcil  of 
Colchis  (451).  From  the  letters  of  Gregory  I,  himself 
an  apocrisiarius,  and  from  a  letter  of  Leo  I  to  Julianus 
of  Cos,  whom  he  ai)pointed  apocrisiarius;  can  be  de- 
duced the  powers  of  this  officer  and  his  duties,  i.e.  to 
look  after  the  observance  of  ecclesiastical  discipline, 
to  resist  the  spread  of  heresy,  and  to  defend  the  rights 
of  the  pope.    For  three  centuries  such  a  papal  inter- 


LSaATE                                lid  LEGATE 

mediaiy  existed  at  the  Byzantine  Court.  During  the  The  lastiegate  a  latere  was  also  sent  to  France  m  1856. 
IconocLsist  troubles  of  the  eighth  century  this  office  in  the  person  of  Cardinal  Patrizi,  to  baptize  the  Prince 
disappeared,  but  was  temporarily  revived  in  the  West  Impenal.  The  " Diario  di  Roma"  of  that  year  gives 
when  the  empire  was  restored  by  Leo  III  (795-816).  all  the  particulars  of  the  proclamation  of  the  appoint- 
Finally,  however^  the  necessity  and  freauency  of  ex-  ment  in  a  consistory  of  27  August,  and  of  the  cere- 
traorainarylegations,the  weakening  and  later  division  monies  which  accompanied  the  departure  of  the 
of  the  empire  among  the  successors  of  Charlemagne.  legate.  The  same  Cardinal  Patrizi  on  that  occasion 
rendered  useless  and  almost  impossible  the  presence  ot  was  deputed  to  present  the  Golden  Rose  to  thl^  Em- 
Apostolic  legates  at  the  Frankish  court.  press  Eug6iiie.  The  powers  of  the  legate  a  latere  are 
LegoH  Nati, — Almost  contemporaneously  with  the  of  the  most  ample  character,  both  in  matters  of  litiga- 
apocrisiarius,  the  popes  established  in  the  fourth  cen-  tion  and  favours.  He  journeys  with  an  imposing 
tury  another  class  of  legates,  of  a  purely  ecclesiastical  suite;  immediately  after  leaving  Rome  the  cross  is 
character,  known  eventually  as  feoo/i  wail,  or  perpetual  borne  before  him,  and  in  his  presence  not  even  pa- 
legates.  The^  may  be  regarded!^  as  originating^  from  triarchs  have  the  right  that  thou*  cross  should  precede 
the  "Apostohc  vicars  *' established  by  Popes  Dama-  them;  bishops  cannot  give  episcopal  blessings  without 
sus  I  (366-84)  and  Siricius  (384-99).  To  provide  his  consent.  According  to  the  present  usage,  how- 
more  expeditiously  for  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  to  ever,  a  cardinal  sent  on  a  mission  does  not  always  bear 
facilitate  the  dispatch  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  the  the  title  of  legate  a  latere,  as  in  the  case  of  a  cardinal 
aforesaid  popes  deemed  it  opportune  to  attach  to  cer-  sent  by  the  pope  to  represent  him  at  some  religious 
tain  sees  (and  first  to  ThSssaionica)  the  title  and  duties  gathcnug,  like  the  Eucharistic  Congresses  of  West- 
of  Apostohc  vicar.  The  same  title  and  duties  were  minster,  Cologne,  and  Montreal.  The  Decretals  and 
conferred  by  later  popes  on  other  sees.  The  prelates  the  Council  of  Trent  clearly  defined  the  powers  of 
who  successively  occupied  those  sees  came  to  be  known  legates  missi  and  legates  a  latere.  Since  the  lat- 
aslegatinati,  inasmuch  as  by  their  election  to  the  said  tcr  were  sent  only  for  very  important  matters,  the 
sees  they  became  ipso  facto  Apostolic  legates,  that  custom  of  sending  legati  missi  became  more  frequent, 
office  bemg  attached  to  the  see  itself.  In  the  course  Nuncios. — In  the  thirteenth  century  legati  missi 
of  time  legati  nati  became  very  numerous;  in  France  came  to  be  known  as  nuncios,  by  which  name  they  are 
those  of  Aries  (545),  Sens  (876),  Lyons  (1097);  in  yet  called.  After  the  Council  of  Trent  nuncios  were 
Spain  those  of  Tarragona  (517),  Seville  (520),  Toledo  established  permanently  in  various  countries.  Besides 

!1088);   in  Germany  those  of  Trier  (969),  Salzburg  an  ecclesiastical  mission,  they  have  also  a  diplomatic 

973);  in  Italy  that  of  Pisa;  in  England  that  of  Can-  character,  having  been  from  their  origin  accredited  tp 

terbury,  etc.    In  the  beginning  the  faculties  of  legati  courts  or  governments.   Their  jurisdiction  is  ordinary. 

nati  were  very  ample^  namely,  the  right  of  visiting  the  but  it  is  customary  at  present  to  grant  them  special 

dioceses  of  the  province,  of  examining  the  status  of  faculties,  according  to  the  needs  of  the  country  to 

candidates  for  bishoprics,  of  consecrating  the  metro-  which  they  are  sent;  such  faculties  are  conveyed  in  a 

politan,  etc.;    eventually^  however,  these  faculties  special  Brief .    They  are -also  given  credential  letters 

were  much  lessened,  and  m  the  eleventh  century  the  to  be  presented  to  the  ruler  of  the  country,  and  par- 

legati  nati  practically  ceased  to  exist.    In  our  day  the  ticular  instructions   in   writing.    The   nuncios  are 

sees  to  which  was  annexed  such  privilege  have  no  usually  titular  archbishops;  occasionally,  however, 

longer  any  extraordinary  jurisdiction,  though  some  bishopsorarchbishopsof  residential  sees  are  appointed 

enjoy  an  honorary  distmction;    the  Archbishop  of  to  the  office.    Some  nuncios  are  of  the  first  and  some 

SauDurg,  for  example,  may  wear  the  cardinalatial  of  the  second  class,  the  only  difference  between  them 

purple,  even  in  Rome.  being  that,  at  the  end  of  their  mission,  those  of  the 

Legati  Missi. — ^The  ecclesiastical  conditions  of  the  first  class  are  usually  promoted  to  the  cardinalate. 

tenth  and  deventh  centuries  were  responsible  for  the  Vienna,  Madrid,  and  Lisbon  have  nuncios  of  the  first 

cessation  of  the  office  of  legati  nati.    Ecclesiastical  life  cLiss.    Paris  was  also  of  this  class,  but,  on  account  of 

was  then  in  many  ways  and  places  ill-regulated^  and  eo-  the  rupture  of  diplomatic  relations  between  France 

clesiastical  discipline  very  htx;  the  legati  nati  proved  and  the  Vatican  which  took  place  in  1907,  it  has 

incapable  of  remedying  these  evils,  either  because  some-  at  present  no  represent  ati  ve  of  tlie  Holy  See.  Bavaria, 

times  their  own  conduct  was  not  exemplary  or  because  Belgium,  and  Brazil  have  nuncios  of  the  second  class. 

they  were  negligent  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties.  There  is  no  specified  period  for  the  duration  of  the  term 

The  Holy  See  was  obliged  to  combat  these  abuses  by  of  a  nuncio  s  office;  it  depends  on  circumstances  and 

choosing  and  sending  into  various  countries  persons  the  will  of  the  pope. 

who  could  be  depended  upon  to  secure  the  desired  Internuncios. — According  to  the  present  disciplinCi 

results  (Luxardo,   "  Das  p&pstliche  Vordekretalen-  there  are  also  internuncios,  who  in  the  order  of  pon^ 

Gesandschaftsrecht"^  1878).    Thus  came  into  exist-  tifical  diplomacy  follow  immediatelv  after  nuncios. 

ence  the  legati  missi,  or  special  envoys.    Later  all  These  also  are  frequently  titular  archbishops,  always 

those  whom  the  Holy  See  sent  on  a  special  mission  have  a  diplomatic  character,  and  are  sent  to  govem- 

were  called  legati  missi,  even  those  who  were  to  preside  ments  of  less  importance.    They  are  equivalent  to 

at  some  solemn  ceremony,  e.  g.  a  royal  baptism  or  mar-  ministers  of  the  second  class,  have  the  same  faculties 

ria^:tho9eAppointed  to  meet  anemperor  or  a  sovereign  as  nuncios,  and  are  furnished  with  similar  credentials 

visiting  Rome,  etc.    This  title  was  also  given  to  those  and  instructions.    At  present  there  are  internuncios 

who  were  chosen  to  rule  some  provinces  of  the  Pontifi-  in  Holland,  Argentina,  and  Chile.    In  Holland,  how- 

cal  States,  e.  g.  the  legate  of  Bologna,  of  Urbino,  etc.  ever,  because  ofthe  exclusion  of  the  Holy  See  from  the 

Legati  a  Latere. — ^About  the  same  time  another  form  Peace  Conference  of  1899,  the  internuncio,  Monsignor 

of  legation  was  established,  which  became  and  is  the  Tamassi,  was  recalled,  and  now  there  is  only  a  papal 

highest,  i.  e.  the  legaH  a  latere.    The  legate  a  latere  is  charge  d'affaires.    The  internuncio  of  Holland  is  also 

always  a  cardinal,  and  this  name  arises  from  the  fact  accredited  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg, 

that  a  cardinal,  being  a  member  of  the  senate  of  the  Apostolic  Delegates  and  Envoys  Extraordinary. — 

pope,  Is  considered  as  an  intimate,  one  attached  to  the  Actually  there  are  also  papal  representatives  known 

very  aide  of  the  Roman  Pontiff.    Other  authorities  as  Apostolic  delegates  and  envoys  extraordinary, 

denye  this  title  from  the  custom  of  receiving  the  in-  Apostolic  delegates,   strictly  spcaldnK,   are  alwavs 

signia  and  the  office  in  the  presence,  or  at  the  side,  of  the  ecclesiastical  in  character,  and  are  usually  sent  by  the 

pope.   Such  legates  are  sent  on  missions  of  the  greatest  Congregation  of  Propaganda  to  missionary  countries. 

importapce,  e.  g.  the  legate  a  latere  sent  to  France  by  However,  the  pontifical  secretariate  of  state  is  accus- 

Pius  Yll,  in  the  person  of  Cardinal  Giovanni  Battista  tomed  to  send  Apostolic  delegates  purely  ecclasiastical 

Oipcwa^  to  execute  the  famous  Concordat  of  1801.  in  character  to  countries  wMch  hiAve  not  diplomatio 


LEQAtt  120  LEGATE 

relations  with  the  Holy  See;  at  the  same  time  when  Cardinal  Biartinelli  30  September,  1902,  and  took  po»- 
sending  an  Apostolic  delegate  to  a  country  which  has  session  on  21  November,  1002.  He  was  bom  20 
diplomatic  relations  with  the  Holy  See  there  is  added  September,  1842,  at  Pescocostanxo  in  the  Abnixii, 
the  title  of  envoy  extraordinary,  by  which  title  he  is  Italy,  and  entered  the  Franciscan  Order  2  September, 
accredited  to  the  Government.  Such  are  the  Apo&-  1860.  On  the  completion  of  his  studies  he  was  sent 
tolic  delegates  and  envoys  extraordinary  to  South  as  missionary  to  the  United  States  to  the  mother- 
Ameriea,  e.  g.  to  Colombia,  Peru,  Bohvia,  Ecua-  house  of  the  Franciscans  at  Alleghany,  New  York,  and 
dor,  Costa  Rica,  etc.  Other  Apostolic  delegates,  was  ordained  priest  by  Bishop  Timon  of  Buffalo,  4 
purely  ecclesiastical  in  character,  are  those  sent  to  the  January,  1866.  After  filling  several  important  posi- 
United  States  of  America,  Canada,  Mexico,  Philip-  tions,  he  was  sent,  November.  1871,  to  Newfoundland, 
pines,  Cuba,  and  Porto  Rico.  The  Apostolic  delega-.  as  rectorofthecathedral,  ana  secretary  and  chancellor 
tion  to  the  United  States  deserves  special  mention,  to  the  bishop.  He  left  Harbor  Grace  in  1882,  and  in 
First,  on  account  of  its  importance  it  is  practically  1883  returned  to  Italy.  In  1889  he  was  chosen  procur- 
equivalent  to  a  nimciatiure  of  the  first  class,  as  may  be  ator-^neral  of  his  order,  and  in  July,  1892,  was  precon- 
imerred  from  the  Encyclical  of  6  January,  1895 'ad-  ized  titular  Bishop  of  Lacedonia.  A  few  years  later,  he 
dre^ed  by  Leo  XIII  to  the  archbishops  and  bishops  was  promoted  to  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Acerenza  and 
of  the  United  States,  which  declares:  ''  When  tne  Matera  in  Southern  Italy.  Monsignor  Falconio  was 
Council  of  Baltimore  had  concluded  its  labours,  the  appointed  first  permanent  Apostolic  Delegate  to  Can- 
duty  still  remaincxl  of  putting,  so  to  speak^  a  proper  ada,  3  August,  1899,  and  on  30  September,  1902,  was 
and  becoming  crown  upon  the  work.  This  we  per-  nominated  Apostolic  Delegate  to  the  United  States, 
ceived  could  scarcely  be  done  in  a  more  fitting  manner  The  Holy  See  is  also  accustomed,  according  to  cir- 
than  through  the  due  establishment  by  the  Apostolic  cumstances,  to  send  so-called  Apostolic  vicars,  who 
See  of  an  American  legation.  Accordingly,  as  you  are  may  be  either  bishops  or  prelates  or  simply  members 
well  aware,  we  have  done  this.  By  this  action,  as  we  of  religious  commimities.  ^  Such  representatives  have 
have  elsewhere  intimated,  we  wished^  first  of  all,  to  alwajrs  an  ecclesiastical  mission  only,  and  are  sent  to 
certify  that  in  our  judgment  and  affection  America  examine  the  status  of  a  diocese  or  seminaries,  or 
occupied  the  same  place  and  rights  as  other  states,  some  religious  body. 

however  powerful  and  imperial."    Moreover,  from  the        To  nunciatures  and  Apostolic  delegations  is  at- 

beginning  all  the  incumbents  of  this  office  have  been  tached  a  staff  composed  of  an  auditor  and  a  secretary, 

elevated  to  the  cardinalate.    Second,  the  Apostolic  They  are  nominated  bv  the  Holy  See,  and  are  either 

delegation  to  the  United  States  has  the  power  to  decide  of  the  first  or  second  class.    Sometimes  the  Holy  See 

appeals  by  definitive  sentence;  in  other  words  it  is  a  sends  also  to  nunciatures  a  counsellor  and  an  attach^, 

tribunal  of  third  instance,  and  from  its  decision  there  In  the  absence  of  nuncio  or  delegate  the  auditor  takes 

is  regularly  no  appeal  to  the  Holy  See.    This  power,  his  place  with  the  title  of  charge  d'affaires, 
although  grantea  from  the  beginning,  has  been  re-        Among  the  envoys  of  the  Holy  See  should  be  men- 

cently  confirmed  by  a  declaration  of  Sbe  Consistorial  tioned  also  the  Apostolic  ablegate  and  the  bearer  of 

Congregation  to  an  inouiry  of  the  Apostolic  delegate  the  Golden  Rose.     The  Apostolic  able^te  is  geneally 

at  Washington,  as  to  whether  the  ori^nal  papal  grant  a  Roman  prelate  or  private  chamberlain,  sent  to  bear 

of  authority  was  to  be  continued,  in  view  of  tne  trans-  the  cardinal's  biretta  to  a  new  cardinal  who  is  absent 

fer  of  the  United  States  from  the  juris(iction  of  from  the  residence  of  the  pope.    He  is  accompanied  by 

Propaganda  to  the  common  law  of  the  Church  (Sa-  a  member  of  the  Noble  Guard,  who  carries  the  auc- 

pienti  Consiho,  4  November,  1908).     The  said  reply,  chetto,  and  by  a  private  secretary.    The  ceremony  of 

given  8  May,  1909,  establishes  once  for  all  that  the  conferring  the  birette  is  performed  either  by  the  head 

parties  are  free  to  appeal  from  a  sentence  of  a  dioce-  of  the  State,  if  in  diplomatic  relation  with  the  Holy 

san  or  metropolitan  curia  directly  to  Rome  or  to  the  See,  or  by  the  highest  ecclesiastical  dignitary  in  the 

delegation,  but,  an  appeal  once  made  to  the  delega-  coimtry.    The  bearer  of  the  Golden  Rose  is  appointed 

tion,  the  sentence  pronounced  by  the  delegate  is  to  be  to  carry  the  Golden  Rose  (blessed  by  the  pope  on 

considered  definitive.  Lffitare  Sunday  of  each  year)  to  sovereigns  or  tc  dis- 

The  Delegation  of  the  United  States  was  established  tinguished  individuals  or  to  some  famous  church.    In 

by  Leo  XIII,  24  January,  1893.    The  first  delegate  1895  this  office  was  estabhshed  permanently, 
was  Monsignor  Francesco  Satolli,  who  in  1892  nad        Right  op  Precedence  op  the  Reprebbntattvbs  of 

been  selected  to  represent  the  Holy  See  in  the  United  the  Holy  See. — ^The  question  of  precedence  among 

States  at  the  World's  Fair  in  Chicago,  as  papal  com-  the   various  diplomatic  representatives   to   forei^ 

missioner.    HewasbomatMarsciano,Arcn(iioceseof  countries  was  treated  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  m 

Perugia,  Italy,  in  1839;   d.  at  Rome,  8  Jan.,  1910.  1815,  and  it  was  decided  that  it  always  appertains  to 

Acknowledged  as  one  of  the  leading  theologians  of  the  the  representatives  of  the  Holy  See.     Hence  nuncios 

day,  he  was  appointed  by  Leo  XIII  a  professor  in  the  are  by  right  and  in  fact  deans  of  the  diplomatic  body, 

most  famous  theological  schools  of  Rome,  the  Propa-  Some  objections  were  afterwards  made,  especially  by 

ganda  college  and  Roman  seminarv.    lie  was  later  England  and  Sweden,  as  to  the  precedence  of  Apos- 

made  president  of  the  Academy  of  Noble  Ecclesiastics  tolic  delegates  and  internuncios,  these  not  being  men- 

in  Rome  (1886),  and  titular  Arciibishop  of  Lepanto  tioned  in  the  Congress  of  Vienna;  however,  it  ended 

ri888);   promoted  to  the  cardinalate  29  November,  in  theur  practical  recognition  as  included  in  the 

1895,  he  received  the  biretta  in  February,  1896,  at  decision  ot  said  congress. 

the  cathedral  of  Baltimore,  from  Cardinal  Gibbons.        Sources.— D«Trf.  Grat.,  dist.  xxi.  c.  xl  xxxvi,  C.  n,  q.  vl; 

Cardinal  Satolli  was  succeeded  27  Aug.,  1896,  by  Compl.,lJA,i.xxn,deoff,leoaH.;n,l,t,xm\mieB]aopecreL 

Monsignor   Sebastian    MartineUL    an    Augustinian.  ^^^■^.,^i^"'iikivr4'^^ii^T,fNi, 

Bom  m  August,  1848,  he  entered  the  Augustiman  /j«pon»u>aJJtf«fropoZitano«3foj7Mn/..  ^rr^Co(<m..rf5a/i»frM. 

Order  in  1863  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1874.     He  JQ*/J<^  ^789);  Pius  IX.  Const.  Apott.  Sed.,  no.  6;  Ada  83., 

occupied  many  prominent  positions  in  lus  order  cmd  ^Xuthw8\:-Commentato«  on  the  Corpus  Juru  at  thk  title; 

was  elected  pnor  general  for  the  second  term  m  1895.  Zbch.  Hier,  BccUs.,  XXV,  De  Leg.  et  Num.:  Phillips.  KtrM«n. 

While  in  Nice,  he  was  appointed  Apostolic  Delegate  r*^*  Ij,*^-  ^^*  °"  ^  Torrb,  De  auctoritate  .  .  ,legaton$ma 

to  the  United  States  and  created  Archbishop,  of  '^^l'^i^Sul^'^u^''S'^'*^^aS^Z\  ^Jl 

Ephesus  m  August,   1896.     He  was  made    cardinal  n,  cvii  sqq.;  and  db  Luisb,  De  jwepybl.  aeu  diptom.  Bed, 

15  April,  1901,  and  received  the  biretta  9  May  of  that  Ca^^^l  Audibio,  Idm  ator.  e  rap  dMalkplam.  Bedes.;  Wbrni, 

year   in  the  cathedral  of  Baltimore   from  Cardinal  ir.S:^^h'^^l^±TSLt^:^i^id\fr.^^. 

Gibbons.    The   present   Apostolic  delegate  (1909),  rA«  Law  c//A«  CAurdT (St,  Louis,  1906).  s. v. 

Monsignor  Diomede  Falconio,  a  Franciscan,  succeeded  B.  Cerrbtti. 


LEOATZO 


121 


LEGENDS 


Logfttio  Sleulft.    See  Sicily. 

Legend,  Thb  Golden.    See  Jacopo  be  Voraginb. 

Le^jendfl,  Litbrart  or  Profane. — ^In  the  period 
of  natioiml  ormns  history  and  legend  are  inextricably 
mingled.  In  uie  course  of  oral  transmission  historic 
narrative  neccfisaril}^  becomes  more  or  less  legendary. 
Details  are  emphasised  or  exaggerated,  actions  as- 
cribed to  different  motives,  facts  are  forgotten  or 
suppressed,  chronological  and  geographical  data  con- 
f usfxi,  and  traits  and  motifs  from  older  tales  arc  added. 
Gradually  this*  tradition,  passing  from  mouth  to 
mouth,  takes  on  a  more  defimte  shape  and  a  more  dis- 
tinct outline,  and  finally  it  passes  mto  literature  and 
receives  a  permanent  and  fixed  form.  We  are  seldom 
able  to  give  a  clear  and  connected  account  of  the  ori- 
gin and  development  of  a  saga  or  legend.  In  most 
cases  the  literary  sources  on  which  we  depend  for  our 
knowledge  are  of  comparativelv  late  date,  and  even 
the  earliest  of  them  present  the  legend  in  an  advanced 
phase  of  evolution.  Of  preceding  phases  we  can  form 
an  opinion  <m]y  through  a  critical  analysis  and  com- 
parison of  the  soiurces.  In  this  process  of  reconstruc- 
tion much  must  be  left  to  conjecture;  uncertainty 
necessarily  prevails,  and  difference  of  opinion  is  un- 
avoidable. 

Germanic  Heroic  Saga, — A  brief  notice  of  this  vast 
subject  must  suffice.  The  Euhemeristic  method  of 
interpretation,  which  attempts  to  explain  the  sagas  on 
a  purely  historical  basis,  is  now  generally  discredited. 
A  blending  of  mythic  and  historic  elements  is  now 
conceded  te  be  a  necessary  process  in  all  saga-forma- 
tion. But  the  view,  imtil  recently  generally  accepted, 
which  interprets  the  mythical  traits  as  due  to  the 
personification  and  83rmbolization  of  natural  phe- 
nomena, has  b^n  criticized  on  good  grounds.  No 
doubt,  nature  symbolism  plays  a  large  r61e  in  myth- 
ology proper,  but  it  seems  to  have  little,  if  anything, 
to  oo  with  the  development  of  the  primitive  hero-tales. 
llieir  roots  seem  to  lie  rather  in  fairy-lore.  Thus  in  the 
greatest  and  oldest  of  Germam'c  heroic  sagas,  that  of 
Siegfried,  the  nucleus  is  apparently  a  primitive  Low 
Gennan  tale  of  greed  and  murder  and  cruel  ven- 
seanee,  amplified  oy  motifs  like  those  of  the  dragon- 
fi^t  and  the  Sleeping  Beauty.  Siegfried,  who  owns  a 
treasure,  is  murdered  by  his  covetous  brother-in-law 
HiH^n.  Grimhild  (Kriemhild),  Siegfried's  widow, 
marries  another  king,  who  actuated  by  greed,  murders 
TTimrpn.  Grimhild  in  revenge  murders  her  second  hus- 
band. This  seems  te  be  the  bare  outline  of  the  old 
tale  which  was  combined  with  a  new  historic  sasa, 
traceable  to  the  destruction  of  the  Buigundiuns  by 
the  Huns  in  437,  and  the  sudden  death  of  the  great 
Hunnish  l^uler,  Attila,  after  his  marriage  to  a  Ger- 
man princess,  Bdico  (i.  e.  Hilde),  in  452.  Now,  when 
Uie  two  sagas  were  fused,  Ildico  was  conceived  as  a 
Buivundian  princess  who  slew  Attila  in  revenge  for 
Uie  destruction  of  her  kin.  Sweeping  changes  in  the  ac- 
tion and  the  motives  of  the  storv  were  a  necessary  con- 
seouence  of  this  fusion.  The  Norse  version  ('*  £dda '', 
"  Volsungasaga")  and  the  German  version  of  the 
"Nibelungeniied"  both  tell  of  Grimhild 's  revenge. 
But  in  the  former  she  kills  her  husband,  the  slayer  of 
her  brother,  as  in  the  older  form  of  the  legend;  m  the 
latter  version  she  kills  her  brothers,  in  revenue  for  the 
murder  of  her  husband  (see  Germany,  sub-title  Liter-- 
atwre,  III). 

While  Siegfried  is  a  mjrthical  figure,  Dietrich  of 
Bern  is  historic.  He  is  the  famous  East-Gothic  king, 
Theodoric,  who  ruled  over  Italy  (493-526).  Dietrich 
and  Bern  are  the  German  forms  of  Theodoric  and 
Verona.  The  heroic  figure  of  the  king  became  the 
centre  of  the  great  mass  of  Gothic  tradition,  and  a 
wbc^  cycle  of  sagas  gathered  about  his  name.  Man^ 
loetd  legends  were  <uawn  into  this  cycle.  The  basic 
historic  facts  were  completely  distorted  in  process  of 
legendaiy  fonnation>  and  when  the  great  Dietrich 


saga  appeared  in  literature,  in  the  Old  Hi^h  German 
"  flildebrandslied  '\  in  numerous  Middle  High  Gerxhan 
epics  (see  Germany,  sub-title  Literature,  III),  and 
the  "Thidrekssaga"  (which,  though  written  in  Norse 
about  1250,  is  based  on  Low  German  tradition),  little 
that  is  historical  remained. 

Myth  and  history  are  also  combined  in  the  Beowulf 
sa^a,  which  forms  the  subject  of  the  oldest  English 
epic.  Beowulf,  a  prince  of  the  Gcdtas,  comes  to  ndp 
tne  Danish  king,  Hrothgar,  against  Grendel,  a  fiendian 
monster,  who  nad  ravaged  the  Danish  realm.  In 
two  mighty  combats  he  slays  Grendel  and  Grendel's 
mother.  Ketuming,  he  becomes  king  of  his  people, 
over  whom  he  rules  happily  for  fifty  years.  Once 
more  the  aged  hero  goes  forth,  to  battle  with  a  fire- 
breathing  oragon  that  devastates  the  land.  He  kills 
the  monster,  but  dies  of  injuries  sustained  in  the  fight. 
It  is  generally  believed  that  the  Beowulf  saga  is  of 
Scandinavian  origin.  But  whether  the  enic  arose  in 
Scandinavia  or  in  England  is  a  question  that  has  not 

been  decided. 

On  the  subject  in  general  consult  Symons,  Germaniache 
HeUUriMge  in  Paui*,  Grundriss  der  GerffUiniachen  PhUologie  (2ml 


ingen  saga 

una  die  Entwickdung  der  Nxhelungcneage  (Hallc,  1907).  The 
presentation  of  the  Kenesis  of  the  legend  given  above  is  based  on 
this  work.  For  the  Dietrich  saga  see  particularly  JiBicxax« 
Deutsche  Heldentagen  (Strasburg,  1898).  For  the  Beowulz 
saga  see  Stmons,  op.  cit.,  644-651,  where  bibliography  is  given. 

Leaends  of  Charlemagne, — It  was  inevitable  that 
Charlemagne  should  become  the  hero  of  romance  and 
legend.  His  actual  exploits  were  magnified  and  ad- 
ditional ones  were  invented  or  transferred  te  him  from 
other  popular  heroes,  especially  Frankish  kings  of  the 
same  name,  like  Charles  Martel  and  Charles  the  Bald. 
The  formation  of  legend  relating  to  Charlemagne  be- 
gan even  during  the  lifetime  of  tne  great  ruler.  In  the 
book  of  the  so-called  Monachus  ^ngallensis,  which 
was  written  after  883  on  the  basis  of  oral  tradition,  he 
appears  alreadv  as  a  legendary  figure.  Among  the 
stories  there  related  are  those  of  the  Iron  Charles  en- 
tering Pa  via,  where  the  Langobardian  King  Deside- 
rius,  and  Otker  the  Frank  await  his  coming,  and  the 
latter  swoons  at  the  sight  of  the  mailed  emperor;  or 
of  the  giant  Eishere  who,  in  battle  against  tne  Slavs, 
spears  seven  to  nine  heathens  like  frogs  on  the  point  of 
his  lance;  of  the  ruthless  slaughter  of  all  those  captur^ 
Saxons  whose  stature  exceeded  the  measure  of  the 
emperor's  sword.  Unlike  the  heroic  sa^as,  the 
Charlemagne  legends  from  their  very  inception  show 
an  ecclesiastical  tinge.  In  this  connexion  we  may  re* 
call  the  canonization  of  Charles  by  the  antipope 
Paschal  III  in  1165,  which,  of  course,  never  possessed 
validity. 

When  the  Franks  lost  their  Germanic  character 
their  hero  became  identified  with  the  French  nation- 
ality. Stories  connectetl  with  his  name  were  more  or 
less  current  in  various  parts  of  Germany.  It  was  said 
that  he  did  not  die,  but  resided  in  the  Odenljerg, 
Hessia,  or  the  Untersl)erg  (near  Salzburg),  whence  he 
would  reappear  to  bring  back  the  empire  to  glory. 
His  justice  also  was  proverl)ial,  as  is  atteat^nl  by  the 
story,  told  in  German  chronicles,  of  the  serpent  ringing 
the  bell  that  Charles  had  set  up  before  his  palace  for 
all  those  having  a  grievance  to  bring  to  his  attention. 
But  he  never  became  prominent  in  German  literature, 
whereas  in  France  he  became  the  very  centre  of  the 
national  heroic  &pop6es.  His  legendary  deeds  and 
those  of  his  pakdins  were  celebratc<l  in  numerous 
epics  or  " Chansons  de  Geste "  ("Chanson  do  Koland ", 
"P^lerinage",  "Aspremont",  "Fierabras'',  "Ogier", 
"  Kenaud  de  Montauban  ",  etc.) .  At  first  these  poems 
were  only  loosely  connected;  later  on  attempts  were 
made  at  cvclic  unification,  resulting  in  such  compila- 
tions as  the  "Charlema^e"  of  Girard  d' Amiens  (c. 
1300),  the  German  "Karlmeinet",  the  Norwegian 
"  KarlamagntSssaga"  and  the  Italian  prose  romance 


LKOEMD8 


122 


UOINDS 


**  Real!  di  Francia  "  of  Andrea  dc'  Magnabotti.  Much 
legendary  mateiial  is  also  found  in  chronicles,  like 
those  of  the  above-mentioned  monk  of  St.  Gall,  of  the 
monk  of  Saintonge,  of  Alberic  do  Trois  Fontaines  (c. 
1250),  of  Philippe  Mousket  (c.  1241),  and  the  German 
chronicle  of  Enenkel. 

What  is  related  of  Charlemagne  in  these  soim^es  is  a 
medley  of  fact  and  fiction.  The  story  of  his  parents, 
Pepin  the  Short  and  Bertha  (in  **  Berte  aux  grands 
pieds"),  is  the  familiar  theme  of  virtue  slandered  but 
m  the  end  vindicated.  To  escape  the  persecutions  of 
his  bastard  brothers,  Charles  takes  refuge  in  Toledo 
with  the  heathen  king  Galafre,  whose  daughter  Gali- 
enne  he  marries,  after  he  has  punished  his  wicked 
brothers  and  regained  his  father  s  kingdom  ("Charle- 
magne", "Karuneinet",  "Karleto''^  "Cronica  gen- 
eral"). Possibly  this  reflects  hbtoncal  events  from 
the  period  of  Charles  Martel,  who  was  of  illegitimate 
birth,  and  experienced  difficulties  in  his  accession  to 
the  tnrone.  At  anv  rate,  Pepin  and  Berthn  are  his- 
toric personages.  Wholly  fabulous,  however,  is  the 
story  of  the  pilgrimage  imdertaken  by  the  emperor 
and  his  peers  to  the  Holy  Land,  whence  thev  oring 
back  the  Passion  relics,  which  were  deposited  in  the 
Qiurch  of  St.  Denis.  Probably  the  legend  arose  in 
connexion  with  these  relics,  which  were  actually  pre- 
sented by  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  about  800. 

In  the  poems  and  romances  that  deal  with  the  wars 
of  Charlemagne  in  Spain  [(778)  "  Chanson  de  Roland  "] 
and  Italy  [(773)  ^Ogier",  "Fierabras",  "Aspre- 
mont "]  the  principal  r61e  is  assigned  not  to  Charles,  but 
to  his  paladins  (Roland,  Olivier,  Turpin)  or  vassals 
(sons  of  Aimon,  Ogier).  The  Saxon  wars  have  left 
little  trace  in  French  poetry  [Bodel's  "Saisnes"  (c. 
1200),  and  an  older  *'  Guitalin  ,  known  only  from  the 
Norse  version  in  the  "Karlamagnussaga"].  In  Ger- 
many their  memory  is  preserved  by  many  a  legend 
concerning  the  heroic  Widukind  (Wittekind).  In 
French  versions  the  conversion  of  the  Saxon  chieftain 
is  represented  as  insincere  and  of  short  duration,  in 
German  legend,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  glorified  by  mir- 
acle. While  Widukind  in  the  disguise  of  a  beggar  at- 
tends the  Easter  celebration  in  the  Prankish  camp,  he 
sees  the  image  of  the  Christ-Child  at  the  moment  of  the 
elevation  of  the  Host  during  Mass,  and  his  conversion 
is  the  result  (Grimm,  "Deutsche  Sagen",  448).  In  a 
narrative  of  the  life  of  the  Empress  Mathilde  (974) 
Widukind  is  made  to  fight  in  single  combat  with 
Charles,  and  on  being  defeated  turns  Christian.  The 
French  version  also  knows  of  this  combat,  but  here 
Guiteclin  is  killed.  The  name  of  Frankfort  (the  ford 
of  the  Franks)  is  explained  by  a  German  legend  which 
relates  how  the  hani-pressed  Franks  were  saved  by  a 
hind  that  showed  them  a  place  where  they  could  cross 
the  River  Main  in  safety  (Grimm,  op.  cit.,  449). 

In  the  older  French  epics,  devoted  to  the  glorifica- 
tion of  royalty,  Charlemagne  is  represented  as  the  in- 
carnation of  majestv,  valour,  and  justice,  the  cham- 
pion of  God's  Churcfc  against  the  infidel.  In  the  later 
epics,  the  so-called  feudal  rpop^e  ("Ogier",  "Renaud 
de  Montauban",  "Doon  de  Mayence",  etc.),  which 
reflect  the  historic  struggles  of  the  monarchy  with  tur- 
bulent vassals,  the  great  emperor  appears  in  quite  a 
different  light,  as  a  vindictive  tyrant  and  unjust  op- 
pressor. Nor  does  he  appear  to  advantage  in  the  vari- 
ous legends  that  tell  of  his  love  affairs,  among  which  is 
the  well-known  German  legend  of  his  attachment  to  a 
dead  woman  due  to  the  magic  power  of  a  jewel  hidden 
in  her  mouth.  This  legend  was  localized  at  Aachen. 
A  courtier  who  had  gained  possession  of  the  talisman 
dropped  it  in  a  hot  spring.  Henceforth  the  emperor 
felt  an  irresistible  love  for  this  spot  and  caused 
Aachen  to  be  built  there. 

Through   French   me<liation  the  Carlovingian  ro- 
mances came  to  other  nations.    In  England,  Caxton 
publishe<l "  The  Lyfe  of  Charles  the  Crete  "  (1485)  and 
The  four  sonnes  of  Aymon"  (I486).    Lord  Bemers 


translated  "Huon  of  Bordeaux"  in  1534.  In  Ger^ 
many  the  "Rolandslied"  of  Konrad  der  Pfaffe.  the 
poem  of  Strieker  (thirteenth  century),  the  "Karl- 
meinet"  (fourteenth  century),  and  the  chap-books  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  in  Scandinavia  the  "  Karlamag- 
ni!i8saga"  (c.  1300),  in  the  Netherlands  numerous 
translations  like  "Carel  ende  Elegast"  show  the 
spread  of  the  Charlemagne  legend.  In  Italy,  it  was 
especially  favoured.  There  it  inspired  the  Franco- 
Italian  epics  and  the  bulky  romance  of  Magnabotti, 
and  culminated  in  the  famous  chivalric  epics  of  Bci- 

ardo  and  Ariosto. 

Paris,  Ilialoire  poHiqme  de  CharUmagne  (Paris,  1805;  2nd 
ed.,  1905);  L6on  Oautxsb,  Let  Epopieg  fran^xiues.  III  (2iid 
cd.,  Paris,  1888-1897);  GafiBER  in  (frundriaa  der  romani*chen 
Phitoloate,  II  (Strasburg,  1902).  1.  461-469;  538-552;  Becker. 
Orundrisa  der  altfranxoaitehen  Lileratur.  I  (HoidelbexSi  1907), 
62-92.  Many  ot  the  legends,  particularly  those  current  in 
German^',  are  found  in  Grimm,  ueutsche  Sagen  (4  th  ed.,  Berlin, 
1905) ,  nos.  22, 26-28, 437^54.  See  also  KOoel.  OeBchiehU  der 
deutaehen  LUteratur,  1  (Strasbuxg,  1894).  pt.  II.  220-230. 

Roland, — Of  the  paladins,  usually  twelve  in  number, 
with  whom  legend  surrounds  Charlemagne,  the  most 
famous  is  Roland,  whose  heroic  death  forms  the  theme 
of  the  "Chanson  de  Roland"  (c.  1080).  This  poem 
relates  how  the  rear-^uard  of  the  Frankish  army,  re- 
turning from  a  victonous  campaign  against  the  Sara- 
cens in  Spain,  is  treacherously  surprised  by  the  enemy 
at  Roncevaux,  and  how  Roland,  OUvier^  and  Turpin, 
after  incredible  deeds  of  valour,  are  slain  before  the 
emperor  arrives  to  bring  help.  The  events  narrated 
here  have  a  historical  basis;  the  battle  of  Roncevaux 
(Roncesvalles)  actually  took  place  on  15  August,  778. 
According  to  Einhard  (Vita  Caroli  Magni,  IX)  the 
Frankish  rear-guard  was  cut  to  pieces  by  Basque 
marauders,  among  the  slain  being  Hruodlandus,  pre- 
fect of  the  Alarch  of  Brittany.  In  the  poem  the  defeat 
is  laid  to  the  treason  of  Ganclon;  the  vengeance  which 
the  emperor  exacts  from  the  enemy  and  the  punish- 
ment of  the  traitor  are  vividly  narrated.  Tne  legend 
represents  Roland  as  Charlemagne's  nephew,  the  son 
of  the  emperor's  sister  Bertha  and  of  Duke  Milo  of 
Aglant.  The  story  of  their  romantic  love,  their  quar- 
rel with  the  emperor,  and  their  ultimate  reconciliation 
to  him  figures  prominently  in  Italian  versions  ("Reali 
di  Francia").  Roland  is  a  paraxon  of  knightly  virtue. 
Quite  young  he  distinguishes  himself  in  wars  against 
the  Saracens  in  Italy  (*'  Aspremont")  and  the  Saxons, 
in  both  campaigns  saving  his  uncle  from  tlu*eatened 
disaster. 

In  Italian  literature  Roland  becomes  the  chief  hero 
of  the  chivalric  &pop^e  represented  at  its  best  by 
Pulci's  "Morgante  maggiore"  (1482),  Boiardo's  "Or- 
lando innamorato''  (I486),  and  Ariosto's  "Orlando 
Furioso"  (1516).  In  Spain  the  tradition  underwent  a 
complete  change;  the  defeat  of  the  Franks  was  re- 
garded as  a  Spanish  victory,  and  the  real  hero  of  Ron- 
cevaux is  the  national  champion,  Bemaldo  del  Carpio. 
Roland's  opponent.    The  German  poem  of  Konraa 

der  Pfaflfe  nas  been  mentioned  al)Ove. 

Paris,  op.  cit.,  250-285,  406^14,  415;  see  also  his  essay  Ron- 
cevaux in  L^endes  du  moyen  dge  (Paris,  1903),  1-63. 

Genevil've  (Genove/a)  of  Brabant. — This  legend  may 
be  discussed  in  connexion  with  the  Carlovingian  cycle, 
inasmuch  as  the  events  therein  related  are  usually  as- 
signed to  the  eighth  ccnturv,  to  the  period  of  the  wars 
of  Charles  Mart<;l  against  tfie  Saracens.  It  has  for  its 
theme  the  familiar  stor}'  of  persecut<?d  innocence,  and 
is  therefore  closely  akin  to  the  legends  of  Griseldis,  Hil- 
de^rd,  Hirlanda  of  Brittany,  and  other  heroines  of 
suffering.  According  to  the  usual  version,  Genevidve 
Is  the  wife  of  the  Count  Palatine  Siegfried,  residing  in 
the  region  of  Trier.  When  he  is  call^  away  on  an  ex- 
pedition against  the  infidels,  he  entrusts  his  wife  and 
castle  to  the  care  of  his  major-domo  Golo.  Inflamed 
with  sinful  passion,  Crolo  makes  advances  to  the  coun- 
tess, and  on  being  repulsed,  falsely  accuses  her  to  her 
ttl  )sent  lord  of  adultery.    The  count  sends  word  to  put 


123 


LEOENDB 


bis  wife  and  her  new-born  son  to  death,  and  Golo  bids 
two  servants  execute  this  command.  But  moved 
by  pity  they  let  her  ro,  and  she  takes  refuge  in  a  cave  in 
the  Ardennes  together  with  her  child,  who  is  miracu- 
lously suckled  bv  a  roe.  At  the  end  of  six  years  Count 
Signed,  who  has  in  the  meantime  repented  of  his 
rash  deed,  is  led  to  this  cave  while  pursuing  the  roe, 
and  a  happv  reunion  is  the  result.  Golo  dies  a  trai- 
tor's death,  nis  limbs  being  torn  asunder  by  four  oxen. 
The  legend  adds  that  a  chapel  was  built  and  dedicated 
to  Our  Lady  at  the  \ery  spot  where  the  cave  was.  It 
is  the  Chapel  of  Frauenkirchen,  near  Laach,  and  there 
Genevieve  is  said  to  be  buried. 

The  origin  of  the  legend  is  wholly  unknown.  The 
oldest  versions  are  found  in  manuscript  dating  from 
the  fifteenth  centur>',  most  of  them  hailing  from 
Laach.  An  account  was  written  in  1472  by  Matthias 
Emichius  (Emmich)  a  C'armelite  friar,  later  auxiliary 
Bishop  of  Mainz.  The  learned  antiquarian  Marquard 
Freher  appended  a  version  of  the  legend  drawn  from  a 
Laach  manuscript  to  his*'Origines  Palatinse"  (1G13). 
The  legend  is  told  in  connexion  with  the  foundation 
of  the  chapel  of  Frauenkirchen.  In  all  these  versions 
the  time  of  action  is  that  of  a  Bishop  Hildulf  of  Trier. 
But  no  such  bishop  is  known.  Nor  is  it  possible  to 
identify  Genevieve  with  any  historic  personage.  As 
for  Signed,  there  were  several  counts  of  that  name, 
but  nothing  is  known  of  them  to  permit  of  an  identifi- 
cation. An  historical  basis  for  the  legend  has  not  been 
foimd.  The  ar^iunents  for  a  mvthical  origin  are  fu- 
tile. So  the  opmion  has  been  advanced  (])y  Seuffert) 
that  the  legend  is  the  fabrication  of  a  monk  from  the 
monastery  of  Laach,  and  dates  from  the  fourteenth 
century. 

The  fame  of  the  story"  is  due  to  the  work  of  the 
French  Jesuit  Ren^  de  Cerisiers.  His  book,  entitled 
•'  L'Innocence  reconnue  ou  Vie  de  Sainte  Genevieve  de 
Brabant",  won  immediate  popularity.  The  oldest 
datable  edition  is  from  1638.  Two  years  later  this 
stonr,  together  with  those  of  Jeanne  d'Arc  and  Hir- 
landa,  was  reprinted  in  *'  Les  trois  ^tats  de  I'innocence 
afflig^'^  etc.  •  In  Cerisiers*  version  the  legend  has 
been  considerably  amplified;  its  pious  character  is  em- 
phasised, especially  through  the  copious  introduction 
of  miracles.  Here  also  the  child  receives  the  Biblical 
name  Benoni  (i.  e.  son  of  my  sorrow.  Gen.,  xxxv,  18) 
whence  the  "  Schmerzenreich  "  of  the  German  version. 
Reference  to  Charles  Martel  fixed  the  eighth  century 
as  the  time  of  action. 

Cerisiers'  work  inspired  a  number  of  Dutch  and 
German  books  on  the  legend,  in  all  of  which  the  ma- 
terial is  treated  with  more  or  less  freedom.  The  au- 
thors of  the  first  two  German  versions  are  Jesuits; 
these  versions  were  followed  bv  the  ^'Auserlesenes 
Histoiy-Buch"  (Dillingen,  1G87)  of  Father  Martin  of 
Cochem  (d.  1712),  a  Capuchin  friar.  Here  the  story 
of  St.  Genevieve  is  given  among  a  number  of  pious 
legends,  and  it  was  tnis  version  that  made  the  legend 
popular  in  Germany,  where  it  became  the  subject  of 
chap-books.  Some  of  these  books  base  their  accoimt 
on  Dutch  versions,  the  first  of  which  had  appeared  in 
1645.  In  these  Protestant  influence  is  unmistakable; 
the  miracles,  already  ciu-tailed  in  the  German  version, 
are  here  completely  expunged.  Of  English  versions 
we  have  at  least  two,  one  of  which  "The  Triumphant 
Lady,  or  the  Crowned  Innocence"  (Ix)ndon,  1654)  is 
by  Sir  W.  Lower. 

Saukbborn,  Oe^AiehU  der  Pfalzgrufin  Genovefa  vnd  der  Ka- 
pdU  Frauenkirchen  (Rfttisbon,  1856;;  i^Kvrvr.KT,  Die  Legende 
von  der  P/dlzprflfin  Uenovefa  (WQrabuxTK,  1877);  Goi^,  Pfalz- 
grikfin  Oenave/a  in  der  deutsehen  Dichtung  (Leipzig,  1897). 

Arthur  (Artus)^  a  famous  legendary  King  of  the  Bri- 
tons, the  central  figure  of  a  great  medieval  cycle  of 
romance.  His  court  is  represented  as  a  model  court 
for  the  cultivation  of  every  knightly  virt  ue.  He  him- 
self presides  ovBrtbe  famous  Round^al)le.  about  which 
19  assembled  %  band  of  ohosen  knights.    The  adven- 


tures of  these  knights  form  the  subject-matter  of  the 
numerous  romances  of  the  Arthurian  cvcle. 

The  history  of  the  oriffin  and  development  of  the 
Arthurian  legend  is  not  clear.  The  verj'  existence  of 
Arthur  has  been  doubted,  and  attempts  have  been 
made  to  reduce  him  to  a  myth.  But  it  is  now  well 
known  that  he  was  an  historic  figure,  a  British  chieftain 
of  the  end  of  the  fifth  and  the  oeginning  of  the  sixth 
century  a.  d.,  who  championed  the  cause  of  the 
native  Britons  against  the  foreign  invaders,  especially 
the  Angles  and  Saxons.  The  oldest  British  chronicler 
of  Wales,  Gildajs,  in  his  "De  Excidio  Britannia)"  (c. 
540)  knows  of  the  great  victory  of  the  Britons  at  Mount 
Badon,  but  makes  no  mention  of  Arthur.  The  first 
record  of  him  is  found  in  the  "Historia  Brittonum" 
(written  796) ,  ascribed  to  Nennius.  There  he  appears 
already  as  a  legendary  figure,  the  champion  of  an  op- 
pressed people  against  the  cruel  invaders,  whom  he  de- 
feats in  twelve  great  battles,  the  last  being  fought  at 
Mons  Badonis,  So  by  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  the 
legend  of  a  great  champion  was  already  current  among 
the  Celtic  population  of  the  British  Isles  and  Brittany, 
and  this  legend  was  further  developed  and  amplified 
by  the  addition  of  new  legendary  traits.  It  received 
its  literaiy  form  in  the  "  Historia  regimi  Brittannise*', 
a  Latin  chronicle,  written  between  1118  and  1135  by 
the  Welsh  monk  Gwifrey  (Galfridus,  Gruffydd)  of 
Monmouth.  This  work,  purporting  to  give  a  histoiy 
of  the  British  kings  from  the  mythical  Brutus  to  Cad- 
wallo  (689) ,  is  a  curious  medley  of  fact  and  fable.  The 
exploits  related  of  Arthur  are  whollv  fabulous.  His 
father  is  Uther  Pendragon  (Uther  dragon-head),  his 
moiher  Igema,  wife  of  the  Duke  of  Cornwall.  Merlin 
the  Wizard  by  a  trick  has  effected  their  union.  Arthur 
becomes  ruler  at  the  age  of  fifteen  and  at  once  enters 
upon  his  career  of  victory  by  defeating  the  Saxons. 
He  marries  Guanhumara  (Gwenhwyvar.  Ginevra,  Gui- 
nevere) and  establishes  a  court  the  lame  of  which 
spreads  far  and  wide.  In  a  series  of  wars  he  conquers 
Scotland,  Ireland,  Norway,  and  Gaul.  Finally  he 
makes  war  against  Rome,  but,  though  victorious,  is 
compelled  to  turn  back  to  protect  his  wife  and  king- 
dom from  the  treacherous  designs  of  his  nephew  Mor- 
dred.  In  the  battle  of  Camlan  (Cambula)  tne  latter  is 
killed,  but  Arthur,  too,  is  mortally  wounded  and  mys- 
teriously removed  to  the  Isle  of  Avalon,  whence  he  will 
reappear  (so  other  chronicles  relate),  some  day  to  re- 
store his  people  to  power. 

It  is  not  known  with  certainty  what  sources  Godfrey 
used.  Probably  he  drew  his  information  from  Welsh 
chronicles,  as  well  as  from  oral  tradition  preserved 
by  Breton  story-tellers.  Much,  also,  is  his  own  inven- 
tion. The  work  won  immediate  favour,  and  became  the 
basis  of  several  other  rhj-med  chronicles,  such  as  the 
"Brut"  of  Wace  (or  Gace)  written  about  1157,  and 
that  of  Layamon  (c.  1200),  the  first  English  work  in 
which  the  legend  of  Arthur  appears.  In  Godfrey's 
histon'  mention  is  made  of  Arthur's  court  as  far- 
famcd,  but  the  first  explicit  reference  to  the  lioimd 
Table  is  found  in  Wace's  "Brut".  From  this  refer- 
ence it  is  perfectly  clear  that  this  legendary  institution 
was  already  well  known  in  Brittany  when  vVace  wrote. 
At  a  later  period,  when  the  Grail  legend  was  fused 
with  that  of  Arthur,  the  Round  Table  was  identified 
with  the  Grail  table  instituted  by  Joseph  of  Arima- 
thea,  and  was  then  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
ITther  Pendragon  at  the  suggestion  of  Meriin  (so  in  the 
Grail  romance  of  Robertr  de  Boron). 

Towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  the  Arthur- 
ian legend  makes  its  appearance  in  French  literature 
in  the  epics  of  C'hrestien  de  Troyes.  How  this  material, 
the  inatirre  de  Bretagne,  was  transmitted,  is  one  of  the 
most  diflicult  and  disputetl  questions  in  connexion 
with  the  history  of  medieval  I  rench  literature.  It  is 
admitted  that  Godfrey  and  the  chroniclers  cannot 
liave  been  the  only  sources;  the  subject  matter  of  the 
romances  is  too  varieil  for  that,  and  points  to  the  in- 


LEGENDS 


124 


LEGENDS 


fluenoe  of  popular  tradition.  Moreover,  the  material 
has  been  entirely  transformed  under  the  influence  of 
the  ideals  of  knight-errantrv  and  courtly  love.  These 
deeds  dominated  all  the  Arthurian  romances,  and  gave 
them  their  immense  vogue  with  the  poUte  society  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Arthur  plays  but  a  pajssive  role  in 
them;  the  c^ef  stress  falls  on  the  adventures  of  the 
Knights  of  the  Table  Round.  Of  these  Gawain 
(Gwalchmai,  Gauvain)  already  figured  prominently  in 
the  history  of  Godfrey,  where  he  is  called  Walgannus. 
Perceval,  the  Peredur  of  Welsh  folk-tales  and  of  God- 
frey, has  become  especially  famous  as  the  hero  of  the 
Quest  of  the  Holy  Grail.  Originally  his  legend,  like 
tnat  of  the  Grail,  was  whoUy  independent  of  that  of 
Arthur  (for  the  Perceval  legend  see  Grail,  The  Holt). 
Other  famous  legendary  heroes  like  Lancelot  and 
Tristram  were  also  joined  to  the  company  of  the  Table 
Hound,  and  their  legends  likewise  mcorporated  into 
that  of  Artliur.  So  the  great  cycle  of  Arthurian 
romances  gradually  came  into  existence. 

Through  French  mediation  these  romances  spread 
through  Europe.  In  Germany  they  inspired  the 
courtly  epics  (see  Germany,  sub-title  Literature ^  III). 
They  also  came  to  Italj',  Spain,  and  Norway.  In 
England  Sir  Thomas  Malory  gatnered  them  and  used 
them  for  his  famous  prose  romance  "Morte  Arthure" 
(finished  1470,  printed  by  Caxton,  1485).  To  Malorv 
the  legend  of  Arthur  owes  its  popularity  in  England. 
Its  influence  is  felt  in  Spenser's  "  Faerie  Queene",  and 
Milton,  as  is  well  known,  thought  of  writing  an  Eng- 
lish Arthuriad.  In  modem  times  Tennyson  has  re- 
vived the  legend  in  his  "  Idylls  of  the  King". 

Consult  the  bibliography  appended  to  the  article  on  the  Holy 
Grail.  Many  of  the  works  there  cit«d  treat  abo  of  the  Arthu- 
rian legend.     See  abo   Zimmer,  Nennius  vindicatua  (Berlin, 


1893) 


legend. 

;  llHTS, 


Studies  in  the  Arthurian  Legend  (Oxford.  1891); 


Newell,  King  A rthur  and  the  Table  Round  (Boston,  1897).  On 
the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  "  mati^re  de  Brctagne  "  see  Vor- 
BTESCH,  Einfijhrung  in  das  Studium  der  altfranzdsiKhen  Literatur 
(Halle,  1905),  339-352,  where  the  literature  of  the  subject  is 


fliven  in  full.     Useful  also  for  the  later  literature  is  Maccallum, 
Tennyson* 8  Idylls  of  the  Kinff  an  ' 
teenth  Century  (Glasgow,  1894). 


ennyson*s  Idylls  of  the  King  and  Arthurian  Story  from  the  Six- 


Tristan  and  Isolde. — Among  the  knights  of  Arthur 
appears  also  Tristan  (Tristram),  whose  love  for  Isolde 
and  its  tragic  end  are  the  subject  of  some  of  the  most 
famous  romances  in  literature.  Here,  too,  we  have  an 
originally  independent  legend  of  Celtic  origin,  but 
elaborated  by  French  poets  into  a  love  romance.  The 
names  Tristan  and  Mark  point  to  Celtic  heroic  saga  as 
the  root  of  the  story — Drust  or  Drustan  as  a  name  of 
Pictish  kings  can  be  traced  as  far  back  as  the  eighth  cen- 
tury. The  name  of  Morholt  is  probably  Germanic;  so 
is  Isold  (i. e.  Iswalda)  or  Isclt  (i.e.  Ishilt).  These  Ger- 
manic elements  date  from  the  period  of  Viking  rule  in 
Dublin  during  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries.  The 
legend,  no  doubt,  took  shape  in  Britain  and  then  wan- 
dered to  Brittany,  experiencing  in  the  course  of  its 
development  various  modifications.  New  motifs,  like 
that  of  the  love  potion,  the  story  of  the  vicarious  woo- 
ing, the  trick  whereby  Isolde  successfully  imdergoes 
the  ordeal,  were  added.  They  are  familiar  from 
story-literature.  Other  motifs,  such  as  the  ship  with 
black  sails,  are  clearly  traceable  to  antique  romance, 
in  this  case  to  the  Theseus  legend.  By  tlie  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century  a  full-fledged  Tristan  romance 
existed,  but  the  literary  versions  that  we  possess  are  of 
a  later  date.  It  is  known  that  Chrestien  de  Troyes 
wrote  a  poem  about  Mark  and  Isolde,  but  it  is  lost. 
The  French  versions  extant  are  those  of  B&rol,  a  Bre- 
ton jongleur,  or  glee-man,  and  of  Thomas,  an  Anglo- 
Norman  trouvbre,  who  wrote  between  1160  and  1170. 
B^rol's  version,  the  date  of  which  is  a  matter  of  dis- 
pute, is  the  basis  of  the  German  "Tristan"  of  Eilhard 
von  Oberg,  while  Gottfried  von  Strassburg  followed 
Thomas.  Both  versions  agree  for  the  main  traits  of 
the  legend,  however  much  they  differ  in  detail. 

For  the  content  of  the  legend  and  its  bibliography  see  the 
article  on  Gottfuied  von  Strassburo. 


Lohengrin,  the  Knight  of  the  Stoan, — ^In  Wolfram's 
''Parzival",  where  a  brief  outline  of  the  story  of 
Lohengrin  is  given  at  the  close,  the  legend  appears  as 
a  part  of  the  Grail  cycle,  and  therefore  also  of  the  Ar- 
thurian cycle.  But  originally  it  was  wholly  inde- 
pendent of  both.  In  the  oldest  literary  versions,  the 
French  poems  of  the  "  Chevalier  au  cygne  "  (the  ear- 
liest dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  Uiirteenth  cen- 
tury), the  tale  of  the  ICmght  of  the  Swan  is  connected 
with  Godfrey  of  BouiUon,  and  the  French  poems  them- 
selves are  part  of  an  epic  cycle  dealing  with  the  Cru- 
sades. How  this  connexion  came  about  is  not  known. 
But  it  was  certainly  well  known  by  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century,  as  is  proved  by  an  allusion  to  it  in  the 
history  of  the  Crusades  written  by  Bishop  William  ol 
Tyre  (d.  about  1184).  The  purpose  was  evidently  to 
glorify  the  House  of  Bouillon  by  ascribing  to  it  a  super- 
natural origin.  The  story  as  given  in  the  FiBnch 
poems  is  as  follows:  before  Emperor  Otto  hokiing 
court  at  Nymwegen  the  Duchess  of  Bouillon  pleads 
for  justice  against  the  Saxon  Duke  Renier,  who  has 
maae  grave  charges  against  her.  She  cannot  find  a 
champion  to  prove  her  innocence  in  single  combat, 
when  suddenly  an  unknown  knight  appears  in  a  skin 
drawn  by  a  swan.  He  defeats  her  opponent  and 
marries  her  daughter  Beatris.  But  he  miiposes  the 
condition  that  his  wife  must  never  ask  his  name  or 
lineage.  When,  after  seven  years  of  wedded  life,  she 
breaks  this  command,  the  unknown  knight  leaves  her. 
A  daughter  named  Ida  has  resulted  from  this  union. 
She  marries  Count  Eustache  of  Boulogne  and  be- 
comes the  mother  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 

The  kernel  of  this  legend  seems  to  be  an  old  genea- 
logical myth,  such  as  that  told  of  Scyld  in  "  Beowulf  "• 
A  mysterious  stranger  arrives  in  a  rudderless  ship 
among  a  people,  becomes  their  ruler  and  the  ancestor 
of  the  reigning  house.  When  his  time  is  fulfilled,  he 
departs  as  mysteriously  as  he  has  come.  Such  a  myth 
was  current  among  Germanic  tribes  inhabiting  the 
sea-coast.  Possibly  the  mysterious  stranger  originally 
was  a  solar  deity  and  the  swan  a  s3rmbol  of  the  cloud. 
The  story  was  designed  to  show  the  divine  descent  ol 
the  ruling  house.  Its  origin,  whether  Celtic  or  Ger- 
manic, is  in  dispute.  The  theme  of  the  Lohengrin 
legend,  the  union  between  a  supernatural  being  and  a 
mortal,  is  of  frequent  recurrence  in  mythology  and 
folk-lore. 

With  the  tale  of  the  swan-knight  was  combined  an 
old  Germanic  fairy  tale  of  some  children  changed  into 
swans  by  the  evil  arts  of  a  wicked  stepmother.  Only 
the  little  girl  escapes,  and  becomes  the  means  of  res- 
cuing her  brothers.  This  story  is  familiar  to  readers 
of  Grimm's  fairy  tales.  In  the  French  poems  on  this 
subject,  the  children  are  the  offspring  of  a  union  be- 
tween a  king  and  a  fairy,  and  the  king's  mother  plays 
the  villain's  part.  Their  transformation  into  swans  is 
the  result  of  their  being  deprived  of  the  necklaces  which 
they  had  when  they  were  bom.  When  these  are  re- 
stored they  regain  their  human  form,  all  but  one,  who 
has  lost  his  necklace.  He  remains  a  swan  and  hence- 
forth draws  the  skiff  of  his  brother,  who  is  therefore 
called  the  knight  of  the  swan.  It  is  clear  that  this 
story  was  add^  to  account  for  the  mysterious  origin 
of  the  hero.  Its  earliest  literary  record  occurs  in  the 
Latin  romance  "Dolopathos",  a  collection  of  stories, 
mostly  of  Oriental  origin,  written  by  Jean  de  Haute- 
seille  (Johannes  de  Alta  Silva)  at  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  Here  the  characters  are  as  yet 
imnamcd.  In  the  French  poem  known  as  "Elioxe" 
(end  of  twelfth  century)  the  hero  is  a  king  named 
Lothair,  the  fairy  is  called  Elioxe  TEliouse).  In  the 
versions  of  the  "Chevalier  au  cygne  the  king's  name 
is  Oriant,  his  wife  is  called  Beatris,  his  mother 
Matabrune. 

Through  French  mediation  the  legend  passed  into 
other  lands.  In  England  we  have  the  poem  of  the 
"Chevalero  Assigne"  and  the  prose  romanoe  of  "  llcl- 


L1GC1ID8 


125 


LEOENDS 


yas,  Knifl^t  of  the  Swan  "  (edited  by  ThomB  in  *'  Early 
English  Prose  Romances ' ' ) .  In  Spain  the  legend  was 
incorporated  in  the  ''Gran  Conquista  de  Ultramar" 
(xlvii  sq.).  There  are  also  versions  in  Italy  and  Ice- 
land. Of  special  interest  is  the  development  of  the 
legend  in  Germany. 

In  the  French  versions  the  swan-knight  is  called 
Hellas  (Elie).  In  Konrad  von  Warzburg's  epic  ''Der 
Schwanritter"  (c.  1260)  he  remains  unnamed.  The 
lady  in  distress  is  the  Duchess  of  Brabant,  the  em- 
peror is  Charlemagne.  The  swan-knight  is  not  the 
ancestor  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  but  of  the  dukes  of 
Cleves.  Konrad's  version  is  based  on  an  unknown 
French  source.  So  is  the  brief  outline  given  by  Wolf- 
ram at  the  close  of  his  "  Parzival".  There  the  legend 
is  connected  with  that  of  the  Grail  in  that  the  hero  is 
the  son  of  Parzival,  the  Grail-king.  Here  also  he  is 
called  Loherangrin  (i.  e.  Loherene  Garin,  Garin  the 
Lotharingian).  The  duchess  is  Elsa  of  Brabant. 
Whether  these  changes  in  names  are  Wolfram's  own, 
or  whether  they  were  in  his  French  source  cannot  be 
decided.  On  tne  basis  of  Wolfram's  outline,  but  am- 
I^ified  and  expanded  by  the  introduction  of  wholly 
extraneous  matter,  arose  between  1283  and  1290  the 
bulky  German  epic  "  Lohengrin",  the  work,  it  seems, 
of  two  different  authors,  but  unknown.  Tne  Lohen- 
grin story  is  here  a  mere  episode  of  the  legendary  min- 
strel contest  held  at  the  Wartburg  castle  and  is  put 
into  the  mouth  of  Wolfram  himself.  The  accuser  is  here 
Count  Friedrich  Telramund,  the  emperor  is  Henry  I 
the  Fowler,  and  a  Duchess  of  Cleves  instigates  Elsa  to 
put  the  forbidden  question.  We  see  that  in  German 
versions  Cleves  figures  in  the  legend;  in  fact,  in  some 
chronicles  the  scene  of  action  is  laid  there  (see  Grimm, 
"  Deut-sche  Sagen  ",  4th  ed.,  ed.  Steig,  Berlin,  1905,  no. 
535),  and  the  date  given  is  711.  Fantastic  continua- 
tions are  found  in  the  poem  called  ''Der  jUngere 
Titurel "  (c.  1260)  and  in  tne  bulky  versified  narrative 
of  Ulrich  FUctrer  "Buch  der  Abenteue"  (written  c. 
1490).  According  to  the  account  there  given^  Lohen- 
grin sallies  forth  a  second  time,  and  comes  to  Lyzabori 
(Luxemburg)  where  he  marries  the  Princess  Belaye. 
An  attempt  is  made  on  his  life  by  her  jealous  relatives, 
and,  though  it  is  repulsed,  Lohengrin  succumbs  to  a 
wound  received  in  the  struggle.   His  wife  dies  of  grief. 

GoLTHBR  in  Roman\9che  Fonchungen  (1890),  V,  103-136; 
Todd,  preface  to  La  Naisaance  du  Chevalier  au  Cyqne  in 
Publication  of  the  Modem  Languape  Asaociation  of  America,  IV 
(Baltimore.  1889);  Munckeb.  Die  Dichtung  dee  Lohengrin  von 
Riekard  Wagner  und  ihre  Quellen  in  BeHage  zur  Allgemeinen 
Ztitung  (1891).  no.  148;  Panskb,  Lohenhrinatudien  (Halle. 
1894);  BLdra  In  ZeUachHft  far  romamsche  PhUologie,  XXI 
(1897),  170  sq.;  Idbu  in  Zeitschrift  far  deiUachea  AUertum, 
XUI  (1898),  1  sq. 

Tannhduser. — This  legend,  as  related  in  German 
folk-songs  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
and  their  variants  in  Low  German,  Dutch,  and  Dan- 
ish, is  as  follows:  Tannh&user,  a  minstrel  knight,  en- 
ters the  mountain  of  Venus,  a  sort  of  subterranean 
paradise  where  the  heathen  goddess  holds  her  volup- 
tuous court,  and  for  a  ^ear  he  revels  in  its  unholy 
pleasures.  Then  a  longmg  seizes  upon  him  to  return 
to  earth,  and  when^  through  the  aid  of  Mary,  whom  he 
invokes,  his  wish  is  realized,  he  hastens  to  Rome  to 
implore  pardon  for  his  sin  from  Pope  Urban  IV.  This 
ihe  pope  refuses  to  grant;  TannMuser  cannot  be 
saved  any  more  than  the  staff  in  the  pontiff's  hand  can 
put  forth  fresh  leaves.  In  despair  tne  knight  returns 
to  the  mountain  of  Venus  and  is  not  seen  again.  Soon 
after,  the  staff  bursts  into  blossom  and  now  messen- 
gers are  sent  to  seek  the  knight,  but  too  late. 

No  doubt  we  have  here  a  tale  of  originally  heathen 
character^  subsequently  Christianized.  Its  theme  is 
the  famihar  story  of  the  seduction  of  a  human  being 
by  an  elf  or  fairy.  But  all  the  delights  of  the  fairy- 
realm  cannot  make  him  f or^t  his  earthly  home,  for 
which  he  longs.  His  desire  is  granted^  but  he  is  not 
happy,  and  in  tlie  end  returns  to  the  f  airy-laad.   This 


moil/  is  a  commonplace  in  folk-lore  literature.  In  the 
German  legend  the  seductive  fairy  is  identified  with 
the  ancient  goddess  of  love,  and  the  story  is  given  a 
distinctly  religious  colour  through  the  introduction  of 
the  pilgrimage  of  the  repentant  sinner  to  Rome.  The 
motif  of  the  withered  staff  bursting  into  blossom  has 
also  manv  parallels  in  sacred  legend,  and  is  evidently 
a  later  addition.  How  the  legend  came  to  assume  the 
form  outlined  above  can  only  be  surmised.  Of  the 
poems  that  we  possess  on  the  subject  none  dates  fur- 
ther back  than  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  famous  Volkalied  that  gives  the  above  version  is 
from  the  sixteenth  century.  A  passage  in  Hermann 
von  Sachsenheun's  poem,  "Die  Morin"  proves  that 
the  legend,  with  its  essential  traits,  was  already  known 
in  1453  when  the  poem  was  written.  There  Tann- 
hiluser  is  referred  to  as  the  husband  of  Dame  Venus. 
Now  the  historical  Tannhiiuser  was  a  Minnesinger  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  who  seems  to  have  led  a  roving 
life,  in  the  course  of  which  he  experienced  many 
changes  of  fortune.  His  checquered  career  is  reflected 
in  his  poems,  which  exhibit  a  strange  mingling  of  dis- 
solute boasting  and  pious  sentiment.  In  one  poem 
ascribed  to  him,  repentance  is  expressed  for  foolish 
and  sinful  living,  and  this  poem  is  supposed  to  be  re- 
sponsible for  his  appearing  in  the  legend  in  the  role  of 
tne  penitent  knignt.  But  this  is  purely  conjectural. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  only  connexion  between  the 
legendary  and  historical  Tannhiiuser  is  the  identity 
of  name. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  a  legend  strikingly  similar  to 
that  of  Tannhauser  is  attached  in  Italy  to  the  Monte 
della  SibiUa,  near  Norcia.  It  is  related  at  length  by 
Antoine  de  La  Sale  in  his  "  Salade  ",  written  between 
1438  and  1442.  He  visited  the  sibyl's  cave  in  1420,  and 
heard  the  storv  from  the  people  of  the  neighbouring 
region.  A  still  earlier  reference  to  the  legend  is  found 
in  the  famous  romance  "Guerino  il  meschino"  of 
Andrea  dei  Magnabotti  (1391).  The  Italian  version 
knows  that  the  cavalier  entering  the  cave  is  a  German, 
but  does  not  mention  his  name;  the  queen  of  the  sub- 
terranean paradise  is  the  Sibyl  of  ancient  prophetic 
fame,  transformed  into  the  goddess  of  pleasure.  In 
view  of  these  parallels  which  antedate  the  appearance 
of  the  legend  m  German  literature,  Gaston  Paris  dis- 
putes the  German  origin  of  the  Tannhiiuser  legend, 
and  regards  Italy  as  its  home.  Its  ultimate  source  he 
finds  in  Celtic  folk-lore.  But  this  cannot  be  proved, 
since  the  earlier  history  of  the  legend  is  not  attested  by 
any  extant  literary  monuments  either  in  Italy  or  in 
Germany.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  German  ver- 
sion there  is  a  distinct  tone  of  hostility  to  the  papacy, 
wholly  lacking  in  the  Italian  variants.  In  fact  the 
miracle  of  the  blossoming  staff  is  a  pointed  reproof  of 
the  pope's  harshness.  This  can  readily  be  explained  if 
the  legend  developed  in  Germany,  where  antipapal 
feeling  was  strong  after  the  days  of  the  Hohen- 
staufens.  The  dominant  idea  of  the  legend  is  the 
glorification  of  God's  infinite  mercy  to  sinners.  But 
this  ideal  is  set  forth  in  a  spirit  most  unfriendly  to  the 
(IJhurch.  The  attitude  ascribed  to  the  pope  by  the 
Volkslied  is  wholly  contrary  to  Catholic  cloctrine. 

Qrasse,  Der  Tannhduaer  unk  ewige  Jude  (Dresden,  1861); 
VON  ScHLEiNiTC,  Wagner'a  Tannhtiuacr  und  Sdngcrkrieg  aufder 
Wartburg  (Meran,  1891),  especiallv  127-178;  Golther,  Ge- 
achichte  der  Tannhduaer-Sage  und  Dichtung  in  Bajfreuther 
Taachenkdlender  (1801).  829  sq.;  Schmidt,  TannhAuaer  in  Sage 
und  Dichtung  in  Nord  und  Siid  (Xov.,  1802);  SOderhjelm, 
Antoine  de  La  Sale  et  la  U-gende deTannhAuxer  in  Mimoiren  de  la 
aociH*  nfo-Philologiqueh  Ilelaingfora.  II  (1897),  101-167;  Paris. 
Lfgendea  du  Moyen  Age  ^Paria,  1003),  111-145;  RBrHCHSL, 
Die  Tannh'iwtcrttaoe  in  Ar>//'  Jnhrbiirher  fiir  dan  KlaasiitcAe 
AUertum,  Geachichte  und  dtutache  Liie^ni*^.  XIII  (LeipziK. 
1904),  653-667. 

Robert  ihe  Devil. — God's  boundless  grace  to  sinners 
is  also  the  theme  of  this  legend  as  prf  aented  in  French 
romances.  Robert  is  the  devil's  own  child,  for  his 
mother,  despairing  of  heaven's  aiJ  in  order  to  obtain  a 
son,  has  addressed  herself  to  the  devil.    From  th0 


LEGENDS 


120 


LEOEUDS 


moment  of  his  birth  the  boy  shows  his  vicious  instincts, 
which  urge  hin,  when  grown  to  manliood,  to  a  career 
of  monstrous  crime.  At 'last  the  horror  which  lie  in- 
spires everywhei«  causes  him  to  reflect,  and,  having 
found  out  the  awful  secret  of  his  birth,  he  hastens  to 
Rome  to  confess  to  the  pope.  He  undergoes  the  most 
rigorous  penance,  living  in  the  disguise  of  a  fool  at  the 
emperor's  court  in  Rome.  Three  times  he  delivers  the 
city  from  the  assault  of  the  Saracens,  but,  refusing  all 
reward,  he  ends  bis  life  as  a  pious  hermit.  According 
to  another  version  he  marries  the  emperor's  daughter, 
whose  love  he  has  won  in  his  humble  disguise,  and  suc- 
ceeds to  the  throne. 

The  oldest  known  account  of  this  legend  is  a  Latin 
prose  narrative  by  a  Dominican  friar,  Etienne  de  Bour^ 
Don  (c.  1250).  Then  it  appears  in  a  French  metrical 
romance  of  the  thirteenth  century,  also  in  a  dit  of 
somewhat  later  date,  and  in  a  miracle  play  of  the  four- 
teenth centvuy .  A  French  prose  version  was  also  pr^ 
fixed  to  the  old  "Croniques  de  Normandie"  (probably 
of  the  thirteenth  century).  But  the  legend  owes  its 
popularity  to  the  8tor>'-l)ooks,  of  which  the  earliest 
known  appeared  at  Lyons  in  1496,  and  again  at  Paris 
in  1497.  under  the  title  "  La  vie  du  terrible  Robert  le 
dvable'  .  Since  the  sixteenth  century  the  legend  was 
often  printed  together  with  that  of  Richard  sans  Peur  ; 
it  was  published  in  completely  recast  form  in  1769 
under  tne  title  "  HLstoire  de  Robert  le  Diable,  due  de 
Normandie,  et  de  Richard  Sans  Peur,  son  fils." 

From  France  the  legend  spread  to  Spain,  where  it 
was  very  popular.  In  England  the  subject  was 
treated  in  the  metrical  romance,  "Sir  Gowther",  the 
work  of  an  unknown  minstrel  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
An  English  translation  from  the  French  chap-book 
was  made  by  WjTikyn  de  Worde,  Caxton's  assist-ant, 
and  published  without  date  under  the  title  "  Robert 
deuyll"  (reprinted  inThoms, "  Early  English  Prose  Ro- 
mances", London  and  New  York,  1907).  Another  vei^ 
sion,  not  based  on  the  preceding,  was  given  by  Thomas 
Lodge  in  his  book  on  "Robin  the  Divell"  (London, 
1591).  In  the  Netherlands  the  romance  of  Rol)recht 
den  Duv^-el  was  put  on  the  index  of  forbidden  books 
by  the  feishop  of  Antwerp  (1621).  In  Germany  the 
legend  never  attained  much  of  a  vogue;  not  until  the 
nineteenth  century  did  it  pass  into  the  Volkshucher, 
being  introduced  by  Gdrres  (q.  v.).  It  was  treated  in 
epic  form  by  Victor  von  Strauss  (1854),  in  dramatic 
form  by  Raupach  (1835) .  Meyerbeer's  opera  "  Robert 
le  Diable"  (1831)  enjoyed  great  favour  for  a  time. 
The  libretto,  written  by  Scribe  and  Delavigne,  has 
little  in  conmion  with  the  legend  except  the  name  of 
the  hero. 

Du  M^iRiL,  La  Ifgendt  de  Robert  le  Diable  in  Etudes  aur 
quelques  points  d'arch/i)loQie  et  d'hisUnre  lUtfraire  (1862), 
272-317;  introduction  to  Breul,  Sir  Qowlher  (Oppeln,  1886). 
In  this  book  a  complete  bibliography  ia  given.  See  also  the  in- 
troduction to  LdscTH's  edition  of  Robert  le  Diable  (Paris,  1903). 

The  Wandering  Jew. — ^This  legend  has  been  widely 
popular  ever  since  its  first  appearance  in  a  German 
chap-book  of  1602.  There  it  is  told  as  follows:  When 
Jesus  bore  his  Cross  to  Calvary,  he  passed  the  house  of 
a  cobbler,  Ahasuerus  by  name,  who  had  been  one  of 
the  rabble  to  shout,  " Crucify  him."  Sinking  beneath 
his  burden,  Jesus  stopped  to  rest  at  the  threshold  of 
the  cobbler,  but  was  driven  away  with  the  words; 
*'Go  where  thou  belongest."  Thereupon  Gur  Lord 
gazed  sternly  at  Ahasuerus  and  said:  "I  will  stand 
here  and  rest,  but  thou  shalt  go  on  until  the  last  day." 
And  since  then  the  Jew  has  l)een  roaming  restlessly 
over  the  earth. 

The  first  lit^raiy  record  of  such  a  doomed  wanderer 
is  found  in  the  "Floras  Historiarum",  a  chronicle  of 
Roger  of  Wend  over,  a  monk  of  St.  Albans  (d.  1237). 
The  account  there  given  was  incorporated  with  some 
slight  amplifications  into  the  "Historia  Major"  of 
Matthew  Paris  (d.  1259).  The  story  is  told  on  the 
authority  of  an  Armenian  bishop  who  visited  England 


in  122S  and  had  personally  known  the  doomed 
man.  According  to  this  version,  Cartaphilus,  a  door- 
keeper at  Pilate's  mansion,  saw  Jesus  as  he  was  led 
fortn  to  be  crucified  and  struck  him  contemptuously, 
crying  at  the  same  time:  "Go  Jesus,  go  faster,  why 
dost  thou  linger  ?  "  Whereupon  Jesus  replied :  "  I  go, 
but  thou  shalt  wait  till  I  come."  And  so  the  offender 
has  not  been  able  to  die,  but  still  waits  for  the  com- 
ing of  Christ.  He  is  leading  a  quiet,  saintly  life. 
Whenever  he  reaches  the  age  of  a  hundred  years  he  is 
miraculously  restored  to  the  age  of  thirty.  Since  his 
conversion  to  Christianity  his  name  is  Joseph.  A  similar 
version,  also  on  the  authority  of  the  Armenian  bishop, 
is  given  by  the  Flemish  chronicler,  Philippe  Mousket, 
Bishop  of  Toumai  (about  1243).  No  doubt,  this 
version  is  the  basis  for  the  story  given  in  the  chap' 
books. 

Now  the  legend  is  surely  not  the  invention  of  the 
Armenian  bishop,  as  has  been  sometimes  claimed.  It 
was  well  known  m  Italy  during  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  must  liave  existed  long  before  that.  According 
to  the  astrologer  Guido  Bonatti,  who  is  mentioned  by 
Dante  (Inf.,  xx,  118),  the  wanderer  passed  tlirougjn 
Forli  in  1267.  PliiUp  of  Novara,  a  famous  jurist,  in 
his  "Livre  de  Fonne  de  Plait"  (c.  1250),  refers  to  a 
certain  Jehan  Boute  Dieu  as  one  proverbially  long- 
lived.  Now  Philip  resided  for  a  long  time  in  Jeru- 
salem and  Cyprus ;  this,  together  with  the  fact  that  the 
account  in  the  English  chronicles  also  localizes  Carta- 
philus  in  Armenia,  seems  to  point  to  an  Oriental  origin 
for  the  legend.  Probably  it  was  part  of  a  local  cycle 
that  sprang  up  in  Jerusalem  in  connexion  with  the 
Passion,  and  was  brought  to  Europe  by  crusaders  or 
pilgrims.  A  legend  of  a  surviving  witness  of  the 
Crucifixion,  who  is  represented  as  the  victim  of  a 
curse,  was  certainly  current  in  Jerusalem,  and  is  re- 
peateidly  referred  to  in  accounts  of  travels  to  the  Holy 
Land .  The  name  of  the  accursed  wanderer  is  generally 
given  as  Joannes  Buttadeus,  in  ItaUan  as  Bottadio, 
which  evidently  means  "  God-smiter".  An  old  Ital- 
ian legend  knows  of  a  similar  punishment  inflicted  on 
the  soldier  who  struck  Christ  before  the  High  Priest 
(John,  xvili,  22),  and  later  on  this  soldier  was  identi- 
fied with  Malchus  whose  ear  was  cut  off  by  Peter. 
This  legend  was  furthermore  confused,  it  seems,  with 
one  current  about  St.  John,  to  whom  tradition  as- 
cribed immortality  on  the  basis  of  a  passage  in  John, 
xxi,  20  sqq.  The  names  Johannes  and  Cartaphilus 
(Kdfyra  4>L\os  "much  beloved"),  given  to  the  wanderer, 
lend  some  colour  to  this  theory. 

But,  whatever  its  origin,  tne  legend  owes  its  fame 
and  popularity  to  the  above-mentioned  German  chap- 
book,  which  appeared  anonymously  in  1602  under  the 
title:  "Kurtze  Beschreibung  und  Erzehlung  von 
einem  Juden  mit  Namen  Ahas^'•erus  ",  etc.  There  the 
story  is  related  on  the  authority  of  a  Lutheran  clergy- 
man, Paul  us  von  Eitzen  (d.  i598),  who  claimed  to 
have  met  the  Jew  in  person  in  Hamburg  in  1542,  and 
to  have  heard  the  story  from  Ahasuerus  himself.  In  a 
later  edition  of  1003,  "  Wunderbarlicher  Bericht  von 
Einem  Juden  Ahasver",  etc.,  where  the  anonymous 
author  assumes  the  pen-name  of  Chrj'sostomus  Uudu- 
Iffius  Westphalus,  the  meeting  is  assigned  to  the  year 
1547,  and  in  an  appendix  the  fate  of  the  Jew  is  made 
the  subject  of  an  exhortation  to  the  Christian  reader. 

The  legend  at  once  sprang  into  popular  favour,  and 
numerous  editions  followed.  Prom  Germany  it 
spread  to  Sweden,  Denmark,  the  Netherlands,  and  es- 
pecially to  France,  where  it  nas  enjoyed  a  great  vogue 
up  to  the  present.  The  best-known  French  version  is 
the  "Histoire  admirable  d'un  Juif  Errant"  dating 
from  the  seventeenth  century.  Here  a  tragic  touch  is 
added  by  the  recital  of  the  dangers  which  the  Jew 
courts  ill  the  vain  hope  of  ending  nis  misery  in  death. 
Stories  of  the  actual  appearance  of  the  Jew  also  began 
to  be  common,  many  of  them,  no  doubt,  traceable  to 
impostors  who  played  the  r61e  with  succew.    Of  such 


£', 


127  LBOKHDS 

a  on«  ««  have  a  well  autlienticatcd  record  from  Italy  ^^o^sd  from  his  quiver,  avows  that  hod  Ue  mjured  tlie 

in  1415,  child  he  would  have  pierced  the  governor.    He  is  put 

Various  namee  are  K>ven  to  the  Waudering  Jew  in  on  board  a  ship  to  be  traiviporC«d  to  Kttssnacht,  but  a 

diSereitt  countries.     The  Englisli  chroniciea  call  him  etonn  coming  up,  he  escapea,  and  eventually  iiberat« 

Cartapldlus.     The  Italian  form  is  Bottadio,  and  this  his  country.     This  in  brief  ia  the  legend.     As  early  as 

correBpouds  to  Boudedeo  in  Brittany  and  Bedeua  in  1607  ita  truth  was  questioned  on  the  ground  that  not 

Saxon  Transylvania.  In  Belgium  he  is  known  as  Isaac  the  slightest  documentary  proof  of  Tell's  existence 

Laquedem,  probably  a  name  of  Hebrew  origin.     In  could  be  found.     Swiaspatriotism,  however,  for  a  long 

Spam  his  name  has  undergone  the  significant  change  time  ailenced  scepticism,  until  the  work  of  scholars  « 

to  Juan  E«pera-en-Dios  (John  Trust-in-God).     Why  theninetcenthcenturj-separatedfact  from  fiction  and 

the  German  version  calls  him  Ahaaverus  is  not  clear,  consigned  Tell's  exploit  to  the  realm  of  fable. 

This  name  is  familiar  from  the  Old  Testament  (Esther,  ,^"-HJJ'  '-"  OrTin"«.  drtaC«nfedfTai(«n  Su-i.^.  jli^  * 

i,  1)  aa  the  surname  of  a  Persian  monarch  (written  Aa-  s^rSlf  SJ^iVATTH^IblS^Si,;  iS7T)Ta»Ui..  O^^^ 

suerua  in  Catholic  versions).      It  is  to  be  noted  that  (Bemr.  1805);  DANDUKEn.  OachithU  drr  ^cAmu.  I  (4th  ed.. 

the  Original  wandererwaanotneceasarilya  Jew;  Carta-  fh","£';vJ5S^U^P^iji™^SL.Ii"St^^a^*'i-^(NSS 

nhilus,  the  door-keeper  in  Pilatc'smansion,  must  have  York,  1900)34-43. 
>een  a  Roman. 

a«Am»  J>*r  ronnJuluKr  und  drr  ewiar  J i^'  (Brrsdra,  1661);  Faiul. — The  ongin  and  dovelopnient  ot  this  famou* 

CoMWi*.  Tlu  Wamlmnv  Jtie  ilfndoD  and  New  York,  IHSl):  Jegend  jg  tolerably  cleor.     Ita  hero  ia  an  actual  peraon- 

t^^'lTsi^o  1-S"  .i"/^i^"&B^'woirpIi  "  2;  «|e,  aman  who  lived  in  Germany  during  the  sixteenUi 

Jui{  Brrant  in  Uumdesdu  Uoum  Agr  CPoria.  1003).  I4!t-1B0:  century.    To  be  sure,  many  of  the  exploits  related  of 

i5L?H.''«'"'  ™"«"^i'""i™aisc^a5ion  of  ihf!  Iwmd  i«  the  himaresomanifestlyfabulous thatsomescholarshave 

work  ol  NicaAUn.  Da  Saae  vam  twwtn  Jvaen  (2DdeiI..  I*in-       .      i_.ji_'  _         -i  lu      „ i.^i*u.. 

•ia.  18931.    For  s  h<a^m7oi  the  Iwn.i  ia  litciitufe  ace  K*i-  doubted  his  verj"  existence  and  have  regarded  the 

nxLi,  AKantTuj  in  drr  WcU-porsU  (Berlin,  1906).  Ic^nd  as  purely  mythical.     But  against  this  view  we 

,           ,  are  able  to  adduce  the  itxplicit  testimony  of  a  number 

The  Flying  Dutehmnn.—The  theme  of  the  doomed  of  contemporaries:  Tritbemius  of  Sponheim,  Mvifianus 

Wanderer  recurs  in  this  legend  of  the  sea.     The  super-  Rufus,  Johoon  Cast,  Agrippa  von  Netteahcim,  and 

Btitious  belief  m  a  spectre  ship  is  widespread  among  others,  who  ckhn  to  have  known  Faust  either  in  per- 

mariners.  _  But  the  I^nd  springing  from  this  belief  son  or  by  reputation.     Thev  all  agree  in  representing 

never  attuned  a  fixed  form;  the  vcraions  given  of  it  him  asa  charlatan,  who  wect  about  the  countrj- under 

rtry  considerably.     The  most  common  wrsion  as  cur-  asaumed  high-sound iiyj  names  boasting  of  his  skill  in 

rent  among  Dutch  sailors  relates  how  a  capUin  by  the  fortune-telling  and  nuigic,  and  praying  on  the  credu- 

name  of  Vanderdecken  or  Vanderstraaten  from  the  lityandsuperHtiliousignoranceof  tbciiooplc.     PbiliD 

Temeuse  district,  while  on  a  voyage  to  India,  is  de-  B^ardi,  a  physician  of  Worms,  autlior  ol  an  "Index 

hiyed  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  a  calm  or  a  storm.  Sanitatis"  (1539),  knew  a  number  of  persona  duped  by 

In  his  rage  he  swears  a  blasphemous  oath  to  double  the  swindler.    He  mentions  Fauet  aa  a  man  who  was 

tne  Cape,  if  he  were  to  sail  until  the  Judgment  Day.  ^cll  known,  but  of  whom  nothing  had  been  heard 

Offended,  God  took  him  at  his  word  and  he  is  doomed  lately.     Alclancltthon  (aa  reported  by  Manlius,  1590) 

to  sail  the  seas  forever,  an  omen  of  ill-luck  to  all  rnari-  ^a  Joliann  Weyer  (d.  1588)  tell  us  that  Faust  wu 

lers  by  whom  his  spectre-ship  is  sighted.  l^im  in  Kundlingen  (i.  e.  Knittlingen)  in  WOrtemberg 

The  legend  docs  not  appear  in  literature  before  the  and  studied  magic  at  Cracow;  also  that  he  came  to  a 

nineteenth  century.     It  was  made  familiar  to  Ameri-  violent  end,  being  found  dead  one  morning  with  a 

can  readers  b^  Washin^n  Irving'a  tale  "The  Storm-  twisted  neck. 

ship",  an  episode  in  his  "Bracebritlge  Hall"  (1822).  The  boasting  of  Faust  did  not  seem  so  alwurd  in  an 

But  it  became  widely  known  through  Heine,  whoprob-  age  when  the  belief  in  demonology  and  magic  was  imi- 

ably  took  it  from  oral  tradition,  and  related  it  in  his  versal.     What  more  natural  than  tliat  his  supcruat- 

"Reisabilder  aus  Nordemey"   (1826)   and  again  in  ural  powersshould  beascribcd  totlieaidof  theDei-ilT 

"MemoirendesHermvon  Schnabelewopski     (m  his  Stonesaboutmeninlengucwithlhc Evil Onehod been 

"Salon',    1834).     Heine    mentions    neither    names  currtint  since  earlv  Chri-itian  times.     Zoroaster,  Vir- 

nor  places,  and  in  the  second  version  the  setting  of  gjl,  Apolionius,  Albcrtiis  Magnus,  Popes  Sylvester  H 

the  story  is  undignified,  it  not  vulgar.     Nevertheless  and  Paul  II  were  some  of  the  eminent  men  of  whom 

theltsendwasgivenamtichdeeperimportthroughthe  such  tales  were  related.     Of  especial  significance  in 

introduction  of  the  moti/af  redemption.     Every  seven  this  connexion  are  the  legends  of  Cyprian  of  Antioch 

years  the  Dutchman  may  land  and  look  for  a  woman  ttnd  Theophilua  of  Adaiui,  in  which  we  meet  with  the 

whose  self-sacrificing  love  will  lift   the    curse.  At  type  of  the  wicked  magician,  who,  to  gratify  ambition 

length  he  findsa  maiden  who  pledges  him  her  love,  but  or  to  accomplish  some  unholv  purpo^',  sells  his  soul  to 

at  the  last  moment  he  refuses  her  generous  sacrifice,  the  Devil.     So,  when  Faust  met  with  a  sudden  and 

reveals  himself  to  her  and  leaves.     She   heroically  violent  death  under  mysteriovw  tirciiiHatances,   ru- 

insists  on  keeping  her  promise  and  casts  herself  into  mour  had  it  that  the  Devil  had  carried  him  off,  and 

the  sea.     This  noble  act  of  self-sacrifice  removes  the  thus  arose  the  story  of  his  compact  with  Satan.     Now 

curse;  the  Dutchman  and  his  ship  sink  beneath  the  the  tales  that  were  current  concerning  former  sorcer- 

waves.  ers  who  had  entered  into  such  an  unholv  partnership 

,^-,i'iiil?^-''S^,f?-'^''^^^1.fT'^S',Jj.'fi'?i^^  were   repeated   eonreming  Faust,  and  gradually  the 

rad(18d4).imd<.tQo,.™.BuiSflA«.«ndIF^tl90i).  ohaeure  charlatan  becante  the  arcl.-magTcian,  ai^und 
whose  name  gathered  a  moss  of  fublc  and  tradition 

WiBiam  TeO. — The  story  of  Tell,  connected  with  dealing  with  black  art.  So  the  Faust  legend  gradu- 
the  origin  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  until  compara-  ally  took  shape.  Its  fir^t  appearance  in  literature 
tively  recent  times  passed  for  history,  but  its  fobulous  da'tea  from  1587,  when  the  first  Fuust  l)Ook  appeared 
character  ia  now  universally  reccmnized.  Tell,  a  yeo-  anonymously  at  FrankfortKin-t he-Main  under  the 
manofUri,  famed  for  his  skill  with  the  cross-bow,  liav-  title  "Iliatoria  von  D.  Johann  Faualen  dem  weitbe- 
ing  refused  to  salute  the  hat,  the  symbol  of  Austrian  schreyten  Zauberer  und  Schwartzkiln.Htler".  In  a 
sovereignty  which  Oessler,  the  most  notoriously  cruel  preface  the  publiaher,  whose  name  was  Johann  Spies, 
of  the  Austrian  governors,  had  caused  to  be  placed  on  tJ^tls  ua  that  he  olitained  the  manuscript  from  "  a  good 
a  pole  at  Altdon,  is  brought  before  the  governor  and  friend  in  Speyer".  According  to  the  version  of  tbis 
ordered  to  show  his  skill  by  shooting  an  apple  on  tiie  iMok.  Faust  studies  theology  at  Wittenberg,  but,  be- 
head of  his  son.  He  successfully  performa  the  feat  ingof  a  "foolish  and  arrogant"  turn  of  mind,  and  de- 
•od  oa  being  aiked  to  explain  why  be  had  taken  two  sirous  of  searching  "  into  all  things  in  heaven  «ad 


UBOENDB 


128 


LEGENDS 


earth  '\  he  resorts  to  magic  and  evokes  the  Devil.  A 
demon,  who  is  called  Mephistopheles,  appears,  and  a 
compact  is  made  whereby  for  a  stated  term  (later  on 
fixed  at  twenty-four  years)  he  agrees  to  be  Faust's 
servant,  in  return  for  which  the  latter  pledges  his  soul 
to  the  Devil.  This  compact  is  sealed  with  Faust's 
blood.  For  a  time  the  sorcerer  lives  in  powpr  and 
splendour,  performing  strange  deeds  and  experiencing 
marvellous  adventures.  But  at  the  end  of  the  stated 
term  the  Devil  claims  his  prey.  A  strange  tumult  is 
heard  at  ni^ht,  and  the  next  morning  Faust's  man- 
gled corpse  IS  foimd  on  a  heap  of  refuse. 

The  book  itself  is  totally  devoid  of  literary  merit. 
Its  purpose  is  purely  didactic;  the  magician's  awful 
fate  is  held  up  as  a  solemn  warning  to  all  who  might  be 
tempted  to  resort  to  black  art.  Tne  f undamenteJ  idea 
of  the  story  is  the  wickedness  of  striving  for  forbidden 
knowledge  by  sinful  means.  The  anonymous  author, 
who,  judging  from  the  general  tone  of  the  book,  was 
probably  a  Lutheran  pastor,  emphatically  disapproves 
of  the  spirit  of  free  inauiry  that  cnaracterizes  the  period 
following  the  great  oiscoveries  and  the  Reformation. 
Of  subsequent  editions,  that  of  Widmann  (1599) 
seems  to  nave  been  the  chief  source  of  later  versions. 
Here  the  anti-Catholic  tendency,  unmistakable  in  the 
first  edition,  is  still  further  emphasized.  Faust's 
downfall  is  directly  attributed  to  the  cult  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church.  There  are  besides  a  number  of  changes, 
usually  with  a  didactic  purpose  and  to  the  detriment 
of  the  literary  quality  of  the  book.  A  lenethy  com- 
mentary is  also  addca.  A  new  edition  of  Widmann's 
version  was  given  by  Pfitzer  in  1674,  and  an  abbrevi- 
ated edition  was  brought  out  about  1725,  by  one  who 
calls  himself  a  "man  of  Christian  sentiments".  But 
the  popularity  of  the  legend  was  due  not  so  much  to 
the  chap-books  as  to  the  crude  dramatic  performances 
given  by  bands  of  strolling  players.  In  these  perform- 
ances English  actors  played  an  important  part.  On 
the  basis  of  an  English'  translation  of  the  German 
chap-book,  Christopher  Marlowe  wrote  his  well  known 
drama  of  Faustus  (first  performed  in  1595),  and  this 

Slay  was  performeid  in  Germany  by  English  actors. 
>f  the  German  Faust  plays  we  have  but  scanty  knowl- 
edge. Ajs  we  know  them  from  the  eighteenth  centurj^ 
they  were  coarse  farces  in  which  buffoonery  and  sensa- 
tionalism were  relied  on  for  success.  Such  plays  dis- 
appeared from  the  literary  stage  when  French  classi- 
cism prevailed.  But  the  Faust  play  survived  as  a 
puppet-show  given  by  showmen  at  fairs  to  amuse  the 
yoimg  and  uncritical,  and  such  a  show  inspired  the 
young  Goethe  with  the  idea  of  writine  his  famous 
masterpiece.  Already  Lessing  had  called  attention  to 
the  dnsunatic  possibilities  of  the  subject,  and  tried  his 
hand  at  a  Faust  drama  of  which  he  had  sketched  a 
scene  (cited  in  the  seventeenth  "Literaturbrief", 
1759). 

The  old  Faust  legend  as  presented  in  the  chap-books 
and  the  plays  is  essentially  a  tragedy  of  sin  and  dam- 
nation, a  characteristic  product  of  the  age  of  the  Ref- 
ormation. In  older  legends  of  great  sinners  like  Rob- 
ert the  Devil,  the  eflicacy  of  penitence  was  proclaimed, 
the  sa\'ing  power  of  the  Church  was  emphasized. 
With  the  Reformation  this  was  changed.  The  rigid 
Lutheran  orthodox  theology  denied  the  redeemmg 
powers  of  the  ancient  Church  and  this  harsh  spirit  is 
reflected  in  the  legend.  The  sinner  who  leagues  with 
the  Devil  was  irrevocably  damned.  Goethe,  the  en- 
lightened humanitarian,  disagreed  with  this  concep- 
tion. For  him  Faust  was  not  a  presumptuous  sensual- 
ist, but  a  titanic  striver  after  truth,  a  representative 
of  humanity's  noblest  aspirations,  and,  whatever  his 
sins  and  errors  might  be,  in  the  end  he  was  to  be  saved. 
In  Goethe's  "Faust"  (see  Germany,  loc.  cit.  tupra) 
the  legend  has  received  its  classic  form. 

For  a  fairly  complete  bibliography  of  the  hnmenM  fitereture 
of  the  subject  down  to  1884  consult  Enqkl,  ZtuamnunaUlluno 
der  Faust-Sehriften  vom  W.  Jahrhundert  bU  mitte  188A  (Olden- 
burs*   1885);  see  also   Fibchsb,  OoHhet  Faxtal  in    Oodh&' 


IUlt  OeschidUswiBsenschaftt  VII  (Freiburg  im  Br.  and  liepxig, 
1897)  •  298-^360  (here  ail  the  literaiy  testimonials  conceming  the 
historical  Faust  are  adduced  and  discussed).  Consult  also  the 
introduction  to  Thomas,  Cfoethe*8  Fatut  (Boston.  1899). 

Abthur  F.  J.  Remt. 

Legends  of  the  Saints. — Under  the  term  legend 
the  modem  concept  would  include  every  untrue  tale. 
But  it  is  not  so  very  long  since  its  meaning  has  been 
extended  thus  far,  nor  is  such  a  definition  historically 
justifiable.  That  which  was  understood  by  the  word 
legend,  at  the  time  when  the  concept  arose,  in- 
cluded both  truth  and  fiction  (considered  from  the 
standpoint  of  modem  historical  criticism) .  And  this  is 
what  the  numerous  friends  of  the  legend  amons  the 
German  poets,  since  the  days  of  the  Romantic  School, 
understand  by  the  term.  The  legenda  included  facts 
which  were  historically  genuine,  as  well  as  narra- 
tive which  we  now  class  as  unhistorical  legend.  The 
term  is  a  creation  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  has  its 
source  in  the  reading  of  the  prayers  used  in  Divine 
service.  Since  the  c&ys  of  the  martyrs,  the  Church 
recalled  to  mind  her  famous  dead  in  the  prayers  of  the 
Mass  and  in  the  Office,  by  commemoratmg  the  names 
noted  in  the  martyrologies  and  making  mention  of  in- 
cidents in  their  lives  and  martyrdom.  When  the 
lectio  became  a  matter  of  precept,  the  reading  matter 
in  the  office  for  the  day  became  in  a  precise  sense 
legenda  (that  which  must  be  read).  After  the  thir- 
teenth century  the  word  legenda  was  regarded  as  the 
equivalent  of  vita  and  passio,  and,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  liber  ledionarius  is  comprised  under 
what  is  known  as  *' legend".  Thus,  historically  con- 
sidered, legend  is  the  story  of  the  saints.  As  by  this 
time  it  had  unfortunately  happened  that  the  stories 
of  the  saints  were  supplemented  and  embellished  by 
the  people  according  to  their  primitive  theological 
conceptions  and  inclinations,  the  legend  became  to  a 
large  extent  fiction.  The  age  of  the  Reformation  re- 
ceived the  legend  in  this  form.  On  accoimt  of  the  im- 
portance wmch  the  saints  possessed  even  among 
Protestants,  especially  as  the  instruments  of  Divine 
grace,  the  legends  have  remained  in  use  to  this  day, 

Particularly  m  sermons.  The  edition  of  the  "Vit® 
'atrum",  which  Georg  Major  published  at  Witten- 
berg in  1544  by  Luther's  orders^  closely  follows  Atha- 
nasius,  Rufinus,  and  Jerome,  rejecting  merely  the  ob- 
vious fantasies  and  aberrations,  such  as,  for  example, 
were  to  be  seen  in  the  "Vita  s.  Barbar»",  the  "Le- 
genda Aurea"  of  the  thirteenth  century,  or  in  the 
"  Vita  s.  Simeonis  Stylitffi"  of  Pseudo-Antonius.  But 
the  opposition  to  the  ancient  Church  became  intensi- 
fied, and  led  to  the  Reformers'  breach  with  the  saints. 
Simultaneously,  the  legends  of  the  saints  disappear 
from  Protestantism,  and  it  is  only  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  after  the  brief  appearance  of  Romanticism, 
that  they  again  find  entrance  into  official  Protestant- 
ism in  connexion  with  the  attempts  of  Ferdinand 
Piper  (d.  1899  at  Berlin)  to  revive  the  popular  cal- 
endars. 

In  the  usage  of  the  Catholic  Church  and  of  the 
people,  the  legend  plays  the  same  part  tondav  as  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  Here  also  science  has  taught  that 
distinctions  are  to  be  made.  Thus  it  was  felt  that  not 
all  the  legends  we  possess  were  of  equal  value,  and 
especially  that  the  editions  of  the  lives  of  the  saints 
were  entirely  imsatisfactory.  It  was  the  Jesuit  Heri- 
bert  Rosweyde  of  Utrecht  who,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  imdertook  to  remedy  matters 
by  referring  to  the  most  ancient  texts,  and  by  point- 
ing out  how  the  tales  developed.  Rosweyde  wished 
merely  to  correct  the  old  collections;  his  idea  was  to 
treat  the  martyrologies.  beginning  with  the  most  an- 
cient, from  the  philological  standpoint.  But  his 
scheme  was  forthwith  taken  up  by  his  order,  and  after 
his  death  (1629)  was  carried  out  on  a  large  scale,  with 


LEOEHDS 


129 


LEQEHDB 


ftD  eye  also  to  sectarian  opponents,  who  might  learn 
from  the  lives  of  the  saints  the  continuity  of  Caliiolic 
teaching  and  Catholic  life.  Thus  there  came  into  ex- 
istence the  *'Acta  Sanctorum"  of  the  ^ollandists 
^q.  v.).  This  monumental  work  has  become  the 
foundation  of  all  investigation  in  hagiography  and 
lesend. 

In  their  present  state  of  development,  we  would  do 
well  to  keep  these  two  departments  separate.  The 
meaning  of  the  word  legend  has  indeed  been  practi- 
cally  transformed;  the  Roman  Breviary  officially 
designates  the  lesson  for  the  day  as  lectiOf  and  the 
Church  now  recognizes  the  legend  rather  as  a  popular 
stonr,  since  the  populace  are  always  more  impressed 
by  the  extraordinaiy  and  the  grotesque.  The  Iqgend  has 
thus  come  to  be  regarded  merely  as  a  fictitious  reli- 
gious tale.  Nothing  therefore  stands  in  the  way  of  a 
distinction,  which  besides  is  indispensable  to  those 
who  desire  clearness  in  hagiography.  Hagiography  is 
to-day  the  province  of  the  historian,  who  must,  even 
more  carefully  in  the  history  of  the  saints  than  in  other 
historical  questions,  test  the  value  of  the  sources  of 
the  reports.  Only  thus  will  it  be  possible  to  arrive  at 
the  fundamental  question  of  all  hagiography,  the  ques- 
tion of  miracles  m  history.  Are  matters,  which  the 
modem  man  is  inclined  to  take  as  legend,  authenti- 
cally vouched  for,  or  are  they  met  with  only  in  doubt* 
f  ul  sources?  The  belief  in  miracles,  considered  as  such, 
does  not  affect  the  historian.  He  has  only  to  gather 
the  original  authorities  together  and  to  say:  This  is 
what  happened,  so  far  as  historical  science  can  deter- 
mine. Ii  this  presentation  of  the  facts  be  correct,  then 
no  objection  can  be  raised  against  the  results.  We 
have  now  an  abundance  of  hagiographic  memorials 
which  are  just  as  truly  history  as  any  other  memo- 
rials. Reports  of  miracles  which  partake  of  a  vague 
and  general  character  we  may  and  must  exclude  from 
this  category — e.  g.^  when  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  in  a 
letter  to  St.  Augustine,  makes  mention  of  the  miracles 
which  followed  on  Augustine's  zealous  activity  in 
England:  *'Scio  quod  omnipotens  Deus  per  diloction- 
em  tuam  in  eentc,  quam  eligi  voluit,  magna  miracula 
ofltendit"  (I  know  that  .Almighty  God  by  His  love 
for  thee  has  shown  forth  great  miracles  among  the 
people,  whom  he  wished  to  be  saved" — "Gregorii  Regis- 
trum  ",  XI,  ep.  xxxvi).     We  possess  hagiographic  re- 

Sorta  on  the  best  possible  autnority  in  numerous  legal 
ocuments  and  official  registers  concerning  depositions 
under  oath.  Such  vouchers,  however,  cannot  in  the 
nature  of  the  case  be  applicable  to  the  entire  life  of  a 
saint,  but  only  to  individual  occurrences,  and,  for  the 
most  part,  not  to  occurrences  in  the  saint's  lifetime, 
but  to  those  which  took  place  at  his  shrine.  The  mira- 
cles of  healing  at  the  shrine  of  Bishop  Willehad  at 
Bremen  (d.  about  790)  in  860,  the  miracles  of  Bernard 
in  the  "Liber Miraculorum*'  of  1146-47,  the  cures  at 
the  grave  of  Bishop  Bruno  of  Wurzburg  (d.  1045) 
in  l!^-03,  are  related  in  a  manner  open  to  no  ob- 
jection. 

Concerning  the  miraculous  occurrences  at  the  grave 
of  St.  Peter  Parenzo  at  Orvieto  (d.  1199) — an  ex- 
haustive list  cannot  be  attempted  here;  we  quote  but 
a  few  examples — of  St.  Bertrand  of  Aquileia  (d.  13.'>0), 
of  St.  Helena  of  Udina  (1458),  of  St.  James  Philippi  of 
Faenaa  (1483),  of  St.  HypoUstus  of  Atripalda  (1637- 
46),  of  St.  Juventius  in  Casa  Dei  (at  Rouen,  1667-74), 
we  have  documentary  accoimts  (Acta  SS.,  May,  V, 


pNOSsess  an  imposmi 
ray  of  reports  of  eyewitnesses  in  every  centurv,  lucid 
Aels  of  martyrs,  relations  like  that  of  the  monk  Cuth- 
bert  on  the  death  of  the  Venerable  Bede  (735),  of 
Willelwld  of  Mains  on  the  life  of  Boniface  the  Great, 
the  history  of  the  holy  virgin  Oda  (d.  1158)  at  Gute- 
hoffnung  near  BingeHi  the  life  of  Cardinal  Nicholas 
▲Ibergati  of  Bi^logna  (d,  1443).  Whoever  gives  fair 
1\.    0 


consideration  to  all  these  facts  must  come  to  a  double 
conclusion:  (1)  that  the  extraordinary  does  not  neces- 
sarily appertain  to  the  life  of  the  samt;  and  (2)  that 
in  every  case  these  signs  and  wonders  are  not  un- 
worthy of  the  saint,  e.  g.  cures,  apparitions,  prophecies, 
visions,  transfigurations,  stigmata,  pleasant  odour, 
incomiption.  But  the  historian  ought  likewise  to 
remember  that  (leaving  the  stigmata,  an  essentiallv 
Christian  manifestation,  out  of  the  question)  all 
these  phenomena  were  also  known  to  antiquity. 
Ancient  Greece  exhibits  stone  monuments  and  inscrip- 
tions which  bear  witness  to  cures  and  anpantions  m 
the  ancient  nivtholo^.  History  tells  ot  Aristeas  of 
Proconnesus,  Hermotimus  of  Clazomense,  Epimenides 
of  Crete,  that  they  were  ascetics  and  thereby  became 
ecstatic,  even  to  the  degree  of  the  soul  leaving  the 
body,  remaining  far  removed  from  it,  and  being  able 
to  appear  in  other  places.  Nor  is  it  essential  that 
medieval  mysticism  oe  something  different  from  the 
ancient  hieromania;  in  both  cases  the  presumption  is 
the  same  as  regards  the  faculties  of  the  soul. 

History,  therefore,  knows  of  miracles,  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  historical  miracle  itself  leads  us  to  the  di»- 
tinction  between  history  and  legend.  If  the  authen- 
tic reports  are  held  to  be  trustworthy,  and  within  the 
bounds  of  physicid  and  psychical  experience,  and  the 
unauthentic  reports  repel  us  owing  to  their  fantastic 
embellishments,  then  we  will  be  justified  in  claiming 
that  the  surplus  of  these  latter  narratives  over  the  au- 
thentic reports  is  imtrue,  and  is  legend  in  the  modem 
sense  of  the  word.  The  establishment  of  this  distinc- 
tion is,  therefore,  entirely  a  matter  of  historical 
method.  But,  since  mistrust  of  the  historical  woik 
may  lead  to  the  suspicion  that  the  estimation  of  the 
value  of  the  sources  has  been  influenced  by  the  subject 
matter  of  the  miracle,  the  proof  must  be  carried  a  step 
farther,  and  the  origin  of  the  superfluous  matter 
demonstrated.  Hence  arises  as  our  next  task,  to 
indicate  (1)  the  contents  and  (2)  the  sources  of 
legends. 

Manifold  as  the  varieties  of  legends  now  seem  to  be, 
there  are  fundamentally  not  so  very  many  different 
notions  utilized.  The  legend  considers  the  saint  as  a 
kind  of  lord  of  the  elements,  who  commands  the  water, 
rain,  fire,  mountain,  and  rock;  he  changes,  enlarges,  or 
diminishes  objects;  flies  through  the  air;  delivers  from 
dungeon  and  gallows;  takes  part  in  battles,  and  even 
in  martyrdom  is  invulnerable;  animals,  the  wildest 
and  the  most  timid,  serve  him  (e.  g.  the  stories  of  the 
bear  as  a  beast  of  burden ;  the  ring  in  the  fish;  the  frogs 
becoming  silent,  etc.) ;  his  birth  is  glorified  by  a  mira- 
cle; a  voice,  or  letters,  from  Heaven  proclaim  his  iden- 
tity; bells  ring  of  themselves;  the  heavenly  ones  enter 
into  {personal  intercourse  with  him  (betrothal  of 
Mary) ;  he  speaks  with  the  dead  and  beholds  heaven, 
hell,  and  purgatory;  forces  the  Devil  to  release  people 
from  compacts;  he  is  victorious  over  dragons;  etc. 
Of  all  this  the  authentic  Christian  narratives  know 
nothing.  But  whence  then  does  this  world  of  fantas- 
tic concepts  arise  ?  A  glance  at  the  pre-C'hristian  re- 
ligious narratives  will  dispel  every  doubt.  All  these 
stories  are  anticipated  by  the  Greek  chroniclers,  writ- 
erh  of  myths,  collectors  of  strange  tales,  neo-Plato- 
nism,  and  neo-Pythagorism.  One  neeil  only  refer  to 
the  'EXXdSos  xepuffynffis  of  Pausanias,  or  glance  through 
the  codices  collected  by  Photius  in  his  "  Bibliotheca  , 
to  recognize  what  great  importance  was  attached  to 
the  reports  of  miracles  in  antiquity  by  both  the  edu- 
cated and  uneducated.  The  legend  makes  its  appear- 
ance wherever  the  common  people  endeavoured  to 
form  theological  concepts,  and  in  its  main  features  it  i» 
everywhere  the  same.  Like  the  myth  (the  explana-. 
tory  fable  of  nature)  and  the  doctrinal  fable,  it  has  ita 
independent  religious  and  hortatory  importance.  Thft 
legend  claims  to  show  the  auxiliary  power  of  the  supeiv 
natural,  and  thus  indicate  to  the  people  a  "  saviour  in 
every  need.    The  worshioDer  of  divinity,  the  hei:Q* 


LSaEMDS 


130 


LSaSNIIB 


worshipper,  is  assured  of  the  supernatural  protection 
to  which  he  has  established  a  claim.  With  the  old 
mythologies  and  genealogies  of  gods,  of  which  they 
serve  after  a  certain  fashion  as  corrol>orative  evidence, 
these  tales  may  ]ye  regarded  as  the  theology  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  guiding  thoughts  are  in  every  case  taken 
from  life;  they  deal  with  the  fulfilment  of  the  simple 
wishes  and  expectations  likely  to  arise  in  the  minds  of 
men  whose  lives  were  spent  in  contest  with  the  forces 
and  laws  of  nature. 

Hellenism  had  already  recognized  this  characteristic 
of  the  religious  fable,  and  would  thus  have  been  obliged 
to  free  itself  from  it  in  the  course  of  time,  had  not  the 
competition  with  Christianity  forced  the  champions  of 
the  ancient  pol>i:heism  to  seek  again  in  the  ancient 
f  al  )les  incidents  to  set  against  the  miraculous  power  of 
Christ.  In  this  w-ay  popular  illusions  found  tneir  way 
from  Hellenism  to  Christianity,  whose  struggles  in  the 
first  three  centuries  certainly  produced  an  abundance 
of  heroes.  The  genuine  Acts  of  the  martyrs  (cf .,  for 
example,  R.  Knopf,  "  Ausgewilhlte  MiirtjTeracten  *', 
Tubingen,  1901;  Ruinart,  "  Acta  MartjTum  sinoera", 
Paris,  1689,  no  longer  sufficient  for  scientific  research) 
have  in  them  no  popular  miracles.  After  the  persecu- 
tions, however,  when,  with  the  lapse  of  time,  there  was 
no  longer  any  standard  by  which  to  measure  the  unex- 
ampled heroism  of  the  martyrs,  it  l^ecame  easy  to 
transfer  to  the  Christian  mart>Ts  the  conceptions 
which  the  ancients  held  concerning  their  heroes.  This 
transference  was  promoted  by  the  numerous  cases  in 
which  Christian  saints  l>ecame  the  successors  of  local 
deities,  and  Christian  worship  supplanted  the  ancient 
local  worship.  Tliis  explains  the  great  number  of 
similiarities  between  gods  and  saints.  For  the  often 
maintained  metamorphosis  of  gods  into  saints  no 
proof  is  to  be  found.  The  earliest  Catholics  of  whom 
legends  are  told  are  therefore  the  martjTS.  And  from 
them  the  conceptions  are  then  transferred  to  the  con- 
fessors, as,  after  the  days  of  persecution,  the  scene  of 
the  contest  for  salvation  was  changed  from  the  rack 
and  the  amphitheatre  to  the  human  soul. 

But  how  was  the  transference  of  legends  to  Chris- 
tianity consummatetl?  The  fact  that  the  Talmud 
also  uses  the  same  ideas,  with  variations,  proves  that 
the  guiding  thou/i;hts  of  men  during  the  period  of  the 
first  spread  of  Christianity  ran  in  general  on  parallel 
lines.  There  is  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  these  Chris- 
tian legends  are  to  be  traced  to  a  common  oral  tradi- 
tion, which  was  unconsciously  transferred  from  one 
subject  of  a  legend  to  another.  For  the  hypothesis  of 
this  literary  transference,  no  proofs  can  be  given.  If 
St.  Augustine  (De  cura  pro  mortuis  gerenda,  xii)  and 
also  St.  Gregory  the  Great  (Dialogues,  IV,  xxxvi)  relate 
of  a  man,  who  died  by  an  error  of  the  Angel  of  Death 
and  was  again  restored  to  life,  the  same  story  which  is 
already  given  by  Lucian  in  his  "  Philopseudes  ",  such 
an  example  at  once  shows  that  the  literary  style  was 
not  the  model,  but  that  the  oral  relation  was.  Augus- 
tine and  Gregory  received  the  story  of  the  occurrence 
from  those  who  claimed  to  have  seen  it.  .  To  such  an 
extent  had  certain  imaginary  conceptions  l^ecome  the 
common  property  of  the  people  that  they  repeated 
themselves  as  auto-suggestions  and  dreams.  There 
are  ideas  of  so  pronounced  a  peculiarity  that  they  can 
be  invented  only  once,  and  tneir  successive  reappear^ 
ances  in  new  surroundings  must,  therefore,  \>e  due  to 
oral  transmission.  Such  is  the  characteristic  tale  of 
the  impostor,  who  concealed  the  money  he  owed  in  a 
hollow  stick,  gave  tliis  stick  to  the  creditor  to  hold, 
and  then  swore  that  he  had  given  back  the  money; 
this  tale  is  found  in  Conon  the  Grammarian  (at  Rome 
in  Cajsar's  time),  in  the  Ilaggada  of  the  Talmud  (Xe- 
darim,  2r)a),  and  in  the  Christian  legends  of  the  thir- 
teentli  century  in  Vincent  of  Beauvais.  The  leading 
ideas  of  t'.e  legends  were  transferred  individually,  and 
appoan^(  I  hitf^r  in  literary  form  in  the  most  varied  com- 
binat  ions.    Not  till  the  sixth  century  may  the  literaiy 


type  of  martyr  be  considered  as  perfected,  and  we  are 
subsequently  able  to  verify  the  Uterary  associations  of 
ideas.  This  Cathohc  type  had  indeed  had  models  in 
the  distant  past.  The  pre-Christian  religious  narra- 
tive had  already  worked  up  the  old  motives  into  ro- 
mances, and,  starting  from  this  example,  there  arose 
in  Gnostic  circles  after  the  second  century  the  apocry- 
phal accounts  of  the  Uvea  of  the  Apostles,  indicating 
dogmatic  prepossessions.  The  Church  combatted  these 
stories,  but  the  opposition  of  centuries — ^the  Decree 
of  Gelasius  in  496  is  well-known — was  unable  to  pre- 
vent the  genuine  narratives  from  becoming  infected, 
and  the  ideals  of  the  common  people  from  obtaining 
preponderance  over  historical  facts.  The  place  of 
origin  and  of  dissemination  of  these  mere  legends  was 
the  East.  With  the  termination  of  the  sixth  century 
the  taste  for  them  was  transplanted  to  the  West  also, 
owing  to  the  active  intercourse  between  Syria  and 
Gaul.  Even  Gregory  of  Tours  (d.  594)  was  acquainted 
with  the  apocryphal  lives  of  the  Apostles.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventh  century  we  already  find  related 
in  Gaul  (in  the  "  Passio  Tergeminorum  "  of  Wamahar 
of  Langres),  as  an  incident  in  the  local  history  of 
Langres,  a  story  of  martyrdom  originating  in  Cappa- 
docia. 

The  seventh  century  sees  the  literary  form  of  legend 
•domiciled  in  the  West.  Bede's  "  Martyrology "  and 
Aldhelm  of  Malmesbury  (d.  709)  indicate  a  wide 
knowledge  of  this  foreign  literature.  Ireland  and 
England  eagerly  follow  in  the  new  direction.  In  the 
western  part  of  the  continent  the  taste  changes  accord- 
ing to  the  times.  Rough  times  require  more  abun- 
dant consolations;  thus  the  legends  of  the  "saviour" 
make  their  appearance  in  the  Merovingian  seventh 
century  up  to  the  middle  of  the  eighth;  others  in  the 
time  of  the  perils  from  the  Northmen,  of  the  religious 
wars,  and  the  Crusades,  and  especially  tow^ards  the  end 
of  the  Middle  Ages  with  its  social  calamities.  During 
the  millenarian  tenth  century,  the  era  of  the  Cluniacs 
and  mysticism  make  the  biographies  of  the  saints  sub- 
jective. The  twelfth  century  brings  with  the  new 
religious  orders  the  contemplative  legends  of  Mary. 
The  thirteenth  sees  the  development  of  the  cities  and 
the  citizens,  hand  in  hand  with  which  goes  the  popu- 
larization of  the  legend  by  means  of  collections  com- 
piled for  the  purposes  of  sermons,  vita  sanctorum^  ex- 
empla,  or  merely  to  give  entertainment  (Vincent  of 
Beauvais,  Caisarius  of  Heisterbach,  James  of  Vitry, 
Thomas  of  Chantimpr^,  *'Legenda  Aurea") ;  in  this  cen- 
tury also  arise  the  legends  oif  Mary  and,  in  connexion 
with  the  new  feast  of  Corpus  Chnsti  (1264),  a  strong 
interest  in  tales  of  miracles  relating  to  the  Host.  In- 
deed it  was  in  the  very  nature  of  the  case  that  the  new 
legend  should  appear  otherwise  than  the  old.  Tran- 
substantiation  is  something  specifically  Christian. 
Still,  we  find  only  variations  oi  the  old  concepts  of 
tnmsformation  and  apparitions,  as  in  the  innumerable 
stories  which  now  circulated  oi  visible  incarnation  of 
the  Divine  Child  or  of  the  Crucified  One,  or  of  the  mon- 
strance being  suspended  in  the  air.  But  the  continu- 
ity of  the  concepts  is  quite  evident  in  the  case  of  the 
legend  of  Mary.  If  Mary  considers  herself  as  be- 
trothed to  the  priest  who  ser\'es  her,  the  meaning  of 
this  is  not  far  to  seek;  but  nevertheless  Callimachus 
(third  century  B.C.)  had  also  treated  this  idea  in  a  leg- 
end of  Artemis,  and  Antoninus  Liberalis  and  the  Tad- 
mud  have  variations  of  it.  And  if,  in  this  legend  of 
Mary,  the  Blessed  Virgin  put  a  ring  on  the  hand  of  her 
betrothed  under  quite  characteristic  circumstances, 
that  is  nothing  else  than  the  Roman  local  legend  of  the 
betrothal  of  Venus,  as  it  has  been  preserved  by  Wil- 
liam of  Malmesbury  and  the  "Deutsche  Kaiser- 
chronik  "  of  the  twelfth  century. 

Therefore:  (1)  the  original  reports  of  martyrdoms 
and  lives  do  not  present  what  is  called  '* legend";  (2) 
legends  repeat  tne  conceptions  found  in  the  pr»- 
Christian  religious  tales.    From  this  it  follows  that  w« 


U5GSR 


131 


uazmcAnoM 


have  a  right  to  identify  the  pre-  and  post-Christian 
popular  religious  tales;  the  legend  is  not  Christian, 
only  Christianized.  But  where  then  He  its  ultimate 
sources?  In  many  cases  it  lias  obviously  the  same 
origin  as  the  myth,  when  it  refers  the  incomprehensi- 
ble to  religious  heroes.  Anti(iuity  traced  back  sources, 
whose  natural  elements  it  did  not  understand,  to  the 
heroes;  such  was  also  the  case  with  many  legends  of 
the  saints,  although  others  should  rather  be  regarded 
as  outgrowths  of  the  genuine  history  of  the  saints. 
Etymwogy  also  has  often  led  to  the  promotion  of 
legends;  thus,  Christopher  becomes  the  actual  Christ- 
carrier.  Again,  there  must  be  taken  into  consideration 
the  inexhaustible  imagination  of  the  conunon  people; 
merely  because  the  people  expected  help,  or  punish- 
ment, in  certain  situations,  the  fulfilment  of  such  ex- 
pectations was  soon  related.  And,  finally,  general 
axioms  of  experience  (as  in  Pantschatantra;  or,  in  the 
case  of  the  Talmud  and  Christianity,  merely  sentences 
and  figures  of  speech  from  the  Holy  Scripture  are 
clothed  in  the  garb  of  narrative. 

Dblbhate,  Les  U-gendes  hagiographiquea  (Brussels,  1905), 
tr.  CRAWfORD.  Legeruh  of  the  Saintx  (London  and  New  York, 
laasy,  QGitTKnt  Legtnden^Sludifn  iCologne^  1906);  Idem,  X>ie 
cHriatL  Legende  dea  AbtTidlandea  (Heidelberg,  1910). 

Heinrich  GCnter. 

Leger,  Saint.    See  Leodegaji. 

Leghorn.  Diocese  of  (Liburnensis),  suffragan  of 
Pisa.  Leghorn  (Ital.  Ldvorno),  in  Tuscany,  is  the 
capital  of  the  smallest  of  the  provinces  of  Italy.  The 
city  is  situated  on  marshy  ground,  and  is  in  conse- 
quence intersected  by  many  canals,  hence  it  has  Ixjcn 
called  ** Little  Venice".  A  larger  canal  puts  it  in 
communication  with  Pisa.  It  has  two  ports,  the  old, 
or  Medici,  port,  and  the  new  port  constructed  in  1854. 
In  former  times  leghorn  was  the  most  important  port 
in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany;  even  now  it  is  out- 
ranked only  by  Genoa  and  Naples.  Among  its  nu- 
merous teaching  establishments  are  a  naval  academy, 
and  an  observatory  erected  in  1881.  The  public  u- 
brary  is  important,  and  the  prehistoric  museum  con- 
tains man>r  Etruscan  and  Iloman  antiquities.  The 
town  likewise  possesses  a  gallery  of  paintings,  and  its 
archives  have  an  historical  mterest.  Among  the 
more  important  industries  are  shipbuilding,  iron- 
works, and  trade  in  alabaster  and  coral.  The  cathe- 
dral dates  from  the  sixteenth  century;  there  are  also 
churches  belonging  to  the  Greek,  the  Maronite,  and  the 
Armenian  Rites.  The  svnagogue  (1603)  is  second 
only  to  that  at  Amsterdam.  The  royal  palace  was 
erected  by  Cosimo  I.  Of  note  also  are  the  Torre  del 
Marzocco,  now  used  as  a  signal  station,  and  the  Torre 
della  Meloria,  near  which,  in  1241,  the  Pisans  sur- 
priaed  and  defeated  the  Genoese  fleet  on  its  way  to 
Home  with  the  French  bishops  who  were  going  to  the 
council  summoned  against  Frederick  II.  Among  the 
andents  Leghorn  was  known  as  Portua  Libwmi,  and 
was  of  small  importance  until  the  sixteenth  century. 
It  belonged  to  the  Pisans,  and  was  captured  from 
them  hj  the  Genoese.  In  1421  the  Florentines 
bought  it  for  100,(X)0  florins,  and  thus  Leghorn  came 
to  TO  the  main  outlet  for  Florentine  commerce,  to  the 
detriment  of  Pisa,  which  from  that  time  began  to 
wane.    The  Medici  family  took  great  interest  in  the 

Prosperity  of  this  stronghold;  Alessandro  de'  Medici 
uilt  the  old  fortress;  Cosmo  I,  under  the  supervision 
of  Vasari,  built  a  breakwater  and  a  new  canal.  But 
the  real  author  of  its  fatness  was  Ferdinand  I,  who 
called  Leghorn  **  his  mistress  ".  To  increase  its  popu- 
lation he  showered  his  favours  on  it  and  on  those  who 
went  to  Uve  there,  and  made  it  a  town  of  refuse  for  men 
from  every  nation,  so  that  there  flocked  to  it  not  only 
outlaws  from  all  over  Italy,  but  even  Greeks,  Jews,  and 
Moors  driven  out  of  Spain.  Exiled  English  Catholics 
found  a  ho/ne  there.  Cosmo  II  erected  a  monument 
to  Ferdinand,  the  work  of  Giovanni  dell'  Opera.  Ow- 
ing to  the  bombardment  (by  the  English  in  1651 ,  and 


by  the  1"  rench  in  1671)  of  the  Dutch  fleet  stationed  in 
the  harbour,  Ferdinand  II  caused  Leghorn  to  be  de- 
clared a  neutral  port  by  international  treaty  (1601). 
This  neutrality  was  violated  for  the  first  time  in  1796 
by  Bonaparte,  whose  idea  of  a  **  Continental  blockado  " 
did  immense  damage  to  the  commerce  of  the  town. 
In  184S  Leghorn  was  the  hotl>ed  of  the  Tuscan  revolu- 
tion. 

The  episcopal  see  was  created  hy  Pius  VII  in  1806. 
Its  first  bishop  was  Filippo  Canucci.  The  diocese  lias 
32  parishes  with  170,000  souls.  The  number  of  reli- 
gious houses  for  men  is  9,  and  for  women,  12.  It  has 
3  educational  institutions  for  boys,  and  7  for  girls. 

Repetti,  Ditxonario  Geografico  ecc.  dclla  Toacana  (Florence* 
1835);  Tarqioni-Tometti  and  Boufti,  Lihunn  civitaa  (Ix>g- 
horn,  190C).  U.   BeniGNI. 

Legio,  titular  see  of  Palestina  Secunda,  sufTragan  of 
Scythopohs.  It  figures  for  the  first  time  in  a  Latin 
episcopal  notitiay  tkiting  probably  from  the  eleventh 
century,  where  it  is  given  under  the  name  of  Legionumf 
between  the  Bishoprics  of  Dioca'sarea  and  Capitolias 
rTobler  and  Mohnier,  "Itinera  Hierosolymitana'*,  I, 
Geneva,  1880,  343).  If,  however,  we  consult  the 
Greek  "  Notitiae  Episcopatuum",  of  which  the  Latin  is 
only  a  translation,  we  fmd  in  that  place,  not  Legio,  but 
Maximianopolis  ("Byzant.  Zeitschr.'*,  I,  Leipzig, 
1892,  253,  256).  The  See  of  Leeio  is,  therefore,  iden- 
tical with  Maximianopolis;  in  tiie  Middle  Ages  both 
cities  were  identified,  being  near  neighbours,  though 
really  distinct  places  in  the  same  see.  Ix»gio  is  now 
Ledjun,  well  known  in  the  Bible  and  in  history  under 
the  name  of  Mageddo.  S.  Vailh^:. 

Legipont,  Guver,  Benedictine,  bibliographer,  b. 
at  Soiron,  Limburg,  2  Dec.,  1G9S;  d.  at  Trier,  16 
Jan.,  1758.  Having  received  his  early  education  from 
the  Franciscans  at  Verviers.  he  proceeded  for  higher 
studies  to  Cologne,  where  ne  entered  the  abbey  of 
Great  St.  Martin,  received  the  priest hoo<l  on  22  May, 
1723,  and  the  degree  of  Licentiate  in  1728.  His  life 
was  practically  a  succession  of  jounirj's  to  the  numer- 
ous libniries,  which  he  was  commissioned  to  examine 
and  put  in  order.  Though  zealous  in  the  sacred 
ministry,  he  had  little  opportunity  of  exercising  it; 
nor  did  he  devote  much  time  to  teaching,  though  he 
was  instrumental  in  promoting  the  higher  studies  in 
his  order  by  the  erection  of  a  Benedictine  college  in 
the  University  of  Heidelberg.  Most  of  his  writing 
remain  unedited,  but  among  the  printed  works  his 


edition  of  Ma^oald  Zicgclbauer's  "Ilistoria  rei  litter- 
ariiB  ord.    Sti.  Benedicti"    (1754 — ),    *'Monasticum 


same  also  in  Spanish,  Valencia,  1759)  nave  lasting 

value 
Allg! Deuiach.  Bwg.,  XVIII,  126. 

Benedict  Zimmerman. 

Legists,  teachers  of  civil  or  Roman  law,  who,  be- 
sides expounding  sources,  explaining  terms,  eluci- 
dating texts,  summarizing  the  contents  of  chapters, 
etc.,  illustrated  by  cases,  real  or  imaginary,  the  nu- 
merous questions  and  distinctions  arising  out  of  the 
'Corpus  Juris"  enactments  of  the  ancient  Roman 
code.  From  the  twelfth  centurv,  when  a  fresh  im- 
pulse was  given  to  legal  researches,  the  terms  legist 
and  decretist — the  latter  applied,  in  the  narrower  sense, 
to  the  interpreter  of  ecclesiastical  law  and  commen- 
tator on  the  canonical  texts — have  been  carefully 
distinguished. 

P.  J,  MacAuley. 

Legitimation  (Lat.  legUimatio),  the  canonical  term 
for  the  act  by  which  the  irregularity  contracted  bj 
being  bom  out  of  lawful  wedlock  is  removed  (see  Ir- 
RRouLARiTv).     Legitimation    consequently    presup- 


U  OOBIBN 


132 


U  QOBIUI 


poses  illegitimacy.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  all  ohildren 
bom  of  marriage  are  presumed  in  canon  law  to  be 
legitimate.  This  holds,  not  only  for  valid  marriages, 
but  also  for  such  as  are  commonly  reputed  to  be  valid, 
though  really  invalid,  provided  sucn  marriages  were 
entered  into,  by  at  least  one  of  the  parties,  in  good 
faith.  A  marriage  of  this  latter  kind  is  called  a  puta- 
tive marriage.  If  both  parties  to  such  marriage  were 
in  bad  faith,  the  children  would  be  held  legitimate 
in  the  external  forum,  as  this  bad  faith  would  not  be 
manifest.  In  case  botn  contractors  were  in  good  faith, 
the  children  would  be  legitimate,  even  if  the  marriage 
were  afterwards  declared  to  be  null.  Presumption  of 
legitimac}^  is  always  in  favour  of  the  children  born  of 
a  person  in  wedlock,  unless  evident  proof  be  given 
that  physical  reasons  make  the  paternity  of  the  hus- 
band impossible,  such  as  absence,  impotence,  etc.; 
and  even  a  sworn  confession  of  wrongdoing  on  the 
part  of  either  reputed  parent  will  not  otherwise  affect 
the  legitimacy  of  the  children.  Infants  bom  before 
the  usual  time  of  gestation  or  after  it,  as,  for  example, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  month  after  the  mar- 
riage ceremony,  or  at  the  completion  of  the  tenth 
month  after  the  death  of  the  husband,  are  held  to  be 
legitimate.  When  marriage  is  entered  into  by  two 
parties  who  suspect  there  is  an  impcKliment  but  make 
no  inquiry  into  the  truth,  ana  it  afterwards  be 
made  plain  that  such  obstacle  to  validitv  did  exist, 
their  offspring  is  illegitimate,  because  affected  igno- 
rance is  equivalent  to  knowledge.  If,  however,  the 
doubt  arise  after  the  consummation  of  the  marriage, 
children  conceived  before  a  sentence  of  invalidity  is 
rendered  have  the  standing  of  legitimate  children. 

Illegitimate  offspring  are  designated  by  various 
names  in  canon  law,  according  to  the  circumstances 
attending  their  procreation:  they  are  called  natural 
(naturales)  children,  if  bom  of  unmarried  persons  be- 
tween whom  there  could  have  been  a  legitimate  mar- 
riage at  the  time  either  of  the  conception  or  the  birth 
of  their  offspring;  if  bom  of  a  prostitute,  illegitimate 
children  are  called  manzeres;  if  of  a  woman  who  is 
neither  a  prostitute  nor  a  concubine,  they  are  desig- 
nated bastardi;  those  who  are  sprung  from  parents, 
who  either  at  the  time  of  conception  or  of  birth  could 
not  have  entered  into  matrimony,  are  termed  spurii; 
if,  however,  valid  marriage  would  be  impossible  both 
at  the  time  of  the  conception  and  of  the  birth  of  the 
children,  the  latter  are  said  to  be  bom  ex  damnato 
coitu;  when  one  parent  is  married,  the  illegitimate 
children  are  called  nothi;  if  both  are  wedded,  adtdte- 
rini;  if  the  parents  were  related  b^  collateral  con- 
sanguinity or  affinity,  incestuosi;  if  related  in  the 
direct  line  of  ascent  or  descent,  nefarii.  Illegitimate 
natural  children  are  legitimatea  by  a  valid  or  putative 
marriage  subsequently  contracted  between  tneir  par- 
ents, even  if  that  marriage  be  not  consummated. 
Hence  such  a  marriage  could  be  contracted  even  by  a 
dying  person.  But  this  privilege  is  extended  only  to 
those  between  whose  parents  a  legitimate  marriage 
would  be  possible  either  at  the  time  of  birth  or  concep- 
tion, or.  at  least,  at  some  intermediate  time,  not  to 
those  whose  parents,  during  that  whole  P^od,  would 
be  boimd  by  a  diriment  impediment.  Tlie  legitima- 
tion of  children  does  not  depend  on  the  will  of  their 
parents,  and  takes  place  even  when  the  latter  are 
unwilling,  or  even  when  the  marriage  has  been  cele- 
brated after  other  marriages  contracted  during  the 
interim.  This  legitimation  extends  to  natural  children 
who  are  already  dead  and  consec^uently  to  their  living 
descendants.  An  infant  thus  legitimated  is  held  equsd 
to  legitimate  children  in  all  respects  as  to  sacred 
ord^  and  as  to  ecclesiastical  dignities,  except  the 
cardinalate.  This  last  exception  was  made  by  Sixtus 
V  (3  Dec.,  1586).  It  is  not  required  that  mention  of 
such  legitimation  be  made  either  in  public  documents 
or  nuptial  banns.  Such  legitimation  is  termed  plenior 
in  canon  law  to  distinguish  it  from  the  plena  legitima- 


tion which  is  fpranted  by  papal  rescript,  and  from  the 
pUniasima  which  follows  on  the  radical  validation  of  a 
marriage  (sanatio  in  radice),  Ille^timate  children 
who  are  not  naiurales  cannot  be  legitimated  by  a  sub- 
sequent marriage  of  their  parents.  This  privilege  may 
however  be  granted  them  by  dispensation  from  the 
pope. 

The  sovereign  pontiff  has  the  power  of  legitimating 
all  children  bom  out  of  wedlock  and  thus  making  them 
capable  of  hereditary  succession,  and  of  receiving  sa- 
cred orders,  honours,  dignities,  and  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices. A  legitimation  by  a  civil  law  does  not  remove 
the  canonical  irregularity,  as  laymen  have  no  ecclesias- 
tical jurisdiction.  By  conmion  canon  law,  it  is  for- 
bidden to  ordain  illegitimate  persons,  unless  they  be 
lawfully  dispensed  or  be  professed  in  a  religious  oraer. 
In  the  latter  case,  however,  they  are  not  capable  of 
receiving  prelacies,  unless  a  special  rescript  be  con- 
ceded. For  maior  orders,  dignities,  and  canonries  in  a 
cathedral  church,  the  pope  alone  can  dispense;  the 
power  of  the  bishop  extends  only  to  minor  orders  and 
simple  benefices.  If  an  episcopal  see  be  vacant,  the 
cathedral  chapter  has  the  same  power  as  the  bishop. 
Legitimation  for  Sacred  orders  carries  with  it  the  dis- 
pensation to  obtain  a  benefice,  but  not  that  for  minor 
orders,  unless  it  be  expressly  stated.  A  son  bom  law- 
fully to  one  who  afterwards  receives  Sacred  orders  can- 
not immediately  succeed  to  the  paternal  benefice;  if 
unlawfully  begotten,  he  may  not  succeed  at  all.  A 
father,  however,  may  succeed  his  lawful  son  in  a  bene- 
fice without  any  dispensation,  because  there  is  then  no 
question  of  hereditary  succession.  Canon  law  and 
the  Roman  civil  law  are  not  in  accord  in  the  matter 
of  le^timation,  as  the  latter  restricts  the  privilege 
to  children  bom  of  concubinage,  whose  parents  after- 
wards married.  The  church  law,  as  we  have  seen, 
extends  to  all  illegitimate  children  the  benefit  of  possi- 
ble legitimation.  The  laws  of  England  and  those  of 
many  states  of  the  American  Union  do  not  recognise 
legitimation  of  children  as  following  upon  a  subsequent 
marriage. 

Ferraris,  Bibliotheca  Canonica,  s.  v.  Filius  and  LeoiUtnatio 
(Rome.  1886);  Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church,  b.  v.  lOeoitir 
mate  Children  (London,  1906);  Aichner,  Compendium  Juria 
Ecclesiastici  (Brixen,  1895);  Xaurentiub,  InstittUionee  juria 
eccleaiaatici  (Freiburg,  1903).  W.  FANNING. 

Le  Gobien,  Charles,  French  Jesuit  and  founder  of 
the  famous  collection  of  *'Lettres  (klifiantes  et  cur- 
ieuses'^  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of  informa- 
tion for  the  history  of  Catholic  missions,  b.  at  St- 
Malo,  Brittany,  25  November,  1671;  d.  at  Paris, 
5  March,  1708.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  on 
25  November,  1671.  As  professor  of  philoeophj^  and 
especially  while  procurator  of  the   Franco-Chinese 


specially 
ussion,  he 


mission,  he  sought  in  a  series  of  admirable  pai>ers  to 
awaken  the  interest  of  the  cultivated  classes  in  the 
great  work  of  Christianizing  Eastern  Asia.  In  1697 
appeared  at  Paris  his  *'Lettres  sur  les  progr^  dela 
religion  k  la  CJhine".  Apropos  of  the  violent  literary 
feud  then  in  progress  concerning  the  so-called  "Chi- 
nese Rites''^  he  published  among  other  things  "His- 
toire  de  T^dit  de  I'empereur  de  la  Chine  en  faveur  de 
La  religion  chr^tienne  avec  un  dclaircissement  sur  les 
honneurs  que  les  C^hinois  rendcnt  k  Confucius  et  aux 
morts"  (Paris,  1698);  and  in  the  year  1700:  "Let- 
tre  2l  un  Docteur  de  la  Faculty  de  Paris  sur  les  propo- 
sitions d^f^^  en  Sorbonne  par  M.  Prioux".  under 
the  same  date  there  appeared  in  Paris  the  "His- 
toire  des  Isles  Mariannes  nouvellement  converties 
k  la  religion  chr^tienne'\  The  second  part,  trans- 
lated into  Spanish  by  J.  Delgado,  is  founa  in  the  lat- 
ter's  "Historia  General  de  Filipinas"  (Manila,  1892). 
In  1702  Pdre  Le  (jrobien  published  "Lettres  de  quel- 
ques  missionnaires  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jdsus,  Writes  de 
la  Chine  et  des  Indes  Orientales'';  this  was  the  begin- 
ning of  the  collection  soon  to  become  celebrated  imder 
the  title  of  "Lettree  ^ifiantes  et  curieuses  dqrites  dea 


LEORAMD 


133 


LB  HIR 


missions  ^rang^res  par  quelques  missionnalres  de  la 
Compagnie  de  J^sus^'.  The  first  eiffht  series  were  by 
PIre  le  Gobien,  the  later  ones  by  Fathers  Du  Halde, 
Patouillet,  Geoffroy,  and  Marshal.  The  collection 
was  printed  in  thirty-six  vols,  duodecimo  (Paris,  1703- 
76),  and  reissued  in  1780-81  by  Fathers  Yves,  de 
Querbeux,  and  Brotier  in  twenty-six  vols,  duodecimo, 
unfortunately  omitting  the  valuable  prefaces.  New 
editions  appeared  in  1819,  1829-32,  and  1838-43. 
One  abridgment  in  four  vols,  octavo,  was  entitled 
"Panth^n  Litt^raire",  by  L.  Aim€  Martin  (1834-43). 
A  partial  English  translation  came  out  in  London  in 
1714.  The  publication  incited  the  Austrian  Jesuit 
St5cklein  to  undertake  his  "  Neuer  Welt  Bott "  (about 
1720),  at  first  considered  merely  a  translation,  but 
soon  an  independent  and  particularly  valuable  col- 
lection (five  vols.,  folio  in  forty  parts)  substantially 
completing  the  "Lettres  Edifiantes"  (see  Kath.  Mis- 
sionen,  1904-05). 

SoMiiBRVOGRL,  Bibl.  de  la  Cotnp.  de  Jraua,  s.  v.  Oobien;  de 
GuiLBBRMT,  Minoloffe  de  la  Comp,  de  Jtaue,  I  (Paris,  1892), 
324;  Now.  biogr.  gin.,  XXX  (Pana.  1883),  40;i;  Feller,  Diet. 
hUl.,  IV.  82.  A.  HUONDER. 

LMfimnd,  Louis,  French  theologian  and  noted  doc- 
tor of  the  Sorbonne,  b.  in  Burgundv  at  Lusigny-sur- 
Ouche,  12  June,  1711,  d.  at  Issy  (Paris),  21  July,  1780. 
After  studying  philosophv  and  theology  at  St.  Sul- 
pice,  Paris,  he  taught  philosophy  at  Clermont,  1733- 
1736,  resumed  his  studies  at  Paris,  where  he  entered 
the  Society  of  St.  Sulpice  in  1739  and  obtained  the 
licentiate  in  1740,  professed  theolo^  at  Cambrai, 
1740-1743,  was  superior  of  the  seminary  of  Autun, 
1743-1745,  and  having  been  recalled  to  Paris  received 
the  doctorate  in  theolo^  from  the  Sorbonne  in  1746. 
Henceforth  he  remain^  at  the  seminary  of  St.  Sul- 
[nce  in  various  emplo3rments.  Appointed  director  of 
studies  in  1767  he  exercised  in  this  capacity  a  great 
influence  over  the  brightest  young  ecclesiastics  of 
France,  who  were  preparing  to  take  their  degrees  at 
the  Sorbonne.  As  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  he  was 
called  upon  to  take  a  prominent  part  in  framing  the 
decisions  and  censures  of  the  theological  faculty;  in 
that  time  of  intense  opposition  to  Christian  dogma  no 
(]uestion  of  importance  was  decided  by  the  Sorbonne, 
it  is  said,  without  consulting  M.  Legrand.  It  was  he 
who  wrote  the  condemnation  of  Jean-Jacques  Rous- 
seau's *'  Emile",  which  has  been  accounted  a  remark- 
able analysis  and  refutation  of  that  celebrated  work, 
*' learned,  exact,  well  thought  out,  deep,  and  singu- 
larly clear"  (reprinted  in  Migne's  ''Theologiae  Cuiius 
Completus ",  II,  col.  1 1 1 1-1248) .  Unfortunately,  Le- 
grand's  condemnation  is  forgotten  or  little  read, 
while  the  genius  of  Rousseau  has  made  "  Emile"  im- 
mortal. IjCgrand  also  drafted  the  censures  of  Marmon- 
tel's  "B^lisaire"  and  Pdre  Berruyer's  "Histoire  du 
Peuple  de  Dieu",  which,  like  the  censure  of  "Eroile", 
were  regarded  by  divines  as  model  expositions  of  theo- 
logical knowledge  and  clear  thinking.  He  helped  to 
tLvisTt  a  censure  from  Buffon's  "Epoques  de  la  Na- 
ture", in  consideration  of  the  author's  retraction.  Le- 
grand's  moderation  and  kindliness  gained  the  esteem 
and  good  will  of  both  Buffon  and  Marmontel.  Nearly 
all  the  writings  of  Legrand,  most  of  which,  however, 
are  his  only  in  part,  have  had  the  honour  of  being  se- 
lected by  Migne  in  his  "Theologise  Cursus  Comple- 
tus". The  most  important  are:  ''Prselectiones  The-' 
ologics  de  Deo  ac  divinis  attributis",  a  work  by  La 
Fosse  baaed  on  Toum^ly's  treatise,  re-edited  by  Le- 
grand, who  added  about  400  pages  of  additional  mat- 
ter. It  is  still  considered  a  very  solid  and  valuable 
treatise;  reprinted  in  Migne.  VII.  ^'Tractatus  de  In- 
camatione  Verbi  Di vini "  (in  Migne,  IX) ,  also  based  on 
Tounifily ;  a  work  of  high  value.  Parts  of  his  "  Trac- 
tatus  de  Ecclesia"  have  been  reproduced  by  Migne  in 
his  "ScriptuTBB  Sacras  Cureus  Completus",  IV.  Le- 
KFBpd  lert  a  posthumous  treatise,  **  De  Existentia 
ud  "  (PtunSf  1812),  which,  though  unfinished,  is  con- 


sidered ''equally  remarkable  for  the  depth  of  its  doc- 
trine and  the  clearness  of  its  arguments". 

BKtnnAitDtHisloirelUtfrairedela  Compaonie  de  StSulpiee,  I 

g*aris,  1900),  gives  the  complete  list  of  Legrand's  writings; 
ONTAioNB,  Notice  prefixed  to  the  above  mentioned  treatise 
De  Existentia  Dei  (Paris.  1812). 

John  F.  Fenlon. 

Le  Gras,  Louise  de  Mahillac,  Venerable,  foim- 
dress  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  b. 
at  Paris,  12  August,  1501,  daughter  of  Louis  de  Maril- 
lac,  Lordof  Femdres,  and  MargueriteLeCamus ;  d.  there, 
15  March,  1660.  Her  mother  having  died  soon  after 
the  birth  of  Louise,  the  education  of  the  latter  de- 
volved upon  her  father,  a  man  of  blameless  life.  In 
her  earlier  years  she  was  confided  to  the  care  of  her 
aimt,  a  religious  at  Poissy.  Afterwards  she  studied 
under  a  preceptress,  devoting  much  time  to  the  culti- 
vation of  the  arts.  Her  fatner's  serious  disposition 
was  reflected  in  the  daughter's  taste  for  philosophv 
and  kindred  subjects.  When  about  sixteen  years  old, 
Louise  developed  a  strong  desire  to  enter  the  Capu- 
chinesses  (Daughters  of  the  Passion).  Her  spiritual 
director  dissuaded  her,  however,  and,  her  father  hav- 
ing died,  it  became  necessary  to  decide  her  vocation. 
Interpreting  her  director's  advice,  she  accepted  the 
hand  of  Antoine  Le  Gras,  a  young  secretary  imder 
Maria  de'  Medici.  A  son  was  bom  of  this  marriage  on 
13  October,  1613,  and  to  his  education  Mile  Le  Gras 
devoted  herself  during  the  years  of  his  childhood.  Of 
works  of  charity  she  never  wearied.  In  1619  she  be- 
came acquainted  with  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  who  was 
then  in  Paris,  and  Mgr  Le  Camus,  Bishop  of  Belley, 
became  her  spiritual  adviser.  Troubled  by  the  thought 
that  she  had  rejected  a  call  to  the  religious  state,  she 
vowed  in  1623  not  to  remarry  should  her  husband  die 
before  her. 

M.  Le  Gras  died  on  21  Dec,  1625,  after  a  long  ill- 
ness. In  the  meantime  his  wife  had  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  a  priest  known  as  M.  Vincent  (St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul),  wno  had  been  appointed  superior  of  the 
Visitation  Monastery  by  St.  Francis  de  Sales.  She 
placed  herself  under  his  direction,  probably  early  in 
1625.  His  influence  led  her  to  associate  herself  with 
his  work  among  the  poor  of  Paris,  and  especially  in  the 
extension  of  the  Confr^rie  de  la  Charit<S,  an  association 
which  he  had  founded  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  poor. 
It  was  this  labour  which  decided  her  life's  work,  the 
founding  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  The  history  of  the 
evolution  of  this  institute,  in  which  Mile  Le  Gras  plays 
so  prominent  a  part,  has  been  given  elsewhere  (see 
Charfty,  Sisters  of)  ;  it  suffices  here  to  say  that, 
with  formal  ecclesiastical  and  state  recognition. 
Mile  Le  Gras'  life-work  received  its  assurance  of  suc- 
cess. Her  death  occurred  in  1600,  a  few  months  bo- 
fore  the  death  of  St.  Vincent,  with  whose  labours  she 
had  been  so  closely  united.  The  process  of  her  beatifi- 
cation has  been  inaugurated  at  Rome. 

Baunard,  La  VM/rable  Louise  de  Mariflac  (Paris,  1904) ;  Life 
of  Mademoiaelle  Le  Gras  (New  York,  1884);  Archives  of  the 
Oongregatioh  of  the  Mission  (Paris). 

Joseph  S.  Glass. 

Le  Hir,  Arthur-Marie,  Biblical  scholar  and  Orien- 
talist; b.  at  Morlaix  (Finist<»rre),  in  the  Diocese  of 
Quimper,  France,  5  Dec,  1811;  d.  at  Paris,  13  Jan., 
1868.  Entering  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  in 
1833,  he  joined  uie  Sulpicians  after  ordination,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology.  He  was  then  made 
professor  of  Sacred  Scripture  and  also  of  Hebrew,  to 
which  branches  he  had  been  thoroughlv  formed  by 
Gamier,  a  scholar,  says  Renan,  *'  who  had  a  very  solid 
knowledge  of  languages  and  the  most  complete  knowl- 
edge of  exegesis  of  any  Catholic  in  France"  (Souven- 
irs d'enfance  et  de  jeunesse,  269).  Le  Hir  continued 
in  this  teaching  till  his  death,  about  thirty  years  later, 
and  through  his  own  work  and  that  of  his  pupil,  Renan. 
he  influenced  powerfully  the  revival  of  Biblical  and 
Oriental  studies  in  France.    Renan  regarded  him  as 


LXHHIH  1^ 

Uie  beat  Hebrew  and  Syrmc  scholar  of  France  in  his 
generation,  and  one,  moreover,  who  was  thorouKhly 

versed  in  Biblical  science,  including'  the  current  Ger- 
man works  thereon,  whose  theories  he  exposed  and 
Btmngly  combatted.  Some  lay  to  his  uncompromising 
attitude  the  defection  of  Renan,  which  was  so  liarmfui 
to  religion  in  France.  He  was  as  enuuent  in  sanctity 
and  modesty  as  in  science,  and  no  doubt  this  contrib- 
uted to  the  extraordinary  impression  ho  left  upon  his 
intiniates,  whicli  his  writmgs  (partly  because  they  are 
chiefly  posthumous)  fail  to  produce.  Moat  students 
of  his  books  would  hesitate  about  accepting  Kenan's 
judgment,  tliat  be  "was  certainly  the  most  remark- 
able man  in  the  French  clergy  of  our  day"  (op.  cit., 
273).  Le  Ilir  published  only  a  few  articles,  which, 
along  with  others,  were  collected,  after  his  death, 
in  the  two  volumes  entitled  "Etudes  Biblinues", 
Paris,  1S69.  This  work  shows  him  at  his  best,  m  the 
range  and  solidity  of  his  aeciuirements,  and  in  the 
breadth  of  hia  views.  His  other  writings,  all  posthu- 
mous, and  not  left  by  him  ready  for  the  press,  are 
studies  in  the  translation  and  exegesis  of  certain 
Biblical  worits:  "Le  Livre  de  Job'^  (Paris,  1873); 
"Les  Psaumcs"  {Paris.  1870);  "Lcs  trois  Grands 
Prophfites,  Isaie,  J^rfmie,  Ez6chiel"  (Paris,  1876}; 
"LeC^nti(iucdcsCanti<iucs"  (Paris,  1883). 

BcRTRAND,  Bibliatlitme  Sulpieienne.  II  (Paria,  1000),  with  b 
Ien«hy  dc«ription  of  Le  Hir's  writingi  nwl  referrocoi  to  arti- 
cled «>Dn>niiii«  him;  of.  lusH  in  Via.,  Diet,  dt  la  HiU,,  a.  v.; 
RilHAH.S</u«^irid'tnfimctftde/euneur(Pan3,lSSi1.221.2ea. 
274.  2B8:    Ibeu  in  Journal  Aiuiliqar.  XII  (Paris,  1898),  IS; 

remimsoomea— evidnntly  Joistaken — of  a  prclcoded  judgment 
of  Benan  upon  Le  Hir,  UtnUy  st  vsrioDcc  with  that  pvva  ia 
thfl  Souimiirj  and  Jaumai  Attaliiiur. 

John  F.  Fenlon. 


Lehnin,  .•\nnEY  of,  founded  in  1180  by  Otto  H, 
Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  for  Cistercian  monks,  Sit- 
natod  about  eipht  miles  to  the  south-east  of  Branden- 
burg, its  church  was  a  fine  example  of  Romanesque 
architecture.  It  is  not  of  great  importance  in  history 
save  for  the  famous  "Vatieinium  Lehninense ",  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  in  the  thirteenth  or  four- 
teenth century  by  a  monk  named  Hermann.  Manu- 
scripts of  the  prophecy,  which  was  first  printed  in 
1722,  exist  in  Berlin,  Dresden,  Breslau,  and  Gottingen. 
It  begins  by  lamentmg  the  end  of  the  Ascanian  line  of 
the  margraves  of  Brandenburg,  «-ith  the  death  <rf 
Henry  the  Younger  in  1319,  and  gives  a  faithful  por- 
traiture of  several  of  the  margraves  tUl  it  comes  to 
deal  with  Frederick  William  I.  Here  the  writer 
leaves  the  region  of  safety  and  ceases  to  make  any 
portraiture  of  the  people  about  whom  he  is  prophesy- 
ing. Frederick  III,  who  became  first  King  of  Prussia 
in  1701,  he  makes  suffer  a  terrible  toss,  and  he  sends 
Frederick  William  H  to  end  his  days  in  a  monastery. 
He  makes  Frederick  the  Great  die  at  sea,  and  ends  the 
House  of  Iloheimollem  with  Frederick  Wilham  III. 
A  Catholic  ruler,  who  re-establishes  Lehnin  as  a  mon- 
astery (it  had  been  seculariied  at  the  Reformation),  is 
also  made  to  restore  the  union  of  the  Empire.  The 
work  ia  anti-Prussian,  but  the  real  author  cannot  be 
discovered.  The  first  to  unmask  the  fraud  was  Pastor 
Weiss,  who  proved  in  his  "  Vatieinium  Germanicum  " 
(Beriin,  1746)  that  the  pseudo-prophecy  was  really 
written  between  1688  and  1700.  Even  after  the  de- 
tection of  its  true  character,  attempts  were  made  to 
use  it  in  anti-Pruasiaa  polemics.  Its  last  appearance 
was  in  1848. 

ZcJCKLEK  in  Realmcyt.  far  jmA.  Throl.  s.y.  LdiriinirluWe 


t,  (RatJabon,  1897). 


;.  Urban  Butlkr. 


Leibnis,  Sisteii  op.— I.  Life  op  Leibmz. — Gott- 
fried WUhebn  von  Leibniz  was  bom  at  Leipzig  on  21 
June  (1  July),  1616.  In  16GI  heentercd  the  Univer- 
sity  of  Leipzig  as  a  student  of  philosophy  and  law,  and 
in  1666  obtamed  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  I«.w  at  Alt- 


dorf.  The  following  year  he  met  the  diploniat  Baron 
von  Boineburg,  at  whose  suggestion  he  entered  the 
diplomatic  service  of  the  Elector  of  Mainz.  The  years 
1672  to  1676  he  spent  as  diplomatic  representative  of 
Mainz  at  the  Court  of  Louis  XIV.  During  this  time 
he  paid  a  visit  to  London  and  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  most  learned  English  mathematicians,  scien- 
tists, and  theologians  of  the  day.  ftliile  at  Paris  be 
became  acquainted  with  prominent  representatives  of 
Catholicism,  and  began  to  interest  himself  in  the  ques- 
tions which  were  in  dispute  l)etween  Catholics  and 
Protestants.  In  1676  he  accepted  the  position  of 
librarian,  archivist,  and  court  councillor  to  the  I>uke 
of  Brunswick.  The  remaining  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  at  Hanover,  with  the  exception  of  a  brief  inter- 
val in  which  he  journeyed  to  Rome  and  to  Vienna  for 
the  purpose  of  examining  documents  relating  to  the 
history  of  the  House  of  Brunswick.  He  died  at  Han- 
over on  14  Nov.,  1716. 

As  a  mathematician  Leibnii  claims  with  Newton 
the  distinction  of  having  invented  (in  1675)  the  differ- 
ential calculus.  As  a  scientist  he  appreciated  and  en- 
couraged the  use 
of  obser  vation  and 
experiment:  "  I 
prefer,"  he  said, 
"a  Ijoeuwenlioek 
who  tells  me  what 
be  sees  to  a  Car- 
tesian who  tells  me 
what  he  thinks." 
As  a  historian  he 
emphasized  the 
importance  of  the 
study  of  docu- 

chives.  As  a  phi- 
lologist he  laid 
stress  on  the  value 
of  the  compara- 
tive study  of  lan- 
guages, and  made 

tioos  to  the  hbtoiy 
ofGerman.  As  a  philosopher  he  is  undoubtedly  the 
foi«most  German  thinker  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
Kant  being  generally  reckoned  anione  nineteenth-cen- 
tury philosophers.  Finally,  as  a  stuoent  of  statccr^t 
he  realiiod  the  importance  of  freedom  of  conscicnoe, 
and  made  persistent,  well-meant,  though  uusuocessful 
efforts  to  reconcile  Catholics  and  Prolestant.4. 

11.  Leibniz  and  Catholici8.m. — When  Lctbnii  be- 
came hbiarianand  archivist  of  the  House  of  Brunswick 
in  1676,  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  was  Juliann  Friedricb, 
a  recent  convert  to  Catholicism.  Almost  immediately 
Leibniz  began  to  exert  liimeclf  in  the  cause  of  rec- 
onciliation between  Catholics  and  Protestants.  At 
Paris  he  bad  come  to  know  many  prominent  Jesuits 
and  Oratorians,  and  now  he  be(;au  Lis  celebrated  co:^ 
respondence  with  Bossuet.  With  the  sanction  of  the 
duke  and  theapprovaI,not  onlyof  the  vicar  Apostolic, 
but  of  Innocent  XI,  the  project  to  find  a  basis  of  agree- 
ment between  Protestants  and  Calhulics  in  Hanover 
was  inaugurated.  Leibniz  soon  took  the  place  of  Ho- 
lanus,  president  of  the  Hanoverian  Consistory,  as  tie 
representative  of  the  Protestant  claims.  He  tried  to 
reconcile  the  Catholic  principle  of  authority  with  the 
Protestant  principle  of  free  enquirj'.  He  favoured  a 
species  of  syncretic  Qu-istianity  first  proposed  at  the 
University  of  Helmstadt,  whicn  adopted  for  its  creed 
an  eclectic  formula  made  up  of  the  dogmas  supposed 


proval  not  oijy  MBishop  Spinola  of  Wiener-Neustadt, 
who  conducted,  so  to  speak,  the  cose  for  the  Catholics, 
but  also  of  "the  Pope,  the  Cardinals,  the  Geuend  of 


LEIBMIZ  135 


rllllvU- 


the  Jesuits,  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  and  founds  new  system  of  philosophy,  as  that  of  a  philo- 

others  "  (Rommel,  *'  Leibniz  u.  der  Landgraf  Ernst  V.  sophic  diplomatist  who  would  reconcile  all  existing  sys- 

H.  Pheinfels,"  II,  Frankfort,  1847,  p.  IS^).    The  ne-  terns  by  demonstrating  their  essential  harmony.  Con- 

fotiations  were  continued  even  after  the  death  of  seqiicntly,  his  starting<{>oint  is  vcr>' different  from  that 
)uke  Johann  Friedrich  in  1670.  Leibniz,  it  should  be  of  Descartes.  Descartes  believed  that  his  first  duty  was 
understood,  was  actuated  as  much  by  patriotic  mo-  to  doubt  all  the  conclusions  of  all  liis  predecessors; 
tives  as  he  was  by  religious  considerations.  He  saw  Leibniz  was  of  the  opinion  that  his  duty  was  to  show 
clearly  that  one  of  the  greatest  soiu'ces  of  weakness  in  how  near  all  Ins  predecessors  had  come  to  the  truth, 
the  German  States  was  the  lack  of  religious  unity  and  Descartes  was  convinced,  or  at  least  assumed  the  con- 
tiie  absence  of  the  spirit  of  toleration.  Indeed,  the  viction,  tliat  all  the  philosophers  who  went  before  him 
rdle  he  played  was  that  of  a  diplomaf  rather  than  that  were  in  error,  because  they  appeared  to  be  involved  in 
of  a  theoloeian.  However,  nis  correspondence  with  inextricable  contradictions;  Leibniz  was  equally  well 
Bossuet  ana  Pelisson  and  his  acquaintance  with  inany  convinced  that  all  the  great  systems  agree  tundamen- 
prominent  Catholics  produced  a  real  change  in  his  at-  tally,  and  that  their  imaniniity  on  essentials  is  a  fair 
titude  towards  the  Church,  and,  although  ne  adopted  indication  that  they  arc  in  the  right.  Leibniz  there- 
for his  own  creed  a  kind  of  eclectic  rationalistic  Chris-  fore  resolved,  not  to  isolate  himself  from  the  philo- 
tianity,  he  ceased  in  1696  to  frequent  Protestant  ser-  'sophical,  scientific,  and  literary  efforts  of  his  predeces- 
vices.  The  causes  of  the  failure  of  his  negotiations  sors  and  contemporaries,  but,  on  the  contrary,  to 
liave  been,  variously  summed  up  by  different  histori-  utilize  everything  that  the  human  mind  liad  up  to  his 
ans.  OnethingseemsclearrLouisAlV.  who,  through  time  achieved,  U>  discover  agreement  where  discord 
Bossuet,  professed  his  approval  of  Leibniz's  project,  and  contradiction  semed  to  reign,  and  thus  to  estab- 
had  very  potent  political  reasons  for  placing  obstacles  lish  a  permanent  peace  among  contending  schools, 
in  the  way  of  Leibniz's  irenic  efforts.  Leibniz,  it  Even  thinkers  so  widely  scimrated  as  Plato  and  De- 
should  be  added,  met  with  httle  success  in  his  other  mocritiis,  Aristotle  and  Descartes,  the  Schola-stics  and 
plan  of  conciliation,  namely,  his  scheme  for  the  union  modern  physicists,  hold  certain  doctrines  in  common, 
of  Protestants  among  themselves.  and  Ijeil>niz  makes  it  the  business  of  his  philosophy  to 

III.  Leibniz  and  Learned  Societies. — In  1700  single  out  those  doctrines,  explain  the  manifold  bear- 
Leibniz,  through  the  munificenco  of  his  royal  pupil  ings  of  each,  remove  apparent  contradictions,  and  so 
Princess  Sophie  Charlotte,  wife  of  Frederick  the  First  accomplish  a  diplomatic  triumph  where  others  had, 
of  Prussia,  founded  the  Society  (after\vards  called  the  hke  Descartes,  but  made  confusion  worse  confounded. 
Academjr)  of  Sciences  of  Berlin,  and  was  appointed  its  The  philosophy  to  which  Leibniz  thus  ascribed  irenics 
first  president.  In  1711,  and  again  in  1712  and  1716,  as  one  of  its  chief  aims,  is  a  partial  idealism.  Its 
he  was  accorded  an  interview  with  Peter  the  Great,  and  principal  tenets  are:  (1)  The  doctrine  of  monads,  (2) 
suggested  the  formation  of  a  similar  society  at  St.  pre-established  harmony,  (3)  the  law  of  continuity, 
Petersburg.     In  1689,  during  his  visit  to  Rome,  he  and  (4)  optimism. 

waLS  elected  a  member  of  the  pontifical  Accademia  (1)  Tlie  Doctrine  of  Monads, — Like  Descartes  and 

Fisico-Mattematica.  Spinoza,  Leibniz  attaches  great  importance  to  the  no- 

IV.  Leibniz's  Works. — Since  the  discovery  in  tion  of  substance.  But,  while  they  define  substance 
1903  of  fifteen  thousand  letters  and  unedited  frag-  as  independent  existence,  he  defines  substance  in 
ments  of  l^eibniz's  works  at  Hanover,  the  learned  terms  of  independent  action.  The  notion  of  sub- 
world  has  come  to  realize  the  full  force  of  a  saying  of  stance  as  essentially  inert  (see  Occasionalism)  is  fun- 
Leibniz  himself:  "  He  who  knows  me  by  my  published  damentally  erroneous.  Substance  is  essentially  act- 
works  alone  does  not  know  me  at  all"  (Qui  me  non  ive:  to  be  is  to  act.  Now,  since  the  independence  of 
nisi  editis  novit,  non  novit).  The  works  published  substance  is  an  independence  in  regard  to  action,  not 
during  his  lifetime  or  immediately  after  his  aeath  are,  in  regard  to  existence,  there  is  no  reason  for  maintain- 
for  the  most  part,  treatises  on  particular  portions  of  ing,  as  Descartes  and  Spinoza  maintained,  that  sub- 
his  philosophy.  None  of  them  gives  an  aaequate  ac-  stance  is  one.  Substance  is,  indeed,  essentially  indi- 
count  of  his  system  in  its  entirety^.  The  most  import-  vidual,  because  it  is  a  centre  of  independent  action; 
ant  are  **Disputatio  metaphysica  de  principio  mdi-  but  it  is  no  less  essentialljr  manifold,  since  actions  are 
vidui",**Lamonadologie","fesaisdetn^odic^e",and  many  and  varied.  Tlie  indeixjndent,  manifold  cen- 
•'Nouveaux  essais  sur  Tentendement  humain".  The  tres  of  activity  are  called  monads.  The  monad  has 
(ast  of  these  is  a  reply,  chapter  by  chapter,  to  Locke's  been  compared  to  the  atom,  and  is,  indeed,  like  it 
"Essay".  In  the  account  given  below,  these  works  in  many  respects.  Like  the  atom,  it  is  simple  (devoid 
are  used;  but  use  is  also  made  of  the  fragments  pub-  of  parts),  indivisible,  and  indestructible.  However, 
iished  by  Couterat  in  his  "Opuscules  et  fragments  the  indivisibility  of  the  atom  is  not  absolute  but  only 
inddits  de  Leibniz  "  (Paris,  1903),  and  by  Baruzi  in  his  relative  to  our  power  of  analysing  it  chemically,  while 
"Leibniz"  (Paris,  1909).  Of  Leibniz  s  treatises  on  the  indivisibility  of  the  monad  is  absolute,  the  monad 
religious  topics  the  most  important  arc:  (1) ''  Dialogus  being  a  metaphysical  point,  a  centre  of  force,  incap- 
de  rehgione  rustici",  a  fragment,  dated  Paris,  1673,  able  of  being  analysed  or  separated  in  any  way.  Again, 
and  treating  of  predestination;  (2)  "  Dialogue  effectif  according  to  the  Atomists,  all  atoms  are  alike:  accord- 
sur  la  libeitd  de  Thomme,  et  sur  Torigine  du  mal"  ing  to  Leibniz  no  two  monads  can  be  exactly  alike. 
dated  1695,  still  unpublished,  and  treating  of  the  same  Finally,  the  most  important  difference  between  the 
topic;  (3)  ''  Letters"  to  Amauld  and  others  on  tran-  atom  and  the  monad  is  this:  the  atom  is  material,  and 
sunstantiation ;  (4)  Letters,  tracts,  opuscula,  etc.,  of  an  performs  only  material  functions ;  the  monad  is  imma' 
irenic  character,  e.  ^.  **  Variae  definitioncs  ecclesi®"  terial  and,  in  so  far  as  it  represents  other  monads, 
"De  persona  Christi",  "Appendix,  de  resurrectione  functions  in  an  immaterial  manner.  The  monads, 
corporum",  "De  cultu  sanctorum",  letters  to  Pelis-  therefore,  of  which  all  substances  are  composed,  and 
son,  Bossuet,  Mme  de  Brinon,etc.;  (5)  contributions  which  are,  in  reality,  the  only  substances  existing,  are 
to  mystical  theology,  e.  g. "  Von  der  wahren  Theologia  more  like  souls  than  bodies.  Indeed,  Leibniz  does 
Mystica",  "Dialogues"  on  the  psychology  of  mysti-  not  hesitate  to  call  them  souls  and  to  draw  the  ob- 
cism  {cS.  "Revue  de  Metaph.  et  de  Morale",  Jan.,  vious  inference  that  all  nature  is  animated  (panpsy- 
1905).  chism). 

V.  Leibniz's  Philosophy. — As  a  philosopher  Leib-  The  immateriality  of  the  monad  consists  in  its 
niz  exhibited  that  many-sidedness  which  characterized  power  of  representation.  Each  monad  is  a  micro- 
his  mental  activity  in  general.  His  sympathies  were  cosm,  or  universe  in  miniature.  It  is,  rather,  a  mirror 
broad,  his  convictions  were  eclectic,  and  his  aim  was  of  the  entire  universe,  because  it  is  in  relation  with  all 
not  90  much  that  of  the  synthetic  thinker  who  would  other  monads,  and  to  that  extent  reflects  them  all,  so 


136 

ttututaU-aeeLoK  eye  looking  At  one  monad  could  see  hit  philtwophy.    His  opposition  to  "immodenl^  Cu^ 

reflect«d  in  it  Kirthe  leet  of  creation.    Of  course,  this  tesiBnismwasopenly  acknowledged  in  his  pbilosoph- 

representation  is  difFerent  in  different  kinds  of  mo-  ical  treatises  aa  well  as  in  his  lectures.    He  looked  upon 

nads.    liie  uncroated  monad,  God,  nurrors  all  tbin^  Spinoia's  conclusions  aa  being  the  logical  outcome  uf 

clearly  and  adequately.    The  created  monad  which  is  Deacartes's  eironeouB  delinition  of  sulwlance.     "8pi- 

the   liuman   soul — the   "  queen-monad  ""representB  noia",  he  wrote,  "  simply  ooiU  out  loud  whnt  Descarte* 

consciously  but  not  with  perfect  clearness.    And,  ac-  was  thinking,  hut  did  not  dare  to  express".     But, 

cording  as  we  descend  the  scale  from  man  to  the  while  he  had  in  view  the  refutation  of  extreme  Car- 

iowest  mineral  substance,  the  region  of  clear  represen-  tesianism,  he  must  have  intended  also  by  means  of  bii 

tation  diminishes  and  the  r^ion  of  obscure  represen-  doctrine  of  monads  to  stem  the  current  of  material 

tation  increases.    The  extent  of  clearrepreaeatation  in  ismwhichhadsAinin  England  and  was  soon  to  sweep 

the  monad  is  an  index  of  its  immateriality.     Every  before  it  in  France  many  of  the  ideas  which  he  cher- 

monod,  except  the  uncreated  monad,  is,  therefore,  ished. 
partly  material  and  partly  immaterial.    The  material         (2)  The   Doctrine   of  Prf-etlablUhed   Harmony. — 


element  in  the  monad  corresponds  to  the  passivity  "Every  present  stato  of  a  simple  substance  is  a  oat- 
oF  maleria  prima,  and  the  immaterial  element  to  the  ural  consequence  of  its  preceding  state,  in  such  a  way 
activity  of  the  fom\a  svbsUmtialia.  Thus,  Lelbnic  that  its  present  is  always  the  cause  of  its  future 
imagined,  the  Scholastic  doctrine  of  matter  and  form  (" Monadologic,"  thesis  xxii).  "The  soul  follows  ita 
is  reconciled  with  modem  science.  At  the  same  time,  own  laws,  and  the  body  has  its  laws.  They  are  fitted 
he  imagined,  the  doctrine  of  monads  emhodies  what  is  to  each  other  in  virtue  of  the  pre-eirtablished  harmony 
true  in  the  atomism  of  Democritus  and  doea  not  ex-  among  all  substances,  since  they  are  all  represent*- 
elude  what  is  true  in  Plato's  immaterial  ism.  tions  of  one  and  the  same  universe"  (op.  cit.,  theaia 
The  universe,  therefore,  as  I^eibniz  represented  it,  Ixxviii).  From  Descartes's  doctrine  that  matt«rise«- 
ismadeupof  an  infinite  number  of  indivisible  monads  sentiaily  inert,  Malcbranche  (q.  v.)  had  drawn  the 
which  rise  in  a  scale  of  ascending  immaterial  ism  from  conclusion  that  material  substances  cannot  be  truo 
the  lowest  particle  of  mineral  dust  up  to  the  highest  causes,  but  only  occasions  of  tlie  effects  produced  by 
created  intellect.  The  lowest  monad  has  only  a  most  God  (Occaaionalism).  Leibniz  wished  to  avoid  this 
imperfect  glimmering  of  immateriality,  and  fho  hi^h-  conclusion.  At  liie  same  time,  he  had  reduced  all  the 
.  eat  haa  still  some  remnant  of  materiality  attached  to  activity  of  the  monad  to  immanent  activity.  That  is, 
it.  In  this  way,  the  doctrine  of  nuinads  strives  to  rec-  ho  had  defined  substance  aa  action,  and  explained  that 
oncile  materialism  and  idealism  by  teaching  that  the  essential  action  of  substance  is  representation, 
everythingcreated  is  partly  material  and  partly  unma-  He  saw  dearly,  then,  that  there  can  be  no  interaction 
terial.  For  matter  is  not  separated  from  spirit  by  an  among  monads.  The  monad,  he  said,  has  "no  win- 
abrupt  difference,  such  as  Descartes  imagined  to  exist  dows"  through  which  the  activity  of  other  monads 
between  body  and  mind.     Neither  arc  the  functions  can  enter  it.    The  only  recourse  iett  him  it  "^ '- 


of  the  immaterial  gcnerlcally  diftcrent  from  the  funo-  tain  that  each  monad  unfolds  its  own  activity,  pur- 

tions  of  mal«rial  substance.    Tlie  mineral,  which  at-  sues,  as  it  were,  its  career  uf  representation  independ- 

tracts  and  is  attracted,  has  an  incipient  or  inchoate  ently  of  other  monads.    This  would  make  each  monad 

power  of  perception;  the  plant,  which  in  so  many  amonarcli.    If,  however,  there  were  no  control  of  the 

dilTcrent  ways  adapts  itself  to  its  environment,  is  in  a  activities  of  the  monad,  the  world  would  be  a  chaos, 

sense  aware  of  its  surroundings,  though  not  conscious  not  the  cosmos  that  it  is.     We  must,  therefore,  con- 

of  them.   The  animal  by  its  power  of  sensation  rises  by  ceivethat  God  at  the  beginning  of  creation  so  arranged 

impereeptible  steps  alrove  the  mentality  of  the  plant,  things  that  the  changes  in  one  monad  correspond  per- 

and  iictwecn  the  highest  or  most  " intelligent      ani-  fectlytothose  in  theothermonadswliichbelongtoits 

mala  and  the  lowest  savases  there  is  no  very  violent  system.    Inthecaseof  the  soul  and  body, for  instance, 

break  in  the  continuity  of  the  development  of  mental  neither  has  a  real  influence  on  the  other:  but,  iust  as 

power.      All    this   Leibniz   maintains    without   any  two  clocks  may  be  so  perfectly  constructed  and  so  ao- 


thought,  apparently,  of  genetic  dependence  of  man  on  curately  adjusted  that,  though  independent  of  each 

animal.animalon plant, or plantonmjncral.     Hehaa  other,  they  keep  exactly  the  same  time,  bo  it  is  »r- 

no  theory  of  descent  orascent.     He  merelj;  records  the  ranged  that  the  monads  of  the  body  put  forth  their 

absence  of  "breaks"  in  the  plan  of  continuity,  as  it  activity  in  such  away  that  to  each  physical  activity 

presents  itself  to  his  mind.    lie  is  not  concerned  with  of  the  monads  of  the  body  there  corresponds  a  p«y- 

the  problem  of  origins,  but  rather  with  the  Cartesian  ohical  activity  of  the  monad  of  the  soul.     This  lb  the 

problem  of  the  alleged  antithesis  between  mind  and  famous  doctnna  of  pre-established  harmony.     "Ao- 

matter.    How  to  bridge  the  imaginary  chasm  between  cording  to  this  system  ",  says  Leibnii,  "  bodies  act  m 

mind  which  thinks,  and  matterwhich  is  extended,  was  if  (to  suppose  the  imoomible)  there  were  no  souls  at 

the  problem  to  which   all  the  philosophers  of  the  all,  and  aouls  act  as  S  there  were  no  bodies,  and  yet 

eighteenth  century  addressed  themselves.     Spinoxa  both  body  and  eoul  act  aa  if  the  one  were  influeaeuig 

merged  mind  and  matter  in  the  one  infinite  substance;  the  other"  (op.  dt.,  thesis  buorii).    Thus  the  numid 

the   materialists   merged   mind   in  matter:  the  im-  ia  not  really  a  monnroli,  but  a  subject  ot  God's  Kin^ 

materialists  merged  matter  in  mind;  Hume  denied  the  dom,  which  is  the  universe,  "  the  true  city  of  God  ". 
terms  of  the  problem,  when  he  reasoned  away  both         If  we  take  this  doctrine  literally,  and  deny  aH  fa- 

mtttcr  and  mind  and  left  only  appearances.    LeibniB,  fluence  of  one  monad  on  another,  we  are  fornxl  at  onoe 

diplomot  and  peacemaker,  toned  matter  up  and  toned  toa-ik:  How,  then,  is  it  possible  for  the  monad  toicn- 

mind  down  until  they  gave  forth  what  he  considered  resent,  if  it  is  not  acted  uponT    Leibnii 's  answer  •loilM 

unison.    Or,  if  we  are  to  go  back  to  the  original  figure  be  that  he  denied  to  the  monad  siU  oomnrani    "^ 

of  speech,  he  spanned  the  chasm  by  his  definition  of  from  without,  lie  affirmed  that  the  monad  t 

substance  as  action.    Representation  is  action;  repre-  -windows  on  the  oufaidc,  but  ho  did  not  d 

sentation  is  a  function  ot  so-called  roat«rial  things  as  the  heart  of  the  monad  is  a  door  that  <4 

well  as  of  those  which  are  generally  called  immaterial,  finite,  and  from  that  side  it  is  in  c 

Representation,  rising  from   the  most    rudimentary  all  other  monads.    Here  Lcibnii  pi 

"little  perception"  {nelile  perceptum)  in  the  mineral  Icm  from  metaphysics  to  mysticii. „ 

upto"appereeption    in  the  human  soul, is  the  bond  unity  in  diversity,  the  unity  in  the  p»>HW*'' 

ol  substantial  continuity,  the  bridge  that  joina  to-  harmony  is  not  so  much  a  unity  of  * 

gethcr  the  two  kinds  of  substances,  matter  and  mind,  of  final  destiny.    All  thiogs  "^ 

which  Descartes  so  inconsiderately  separated.    There  verse  not  only  because  God  " 

is  no  doubt  that  Leibnis  was  oooadinia  of  tbU  aim  of  they  all  spring,  but  ~""  ~' 


137 


End  towards  which  they  are  all  tending,  and  the  Per- 
fection which  they^  are  all  striving  to  attain. 

(3)  Law  ofComnuity. — From  the  description  of  the 
monads  dven  above,  it  is  clear  that  all  kinds  and  con- 
ditions of  created  things  shade  off  by  gradual  differ- 
ences, the  lower  appearing  to  be  merely  an  inferior 
degree  of  the  higher.  There  are  no  "  breaks "  in  the 
continuity  of  nature,  no  "gaps"  between  mineral, 
plant,  animal,  and  man.  The  counter-view  is  the 
law  of  indiscernibles.  There  can  be  no  meaningless 
duplication  in  nature.  No  two  monads  can  be  ex- 
actly alike.  No  two  objects,  no  two  events  can  be  en- 
tirely similar,  for,  if  they  were,  they  would  not,  Leib- 
niz thinks,  be  two  but  one.  The  apphcation  of  these 
principles  led  Leibniz  to  adopt  the  view  that,  while 
every  thing  differs  from  every  other  thing,  there  are 
no  true  opposites.  Rest,  for  instance,  mav  be  con- 
sidered as  mfinitely  minute  motion;  the  fluid  is  a  solid 
with  a  lower  degree  of  solidity;*  animals  are  men  with 
infinitelv  small  reason,  and  so  forth.  The  application 
to  the  theory  of  the  differential  calculus  is  obvious. 

(4)  Optimism, — In  the  centre  of  the  vast  harmo- 
nious svstem  of  monads  which  we  call  the  universe  is 
God,  the  original,  infinite  monad.  His  power.  His 
wisdom.  His  goodness  are  infinite.  When,  therefore. 
He  created  the  system  of  monads.  He  created  them  as 
good  as  they  could  possibly  be,  and  established  among 
them  the  best  possible  kind  of  harmony.  The  world, 
therefore,  is  the  best  possible  world,  and  the  supreme 
law  of  finite  being  is  the  lex  mdioris.  The  Will  of  God 
must  realize  what  His  understanding  recognizes  as 
more  perfect.  Leibniz  represents  the  possible  monads 
as  present  for  all  eternity  in  the  mind  of  God;  in  them 
was  the  impulse  towards  actualization;  and  the  more 
perfect  the  possible  monad  the  more  strongly  did  it 
possess  this  impulse.*  There  went  on,  therefore,  so  to 
speak,  a  competition  before  the  throne  of  God,  in 
which  the  best  monads  conauered,  and,  as  God  could 
not  but  see  that  they  were  tne  best,  He  could  not  but 
will  their  realization.  Behind  the  lex  melioris  is, 
therefore,  a  more  fundamental  law,  the  law  of  suffi- 
cient reason,  which  is  that  '*  things  or  events  are  real 
when  there  is  a  sufficient  reason  for  their  existence." 
This  is  a  fundamental  law  of  thought,  as  well  as  a 
primary  law  of  being. 

The  four  doctrines  here  outlined  may  be  said  to  siun 
up  Leibniz's  metaphysical  teaching.  They  find  their 
principal  application  in  his  psychology  and  his  the- 
odicy. 

(5)  Psychology. — In  the  "  Nouveaux  Essais  ".  which 
were  written  in  refutation  of  Locke's  "  Essay  ,  Leib- 
nix  develops  his  doctrines  regarding  the  human  soul 
and  the  origin  and  nature  of  knowledge.  The  power  of 
representation,  which  is  common  to  all  monads,  makes 
its  first  appearance  in  souls  as  perception.  Percep- 
tion, when  it  reaches  the  level  of  consciousness,  b^ 
comes  apperception.  The  Cartesians  "have  fallen 
into  a  serious  error  in  that  they  treat  as  non-existent 
those  perceptions  of  which  we  are  not  conscious." 
Perception  is  found  in  all  monads;  in  those  monads 
which  we  call  souls  there  is  apperception,  but  there  is  a 
large  subconscious  region  of  souls  in  which  there  are 
p«roeptions.  Perceptions  are  the  source  of  appercep- 
tions. They  are  the  source  also  of  volitions,  because 
impulse,  or  appetite,  is  nothing  but  the  tendency 
of  one  perception  towards  another.  From  percep- 
tion, therefore,  which  is  found  in  everything,  up  to 
intelligenoe  and  volition,  which  are  peculiar  to  man, 
there  are  imperceptibly  small  grades  of  differentiation. 

Whence,  then,  come  our  ideas?  The  question  is  al- 
readv  answered  in  Leibniz's  general  principles.  Since 
intelligence  is  only  a  differentiation  of  that  immanent 
action  which  all  monads  possess,  our  ideas  must  be 
the  result  of  the  self-activity  of  tne  monad  called  the 
human  soul.  The  soul  has  "no  doors  or  windows" 
towards  the  side  facing  the  external  world.  No  ideas 
come  from  that  direction.    All  our  ideas  are  in- 


nate. The  Aristotelian  maxim,  "there  is  nothing  in 
the  intellect  that  was  not  previously  in  the  senses," 
must  be  amended  by  the  aadition  of  the  phrase,  "ex- 
cept the  intellect  itself".  The  intellect  is  the  source 
as  well  as  the  subject  of  all  our  ideas.  These  ideas,  how- 
ever subjective  tneir  origin,  have  objective  value,  be- 
cause, by  virtue  of  the  harmony  pre-estabUshed  irom 
the  beginning  of  the  universe,  the  evolution  of  the 
psychic  monad  from  virtual  to  actual  knowledge  is 
paralleled  by  the  evolution  in  the  outside  world  of  the 
physical  monad  from  virtual  to  actual  activity. 

Leibniz  has  no  difiicultv  in  establishing  the  inmia- 
terialitv  of  the  soul.  All  monads  are  immaterial, 
or  rather,  partlv  immaterial  and  partly  material. 
The  human  soul  is  no  exception;  its  '^  immaterial- 
ity" is  not  absolute,  but  only  relative,  in  the  sense 
that  in  it  the  region  of  clear  representation  is  so 
much  greater  than  the  re^on  of  ODScure  representa- 
tion that  the  latter  is  practically  a  negligible  quantity. 
Similarly,  the  immortality  of  the  human  soul  is  not, 
absolutely  speaking,  a  unique  privilege.  All  monads 
are  immortal.  Each  monad  being  an  independent, 
self-active,  source  of  action,  neither  dependent  on 
other  monads  nor  influenced  by  them,  it  can  continue 
acting  without  interference  forever.  The  human  soul 
is  peculiar  in  this,' that  its  consciousness  (appereep- 
tion)  enables  it  to  realize  this  independence,  and 
therefore  the  soul's  consciousness  of  its  immortcdity  is 
what  makes  human  immortality  to  be  different  from 
every  other  immortality. 

(6)  Theodicy.— The  work  entitled  "Th^dic^",  a 
treatise  on  natural  theology,  was  intended  as  a  refuta- 
tion of  the  Encyclopaedist,  Bayle,  who  had  tried  to 
show  that  reason  and  faith  are  incompatible.  In  it 
Leibniz  takes  up:  (a)  the  existence  of  God  (b)  the 
problem  of  evil,  and  (c)  the  question  of  optimism. 

(a)  Existence  of  God. — Leibniz,  true  to  his  eclectic 
temperament,  admits  the  validity  of  all  the  various 
argiiments  for  the  existence  of  God.  He  adduces  the 
argument  from  the  contingency  of  finite  being,  recasts 
the  ontological  argument  used  by  Descartes  (see 
God),  and  adds  the  argument  from  the  nature  of 
the  necessitv  of  our  ideas.  The  third  of  these  ar^- 
ments  is  really  Platonic  in  its  origin.  Its  validity  de- 
pends on  the  fact  that  our  ideas  are  necessary,  not 
merely  in  a  hypothetical,  but  in  an  absolute  and  cate- 
gorical sense,  and  on  the  further  contention  that  a 
necessity  of  that  kind  cannot  be  explained  unless  we 
grant  that  an  absolutely  necessary  Being  exists. 

(b)  Problem  of  Evil. — This  problem  is  mscussed  at 
length  in  the  "Th^odic^"  and  in  many  of  Leibniz's 
letters.  The  law  of  continuity  requires  that  there  be 
no  abrupt  differences  among  monads.  God,  there- 
fore, although  He  wished  to  create  the  best  possible 
world,  and  did,  in  fact,  create  the  best  world  that  was 
in  se  possible,  could  not  create  monads  which  were  all 
perfect,  each  in  its  own  kind.  He  was  imder  no  ne- 
cessity of  His  own  Nature,  but  He  was  obliged,  as  it 
were,  by  the  terms  of  the  problem,  to  lead  up  to  per- 
fection oy  passing  through  various  degrees  of  imper- 
fection. Leibniz  distinguishes  metaphysical  evil,  which 
is  mere  finiteness,  or  imperfection  in  general,  physical 
evilf  which  is  suffering,  and  moral  evil,  which  is  sin. 
God  permits  these  to  exist,  since  the  nature  of  the  uni- 
verse demands  varie^  and  gradation,  but  He  re- 
duces them  to  the  minimum,  and  makes  them  to  serve 
a  higher  purpose,  the  beauty  and  harmony  of  creation 
as  a  whwe.  Leibniz  faces  resolutely  the  problem  of 
reconciling  the  existence  of  evil  with  the  goodness  and 
omm'potence  of  God.  He  reminds  us  that  we  see  only 
a  part  of  God's  creation,  that  part,  namely,  which  is 
nearest  to  ourselves,  and,  for  tnat  reason,  makes  the 
largest  demand  on  our  sympathy.  We  should  learn, 
he  says,  to  look  beyond  our  own  immediate  environ- 
ment, io  observe  the  larger  and  more  perfect  world 
above  us.  Where  our  sympathies  are  involved,  we 
should  not  allow  the  prevalence  of  evil  to  overpower 


uiaH  i: 

our  feelings,  but  should  exercise  our  faith  and  our  love 
of  God;  where  we  can  view  God's  works  more  imper- 
sonally, we  should  realize  that  evil  and  imperfection 
are  always  and  everjis-here  made  to  serve  the  purpose 
of  hannony,  symmetry,  and  beauty. 

(c)  Optunism. — Leibniz  is,  therefore,  an  optimist, 
both  because  he  maintains  as  a  general  metaphysical 
principle  that  the  world  whi;;h  cxii^tfi  is  the  l>cst  pos- 
sible world,  and  because  in  his  discussion  of  the  prob- 
lem of  evil  he  tries  to  trace  out  principles  that  will 
"justify  the  ways  of  God  to  man  in  a  manner  com- 
patible with  God's  goodness.  It  had  become  the  fash- 
ion among  materialists  and  freethinkers  1^  draw  an 
over-gloomy  picture  of  the  universe  as  a  place  of  pain, 
BulTcrmg,  and  sin,  and  to  ask  triumphantly: "  IIow  can 
a  good  God,  if  He  is  omnipotent,  permit  such  a  state 
of  things?"  Leibniz's  aaswer,  though  not  entirely 
original,  is  correct.  Evil  sliould  be  considered  in  re- 
lation not  to  the  parts  of  reality,  but  to  reality  as  a 
whole.  Many  evils  are  "in  Other  respects"  good. 
And,  when,  in  the  final  resort,  we  cannot  see  a  definite 
rational  solution  of  a  porplexin^  problem,  we  rfiould 
fall  back  on  faith,  which,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
problem  of  enl,  aids  rca.'-on. 

(7)  Leibniz's  Elliirs.—Wa  have  seen  that,  although 
the  monad  is  by  definition  independent,  and,  there- 
fore, a  monarch  in  its  own  realm,  yet,  by  virtue  of  pre- 
established  harmony,  the  multitude  of  monads  which 
make  up  the  universe  are  organized  into  a  kingdom  of 
spirits,  of  which  God  is  the  Supreme  Ruler,  a  city  of 
God,  governed  by  Divine  Providence,  or,  more  cor- 
rectly still,  a  family,  of  which  God  is  the  Father. 
Now,  there  is  "a  hairoony  between  the  physical  realm 
of  nature  and  the  moral  realm  of  grace"  ("Monadol- 
ogie",  thesis  Ixxxviii);  monads  making  progress  along 
natural  lines  towards  perfection  are  progressing  at  the 
same  time  aloi^  moral  Ijnea  towards  happiness.  The 
essential  perfection  of  a  monail  is,  of  course,  perfect 
distinctness  of  representation.  The  more  the  numan 
soul  progresses  in  distinctness  of  ideas,  the  more  in- 
sight it  obtains  into  the  the  connexion  of  all  things 
and  the  harmony  of  the  whole  universe.  From  this 
realization  springs  the  impulse  to  love  others,  that  is 
to  seek  the  happiness  of  others  aa  well  as  one's  own. 
The  road  to  liappincss  is,  therefore,  through  an  in- 
crease of  theoretical  insight  into  the  univeme,  and 
through  an  increase  in  love  wiiich  naturally  follows 
an  increase  of  knowledge.  The  moral  man,  while  he 
thus  promotes  his  own  happiness  by  seeking  the  hap- 

Slnessof  others,  fulfilsat  the  same  time  the  Will  of  God, 
oodncss  and  piety  are,  therefore,  identical. 
VII.  Influence  op  Lt:iiiNiz. — Tlirough  liis  contro- 
versy with  Clarke  coiu'crning  the  nature  of  space  and 
the  existence  of  atoms,  and  also  on  account  of  the 
rivalry  lictween  himself  and  Ncnlon  in  respect  to  the 
discovery  of  the  calcului,  Leibniz  came  to  be  well- 
known  to  tbe  leiimeil  world  in  England  at  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  i*nfiiryandthcljpginningoftheeigh- 
tei;nlh.  His  residence  in  Paris  brought  him  into  con- 
tact witli  the  gri';it  men  of  the  court  of  I^uia  XIV,  as 
well  as  with  iihiuist  all  the  ivritcrs  of  that  age  who 
were  distinguished  eitlier  in  the  world  of  science  or  in 
that  of  theology.  It  was,  however,  in  his  own  country 
thiit  he  Ijccamc  best  ktion-n  as  a  philosopher.  The 
multiplicity  oE  his  interests  and  iha  v.inetv  nf  thp 
tasks  ne  set  himself  to  accomplisl 


8  uipzia 

tion,  that  of  substance,  is  more  worthy  of  a  poet  and  ft 

mystic  than  of  a  philosopher  and  a  scientist;  neverthe- 
less, like  Plat^,  he  is  to  be  Judged  by  the  loftiness  of 
his  speculations,  not  by  his  Tack  of  scientific  pre- 
cision. He  did  his  share  in  stemming  the  tide  of 
materialism,  and   helped   to  -    .      <        . 

{esthetic  ideals  until  such  timi 
constructively,  as  they  were 
in  the  nineteenth  century. 

LrOmitii  Optra  omnia,  ed.  Dutens  (6  vob.,  Geneva,  1768}: 
trilmu'*  gaammtUe  Wttke,  eil.  Kloi>p  (11  voh,.  Hiuiaver. 
lB64-d4t:  li'uWMiifi,nJmii,  sd.  F(H'c:HEB1>bCakeii,C7  vols.. 
Pbju.  1SS9-77)^  <Eui>tcii  ahila:,  td.  Rabpe  (Amslenliun.  I70fll; 
Oprra  philotaphica.  eH.  Ehbbans  (3  pla.,  Berlin,  1839-40):  Dit 
piUomphiKkat  SeAriJIen.  ed.  (iEKBAsr  (7  vol*,.  Berlin.  IS75- 
W>).     There  an  auamana  ediiioi-   -' '-      -"-- 


vnlunblo  fragmi 
lOttl).  TrajiBlD 
Haven.  ISUO).  t 


I,  e.  B.  bis  COfTB- 
<Ian<loa.  I7IT];  and  tbere  sre  miiny 
Opiinaitta  tie.,  ed.  Couterat  (Parig, 
'h<la»ophical  Workt.  tr.  Dchcak  (N™ 
liffeient  noa.  of  tta  Journal  of  Sptc 
re  on  JMe(np*„rtr„  tr.  MaNmolfisT 

'-.  Lanqley  (LoodoD  nud  M«w 

^.,  ix.  KcwELL  (London.  18G01, 

Crilieal  Exiaiilion   oj  An  PhUotopti^  of 
i.mynit    (\,unonaKfli    1000);    Marte,   LeibnU    (Londwi    ud 

KdinburBh,    I88«)!     Diij.m»k-     "---    " '-" ■*- 

MenedtrtU-'-—  " -'—'     '     "' 
M  (Leipi 


Christian  Wolff  (1C79-1754),  who  reduced  his  teachings 
to  more  compact  form,  that  he  exerted  the  influence 
which  he  did  on  the  movement  known  as  the  German 
lUuminalion,  In  point  of  fact,  until  Kunt  (see  Kant, 
PmiioeoFnY  or)  began  the  puUic  exposition  of  his 
criticul  philosophy,  Leibniz  was  the  dominant  mind 
in  the  world  of  philosophy  in  Germany,  And  his  in- 
fluence wiu",  on  the  whole,  salutary.  It  is  true  that 
his  philosophy  is  unreal.     His  fundamental  concep- 


3lMig,  1800,, 

.    !(rflfliBO,lS7<}i  PlAT,  i«m.      .   ._. ___ 

(PiLiia,  IQDO);  Watwih,  Ltibnilt  and  Pnleatant  ThmtoaV  Id 
Nap  World.  V(tS9a),  pp.  iaj-22):  Lnhnu  and  lit  CaAoUe 
Chanh  in  Dii)-lin  Bfoicw,  X  (1S41).  pp.  394-4^>y,  Far  cola- 
picte  liat  af  Hrliclia  etc.,  cf.  Baijiwin,  Dictionary  of  PMl.,  ID, 
pt.  1, 332  HIQ, 

WlLUAM   TUKNEH, 

Laigh,  RicHABD,  Venerable,  English  martyr, 
b.  in  Cambridgeshire  about  1561;  d.  at  Tyburn,  30 
August,  1588,  Ordained  priest  at  Rome  in  February, 
1586-7,  he  came  on  the  mission  the  same  year,  was 
arrested  in  London,  and  banished.  Returning  he  was 
committed  to  the  Towerin  June,  1588,  and  was  con- 
demned at  the  Old  Bailey  for  being  a  priest.  With 
him  suffered  four  laymen  and  a  lady,  all  of  whom 
have  been  declared  "  Venerable".  Edward  Shelley. 
of  Warminghurst,  Susses,  and  East  Sroitbheld,  Lon- 
don (son  of  Edward  Shelley,  of  Warminghurst,  a 
Master  of  the  Household  of  the  sovereign,  and  the 
settlor  in  "Shelley's  case"^  and  Joan,  daughter  of 
Paul  Eden,  of  Penshurst,  Kent),  aged  50  or  60,  who 
wasalready  in  tlie  Clink  for  his  religion  in  April,  1584. 
was  condemned  for  keeping  a  book  culled  "  My  Lord 
Leicester's  Commonwealth  and  tor  having  assisted 
the  Venerable  William  Dean  (q.  v.).  He  was  appai^ 
ently  uncle  by  marriage  to  Benjamin  Norton,  aftei^ 
wards  one  of  the  seven  vicars  of  Dr.  Richard  Smith. 
Richard  Martin,  of  Sliropshire,  was  condemned  for 
being  in  the  company  of  tlie  Ven.  Robert  Morton,  and 


native  of  the  Diocese  of  Bangor  (Wales),  aged  about 
21,  younger  brother  of  Father  Owen  Lloyd,  was  con- 
demned for  entertaining  a  priis;t  named  William 
Horner,  alias  Forrest.  John  Itfielie  (nfins  Neele),  an 
Irish  serving-man,  and  Margaret  Ward,  gentlewoman 
of  Cheshire,  were  condemned  for  having  assisted  a 
priest  named  William  Watson  (as  to  whom  see  Gillow, 
op.  cit,  inf.,  V,  575)  to  escape  from  Bridewell. 

Put-LEN,  Aril  of  the  Enelitli  Uartipi  (Londoo,  ISQl),  110, 
IIS,  286-7,  300-7,  ail-12;  CuUmlic  Ktcord  Sarirlv't  PuUics- 
(i«n  (London,  privately  printed,  1905,  ett,).  IL  W5,  282,  lU. 
MS.  V.  purim;  CiLtow,  Uibl.  Did.  cf  iht  Eng.  Calh.  (London 
and  New  York,  !**,')- 1902),  IV,  194,  493;  L'HAi,LONEtt,  Mit- 
lionaru  Pricil;  I  (Lcominetoo  and  Lonjrm,  1.  d.l,  231-8; 
liEBBi,  SuierT  Otntnlosiet  (l-ondon,  1S30),  «l.  80;  Uallaway 
AMD  Cabtwhiout.  SuiKi,  II  IIaqJoq.  1819-30).  ii,  257. 

John  B.  Wainewhioht. 

Leighlin.  See  Kildare  and  Leighlin,  Diocbsb  or. 

Lelpiig,  chief  town  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  sit- 
uated at  the  junction  of  the  Pleisse,  Parthe,  and 
Weisse  Elster,  In  1905  it  contained  50:i,672  inhab- 
itantt,  of  whom  22,864  were  Catholics;  the  population 
to-day  numl>eTs  about  545,000.    The  memting  of  Um 


LEIPZia 


139 


Lxipzia 


word  Leipzig,  which  is  probably  of  Slavonic  origin,  is 
still  uncertain.  The  latest  investigations  have  proved 
beyond  doubt  that  the  region  about  Leipzig  was  orig- 
inally occupied  by  the  Teutons.  With  the  migration 
of  the  nations,  the  Slavs  settled  there,  but  in  the  ninth 
century,  the  Germans  succeeded  in  re-establishing 
themselves.  In  922  King  Henry  I  conquered  the 
Daleminzians,  and  laid  out  the  fortified  town  of  Meis- 
sen. Other  strongholds  were  subsequently  founded 
in  the  vicinity.  The  first  mention  of  Leipzig  is  to  be 
found  in  the  chronicle  of  Bishop  Thietmar  of  Merse- 
burg  (1009-18).  Another  German  colony  grew  up 
beside  this  stronghold,  to  which  Margrave  Otto  of  Meis- 
sen gave  a  charter  (alx)ut  1160),  the  so-called  Stadt- 
brief  of  Leipzig.  According  to  this  charter  Leipzig  was 
given  the  Magdeburg  code  of  laws,  and  at  the  same 
time  an  important  plan  of  extension  was  decided  upon. 

The  expansion  of  the  Gorman  people  was  followed 
everywhere  by  the  growth  of  Christianity.  Leipzig 
l)elonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Mersel)urg.  The  oldest 
church  was  Peterskapclle,  the  larger  Xikoliiikirche  was 
built  later.  Of  this,  parts  are  still  extant  in  the  present 
church  of  that  name.  The  Thomaskloster,  the  first 
monastery,  was  found*.*^!  in  the  reign  of  Margrave  Diet- 
rich (1197-1221);  bolh  the  Nikolaikirche  and  the 
Peterskapelle  were  made  subordinate  to  this  monas- 
tery, which  was  governed  by  the  Augustinian  Canons. 
By  purchase  and  through  foundations  the  monastery, 
wnose  prior  was  freely  elected  by  the  friars,  gradually 
became  pK)ssessed  of  considerable  real  estate  and  valu- 
able tithes.  A  school,  the  oldest  in  Saxony,  was  soon 
founded  in  connexion  with  the  monastery.  Three 
other  convents  were  founded  in  the  town  after  the 
Tliomaskloster;  first  that  of  the  Cistercian  Sisters 
mentioned  l>etween  1220  and  1230,  which  found  a 
great  benefactor  in  Margrave  Heimnch  (1230-88); 
then  the  monastery  of  the  Dominican  fathers,  founded 
about  1229  and  consecrated  in  1210  in  the  presence  of 
the  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg  and  the  uishops  of 
Merseburg,  Naumburg,  and  Meissen;  and  lastly  the 
monastery  of  the  Franciscans,  which  existed  at  least 
as  early  as  1253.  Including  these  four  convent 
churches,  Leipzig  thus  possessed  six  churches  in  the 
Middle  Ages;  to  these  were  added  the  Katharinen- 
kapelle  (1210),  the  Marienkapelle  (about  1262),  and 
the  chapels  belonging  to  the  townhall  and  the  castle 
(fifteenth  oenturj').  The  oldest  hospital  in  the  town 
was  that  founded  together  and  in  connexion  with  the 
Thomaskloster  in  1213;  its  management  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  convent  to  the  town  in  1439.  St. 
John's  hospital,  erected  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  originally  devoted  to  the  care  of  lepers. 

From  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century  Leipzig 
was  looked  upon  as  the  most  important  military  sta- 
tion between  the  Saale  and  the  Mulde.  The  Messen 
or  annual  fairs  added  greatly  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
town;  at  first  they  were  held  in  the  Spring  (Jubilate^ 
mesae)  and  Autumn  (Michaelisme^ise),  but  after  1458 
they  were  also  held  at  Christmas  or  the  New  Year. 
In  1419  I^ipzig  obtained  from  Pope  Martin  V  privi- 
leges on  account  of  her  fair,  and  received  in  1515  a 
papal  market  privilege.  The  fame  and  importance  of 
the  city  was  greatly  increased  by  still  another  event, 
namely  the  foundation  of  the  university  in  1449  by  the 
students  and  professors  who  had  seceded  from  Prague 
on  account  of  the  tyrannical  actions  of  the  Czech- 
Hussite  faction.  The  foundation  was  confirmed  by 
Pope  Alexander  V  in  1409.  Towards  the  latter  part 
of  the  Middle  Ages  the  state  of  the  Church  had  changed 
for  the  worse.  The  convents  were  becoming  more 
worldly;  in  1445  the  Bishop  of  Merseburg  found  it 
necessary  to  attempt  a  reform  of  the  Thomaskloster, 
but  met  with  no  success.  The  remedial  measures 
tried  by  Cardinal  Nicholas  of  Cusa  in  1451  brought 
about  no  permanent  improvement.  The  preaching 
acsUvity  of  St.  John  Capistran  in  1455  was  more  suc- 
cessful, at  least  among  members  of  bis  own  order  (the 


Franciscans),  bat  the  Cistercian  Sisters  in  Leipzig 
did  ever3rthmg  in  their  power  to  impede  a  reform. 
Later  on  there  was  a  division  in  both  the  Dominican 
and  Franciscan  orders,  which  led  to  mutual  opposi- 
tion, some  contending  for  a  more  rigorous  and  some 
for  a  laxer  interpretation  of  the  rule.  The  relations 
between  the  towni  council  and  the  townsi>eople  on  the 
one  side  and  the  clerics,  more  particularly  the  regu- 
lars, on  the  other,  became  strained  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  situation  was  further  aggravated  by  the 
quarrel  between  the  secular  clergy  and  the  monas- 
teries. Small  wonder,  therefore,  that  Luther's  reform 
movement  soon  found  adherents  in  Leipzig. 

Another  connexion  which  the  city  had  with  the  new 
movement  was  that  Tetzel  was  a  citizen,  and  also  that 
Luther's  Theses  of  1517  were  printed  there.  The 
celebrated  Disputation  between  Luther  and  Karlstadt 
on  one  side  and  Eck  on  the  other  also  took  place  in 
Leipzig;  this  was  held  under  the  most  brilliant  aus- 
pices, and  lasted  from  27  June  until  15  Julv,  1519. 
Although  both  sides  claimed  the  victory,  Lutfier's  ad- 
herents increased  so  greatly  that  neither  the  Bishop  of 
Meissen  nor  the  university  dared  announce  in  I^eip- 
zig  before  1521  the  Bull  of  excommunication  against 
Luther,  which  Eck  had  brought  from  Rome.  Among 
the  many  scholars  of  the  town  who  energetically  op- 
posed the  new  movement  by  word  and  writing,  par- 
ticular mention  must  be  made  of  the  Dominican  Pe- 
trus  Sylvius,  Professor  Dungersheim  of  the  university, 
the  Franciscan  Augustin  Alfeld,  Ilieronymus  Emser. 
and  later  Cochljeus.  The  Reformation  made  no  head- 
way in  Saxony  and  I^eipzig  as  long  as  Duke  George 
lived;  he  even  commanded  four  hundred  adherents  of 
the  new  teaching  to  leave  the  town  in  1552,  and  for- 
bade the  people  of  Leipzig  to  attend  the  University  of 
Wittenberg.  After  his  death  in  1539  the  Reformation 
was  introduced,  and  in  1543  all  the  convents  were  sup- 
pressed, their  lands  sold,  the  buildings  mostly  torn 
down,  and  Catholic  public  worship  abolished.  Besides 
the  Disputation,  there  is  another  important  event  of 
the  Reformation  period  connected  with  the  town  of 
Leipzig:  the  so-called  Leipzig  Interim  (see  Interim). 

In  connexion  with  the  political  history  of  the  town 
there  are  many  events  which  deserve  special  mention. 
The  town  suffered  greatly  during  the  Thirty  Years 
War.  In  1631  Tilly  appeared  before  it  with  his  army 
and  captured  it,  l^ut  was  defeated  at  Breitenfeld  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus  on  17  Septeml)er.  Ix?ipzig  was 
besieged  seven  times  and  was  captured  six;  from  1642 
until  1650  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Swedes;  in 
1706  it  had  to  pay  heavy  tribute  to  Charles  XII. 
Even  more  oppressive  were  the  burdens  of  war  im- 
posed on  the  town  by  the  Prussians  during  the  Second 
Silesian  War  in  1745  and  during  the  Seven  Years 
War.  In  consequence  its  trade  and  industries  were 
ruined  for  years.  In  the  Napoleonic  Wars  Leipzig 
was  occupied  by  the  French  Marshal  Davoust  in  LSOO 
after  the  battle  of  Jena  and  Auerstiidt;  in  1809  it  was 
pillaged  by  the  Duke  of  Brunswick;  and  it  was  only 
after  the  battle  of  Leipzig  (16-18  Octoljcr,  1813)  that 
the  town  was  freed  from  heavy  taxation  and  oppres- 
sion. Half  a  million  men  fought  in  this  mammoth 
battle,  by  which  Germany  was  liberated  from  Na- 
poleon's yoke.  After  Saxony's  accession  to  the  Ger- 
man Customs'  Union  in  the  year  1834,  the  town 
received  a  new  impetus.  While  in  1834  it  only  num- 
bered 45,000  inhabitants,  it  had  107,000  in  1871, 
149,000  in  1880,  455,000  in  1900,  and  at  the  present 
time  (1910)  has  545,000. 

After  the  Reformation  was  accomplished  ,Catholicism 
became  wholly  extinct;  at  least  there  is  no  mention  of 
any  Catholic  parish  until  about  1710.  Only  during 
the  time  of  the  fair  Franciscans  came  from  Halber- 
stadt  to  Leipzig  to  say  Mass.  No  mention  is  made  of 
where  the  services  were  held.  In  1710  the  Catholics 
received  permission  to  celebrate  Mass  openly,  and 
EHector  Frederick  Augustus  I,  who  became  a  Catholic 


„  .  ..  .__ ,._    . d  in  Bohemift  by  John  Hub. 

WM  again  said.     The   parish  was  in  charge  of  the  At   Leipiig   Friedrich   and  Wilhelm,  Landgiavea  of 

Jesuits,  at  first  two  fathers,  but  after  1743  toere  were  Thuringia    and    ilargravea   of    Meissen,  founded    a 

three.     Ah  chaplains  of  the  elector,  or  king,  they  re-  itudium  generate,  the  Bull  for  the  foundation  being 

oeived  from  the  court  in  Dresden  their  saWieB  and  issued  ^  Pope  Alexander  V  at  Pisa,  9  Sept«nil>er, 

rent  allowance.     The  Catholic  school  also  found   a  1409.     The  charter  was  signed  od  2  D<ecember  of  the 

K'  ux  in  the  Pleissenbure.     When  in  1738  the  chapel  same  year,  and  the  first  rector  was  Johannes  of  HOn- 

came  too  small  for  the  faithful,  the  elector  gave  aterberg.     In  the  first  semester  369  students  matric- 

funds  to  replace  it  by  a  larger  one.    The  fathers  did  ulated.     The  Bishop  of  Meiseburg  was  appointed 

not  confine  their  activity  to  Leipzig  alone,  but  ex-  chancellor.     At  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century 

tended  it  as  far  as  Merseburg,  Chenmitc,  Naumburg,  Iieipiig  was,  likeCologne,  astrongbold  of  scholasticism, 

Wittenberg  etc.;   and  from  1749  they  were  also  en-  anda large  part  of  the  "Epistohe  virorum  obacuro- 

trusted  with  the  spiritual  care  of  the  prisoners.     Alter  rum",  written  in  Erfurt  near  by,  refers  to  it.     The 

the  auppression  of  the  Society  of  Jeaua,  the  fathers  re-  university,  specially  the  theological  faculty,  remained 

mained  as  secular  priests.     The  prieste,  who  subse-  true  to  the  Church  at  tlie  beginning  of  the  Refonna- 

Suently  laboured  in  Leipzig,  came  for  the  most  part  tion,  while  Wittenberg,  founded  in  1502,  was  a 
■OTa  Austria,  particularly  Bohemia.  When  in  the  starting-point  for  Luther'a  doctrine.  During  the 
nineteenth  century  the  chapel  of  the  Pleiasenburg  be-  period  of  religious  dissension  the  University  ofLeip- 
came  dilapidated,  and  had  to  be  given  up,  the  town  lig  declined  greatly.  Through  the  efforts  of  its  rec- 
council  placed  the  Mattii&ikirche  at  certain  hours  at  tor,  Kaspar  Bomer,  the  university  obtained  from 
the  disposal  of  the  CathoUca.  The  necessary  means  Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony  an  annual  grant  of  2000  gold 
for  the  uuilding  of  a  new  church  had  been  partly  col-  gulden.  In  1543  it  was  boused  in  the  Paulinum,  a 
lected  by  the  zealous  cFForts  of  the  chief  pastor  of  the  Secularized  Dominican  monastery.  In  1559  the 
Saxon  cFathoIios  in  those  days,  Bishop  and  Apostolic  amendment  of  the  statutes  by  the  rector,  Joachim 
Vicar  Franz  Laurens  Mauermann.  In  1345  the  foun-  Camerariua,  was  completed.  In  the  seventeenth  and 
dation  stone  of  the  first  Catholic  church  was  laid,  and  eighteentli  centuries  the  univeriity  suffered  con- 
in  1847  it  was  consecrated  by  the  new  bishop,  Joseph  aiderably  from  wars,  epidemics,  and  the  billeting  of 
Dittrich,  As  the  town  developed,  the  Catholic  con-  soldiers.  It  remained,  however,  especially  in  the 
gresation  also  grew;  their  esteemed  pastor  Frani  eighteenth  century,  a  centre  of  scholarly  and  literary 
Stolle  built  the  rectory  in  1871,  founded  the  Societies  activity,  well-known  representatives  of  which  were 
of  St.  Vincent  and  St.  Elizabeth  with  their  homes,  the  Johann  Christian  Gottsched  and  Christian  Filrcb- 
reading  association,  etc.     In  1892  the  comer-atone  of  tegott  Gellcrt, 

tiie  second  Catholic  church  was  laid  in  Leipzig-Reud-  In    1768   Prince   Joseph    Alexander   Jablonowaky 

nitz:   in  1907  the  Marienkirche  in  Leipzig-Plagwits-  founded  a  learned  iM>ciety  for  history,  mathematics, 

Undenau,  and  in  1S38  a  new  large  Catholic  school  physics,  and  economics,  which  is  still  in  existence, 

was  built,  in  addition  to  which  chapels  and  schools  The  Linnsan  Society  for  the  Advancement  of  the 

have  been  established  in  the  newly  incorporated  sub-  Natural  Sciences  was  founded  in  1789,  and  in  1824 

urbs,  was  united  with  the  Society  for  Physical  Research. 

At  the  present  time  Leipzig  baa  three  Catholic  par-  In  1812  the  university  dropped  its  Protestant  ecclesi- 

ish  churcnefi  and  two  chapels;   a  Stammichvle  com-  asticaJ  character;  and  in  1830  received  a  new  consti- 

prising  a  public  school  and  a  high  school:  three  branch  tution.     A    decree    of    King    Anthony    of    Saxony 

schools;    three   institutions  belonging   to   the   Grey  abolished  the  old  division  of  professors  and  students 

Sisters   of  St.    Ehzabeth,   who   have   charge   of   St.  into  "nations"  and  entrusted  the  administration  of 

Vincent's   establishment  (institution  [or  the  care  of  the  university  to  the  rector  and  the  four  faculties. 

the  sick,  boarding  school,  and   public  kitchen),  St.  By  a  ministerial  decree  of  1851,  the  body  of  the  ordi- 

Joaeph's  Home  (institution  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  nary  professors  form  the  university  assembly;  they 

surgical  clinic),  and  St.  Elizabeth's  Home  (home  for  elect  the  rector  and  a  member  of  the  Lower  House  of 

single    persons    and    servants).      Among    the    well-  the  Saxon  Diet,  and  have  the  bestowal  of  the  bene- 

developed  Catholic  institutions  worthy  of  mention  are  fices  belonging  to  the  university.     Besides  this  assem- 

tho  Society  of  St.  Vincent  and  also  of  St,  Elizaljeth,  bly  there  is  a  smaller  body,  the  senate,  composed  of 

the  Apprentices'  Club,  the  Club  for  CathoUc  Business  the  rector,  the  pro-rector,  the  four  deans,  and  twelve 

Men,  the  Association  of  Catholic  Teachers^  two  stu-  representatives  elected  by  the  faculties.    In  1836  a 

dents'   corporations,   the  Workingmen's   Guild,   the  new  university  building  named  the  Augusteum,  in 

Uarienverein,  the  Catholic  Casino,   the   Borromean  honour  of  Frederick  Augustus,  first  King  of  Saxony, 

Society,  and  others.  was  opened;  in  1871  an  auditorium  called  the  Bomeri- 

UrkundcnbucJi  der  Stadt  L^ptia  in  Codej  iliplomfilicut  Sax-  anum,  in  honour  of  the  rector  Kaspar  Bomer,  was 

onia  regia,  div.  II.  voli.  VIII-S,  XVI-XVIII;  WtiHTMiNN,  aAAini  tn  thp   AiiBiwtj.iim       Tn  Hip  siimmpr  nf   1897 

Au,  LkpiiQ.  Yirvajv^M  (Leipili.  1885  lud  18B8):  Ids-  f^°^  "*  "*  Augusteum.      In  the  Summer  ol    1W< 

OiKlten  iiTOMc*,  L.;  (a  vob..  iSpuw.  18f»*5);  losH.  L.  there  was  opened  a  new  building,   erected  from   the 

durck  drei  Jahrh.  (Leipiic.  ISSL);  Ideh,  OtttA.  dcr  StadI  L.,  I  plans  of  Arved  Rossbacb,  On  the  site  of  the  original 

SsSrSi,SiA'.KJiSfrSl,'2.  fl«a?ft:  -"Ivmity      From  old  .„d  new  don.tioo.  Ih.  uSvw- 

intu  Bauioi  (Leiptlg.  1892);  Gubutt,  SucArnWla  ci^eJ-  sity  has  a  lai^  endowment  in  land  and  funds,  over 

Iww  da-  alimn  8au-  u.  Kunitdmimaltr  da  KeniBrridu  Sadi-  which  the  Saxon  Government  has  the  right  of  super- 

j«.™rt.xvii,xv1Li(DrB«jBii.l8061:t,™/aA™/Ki^(I*i™«.  ^jgn   ^^   administration.     In    1909   its   property 


JM,pu1ixvii,xv1U  (Dnsden.  ISMhr.,  imJakn  IB04  (Leipiig, 
imfTtot  St.  Louti  Exhibition;  Waaai,.  L.  im  UniwriOei- 
JMaanfJahr  ISOSiLeipric,  1900):  SiArillm  da  VerttTH  fur 
dii  Ofch.  L.-M.  I-XIII  (LdpHi.  1873-1900).    For  jnlormation 


amounted  to  thirty-one  million  marks. 

.      ----.-   ---,- _- —  the  university  library  consists  of  the  valuable  col- 

vTJZir^r!  ;7™  ~7,Mi,',„i^i,^.^~j?Mi^'.?^A!^Ph^-^'i..'oe'  lections  taken  from  the  suppressed  Saxon  monasteries; 

TTitibOit  (Lcipiis.  1S871:  Deutscbiiuih,  Handtrriarr  (Qr  d.  it  contains  about  600,000  volumes  and  ooUU  manu- 

kathol.  Phrrbairk  L.  (Lpipiig.  10021;  Bruno- KaUndar  (Dim-  scnptS.      At  the  instance  of  the  rectOT  of  that  period, 

"iw.  1850-).                                                Joseph  Lish,  Dukes  Maurice  and  Augustus  of  Saxony  founded,  22 
April,  1544,  a  refeclozy  {Tnenta  commutiie)  for  needy 

Lsipiig,  UuivERfliTT  OF. — The  University  of  Leip-  students,  where  meals  could  be  obtained  either  with- 

sig  in  Saxony  is,  next  to  Heidelberg,  the  oldest  univer-  out  cost,  or  at  moderate  nrices.     At  the  present  day 

dty  in  the  German  Empire.     It  was  established  when  from  two  to  three  hundred  students  share  in  this 

the  German  students  under  the  leadership  of  Johannes  privilege. 

af  Hdnsterberg,  who  had  been  deposed  as  rector  by  Amon^  the  distinguished  scholars  may   be  men- 
King  Wencealaus,  left  Prague  in  May,  1409,  and  went  Uoned:  m  the  evangelical  theological  faculty,  Tiscb- 


LUTBCBBITZ 


141 


LUTBSERITZ 


endorf,  Luthardt,  and  the  ecclesiastical  historian. 
Hauck;  in  the  faculty  of  law.  von  W&chter,  ana 
Windscheid;  the  Germanic  scholar  Wilhelm  Albrecht, 
and  his  pupil  von  Gerber,  later  Minister  of  Worship 
and  Education  in  Saxony;  the  historians  of  German 
jurisprudence,  Stobbe  and  Sohm,  and  the  authorities 
on  criminal  law»  Binding  and  Wach.  More  than  one- 
fifth  of  all  the  law  students  of  Germany  in  the  years 
1875--85  took  a  part  of  their  course  at  Leipzig.  At 
the  present  date  the  law  faculty  of  Leipzig  ranks 
thira  in  Germany,  after  Berlin  and  Municn.  In  the 
medical  faculty,  Benno  Schmidt,  Trendelenburg,  and 
Kolliker  have  especially  aided  in  the  advancement 
of  sumry;  in  anatomy,  Bock  and  His;  in  patho- 
logical anatomy,  Birch-Hirschfeld  and  Marchand; 
in  physics  and  physiology,  Ludwig*  in  the  philo- 
sopnical  faculty,  Weber,  the  founder  of  psycho- 
physics;  Volkelt,  writer  on  Eesthetics;  the  philosopher 
Uustav  Theodore  Fechner,  and  Wilhelm  Wundt,  the 
founder  of  the  widely  known  institute  for  experi- 
mental psychology.  Pedagogics  developed  at  Leipzig 
into  an  independent  science,  and,  when  a  pedagog- 
ical seminary  was  founded  by  Ziller  in  1861,  the 
study  acquii^  a  still  greater  importance.  In  the 
department  of  classical  philolo^  should  be  men- 
tioned the  names  of  Hermann,  Ritschl,  Ribbeck,  and 
ihe  ardhffiologist  Overbeck;  in  Germanic  philology, 
Haupt  and  Zamcke;  in  comparative  philology,  Bru^- 
mann;  in  the  languages  of  Eastern  Asia,  Conradi;  m 
the  science  of  history,  Mommsen  and  Lamprecht, 
¥dio  of  late  years  has  been  known  far  beyond  the 
circle  of  specialists  in  his  department.  In  political 
economy,  Roscher  was  the  founder  of  the  historical 
school;  also  Bilcher,  who  is  well  known  for  his  in- 
vestigations into  the  relations  of  the  State  to  trade 
and  manufacture,  and  applied  statistics.  The 
matriculated  students  at  Leipzig  number  nearly  5000. 

Fribdbbro,  Die  Univ.  Leiptia  in  VergangenheU  und  Oegen- 
iMxr<  (Leipsig.  1898);  Leipxiger  KtUender.  IlltuirierUB  Jahrbuch 
umd  Chronik  (LeipztjS,  1909);  Euuenburq,  Die  Entwicklung  der 


UniveraiUU  Leipzig  in  den  letiten  hundert  Jahren  (Leipzig,  1909) ; 
itf   Unwerntat  Leipzig  in  ihrem  tatutendMen  Semester 
Uach 
?tig, 
Kkbn,  Die  Leipziger  Theologi^che  FakulMt  in  fUnf  Jahrhunder- 


BncDA.  Die 

CLoipsi^,  1909) ;  FeHtchrift  zur  Feier  dee  500  jHhrigen  BeeUhene 

der  VmvereiUU  Leipzig,  issued  by  the  rector  and  senate:    I, 


^etpzxg\ 

rFt 

ten;  II,  Frtedbbro,  Die  Leipziger  JurielenfakuWit,  ihre  Dok- 


loren  und  ihr  Heim;  III,  Die  fnslitide  der  mediziniachen FakuU&t 
an  der  Univereit&t  Leipzig;  IV,  Die  Inetitute  und  Seminare  der 
pkiioeophieehen  Fc^ulUit  an  der  UnivereiUit  Leipzig;  part  I,  Die 
^iMogieehe  und  die  philoaophieeh-hiMoriache  Sektion;  part  II, 
Die  matkematieeh-naturwieeenechaftliche  Sektion  (I^eipsig,  1909); 
LiEBifANV,  Festgdbe  der  deutachen  Juriatenzeitung  zum  600 
i^hrigen  Jubil&um  der  UniveraiUU  Leipzig  (Berlin,  1909). 

Karl  Hoeber. 

Leitmeriti,  Diocese  of  (Litomericensis),  in 
Austria,  embraces  the  northern  part  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Bohemia  (see  map  accompanying  Austria-Hungart). 

I.  History. — After  the  introauction  of  Christianity 
under  Charleniagne  and  Louis  the  German,  the  present 
Diocese  of  Leitmeritz  formed  part  of  the  Diocese  of 
Ratisbon.  Before  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  the 
Christian  religion  was  so  widespread  that  Emperor 
Otto  I  founded  the  first  Bohemian  diocese  (Prague) 
in  973,  which  included  all  Bohemia.  The  first  church  in 
Leitmeritz,  dedicated  to  St.  Wenceslaus,  was  built  in 
925,  while  in  1057  Duke  Spitihn^  built  St.  Stephen's 
church  and  founded  a  collegiate  chapter.  In  time 
numerous  monasteries  were  ouilt;  in  1384  the  city, 
with  its  suburbs,  possessed  thirteen  churches  and 
chapels,  and,  besides  numerous  religious,  twenty  secu- 
lar priests  engaged  in  the  cure  of  souls.  The  Hussite 
Ware  put  an  end  to  this  flourishing  ecclesiastical  or- 
pmisation.  In  1421  Ziska  appear^  before  Leitmer- 
iti, which  was  spared  only  on  condition  of  accepting 
Uie  Hussite  religion.  The  collegiate  church  alone, 
despoiled  of  its  possessions,  held  nrm  to  the  old  rite  of 
Communion  unaer  one  kind.  Hussitism  was  the  fore- 
runner of  Protestantism,  which  found  the  ^und  al- 
readv  prepared  on  account  of  the  long  religious  ware, 
the  decline  of  learning  among  ecclesiastics,  the  lack  of 


priests,  and  the  insubordination  of  the  nobles,  who 
nad  become  rich  andpowerf ul  through  the  wealtn  and 
possessions  of  the  Church.  At  first  the  nobility  ac- 
cepted the  teaching  of  Luther,  and  in  many  cities  the 
transition  from  Utraquism  to  Lutheranism  soon  fol- 
lowed. Through  the  priest  Gallus  Cahera,  a  disciple 
of  Luther,  Leitmeritz  was  also  won  over  to  Protestant- 
ism. The  Thirty  Years  War  brought  a  reaction.  By 
the  victorious  campaign  of  the  emperor  in  Bohemia 
the  revolutionary  nobles  were  overthrown,  the  cities 
lost  theirprivileges,  and  the  people  emigrated  or  again 
became  (Jatholics.  For  the  better  administration  of 
the  laige  Archdiocese  of  Prague,  the  bishop  of  that  time, 
Count  Ernst  Adalbert  von  Harrach,  a  nephew  of  Wal- 
lenstein,  divided  its  territory,  and  created  the  dioceses 
of  KoniggHitz  (q.  v.)  and  Leitmeritz  as  its  suffragans. 

In  1655  the  then  provost  of  the  collegiate  chapter  of 
Leitmeritz,  Baron  Max  Rudolf  von  Schleinitz,  was 
named  first  Bishop  of  Leitmeritz  (1655-75).  He  buil^ 
the  cathedral  to  replace  the  small  collegiate  church, 
organized  the  diocese,  and  expended  his  whole  fortime 
on  the  improvement  of  his  see.  His  successor,  Coimt 
Jaroslaus  Franz  Ignaz  von  Sternberg  (1676-1709), 
finished  the  cathedral  and  erected  the  episcopal  cuna 
(1694-1701).  The  foiuth  bisiiop,  Johann  Adam, 
Count  Wratislaus  von  Mitrowitz  (1721-33),  appeare  to 
have  administered  also  the  Archdiocese  of  Prague.  In 
the  Seven  Years  War,  during  the  administration  of 
Duke  Moritz  Adolf  of  Sachsen-Zeitz  (1733-59),  who 
built  the  seminary,  the  diocese  had  much  to  suffer 
from  the  Prussians.  His  successor,  Coimt  Emanuel 
Ernst  von  Waldstein  (1760-89),  made  little  opposition 
to  the  efforts  of  the  Government  to  spread  through  the 
diocese  the  ideas  of  Febronius;  the  convents  of  the 
Jesuits,  Augustinians.  Servites,  etc.  were  confiscated, 
manv  churches  closed  as  superfluous,  and  all  brother- 
hoods disbanded.  In  1784  the  territory  of  the  diocese 
was  increased  by  two  districts.  The  next  bishop, 
Ferdinand  Kindermann,  Ritter  von  Sohulstein  (1790- 
1801),  had  before  his  appointment  to  the  bishopric 
won  deserved  fame  as  a  reformer  and  organizer  of  the 
whole  educational  system  of  Bohemia;  as  bishop  he 
continued  to  direct  education  in  his  diocese,  built  the 
cathedral  parochial  school,  and  erected  an  institute 
for  the  education  of  girls  at  Leitmeritz.  The  eighth 
bishop,  Wenzel  Leopold  Chlumdansky,  Ritter  von 
Prfistawlk  and  Chlum6an  (1802-15),  a  true  father  of 
the  poor,  built  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  in  1805. 
Joseph  Franz  Hurdalek  (1815-1823)  was  obliged  to 
resign.  Vincenz  Eduard  Milde  (1823-32)  OMCcame 
Archbishop  of  Vienna.  Augustin  Bartholomftus  Hille 
(1832-65)  opened  in  1851  the  school  for  boys  and  a 
normal  college.  He  was  succeeded  by  Augustin  Paul 
Wahala  (1866-77),  in  whose  time  originated  in  Wams- 
dorf  the  sect  of  the  Old  Catholics;  Anton  Ludwig  Frind 
(1879-81),  the  learned  author  of  the  "Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Bohemia";  and  Emanuel  Johann  Schobel 
(1882-1909),  to  whom  the  diocese  is  indebted  for 
many  churches  and  for  the  introduction  of  popular 
missions:  and  JosephGross  (consecrated  23  May,  1910). 

II.  Statistics. — In  1909  the  diocese  numlwred  28 
vicariates,  2  provostships,  3  archdeaneries,  37  deaner- 
ies, 392  parishes,  7  Exposituren  (substantially  inde- 
pendent filial  churches),  343  stations,  chaplaincies, 
and  curacies,  26  other  benefices,  628  churches,  397 
public  chapels,  756  secular  priests  engaged  in  the  cure 
of  souls,  87  other  secular  priests,  140  religious  priests. 
1,598,900  Catholics,  33,560  Protestants,  10,400  Old 
Catholics,  and  18,300  Jews.  The  Church  in  this  dio- 
cese has  much  to  contend  with.  For  centuries  two 
different  races  (German  and  Czech),  and  two  different 
beliefs  (Catholic  and  Protestant),  have  existed  side  by 
side,  and  national  and  religious  diputes  are  of  frequent 
occurrence.  The  Loa-voU'Rom  movement,  having  its 
origin  in  (jrermany,  sought  in  the  Diocese  of  Leitmer- 
ritz,  situated  on  the  boniers.  a  vantage  ground  for  the 
propagation  of  its  ideas,  and  as  a  remilt  thousands  of 


LEJEUNE 


142 


LELOifO 


Catholics  drifted  away  from  the  Church.  Another 
difiBculty  is  the  lack  of  priests,  over  a  hundred  vacan- 
cies existing  in  the  parishes.  The  language  spoken  in 
twenty  of  me  vicariates  is  German,  in  six  Czech,  and 
in  two  is  mixed."  More  than  a  third  of  the  priests  are 
Czech.  There  are  309  German  parishes,  95  Czech, 
and  the  rest  mixed.  The  cathedral  chapter  possesses 
a  provost,  a  dean,  five  capitulary,  and  six  honor- 
ary canons.  The  clergy  are  trained  in  the  episcopal 
seminary  and  in  the  theological  training  school  at 
Leitmeritz.  The  Catholic  intermediate  schools  of  the 
diocese  are  the  private  gymnasium  of  the  Jesuits  at 
Mariaschein,  which  is  at  the  same  time  the  diocesan 
school  for  boys,  and  five  seminaries,  of  which  two  are 
in  Reichenberg  and  one  each  at  Leitmeritz,  Teplitz- 
Schonau,  and  Jungbunzlau.  In  the  pubUc  primary 
and  secondary  schools  the  Church  has  very  little  op- 
portunity to  impart  religious  instruction.  For  girls, 
nowever,  there  are  several  institutions  for  instruction 
and  training  conducted  by  sisters:  8  boarding  schools, 
10  primary  schools,  2  secondary  schools,  and  20  ad- 
vanced and  industrial  schools. 

The  following  orders  have  foundations  in  the  dio- 
cese (1909):  Cistercians  at  Ossegg,  1  abbey  (founded 
in  1293),  with  an  extensive  library  and  galleiy  of  paint- 
ings; the  fathers  teach  in  the  Gymnasium  of  Komotau; 
Jesuits,  1  college  in  Mariaschein;  Piarists;  Redemp- 
torists;  Dominicans;  Aueustinians;  Reformed  Fran- 
ciscans; Minorites;  Capuchins;  Order  of  Malta;  Crosier 
Fathers;  Premonstratensians;  the  Congregation  of  the 
Sacred  Heart.  In  1909  the  female  orders  and  congre- 
gations in  the  diocese  had  68  foundations,  with  654 
sisters,  93  novices,  and  15  postulants:  Congregation  of 
St.  Elizabeth,  1;  Ursulines,  1;  Borromeans,  23;  Sisters 
of  the  Cross,  22;  Poor  School  Sisters  of  Our  Lady,  5; 
Daughters  of  Divine  Charity,  2;  Poor  Handmaids  of 
Jesus  Christ,  4;  Franciscan  Sisters,  3;  Sisters  of  Char- 
ity of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  5;  and  Sisters  of  Christian 
Cnarity,  1  foundation.  Among  the  charitable  insti- 
tutions of  the  diocese  under  religious  management  are 
20  orphan  asylums,  7  asylums  for  children,  14  kinder- 

Sartens,  1  reformatory,  and  20  infant  asylums;  the 
iocese  conducts  also  its  own  institute  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb  at  Leitmeritz.  Of  the  many  associations,  the 
following  are  worthy  of  mention:  Cficilienverein  (As- 
sociation of  St.  Cecina),  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer,  the 
Marian  Confraternities,  the  Catholic  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation, the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the  Gesel- 
lonvereine,  the  Catholic  People's  Unions  (60),  and 
others.  There  are  55  shrines  and  places  of  pilgrimage 
in  the  diocese,  the  most  popular  being  Mariaschein, 
Bohmisch-Kamenitz,  Ossegs,  Philippsdorf,  and  Krie- 
Bchitz.  The  principal  church  of  the  diocese  is  the  ca- 
thedral, built  in  1671  in  Renaissance  style.  The  most 
ancient  is  St.  Clement's  in  Levy-Hradec.  Among 
others,  the  beautiful  churches  of  Melnik,  Nimburg, 
Aussig  and  Saaz,  the  chief  churches  of  their  respective 
deaneries,  and  the  iovm  church  of  Brux  daXe  from 
Gothic  times,  and  the  cathedral,  the  collegiate  church 
of  Ossegg,  and  the  pilgrimage  church  of  Mariaschein 
from  the  Renaissance  perioof.  The  churches  of  Eich- 
wald,  Philippsdorf,  St.  Vincent  in  Reichenberg,  the 
church  of  St.  Elizabeth  in  Tcplitz-Schonau,  and 
others,  were  built  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Bretkeld,  UmrxM  finer  kunen  Ge»eh.  dea  Leitmeritzer  Bis- 
turns  (Vienna,  181  l)j  Frind,  Die  Kirchengeach.  Bdhmens  im 
allgemeinen  und  in  xhrer  btaonderen  Beziehung  auf  die  jeUige 
IjeitmeriUer  Didcew  (4  vols.,  PraRue.  1864-78):  Sbipert,  Die 
Lritmeriizer  Diticese  nach  ihren  ffeschichtl.,  kirchl.  u.  topograph, 
Brziehunqen  (Saax,  1899);  Endlkr,  Dae  eoziale  Wirken  der 
kathol.  Kirehe  in  Oesterreich,  XI:  Die  Didcene  Leitmeritz 
(Vienna,  1903):  Directorium  divini  officii  et  calalogua  univerti 
deri  diceceaani  Litomericensia  (Leitmeritz,  1910). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Lejeune,  Jean,  b.  at  Poligny  in  1592 ;  d.  at  Li- 
moges, 19  Aug.,  1672:  member  of  the  Oratory  of 
Jesus,  founded  by  de  B^'ruUe  in  1611.  He  was  dis- 
tinguishi^d  by  the  siinotity  of  his  life,  but  l^s  reputa- 


tion mainly  depends  upon  his  renown  as  a  preacher. 
The  eneigy  witn  which  he  conducted  his  apostolate, 
gained  for  him  the  name  of  ''The  Missionary  of  the 
Oratory"  and  the  blindness  which  overtook  him  at 
the  age  of  thirty-five,  the  further  appellation  of  "The 
Blind  Father  ".  He  was  the  son  of  a  lawyer  at  D61e, 
of  a  family,  which  during  the  previous  century  had  at- 
tained to  a  high  position  in  the  magistracy  and  was 
renowned  for  the  piety  and  virtue  of  its  members. 
Owing  to  the  early  loss  of  his  father,  his  education  de- 
volved upon  his  mother  who  devoted  herself  to  his 
spiritual  advancement.  Having  studied  theology  at 
tte  University  of  Dole,  he  fell  imder  the  influence  of 
de  B^ruUe  and  entered  the  Oratory  in  1614.  He  was 
appointed  director  of  the  seminary  at  Lan^res  but 
soon  manifested  his  vocation  to  mission  work  amone 
the  poor,  and  henceforward  all  his  effort  was  directed 
to  tnis.  His  life  was  unmarked  by  any  external  event 
except  the  loss  of  sight  which  occurred  in  1627,  while 
he  was  preaching  the  Lenten  course  at  Rouen,  but 
this  caused  no  cessation  in  his  apostolic  work.  The 
bishops  employed  him  in  preaching  the  Lent  and  Ad- 
vent courses  and  the  Government  in  the  conversion 
of  Protestants.  He  avoided  the  custom  of  treating 
controversial  matter  in  the  pulpit  and  confincKl  him- 
self to  the  exposition  of  fundamental  truths.  It  was  a 
novel  idea  of  his  to  introduce  after  his  discourses  an 
abridgement  of  Christian  doctrine.  He  also  held  con- 
ferences for  the  instruction  of  the  cleigy  in  his  methods 
and  was  recoinmended  by  Massillon  to  young  eccle- 
siastics for  their  imitation.  The  French  Oratory  was 
suspected  of  Jansenism,  and  he  was  himself  criticized 
on  the  ground  that  his  preaching  led  to  unsatisfactory 
results.  In  1660  he  appealed  for  advice  to  Amauld, 
who  ascribed  these  results  to  the  laxity  of  imprudent 
confessors  imder  the  influence  of  casuistry,  and  dis- 
suaded him  from  the  design  of  abandoning  his  mission 
work.  His  sermons  in  twelve  volumes  w^ere  pub- 
lished at  Toulouse,  Paris,  and  Rouen  before  his  death, 
and  a  Latin  translation  at  Mainz  in  1667.  There  is  an 
edition  published  at  Lyons  in  1826,  but  the  latest  and 
best  edition  is  that  of  Peltier  in  ten  volumes  issued  in 
1889.  Four  volumes  of  extracts  also  appeared  at 
Avignon  in  1825  under  title  of  **  Pens^esdu  P.  Lejeune". 

Cloyseault,  Recueil  de^  Viea  de  auelquea  prftrea  de  VChatoire; 
PcRRAUD,  VOratoire  de  France  (runs,  1866);  Rbnoux,  Vie 
du  P.  Lejeune  (Paris,  1875);  Tabaraud,  Vie  du  P.  Lejeune 
(Limoges,  1830).  and  Life  in  Vol.  XII  of  Lyons  edition  of 

Henry  Tristram. 


sermons. 


LeUiSfCAMiLLUs  of.  See  Camillus  de  Lellis,  Saint. 

Lelong,  Jacques,  French  bibliographer,  b.  at 
Pars,  19  April,  1665;  d.  there,  13  Aug..  1721.  As  a 
bov  of  ten,  he  entered  the  Order  of  the  Knishts  of  St. 
John  of  Malta,  and,  after  a  very  brief  and  unhappy 
sojourn  in  Malta,  made  his  studies  at  Paris.  He  left 
the  Order  of  the  Knights  and  entered  the  Oratory  in 
1686.  He  then  taught  at  the  college  of  Juilly  in  the 
Diocese  of  Meaux,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  in 
1689,  and  was  later  librarian  at  the  seminary  of  Notre- 
Dame  des  Vertus  in  Aubervilliers  near  Paris.  He  was 
transferred  in  1699  to  the  Oratory  of  St-Honor^  at 
Paris,  and  remained  there  as  librarian  till  his  death 
twenty-two  years  later.  The  title  of  the  first  work 
which  brought  him  fame  indicates  its  contents  fairly 
completely:  **Bibliotheca  Sacra  in  binos  Syllabos  dis- 
tincta  quffi  (I)  omnes  sive  Textus  sacri  sive  Versionum 
ejusdem  qua  vis  lingua  expressarum  Editiones,  necnon 
prsBstantiores  MSS.  Codices  cum  notis  historicis  et 
criticis,  (II)  omnia  eorum  opera  quovis  idiomate  con- 
scnpta,  qui  hucusque  in  s.  Scripturam  quidpiam  edid- 
erunt,  et  grammaticas  et  I^xica  linguarum  prsesertim 
orientalium,  quae  ad  illustrandas  sacras  paginas  all- 
quid  adjumenti  conferre  possunt,  continct  (2  vols. 
8vo,  Paris,  1709; — ^Vigouroux,  contradicting  other 
authorities,  says  1702;2nded.,  1709);  edited  by  Boer- 
ner  with  additions  chiefly  of  German  works  (Ant- 
werp, 1709);  folio  edition  by  the  author  (Paris,  1719); 


n^tod  after  the  author's  death  with  many  additions 
and  correctioos  by  Leloug  and  by  his  coiifr^re,  Des- 
moleta,  who  prefixed  the  life  from  which  we  draw  our 
(acta  (2  vols.,  fol.,  Paris,  172;j).     The  last  and  best 


._._  .arly  modern  literature  concerning  them. 

lielong  also  wrote  a  "Discoura  biat4>ru|uc  sur  L'sprin- 
cipalea  editioiude^  Biltles  polyglottut"  (PurLj,  l7l:i). 
IIh  other  work,  which  aliows  hia  variety  of  tastea  and 
has  proved  very  useful  to  studentsof  French  history,  ia 
entitled  "  Biblioth('<{uc  historique  de  la  l''ranee,  con- 
tenant  le  catoloKue  dcs  ouvraRes  imprimis  et  manu- 
sorits  i|ui  traitent  de  I'histuirc  de  ce  royaume,  ou  qui 
y  ODt  mpport,  avec  dcs  notes  critiques  et  hiutoriques" 
(ParU,  X719). 


La  Lontre,  Lol'ih- Joseph,  missionarv  to  I  he  Mio> 
mac  Indians  und  Vicar-General  of  Acadia  under  the 
Biabop  orQuiljec,  b.  in  France  about  Itt'.tlJ:  A.  there 
about  1770.  He  was  a  conspicuous  figure  in  Nova 
Seotia  in  Uie  middln  of  the  eiKhteenth  century,  and 
his  portrait  as  drawn  l>y  some  writers  lends  colour  to 
the  charge  that  history  is  often  a  conspiracy  ai^iinst 
truth.  Anxioiu  to  juiitify  the  memoral>le  iie|Hirtation 
of  the  Acadianu  in  1755,  portion  annalist^j  and  chron- 
iclera  of  the  {>eriocl  represi^nt  Le  Loutre  as  the  evil 
genius  and  tvrant  of  tne  Aeadiuns,  the  sworn  enemjr 
of  the  En(;iish,  iind  -.i  pastiir  who  threatened  with  ex- 
comraunicution  and  with  mussiicre  l)y  his  Iniliana  all 
who  favoured  measures  of  reconcihation  with  the 
Englinh  Government.  Better  accredited  hi.'itoriana, 
however,  such  as  Haliburton,  acknowledge  tliat  thi^ 

Picture  of  the  abl>£  is  mom  caricature  than  portrait. 
he  truth  appears  to  l)e  that  Le  Loutre  was  a  typical 
French  missionary  of  forceful  character  ami  iriitmtive, 
with  a  natural  desire,  sii  long  as  the  matter  was  in 
digputxt,  to  hold  the  Acadiana  to  their  alle|;i:ince  to 
France:  that  he  showed  himself  more  than  once  un  ex- 
cellent friend  of  imlividiial  Englishmen  in  tlieir  time 
of  need;  and  that  his  accompanying  the  Miemiies  on 
seveni  expeditions  against  the  English,  expiililions 
which  he  had  done  his  best  to  prevent,  was  tor  the  nolo 
purpose  of  restmining  the  cruelty  and  vengeimce  of 
his  Indian  Hock.  A  letter  sent  in  1757  by  the  Bishop 
of  Quebec  to  the  AbM  of  I'Isle-Diou  pmclaims  Lo 
Loutm  lo  have  l>een  "  irreproachable  in  every  respect, 
both  in  the  functions  of  his  sacred  ministrv  and  in  the 
part  he  took  in  the  temporal  affairs  of  tne  colony". 
Captured  by  the  English  while  on  the  way  to  France, 
Lc  Loutre  was  held  prisoner  by  them  for  some  ^ate  in 
the  Isle  of  Jersey;  on  his  release  he  returned  to  France, 
where  a  few  years  later  he  died. 

HAUauBTOH,  Hiaoru  of  iVo™  Sailwi  (Halifiu,  1862);  Ricd- 
inn,  Aeailia  ilHOi};  Boukuej.u,  Iliilairr  Ju  Canada  (Mou- 

ir™l  1903).  ABTHnR  Babhv  O'Neill. 


the  Acts  make  St.  Julianus  one  of  the  seventy-two 
ilLsciples  of  Christ  and  state  that  he  arrived  at  Le 
MuiLH  with  two  companions:  Turibius,  who  became 
bishop  under  Antoninus  (laS-lOl),  and  Pavatius  who 
was  bishop  under  Maximinua  {235-238)  and  under 
Aureiian  (270-275),  in  which  event,  Pavatius  would 
have  lived  over  two  hundred  years.  Liborius,  suc- 
cessor of  Pavatius,  woulii  have  been  the  contemporary 
of  Valentinian  (364-375).  These  chronological  ab- 
surdities of  tile  Acts  liave  Icfl  Mgr  Duchrane  to 
conclude  that  the  first  Bisliop  of  Le  Mans  whose 
episcopate  can  bo  dated  with  certainty  is  Victurius, 
who  attended  the  C-ouneils  of  Angers  and  of  Tours,  in 
-!53  and  401,  and  to  whom  Gregory  ot  Tmirs  alludes 


Le    HuiB,  Diocese    of    (Ci 

KTscs  the  entire  Department  ot  Sarthe.  Prior  to  the 
evolution  it  included  ri36  parishes  and  was  one  of 
ihe  most  extensive  dioceses  of  France;  at  the  time 
of  the  Concordat  of  1X01,  it  lost  some  parishes  in 
A'end6mois  and  Normandy,  and  acquired  some  in 
Anjou.  The  Diocese  of  Le  Mans  embraced  665  com- 
munes from  then  up  to  the  year  IS55,  when  the  De- 
partment of  Mayenne  was  detached  from  it  to  form 
the  Diocese  of  Laval.  The  origin  of  the  Diocese  of 
Le  Hans  has  given  rise  to  very  complicated  discus- 
rions  among  scholars,  based  on  the  value  of  the 
"Gesta  domni  Aldriei  ",and  of  the  "  .\ctU8  Ponlificum 
Cenoraannis  in  urbc  degentium",  both  compiled  dur- 
ing the  episcopate  of  Aldric  (R.12-S57).  The  "  fiesta  " 
rdate  that  Aldric  had  the  bodies  of  Saints  Julianus, 
l^bius,  Pavatius,  Roman  us,  Liborius.  and  Ha- 
ddlDdua,  first  bishops  of  Mans,  brought  to  his  cathedral; 


as  "a  venerable  confessor".  Turibius  who,  according 
to  the  .Acts,  WHS  thesucceesorof  Julianus,  was,  on  the 
contrarv.  i^uccessor  to  Victurius  and  occupied  the  see 
from  4!K)  to  400. 

Among  the  nuhsequent  bishopH  of  !«  M:ios  are 
meiitiontsl  the  following  saints:  Principius  (41)7-511), 
InnocentiuB  (5;)2-J3),  Domnolus  (5tiO-Sl),  Bertech- 
ramnus  or  Bertram  (587-623),  founder  of  the  Abbey 
of  Notre-Dame  de  la  Couture,  Uadoindus  (623-,^), 
Berecharius  or  B^raire  (655-70),  and  Aldric  (832-.'>7). 
If  we  admit  the  theory  according  to  wliich  the 
False  Decretals  were  compiled  at  Le  Mans  by  the 
author  of  the  "Actus  pontificum",  then  Aldric  must 
have  used  the?c  false  documents  a!i  a  weapon  against 
the  institution  of  the  chorepiscopi  and  also  against  the 
pretensions  of  the  Breton  usurper  Nomenoe  lo  the 
ecclesiastical  province  of  Tours.  It  was  Aldric  who 
had  the  relics  of  St.  Liborius  conveyed  to  Paderlwm. 
Other  bishops  were:  Blessed  Geoffroy  de  I,ouilun 
(1234-55),  wnnm  Gregory  IX  made  papal  legate  for 
the  entire  Kingdom  of  France,  and  who,  in  1251,  con- 
secrated the  cathedral  of  Le  Mane  and  foundivl  the 
superb  monastery  of  Notre-Dame  rlu  i'arc  d'Orquea, 
where  he  was  interred  and  where  miraele-i  were 
wrought  at  his  tomb;  and  Martin  Bemiwr  [!l-^'2-67), 
who  left  a  memoir  written  in  defence  of  .Inwn  of  Arc 
From  1468  to  1619  the  See  of  T.c  IXari^  w:f«  occupied 


LIMBEBO 


144 


by  prelates  of  the  House  of  LuxemburRi  and  froml519 
to  1537  by  their  cousin,  Louis  de  murbon.  Jean, 
Cardinal  du  Bellay,  Dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  was 
bishop  from  1546  to  1556;  and  Bouvier,  the  theo- 
lo^n,  from  1834  to  1854. 

During  the  episcopate  of  St.  Berecharius  (655-70) 
the  body  of  St.  Scholastica  was  brought  from  the 
monastery  of  Fleury  to  Le  Mans;  the  monastery 
erected  to  shelter  the  remains  of  the  saint  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Northmen  in  the  second  half  of  the 
ninth  century.  A  portion  of  her  relics  was  brought 
in  874  by  the  Empress  Richilda  to  the  monastery 
of  Juvigny  les  Dames.  The  remaining  portion  was 
conveyed  to  the  interior  of  the  citadel  and  placed  in 
the  apse  of  the  collegiate  church  of  St.  Pierre  la  Cour, 
which  served  the  counts  of  Maine  as  a  domestic 
chapel.  The  fire  that  destroved  Le  Mans  3  Sep- 
temper,  1134,  also  consumed  tne  shrine  of  St.  Scho- 
lastica, and  only  a  few  calcined  bones  were  left.  On 
11  July,  1464,  a  confraternity  was  erected  in  honour 
of  St.  Scholastica,  and  on  23  November,  1876,  she 
was  officially  proclaimed  patroness  of  Le  Mans. 
The  Jesuit  college  of  La  Fldche,  founded  in  1603  by 
Henry  IV.  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  for  a  century 
and  a  half,  and  Maraiial  de  Gu^briant,  Descartes. 
Father  Mersenne,  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,  ana 
84guier  were  all  numbered  among  its  students.  The 
Dominican  convent  of  Le  Mans,  begun  about  1219, 
in  fact  during  the  lifetime  of  St.  Dominic,  was  emi- 
nently prosperous,  thanks  to  the  benefactions  of 
John  of  Troeren,  an  English  lord;  the  theologian 
Nicolas  Coeffeteau,  who  died  in  1623,  was  one  of  its 
glories,  prior  to  becoming  Bishop  of  Marseilles.  The 
Kevolution  swept  away  this  convent. 

The  diocese  honours  in  a  special  manner  as  saints: 
Peregrinus,  Marcoratus,  and  Viventianus,  martyrs; 
Hilary  of  Oiz4,  nephew  of  St.  Hilary  of  Poitiers  (in 
the  fifth  centuiy) ;  Bonuner,  Almirus,  Leonard,  and 
Ulphace,  hermits;  Gault,  Front,  and  Brice,  soli- 
taries and  previously  monks  of  Micy;  Fraimbault, 
hermit,  foimder  of  a  small  monastery  in  the  valley  of 
Gabrone;  Calais,  hermit  and  founder  of  the  monasterv 
of  Anisole,  from  whom  the  town  of  SaintrCalais  took 
its  name;  Laumer.  successor  to  St.  Calais;  Guingalois 
or  Gu^nol^,  foimaer  of  the  monastery  of  Landevenec 
in  Brittany,  whose  relics  are  venerated  at  Ch&teau  du 
Loir;  all  m  the  sixth  century:  Rigomer,  monk  at 
Soulign^,  and  T^ncstine,  his  penitent,  both  of  whom 
were  acquitted  before  Childebert,  through  the  mira- 
cle of  Palaiseau,  of  accusations  made  against  them 
(d.  about  560);  Longis,  solitary,  and  Onofletta,  his 
penitent;  Siviard,  Abbot  of  Anisole  and  author  of  the 
life  of  St.  Calais  (d.  681) ;  the  Irish  St.  C^rota,  and  her 
mistress  Osmana,  daughter  of  a  king^f  Ireland,  died  a 
solitary  near  St-Brieuc,  in  the  seventh  century; 
M^n^l^,  and  Savinian  (d.  about  720),  natives  of  Pr^ 
dga^f  who  repaired  to  Auvergne  to  found  the  Abbey 
oi  M^nat,  on  the  ruins  of  the  hermitage  where  St.  Ca- 
lais had  formerly  lived ;  there  is  also  a  particular  devo- 
tion in  Le  Mans  to  Blessed  Ralph  deLa  Fustaye,  monk 
(twelfth  century)  ,disciple  of  Blessed  Robert  d' Arbrissel 
and  founder  of  the  Aboey  of  St.  Sulpice,  in  the  forest 
of  Nid  de  Merle  in  the  Diocese  of  Rennes.  The  cele- 
brated Abbot  de  Ranc^  made  his  novitiate  at  the 
Abbey  of  Persaigne  in  the  Diocese  of  Le  Mans. 
Also  there  may  be  mentioned  as  natives  of  the  diocese, 
TTrbain  Grandier,  the  celebrated  cur6  of  Loudun, 
burned  to  death  for  sorcery  in  1634;  and  Mersenne, 
the  Minim  (d.  1648),  philosopher  and  mathematician 
and  friend  of  Descartes  and  Pascal.  The  cathedral 
of  St.  Julian  of  Mans,  rebuilt  towards  the  year  1100, 
exhibits  specimens  of  all  styles  of  architecture 
up  to  the  fifteenth  century,  its  thirteenth-century 
cnoir  being  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  France. 
The  church  of  Notre-Dame  de  la  Couture  dates  from 
the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries. 
The  Abbey  of  Solesmes,  founded  by  €leo£FroydeSabl^ 


in  993  and  completed  in  1095,  has  a  thirteentli- 
century  church  which  is  a  veritable  muaeum  of  sculp- 
tures of  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies. Its  "Entombment  of  Christ",  in  terra  cotta, 
is  famous;  the  Magdalen  m  the  group,  already  cele- 
brated even  in  the  fifteenth  century  for  its  beauty, 
attracted  the  attention  of  Richelieu,  who  thought  of 
having  it  broiight  to  Paris.  Several  sculptures  de- 
picting scenes  in  the  life  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  fonn  a 
series  unique  in  France.. 

Pilgrimages  to  Notre-Dame  de  Toutes  Aides  at 
Saint-Remy  du  Plein,  Notre-Dame  de  La  Faigne  at 
Pontvallain,  and  Notre-Dame  des  Bois  at  La  Suze, 
date  back  to  primitive  times.  The  chapel  of  Notre- 
Dame  de  Torc^,  erected  in  the  sixth  century,  has  been 
much  frequented  by  pilgrims  since  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. Besides  these  places  of  pilgrimage  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  Notre-Dame  de  La  bit  at  6om- 
front,  and  of  Notre-Dame  du  Ch6ne  at  Vion,  near 
Sabld,  which  can  be  traced  to  1494.  It  was  estab- 
lished in  the  place  where  in  former  times  Urban  II 
had  preached  the  crusade. 

Pnor  to  the  application  of  the  .\ssociations  law  of 
1901,  there  were  m  the  Diocese  ^{  Le  Mans,  Capuchins, 
Jesuits,  and  the  monks  of  Solesmes,  where^  through 
the  efforts  of  Dom  Gu^ranger,  a  Bencdictme  house 
of  the  Congregation  of  France  was  founded  in  1833. 
Several  .congregations  of  women  originated  in  the 
diocese;  the  nuns  of  Notre-Dame  de  TAv^  at  La 
Fl^he,  a  teaching  order,  founded  in  1622;  the  Sisters 
of  the  Visitation  Sainte  Marie,  at  Le  Mans,  a  contem- 
plative order  founded  in  1634;  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  at  La  Fl^he,  a  nursing  order,  founded  in 
1636;  the  Sisters  of  Uharity  of  Providence,  devoted 
to  teaching  and  hospital  work,  founded  in  1806  by 
Abb^  Dujari^,  the  mother-house  being  at  Ruill^sur- 
Loir;  the  Sisters  of  the  Child  Jesus,  teachers  and 
nurses,  founded  in  1835,  with  their  mother-house  at 
Le  Mans;  the  Marianite  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross, 
founded  in  1841,  with  their  mother-house  at  Le  Mans 
and  important  educational  institutions  in  New  York 
and  Louisiana;  the  Benedictine  nuns  of  the  Con- 
gre^tion  of  France  known  as  the  Benedictines  of  St. 
Cecilia,  founded  at  Solesmes  in  1867  by  Dom  Gu^r- 
anger  and  Mother  Cecilia.  At  the  close  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  following  institutions  in  the  dio- 
cese were  under  the  direction  of  religious:  3  infants' 
asylums,  39  infants'  schools,  1  boys'  orphanage,  10 
girls'  orphanages,  3  industrial  schools,  2  houses  of 
shelter,  2  reformatories,  32  hospitals  or  hospices,  12 
private  hospitals  and  retreats,  1  asylum  for  idiots, 
1  asylum  for  the  blind,  1  asylum  for  insane  women 
and  8  homes  for  the  aged.  In  1905  (the  last  year  of 
the  concordatory  regime),  the  Diocese  of  Le  Mans  had 
a  population  of  422,699,  with  38  parishes,  350  chapels 
of  ease,  and  111  curacies  subventioned  by  the  State. 

OaUia  chriHiana  (nova,  1856),  XIV.  338-432;  inahnimenta, 
09-142;  LoTTiN  and  Cauvin,  Cartularium  innan%§  tcduim 
ctnomanenM,  quod  dicilur  liber  albua  capitvli  (I^e  Mans,  1869); 
Geata  Aldrici,  ed.  Charles  and  Froger  (Mamers,  1889);  Dn- 
CHB8NE,  Faatea  ^aeopaux,  II  (Paris,  1900).  309,  340;  Haybt, 
(Euvrea,  1  (Paris.  1900).  275-317;  Bcsson  and  Lbdru,  Adut 
poniificum  Cenomanni*  in  vrbe  degeniium  (liC  Mans,  1901);  db 
Brousillon.  Carirdaire  de  VH^chS— 996-1790  (Le  Mans,  1900): 
Chambois,  R^ertoire  historique  et  biographiqtie  du  diockte  du 
Mane  (Le  Mans,  1896) ;  Ledru,  La  cathMraU  Saint-^tdien  du 
Man»,  »ee  Hiquee,  eon  archilectttre,  ton  mobilier  (Mamere,  1900) ; 
Lavdb.  Recherchee  aur  lea  ptlerinagra  manceaux  (Le  Mans, 
1899);  Heurtebizb  and  Triger.  iSaVntr  Scholantique,  patnmne 
de  ki  viUe  du  Mana  (Solesmes.  1897);  Cosnard,  Hiatoire  du 
cottvent  dee  frhrea  prichettra  du  Mana  (Le  Mnns,  1879) ;  CartuUnre 
dee  abhayee  de  Saint-Pierre  de  La  Couture  el  de  Saint-Pierre  de 
Soleamea,  published  by  the  Benedictines  of  Solesmes  (Le  Mans, 
1881):  DB  La  Trbmblatb,  Soleamea.  lea  aculpturea  de  VigUe9 
abbatiale,  1496-166S  (Solesmes,  1892);  de  KocHEifONTBnc, 
Un  eollhtje  de  jHuitea  au  17*  et  18*  Si^cUa:  le  rolUge  Henri  IV  d§ 
La  FUche,  4  vols.  (Le  Mans,  1889);  Chevalier,  Tbpo-Wbtio- 
graphie,  pp.  1832-33.  GeORGBS  GoTAU. 

iMBlberff  seat  of  a  Latin,  a  Uniat  Ruthenian, 
and  a  Uniat  Armenian  archbishopric.  The  city  is 
called  Lwow  in  Polish,  Leopol  in  latinised  Poliflh, 


UMBIBa 


145 


LBMBIBO 


Ijdw«nbuiv,m  Gennan,  Lwihohrod  in  Rulhenian.  It 
was  founded  in  1259  by  the  Ruthenian  King  Daniel 
for  his  son  Leo,  Prince  of  Halics,  and  took  its  name 
from  that  prince.  Destroyed  by  the  Tatars  in  1261, 
it  was  rebtult  in  1270  on  the  same  spot  by  Prince  Leo, 
as  is  recorded  by  the  inscription  on  one  of  its  gates: 
"  Dux  Leo  mihi  fundamenta  jecit,  posteri  nomen  de- 
dere  Leontopolis'^  (Duke  L«>  laid  my  foundations, 
posterity  gave  me  the  name  of  LeontopoHs).  In  1340 
Casimir  the  Great,  King  of  Poland,  took  possession  of 
it,  built  two  new  castles,  attracted  German  colonists 
to  it,  and  gave  it  a  charter  modelled  on  that  of  Magde- 
buii^.  In  1372  Louis  of  Huneaiy  entrusted  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  city  to  Wladislaw,  Prince  of  Op- 
S5ln;  in  1387  it  was  given  as  dowry  to  the  Princess 
edwig,  by  whose  marriage  with  Jagellon  it  became 
a  possession  of  the  Polish  Crown.  Lemberg  was 
thenceforward  the  recognized  capital  of  the  Russian 
territories  dependent  on  Poland  (i.  e.  Red  Russia), 
which  preserved  their  autonomy  undiminished  until 
1 433.  The  city  was  one  of  the  great  entrepots  of  Euro- 
pean commerce  with  the  East,  which,  after  the  taking 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  followed  for  the  most 
part  the  overland  route.  Lemberg  was  besieged  many 
times — by  the  Lithuanians  in  1350,  the  Wallachians  in 
1498,  the  Turks  in  1524  and  1672,  and  the  Cossacks 
in  1648  and  1655.  Charles  XII  of  Sweden  took  and 
plundered  it  in  1704.  By  the  first  partition  of  Poland 
it  was  assigned  to  Austria  in  1772;  finally,  in  1848,  it 
revolted  and  was  bombarded. 

Lemberg  is  situated  in  a  deep  and  narrow  vallev  on 
the  Pelter,  a  tributary  of  the  Bug;  the  capital  of  the 
Austrian  Kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria,  it  con- 
tains— including  ita  many  and  populous  suburbs — 
about  160,000  imiabitants,  of  whom  45,000  are  Jews. 
Of  the  convents  which,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
gained  for  it  the  name  of  ''City  of  Monks '^  some  still 
exist.  Emperor  Joseph  II  reduced  the  number  of  its 
churches  from  seventy-two  to  about  twenty;  some  of 
them  are  very  noteworthy — e.  g.  the  Latin  cathedral, 
built  in  the  Cfothic  style  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries;  the  Ruthenian  Catholic  cathedral,  built  in 
1740-9  in  the  neo-Italian  style;  the  church  of  the  Ber- 
nardines,  with  the  tomb  of  St.  John  of  Dukia,  Patron 
of  Lemberg;  the  Dominican,  the  Jesuit,  the  Wallach- 
ian,  and  other  churches.  The  national  Ossolinski  In- 
stitute possesses  a  library  of  the  highest  value  for  the 
study  of  Polish  literature  and  local  history,  containing 
more  than  100,000  volumes  and  4000  manuscripts. 
The  university,  founded  in  1060  by  Casimir  of  Poland, 
suffered  especially  from  the  withdrawal  of  the  Jesuits 
and  the  political  changes  which  culminated  in  Galicia 
becoming  an  Austrian  province.  It  was  restored  in 
1784,  though  with  curtailed  privileges  and  a  much 
restricted  staff,  by  Joseph  II,  who  desired  to  keep  the 
Polish  youth  from  going  to  Vilna  or  Warsaw.  Re- 
duced in  1807  to  the  rank  of  a  lyceum,  the  university 
was  once  more  established  with  some  measure  of  its 
former  autonomy  in  1816.  It  now  numbers  about  200 
professors  and  tutors,  with  1900  students,  300  of  whom 
attoid  the  faculty  of  Catholic  theology.  The  city  also 
possesses  a  large  number  of  educational  estaolish- 
ments  for  boys  and  girls,  besides  many  benevolent  in- 
stitutions. 

Latin  Archbishopbic. — ^The  Latin  Bishopric  of 
Halics,  in  which  that  of  Lemberg  originated,  appears 
to  have  been  established  no  earlier  than  the  year  1361. 
On  8  April,  1363,  Urban  V  wrote  to  the  Bishop  of 
Gnesen  to  insist  that  King  Casimir  III  of  Poland 
should  build  a  cathedral  in  the  city  of  Lemberg,  which 
he  had  recently  taken  from  the  Russian  schismatics. 
Nevertheless,  letters  of  Gregory  XI,  dated  13  Febru- 
ary, 1375,  mention  only  the  metropolitan  See  of  Ha- 
lics,  and  the  Bishoprics  of  Prsemysl,  Chelm,  and  Vlad- 
bnir,  student  evidence  that  that  of  Lemberg  was  not 
yet  established.  On  3  March,  1375,  the  question  is 
ouied  of  tnuuferring  the  See  of  Halicx  to  Lemberg,  a 
DC— 10 


transfer  which  was  effected  only  in  December,  1414^ 
by  John  XXIII.  In  1501  Bishop  Andreas  Rosea  was 
given  the  administration  of  Przemysl,  but  was  trans- 
ferred in  1503  to  the  See  of  Gnesen;  his  successor, 
Bemardine  Wilczek  (1503-40),  rebuilt  the  cathedral, 
which  had  been  destroyed  by  fire.  Many  of  the  subse- 
quent bishops  were  famous;  such  were  Stanislaus 
Urochovski  (1634-45),  a  writer  of  religious  poetry,  and 
Nicholas  Poplavski  (1709-11),  an  ecclesiastical  writer. 
A  great  many  synods  were  held  here  from  the  siirteenth 
to  the  eighteenth  centuries.  Upon  the  opening  of  the 
Estates  (or  Diet)  of  Galicia,  13  February,  1817,  Arch- 
bishop Skarbel  Ankvics  obtained  the  title  of  Primate 
of  the  Kingdoms  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria,  which  title 
has  been  accorded  since  1849  to  the  Ruthenian  Cath- 
olic metropolitan.  The  Latin  archdiocese  has  two 
suffragan  bishoprics:  Przemysl  and  Tamo  v.  It  num- 
bers 920,000  faithful,  36,000  Protestants,  and  550,000 
Jews.  There  are  249  parishes,  579  secular  and  290 
regular  priests — Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Capuchins, 
Jesuits,  Carmelites,  etc.  There  are  also  a  great  many 
religious  women  engaged  in  teaching  and  works  of 
mercy.   The  seminary  numbers  60  students. 

Uniat  Ruthenian  Archbishopric. — After  the  coin 
version  of  the  Ruthenians  in  this  region  to  Christian- 
ity, the  Bishopric  of  Halicz,  suffragan  to  Kiev,  was 
established  for  their  benefit  between  1152  and  1180. 
Halicz  had  been  made  a  metropolitan  see  in  1345  by 
John  Calecas,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  but  in  134? 
it  was  again  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Kiev,  at 
the  request  of  the  Grand  Duke  Simeon  of  Moscow. 
'Its  metropolitan  rank  was  restored  to  Halicz  only 
after  the  Polish  occupation  of  the  province  about 
1371;  it  had  four  suffragans:  Kulm,  Ptzemysl,  Turof, 
and  Vladimir.  In  1414  King  Ladislaus,  for  some  un- 
known reason,  transferred  the  Latin  See  of  Halicz  to 
Leopol,  and  suppressed  the  Ruthenian  metropolitan 
See  of  Halicz.  Tne  see  was  subsequently  administered 
by  vicars  of  the  Metropolitan  of  Kiev  until  28  October, 
1539,  when  it  was  restored  as  a  simple  bishopric 
Macarius  Tuczapsti,  the  titular,  next  year  changea  his 
residence  to  Lemberg  and  took  the  combined  titles  of 
Halicz  and  Lemberg,  which  his  successors  have  borne, 
adding  those  of  Kamenets  and  Podolia,  when  their 
jurisdiction  extended  so  far.  With  the  establishment 
of  the  Jesuits  in  this  country  began  the  reform  of  the 
extremely  ignorant  schismatic  clergy,  who  gradually 
turned  towards  Rome.  In  1597  the  Bishop  of  Lem- 
berg, the  celebrated  Gideon  Balaban,  brought  his  dio- 
cese back  to  Catholicism^  but  afterwards,  tnrough  hia 
ambition,  he  relapsed  mto  schism,  and  with  him 
nearlv  all  his  subjects.  A  council  held  at  Lemberg  in 
October,  1629,  laboured  in  vain  for  the  conversion  of 
the  diocese,  and  it  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  that  Bishop  Joseph  Czumlanski  em- 
braced the  cause  of  union,  secretly  at  first  in  1677,  and 
then  openlv  in  1700.  After  Joseph  came  Barlaam 
Czeptyski  (1710-5)  and  Athanasius  Czeptyski  (1715- 
46),  who,  being  promoted  to  the  metropolitan  See  of 
Kiev,  retained  that  of  Lemberg  with  it.  This  example 
was  followed  by  Leo  Louis  Czeptyski  (1749-79),  when 
he  became  metropolitan  in  1762. 

Under  Peter  Bielanski  (1779-98)  the  Diocese  of 
Lemberg,  to  which  were  imited  those  of  Halicz  and 
Kamenets,  fortunately  became  the  possession  of  Aus- 
tria, whose  government  took  in  hand  the  education  of 
the  clergy,  who  were  poor  and  so  ignorant  as  hardly  to 
know  their  own  rite.  Maria  Theresa  had  students  sent 
to  the  seminaiy  established  at  Vienna  for  the  Hunga- 
rian Uniats.  Joseph  II  turned  the  Dominican  convent 
into  a  seminary  for  Ruthenians,  adding  to  it  the 
church  and  the  garden,  and  soon  the  Ruthenian  stu- 
dents had  places  reserved  for  them  in  the  theological 
faculty  of  the  city.  On  22  February,  1807,  Pius  Vll, 
by  the  Bull  "In  universalis  ecclesiss  re^imine'S  with- 
drew Lemberg  from  the  metropolitan  jurisdiction  of 
Kiev  and  made  it  a  metropolitan  see,  with  Kulm  and 


LIMOXS                              146  LE  MEBOISR 

Pnemysl  as  suffragans.   The  Diocese  of  Kulm  was  de-  obliged  to  submit  to  the  authority  of  the  Latin  bish- 

pendent  on  I^emberg  until  1837,  when  it  was  made  im-  ops.    Until  the  nineteenth  century  the  popes  had  the 

mediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See  until  its  suppression  direct  nomination  to  this  archbishopric;  and  the  kings 

by  Russia.   In  its  place  another  suffragan  diocese,  that  of  Poland  only  granted  the  exequatur.    By  a  Brief  of 

of  Stanislaov,  was  given  to  Lemberg  in  1856.    The  20  September,  1819,  Pius  VII  conceded  to  the  new 

£m)x^ror  of  Austria  obtained  from  Rome  the  right  to  sovereign,  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  the  choice  of  an 

nominate  the  metropolitan  and  his  suffragans,  while  archbishop  from  three  candidates  presented  by  the 

the  metropolitan  was  authorized  to  confirm  their  Armenian  clergy  of  Lemlx?rg.    The  present  archdio- 

nomination  and  to  consecrate  them,  as  had  formerly  cese  numbers  4000  faithful,  20  priests,  9  churches,  13 

been  granted  to  the  Metropolit-an  of  Kiev  by  Clement  chapels,  and  10  parishes.    There  is  no  seminary,  the 

VIII.    The  Habsburg  monarchy  has  seriously  taken  clergy  being  prepared  in  the  Latin  seminary.    There 

up  the  task  of  developing  education  among  the  clergy,  are  two  houses  for  the  education  of  poor  orphans, 

and  of  putting  them  upon  the  same  footing  as  the  Latm  Besides  the  CathoUc,  there  are  about  800  schismatic 

clergy  by  giving  them  the  same  political  rights,  and  Armenians, 

lastly  of  teachmg  the  Ruthenian  language  in  the  „  NEHiiRin/:m:/Mw7«..8.v;  .LE^uIBN,Orirn«C 

ai»hr^]a a.  nninf  os  fy^  wKinh  ihn  Prklou  ko/l  ni>A^'/\iia1v  EuBEL,  Hurarchta  cath.  medit  avt,  I  (M..nstcr,  1898),  308;  II, 

scnooi8--a  pomt  as  to  which  the  l  oles  hacl  previously  j^.  q^^^  ^^^^^  epUcoporum  Ecd.  cath.  (Ratisbon).  351 ;  «up- 

cared  little.    Between  the  Poles  and  Ruthenians,  in-  pi«n..  Ixxxlii;  Mvinonet  catholica  (Rome,  1907).  760.  790; 

deed,  there  has  alwavs  existed  a  certain  hostility,  Hahawbvicx.  ^nfm/«a   Eecletia   rutkena  (LembeiK,  1862); 

which,  during  the  nineteenth  century,  resulted  in  vio-  Maeko^ttch.  Gh  Slavx  ed  x  Papx,  I  (Agmm).  16^73. 

lent  controversies,  and  eventually,  in  1862,  necessi-  * 

States, 
at  Car- 
Vom  a 
gether  witran  ex(^ivrSe"tion  for"RiJ^k""ThJI^  ?m1^*'"*i*  preailier  he  Wame  a  Catholic  on  21  April 
they  have  sho^-n  an  inclination  to  return  to  the  primil  ^^'.^'^  ''??  f'^-V.^oJ'"''?*  '^a?il^°P  ^'"'*"'  ** 
tive  Gncco-SIavic  Rite,  and  to  suppress  the  moJlifica-  Ratisbon  on  11  Aprd,  1826.  In  1834  he  came  as  mo- 
tions which  in  former  times  had  Wn-wrongly  per-  8io°ary  *«  the  Lnitcd  btates  ami  "fter  bemg  stationed 

haps-introduced  into  the  Liturgy,  but  which,  Vthe  *  ^^""^  *""«  "*■  ^^?^y7?'^}^  ^''"7  '  ^^'^'''P^"".'  *** 

miiKUof  the  people,  have  now  become  to  a  certain  ex-  ?"?,.f  P*  "f  assistant  to  the  age<l  and  mfirm  Pnnce 

tent  identified  with  Catholicism.    Hence  continual  r«-  GaHitzm  at  Loretto,  Penns.vlvania.    Hs  took  up  his 

ligious  troubles  have  ari.scn,  and  indeed  numerous  •"^'dence  m  the  neighbouring  town  of  W>cnsf)urg, 

difectionfi.    The  reform  of  the  Basilian  monks  inau-  1^?*  ^>f^}''>  f*^H'^  *°  a  portion  of  father  (.allit- 

gumtcd  by  Leo  XIII  has  in  part  remedied  these  fatal  ^  sJ'stnct,  about  fifty  miles  m  cxt<;nt.    In  18.%  he 

tendencies,  which,  however,  are  still  the  chief  danger  ^""e^'^  some  land  on  which  two  y«irs  later  he  Imd  out 

threatening  the  Uniat  Catholics  of  this  arehdiocesef  f  *°^?  which  m  honour  of  the  first  Cathohc  Bishop  m 

The  Ruthenian  arehdiocese  comprises  the  districts  ^KS"''***  j^^'^^^^r^il*^  ^arrolltown.    Ue  suc- 

ofLembei«,Stryj.Brze«anv,ZlocMW,andTamopol,  ^^  ^^^^^^^^J^*-^''"  Gallitzin  as  pastor  of 

and   numfere   1.400,000   faithful.     There   are   881  I«retto  m  1840.    Father  Lcmcke  w^s  instrumental  m 

priests-21  religious,  26  celibate  seculars,  148  wid-  ^"^^"I  *,°  H'^  ^P**^^*?,"^  *^«  ^^  BcnedictmM, 

wers,  and  687  Siarried.   There  is  a  chapte^  of  10  can-  ^^er  the  leadership  of  Father  Bomface  ^\  immer,  the 

ons  and  a  diocesan  consistory  of  23  members.    The  ^*«f«  Arehabbot.of  St.  Amcent  s,  m  Pennsylvania, 

archdiocese  is  divided  into  30  deaconcrics  and  752  ^*^«''  If  mcke  himself  joined  the  new  BencdicUne 

parishes.    There  are  749  churehes  with,  and  500  with-  ^^»^^y  "»  18=2.    In  ISoo  he  went  as  missionary 

imt  reBiHent,  nriMt*  »nd  ."?«  chftivla.    Vhe  aominarv  *<>  Kansas,  and  prepared  the  way  forjhe  fo^dation  of 

Jersey,  the  ro- 
>wn.    He  is  the 

.o.v./lx^il^^grwMro^thercleri^are'^u^t^'^^  «".t^°'  "j  ^  •«.«  °f  I^ince  Gallitzin:    "Leben  und 

Vienna  and  in  the  Ruthenian  seminary  at  Rome.  J?*^^^?,^^  Pnnzen  Demetrius  Augustm  von  Gal- 
The  Basilian  monks  have  3  houses  with  23  religious;  T\^.,i^"w®*'":'  ,S^';,^„  r      i    n<!B  i..  a^  »/„„•-. 
the  Basihan  nuns,  2  houses  with  68  religious;  the  (Notre  Dame,  Indiana,  1883),  XIX,  41-45, 6<^-7i.8S-oi.  no- 
Servants  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  (founded  in  H3. 128-132. 141-143.                             Michael  Ott. 
1892),  6  houses  with  39  religious. 

Uniat  Armenian  ARCHnisHOPRic— As  early  as  1062  hb  Mercier,  Franj^ois,  one  of  the  early  mission- 
there  were  Armenians  settled  at  Kiev,  in  consequence  aries  of  New  France,  b.  at  Paris,  4  October,  1604;  d, 
of  the  various  invasions  and  persecutions  of  Tatars,  in  the  island  of  Martinique,  12  June,  1690.  He 
Turks,  and  Greeks.  Thence  these  exiles  migrated  to  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Paris,  19  October,  1620. 
Lemlx»rg,  Kamenets,  and  Lutzk.  The  Catholic  arch-  He  taught  in  succession  all  the  classes  of  grammar  and 
diocese  was  founded  in  1365,  upon  the  union  of  the  humanities  in  the  Jesuit  college  of  the  capital,  and. 
titular,  Gregory,  with  Rome;  the  cathedral  was  built  after  completing  his  own  philosophical  and  theological 
two  years  later.  From  1492  to  1516  the  see  remained  studies,  was  sent  to  Canada,  where  he  arrived  20  July, 
vacant,  after  which  it  was  occupied  by  schismatics  until  1635,  and  with  Father  Pierre  Pijart  set  out  for  the 
24  Octol^er,  1630,  when  Nicholas  Torosze^^icz  took  the  Huron  country  the  third  day  after  landing  at  Quebec, 
oath  of  fidelity  to  Urban  VIII.  Since  then  the  sue-  reaching  his  destination  on  13  August.  He  devoted 
cessionof  archbishops  has  been  regular  (Gams.  **  Scries  himself  to  the  work  of  the  Huron  mission  for  fifteen 

for  a  brief  absence  at 
mission  during  the  summer 
jeivcd  the  Huron  name  of 

the  two  suffragan  Bishoprics  of  Kamenets-Podolski  ChaQosd,  but  vears  after  when  among  the  Onondacas  he 

and  Mohileff,  which  had  been  taken  from  him  when  went  bv  the  froquoisnameTeharonhiagannra.  I'^ther 

they  passed  under  Russian  domination.    In  1808  his  Jean  de  Br^beuf,  an  exacting  judge  of  what  was  re- 

junsaiction  was  restricted  to  the  territory  of  Galicia  (quired  of  an  Apostolic  lalx)urer,  wrote  his  i)anegyric 

and  Bukovina.     Even  the  Armenian  Catholics  of  in  two  words  when  he  described  him  as  "a  ixjrfect 

Transylvania,  numbering  10,000,  have  been  unable  to  missioner ".     While  in  Huronia  he  was  stationed  from 

obtain  a  bishop  of  their  own  rite  or  to  become  subject  1635  to  1637  at  Ihonatiria,  from  1637  to  1639  at 

to  the  Armenian  Archbishop  of  Lembeiig,  and  they  are  OBsossan^,  from  1639  to  1640  at  Ste-Marie  I,  again 


LEBSERGISR 


147 


LEMEBGISR 


at  Ossoflsan^  until  1642,  at  Ste-Marie  I  until  1649,  and 
finally  at  8te-Mahe  II,  on  St.  Joseph's  Island,  from 
16  June,  1649.  He  left  Huronia  only  after  the  laying 
waste  of  the  country  by  the  Iroquois,  and  the  complete 
abandonment  of  the  mission,  subsequent  to  their 
inroads,  on  10  June,  1650. 

(>n  his  return  to  Quebec  he  was  engaged  in  the 
ministry  there  and  at  Three  Rivers  until  165:^,  when 
he  was  appointed  rector  of  the  college  and  superior  of 
the  whole  Canada  mission,  a  post  he  occupied  until 

1656.  But  while  yet  in  office,  on  1 1  May  of  the  latter 
year,  not  willing  to  expose  the  lives  of  others  to  perils 
he  was  not  ready  to  face,  he  named  Father  J6r6me 
Lalemant  vice-superior,  so  as  to  l)c  himself  free  to 
head  a  tentative  missionary  expedition,  fraught  wi^h 
danger,  to  the  Onondagas.  Wnile  on  his  way  to  this 
fierce  Iroquois  nation  he  wrote  from  Montreal  on  6 
June,  1656.  to  his  provincial  in  P^rance  a  letter  setting 
forth  vivialy  the  oifficulties  of  the  undertaking  (see 
"Relation,  1657",  Quebec  ed.,  50-54).     On  1  June, 

1657,  he  was  back  at  Quebec,  but  started  to  return 
on  27  June.  He  could  not  have  proceeded  far  when 
he  was  recalled,  for  the  "Jesuits'  Journal"  mentions 
his  saying  the  Christmas  midnight  Mass  for  the 
Hurons  at  the  Quel^ec  hospital.  From  1659  to  1660, 
though  in  charge  of  the  parish  with  Father  Dablon, 
he  h£i  also  to  attend  the  outlying  mission  at  Beaupr^. 
He  was  formally  named  assistant  parish  priest,  21 
October,  1660,  by  Mgr  de  Petr^,  the  first  Bishop  of 
Quebec,  who  had  arrived  in  June  of  the  previous  year. 
On  6  August,  1665,  for  the  second  time,  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  office  of  rector  and  superior  of  the  whole 
Canada  Mission,  and  continue<i  to  act  as  such  until 
replaced  by  Father  Dablon  on  12  July,  1671,  Le  Mer- 
cier  becoming  procurator  et  primaries  in  contnchif  or, 
in  modem  parlance,  "bursar  and  vice-president"  of 
the  Jesuit  college  at  Quebec.  Father  Le  Mercier  was 
recalled  from  Canada  and  was  deputed  by  the  general 
of  the  order  as  visitor  of  the  French  missions  in  South 
America  and  in  the  Antilles,  in  1673.  By  12  Decem- 
ber of  the  same  year  he  was  already  acting  in  that 
capacity  in  Cayenne.  On  12  October,  1674,  he  was 
named  superior  of  all  these  missions.  For  ten  years 
he  acquitted  himself  of  his  onerous  duties  to  the 
satisfaction  of  all,  and  died  at  Martinique  at  an  ad- 
vanced age  with  a  widespread  reputation  for  sanctity 
of  life. 

We  are  indebted  to  Le  Mercier  for  the  compiling  of 
nine  of  the  annual  "  Relations",  1653, 1654, 1655,  and 
1665  to  1670  inclusively,  besides  the  two  written  by 
him  on  the  Huron  mission,  those  of  the  years  1637 
and  1638. 

(Martin].  JauU  Rdalions  (Quebec  ed.,  1858);  THWAmsa, 
Jaiuit  Relaiiong  and  Allied  Docmnenttt:  Lavkkdikre  and  Cas- 
ORAIN,  Journal  des  JttmiteB  (Quebec.  1871);  ManiMcript 
CaUUogues  of  Uu  Socieh/^  and  Martin,  Catalogue  Rniwnne  des 
RdaHonBt  both  in  St.  Mary's  Coll.  Archives,  Montreal. 

A.  E.  Jones. 

Lemerder,  Jacques,  b.  at  Pontoisc,  about  1585; 
d.  at  Paris,  1654.  Lemercier  ^^PMne  with  Mansart  and 
-Le  Muet  the  ^lory  of  repret^atiqK  French  architec- 
ture most  briUiantly  under  Louis  XIII  and  Richelieu. 
He  was  likewise  a  sculptor  and  engraver.  He  imitated 
in  a  measure  the  strong  but  somewhat  prosaic  style  of 
Salamon  de  Brossc.  The  French  Renaissance  had  at 
that  time  already  reached  its  last  stage,  but  it  still  re- 
tained an  important  heritage  from  the  days  of  Lescot. 
Lemercier  was  in  Italy,  presumal>ly  from  1G07  to 
1613,  and,  while  in  Rome,  probably  engraved  a 
model  of  St.  Peter's.  As  early  as  1618  he  appears  as 
royal  architect  with  a  salary  of  1200  livres.  In  1639 
he  became  chief  architect,  m  which  capacity,  having 
the  supervision  of  all  the  royal  building  enterprises,  he 
fell  into  a  disagreeable  dispute  with  the  cultivated 
Poussin  about  the  decorations  in  the  Louvre.  In 
general,  he  is  considered  a  well-meaning,  discreet  char- 
acter,   living  entirely  for  his  art,  he  thought  very 


little  of  his  profit,  and,  in  spite  of  the  great  works 
which  he  executed,  it  was  found  necessary  after  his 
death  to  sell  his  entire  large  library  to  cover  his  debts. 
He  was  highly  extolled  as  the  exponent  of  the  classic 
tendenci^  of  Palladio.  Richelieu,  in  particular,  en- 
trusted him  with  a  series  of  important  works.  As  yet 
Lescot's  plan  for  the  Louvre  had  been  scarcely  half 
finished.  The  cardinal,  an  enthusiastic  patron  of 
architecture,  placed  Lemercier  at  the  head  of  this 
undertaking  in  1624.  In  carrying  on  the  work  begun 
by  Lescot,  Lemercier  subordinatwi  himself  to  the  Tat- 
ter's style  and  design,  but  he  followed  his  own  ide«« 
in  his  more  substantial  plan  and  in  quadrupling  the 
building  area,  eacli  of  the  four  sides  having  a  pavilion 
at  its  centre.  In  this  manner  he  built  the  northern 
half  of  the  west  side — the  celebrated  Pavilion  de 
THorloge — ^and  the  western  part  of  the  north  side. 
It  is,  however,  an  exaggerated  opinion  to  regard  the 
Pavilion  de  i'Horloge  as  the  best  example  of  French 
architecture. 

After  1627,  in  Richelieu's  personal  service,  Lemer- 
cier built  the  Chateau  de  Richelieu  in  Poitou  and  the 
f)arish  church  of  the  same  town,  in  which  he  displayed 
lis  talents  to  splendid  advantage.  The  castle  was 
worthy  of  a  king.  In  addition,  he  began  the  Palais- 
Cardinal  at  Paris  in  1629,  which,  after  its  donation  to 
the  king,  was  known  as  the  Palais  Royal.  He  was 
likewise  entrusted  with  the  subse(]uent  extension  of 
this  building,  of  which  there  remains  at  present  only 
an  interior  wing.  It  is  wanting  in  lightness  and  pro- 
portion in  the  disposal  of  its  masses.  The  master 
earned  great  and  well-merited  renown  by  his  work  on 
the  Sorbonne  which  was  begun  at  the  same  time.  The 
collie  and  the  church  are  both  his  work.  The  latter 
is  noteworthy  for  its  domical  shape  in  the  stvle  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance  (like  Val-do-Gr4ce  an^  the  In- 
valides  of  the  two  Mansarts).  In  France,  contrary  to 
the  Italian  custom,  the  exterior  dome  was  made  of 
wood,  which  was  less  monumental,  though  about  the 
same  in  appearance.  Lemercier  inaugurated  this 
economical  method  in  his  claustral  dome  over  the 
Pavilion  de  I'Horlc^e.  The  dome  presents  a  har- 
monious effect.  It  is  a  complete  hemisphere,  with 
four  small  cupolas  in  the  Greek  cross  above  the  two 
orders  of  columns  on  the  fa<?ade.  The  interior  also 
makes  a  better  effect  than  Mansart's  dome  of  the  In- 
valides,  and  was  formerly  intended  to  be  beautifully 
decorated.  The  square  interf?ection  is  surrounded  by 
cylindrical  vaults  and  a  semicircular  choir  apse.  The 
north  side  consists  of  a  portico  in  classic  style.  The 
whole  may  be  considerea  one  of  the  finest  buildings 
of  that  time. 

I-»emercier  produced  a  similar  result  with  his  work 
on  the  ablxjy  church  of  Val-de-Cirdce,  which  he  took 
up  as  the  successor  of  Father  Mansart.  The  latter  had 
refused  to  execute  an  order  requiring  a  change  in  the 
design,  whereupon  the  principal  part  as  far  as  the  en- 
tablature appears  to  have  l)een  carried  on  by  Lemer- 
cier and  finished  by  other  masters.  The  foundation  of 
the  church  and  royal  abbey  was  determined  upon  at 
the  birth  of  Louis  XIV,  and  Louis  himself,  when  six 
years  of  age  (1645),  laid  the  cornerstone.  Here  too 
the  different  orders  of  columns  harmonize  l)eauti fully 
with  the  principal  dome  and  the  four  smaller  domes 
and  their  tambour.  The  front  view  is  truly  magnifi- 
cent. In  the  details  of  execution  a  noble  taste,  as  well 
as  great  care,  is  evident.  In  16.S5  Richelieu  once 
again  claim(Kl  the  services  of  Lemercier  for  work  on 
the  Chateau  de  Rueil,  near  Paris,  which  he  had  ac- 
quired at  that  time.  The  artist's  great  patron  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  the  Sorlxjnne  in  1642.  Le- 
mercier continued  to  enjov  the  favour  of  the  court 
and  the  pul)lic.  In  1645  lie  received  as  first  of  the 
royal  architects  a  salary  of  3000  livres.  His  last  work 
was  the  plan  of  the  church  of  St.  Roch  in  Paris.  He 
completed  only  the  choir  and  part  of  the  nave.  A 
few  unimportant  earher  works,  wliich  are  not  unanir 


LIMOB  I^ 

mouily  Mcribed  to  Lemercier,  nwv  also  be  mentiotted. 
In  1630  be  built  tjie  choir  of  the  enurch  of  the  Oiator- 
iaus  in  Paris  after  the  design  of  G&nent  U^ceau, 
who  had  laid  the  comeratone  in  1621.  The  fogade  be- 
longs to  a  lat«r  period.  He  also  erected  the  Hdteb  de 
Liancourt  anddeLa  Rochefoucauld.  Also  ascribed  to 
him  are  the  Hotol  de  Longuevllle  and  the  ChAt«au 
Silly,  or  Chilly .  of  Marehal  d^ffiat  A  hunting  seat  of 
Louis  XIII,  with  splendid  pleasure  grounds,  was  a  re- 
markable Versailles  in  miniature,  forecasting  the  cele- 
brated pleasure  palace  of  a  later  period.  The  statue 
of  Henn'  IV  with  the  sarcophagus  in  the  Lateran  is  a 
fine  piece  of  plastic  work. 

Jacques  Lemercier  had  a  younger  brother  Francois, 
who  in  1 836  rcpresentod  him  for  a  time  in  the  capacity 
ot  architect.  His  two  sons  Jacques  and  Francis  re- 
ceived a  pension  from  the  state  to  enable  them  to  study 
architecture.  TheLemerciersof  Poctoise  were  indeed 
one  of  those  gifted  families  in  which  several  members 
bad  a  vocation  for  the  same  branch  of  art.  The  two 
celebrated  churches  of  St.  Maclou  at  Pontoise  and  St. 
Eustocbe  in  Paris  have  been  traced  to  one  Pierre  I.e- 
mercier,  who  at  Pontoise  was  succeeded  immediately 
by  Nicholas  Lemercier  and  more  remot«ly  by  a  con- 
nexion  by  marriage,  Charles  David.  But  tnc  glor- 
ious church  of  St.  Eustaehe  was  a  greater  source  of  re- 
nown for  the  family.  According  to  GeymUller,  whose 
Opinion  is  hardly  to  be  disputed,  Pierre  Licmereier's 
entire  share  in  St.  Maclou  consisted  in  the  somewhat 
unusual  dome  tower,  and  further  inferences  con- 
oeming  St.  Eustaehe  would  be  without  foundation. 
Everything  else  is  uncertain. 

Taoc,  Jt(cA(nA«  hiMoriquei,  ardiMleoiqueM  tl  bioaraphitui* 
nr  la  villx  de  Penloitt  (PoDtoiw,  1841);  Bkbtt,  La  anndi 
arehOaU  puncait  (Parig,  18«0]:  Liihce.  Diet,  da  arAiUOtt 
(Pvu,  1873):  GethOixib  ia  Han^budi  drr  ATchildaur  nm 
iXinn  eU..  II,  vi  (Stuttgurt,  IQOl).  2;  GoauTr,  Ottch.  da 
BanelcMih  (Stutt«ut.  1^7). 

G.  GiBTUANN. 

LemoB, Thomas  de,  Spanish  theoloKisn  and  contro- 
versialist, b.  at  Rivadevia,  Spain,  1555;  d.  at  Rome, 
23  Aug.,  1629.  At  on  early  age  he  entered  the  Order 
of  St.  Dominic  in  his  native  town;  heobtained,  in  1590, 
the  lectorate  in  theologry  and  was  at  the  same  time 
appointed  regent  of  studies  in  the  convent  of  St.  Paul 
at  Valladolid.  In  1604  he  was  assigned  to  the  chair  of 
theology  in  the  university  of  that  city.  The  intel- 
lectual atmosphere  of  the  time  was  troubled;  theolog- 
ical discussion  was  rife.  The  controversy  aroused  in 
1588  by  the  publication  of  Molina's  work  "Concordia 
liberi  arbitriicumKratifedonis",  between  the  Domin- 
icans and  Jesuits,  had  reached  a  heated  and  turbulent 
stage  not  only  at  Valladolid  but  also  at  Salamanca, 
Cordova,  Saragossa,  and  other  cities  of  Spain.  The 
almost  oaily  oisputations,  both  public  and  private, 
showed  a  tendency  to  arift  away  from  the  hith- 
erto universally  accepted  teaching  of  Augustine  and 
Thomas  Aquinas.  In  1600  Lemos  was  chosen  to  rep- 
reeent  his  province  in  the  public  defence  of  selected 
theses  before  the  general  chapter  of  his  order  held  at 
Naples.  The  propositions  embraced  the  doctrine  of 
St.  Thomas  and  his  school  on  grace  and  free-will.  In 
his  defence  Lemos  proved  himself  a  disputant  of  the 
highest  order.  His  familiarity  with  the  works  of  St. 
Augustine  on  the  question  under  discussion  was  such 
that  the  slightest  deviation  from  them,  either  in  con- 
tent or  in  diction,  would  not  pass  him  uncorrected; 
and  that  he  was  no  less  familiar  with  the  writings  of 
St.  Thomas  ia  evident  from  his  own  words:  "noc  nos 
in  Hispania  aliis  armis  nisi  armis  S.  Thoms  inciep- 
imus  nana  doctrinam  impugnare"  (Acta  Congteg., 
diep.  ii,  col.  176).  Hia  ability  and  success  prompted 
the  general  of  bis  order  to  send  him  to  Rome  to  assist 
his  confrere.  Father  Alvarez,  in  defending  the  teaching 
of  his  order  against  the  Holinists  before  the  Congre- 
Sltio  de  Auxiliis  established  by  Clement  VIII  to  aet- 
tls  the  controversy. 


s  !>■  uoYn 

upon  his  arrival  he  was  given  first  place  in  the 
defence,  which  be  held  till  the  termination  of  the  Con- 
gregation (26  Feb.,  1606),  For  four  years,  in  forty- 
seven  public  conferences,  in  the  presence  of  Clement 
VIII  and  Paul  V,  he  defended  the  teaching  of  St. 
Thomas  with  extraordinary  skill  against  Rve  no  less 
able  adversaries,  the  ^lite  of  the  great  Jesuit  theolo- 
gians of  the  time.  Referring  to  this  event  he  himself 
writes:  "Fuit  ista  Congregatio  Celebris,  de  qua  multi 
mirati  sunt,  quod  tot  ac  tenlis.  ubi  fecerunt  summum 
proehum  patrcs  Societatis,  sic  ex  tempore  fuisnet  rcf- 
ponsum.  Sed  gratia Deisum id  quod  sum"  (Acta <^on- 
gr^.,  1231).    At  the  conclusion  of  the  c 


biahopric,  but  he  declined  the  honour,  preferring  I( 
main  m  Rome  in  the  convent  Sopra  Mmerva  to  devote 
himself  to  literary  work.  Three  years  before  his  death 
he  became  totelly  blind.  During  his  lifetime  he  pub- 
lished nothing.  The  work  which  has  given  him  a  per- 
manent and  prominent  place  in  the  histon"  of  theology 
appeared  about  fifty  years  after  his  death,  the  "Pan- 
optia  gratis  seu  de  rationalis  crealiirx  in  finem  super- 
naturalem  gratuita  divina  suavipotente  otdinatione, 
ductu,  mediis,  tiberoque  progressu,  disaertationes  the- 
ologicte"  (Lidge,  1676).  The  "Acta  omnia  Congrega- 
tionum  et  disputalionum,  quie  coram  SS.  Clemente 
VIII  et  Paulo  V  Sunmiis  Pontilicibus  sunt  celebrnta; 
in  causa  et  controvcrsia  ilia  magna  de  auxiliis  divintc 
gratiie"  (Louvain,  1702)  appeared  nesrlv  a  hundred 
year*  after  his  death.  While  he  is  the  author  of  a  Urge 
number  of  works,  these  are  the  only  ones  which  have 
thus  far  been  published. 

Qc^nr-EcHAHD,  5.S.  Ord.  PtaJ.,  11,  4fil:TiiUR0N,  HM.da 
hammrtiUuU.dt  forJredr  S.  Horn.. IW 767:  Huhteh.  JVonoi- 
dalor:  SiRRY.  HUl.  Contreffalionta  de  auii/i'u.  panjin. 

Joseph  Schroedek. 

Le  Moyns,  the  name  of  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
families  of  the  New  World,  whose  deeds  adorn  the 
pages  of  Canadian  historv. 

Chables  Le  Moyne,  founder  of  the  family,  b-  of 
Pierre  he  Moyne 
and  Judith  Du- 
chesne at  Dieppe 
on  1  August,  1626; 
d.  at  Ville-Marie 
(Montreal),  1683. 
On  reaching  Can- 
ada in  Ifrll,  he 
spent  four  years  in 
the  Huron  coun- 
try, and  then  set- 
tled at  Ville-Marie, 
his  knowledge   of 


the     India! 


-^..  .?ndering 
him  useful  as anin- 
teipreter,  and  his 

ing  to  defend  the 
colony.  He  often 
fought  single- 
handed   against 


bravery  encouraged  the  settled  to  cultivate  the  soil. 
In  1653  be  negotiated  a  peace  which  lasted  five 
years.  He  married  Catherine  Primot  in  1654.  Sur- 
prised by  a  partv  of  Iroquois  in  1665,  he  was  preparing 
to  sell  ms  life  dearly,  when  he  tripped  and  was  cajt- 
tured.  Awed  by  his  valour  and  fearing  reprisals,  his 
captors  did  not  torture,  but  soon  releaaea  him.  Ho 
accompanied  Courcelles  and  Tracy  against  the  Five 
Nations  and  shored  their  success.  In  recognitian  of 
his  services  Louis  XIV  ennobled  him  with  the  title  of 
Sieurde  Longueuil.  He  served  as  interpreter  to  Cour- 
eollesand  the  Govemorsof  Montreal  .ind  Three  Riven 
during  a  visit  to  t^  Iroquois  country,  and  was  IV 


LB  MOTHI 


149 


U  MOTHI 


warded  by  Intendant  Talon  with  a  vast  concession  on 
the  St.  Lawrence,  reaching  from  Varennes  to  La- 
prairie,  henceforth  named  the  Longueuil  fief.  He  was 
the  father  of  fourteen  children,  seven  of  whom  hon- 
oured Canada  by  their  prowess,  three  dying  in  battle 
and  four  becoming  governors  of  cities  or  provinces. 
Of  his  sons,  surnamed  for  their  bravery  the  *'  Macha- 
bees  of  New  France",  the  two  most  renowned  are 
treated  in  separate  articles  (see  Iberville,  Pierre 
Le  lliloTNE,  SiEUR  d';  BiEnville,  Jean-Baptiste  Le 
MoTNE,  Sieur  de);  each  of  the  five  others  deserves 
here  a  short  notice. 

Charles  Lb  Moyne,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding, 
b.  at  Ville-Marie,  10  Dec.,  1656;  d.  in  1729.  After 
serving  in  France,  he  returned  to  Canada  with  the  rank 
of  lieutenant,  and,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  was 
appointed  major  of  Montreal  by  Governor  de  la  Barre. 
He  married  Elizabeth  Souart.  In  1700  he  received 
for  his  services  an  additional  grant  of  land  and  pro- 
motion to  the  rank  of  baron.  He  won  fame  in  battle 
against  the  Iroquois  and  in  the  defence  of  Quebec 
(1690).  The  croas  of  St.  Louis  was  awarded  him,  and 
he  was  successively  Governor  of  Three  Rivers  and 
Montreal.  In  1711,  prece<led  by  the  religious  stan- 
dard embroidered  by  Jeanne  Leber,  he  marched  to 
Chambly  against  the  invading  army,  which  retreated 
on  hearing  of  the  wreck  of  Walker's  fleet. 

Jacques  Le  Moyne,  Sieur  de  Sainte-H^ldne,  b.  at 
Ville-Marie,  16  April,  1659;  d.  at  Quebec,  1690.  A 
soldier  from  early  youth,  he  trained  for  warfare  his  il- 
lustrious brother,  d'lberville.  During  Phipps's  siege  of 
Quebec,  Ste-H^l^ne  with  200  volunteers  repulsed  a 
troop  of  1300  men  commanded  by  Mai  or  Whalley, 
who  had  attempted  to  cross  River  St.  Charles.  Mor- 
tally wounded  in  this  encounter,  Ste-H^ldne  died 
shortly  after,  mourned  by  the  whole  colony  for  his 
courtesy  and  valour.  The  Iroquois  of  Onondaga  sent 
a  wampum  collar  as  a  token  of  sympathy,  and  re- 
leased two  captives  to  honour  his  memorv. 

Paul  Le  Moyne.  Sieur  de  Maricourt,  b.  15  Dec., 
1663;  d.  on  21  March,  1704.  He  accompanied  d'lber- 
ville to  Hudson's  Bay,  and  amply  shared  his  success, 
particularly  in  boardmg  and  capturing  with  only  two 
canoes  a  large  English  cruiser.  In  1690  he  aided  Ste- 
H^ldne  in  defeating  Whalley.  Frontenac  having  un- 
dertaken a  decisive  campaign  against  the  Iroquois; 
Maricourt  forced  them  to  surrender.  Skilful  diplomat 
as  well  as  intrepid  warrior,  he  was  chosen  to  negotiate 
peace.  His  success  was  due  to  the  affection  and  es- 
teem of  the  Iroquois  for  his  uprightness,  which  mod- 
erated their  dread  of  his  bravery.  They  had  begged 
him  to  act  as  their  protector  and  mediator.  In  1691 
be  married  M.  Madeleine  Dupont  de  Neuville. 

FRAN90I8  Le  Moyne,  Sieur  de  Bienville  I,  b.  1666; 
d.  1691.  After  several  valourous  exploits,  he  was  shot 
in  an  encounter  with  a  party  of  Onneyouts  at  Repen- 
tigny,  while  assailing  tne  window  of  a  house  where 
thev  had  taken  refuge. 

Joseph  Le  Moyne,  Sieur  de  S^rigny,  b.  22  July, 
1668;  d.  at  Rochefort.  France,  in  1704.  A  worthv 
emulator  of  d'lberville,  he  commanded  the  vessels 
sent  from  France  to  enable  his  brother  to  take  pos- 
session of  Hudson's  Bay.  In  that  expedition,  as  well 
as  in  Florida  and  Louisiana,  he  flisplayed  great  valour. 
With  his  brothers  he  drove  the  Spaniards  from  Pensa- 
cola,  after  which  he  fortified  Mobile  and  expelled 
the  Spaniards  from  He  Dauphin.  He  was  promoted 
captain  in  1720,  and  in  1722  became  Governor  of 
Rochefort,  France,  where  he  died  in  1734.  He  had 
married  M.  Elisabeth  H^ron. 

Louis  Le  Moyne,  Sieur  deChAteauguay  I,  b.  4  Jan., 
1676;  d.  1694.  He  fought  under  d'lberville  at  Hud- 
son's Bay,  assisting  when  only  a  bo^  at  the  capture  of 
Fort  Monsipi.  In  the  years  following  he  so  often  de- 
feated the  English  that  they  were  at  last  reduced  to 
Fort  Nelson  (Bourbon),  their  most  important  post. 
This  stronghold  was  likewise  captured  after  a  long  and 


difficult  attack,  during  which  Ch&teauguay  was  killed 
at  the  age  of  eighteen. 

Chaklcs  Le  Moyne,  second  baron  de  Longueuil,  b. 
at  Longueuil,  18  Oct.,  1687;  d.  on  17  Jan..  1755.  He 
entered  the  army  quite  young,  and,  after  having 
served  in  France,  was  appointed  major  of  Montreal 
(1733),  and  received  the  cross  of  St.  Louis  (1734).  As 
Governor  of  Montreal  (1749)  he  administered  the  col- 
ony after  Jonqui^re's  death.  He  saved  from  suppres- 
sion the  General  Hospital  of  Venerable  Madame 
d'Youville,  maliciously  threatened  with  destruction. 
He  marrie<l  Catherine  Charlotte  de  Gray  in  1720. 

Paul-Joseph  Le  Moyne,  b.  1701;  d.  at  Port-Louis, 
France,  in  1778.  Inheriting  the  military  spirit  of  his 
ancestors,  he  joined  the  army  at  the  age  of  seventeen, 
and  served  as  lieutenant  in  rf ormandy.  He  was  suc- 
cessively commander  of  Fort  Frontenac,  Governor  of 
Detroit,  of  Three  Rivers,  and  finally  commander  of 
the  citadel  of  Quebec.  He  fought  under  Vaudreuil, 
Montcalm,  and  L6vis,  and  won  the  cross  of  St.  Louis. 
After  the  Conquest,  he  returned  to  France,  where  he 
died  at  Port-Louis  in  1778.  He  married  (1728) 
Genevieve  Joybert  de  Soulanges. 

Joseph-Dominique-Emmanuel  Le  Moyne,  second 
son  of  oreceding,  b.  at  Soulanges  on  2  April,  1738.  He 
began  nis  milit^y  career  at  the  age  of  twelve.  After 
serving  as  captain  and  major  under  the  French  regime, 
he  later  served  under  the  British  flag  after  the  change 
of  domination,  bravel}^  defending  Fort  St.  John  in 
1755  against  the  American  invaders.  He  was  succes- 
sively appointed  inspector  general  of  militia  (1777), 
colonel  of  the  Royal  Canadians  (1796),  and  legislative 
councillor.    He  cfied  in  1807. 

Daniel,  Histoire  de*  fprandes  famiUes  francaitea  du  Canada 
(Montreal,  1867) ;  Faillon,  HtJiloire  de  la  coionie  francaiae  eri 


Canada  (Ville-Marie,  1S65);  Marmetts,  Let  AfachabieM  de  la 
Nouvelle  France  (Quebec,  1882);  Documente  inidite  (Montreal, 
1890);  JoDOiN,  Histoire  de  LongueuU  (Montreal,  1889). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 

Le  Moyne,  Simon,  Jesuit  missionaiy,  b.  at  Beau- 
vais,  1604;  d.  in  1665  at  Cap  de  la  Madeleine,  near 
Three  Rivers.  He  joined  the  Society  in  1622,  and 
reached  Canada  in  1638.  He  worked  on  the  Huron 
mission  with  Chaumonot,  Bressani,  and  the  future 
martyrs.  Second  to  Chaumonot  alone  in  his  mastery 
of  the  Huron-Iroquois  language,  he  was  unequalled 
in  the  knowledge  of  the  character  of  the  Indians, 
their  customs  and  traditions,  even  the  artifices  of  their 
savage  eloquence  and  diplomacy.  The  ascendancy  he 
thereoy  enjoyed  made  him  a  desirable  ambassador  on 
all  delicate  and  arduous  occasions.  He  was  the  first 
European  to  penetrate  among  the  Onondagas,  where 
his  eloquence  and  acquaintance  with  their  traditions 
won  their  admiration.  They  begged  for  a  missionary 
to  teach  them  about  the  Great  Spirit  (1654).  His 
second  mission  was  to  the  fierce  Mohawks,  the  mur- 
derers of  Father  Jogues,  jealous  of  the  favour  shown 
to  the  Onondagas.  They  received  him  well,  and  be 
journeyed  to  Manhattan  or  New  Amsterdam,  where 
the  governor,  Peter  Stuyvesant,  treated  him  courte- 
ously. When  a  fresh  outburst,  of  Mohawk  jealousy 
threatened  to  disturb  the  peace,  Le  Moyne  again 
volunteered  to  pacify  them,  visiting  Ossemenon  a 
second  and  third  time,  and,  though  outwardly  hon- 
oured, he  frequently  faced  death.  When  after  two 
years  of  warfare  agamst  the  French  and  their  allies  the 
Cayuga  Iroquois  sued  for  peace  in  Montreal,  and 
craveS  for  a  "black  gown",  Le  Mojme  went  to  test 
their  sincerity  (1661).  This  was  his  fifth  embassy, 
and  during  it  he  was  seized,  tortured,  and  even  con- 
demned to  death.  He  was  always  ready  for  mar- 
tyrdom. He  owed  his  preservation  to  the  chief 
Garakonti^,  whom  Bishop  Laval  had  baptized.  He 
consoled  the  Indians  and  French  captives,  many  of 
whom  owed  him  their  release.  When  the  regular 
missions  were  established  he  longed  to  return  to  the 
Onondagas,  but  death  overtook  him  at  Cap  de  la 


Hftdeleine.    Garakonti^  eloquently  eulogised  his  un- 
daunted courage  and  eminent  virtues. 

RorHEUONTT.ii.  Lm  JfiuUet  rl  la  NoaitUe  Pnnce  (Pftris, 
lB9fl);CAJipr— -    "- "-' '  ■•— '  ' ^^-/u— 17— .. 


L,  Pioneer  FrieMt  0/  A'l 


AmerwH^iew-y 


Lamuel.    See  Lamuel. 

L'Enf&nt,  Pierre-Charles,  engineer,  b.  in  France, 
Atigust,  1755:  d.  near  Bladensburg,  Maryland,  U.  S. 
A.,  4  June,  1833.  He  was  educated  as  an  engineer 
and  joined  Lafayette  aa  a.  volunteer  to  help  the 
revolted  American  colonists  in  1777.  Appointed  a 
captain  of  engineers  on  18  Feb.,  1778,  and  brevet 
major  on  2  May,  1783,  in  Washiagton'a  army,  he  did 
valiant  service  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  At  its 
close  he  remodelled  the  old  City  Hall  in  New  York  tor 
the  meeting  of  the  First  Congress,  and  later  arranged 
the  Federal  Hall  in  Philadelphia.  When  the  site  for 
the  Federal  city  was  finally  adopted,  he  spent  much  of 
bia  time  during  the  year  1791  considering  a  plan  for 
the  new  city,  which  he  finally  drew  up  with  the  title : 
"  Plan  of  the  City,  intended  for  the  Permanent  Seat  of 
the  Government  of  the  United  States.  Projected 
agreeable  to  the  direction  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States  in  pursuance  of  an  act  of  Congress 
passed  the  sixteentb  day  of  July,  MDCCXC,  establish- 
mgthe  Permanent  Seat  ontheuank  of  the  Potomac". 
L'Enfant  had  a  quick  temper  and  an  overbearing  dis- 
poeition^  and,  as  he  quarrelled  with  his  superiors 
before  his  plans  could  be  carried  out,  President  Wash- 
ington dismiB-scd  him  from  the  service  on  1  March, 
1TO2.  He  refused  an  appropriation  offered  him  for 
his  work  on  the  plan  for  the  Capitol,  and  also  the  ap- 
pointment of  professor  of  engineering  at  the  Military 
Academv,  West  Point.  During  the  War  of  1812  with 
England  he  set  to  work  constructing  fortifications  near 
Waahington,  but  again  i^uarrelled  with  his  superior 
officers,  and  through  pique  left  the  service.  He 
haunted  the  doors  of  Congress  for  years  with  applica- 
tions for  recompense  for  his  work  that  were  never 
heeded.  Poor  and  forgotten  he  spent  the  rest  of  his 
days  at  the  home  of  his  friena,  William  Dudley 
Digges,  near  Bladensburg,  Maryland,  and  his  body 
was  buried  there.  In  April,  1900,  in  accordance  witn 
an  Act  of  Congress,  the  remains  of  Major  L'Enfant 
were  removed  from  liis  grave  in  Maiyland,  and,  after 
lying  in  state  for  a  short  time  in  the  Capitol  at  Wash- 
ington, were  reinterred  in  the  National  Cemetery  at 
Arlington  with  the  ceremonies  of  the  Church  and 
the  oulitary  honours  due  to  his  rank  in  the  Continental 
Army. 

Varmuu,  Tilt  SmI  o/  Gorimmml  of  the  V.  S.  IWruhinglon. 
IBM);  Amervan  Calli.  Hit.  Rararrhtr.  (Philmlelnhia,  jHnuarv, 
1907):  MuHAN  in  Amrrira  (New  York.  1  SUy,  igou);  Enevd. 

Thomas  F.  Mebhan. 


Mai 


BeedREAT  Falu),  Dioowb 


Leniug,  Adau  Franz,  theolotciun,  b.  3  Dec.  1S03. 
at  Mainz;  d,  there,  '12  Nov.,  l.SCG.  He  studied  at 
Bouchsal  under  the  private  tutursliip  of  llie  ex-Jesuit 
Lauren  tius  Doller,  and  afterwardaat  the  bishop'sgym- 
nasium  at  Miiinz.  Ilciu);  too  young  for  ordination,  he 
went  to  Paris  to  study  Oriental  languages  under  Syl- 
vestre  de  Sacy,  tlicn  to  Rome  for  a  higher  course  in 
theology.  Here  he  was  ordained  priest,  22  Sept.,  1827, 
and  tiien  taught  for  a  year  at  Mainz.  I^ennig  was  a 
strenuous  defender  of  the  rights  of  the  Church,  and 
vhen  on  30  Jan.,  1 8;(0.  the  Hessian  Government,  which 
for  quite  a  time  had  been  trying  to  interfere  in  church 
matters,  passed  thirty-nine  articles  on  ecclesiastical 
administration,  be  eent  tliem  to  Rome.  Rome  sent 
back  a  protest,  but,  since  the  bishops  remained  silent, 
and  since  Bi.sliop  Burjc  of  Mainz  even  defended  the 
articles,  Lennig  left  for  Bonn,  and  attended  the  lec- 
tures of  Sailer,  Windiscbmano,  and  Klee.  In  June, 
1832,  he  accepM  th«  pastorate  of  Gaulsheim,  declin- 


>0  LKirOEBSAirT 

ing  to  take  the  chair  of  theology  and  exegesis  at  Haint. 
In  1839  he  was  made  pastor  at  Seligenstadt.  Bishop 
Kaiser  of  Mainz  in  1845  promoted  him  to  the  cathe- 
dral chapter.  InMarch,  1848,  heestablLshed  the  "PiuB- 
verein",  which  did  much  good  among  the  Catholics 
of  Germany.  He  organized  the  first  meeting  of  Cath- 
olic societies  and  of  Catholics  in  general,  held  at 
Mainz,  October,  1848.  In  the  same  montii  he  was 
present  at  the  meeting  of  the  German  bishops  at 
Wilrzbui^.  acting  as  representative  of  his  bishop,  who 
was  ill.    About  this  time  he  founded  at  great  ex- 

gjnse  the  "Mainzer  Journal".  After  the  death  of 
ishop  Kaiser  (30  Dec,  1848),  troubles  arose  about 
the  choice  of  a  successor.  Lennig  was  acknowledged 
by  all  as  a  leader  of  true  Christian  spirit  and  suffered 
much  abuse  from  the  Liberals.  In  1852  he  was  made 
vicar-genera!  by  Bishop  von  Ketteler,  and  in  1858 
dean  of  the  chapter.  He  zealously  assisted  bis  bishop 
in  bringing  the  Capuchins  and  Jesuits  into  the  diocese. 
In  1854  he  was  in  Rome  at  the  definition  ot  the  Im- 
maculate Conception,  and  later  visited  Rome  twice. 
In  1859  he  wrote  a  protest  against  the  spoliation  of 
the  Holy  See,  and  had  it  eiRned  by  20,000  Catholics. 
He  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  mfluential  and 
zealous  German  pnesis  of  his  day.  I.ennig  pub- 
lished in  1849  his  Panegyric  on  Bishop  Kaiser",  and 
in  1802  his  "Funeral  Oration  on  the  Archduchess 
Mnthildc  of  IIcssc".  His  meditationson  the  Passion 
and  on  the  Our  Father  and  Hail  Mary  were  published 
1867  and  1869  by  his  nephew,  Chr.  Moufang. 

BnltcK.Arfam from Imnitf. etc.  (Maim,  1870):  AOt.DivtKhe 
Bionr..  XVIII,  261:  Kalholik,  1887, 1.  267;  TtVi-t.  Bitehof  tmt 
KetUler  (.Maim.  18tl»).  pasiim;  Mat.  Cexh.  drr  Generalver- 
Mmm.'.  d>T  Kalh.  DeulidS.  (Cologne,  1M)4).  22,  26,  33. 

Francis  Mebshmak. 


Paris,  1  Jimc,  1802;  d.  at  Athens,  24  Nover 
After  pursuing  his  studies  at  the  Lyc€e  Charlemagne 
and  the  Lyc^e 
Napoleon,  he  took 
up  law,  but  a  visit 
to  Italy  and  Sicily 
(1822-23)  made 
him  an  enthusias- 
tic archffiologist. 
In  1825  he  was 
named  sub-inspec- 
tor of  fine  arts  and 
a  few  months  later 
married  Amelia 


of  tne  celebrated 
Mme  RScamier. 
He  visited  Italy, 
Bekium,  Holland, 
aad  accompanie<J 
Champollion  to 
Egypt,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  stuily  of  architectural  works. 
Later  he  travelled  through  Greece  as  assistant  director 
of  the  archieological  department  of  the  Morea  scien- 
tific commission.  On  his  return  he  was  appointed  cu- 
rator of  the  works  of  art  in  the  royal  palaces  (1829). 
In  1835  he  was  Guizot's  substitute  at  the  Sorlxinnc. 
Although  the  chair  was  that  of  modern  history,  he 
lectured  chiefly  on  ancient  history,  more  especially  on 
the  origins  of  Greek  civiliBation.     In  1836  he  was  ap- 

E Dinted  curator  of  printed  books  in  the  Royal  Li- 
mry,  and  in  1839  was  elected  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy. In  1840  he  was  made  curator  of  the  Cabinet  of 
Medals.  Guizot,  who  became  minister  of  foreign  af- 
faire in  1841,  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  Greece.  On  re- 
turning from  this  second  \i3it  to  the  East  he  continued 
his  lectures  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  made  a  particular 
study  of  Christian  civilization  in  its  sourees.  This 
study  maile  of  him  a  true  ('hristian,  and  from  that 


LXNORHAKT 


151 


LE  HOURRY 


time  his  lectures  bore  the  impress  of  his  deep  Catholic 
belief.  He  ^ ve  voice  to  his  convictions  in  his '  *  Ques- 
tions histonques"  (Paris,  1845),  in  his  work  on  the 
*' Associations  religieuses  dans  la  soci^t^  chr^tienno" 
(Paris,  1866),  and  in  many  serious  articles  in  the 
*'Correspondant".  His  writings  greatly  influenced 
the  much  discussed  question  of  freedom  of  teaching 
{liberU  d'enseignemeni).  In  1846,  the  students,  in  re- 
taliation for  the  suppression  of  M.  Quinet's  chair,  com- 
pelled Lenormant  to  give  up  his  professorship;  he 
was  then  given  the  editorship  of  the."  Corresponaant'* 
which  he  resigned  in  1855.  In  1848  he  was  named 
director  of  the  conmiission  of  historical  monuments, 
and  in  1849  an  almost  unanimous  vote  of  the  members 
of  the  Academy  appointed  him  to  the  chair  of  ar- 
chaeology in  the  ColUge  de  France.  From  that  time  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  teaching  of  Egyptian 
archaeology.  He  died  while  on  an  expedition  under- 
taken for  the  sake  of  initiating  his  son  mto  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  monuments  of  antiquity. 

Many  articles  from  the  pen  of  Lenormant  appeared 
in  the  "  Annates  de  I'lnstitut  Archdologique  de  Kome", 
the  *'M6moires  de  T Academic  dcs  Inscriptions",  the 
"Revue  de  Numismatique",  and  the  "Correspon- 
dant ".  His  chief  independently  published  works  are : 
"Les  Artistes  contemporains "  (raris,  1833,  2  vols.); 
"Introduction  h  Thistoire  de  I'Asie  occidentale" 
(Paris,  1838);  "Mus^e  des  Antiquit(f'S  ^gyptiennes" 
(Paris,  1842);  "  Questions  historiques"  (Paris,  1845), 
besides  two  valuable  collections,  "Trdsor  de  numis- 
matique etdeglyptiaue"  (Paris,  1834-50)  (in  collabo- 
ration with  Paul  Dclaroche  and  Henriguel  Dupont) 
and  "  Elite  des  monuments  c^ramographiques  "  (1844- 
58)(withDeWitte). 

De  Witte,  Annuaire  de  VAcadHtie  de  Beloique  (Brussels, 
l«6l),  129-86;  Aftmioires  de  Vlngtitut  de  France,  XXXI, 
(Pans),  p.  547-608. 

F.  Mayence. 

Lenormant,  FR.VMfois,  archaeologist,  son  of  the 
preceding,  b.  at  Paris,  17  January,  1837;  d.  there. 
9  December,  1883.  His  father  personally  supervised 
his  education  and  exercised  great  influence  over  his 
mind  and  studies.  He  gave  early  proofs  of  classical 
scholarship,  by  publishing,  when  only  fourteen,  an 
article  in  tne  "Revue  ardi^ologique":  "Lettre  i  M. 
Hase  sur  des  table ttes  grecques  trouv^'es  d  Memphis  ". 
In  1857  he  was  awarded  the  numismatic  prize  by  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  for  a  remarkable  essay  pub- 
lished in  the  "Revue  numismatique":  "Essai  sur  la 
classification  des  monnaies  des  Lagidcs  *\  While  pur- 
suing his  classical  studies,  he  attended  the  lectures  of 
the  raculty  of  law  and  in  1857  received  his  degree  as 
licentiate.  In  1858  he  visited  Italy  and  in  1859  ac- 
companied his  father  to  the  East.  The  latter  having 
died  during  the  journey  Frangois  returned  to  France 
with  the  body,  but  set  out  soon  again  for  Greece.  He 
conducted  important  excavations  at  Eleusis  and  as  a 
result  pubh'shed  several  essays,  notably:  "Rccherches 
arch^ologiques  rl  Eleusis"  (Paris,  1862).  While  thus 
engaged,  he  heard  of  the  massacre  of  Christians  by  the 
Druses,  and  immediately  ceasing  his  researches  sailed 
for  Syria  to  go  to  the  rescue  of  the  victims  of  Moslem 
fanaticism.  When  the  French  expedition  reached 
Syria,  he  felt  free  to  return  to  Eleusis.  In  1862  he 
was  appointed  sub-librarian  of  the  Institut  de  France. 
In  1865  and  1866  he  travelled  again  through  the 
East,  and  shortly  after  this,  sununarized  his  studies  in 
a  "Manuel  d'histoire  ancienne  de  I'Orient  jusqu'aux 
guerres  Mddiques  "  (Paris,  1868),  a  very  popular  work, 
in  1869  he  visited  Eg}'pt  and  familiarized  himself  with 
Egyptian  antiquities;  he  published  numerous  essays 
on  the  cuneiform  texts  and  on  the  language  spoken  in 
Babylon  and  Nineveh.  During  the  siege  of  Paris, 
1870,  he  took  part  in  several  engagements.  Two 
years  later,  his  "  Essai  de  commentaire  des  fragments 
cosmogoniques  de  B^rose"  (Paris,  1S72)  was  pub- 
lished. 


In  1874  Lenormant  succeeded  Beul^  as  professor  of 
archseology  at  the  Biblioth^que  Nationale,  and  deliv- 
ered brilliant  lectures  on  Greek  and  Eastern  antiqui- 
ties. With  de  Witte,  a  Belgian  archaBologist,  he 
founded  in  1875  the  "Gazette  arch^ologique "  for  the 
publication  of  unknown  monuments  and  miscellane- 
ous archicological  studies.  In  this  review  he  pub- 
lished many  articles  on  ancient  monuments  of  every 
description  and  origin.  From  1879  to  1883  he  visited 
Southern  Italy  several  times,  and  as  a  result  of  his 
travels  published  a  work  on  Lucania  and  Apulia.  In 
1880  he  produced  the  first  volume  of  "Origines  de 
I'histoire  d'aprds  la  Bible  et  les  traditions  des  peuples 
orientaux"  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1880-83),  a  work  that  at- 
tained wide  pubhcity.  The  writer  thought  it  impossi- 
ble to  maintain  a  unity  of  composition  in  the  books  of 
the  Pentateuch.  He  held  that  there  were  certain 
traces  of  "two  distinct  original  documents;  the  Elo- 
histic  and  the  Jehovistic  which  served  as  a  basis  for 
the  final  compiler  of  the  first  four  books  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, anti  he  is  satisfied  with  establishing  between 
them  a  certain  concordance,  leaving  untouched  their 
original  redaction  ".  The  first  chapters  of  Genesis,  ao- 
coiSing  to  him,  are  a  "  book  of  origins"  and  represent 
the  story  of  Israel  as  told  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion since  the  time  of  the  Patriarchs;  in  all  fundamen- 
tal facts  this  narrative  tallied  with  the  sacred  books  of 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris.  For  him,  inspiration 
lies  in  the  absolutely  new  spirit  which  animates  the 
narrative,  though  in  composition  it  is  quite  similar  to 
the  stories  of  neighbouring  tribes.  Four  years  after  the 
death  of  the  author  this  book  was  put  on  the  Index 
(19  December,  1887).  Quite  probably  Lenormant 
would  have  suomitted,  since  in  his  introduction  he  as- 
serts his  attachment  to  the  Catholic  Faith  and  his  de- 
votion to  the  Church.  He  died  from  the  after  effects 
of  a  disease  contracted  during  one  of  his  visits  to 
Southern  Italy.  In  1881  he  had  been  made  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres. 

lenormant  wrote  many  works.  Aside  from  those 
referred  to  above,  must  be  mentioned:  "Sur  I'origine 
chr6tienne  des  inscriptions  sinaitiques"  in  "Journal 
Asiatique",  XIII  (Paris,  1859),  fifth  series;  "Ilistoire 
des  Massacres  de  Syrie  en  1860"  (Paris,  1861);  "La 
Revolution  en  Grdce"  (Paris,  1862);  "Essai  sur  I'or- 
ganisation  politique  et  <5conomique  de  la  mormaie  dans 
I'antiquite''  (Paris,  1863);  "Chefs-d'ceuvres  de  I'art 
antique"  (Paris,  1867-1868)  in  7  vols.;  "Histoire  du 
peuple  juif"  (Paris,  1869);  "Le  deluge  et  Tepopde 
oabylonnienne "  (Paris,  1873);  "Les  premidren  civili- 
sations" (Paris,  1873 — 2  vols.):  " La langue primitive 
de  Chald6e  et  les  idiomes  touraniens"  (Paris,  1875): 
"La  monnaie  dans  I'antiquit^"  (Paris,  1878-1879); 
"Atraversl'Apulie  et  laLucanie"  (Paris,  1883):  "La 
Gen^se  traduite  d'apr^s  I'h^breu,  avec  distinction 
des  elements  constitutifs  tlu  texte,  suivi  d'un  essai 
de  restitution  des  textes  dont  s'est  ser\'i  le  dernier 
r^dacteur"  (Paris,  1884). 

Le  Hir,  Francois  Lenormant,  t'tude  hiographique  (Lyons, 
1884);  VAN  DEN  (Iheyn,  F.  Lenormant  (Brussels,  1884); 
Babelon,  Adrien  de  Longph-ier,  Francois  Lenormant,  Erneti 
Muret,  trots  rUcrolooiea  (Berlin.  1885):  de  Witte  in  Annuaire 
de  VAcadtmie de Befgigue  (1887),  247-291. 

F.  Mayence. 

Le  Nourry,  Denis-Nicolas,  of  the  Congregation 
of  St-Maur,  ecclesiastical  writer,  b.  at  Dieppe  in  Nor- 
mandy, 18  Feb.,  1647;  d.  at  the  Abbey  of  St-Germain 
in  Paris,  24  March,  1724.  He  received  his  first  educa- 
tion from  the  priests  of  the  Oratory  at  his  native  place; 
then  entered  the  Benedictine  Oixler  at  Jumidges,  8 
Julv,  1665.  After  completing  his  theological  studies 
and  being  ordained  to  the  priesthood,  he  was  sent  to 
Rouen,  where,  in  the  Abbey  of  Bonnenouvelle,  he 
assisted  John  Garet  in  publishing  the  writings  of  Ca»- 
siodorus  (1679).  For  this  work  he  wrote  the  preface 
and  the  life  of  the  author.  In  the  edition  of  the  works 
of  Pt.  Ambrose  he  aided  Jean  du  Chesne  and  Juliea 


LENT 


152 


LENT 


Bellaise  at  Rouen,  and  later  Jacques  du  Frische  at 
Paris,  where  he  spjent  the  last  forty  years  of  his  life. 
His  greatest  work  is  the  "  Apparatus  ad  bibliothecam 
maximam  veterum  patrum  et  antiquorum  scrip- 
torum",  published  at  Paris  in  two  volumes  (1703  and 
1715)  as  an  aid  to  the  study  of  the  Lyons  collection  of 
the  Fathers.  In  extensive  dissertations  he  gives  the 
biography  of  each  writer;  the  occasion,  design,  scope, 
and  genuineness  of  every  writing;  a  history  of  the 
time  in  which  the  author  lived;  its  dogmatical  and 
moral  tendency,  and  its  struggles  against  heathenism 
or  heresies.  The  work  was  well  received.  In  1710  he 
edited  the  "  Liber  ad  Donatum  confessorem  de  morti- 
bus  persecutorum  ",  and  in  a  special  dissertation  tries 
hard  to  prove  that  the  book  was  written  by  Lucius 
Csecilius  and  not  by  Lactantius.  Besides  these  he 
edited  the  "  Epitome  institutionum  divinarum "  of 
Lactantius,  the  "  Expositum  de  die  paschse  et  mensis  " 
of  Hilarianus,  and  a  fragment  "  De  origine  generis 
humani". 

Tabsin,  Histoire  litt.  de  la  cong.  de  SairU-Afaur  (Paris,  1770). 
436;  HuRTKR,  NomendatorAl  (Innsbruck,  1893),  1117;  Tubinger 
Quartal»chrift  (1834),  15;  DOx  in  Kirchenler.,  s.  v.;  NicI^bon, 
liimoires,  I  (Paris.  1727-38),  275-8. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Lent. — ^The  Teutonic  word  L/entf  which  we  employ 
to  denote  the  forty  days'  fast  preceding  Easter,  origi- 
nally meant  no  more  than  the  spring  season.  Still 
it  has  been  used  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  to  trans- 
late the  more  significant  Latin  term  qiiadragesima 
(Fr.  carhnef  It.  miaresimat  Span,  cuaresma),  meaning 
the  "  forty  days  ,  or  more  literally  the  "  fortieth  day". 
This  in  turn  unitated  the  Greek  name  for  Lent,,T€(r- 
ffopaKocrij  (fortieth),  a  word  formed  on  the  analogy  of 
Pentecost  (TerrriKOffr'^),  which  last  was  in  use  for  the 
Jewish  festival  before  New-Testament  times.  This 
etymolo^,  as  we  shall  see,  is  of  some  little  importance 
in  explaining  the  early  developments  of  the  Easter 
fast. 

Origin, — Some  of  the  Fathers  as  early  as  the  fifth 
century  supported  the  view  that  this  forty  days'  fast 
was  of  Apostolic  institution.  For  example,  St.  Leo 
(d.  461)  exhorts  his  hearers  to  abstain  that  they  may 
"fulfil  with  their  fasts  the  Apostolic  institution  of  the 
forty  days" — ut  apostolica  institutio  quadraginta 
dierum  jejuniis  impleatur  (P.  L.,  LIV,  633),  and  the 
hifltorian  Socrates  (d.  433)  and  St.  Jerome  (d.  420) 
use  similar  language  (P.  G.,  LXVII,  633;  P.  L.,  XXII, 
475) .  But  the  best  modem  scholars  are  almost  unani- 
mous in  rejecting  this  view,  for  in  the  existing  remains 
of  the  first  three  centuries  we  find  both  considerable 
diversity  of  practice  regarding  the  fast  before  Easter 
and  also  a  gradual  process  of  development  in  the  mat- 
ter of  its  duration.  The  passage  of  primary  impor- 
tance is  one  quoted  by  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  V,  xxiv) 
from  a  letter  of  St.  Irenfieus  to  Pope  Victor  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Easter  controversy  (q.  v.).  There 
Irenteus  says  that  there  is  not  only  a  controversy 
about  the  time  of  keeping  Elaster  but  also  regard- 
ing the  preliminary  fast.  **For",  he  continues, 
"some  think  they  ought  to  fast  for  one  day,  others 
for  two  days,  and  others  even  for  several,  while 
others  reckon  forty  hours  both  of  day  and  night  to 
their  fast."  He  also  urges  that  this  variety  of 
usage  is  of  ancient  date,  which  implies  that 
there  could  have  been  no  Apostolic  tradition  on 
the  subject.  Rufinus,  who  translated  Eusebius  into 
Latin  towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  seems 
so  to  have  punctuated  this  passage  as  to  mi^e  Ire- 
nseus  say  that  some  people  fasted  for  forty  days. 
Formerly  some  difference  of  opinion  existed  as  to  the 
proper  reading,  but  modem  criticism  (e.  g.,  in  the 
edition  of  Schwartz  commissioned  by  the  Berlin 
Academy)  pronounces  strongly  in  favour  of  the  text 
tnuislated  above.  We  may  then  fairly  conclude  that 
IrenflBus  about  the  year  190  knew  nothing  of  any 
Easter  fast  of  forty  days.  The  same  inference  must  be 


drawn  from  the  langua^  of  Tertullian  only  a  few 
years  later.  When  writing  as  a  Montanist,  he  con- 
trasts the  very  slender  term  of  fasting  observed  by  the 
Catholics  (i.  e.,  "the  days  on  which  the  bridegroom 
was  taken  away",  probably  meaning  the  Friday  and 
Saturday  of  Holy  Week)  with  the  longer  but  still  re- 
stricted period  of  a  fortnight  which  was  kept  by  the 
Montanists.  No  doubt  he  was  referring  to  fasting  of 
a  very  strict  kind  {ocerophagicB — dry  fasts),  but  there  is 
no  indication  in  his  works,  though  he  wrote  an  entire 
treatise,  *'De  Jejunio",  and  often  touches  upon  the 
subject  elsewhere,*  that  he  was  acquainted  with  any 
period  of  forty  days  consecrated  to  more  or  less  con- 
tinuous fasting  (see  Tertullian,  "De  Jejun.",  ii  and 
xiv;  cf.  "DeOrat.",xviii;  etc.).  And  there  is  the  same 
silence  observable  in  all  the  pre-Nicene  Fathers, 
though  many  had  occasion  to  mention  such  an  Apos- 
tolic institution  if  it  had  existed.  We  may  note  for 
example  that  there  is  no  mention  of  Lent  in  St.  Diony- 
sius  of  Alexandria  (ed.  Feltoe,  94  sqq.)  or  in  tne 
"Didascalia",  which  Funk  attributes  to  about  the 
year  250;  yet  both  speak  diffusely  of  the  paschal  fast. 
Further,  there  seems  much  to  suggest  that  the  Church 
in  the  Apostolic  Age  designed  to  commemorate  the 
Resurrection  of  Christ,  not  by  an  annual,  but  by  a 
weekly  celebration  (see  "The  Month",  April,  1910, 
337  sqq.).  If  this  be  so,  the  Sunday  liturgy  constituted 
the  weekly  memorial  of  the  Resurrection,  and  the 
Friday  fast  that  of  the  Death  of  Christ.  Such  a 
theory  offers  a  natural  explanation  of  the  wide  diver- 
gence which  we  find  existing  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
second  century  regarding  both  the  proper  ume  for 
keeping  Easter  and  also  the  manner  of  the  paschal 
fast.  Christians  were  at  one  regardinjg  the  weekly  ob- 
servance of  the  Sunday  and  tne  Friday,  which  was 
primitive,  but  the  annual  Easter  festival  was  some- 
thing superimposed  by  a  process  of  natural  develop- 
ment, and  it  was  largely  influenced  by  the  conditions 
locally  existing  in  the  different  Churches  of  the  East 
and  West.  Aloreover,  with  the  £aster  festival  there 
seems  also  to  have  established  itself  a  preliminary 
fast,  not  as  yet  anywhere  exceeding  a  week  in  dura- 
tion, but  very  severe  in  character,  which  commem- 
orated the  Passion,  or,  more  generally,  "the  days  on 
which  the  bridegroom  was  taken  away  ". 

Be  this  as  it  may,  we  find  in  the  early  years  of  the 
fourth  century  the  first  mention  of  the  term  rtcffapa- 
KooT^,  It  occurs  in  the  fifth  canon  of  the  Council  of 
Nic£ea  (a.  d.  325),  v;here  there  is  only  question  of  the 
proper  time  for  celebrating  a  synod,  and  it  is  conceiv- 
able that  it  may  refer  not  to  a  period  but  to  a  definite 
festival,  e.  g.,  the  feast  of  the  Ascension,  or  the  Purifi- 
cation, whicn  ^theria  calls  miadragesimce  de  Epipha- 
nia.  But  we  have  to  remember  tliat  the  older  word 
TcrrriKoar'^,  Pentecost,  from  meaning  the  fiftieth  day, 
had  come  to  denote  the  whole  of  the  period  (which  we 
should  call  Paschal  Time)  between  Easter  Sundav  and 
Whit-Sunday  (cf.  Tertullian,  "De  Idololatria",  xiv— 
"pentecosten  implere  non  poterunt").  In  any  case  it 
IB  certain  from  the  "Festal  Letters"  of  St.  Atha- 
nasius  that  in  331  the  saint  enjoined  upon  his  flock  a 
period  of  forty  days  of  fasting  preliminary  to,  but  not 
mclusive  of,  the  stricter  fast  of  Holy  Week,  and  sec- 
ondly that  in  339  the  same  Father,  after  having  trav- 
elled to  Rome  and  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe, 
wrote  in  the  strongest  terms  to  urge  this  observance 
upon  the  people  of  Alexandria  as  one  that  was  uni- 
versally practised, ''  to  the  end  that  while  all  the  world 
is  fasting,  we  who  are  in  Egypt  should  not  become  a 
laughing-stock  as  the  only  people  who  do  not  fast  but 
take  our  pleasure  in  those  days".  Although  Funk 
formerly  maintained  that  a  Lent  of  forty  days  was  not 
known  in  the  West  before  the  time  of  St.  Ambrose, 
this  is  evidence  which  cannot  be  set  aside. 

Duration  and  Nature  of  the  Fast. — Jn  determining 
this  period  of  forty  days  the  example  of  Moses,  Elias, 
and  Christ  must  have  exercised  a  predominant  in  flu- 


LBNT 


153 


LEHT 


enee,  but  it  is  also  possible  that  the  fact  was  borne  in 
mind  that  Cfajist  lay  forty  hours  in  the  tomb.  On  the 
other  hand  just  as  Pentecost  (the  fifty  days)  was  a 
period  during  which  Christians  were  j  oy  ous  and  praved 
standing,  though  they  were  not  always  engaged  in 
such  prayer,  so  the  Quadragesima  (the  forty  days)  was 
originally  a  period  marked  by  fasting,  but  not  neces- 
sarily a  period  in  which  the  faitliful  fasted  every  day. 
Still,  this  principle  was  differently  understood  in  dif- 
ferent localities,  and  great  divergences  of  practice 
were  the  result.  In  Rome,  in  the  fifth  century,  Lent 
lasted  six  weeks,  but  according  to  the  historian  Soc- 
rates there  were  only  three  weeks  of  actual  fasting, 
exclusive  even  then  of  the  Saturdav  and  Sunday,  and, 
tf  Duchesne's  view  may  be  trusted  these  weeks  were 
not  continuous,  but  were  the  first,  the  fourth,  and  the 
sixth  of  the  series,  being  connected  with  the  ordina- 
tions (Christian  Worship,  213).  Possibly,  however, 
these  three  weeks  had  to  do  with  the  "scrutinies 
preparatory  to  Baptism  (a.  v.),  for  by  some  author- 
ities (e.  g.,  A.  J.  Maclean  in  his  "  Recent  Discoveries") 
the  duty  of  fasting  along  with  the  candidate  for  bap- 
tism is  put  forward  as  the  chief  influence  at  work  m 
the  development  of  the  forty  days.  But  throughout 
the  Orient  generally,  with  some  few  exceptions,  the 
same  arrangement  prevailed  as  St.  Athanasius's 
"Festal  Letters"  show  us  to  have  obtxiinod  in  Alex- 
andria, namely,  the  six  weeks  of  Lent  were  only  pre- 
paratory to  a  fast  of  exceptional  severity  maintamed 
during  Holy  Week.  This  is  enjoined  by  the  "Apos- 
tolic Constitutions"  (V,  xiii),  and  presupposed  by  St. 
Chrysostom  (Horn,  xxx  in  (jien..  i).  But  the  number 
forty t  having  once  established  itself,  produced  other 
modifications.  It  seemed  to  many  necessary  that 
there  should  not  only  bo  fasting  during  forty  days  but 
forty  actual  fasting  days.  Thus  we  find  ^theria  in 
her  "  Peregrinatio  "speaking  of  a  I/Cnt  of  eight  weeks 
in  all  observed  at  Jerusalem,  which,  remcml>ering  that 
both  the  Saturday  and  Sunday  of  ordinary  weeks 
were  exempt,  gives  five  times  eight,  i.  e.  forty  days 
for  fasting.  On  the  other  hand,  in  many  localities 
people  were  content  to  observe  no  more  than  a  six 
weeks'  period,  sometimes,  as  at  Milan,  fasting  only 
five  days  in  the  week  after  the  oriental  fashion  (Am- 
brose, "De  Elia  et  Jejunio",  10).  In  the  time  of 
Gregory  the  Great  (590-604)  there  were  apparently  at 
Rome  six  weeks  of  six  days  each,  making  thirty-six 
fast  days  in  all,  which  St.  Gregory,  who  is  followed 
therein  by  many  medieval  writers,  describes  as  the 
spiritual  tithing  of  the  year,  thirty-six  days  bein^  ap- 
proximately the  tenth  part  of  three  hundred  and  sixty- 
five.  At  a  later  date  the  wish  to  realize  the  exact 
number  of  forty  days  led  to  the  practice  of  beginning 
Lent  upon  our  present  Ash  W^ednesday,  but  the 
('hurch  of  Milan  even  to  this  day  adheres  to  the  more 
primitive  arrangement,  which  still  betrays  itself  in  the 
Roman  Missal  when  the  priest  in  the  Secret  of  the 
Mass  on  the  first  Sunday  of  I^ent  speaks  of  "sacrifi- 
cium  quadragesimalis  initii",  the  sacrifice  of  the  open- 
ing of  Lent.  Neither  was. there  originally  less  diver- 
gence regarding  the  nature  of  the  favSt.  For  example, 
the  historian  ^crates  (Hist.  EccL,  V,  22)  tells  of  the 
practice  of  the  fifth  century:  "Some  abstain  from 
every  sort  of  creature  that  has  life,  while  others  of  all 
the  fiving  creatures  eat  of  fish  only.  Others  eat  birds 
as  well  as  fish,  because,  according  to  the  Mosaic  ac- 
count of  the  Creation,  they  too  sprang  from  the  water; 
others  abstain  from  fruit  covered  with  a  hard  shell  and 
from  eggs.  Some  eat  dry  bread  only,  others  not  even 
that;  otJiers  again  when  they  have  fasted  to  the  ninth 
hour  (three  o?clock)  partake  of  various  kinds  of  food." 
.\mid  this  diversity  some  inclined  to  the  extreme 
limits  of  rigour.  Epiphanius,  Palladius,  and  the  au- 
thor of  the  "  Life  of  St.  Melania  the  Younger"  seem  to 
contemplate  a  st&te  of  things  in  which  ordinary 
Christians  were  expected  to  pass  twent v-four  hours  or 
more  without  food  of  any  kind,  especially  during  Holy 


Week,  while  the  more  austere  actually  subsisted  dur> 
ing  part  or  the  whole  of  Lent  upon  one  or  two  meals  8 
week  (see  RampoUa,  "Vita  di  S.  Melania  Giuniore", 
appendix  xxv,  p.  478).  But  the  ordinary  rule  on  fast>- 
ing  days  was  to  take  but  one  meal  a  day  and  that  only 
in  the  evening,  while  meat  and,  in  the  early  centuries, 
wine  were  entirely  forbidden.  During  Holy  Week,  or 
at  least  on  Good  Friday,  it  was  common  to  enjoin  the 
xerophaaiay  i.  e.  a  diet  of  dry  food,  bread,  salt,  and 
vegetables.  There  does  not  seem  at  the  beginning  to 
have  been  any  prohibition  of  laciiciniaf  as  the  passage 
just  quoted  from  Socrates  would  show.  Moreover,  at 
a  somewhat  later  date,  Bede  tells  us  of  Bishop  Cedda, 
that  during  Lent  he  took  only  one  meal  a  day  con- 
sisting of  "  a  little  bread,  a  hen's  egg,  and  a  little  milk 
mixed  with  water"  (Hist.  EccL,  III,  xxiii),  while 
Theodulphus  of  Orl^ns  in  the  eighth  century  re- 
garded abstinence  from  eggs,  cheese,  and  fish  as  a 
mark  of  exceptional  virtue.  None  the  less  St.  Gregory 
writing  to  St.  Augustine  of  England  laid  down  the 
rule,  "We  abstain  from  flesh  meat,  and  from  all 
things  that  come  from  flesh,  as  milk,  cheese,  and  eggs." 
This  decision  was  afterwards  enshrined  in  the  "  Corpus 
Juris",  and  must  be  regarded  as  the  conunon  law  of 
the  Church.  Still  exceptions  were  admitted,  and  dis- 
pensations to  eat "  lacticinia"  were  often  granted  upon 
condition  of  making  a  contribution  to  some  pious 
work.  These  dispensations  were  known  in  Germany 
as  Butlerhrie/e,  and  several  churches  are  said  to  have 
been  partly  built  by  the  proceeds  of  such  exemptions. 
One  of  the  steeples  of  Rouen  cathedral  was  for  this 
reason  formerly  known  as  the  Butter  Tower.  This 
general  prohibition  of  eggs  and  milk  during  Lent  is 
perpetuated  in  the  popular  custom  of  blessing  or 
making  gifts  of  eggs  at  Easter,  and  in  the  English 
usage  of  eating  panc-akes  on  Shrove  Tuesday. 

Relaxations  of  tfie  Lenten  Fast. — From  what  has 
been  said  it  will  be  clear  that  in  the  early  Middle  Ages 
Lent  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Western 
Church  consisted  of  forty  weekdays,  which  were  all 
fast  days,  and  six  Sundavs.  From  the  beginning  to 
the  end  of  that  time  all  Aesh  meat,  and  also,  for  the 
most  part,  "lacticinia",  were  forbidden  even  on  Sun- 
days, while  on  all  the  fasting  days  only  one  meal  was 
taken,  which  single  meal  was  not  permitted  before 
evening.  At  a  ver3r  early  period,  however  (we  find  the 
first  mention  of  it  in  Socrates),  the  practice  began  to 
be  tolerated  of  breaking  the  fast  at  the  hour  of  none, 
i.  e.,  three  o'clock.  We  learn  in  particular  that 
Charlemagne,  about  the  year  800,  took  his  lenten  re- 
past at  2  p.  m.  This  gradual  anticipation  of  the  hour 
of  dinner  was  facilitated  by  the  fact  that  the  canon- 
ical hours  of  none,  vespers,  etc.,  represented  rather 
periods  than  fixed  points  of  time.  The  ninth  hour,  or 
none,  was  no  doubt  strictly  three  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon, but  the  Office  of  none  might  be  recited  as  soon 
as  sext,  which,  of  course,  corresponded  to  the  sixth 
hour,  or  midday,  was  finished.  Hence  none  in  course 
of  time  came  to  be  regarded  as  beginninj^  at  midday, 
and  this  point  of  view  is  perpetuated  m  our  word 
noony  which  means  midday  and  not  three  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon.  Now  the  hour  for  breaking  the  fast 
during  Lent  was  after  Vespers  (the  evening  service), 
but  by  a  gradual  process  the  recitation  of  Vespers  was 
more  and  more  anticipated,  until  the  principle  was  at 
last  officially  recognized,  as  it  is  at  present,  that  Ves- 
pers in  Lent  may  be  said  at  midday.  In  this  way,  al- 
though the  author  of  the  "  Micrologus"  in  the  eleventh 
century  still  declared  that  those  who  took  food  before 
evening  did  not  observe  the  lenten  fast  according  to 
the  canons  (P.  L.,  CLI,  1013),  still,  even  at  the  close 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  certain  theologians,  for 
example  the  Franciscan  Richard  Middleton,  who 
based  his  decision  in  part  upon  contemporary  usaf;e, 
pronounced  that  a  man  who  took  his  dinner  at  mid- 
day did  not  break  the  lenten  fast.  Still  more  material 
was  the  relaxation  afforded  by  the  introduction  of 


LENTULUS 


154 


LEO 


"collation''.  This  seems  to  have  begun  in  the  ninth 
century,  when  the  Council  of  Aix  ut  Chapelle  sanc- 
tioned the  concession,  even  in  monastic  houses,  of  a 
draught  of  water  or  other  beverage  in  the  evening  to 
quench  the  thirst  of  those  who  were  exhausted  by  the 
manual  labour  of  the  day.  From  this  small  beginning 
a  much  larger  indulgence  was  gradually  evolved.  The 
principle  o?  parvitaa  vmteriaiy  i.  e.,  that  a  small  quan- 
tity 01  nourishment  which  was  not  taken  directly  as  a 
meal  did  not  break  the  fast,  was  adopted  by  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas  and  other  theologians,  and  in  the 
course  of  centuries  a  recognized  Quantity  of  solid  food, 
which  according  to  received  authorities  must  not  ex- 
ceed eight  ounces,  has  come  to  be  permitted  after  the 
midday  repast.  As  tliis  evening  drink,  when  first 
tolerated  in  the  ninth-century  monasteries,  was  taken 
at  the  hour  at  which  the  "Collationes"  (Conferences) 
of  Abbot  Cassian  were  being  read  aloud  to  the  breth- 
ren, this  slight  indulgence  came  to  be  known  as  a 
"collation",  and  the  name  has  continued  since. 
Other  mitigations  of  an  even  more  8ul)stantial  char- 
acter have  been  introduced  into  lenten  observance  in 
the  course  of  the  last  few  centuries.  To  begin  with, 
the  custom  has  been  tolerated  of  taking  a  cup  of  liquid 
(e.  g.,  tea  or  coffee,  or  even  chocolate)  with  a  fragment 
of  bread  or  toast  in  the  early  morning.  But,  what 
more  particularly  regards  I^nt,  successive  indults 
have  been  granted  by  the  Iloly  See  allowing  meat  at 
the  principal  meal,  first  on  Sundays,  and  then  on  two, 
three,  four,  and  five  weekdays,  throughout  nearly  the 
whole  of  Lent.  Quite  recently  Maundy  Thursday, 
upon  which  meat  was  hitherto  always  forbidden,  has 
come  to  share  in  the  same  indulgence.  In  the  United 
States  the  Holy  See  grants  faculties  whereby  work- 
ing men  and  tlieir  families  may  use  fiesh  meat  once 
a  day  throughout  the  year,  except  Fridays,  Ash 
Wednesday,  Holy  Saturday,  and  the  vigil  of  Christ- 
mas. The  only  comi>ensation  impased  for  all  these 
mitigations  is  the  prohibition  during  Lent  against 
partaking  of  both  fish  and  flesh  at  the  same  repast. 
[See  Abstinence;  Fast;  Impediments,  Canonical 
(III);  LiETARE  Sunday;  Septuagesima;  Sexages- 
ima;  Quinquagesima;  Quadragesima;  Vestments.] 

Vacanoard  in  Vacant,  Did.  de  Thiol.  Cath.^  s.  v.  Cartnu, 
An  admirable  summary  of  the  question  may  also  be  found  in 
Ermoni,  Lc  Car&me  in  Science  et  Religion  series  (Paris,  1907). 
See  also  Thurston,  Lent  and  Holy  Week  (London,  1904);  Funk 
lu  /KtrcfienaeAch.  AhhandL,  I  (Paderborn.  189'/),  241-78;  Ltvekn- 
u.vYii,  Eniwickltmo  des  kircfdichen  Fastendlaciplina  (Munich, 
1S77);  LiEMKE,  Die  Quadragesimalfasten  der  Kirche  (Munich, 
1853);  Sinker  in  Diet.  Christ.  Antiq.,  s.  v.  Ixvit;  Hedser  in 
KiriJumlex.t  s.  v.  Fastemeiten;  Maci^an,  Recent  Discoveriet 
UluatnUing  early  Christian  Life  and  Worship  (London,  1904). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Lentulus,  Publius,  is  a  fictitious  person,  said  to 
have  been  Governor  of  Juclea  before  tontius  Pilate, 
and  to  have  written  the  following  letter  to  the  Roman 
Senate:  "  Lentulus,  the  Governor  of  the  Jemsalemites 
to  the  Roman  Senate  and  People,  greetings.  There 
has  appeared  in  our  times,  and  there  still  lives,  a  man  of 
great  power  (virtue),  called  Jesus  Christ.  Tne  people 
call  him  prophet  of  truth;  his  disciples,  son  of  God. 
He  raises  the  dead,  and  heals  infirmities.  He  is  a  man 
of  medium  size  (statura  procerus ^  mediocris  et  specta^ 
bilu) ;  he  has  a  venerable  aspect,  and  his  beholders  can 
both  fear  and  love  him.  His  hair  is  of  the  colour  of 
the  ripe  hazel-nut,  straight  down  to  the  ears,  but  be- 
low the  ears  wa\y  and  curled,  with  a  bluish  and  bright 
reflection,  flowing  over  his  shoulders.  It  is  parted  in 
two  on  the  top  of  the  head,  after  the  pattern  of  the 
Nazarenes.  His  brow  is  smooth  and  very  cheerful, 
with  a  face  without  wrinkle  or  spot,  embellished  by  a 
slightly  reddish  complexion.  His  nose  and  mouth  are 
faultless.  His  beard  is  abundant,  of  the  colour  of  his 
hair,  not  long,  but  divided  at  the  chin.  His  aspect  is 
simple  and  mature,  his  eyes  are  changeable  and  bright. 
He  IS  terrible  in  his  reprimands,  sweet  and  amiable  in 
his  admonitions,  cheerful  without  loss  of  gravity.  He 
was  never  known  to  laugh,  but  often  to  weep.    His 


stature  is  straight,  his  hands  and  arms  beautiful  to  be- 
hold. His  conversation  is  grave,  infreauent,  and 
modest.  He  is  the  most  beautiful  among  tne  children 
of  men." 

Different  manuscripts  vary  from  the  foregoing  text 
in  several  details:  Dobschiitz  ("Christusbilder",  Leip- 
zig, 1899)  enumerates  the  manuscripts  and  gives  an 
"  apparatus  criticus  ".  The  letter  was  first  printed  in 
the  "Life  of  Christ"  by  Ludolph  the  Carthusian 
(Cologne,  1474),  and  in  the  "Introduction  to  the 
works  of  St.  Anselm"  (Nuremberg,  1491).  But  it  is 
neither  the  work  of  St.  Anselm  nor  of  Ludolph.  Ac- 
cording to  the  manuscript  of  Jena,  a  certain  Giacomo 
Colonna  found  the  letter  in  1421  in  an  ancient  Roman 
document  sent  t^Rome  from  Constantinople.  It 
must  be  of  Greek  origin,  and  translated  into  Latin  dur- 
ing the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century,  though  it  re- 
ceived its  present  form  at  the  hands  of  a  humanist  of 
the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century.  The  description 
agrees  with  the  so-called  Abgar  picture  of  our  Lord ;  it 
also  agrees  with  the  portrait  of  Jesus  Christ  drawn  by 
Nicephorus,  St.  John  Damascene,  and  the  Book  of 
Painters  (of  Mt.  Athos).  Muntcr  ("Die  Sinnbilder 
und  Kunstvorst^llungen  der  alten(^hrist«n",  Altona, 
1825,  p.  9)  l>elieves  he  can  trace  the  letter  down  to  the 
time  of  Diocletian;  but  this  is  not  generally  admitted. 
The  letter  of  Lentulus  is  certainly  apocryphal:  there 
never  was  a  Governor  of  Jerusalem;  no  Procurator  of 
Judea  is  known  to  have  been  called  Lentulus;  a  Ro- 
man governor  would  not  have  addressed  the  senate, 
but  the  emperor;  a  Roman  writer  would  not  have  em- 
ployed the  expressions,  "prophet  of  truth",  "sons  of 
men  ",  "Jesus  Christ".  The  former  two  are  Hebrew 
idioms,  the  third  is  taken  from  the  New  Testament. 
The  letter,  therefore,  shows  us  a  description  ol  our 
Lord  such  as  Christian  piety  conceived  him. 

Von  DobschOtz,  Chrinttufbilder  in  Texle  und  Untersitchungent 
XVIII  (Leipcif,  1899),  supplement,  308-29;  Kbaus,  Real- 
EncyklopQdxe  aer  chrisUichen  AUerthumer,  s.  v.;  Harnack  in 
Hebzoq,  ReaUncyklop&die,yiIl  (1881),  548;  Via.,  Did.dela 
Bible. 

A.  J.  Maas. 

Leo  I  (the  Great),  SAifrr,  Pope  (440-61),  place 
and  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  10  November,  461. 
Leo*s  pontificate,  next  to  that  of  St.  Gregory  I,  is  the 
most  si^ficant  and  important  in  Christian  anti<juity. 
At  a  time  when  the  Church  was  experiencing  the 
greatest  obstacles  to  her  progress  in  consequence  of  the 
hastening  disintegration  of  the  Western  Empire,  while 
the  Orient  was  profoimdly  agitated  over  dogmatic 
controversies,  this  great  pope,  with  far-seeing  sagacity 
and  powerful  hand,  euiaed  the  destiny  of  the  Roman 
and  Universal  Chureh.  According  to  the  *'  Liber  Pon- 
tificalis"  (ed.  Mommsen,  I,  101  sqq.,  ed.  Duchesne,  I, 
238  sqq.),  Leo  was  a  native  of  Tuscany  and  his  fath- 
er's name  was  Quintianus.  Our  earliest  certain  his- 
torical information  about  Leo  reveals  liim  a  deacon  of 
the  Roman  Chureh  under  Pope  Olestine  I  (422-32). 
Even  during  this  period  he  was  known  outside  of 
Rome,  and  had  some  relations  with  Gaul,  since  Cas- 
sianus  in  430  or  431  wrote  at  Leo's  suggestion  his 
work  "De  Incamatione  Domini  contra  Nestorium" 
fMi^e,  P.  L.,  L,  9  sqq.),  prefacing  it  with  a  letter  of 
dedication  to  Leo.  Aoout  this  time  C^ril  of  Alexandria 
appealed  to  Rome  against  the  pretensions  of  Bishop 
Juvenal  of  Jerusalem.  From  an  assertion  of  Leo's  in  a 
letter  of  later  date  (ep.  cxvi,  ed.  Ballerini,  1, 1212;  II, 
1528),  it  is  not  very  clear  whether  Cyril  wrote  to  him 
in  the  capacity  of  Roman  deacon,  or  to  Pope  Celes- 
tine.  During  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  III  (432-40), 
Leo  was  sent  to  Gaul  by  Emperor  Valentinian  III  to 
settle  a  dispute  and  bring  alx)ut  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween Aetius.  the  chief  military  commander  of  the 
province,  ana  the  chief  magistrate,  Albinus.  This 
commission  is  a  proof  of  the  great  confidence  placed  in 
the  clever  and  able  deacon  by  the  Imperial  0>urt. 
Sixtus  III  died  on  19  August;  440,  while  I^eo  was  in 


ISS 


uo 


Gauly  and  the  ktter  was  chosen  his  successor.  Ee- 
tuming  to  Rome,  Leo  was  consecrated  on  29  Septem- 
ber ofwe  same  year,  and  governed  the  Roman  Church 
for  the  next  twenty-one  years. 

Leo's  chief  aim  was  to  sustain  the  unity  of  the 
Church.  Not  long  after  his  elevation  to  the  Chair  of 
Peter,  he  saw  himself  compelled  to  combat  energet- 
ically the  heresies  which  seriously  threatened  church 
unity  even  in  the  West.  Leo  had  ascertained  through 
Bishop  Septimus  of  Altiniun,  that  in  Aquileia  prieste, 
deacons,  and  clerics,  who  had  been  adherents  of  Pe- 
la^us,  were  admitted  to  communion  without  an  ex- 
phcit  abjuration  of  their  heresy.  The  pope  sharply 
censured  this  procediu^,  and  du'ected  that  a  provin- 
cial synod  should  be  assembled  in  Aquileia,  at  which 
such  persons  were  to  be  required  to  abjiu«  Pelagian- 
ism  pubUcly  and  to  subscribe  to  an  imequivocal 
confession  of  Faith  (epp.  i  and  ii).  This  zealous  pas- 
tor waged  war  even  more  strenuously  against  Mani- 
ch^eism,  inasmuch  as  its  adherents,  who  had  been 
(hiven  from  Africa  by  the  Vandals,  had  settled  in 
Rome,  and  had  succeeded  in  establishing  a  secret 
Manichssan  conununitv  there.  The  pope  ordered  the 
faithful  to  point  out  these  heretics  to  the  priests,  and 
in  443,  together  vriih  the  senators  and  presbyters,  con- 
ducted in  person  an  investigation,  in  the  course  of 
which  the  leaders  of  the  commimity  were  examined. 
In  several  sermons  he  emphatically  warned  the  Chris- 
tians of  Rome  to  be  on  their  guard  against  this  repre- 
hensible heresy,  and  repeatedly  charged  them  to  give 
information  about  its  followers,  their  dwellings,  ac- 
quaintances, and  rendezvous  (Sermo  ix,  4,  xvi,  4; 
zxiv,  4;  xxxiv,  4  sq.;  xlii,  4  sq.;  Ixxvi,  6).  A  number 
of  Mismichseans  were  converted  and  admitted  to  con- 
fession; others,  who  remained  obdurate,  were  in  obe- 
dience to  imperial  decrees  banished  from  Rome  by  the 
civil  magistrates.  On  30  January,  444,  the  pope  sent 
a  letter  to  all  the  bishops  of  Italy,  to  which  he  appended 
the  documents  containing  his  proceedings  against  the 
Bianichsans  in  Rome,  and  warned  them  to  be  on  their 
guard  and  to  take  action  against  the  followers  of  the 
sect  (ep.  vii).  On  19  June,  445,  Emperor  Valentinian 
III  issued,  doubtless  at  the  pope's  instigation,  a  stem 
edict  in  which  he  established  severe  pimishments  for 
the  Manichseans  ("Epist.  Leonis",  ed.  Ballerini,  I, 
626;  ep.  viii  inter  Leon.  ep.).  Prosper  of  Aquitaine 
states  m  his  "Chronicle''  (ad  an.  447;  *'Mon.  Germ, 
hist.  Auct.  antiauissimi",  IX,  1, 341  sqq.)  that,  in  con- 
sequence of  Leo  s  energetic  measiu^s,  the  Manichseans 
were  also  driven  out  of  the  provinces,  and  even  Orien- 
tal bishops  emulated  the  pope's  example  in  regard  to 
this  sect.  In  Spain  the  heresy  of  Pnscillianism  still 
survived,  and  for  some  time  had  been  attracting  fr^sh 
adherents.  Bishop  Turibius  of  Astorga  became  cogni- 
zant of  this,  and  oy  extensive  journeys  collected  mi- 
nute information  about  the  condition  of  the  churches 
and  the  spread  of  Priscillianism.  He  compiled  the  er- 
rors of  the  heresfy,  wrote  a  refutation  of  the  same,  and 
sent  these  documents  to  several  African  bishops.  He 
also  sent  a  copy  to  the  pope,  whereupon  the  latter  sent 
a  lengthy  letter  to  Turibius  (ep.  xv)  in  refutation  of 
the  errors  of  the  Priscilliamste.  Leo  at  the  same  time 
ord^^  that  a  council  of  bishops  belonging  to  the 
neighbouring  provinces  should  be  convened  to  insti- 
tute a  rigid  enquiry,  with  the  object  of  determining 
whether  any  of  the  bishops  had  become  tainted  with 
the  poison  of  this  heresy.  Should  any  such  be  dis- 
covered, they  were  to  be  excommunicated  without 
hesitation.  The  pope  also  addressed  a  similar  letter  to 
the  bishops  of  the  Spanish  provinces,  notifying  them 
that  a  umversal  synoa  of  aU  the  chief  pastors  was  to  be 
summoned;  if  this  should  be  found  to  be  impossible, 
the  bishops  of  Galicia  at  least  should  be  assembled. 
These  two  synods  were  in  fact  held  in  Spain  to  deal 
witii  the  pomts  at  issue  (Hefele,  "  Konziliengesch." 
n,  2nd  ed.,  pp.  306  sqq.). 
The  creator  disorg^zed  ecclesiastical  condition 


of  certain  countries,  resulting  from  national  migra* 
tions,  demanded  closer  bonds  between  their  episcopate 
and  Rome  for  the  better  promotion  of  ecclesiastical 
life.  Leo,  with  this  object  in  view,  determined  to 
make  use  of  the  papal  vicariate  of  the  bishops  of  Aries 
for  the  province  of  Gaul  for  the  creation  of  a  centre 
for  the  Gallican  episcopate  in  immediate  union  with 
Rome.  Li  the  begmning  his  efforts  were  greatly  hiuoa- 
pered  by  his  conmct  with  St.  Hilary,  then  Bishop  of 
Aries  (see  Hilaky  op  Arles,  Saint).  Even  earlier, 
conflicts  had  arisen  relative  to  the  vicariate  of  the 
bishops  of  Aries  and  ite  privileges.  Hilary  made  ex- 
cessive use  of  his  authority  over  other  ecclesiastical 
provinces,  and  claimed  that  all  bishops  should  be  con- 
secrated by  him,  instead  of  by  their  own  metropolitan. 
When,  for  example,  the  complaint  was  raised  that 
Bishop  Olidonius  of  Besangon  had  been  consecrated 
in  violation  of  the  canons — the  grounds  alleged  being 
that  he  had,  as  a  layman,  mamed  a  widow,  and,  as 
a  public  officer,  had  given  his  consent  to  a  death 
sentence — Hilary  deposed  him,  and  consecrated  Im- 
portimus  as  his  successor.  Gehdonius  thereupon  ap- 
pealed to  the  pope  and  set  out  in  person  for  Rome. 
About  the  same  time  Hilary,  as  if  the  see  concerned 
had  been  vacant,  consecrated  another  bishop  to  take 
the  place  of  a  certain  Bishop  Proiectus,  who  was  fll. 
Projectus  recovered,  however,  and  he  too  laid  a  com- 
plaint at  Rome  about  the  action  of  the  Bishop  of 
Aries.  Hilary  then  went  himself  to  Rome  to  justify 
his  proceedings.  The  pope  assembled  a  Roman  synod 
(about  445)  and,  when  the  complaints  brought  against 
Celidonius  could  not  be  verified,  reinstated  the  latter 
in  his  see.  Projectus  also  received  his  bishopric  again. 
Hilary  returned  to  Aries  before  the  synod  was  over; 
the  pope  deprived  him  of  jurisdiction  over  the  other 
Gallic  provinces  and  of  metropoUtan  righte  over  the 

Erovince  of  Vienne,  only  allowing  him  to  retain  his 
►iocese  of  Aries. 

These  decisions  were  disclosed  by  Leo  in  a  letter  to 
the  bishops  of  the  Province  of  Vienne  (ep.  x).  At  the 
same  time  he  sent  them  an  edict  of  Valentinian  III  of 
8  July,  445,  in  which  the  pope's  measures  in  regard  to 
St.  Hilary  were  supported,  and  the  primacy  of  the 
Bishop  of  Rome  over  the  whole  Church  solemnly 
recognized  ("Epist.  Leonis,"  ed.  Ballerini,  I,  642). 
On  his  return  to  his  bishopric  Hilary  sought  a  recon- 
ciliation with  the  pope.  After  this  there  arose  no 
further  difficulties  t«tween  these  two  saintly  men  and, 
after  his  death  in  449,  Hilary  was  declarecl  by  Leo  as 
"beatffi  memoriffi".  To  Bishop  Ravennius,  St.  Hil- 
ary's successor  in  the  see  of  Aries,  and  the  bi^ops  of 
that  province,  Leo  addressed  most  cordial  letters  in 
449  on  the  election  of  the  new  metropolitan  (epp.  xl, 
xli) .  When  Ravennius  consecrated  a  little  later  a  new 
bishop  to  take  the  place  of  the  deceased  Bishop  of 
Vaison,  the  Archbishop  of  Vienne,  who  was  then  in 
Rome,  took  exception  to  this  action.  The  bishops  of 
the  province  of  Aries  then  wrote  a  joint  letter  to  the 
pope,  in  which  they  begged  him  to  restore  to  Raven- 
nius tiie  rights  of  which  his  predecessor  Hilary  had 
been  deprived  (ep.  Ixv  inter  ep.  Leonis).  In  his  reply 
dated  5  A^y,  450  ^ep.  Ixvi),  Leo  acceded  to  their  re- 
auest.  The  Archbishop  of  Vienne  was  to  retain  only 
tne  suffragan  Bishoprics  of  Valence,  Tarentaise, 
(jeneva,  and  Grenoble;  all  the  other  sees  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Vienne  were  made  subject  to  the  Archbishop 
of  Aries,  who  also  became  again  the  mediator  be- 
tween the  Holy  See  and  the  whole  Gallic  episco« 
pate.  Leo  transmitted  to  Ravennius  (ep.  Ixvii),  for 
commimication  to  the  other  Gallican  bishops,  his 
celebrated  letter  to  Flavian  of  Constantinople  on  the 
Incarnation.  Ravennius  thereupon  convened  a  S3mod, 
at  which  forty-four  chief  pastors  assembled.  In  their 
synodal  letter  of  451,  they  affirm  that  they  accept  the 
pope's  letter  as  a  symbol  of  faith  (ep.  xcix  inter  ep. 
Leonis).  In  his  answer  Leo  speaks  further  of  the  con- 
denmation  of  Nestorius  (ep.  cii).    The  Vicariate  of 


LEO  156  LBO 

Aries  for  a  long  time  retained  the  position  Leo  had  ac-  ing  them  to  convene  a  general  council  in  order  to  re- 
corded it.  Another  papal  vicariate  was  that  of  the  store  peace  to  the  Church.  To  the  same  end  he  used 
bishops  of  Thessalonica,  whose  jurisdiction  extended  his  influence  with  the  Western  emperor,  Valentinian 
over  lllyria.  The  special  dutv  of  this  vicariate  was  to  JII^  and  his  mother  Galla  Placidia,  especially  during 
protect  the  rights  of  the  Hoiv  See  over  the  district  theu*  visit  to  Rome  in  450.  This  ^neral  council  was 
of  EajBtem  ulyn&f  which  belonged  to  the  Eastern  held  in  Chalcedon  in  451  under  Marcian,  the  successor 
Empire.  Leo  bestowed  the  vicariate  upon  Bishop  of  Theodosius.  It  solemidy  accepted  Leo's  dogmati- 
Anastasius  of  Thessalonica,  just  as  Pope  oiricius  had  cal  epistle  to  Flavian  as  an  expression  of  the  Catholic 
formerly  entrusted  it  to  Bishop  Anysius.  The  vicar  Faith  concerning  the  Person  of  Christ.  The  pope  con- 
was  to  consecrate  the  metropolitans,  to  assemble  in  a  firmed  the  decrees  of  the  Council  aiter  eliminatmg  the 
synod  all  bishops  of  the  Province  of  Eastern  lllyria,  canon,  which  elevated  the  Patriarchate  of  Constant  i- 
to  oversee  iheir  administration  of  their  office;  but  the  nople,  while  diminishing  the  rights  of  the  ancient 
most  important  matters  were  to  be  submitted  to  Onental  patriarchs.  On  21  March,  453,  Leo  issued  a 
Rome  (epp.  v,  vi,  xiii).  But  Anastasius  of  Thessa-  circular  letter  confirming  his  dogmatic  definition  (ep. 
lonica  used  his  authority  in  an  arbitrary  and  despotic  cxiv).  Through  the  mediation  of  Bishop  Julian  of 
manner,  so  much  so  that  he  was  severely  reproved  by  Cos,  who  was  at  that  time  the  papal  ambassador  in 
Leo,  who  sent  him  fuller  directions  for  the  exercise  of  Constantinople,  the  pope  tried  to  protect  further  eccle- 
his  office  (ep.  xiv).  siastical  interests  in  tne  Orient.  He  persuaded  the 
In  Leo's  conception  of  his  duties  as  supreme  pastor,  new  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  Leo  I,  to  remove  the 
the  maintenance  of  strict  ecclesiastical  disciphne  oc-  heretical  and  irregular  patriarch.  Timotheus  Ailunis, 
cupied  a  prominent  place.    This  was  particularly  im-  from  the  See  of  Alexandria.      A  new  and  orthodox 

Cortant  at  a  time  wnen  the  continual  ravages  of  the  patriarch,  Timotheus  Salophaciolus,  was  chosen  to  fill, 

arbarians  were  introducing  disorder  into  all  condi-  his  place,  and  received  the  congratulations  of  the  pope 

tions  of  life,  and  the  rules  of  morality  were  being  in  tne  last  letter  which  Leo  ever  sent  to  the  Orient, 
seriously  violated.     Leo  used  his  utmost  energy  in        In  his  far-reaching  pastoral  care  of  the  Universal 

maintaining  this  discipline,   insisted  on   the  exact  Church,  in  the  West  and  in  the  East,  the  pope  never 

observance  of  the  ecclesiastical  precepts,  and  did  not  neglected  the  domestic  interests  of  the  Church  at 

hesitate  to  rebuke  when  necessary.    Letters  (ep.  xvii)  Rome.    When  Northern  Italy  had  been  devastated  by 

relative  to  these  and  other  matters  were  sent  to  the  Attila  Leo  by  a  personal  encounter  with  the  King  of 

different  bishops  of  the  Western  Empire: — e.  g.,  to  the  Huns  prevented  him  from  marching  upon  Rome, 

the  bishops  of  the  Italian  provinces  (epp.  iv,  xix,  At  the  emperor's  wish,  Leo,  accompanied  by  the  Con- 

dxvi,  clxviii),  and  to  those  of  Sicily,  who  had  toler-  sul  Avienus  and  the  Prefect  Trigetius,  went  in  452  to 

ated  deviations  from  the  Roman  Liturgv  in  the  ad-  Upper  Italy,  and  met  Attila  at  Alincio  in  the  vicinity 

ministration  of  Baptism  (ep.  xvi),  and  concerning  of  Mantua,  obtaining  from  him  the  promise  that  he 

other  matters  (ep.  xvii).    A  very  important  disciplin-  would  withrdaw  from  Italy  and  negotiate  peace  with 

ary  decree  was  sent  to  Bishop  Rusticus  of  Narbonne  the  emperor.    The  pope  also  succeeded  in  obtaining 

S).  clxvii).    Owing  to  the  dominion  of  the  Vandals  in  another  great  favour  for  the  inhabitants  of  Rome, 

tin  North  Africa,  the  position  of  the  Church  there  When  in  455  the  city  was  captured  by  the  Vandals 

had  become  extremely  gloomy.    I^o  sent  the  Roman  under  Genueric,  although  for  a  fortnight  the  town  had 

priest  Potentius  thither  to  inform  himself  about  the  been  plundered,  Leo's  intercession  obtained  a  promise 

exact  condition,  and  to  forwiuxl  a  report  to  Rome,  that  the  city  should  not  be  injured  and  that  tne  Uves 

On  receiving  this  Leo  sent  a  letter  of  detailed  instruo-  (k  the  inhabitants  should  be  spared.    These  incidents 

tions  to  the  episcopate  of  the  province  about  the  ad-  show  the  high  moral  authority  enjoyed  by  the  pope, 

justment  of  numerous  ecclesiastical  and  disciplinary  manifested  even  in  temporal  affairs.    Leo  was  always 

questions  (ep.xii).    IjCo  also  sent  a  letter  to  Dioscurus  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  Western  In^perial 

of  Alexandria  on  21  July,  445,  urging  him  to  the  strict  Court.   In  450  Emperor  Valentinian  III  visited  Rome, 

observance  of  the  canons  and  discipline  of  the  Roman  accompanied  by  his  wife  Eudoxia  and  his  mother 

Church  (ep.  ix).    The  primacy  of  the  Roman  Church  Galla  Placidia.    On  the  feast  of  Cathedra  Petri  (22 

was  thus  manifested  under  this  pope  in  the  most  var-  February),  the  Imperial  family  with  their  briUiant 

ious  and  distinct  wajrs.    But  it  was  especially  in  his  retinue  took  part  in  the  solemn  services  at  St.  Peter's, 

interposition  m  the  confusion  of  the  Christological  upon  which  occasion  the  pope  delivered  an  impressive 

Suarrels,  which  then  so  profoundly  agitated  E^sistem  sermon.   Leo  was  also  active  in  building  and  restoring 

hristendom,  that  liCo  most  brilliantly  revealed  him-  churches.    He  built  a  basilica  over  the  grave  of  Pope 

self  the  wise,  learned,  and  energetic  shepherd  of  the  Cornelius  in  the  Via  Appia.    The  roof  of  St.  Paul's 

Church  (see  Monophtsitism).     From  his  first  letter  without  the  Walls  having  been  destroyed  by  hght- 

on  this  subject,  written  to  Eutyches  on  1  June,  448  ning,hehadit  replaced,  and  undertook  other  improve- 

(ep.  xx),  to  ills  last  letter  written  to  the  new  orthodox  ments  in  the  basilica.    He  persuaded  Empress  Galla 

Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  Timotheus  Salophaciolus,  on  Placidia,  as  seen  from  the  inscription,  to  have  executed 

18  August,  460  (ep.  clxxi),  we  cannot  but  admire  the  the  great  mosaic  of  the  Arch  of  Triumph,  which  has 

dear,  positive,  and  systematic  manner  in  which  Leo,  survived  to  our  day.    Leo  also  restored  St.  Peter's  on 

fortined  by  the  primacy  of  the  Holy  See,  took  part  in  the  Vatican.    During  his  pontificate  a  pious  Roman 

this  difficult  entanglement.   For  particulars  refer  to  lady^  named  Demetria,  erected  on  her  property  on 

the  articles:  Eutyches;  Flavian,  Saint;  Ephesus,  the  Via  Appia  a  basilica  in  honour  of  St.  Stephen,  the 

Robber  Council  of.  ruins  of  which  have  l)een  excavated. 

Eutyches  appealed  to  the  pope  after  he  had  been        Leo  was  no  less  active  in  the  spiritual  elevation  of 

excommunicated  by  Flavian^  Patriarch  of  Constanti-  the  Roman  congregations,  and  his  sermons,  of  which 

nople,  on  account  of  his  Monophysite  views.    The  ninety-six  genuine  examples  have  l)een  preserved,  are 

Eope,  after  investigating  the  dirouted  question,  sent  remarkable  for  their  profundity,  clearness  of  diction, 

is  sublime  dogmatic  letter  to  Flavian  (ep.  xxviii),  and  elevated  stvle.   The  first  five  of  these,  which  were 

concisely  setting  forth  and  confirming  the  doctrine  of  delivered  on  the  anniversaries  of  his  consecration, 

the  IncamatioUj  and  the  union  of  the  Divine  and  manifest  his  lofty  conception  of  the  dignity  of  his 

human  natures  m  the  one  Person  of  Christ.    In  449  office,  as  well  as  his  thorough  conviction  of  the  pri- 

the  council,  which  was  designated  by  Leo  as  the  "Rob-  macy  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  shown  forth  in  so  out- 

ber  Synod ''.  was  held.    Flavian  and  otherpowerful  spoken  and  decisive  a  manner  by  his  whole  activity  as 

prelates  of  tne  East  appealed  to  the  pope.   Tne  latter  supreme  pastor.    Of  his  letters,  which  are  of  great  im- 

•ent  urgent  letters  to  Constantinople,  particularly  to  portance  for  church  history,  143  have  come  down  to 

Elmperor  Theodosius  II  and  Empress  Puloheriai.  urs^  us:  we  also  possess  thirty  which  were  sent  to  him.  The 


UEO 


167 


LIO 


•o-called  "Sactamentarium  Leonianum"  is  a  collec- 
tion of  orationa  and  prefaces  of  the  Mass,  prepared  in 
the  second  half  of  the  sixth  century.  Leo  died  on  10 
November,  461.  and  was  buried  in  the  vestibule  of 
St.  Peter's  on  the  Vatican.  In  688  Pope  Sergius  had 
his  remains  transferred  to  the  basilica  itself,  and  a 
special  altar  erected  over  them.  They  rest  to-day  in 
St.  Peter's,  beneath  the  altar  specially  dedicated  to  St. 
Leo.  In  1754  Benedict  XIV  exalted  him  to  the  dig- 
nity of  Doctor  of  the  Church  (doctor  ecdesice).  In 
the  Latin  Church  the  feast  day  of  the  great  pope  is 
held  on  11  April,  and  in  the  Eastern  Church  on  18 
Februaiy. 

LmnU  Opera  omnia,  ed.  Abdicinxo  dblla  Porta  (Rome, 
1470);  ed.  Qub8NBL  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1675);  edd.  Petrds  and 
HnBONTMUS  Ballerini  (3  vols.,  VeDice,  1753-7);  ed.  in  P.  L., 
LIV-VI;  Amslu,  iS.  Leone  Magna  e  VOrienU  (Rome,  1882; 
MontacMMno.  1890);  Momusen  in  Neuee  Archiv,  XI  (1886), 
361-8;  JAfTB,  RegeMa  Rom.  Pont.,  2nd  ed..  I,  58  sqq.;  von 
NosnTS-RxENECK,  Die  Briefe  Papat  Leoe  J.  im  Codex  Afonacen. 
14640  in  HieUnieckee  Jahrbuch  (1897).  117-33;  Idem,  Die 
pdpmieken  Urkunden  fiir  Theeealonike  und  deren  Kritik  dutch 
Prof,  Friedrich  in  Zeiischr.  fiir  kath.  Theologie  (1897),  1-50. 
Trioslation  of  letters  and  sermons  given  in  Feltoe,  A  eelect 
lAbfory  of  Nieene  and  Poat-Nicene  Pcikere,  XII  (2nd  series.  New 
York,  1806);  Sacramentaritun  Leonianum,  ed.  Feltoe  (Cam- 
bridpO;  1897).  (^noeming  the  Saeramentarium,  cf.  Duchesne, 
ChruUan  Worehip;  ita  origin  and  evoltUion  (London,  1903), 
135  SOQ.:  and  Probst,  Die  nlUdKn  ritmiachen  Sakramentarien 
und  OrOinea  erkUiH  (Monster,  1892). — Liber  Pontificalia,  ed. 
Ddchbanb,  I,  238  sqq.;  Tillemont,  Mhnoirea  pour  aervir  ii 
I'hiatoire  eedra.,'KV,  414  sqq.;  Arendt,  Leo  derOroaae  u.  aeine 
Ztit  (Hiuns.  1835);  Perthbl,  Papat  Leoa  L  Leben  u.  Lehren 
(Jena.  1843);  db  Saint-Ch^ron,  aiat.  du  Pontificat  de  Saint- 
I>on  U  Qrand  (Paris.  1845;  2nd  ed.,  1861-4):  Fr.  and  P. 
RoBRiNOEB,  Die  Vnter  dea  Papattuma  Leo  L  und  Oregor  I  in  Die 
Kirche  Chriati  u.  ihre  Zeugen  (Stuttgart,  1879);  Bertani,  Vita 
di  Leone  Magno  (3  vols.,  Honsa,  1880-2);  Gore  in  IHel.  ChriM. 
Biog,  (London,  1882),  s.  v.;  Lanoen.  Geach.  der  rtim.  Kirche,  II 
(Bonn,  1885),  1  sqq.;  Grisar,  Oe^rh.  Roma  u.  der  Pdpale  im 
MitUlaUer,  I,  308  sqq.;  Idem,  //  Primato  romano  nel  aecolo 
ouinlo  in  Analecta  Romana,  I  (Rome,  1900),  307-52);  Idem, 
Rom  u.  die  frUnkiache  Kirche  vomehmlich  im  VL  Jahrhunderl  in 
Zeitachr.  fiir  kath.  Theologie  (1890),  447-93;  GundlacH;  Der 
Streit  der  Biatftmer  Arlea  u.  Vtenne  um  den  Primatua  Galltarum 
in  Nauea  Arehiv  (1889).  250  sqq.;  (1890),  9  sqq.,  233  sqq.; 
KuHK,  Die  Chriatologie  Leoa  L  dea  Oroaaen  (Wiirzourg,  1894); 
Hbpblb,  Konziliengeach.,  II  (2nd  ed.),  passim. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Lao  n,  Saint,  Pope  ((>82-83),  date  of  birth  un- 
known; d.  28  June,  (>8.3.  He  was  a  Sicilian,  and  son  of 
one  Paul.  Though  elected  pope  a  few  days  after  the 
death  of  St.  Agatho  (10  Jan.,  681),  he  was  not  conse- 
crated till  after  the  lapse  of  a  year  and  seven  months 
(17  .^ug.,  682).  Under  Leo's  predecessor  St.  Agatho, 
negotiations  had  been  opened  between  the  Holy  See 
and  Emperor  Constantine  Pogonatus  concerning  the 
relations  of  the  Byzantine  Court  to  papal  elections. 
Gonstantine  had  already  promised  Agatho  to  abolish 
or  reduce  the  tax  which  for  about  a  century  the  popes 
had  had  to  pay  to  the  imperial  treasury  on  the  occasion 
of  their  consecration,  and  under  Leo's  successor  he 
made  other  changas  in  what  had  hitherto  been  re- 

auired  of  the  Roman  C!hurch  at  the  time  of  a  papal 
lection.  In  all  probability,  therefore,  it  was  con- 
tinued correspondence  on  this  matter  which  caused  the 
delay  of  the  imperial  confirmation  of  Leo's  election, 
and  hence  the  long  postponement  of  his  consecration. 
The  most  important  act  accomplished  bv  Leo  in  his 
short  pontificate  was  his  confirmation  of  the  acts  of 
the  Sixth  (Ecumenical  Council  (680^1).  This  council 
bad  been  held  in  Constantinople  against  the  Monothe- 
lites,  and  had  been  presided  over  by  the  legates  of 
Pope  Agatho.  After  Leo  had  notified  the  emperor 
that  the  decrees  of  the  council  had  been  confirmed  by 
him,  he  proceeded  to  make  them  known  to  the  nations 
of  the  West.  The  letters  which  he  sent  for  this  end  to 
the  kinff  and  to  the  bishops  and  nobles  of  Spain  have 
eome  down  to  us.  In  them  he  explained  what  the 
council  had  effected,  and  he  called  upon  the  bishops 
to  fnibwribe  to  its  decrees.  At  the  same  time  he  was 
at  pains  to  make  it  clear  that  in  condemning  his  pred- 
ecessor Honorius  I,  he  did  so,  not  because  he  taught 
heresy,  but  because  he  was  not  active  enough  in  op- 


posing it.  In  accordance  with  the  papal  mandate,  a 
synod  was  held  at  Toledo  (684)  in  which  the  Council 
of  Constantinople  was  accepted. 

The  fact  that  Ravenna  had  long  been  the  residence 
of  the  emperors  or  of  their  representatives,  the  exarchs, 
had  awakened  the  ambition  of  its  archbishops.  They 
aspired  to  the  privileges  of  patriarchs  and  desired  to  be 
autocephalouSj  i.  e.  free  from  the  direct  jurisdiction  of 
the  pope,  considered  as  their  primate.  As  they  could 
not  succeed  in  inducing  the  popes  to  agree  to  their 
wishes,  they  attempted  to  secure  their  accomplish- 
ment by  an  imperial  decree  recognizing  them  as  auto- 
cephalous.  But  this  did  not  prove  sufficient  to  enable 
the  ardhbishops  to  effect  their  purpose,  and  Leo  ob- 
tained from  Constantine  Pogonatus  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Constans.  On  his  side,  however,  Leo 
abolished  the  tax  which  the  archbishops  had  been 
accustomed  to  pay  when  they  received  the  pallium. 
And  though  he  insisted  that  the  archbishops-eleot 
must  come  to  Rome  to  be  consecrated,  he  consented 
to  the  arrangement  that  they  should  not  be  obliged  to 
remain  in  Rome  more  than  eight  days  at  the  tii^e  of 
their  consecration,  and  that,  while  they  were  not  to 
be  bound  to  come  again  to  Rome  themselves  in  order 
to  offer  their  homage  to  the  pope,  they  were  each  year 
to  send  a  delegate  to  do  so  in  their  name.  Perhaps 
because  he  feared  that  the  Lombards  might  agam 
ravage  the  catacombs,  Leo  transferred  thence  many 
of  the  relics  of  the  martyrs  into  a  church  which  he 
built  to  receive  them.  This  pope,  who  is  called  by  his 
contemporary  biographer  both  just  and  learned,  is 
commemorated  as  a  saint  in  the  Roman  Martyrology 

on  28  June. 

Liber  Pontificalia,  ed.  Duchesne,  I  (Paris,  1886),  359  sqq.; 
ViLLANU.N'O.  Summa  Condi.  Hiapania,  I  (Barcelona.  1850),  310 
sq.;  Acta  8S.,  Jime,  V,  375  sqq.;  Mann,  Livea  of  the  Popea,  I 
(London,  1902),  pt.  II,  49  sqq. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Leo  m,  Saint,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d. 
816.  He  was  elected  on  the  very  day  his  predecessor 
was  buried  (26  Dec,  795),  and  consecrated  on  the  fol- 
lowing day.  It  is  quite  possible  that  this  liaste  may 
liave  been  due  to  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  Romans  to 
anticipate  any  interference  of  the  Franks  with  their 
freedom  of  election.  Leo  was  a  Roman,  the  son  of 
Aty  uppius  and  Elizabeth.  At  the  time  of  his  election 
he  was  Cardinal-Priest  of  St.  Susanna,  and  seemingly 
also  vestiarius,  or  chief  of  the  pontifical  treasury,  or 
wardrobe.  With  the  letter  informing  Charlemagne  that 
he  had  been  unanimously  elected  pope,  Leo  sent  him  the 
keys  of  the  confession  of  St.  Peter,  and  the  standard  of 
the  city.  This  he  did  to  show  that  he  regarded  the 
Frankish  king  as  the  protector  of  the  Holy  See.  In 
return  he  received  from  Charlemagne  letters  of  con- 
gratulation and  a  great  part  of  the  treasure  which  the 
king  had  captured  from  the  Avars.  The  acquisition 
of  this  wealth  was  one  of  the  causes  which  enabled 
Leo  to  be  such  a  great  benefactor  to  the  churches  and 
charitable  institutions  of  Rome. 

Prompted  by  jealousy  or  ambition,  or  by  feelings  of 
hatred  and  revenge,  a  number  of  the  relatives  of  Pope 
Adrian  I  formed  a  plot  to  render  Leo  unfit  to  hold  his 
sacred  office.  On  the  occasion  of  the  procession  of  the 
Greater  Litanies  (25  April,  799),  when  the  pope  was 
making  his  way  towards  the  Flaminian  Gate,  ne  was 
suddenly  attacked  by  a  body  of  armed  men.  He  was 
dashed  to  the  ground,  and  an  effort  was  made  to  root 
out  his  tongue  and  tear  out  his  eyes.  After  he  had 
been  left  for  a  time  bleeding  in  the  street,  he  was  hur- 
ried off  at  night  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Erasmus  on 
the  Coelian.  There,  in  what  seemed  quite  a  miracu- 
lous manner,  he  recovered  the  full  use  of  his  eyes  and 
tongue.  Escaping  from  the  monastery,  he  betook 
himself  to  (!!harleinagne,  accompanied  by  many  of  the* 
Romans.  He  was  received  by  the  Frankish  king 
with  the  greatest  honour  at  Paderbom,  although  his 
enemies  Imd  filled  the  king's  ears  with  malicious  accu- 


LEO 


158 


LSO 


sations  against  him.  After  a  few  monthfi'  stay  in 
Germany,  the  Frankish  monarch  caused  him  to  be 
escorted  back  to  Rome,  where  he  was  received  with 
every  demonstration  of  joy  by  the  whole  populace, 
natives  and  foreigners.  The  pope's  enemies  were  then 
tried  by  Charlemagne's  envoys  and,  being  unable  to 
establish  either  Leo's  guilt  or  their  own  innocence, 
were  sent  as  prisoners  to  France  (Frankland).  In 
the  following  year  (800)  Charlemagne  himself  came  to 
Rome,  and  the  pope  and  his  accusers  were  brought 
face  to  face.    The  assembled  bishops  declared  that 

•  they  had  no  ri^ht  to  judge  the  pope;  but  Leo  of  his 
own  free  will,  m  order,  as  he  said,  to  dissipate  any 
suspicions  in  men's  minds,  declared  on  oath  that  he 
was  wholly  guiltless  of  the  charges  which  had  been 
brought  against  him.  At  his  special  request  the 
death  sentence  wliich  liad  been  passed  upon  his 
principal  enemies  was  commuted  into  a  sentence  of 
exile. 

A  few  days  later,  Leo  and  Charlemagne  again  met. 
It  w|is  on  Christmas  Dav  in  St.  Peter's.  After  the 
Gospel  had  been  sung,  tne  pope  approached  Charle- 
magne, who  was  kneeling  before  the  Confession  of  St. 
Peter,  and  placed  a  crown  upon  his  head.  The  as- 
sembled multitude  at  once  made  the  basilica  ring  with 
the  shout:  ''To  Charles,  the  most  pious  Augustus, 
crowned  by  God,  to  our  great  and  pacific  emperor  life 
and  victory ! "  By  this  act  was  revived  the  Empire  in 
the  West,  and,  in  theory,  at  least,  the  world  was  de- 
clared by  the  Church  subject  to  one  temporal  head,  as 
Christ  had  made  it  subject  to  one  spiritual  head.  It 
was  imderstood  that  the  first  duty  of  the  new  emperor 
was  to  be  the  protector  of  the  Roman  Church  and  of 
Christendom  against  the  heathen.  With  a  view  to 
combining  the  East  and  West  under  the  effective  rule 
of  Charlemagne,  Leo  strove  to  further  the  project  of  a 
marriage  between  him  and  the  Eastern  empress  Irene. 
Her  deposition,  however  (801),  prevented  the  realiza- 
tion of  this  excellent  plan.  Some  three  years  after 
the  departure  of  Charlemagne  from  Rome  (801),  Leo 
again  crossed  the  Alps  to  see  him  (804) .  According  to 
some  he  went  to  discuss  with  the  emperor  the  division 
of  his  territories  l)etween  his  sons.  At  any  rate,  two 
years  later,  he  was  invited  to  give  his  assent  to  the 
emperor's  provisions  for  the  said  partition.  Equally 
while  acting  in  harmony  with  the  pope,  Charlemagne 
combatted  the  heresy  of  Adoptionism  which  had  arisen 
in  Spain;  but  he  went  somewhat  further  than  his  spir- 
itual ^de  when  he  wished  to  bring  about  the  general 
insertion  of  the  Filioque  in  the  Nicene  Creed.  The 
two  were,  however,  acting  together  when  Salzburg 
was  made  the  mctropolitical  city  for  Bavaria,  ana 
when  Fortunatus  of  Urado  was  compensated  for  the 
loss  of  his  see  of  Grado  by  the  gift  of  tiiat  of  Pola.  The 
joint  action  of  the  pope  and  the  emperor  was  felt  even 
m  England.  Through  it  Eardulf  of  Northumbria  re- 
covered his  kingdom,  and  the  dispute  between  Ean- 
bald.  Archbishop  of  York,  and  Wulfred,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  was  regulated. 

Leo  had,  nowever,  many  relations  with  England 
solely  on  his  own  account.  By  his  command  the 
synod  of  Beccanceld  (or  Clovesho,  803)  condemned  the 
appointing  of  laymen  as  superiors  of  monasteries.  In 
accordance  with  the  wishes  of  Ethelheard,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  Leo  excommunicated  Eadbert  Praen 
for  seizing  the  throne  of  Kent,  and  withdrew  the  pal- 
lium which  had  been  granted  to  Lichfield,  authorizing 
the  restoration  of  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the 
See  of  Canterbury  "  j  ust  as  St.  Gregory  the  Apostle  and 
Master  of  the  nation  of  the  English  had  arranged  it". 
Leo  was  also  called  upon  to  intervene  in  the  quarrels 
between  Archbishop  Wulfred  and  Cenulf,  King  of 

•  Mercia.  Very  little  is  known  of  the  real  causes  of  the 
inisunderstandings  between  thorn,  but,  whoever  was 
the  more  to  blame,  the  archbishop  seems  to  have  had 
the  more  to  suffer.  The  king  appears  to  have  induced 
ihe  pope  to  suspend  him  from  the  exercise  of  his  epis- 


copal functions,  and  to  keep  the  kingdom  under  a 
kind  of  interdict  for  a  period  of  six  yeare.  Till  the 
hour  of  his  death  (822),  greed  of  gold  caused  Cenulf  to 
continue  his  persecution  of  the  archbishop.  It  also 
caused  him  to  persecute  the  monastery  of  Abingdon, 
and  it  was  not  until  he  had  received  from  its  abbot 
a  large  sum  of  money  that,  acting,  as  he  declared, 
at  the  request  of  "the  lord  Apostolic  and  moet 
glorious  Pope  Leo",  he  decreed  the  inviolability  of 
the  monastery. 

During  the  pontificate  of  Leo,  the  Church  of  Con- 
stantinople was  in  a  state  of  unrest.  The  monks,  who 
at  this  period  were  flourishing  under  the  guidance  of 
such  men  as  St.  Theodore  the  Studite,  were  suspicious 
of  what  they  conceived  to  be  the  lax  principles  of 
their  patriarch  Tarasius,  and  were  in  vigorous  oppo- 
sition to  the  evil  conduct  of  their  emperor  Constantme 
VI.  To  be  free  to  marry  Theodota,  their  sovereign 
had  divorced  his  wife  Maria.  Though  Tarasius  con- 
demned the  conduct  of  Constantine,  still,  to  avoid 
greater  evils,  he  refused,  to  the  profound  diseust  of 
the  monks,  to  excommunicate  him.  For  their  con- 
demnation of  his  new  marriage  Constantine  pimished 
the  monks  with  imprisonment  and  exile.  In  their 
distress  the  monks  turned  for  help  to  Leo,  as  they  did 
when  they  were  maltreated  for  opposing  the  arbitrary 
reinstatement  of  the  priest  whom  Tarasius  had  de- 
graded for  marrying  Constantine  to  Theodota.  The 
pope  replied,  not  merely  with  words  of  praise  and  en- 
couragement, but  also  by  the  dispatch  of  rich  pres- 
ents; and,  after  Michael  I  came  to  the  Byzantine 
throne,  he  ratified  the  treaty  between  him  and 
Charlemagne  which  was  to  secure  peace  for  East  and 
West. 

Not  only  in  the  last  mentioned  transaction,  but  in 
all  matters  of  importance,  did  the  pope  and  the  Frank- 
ish emperor  act  m  concert.  It  was  on  Charlemagne's 
advice  that,  to  ward  off  the  savage  raids  of  the  Sara- 
cens, Leo  maintained  a  fleet,  and  caused  his  coast  line 
to  be  regularly  patrolled  by  his  ships  of  war.  But  be- 
cause he  did  not  feel  competent  to  keep  the  Moslem 
pirates  out  of  Corsica,  he  entrusted  the  guarding  of  it 
to  the  emperor.  Supported  by  Charlemagne,  he  was 
able  to  recover  some  of  the  patrimonies  of  the  Roman 
Church  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gaeta,  and  again  to 
administer  them  through  his  rectors.  But  when  the 
great  emperor  died  (28  Jan.,  814),  evil  times  once  more 
broke  on  Leo.  A  fresh  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him,  but  on  this  occasion  the  pope  was  apprised  of  it 
before  it  came  to  a  head.  He  caused  the  chief  con- 
spirators to  be  seized  and  executed.  No  sooner  had 
tnis  plot  been  crushed  than  a  number  of  nobles  of  the 
Campagna  rose  in  arms  and  plundered  the  country. 
They  were  preparing  to  march  on  Rome  itself,  when 
thev  were  overpowered  by  the  Duke  of  Spoleto,  acting 
imder  the  orders  of  the  King  of  Italy  (Langobardia). 
The  large  sums  of  monev  which  Charlemagne  gave  to 
the  papal  treasury  enabled  Leo  to  become  an  efficient 
helper  of  the  poor  and  a  patron  of  art,  and  to  renovate 
the  churches,  not  only  of  Rome,  but  even  of  Ravenna. 
He  employed  the  imperishable  art  of  mosaic  not 
merely  to  portray  the  political  relationship  between 
Charlemagne  and  himself,  but  chiefly  to  decorate  the 
churches,  especially  his  titular  church  of  St.  Susanna. 
Up  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  a  fi^pire 
of  Leo  in  mosaic  was  to  be  seen  in  that  ancient 
church. 

Leo  III  was  buried  in  St.  Peter's,  (12  June,  816), 
where  his  relics  are  to  be  found  along  with  those  of 
Sts.  Leo  1, 1^0  II,  and  Leo  IV.  He  was  canonized 
in  1673.  The  silver  denarii  of  Leo  III  stil)  extant 
bear  the  name  of  the  Frankish  emperor  upon  them 
as  well  as  that  of  Leo,  showing  thereby  the  emperor 
as  the  protector  of  the  Church,  and  overlord  of  the 
city  of  Rome. 

Liber  P<mtificalis.  ed.  Duchxsks,  II  (Paris,  1892).  1  tqq.l 
Codex  CarolinuM,  ed.  JaffA  (Berlin,  1867);  iifmofet  Binhar^ 


LEO 


159 


LIO 


Cto  called)  and  other  Chronicles,  in  Mon.  Oerm.:  Script. ^  I; 
Carmen  de  Carolo  Maano,  in  P.  L.,  XCVIII.  Cf.  Bbtce,  The 
Holy  Roman  Empire  (London,  1889) ;  Klkinclaugus,  L'Emtnre 
CaroHngicn  (Palis,  1902) ;  Hodqkin,  Italy  and  her  Invader; 
VIII  (Oxford,  1899);  Bohmer,  Regesta  Imperii,  ed.  MChl- 
BACHER.  I  (Innsbruck,  1908);  Mann,  The  Lives  of  the  Popes  in 
the  Early  Middle  Ages,  II  (London,  1906),  1  sqq. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Leo  IV,  Saint,  Pope  (847-55),  a  Roman  and  the 
son  of  Radoald,  was  unanimously  elected  to  succeed 
Serpius  IT,  and  as  the  alarming  attack  of  the  Saracens 
on  Rome  in  846  caused  the  people  to  fear  for  the 
safety  of  the  city,  he  was  consecrated  (10  April,  847) 
without  the  consent  of  the  emperor.  Leo  received  his 
early  education  at  Rome  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Mar- 
tin, near  St.  Peter's.  His  pious  behaviour  attracted 
the  notice  of  Gregory  IV,  who  made  him  a  subdeacon; 
and  he  was  created  Cardinal-Priest  of  the  church  of 
the  Quatuor  Coronati  by  Sergius  II.  As  soon  as  Leo, 
much  a^inst  his  will,  became  pope,  he  began  to  take 
precautions  against  a  repetition  of  tne  Saracen  raid  of 
846.  He  put  the  walls  of  the  city  into  a  thorough 
state  of  repair,  entirely  rebuilding  fifteen  of  the  great 
towers.  He  was  the  first  to  enclose  the  Vatican  hill 
by  a  wall.  To  do  this,  he  received  money  from  the 
emperor,  and  help  from  all  the  cities  and  agricultural 
colonies  (domus  cultce)  of  the  Duchy  of  Rome.  The 
work  took  him  four  years  to  accomplish,  and  the 
newly  fortified  portion  was  called  the  Leonine  City, 
after  him.  In  852  the  fortifications  were  completed, 
and  were  blessed  by  the  pope  with  great  solemnity. 

Whilst  the  work  of  refortifying  the  city  was  in  prog- 
ress, a  great  fleet  of  the  Saracens  sailed  for  Rome, 
seemingly  from  Sardinia,  but  it  was  completely  de- 
stroyed off  Ostia  by  the  allied  fleets  of  Rome,  >faples, 
Amalfi,  and  Gaeta,  and  by  a  tempest  (849).  When  the 
rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Rome  was  accomplished, 
Leo  rebuflt  Portus,  and  handed  it  over  to  a,numbcr  of 
Corsican  exiles,  whom  the  ravages  of  the  Saracens  had 
driven  from  their  homes.  Other  cities  too  in  the 
Roman  duchy  were  fortified,  either  by  the  pope  him- 
self or  in  consequence  of  his  exhortations.  Leo  also 
endeavoured  to  make  good  the  damage  which  the 
Saracen  raid  of  846  had  done  to  the  diff'erent  churches. 
St.  Peter's  had  suffered  very  severely,  and  though  as  a 
whole  it  never  again  reached  its  former  magnificence, 
Leo  managed  to  make  it  in  parts  at  least  more  beauti- 
ful than  it  had  been  before.  St.  Martin's,  where  he 
had  been  educated,  the  Quatuor  Coronati,  of  which  he 
had  been  the  priest,  the  Lateran  Palace,  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Borgo,  Subiaco,  and  many  other  places  both  in 
Rome  and  out  of  it  were  renovated  by  the  energetic 
Leo.  It  was  by  this  pope  that  the  church  of  S.  Maria 
Nova  was  built,  to  replace  S.  Maria  Antiqua.  which 
the  decaying  Palace  of  the  Caesars  threatened  to  en- 
gulf^ and  of  which  the  ruins  have  recently  been  brought 
to  h^ht.  In  850  Leo  associated  with  Lothair  in  the 
empire  his  son  Louis,  by  imposing  on  him  the  imperial 
crown.  Three  years  later  "he  hallowed  the  child 
Alfred  to  king  [says  an  old  English  historian]  by 
anointing;  and,  receiving  him  for  his  own  child  by 
adoption,  gave  him  confirmation,  and  sent  him  bacK 
[to  England]  with  the  bessing  of  St.  Peter  the  Apostle." 

The  same  year  (853)  he  held  an  important  synod  in 
Rome,  in  which  various  decrees  were  passed  for  the 
furtherance  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  learning, 
and  for  the  condemnation  of  the  refractory  Anastasius, 
Cardinal  of  St.  Marcellus,  and  sometime  librarian  of 
the  Roman  Church.  Equally  rebelHous  conduct  on 
the  part  of  John,  Archbishop  of  Ravenna,  forced  Leo 
to  undertake  a  journey  to  that  city  to  inspire  John 
and  his  accomplices  with  a  respect  for  the  law.  It 
was  while  engaged  in  endeavouring  to  inspire  another 
archbishop,  Hincmar  of  Reims,  with  this  same  rever- 
ence, that  Leo  died.  Another  man  who,  till  his 
death  (851),  defied  the  authority  of  the  pope  was 
Nomeno^,  Duke  of  Brittany.  Anxious  to  be  inde- 
pendent of  the  imperial  authority  Nomeno^,  in  defi- 


ance both  of  Leo  and  Charles  the  Bald,  not  only  de« 
posed  a  number  of  bishops,  but  made  new  ones,  and 
subjected  them  to  a  metropolitan  see  (Dol)  of  his  own 
creation.  It  was  not  till  tne  thirteenth  century  that 
the  Archbishop  of  Tours  recovered  his  jurisdiction 
over  the  Breton  bishops.  For  consecrating  a  bishop 
outside  hb  own  diocese,  St.  Methodius,  Patriarcn 
of  Constantinople,  had  suspended  Gregory  Asbestas, 
Bishop  of  Syracuse.  St.  Ignatius,  who  succeeded  St. 
Methodius,  in  consequence  forbade  Gregory  to  be 

E resent  at  his  consecration.  This  led  Gregory  to 
reak  all  bounds.  St.  Ignatius  accordingly  caused 
him  to  be  deposed,  and  begged  the  pope  to  confirm  the 
deposition.  This,  however,  Leo  would  not  do,  be- 
cause, as  he  said,  Ignatius  had  assembled  bishops  and 
deposed  others  without  his  knowledge,  whereas  he 
ought  not  to  have  done  so  "in  the  absence  of  our 
legates  or  of  letters  from  us  ".  Despite  the  fact  that 
Leo  was  then  in  opposition  to  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, one  of  his  dependents,  Daniel,  a  magister 
milUum,  accused  him  to  the  Prankish  Emperor  Louis 
of  wishing  to  overthrow  the  domination  of  the  Franks 
by  a  Greek  alliance.  Leo  had,  however,  no  difficulty 
in  convincing  Louis  that  the  chaige  was  absolutely 
groundless.  Daniel  was  condemned  to  death  and 
only  escaped  it  by  the  intercession  of  the  emperor. 
Shortly  after  this  Leo  died,  and  was  buried  in  St. 
Peter's  (17  July,  855).  He  is  credited  with  being  a 
worker  of  miracles  both  by  his  biographer  and  by  the 
Patriarch  Photius.  His  name  is  found  in  the  Roman 
Martyrology. 

Liber  PorUrficalis,  ed.  DucnESNE,  II,  106  sq.:  his  letters  in 
P.  L.,  CXV,  CXXIX;  the  letters  of  Hincmar  in  P.  L.,  CXXVI; 
the  annals  of  Hincmar  etc.  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.,  I;  Life  oj 
St.  Ignatius  and  other  documents  in  Labbe,  Concilia,  VIII;  cI. 
Lanciani,  The  Destruction  of  Ancient  Rome  (London,  1901), 
132  sq.;  Thurston,  The  Roman  Sacring  of  King  Alfred  in  The 
Month  (Oct.,  1901);  Fortescde,  The  Orthodox  Eastern  Church 
(London,  1907),  136  sq. ;  de  Brolo,  Storia  della  Chiesa  in  Sicilia 
(Palermo,  1884),  II,  265  sq.;  Mann,  Lives  of  the  Popes,  II  (Lon- 
don, 1902),  258  sciq. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Leo  V,  Pope. — ^Very  little  is  known  of  him.  We 
have  no  certainty  either  as  to  when  he  was  elected  or 
as  to  exactly  how  long  he  reigned.  It  is  highly  prob- 
able that  he  was  pope  during  August,  903.  He  was  a 
native  of  Priapi,  a  small  place  in  the  district  of  Ardea. 
When  chasen  he  was  not  one  of  the  cardinal-priests  of 
Rome,  but  was  attached  to  some  church  outside  the 
City.  Hence,  in  contemporary  catalogues  of  the 
popes  he  is  called  a  presbiter  forensic.  Auxilius,  a 
writer  of  the  time,  says  that  he  held  "  the  rudder  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Church"  for  thirty  days,  and  that  "he 
was  a  man  of  God  and  of  praiseworthy  life  and  holi- 
ness. "  Except  that  he  issued  a  Bull  exempting  the 
canons  of  Bologna  from  the  payment  of  taxes,  we 
know  of  nothing  that  he  did  as  pope.  The  circum- 
stances of  his  death  are  as  obscure  as  those  of  his  life. 
Afiter  a  pontificate  of  somewhat  over  a  month  he  was 
seized  by  Christopher,  Cardinal-Priest  of  St.  Damasus, 
and  cast  into  prison.  The  intruder  promptly  seated 
himself  in  the  chair  of  Peter,  but  was  soon  after  dis- 
placed by  Sergius  III.  According  to  one  authority, 
Sergius  took  pity"  on  the  two  imprisoned  pontiffs, 
ancTcaused  them  both  to  be  put  to  death.  However, 
it  seems  more  likely  that  Leo  died  a  natural  death  in 

prison  or  in  a  monastery. 

Liber  Pontificalis,  ed.  Duchesne,  II  (Paris,  1892),  234; 
jArrfe,  Reg.  Pontif.,  II  (Leipzig,  1888),  746.  Cf.  Mann,  Lives 
of  the  Popes  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages,  IV  (London.  1906),  111 

sqq.  Horace  K.  Mann. 

Leo  VI,  Pope. — ^The  exact  dates  of  the  election  and 
death  of  Leo  VI  are  uncertain,  but  it  is  clear  that  he 
was  pope  during  the  latter  half  of  928.  If,  as  some 
suppose,  he  was  elected  in  June,  928,  then  he  died  in 
Feoruary,  929,  as  he  reigned  seven  months  and  five 
days.  Others,  however,  believe  he  became  pope  be- 
fore the  month  of  June.  He  was  a  Roman,  the  son  of 
the  primiceriua,  Christopher,  who  bad  been  prime 


LEO 


160 


LEO 


minister  of  John  VIII.  When  Leo  became  pope,  he 
was  Cardinal-Priest  of  St.  Susanna.  His  immediate 
predecessor,  John  X,  had  be^n  engaged  in  settling 
questions  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  Dalmatia; 
some  of  these  were  decided  by  Leo  VI,  and  there  is  ex- 
tant a  Bull  of  his  in  which  he  states  that  he  has 
granted  the  pallium  to  Archbishop  John  of  Spalato, 
orders  all  the  bishops  of  Dalmatia  to  obey  him,  and  to 
confine  their  operations  within  the  limits  of  their  own 
dioceses,  and  instructs  Bishop  Gregory  to  be  content 
with  the  Diocese  of  Scodra.  The  only  other  item  of 
information  regarding  Leo  which  has  reached  us  is 
that  "according  to  most  writers  he  was  buried  in  St. 
Peter's". 

Liber  PorUificalis.   ed.   Duchesne,   II   (Paris,   1892),   242; 
Mann,  Liven  of  the  Popes  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages,  IV,  188. 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Leo  VJlI,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  13  Julv, 
939.  A  Roman  and  priest  of  St.  Sixtus,  and  probably 
a  Benedictine  monk,  he  was  elected  pope  3  January, 
936.  He  seems  to  have  been  placed  upon  the  Chair  of 
Peter  by  the  power  of  Alberic,  prince  and  senator  of 
the  Romans.  Alberic's  authority  in  Rome  was  dis- 
puted by  Hugo,  who  bore  the  title  of  King  of  Italy 
(Langobardia) .  The  citv  was  being  besieged  by  Hugo 
when  the  famous  Odo,  Abbot  of  Cluny,  reached  it.  He 
had  been  summoned  by  Leo,  who  knew  his  great  in- 
fluence with  both  Alberic  and  Hugo,  to  make  peace  be- 
tween them.  Odo  accomplished  the  desires  of  the 
pope,  and  a  marriage  between  Alberic  and  Hugo's 
daughter  Alda  effected  at  least  a  temporary  under- 
standing between  the  belligerents.  The  Bulls  of 
Leo  consist  for  the  most  part  of  grants  of  privilege  to 
various  monasteries,  especially  to  Cluny.  One,  how- 
ever, is  a  letter  to  Frederick,  Archbishop  of  Mainz. 
With  a  view  to  co-operating  in  the  work  of  reform 
which  was  being  accomphsh^  in  Germany  by  Henry 
I  (the  Fowler)  and  his  son  Otho  I,  Leo  named  Fred- 
erick his  vicar  throughout  all  Germany,  with  power  to 
proceed  against  all  erring  clerics.  He  would  not ,  how- 
ever, allow  the  archbishop  to  baptize  the  Jews  by 
force,  though  he  did  authorize  their  expulsion  from 

the  cities  on  their  refusal  to  embrace  Christianity. 

Liber  Pontificalia,  ed.  Duchesne,  II  (Paris,  1892),  244; 
JhTTk,  Reg.  Pontif.,  I  (Leipzie,  1888),  3597  sqq.;  Mann,  Lix'ea 
of  the  Popes  in  the  Early  MiMU  Ages,  IV  (LondoD,  1906).  205 


■qq. 


Horace  K.  Mann. 


Leo  Vm,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  between 
20  February  and  13  AprU,  965.  When  the  Emperor 
Otho  I  illegally  brought  about  the  deposition  of  the 
unworthy  rope  John  XII  (Nov..  963),  he  equally  il- 
i^ally  caused  to  be  elected,  to  fill  his  place,  a  layman, 
"Leo,  the  venerable  protonotary'*.  Leo  was  a  Ro- 
man and  the  son  of  one  John.  His  family  was  well 
known  in  the  Clivus  Argentarii  (now  Via  di  Marforio, 
between  the  Corso  and  uie  Forum  Romanum),  and  he 
himself  gave  his  name  to  various  streets  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  his  home.  Chosen  pope  on  4  December, 
he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Rome  on  6  December, 
all  the  lesser  orders  having,  in  violation  of  the  canon 
law,  been  bestowed  upon  him  in  the  meantime  by  Sico, 
Bishop  of  Ostia.  A  few  weeks  after  Leo's  consecra- 
tion, the  Romans  made  a  vain  effort  to  overthrow  the 
authority  of  the  emperor.  They  were  severely  pun- 
ished for  their  attempt;  but,  through  the  intercession 
of  Leo,  Otho  restored  to  them  the  hostages  he  had  re- 
ceived from  them.  No  sooner,  however,  did  the  em- 
peror leave  Rome,  than  the  people  rose  and  expelled 
his  nominee  (Feb.,  964).  Jonn  XII  at  once  returned 
to  the  city,  summoned  a  council,  condemned  Leo 
"one  of  the  employees  of  our  curia,  who  has  broken 
his  faith  with  us",  and  degraded  those  clerics  who  had 
been  ordained  by  him.  ^on  after  this  John  died  (14 
May,  964),  and  the  Romans  unwisely  elected  to  suc- 
ceed him  the  Cardinal-Deacon  Benedict.  Indignant 
ftt  the  expulsion  of  Leo,  and  the  election  of  Benedict, 
Otho  hurried  to  Rome,  and  waa  soon  in  poanession  of 


both  it  and  the  new  pope.  Leo  returned  with  the  em« 
peror,  and  at  once  brought  Benedict  to  trial.  With 
the  consent  of  all  his  would-be  judges,  Benedict  was 
degraded  to  the  rank  of  a  deacon,  Lio  himself  tearing 
the  pallium  from  his  shoulders  (July,  964).  If  it  be 
the  fact,  as  is  asserted  by  a  contemporary,  that  Bene- 
dict acquiesced  in  his  deposition,  and  if,  as  seems  cer- 
tain, no  further  protest  was  made  against  Leo*s  posi- 
tion, he  may  well  be  regarded  as  a  true  pope  from  July, 
964,  to  his  death  in  965,  about  the  month  of  March. 

No  extant  records  inform  us  of  any  deeds  which  Leo 
performed  during  the  period  when  he  may  be  safely 
regarded  as  a  true  pope.  He  is  said,  indeed,  to 
have  given  Otho  the  right  of  nominating  any  one  he 
chose  to  be  pope  or  bishop,  and  to  have  restored  to 
Otho  all  the  lands  which  hb  predecessors  had  be- 
8towe<l  upon  the  papacy.  It  is  ^enerallv  allowed,  how- 
ever, that  the  documents  which  make  these  state- 
ments are  imperial  productions  forged  during  the 
investiture  quarrel. 

Liber  Pontificalis,  ed.  Ddchesnk.  II  (Paria,  1892),  250; 
LlOTpRAND,  Hist.  Ortoni«  (Hanover,  1S77),  ixsqq.;  Ann.  Alta- 
hensrs  majores  (Hftnover,  1868),  an.,  963  sq.;  JAFrfe,  Reg.,  I 
(Leipzig,  1888 ^ ,  467  sqcl  Cf.  Fisher.  The  Medieval  Empire,  II 
(London.  1897),  li:?:  Duchesne,  The  Beginnings  of  the  Tem- 
poral Sovereignty  of  the  Popes  (London,  190S),  222  »qq.;  Majnn, 
The  Lives  of  the  Popes  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages,  IV,  260-81. 

HoKACE  K.  Mann. 

Leo  IX,  Saint,  Pope  (1049-54),  b.  at  Egisheim, 
near  Colmar,  on  the  borders  of  Alsaco,  21  June,  1002; 
d.  19  April,  1054.  lie  belonged  to  a  noble  family  which 
had  givi'n  or  was  to  give  saints  to  the  (^hurch  and 
rulers  to  the  Empire.  He  was  named  Bruno.  His 
father  Hugh  was  nrst  cousin  to  Emperor  Conrad,  and 
both  Hugh  and  his  wife  Heilewide  were  remarkable 
for  their  piet  v  and  learning.  .^Vs  a  sign  of  the  tender 
conscience  which  soon  began  to  manifest  itself  in  the 
saintly  child,  we  are  told  that,  though  he  had  given 
abundant  proofs  of  a  bright  mind,  on  one  occasion  he 
could  not  study  out  of  an  exceptionally  beautiful  book 
which  his  mother  had  bought  and  given  to  him.  At 
length  it  transpired  that  the  book  had  been  stolen 
from  the  Abbey  of  St.  Hubert  in  the  Ardennes.  When 
Heilewide  had  restored  the  volume  to  its  rightful 
owners,  the  little  Bruno's  studies  proceeded  un- 
checked. When  five  years  of  age,  he  was  committed 
to  the  care  of  the  energetic  Berthold,  Bishop  of  Toul, 
who  had  a  school  for  the  sons  of  the  nobility.  Intelli- 
gent, graceful  in  body,  and  gracious  in  uisposition, 
Bruno  was  a  favourite  with  his  schoolfellows.  Whilst 
still  a  youth  and  at  home  for  his  holidays,  he  was 
attacked  when  asleep  by  some  animal,  and  so  much 
injured  that  for  some  time  he  lay  between  life  and 
death.  In  that  condition  he  saw,  as  he  used  after- 
wards to  tell  his  friends,  a  vision  of  St.  Benedict,  who 
cured  him  by  touching  his  wounds  with  a  cross.  This 
we  are  told  by  Leo's  principal  biographer,  Wlbert, 
who  was  his  intimate  friend  when  the  saint  was  Bish- 
op of  Toul. 

Bruno  became  a  canon  of  St.  Stephen's  at  Toul 
(1017),  and  though  still  quite  young  exerted  a  sooth- 
ing influence  on  Herimann^  the  choleric  successor  of 
Bishop  Berthold.  When,  m  1024,  Conrad,  Bruno's 
cousin,  succeeded  the  Emperor  Henry  I,  tne  saint's 
relatives  sent  him  tp  the  new  king's  court  **to  serve 
in  his  chapel ".  His  virtue  soon  made  itself  felt,  and 
his  companions,  to  distinguish  him  from  others  who 
bore  the  same  name,  always  spoke  of  him  as  **the 
good  Bruno  ".  In  1026  Conrad  set  out  for  Italy  to 
make  his  authority  respected  in  that  portion  of  his 
dominions,  and  as  Herimann,  Bishop  of  Toul,  was  t<X) 
old  to  lead  his  contingent  into  the  peninsula,  he  en* 
trusted  the  command  of  it  to  Bruno,  then  a  deacon. 
There  is  rt»ason  to  believe  that  this  novel  occupation 
was  not  altogether  uncongenial  to  him,  for  soldiers 
seem  always  to  have  had  an  attraction  for  him .  While 
he  was  thus  in  the  midst  of  arms.  Bishop  Herimann 
died  and  Bruno  was  at  once  elected  to  succeed  him. 


LEO 


161 


LIQ 


Conrad,  who  destincii  him  for  higher  things,  was  loath 
to  allow  him  to  accept  that  insignificant  see.  But 
Bruno,  who  was  wholly  disinclined  for  the  higher 
things,  and  wished  to  Uve  in  as  much  obscurity  as 
possible,  induced  his  sovereign  to  permit  him  to  take 
the  see.  Consecrated  in  1027,  Bruno  administered 
the  Diocese  of  Toul  for  over  twenty  years,  in  a  season 
of  stress  and  trouble  of  all  kinds.  He  had  to  contend 
not  merely  with  famine,  but  also  with  war,  to  which 
as  a  frontier  town  Toul  was  much  exposed.  Bruno, 
however,  was  equal  to  his  position.  He  knew  how  to 
make  peace,  and,  if  necessary,  to  wield  the  sword  in 
self-defence.  Sent  by  Conrad  to  Robert  the  Pious,  he 
established  so  firm  a  peace  between  France  and  the 
empire  that  it  was  not  again  broken  even  during  the 
reigns  of  the  sons  of  both  Conrad  and  Robert.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  held  his  epfltoopal  city  against  Eudes, 
Count  of  Blois,  a  rebel  against  Conrad,  and  "by  his 
wisdom  and  exertions  **  added  Burgundy  to  the  em- 
pire. It  was  whilst  he  was  bishop  that  he  was  sad- 
dened by  the  death  not  merely  of  his  father  and 
mother,  out  also  of  two  of  his  orothers.  Amid  his 
trials  Bruno  found  some  consolation  in  music,  in 
which  he  proved  himself  very  efficient. 

The  German  Pope  Damasus  II  died  in  1048,  and  the 
Romans  sent  to  ask  Henry  III,  Conrad's  successor,  to 
let  them  have  as  the  new  pope  either  Halinard,  Arch- 
bishop of  Lyons,  or  Bruno.  Both  of  them  were  fav- 
ourably known  to  the  Romans  by  what  the3r  had  seen 
of  them  when  thev  came  to  Rome  on  pikrimage. 
Heniy  at  once  fixed  upon  Bruno,  who  did  all  he  could 
to  avoid  the  honour  wnich  his  sovereign  wished  to  im- 
pose upon  him.  When  at  length  he  was  overcome  by 
the  combined  importunities  of  the  emperor,  the  Ger- 
mans, and  the  Romans,  he  agreed  to  ro  to  Rome,  and 
to  accept  the  papacy  if  freely  elected  thereto  by  the 
Roman  people.  He  wished,  at  least,  to  rescue  the 
See  of  Peter  from  its  servitude  to  the  German  emper- 
ors. When,  in  company  with  Hildebrand  he  reached 
Rome,  and  presented  hunself  to  its  people  clad  in  pil- 
grim's guise  and  barefooted,  but  still  tail,  and  fair  to 
look  upon,  they  cried  out  with  one  voice  that  him  and 
no  other  would  they  have  as  pope.  Assuming  the 
name  of  Leo,  he  was  solemnly  enthroned  12  February, 
1049.  Before  Leo  could  do  anything  in  the  matter  of 
the  reform  of  the  Church  on  wnich  his  heart  was  set, 
he  had  first  to  put  down  another  attempt  on  the  part 
of  the  ex-Pope  Benedict  IX  to  seize  the  papal  throne. 
He  had  then  to  attend  to  money  matters,  as  the  papal 
finances  were  in  a  deplorable  condition.  To  better 
them  he  put  them  in  the  hands  of  Hildebrand,  i^  man 
capable  of  improving  anything. 

He  then  b^gan  the  work  of  reform  which  was  to 
give  the  next  hundred  years  a  character  of  their  own, 
and  which  his  great  successor  Gregory  VII  was  to 
carry  so  far  forward.  In  April,  1049,  he  held  a  synod 
at  which  he  condemned  the  two  notorious  evils  of  the 
day,  simony  and  clerical  incontinence.  Then  he  com- 
m^iced  those  journeys  throughout  Europe  in  the 
cause  of  a  reformation  of  manners  which  gave  him  a 
pre-eminent  right  to  be  styled  Peregrinus  Apoatolicus, 
Leaving  Rome  in  May,  he  held  a  council  of  reform  at 
Pavia^  and  pushed  on  through  Germany  to  Cologne, 
where  he  iomed  the  Emperor  Henry  III.  In  union 
with  him  he  brought  about  peace  in  Lorraine  by  ex- 
communicating che  rebel  Godfrey  the  Bearded.  De- 
spite the  jealous  efforts  of  King  Henry  I  to  prevent  him 
from  coming  to  France,  Leo  next  proce^ed  to  Reims, 
where  he  held  an  important  synod,  at  which  both 
bishops  and  abbots  from  England  assisted .  There  also 
assembled  in  the  city  to  see  the  famous  pope  an  enor- 
mous number  of  enthusiastic  people,  Spaniards, 
Bretons,  Franks,  Irish,  and  English".  Besides  ex- 
communicating the  Archbishop  of  Compostela  (be- 
cause, he  had  ventured  to  assume  the  title  of  Avob- 
iUicui,  reserved  to  the  pope  alone),  and  forbidding 
marriage  between  William  (afterwards  called  the  Con- 
DC— 11 


queror)  and  Matilda  of  Flanders,  the  assembly  issued 
manv  decrees  of  refoon.  On  his  way  back  to  Rome 
Leo  held  another  synod  at  Mainz,  everywhere  rousing 
public  opinion  agamst  the  great  evils  of  the  time  as  he 
went  along,  and  everywhere  being  received  with  un- 
bounded enthusiasm.  It  is  apparently  in  connexion 
with  this  return  journey  that  we  have  the  first  men- 
tion of  the  Golden  Rose.  The  Abbess  of  Woffen- 
heim,  in  return  for  certain  privileges  bestowed  by  the 
pope,  had  to  send  to  Rome  "a  golden  rose"  before 
Lsetare  Sunday,  on  which  day,  says  Leo,  the  popes  are 
wont  to  carry  it.  Also  before  he  returned  to  Home, 
he  discussed  with  Adalbert,  Archbishop  of  Bremen, 
the  formation  of  all  the  Scandinavian  countries,  in- 
cluding Iceland  and  Greenland,  into  a  patriarchate, 
of  which  the  see  was  to  be  Bremen.  The  scheme  was 
never  accomplished,  but  meanwhile  Leo  authorized 
the  consecration  by  Adalbert  of  the  first  native  bishop 
for  Iceland. 

In  January,  1050,  Leo  returned  to  Rome,  only  to 
leave  it  again  almost  immediately  for  Southern  Italy, 
whither  the  sufferings  of  its  people  called  him.  They 
were  being  heavily  oppressed  by  the  Normans.  To 
the  expostulations  of  Leo  the  wily  Normans  replied 
with  promises,  and  when  the  pope,  after  holding  a 
council  at  Siponto,  returned  to  Rome,  they  continued 
their  oppressions  as  before.  At  the  usual  paschal 
synod  which  Leo  was  in  the  habit  of  holding  at  Rome, 
the  heresy  of  Berengarius  of  Tours  w^as  condemned — a 
condemnation  repeated  by  the  pope  a  few  months 
later  at  Vercelli.  Before  tne  year  1050  had  come  to  a 
close,  Leo  had  begun  his  second  transalpine  journey. 
He  went  first  to  Toul^  in  order  solenmly  to  translate 
the  relics  of  Gerard,  bishop  of  that  city,  whom  he  had 

i'ust  canonized,  and  then  to  Germany  to  interview  the 
Cmperor  Henry  the  Black.  One  of  the  results  of  this 
meeting  was  that  Hunfrid,  Archbishop  of  Ravenna, 
was  compelled  by  the  emperor  to  cease  acting  as 
though  he  were  the  independent  ruler  of  Ravenna  and 
its  district,  and  to  submit  to  the  pope.  Returning  to 
Rome,  Leo  held  another  of  his  paschal  synods  in 
April,  1051,  and  in  July  went  to  take  possession  of 
Benevento.  Harassed  by  their  enemies,  the  Bene- 
ventans  concluded  that  their  only  hope  of  peace  was 
to  submit  themselves  to  the  authority  of  the  pope. 
This  they  did,  and  received  Leo  into  their  city  with 
the  greatest  honour.  While  in  this  vicinity,  Leo 
again  made  further  efforts  to  lessen  the  excesses  of  the 
Normans,  but  they  were  crippled  by  the  native  Lom- 
bards, who  with  as  much  folly  as  wickedness  massa- 
cred a  number  of  the  Normans  in  Apulia.  Realizing 
that  nothing  could  then  be  done  with  the  irate  Norman 
survivors,  I^  retraced  his  steps  to  Rome  (1051). 

The  Norman  question  was  henceforth  ever  present 
to  the  pope's  mind.  Constantly  oppressed  oy  the 
Normans,  the  people  of  Southern  Italy  ceased  not  to 
implore  the  pope  to  come  and  help  them.  The  Greeks, 
fearful  of  being  expelled  froni  the  peninsula  altogether, 
begged  Leo  to  co-operate  w^ith  them  against  the  con> 
mon  foe.  Thus  urged,  Leo  sought  assistance  on  all 
sides.  Failing  to  obtain  it,  he  again  tried  the  effect  of 
personal  mecfiation  (1052).  But  again  failure  at- 
tended his  efforts.  He  began  to  be  convinced  that 
appeal  would  have  to  be  made  to  the  sword.  At  this 
juncture  an  embassy  arrived  from  the  Hungarians, 
entreating  him  to  come  and  make  peace  between  them 
and  the  emperor.  Again  I-^eo  crossed  the  Alps,  but, 
thinking  he  was  sure  of  success,  Henry  would  not  ac- 
cept the  terms  proposetl  by  the  pope,  with  the  result 
that  his  expedition  against  the  Hungarians  proved  a 
failure.  And  though  he  at  first  undertook  to  let  Leo 
have  a  German  force  to  act  against  the  Normans,  he 
afterwards  withdrew  his  promise,  and  the  pope  had  to 
return  to  Italy  with  only  a  few  German  troops  raised 
by  his  relatives  (1053).  In  March,  1053,  Leo  was 
back  in  Rome.  Finding  the  state  of  affairs  in  South* 
em  Italy  worse  than  ever,  he  raised  what  forces  he 


LIO 


162 


UBO 


could  among  the  Italianprinces,  and,  declaring  war  on 
the  Normans,  tried  to  effect  a  junction  with  the  Greek 
general.  But  the  Normans  defeated  first  the  Greeks 
and  then  the  pope  at  Civitella  (June,  1053).  After 
the  battle  Leo  ^ve  himself  up  to  his  conauerors,  who 
treated  him  with  the  utmost  respect  and  considera- 
tion, and  professed  themselves  his  soldiers. 

Though  he  gained  more  by  defeat  than  he  could  have 
gained  by  victory,  Leo  betook  himself  to  Benevento,  a 
broken-hearted  man.  The  slain  at  Civitella  were  ever 
before  him,  and  he  was  profoundly  troubled  by  the 
attitude  of  Michael  Cflcrularius,  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople. That  ambitious  prelate  was  determinerl,  if 
possible,  to  have  no  superior  in  either  Church  or  State. 
As  early  as  1042,  he  had  struck  the  pope's  name  off  the 
sacred  diptychs,  and  soon  proceeded,  first  in  private 
and  then  m  public,  to  attack  the  Latin  Church  because 
it  used  unfermented  bread  (azymes)  in  the  Sacrifice 
of  the  Mass.  At  length,  and  that,  too,  in  a  most 
barbarous  manner,  he  closed  the  Latin  churches  in 
Constantinople.  In  reply  to  this  violence,  Leo  ad- 
dressed a  strong  letter  to  Michael  (Sept.,  1053),  and 
began  to  study  Greek  in  order  the  better  to  under- 
Btajid  the  matters  in  dispute.  However,  if  Michael 
had  taken  advantage  of  the  pope's  difficulties  with  the 
Normans  to  push  his  plans,  the  Greek  Emperor,  seeing 
that  his  hold  on  Southern  Italy  was  endangered  by 
the  Norman  success,  put  pressure  on  the  patriarch  to 
make  him  more  respectful  to  the  pope.  To  the  con- 
ciliatory letters  which  Constantine  and  Cierularius 
now  dispatched  to  Rome,  Leo  sent  suitable  replies 
(Jan.,  1054),  blaming  the  arrogance  of  the  patriarch. 
His  letters  were  conyej'ed  by  two  distinguished  car- 
dinals, Humbert  and  Frederick,  but  he  had  departed 
this  life  before  the  momentous  issue  of  his  embassy 
was  known  in  Rome.  On  16  July,  1054,  the  two 
cardinals  excommunicated  Ca>rularius,  and  the  East 
was  finally  cut  off  from  the  body  of  the  Church. 

The  annals  of  England  show  that  Leo  had  many 
relations  with  that  country,  and  its  saintly  King 
Edward.  He  dispensed  the  king  from  a  vow  which  he 
had  taken  to  malce  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  on  condition 
that  he  give  alms  to  the  poor,  and  endow  a  monas- 
tery in  honour  of  St.  Peter.  Leo  also  authorized  the 
translation  of  the  See  of  Crediton  to  Exeter,  and 
forbade  the  consecration  of  the  unworthy  Abbot 
of  Abingdon  (Spearhafoc)  as  Bishop  of  London. 
Throughout  the  troubles  which  Robert  of  Jumi^ges, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  had  with  the  family  of 
Earl  Godwin,  he  received  tne  support  of  the  pope,  who 
sent  him  the  pallium  and  condemned  Stigand,  the 
usurper  of  his  see  (1053?).  King  Macbeth,  the  sup- 
posed murderer  of  Duncan,  whom  Shakespeare  has 
mimortalized,  is  believed  to  have  visited  Rome  during 
Leo's  pontificate,  and  may  be  thouglit  to  have  ex- 
posed the  needs  of  his  soul  to  that  tender  father. 
After  the  battle  of  Civitella  Leo  never  recovered  his 
spirits.  Seized  at  length  with  a  mortal  illness,  he 
caused  himself  to  be  carried  to  Rome  (March,  1054). 
where  he  died  a  most  edifying  death.  He  was  buried 
in  St.  Peter's,  was  a  worker  of  miracles  both  in  life  and 
in  death,  and  found  a  place  in  the  Roman  Martyrology. 

WiBERT  aiid  other  contemporary  biographcri  of  the  saint  in 
Watferich,  Pont.  Horn.  Viiae,  I  (Leipzig,  1862)- P. L..  CXLIII. 
etc. ;  AsBF.iM  of  Reims,  ibid.,  CXLII ;  Libuin  in  Watterich  and 
in  P.L.,  C!XLIH;  see  also  Bonizo  ofSdtri,  St.  Peter  Damian, 
Lanfranc,  and  other  contemporaries  of  the  saint.  His  letters 
are  to  be  found  in  P.  L.,  CXLlII;  cf.  Delarc,  Un  pape  Ahacien 
(Paris,  1876) :  Brucker,  L'A laace  et  I'/vlise  ou  temps  du  pape  S. 
Lion  (Paris,  1889);  Martin.  S.  Lfon  IX  (Paris,  1904);  Br^iuer, 
Le  Schisme  Oriental  du  XI*  Silcle  (Paris,  1899);  Fortescub. 
flu  Orthodox  Eastern  Chureh  (London,  1907),  v;  Mann,  Lives  of 
tfc«Pop««,  VI  (London.  1910).  HoRACE    K.    MaNN. 

Leo  X,  Pope  (Giovanni  de'  Medici),  b.  at  Florence, 
11  December,  1475;  d.  at  Rome,  1  December,  1521,  was 
the  second  son  of  Lorenzo  the  Mapiiiicent  (1409^ 
1492)  and  Clarice  Orsini,  and  from  his  earliest  youth 
was  destined  for  the  Church.    He  received  tonsure  in 


1482  and  in  1483  was  made  Abbot  of  Font  Douce  in 
the  French  Diocese  of  Saintes  and  appointed  Apostolic 
prothonotary  by  Sixtus  IV.  All  the  benefices  which 
the  Medici  could  obtain  were  at  his  disposal;  he  conse- 
quently became  possessed  of  the  rich  Abbey  of  Pas- 
signano  in  1484  and  in  1486  of  Monte  Cassino.  Owing 
to  the  constant  pressure  brought  to  b<^r  by  LoreiUBO 
and  his  envoys,  Innocent  VIII  in  1489,  created  the 
thirteen  ^^ear  old  child  a  cardinal,  on  condition  that  he 
should  dispense  with  the  insignia  and  the  privileges  of 
his  office  for  three  years.  Meanwhile  his  education 
was  completed  by  tne  most  distinguished  Humanists 
and  scholars,  Angelo  Poliziano,  Marsilio  Ficino,  and 
B<»mardo  Dovizi  (later  Cardinal  Bibbiena).  From 
1489  to  1491  Giovanni  de'  Medici  studied  theolo^  and 
canon  law,  at  Pisa,  under  Filippo  Decio  and  Barto- 
lomeo  Sozzini.  On  9  March,  1492,  at  Fiesole,  he  was 
invested  with  the  insignia  of  a  cardinal  and  on  22 
March  entered  Rome.  The  next  day  the  pope  re- 
ceived him  in  consistory  with  the  customaiy  ceremo- 
nies. The  Romans  found  the  youthful  cardinal  more 
mature  than  his  a^e  might  warrant  them  to  expect. 
His  father  sent  him  an  impressive  letter  of  advice 
marked  by  good  sense  and  knowledge  of  human  na- 
ture, besiucs  bearing  witness  to  the  high  and  virtuous 
sentiments  to  which  the  elder  Lorenzo  returned  to- 
wards the  end  of  his  life.  In  this  letter  he  enjoins 
upon  his  son  certain  rules  of  conduct,  and  admonishes 
him  to  be  honourable,  virtuous,  and  exemplary,  the 
more  so  as  the  College  of  Cardinals  at  that  time  was 
deficient  in  these  good  qualities. 

In  the  very  next  month  Lorenzo's  death  recalled 
the  cardinal  to  Florence.  He  returned  once  more  to 
Rome  for  the  papal  election,  which  resulted,  very 
much  against  his  approval,  in  the  elevation  of  the 
unworthy  Alexander  VI,  after  which  Giovanni  re- 
mained in  Florence  from  August,  1492,  until  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Medici  in  1494,  when  he  fied  from  his 
native  city  in  the  habit  of  a  Franciscan  monk.  After 
several  fruitless  attempts  to  restore  the  supremacy  of 
his  family,  he  went  on  a  Jong  journey  through  Ger- 
many, Holland,  and  France,  from  which  he  returned 
to  Rome  in  15()0.  There,  in  keeping  with  the  habits 
of  his  family,  he  led  the  life  of  a  literary  and  artistic 
amateur.  Patronage,  liberality,  and  poor  financial 
administration  frequently  reduced  him  even  then  to 
distressing  straits;  indeed,  he  remained  a  bad  manager 
to  the  last.  But  though  his  manner  of  life- was  qmte 
worldly  he  excelled  in  dignity,  propriety,  and  irre- 
proachable conduct  most  of  the  cardinals.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  pontificate  of  Julius  II  (1603-1613^,  for- 
tune once  more  smiled  on  Giovanni  de*  Medici.  In 
August,  1511,  the  pone  was  dangerously  ill  and  the 
Medici  cardinal  alreacly  aspired  to  the  succession.  In 
October,  1511,  he  became  legate;  in  Bologna  and  Ro- 
maf^na,  and  cherished  the  hope  that  his  family  would 
again  rule  in  Florence.  The  Florentines  had  taken 
the  part  of  the  schismatic  Pisans  (see  Julius  II)  for 
which  reason  the  pope  supported  the  Medici.  Mean- 
while the  cardinal  suffered  another  reverse.  The 
army,  Spanish  and  papal,  with  which  he  was  sojourn- 
ing, was  defeated  in  1512  at  Ravenna  by  the  French 
and  he  was  taken  prisoner.  But  it  was  a  Pyrrhic  vic- 
tory, for  the  French  soon  lost  all  their  possessions  in 
Italy,  and  the  cardinal,  who  was  to  have  oeen  taken  to 
France,  succeeded  in  making  his  escape.  The  suprem- 
acy of  the  Medici  in  Florence  was  re-establisliod  in 
September,  1512,  and  this  unexpected  change  in  the 
fortunes  of  his  family  was  only  the  prelude  to  higher 
honours. 

Julius  II  died  on  21  February,  1513,  and  on  11 
March  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  then  but  thirty-eight 
years  old,  was  elected  pope.  In  the  first  scrutiny  he 
received  only  one  vote.  His  adherents,  the  younger 
cardinals,  held  back  his  candidacy  imtU  the  proper 
moment.  The  election  met  with  approval  even  in 
France,  although  here  and  there  a  natural  misgiving 


UM^,  byKholu«aDd&rti£taof  whom  be 
patron,  and  by  theolopaos  who  looked  fur  energetic 
church  refonna  under  a  pacific  ruler.  Unfortunately 
be  realised  the  hopes  only  of  the  artiats,  literati,  and 
worldUngs  who  looked  upon  the  papal  court  as  a  centre 
of  amusement. 

Leo's  personal  appearance  has  been  perpetuated  for 
us  in  BaphBel'a  celeDratcd  picture  at  tue  Fitti  Gallery 
m  Florence,  which  representa  him  with  CardlDBU 
Uedici  and  Rossi.  He  was  not  a  hjutrbome  man.  His 
fat,  shiny,  effenunate  countenance  with  weak  eyes  pro- 
tnides  in  the  piotura  from  under  a  cloae-IittJng  cap. 
The  unwieldy  body  is  supported  by  Uiin  legs.  His 
movements  were  sluggish  and  during  ecclesiastical 
functions  his  corpulence  made  him  constiintly  wipe  the 
perspiration  from  his  face  and  hands,  to  the  distress  of 
the  bystanders.  But  when  he  laughed  or  spoke  the 
unpleasant  impression  vanished.  He  had  an  agreeable 
voice,  knew  how  to  express  himself  with  elegance  and 
vivacity,  and  his  manner  was  easy  and  gracious.  "  Let 
usenioy  the  papacy  since  God  has  given  it  to  us",  he 
is  said  to  have  remarked  after  his  election.  The  Vene- 
tian ambassador  who  related  this  of  him  was  not  un- 
biased, nor  was  he  in  Rome  at  the  timp,  newrthtless 


e  uu 

Ouder  such  circumstances,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
the  large  treasure  left  by  Julius  II  was  entirely  dis». 
pated  in  two  years.  In  the  spring  of  1515  the  ex- 
chequer was  empty  and  Leo  never  after  recovered  from 
his  fimLnciai  emt»rrassment.  Various  doubtful  and 
reprehensible  methods  were  resorted  to  for  raising 
money.  He  created  new  offices  and  dignities,  and  the 
most  exalted  places  were  put  up  for  sale.  Jubilees 
and  indulgences  were  degraded  almost  entirely  into 
financial  transactions,  yet  without  avail,  as  the  treas- 
ury was  ruined.  The  pope's  income  amounted  to  be- 
tween 500,000  and  000,000  ducats.  The  papal  houso- 
hold  abnc,  which  Julius  II  had  maintained  on  48,000 
ducats,     now    cost 


him.  He  paid  no  attention  to  the  dangers  tbreatc 
ing  the  papacy,  and  gave  hunself  up  unrestrainedly  to 
amusements,  that  were  provided  in  lavish  abundant^. 
Be  was  possessed  by  an  insatiable  love  of  pleasure, 
that  distmctive  trait  of  his  family.  Music,  the  thea- 
tre, art,  and  poetiy  appealed  to  him  as  to  any  pam- 
pered worldling.  Though  temperate  himself,  he  loved 
to  give  lianquets  and  expensive  entertainments,  ac- 
companied by  revelry  and  carousing;  and  notwith- 
standing his  indolence  he  had  a  strong  passion  for  the 
cbasCi  which  he  conducted  every  year  on  the  largest 
scale.  From  his  youth  he  was  an  enthusiastic  lover  of 
music  and  attracted  to  his  court  the  most  distin- 
guished musicians.  At  table  he  enjoyed  hearing  im- 
provisations, and  though  it  is  hard  to  believe,  in  view 
of  his  dignity  and  his  artistic  tastes,  the  fact  remains 
that  he  enjoyed  also  the  flat  and  absurd  jokes  of  buf- 
foons. Their  loose  speech  and  incredible  appetites 
delighted  him.  In  ridicule  and  caricature  he  was  him- 
self a  master.  Pageantry,  deur  to  the  pleasure-seek- 
ing Romans,  bull-lights,  and  the  like,  were  not  neg- 
lected. Every  year  he  amused  himself  during  the 
carnival  with  masques,  music,  theatrical  perform- 
ances, dances,  and  races.  Even  during  the  troubled 
years  of  1520  and  1521  he  kept  up  this  frivolous  hfc. 
Id  1620  he  took  part  in  unusually  brilliant  festivities. 
Theatrical  representations,  with  agreeable  music  and 
graceful  dancing,  were  his  favourite  diversions.     The 

Kpal  palace  t>ccame  a  theatre  and  the  pope  did  not 
gitate  to  attend  such  improper  plays  as  the  immoral 
"CflJendra"  by  Bibbiena  and  Ariosto's  indecent "  Sup- 

Kiti ".  His  contemporaries  all  praised  and  admired 
.'s  unfailing  good  tamper,  wliich  he  never  entirely 
lost  even  in  adversity  and  trouble.  Himself  cheerful, 
bis  wished  to  see  others  cheerful.  He  was  good- 
natured  and  liberal  and  never  refused  a  favour  either  to 
bis  relatives  and  fellow  Florentines,  who  flooded  Rome 
and  seiaed  upon  ail  official  positions,  or  to  the  numer- 
ous other  petitioners,  artists  and  poets.  His  gener- 
osity was  boundless,  nor  was  his  pleasure  in  giving  a 
pose  or  deaire  for  vajnglorj-;  it  came  from  the  heart. 
He  never  was  ostentatious  and  attached  no  impor- 
tance to  ceremonial.  He  was  lavish  in  works  of  clior- 
ity;  convents,  hospitals,  discharged  soldiers,  poor  stu- 
dents, pilgrims,  exiles,  cripples,  the  blind,  the  sick,  the 
unfortunate  of  every  description  were  generously  ro- 
membered,  and  more  than  oOOO  ducats  were  annually 


about  four  and 
half  million  ducats 
during  his  pontifi- 
cate and  left  a  debt 
amounting  to  400,- 
000  ducatM.  On  his 
unexpected  death 
his  creditors  faced 
financial  ruin.  A 
lampoon  proclaimed 
tliat  "Leo  X  had 
consumed  three 
pontiticati's;  the 
treasure  of  J  ulius  11, 
the  revenues  of  his 
own  reign,  and  those 

of  ;■■ '■ 


rtBtibmtaCMatbitt 


■,     to    pay   full  i 

lit   to  the  good         TiTLEori.iiIlui.L..rLE;oX_ 


diitiibuted  in  alm^. 


proper,  how- 
to  pay  full 
credit  to  the  good 
qualitiesofLeo.  He  Cond™ninE 
was  liighly  cultivated,  susceptible  to  all  that  was 
beautiful,  a  polished  orator  and  a  clover  writer,  pos- 
sessed of  good  memory  and  judgment,  in  inanner 
dignified  and  majestic.  It  was  genemllv  acknowl- 
edged, even  by  those  who  were  unfriendly  towards 
him,  that  he  was  unfeignedly  religious  and  strictly 
fulfilled  his  spiritual  duties.  lie  heard  Moss  and 
read  his  Breviary  daily  and  fasted  three  times  s 
week.  His  piety  cannot  truly  be  described  as  deep 
or  spiritual,  but  that  does  not  justify  the  continued 
repetition  of  his  alleged  remark:  '  Ilow  much  we 
and  our  family  have  profited  by  the  l»«end  of  Christ, 
is  sufQciently  evident  to  all  ages."  John  Bale,  the 
apostate  English  Carmelite,  the  first  to  give  cur- 
rency to  these  words  in  the  tunc  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
was  not  even  a  contemporary  of  Leo.  Among  the 
many  sayings  of  Leo  X  tliat  tiavc  come  down  to  UB, 
there  is  not  one  of  a  Bccpticul  nature.  In  his  private 
life  he  preserved  as  pope  the  irrenroachuble  reputation 
that  he  had  borne  when  a  carainal.  His  citaracler 
shows  a  remarkable  mingling  of  ^;ood  and  bud  traits. 

The  fame  of  Leo  X  is  due  to  his  promotion  of  litera- 
ture, science,  and  art.  Under  him  Home  became  more 
than  ever  the  centre  of  the  literary  world.  "  From  all 
parts",  wrot«  Cardinal  Riario  in  131.)  to  Era.<;mu^  at 
Rotterdam.  " men  of  letters  are  hurriing  to  the  Eter- 
nal City,  tneir  common  country,  their  support,  and 
their  patroness."  Poets  were  especially  numerous  in 
Rome  and  few  princes  hai-e  been  so  lauded  in  verse  as 
Leo  X.  He  lavished  gifts,  favours,  positions,  titles, 
not  only  on  real  poets  and  scholars,  but  often  on 
poetasters  and  commonplace  jesters.  He  esteemed 
particularly  the  papal  secretaries  Bembo  and  Sado- 
Icto,  both  celebrated  poets  and  prose  writers.  Bembo 
cliarmed  everyone  by  his  polish  and  wit.  His  classic, 
Ciceronian  letters  exhibit  a  rcmaikably  varied  inter* 
course  with  almost  all  the  celebrities  of  his  day. 
.\mong  other  thinss,  he  prepared  a  critical  edition  of 
Dante's  works  and  was  a  zealous  collector  of  manu- 
scripts, books,  and  works  of  art.    Ilia  conduct  was  ncMi 


LSO 


164 


LIO 


in  accord  with  his  position  as  papal  notary,  count 
palatine,  and  incumbent  of  numerous  benefices,  for  he 
was  worldly  and  self-indulgent.  Sadoleto  was  quite 
another  man.  He  led  a  pure  and  spotless  life,  was  a 
model  priest,  united  in  Imnself  the  dififerent  phases  of 
ancient  and  modem  culture  and  was  an  ardent  en- 
thusiast for  antiquity.  In  elegance  and  polish  he  was 
in  no  way  inferior  to  Bembo.  Among  the  Latin  poets 
of  Medicean  Rome  we  may  briefly  mention  Vida.  who 
composed  a  poem  of  great  merit,  the  "  Christiade  and 
was  extoUea  by  his  contemporaries  as  the  Christian 
Virgil;  Sannazaro,  author  of  an  epic  poem  on  the  birth 
of  Christ  which  is  a  model  of  style;  the  Carmelite  Spa- 
gnoloMantovano  with  his"  Calendar  of  Feasts  "  ;F  er- 
leri,  who  in  the  most  naive  way  recast  the  h3rmns  in 
the  Breviary  with  heathen  terms,  images,  and  allu- 
sions. The  total  number  of  these  poets  exceeds  one 
hundred;  and  a  lampoon  of  1521  says  they  were  more 
numerous  than  the  stars  in  heaven.  Most  of  them 
have  fallen  into  well-deserved  oblivion. 

This  is  equally  true  of  the  contemporary  Italian 
poetry — ^more  prolific  than  notable.  Among  the  Ital- 
ian poets  Trissino  wrote  a  tragedy,  "Sophonisba", 
and  an  epic  **  L'ltalia  liberata  dai  Gothi '',  out  had  no 
real  success  with  either  in  spite  of  earnest  purpose  and 
beauty  of  language.  Rucellai,  a  relative  of  the  pope, 
whose  clever  and  sympathetic  didactic  poem  on  bees 
met  with  great  approval  from  his  contemporaries, 
owed  his  reputation  chiefly  to  an  inferior  work,  the 
tragedy  of  Rosmonda".  The  celebrated  improvisa- 
torCj  Tebaldeo  wrote  in  both  Latin  and  Italian.  To- 
wanls  Ariosto  the  pope  was  remarkably  harsh.  Ar- 
chaeology received  great  encouragement.  One  of  its 
most  distinguished  representatives  was  Manctti.  In 
1521  the  firet  collection  of  Roman  topographical  in- 
scriptions appeared  and  introduced  a  new  era.  Im- 
portant progress  was  due  to  the  works  of  the  learned 
antiquary,  Fulvio.  Fulvio,  Calvo,  Castiglione,  and 
Raphael  had  planned  an  archaeological  survey  of  an- 
cient Rome  with  accompanying  text.  Raphael's 
early  death  abruptly  interrupted  the  work  which  was 
carried  on  by  Fulvio  and  Calvo.  The  Greek  lan- 
guage also  found  favour  and  encouragement;  Aldus 
Manutius.  the  Venetian  publisher,  whose  excellent  and 
correct  eaitions  of  Greek  classics  became  so  popular, 
was  one  of  Leo's  prot^g6s.  Andreas  Johannes  Las- 
caris  and  Musurus  were  sunmioned  from  Greece  to 
Rome  and  foimded  a  Greek  college,  the  "Medicean 
Academy".  Moreover  the  pope  encouraged  the  col- 
lection of  manuscripts  and  books.  He  recovered  his 
family  library  which  had  been  sold  by  the  Florentines 
in  1494  to  the  monks  of  San  Marco,  had  it  brought  to 
Rome,  and  enforced  the  regulations  of  Sixtus  IV  for 
the  Vatican  Library.  The  most  distinguished  of  his 
librarians  was  Inghirami,  less  indeed  through  any 
learned  works  than  for  his  gift  of  eloquence.  He  was 
called  the  Cicero  of  his  age  and  played  an  important 
r61e  at  court.  In  1516  he  was  succeeded  by  the  Bo- 
lognese  Humanist  Beroaldo.  Leo  tried,  as  >iicholas  V 
had  formerly  done,  to  increase  the  treasures  of  the 
Vatican  Library,  and  with  this  object  sent  emissaries 
in  all  directions,  even  to  Scandinavia  and  the  Orient, 
to  discover  literary  treasures  and  either  obtain  them, 
or  borrow  them  for  the  purpose  of  making  copies.  The 
results,  however,  were  unimportant.  The  Roman  uni- 
versity, which  had  entered  on  decay,  was  reformed,  but 
did  not  long  flourish.  On  the  whole,  Leo,  as  a  literary 
Maecenas,  has  been  overrated  by  his  biographer  Giovio 
and  later  panegyrists.  Relatively  little  was  accom- 
plished, partly  on  account  of  the  constant  lack  of 
money  and  partly  because  of  the  thoughtlessness  and 
haste  which  the  pope  often  showed  in  distributing  his 
favours.  He  was  in  reality  only  a  dilettante.  Yet  he 
gave  an  important  stimulus  to  scientific  and  literary 
life,  and  was  a  potent  factor  in  the  cultural  develop- 
ment of  the  West. 

More  important  results  ensued  from  his  promotion 


of  art,  though  he  was  unquestionably  inferior  in  taste 
and  judgment  to  his  predecessor  Julius  II.  Leo  en* 
couraged  painting  beyond  all  other  branches  of  art; 
pre-eminent  in  tms  class  stand  the  immortal  produc- 
tions of  Haphael.  In  1508  he  had  come  to  Rome, 
summoned  by  Julius  II,  and  remained  there  until  his 
death  in  1520.  The  protection  extended  to  this  mas- 
ter genius  is  Leo's  most  enduring  claim  on  posterity. 
Raphael's  achievements,  already  numerous  and  im- 

e)rtant,  took  on  more  dignity  and  grandeur  under  Leo. 
e  painted,  sketched, and  engraved  from  antique  works 
of  art,  modeled  in  clay,  made  designs  for  palaces, 
directed  the  work  of  others  by  order  of  the  pope,  gave 
advice  and  assistance  ahke  to  supervisors  and  work- 
men. "  Everything  pertaining  to  art  the  pope  turns 
over  to  Raphaer',  wrote  an  ambassador  m  1518. 
This  is  not,  of  course,  the  place  to  treat  Raphael's 
prodigious  activity.  We  hmit  ourselves  to  brief  men- 
tion of  a  few  of  his  works.  He  finished  the  decoration 
of  the  Vatican  halls  or  "  Stanze "  begun  imder  Jidius 
II,  and  in  the  third  hall  cleveriy  referred  to  Leo  X  by 
introducing  scenes  from  the  pontificates  of  Leo  lU 
and  Leo  IV.  A  more  important  commission  was  given 
him  to  paint  the  cartoons  for  the  tapestries  of  the  Sis- 
tine  Chapel,  the  highest  of  Raphael's  achievements, 
the  most  magnificent  of  them  b^ing  "  St.  Peter's  mir- 
aculous draught  of  fishes  "  and  "  St.  Paul  preaching  in 
Athens".  A  third  famous  enterprise  was  the  decent 
tion  of  the  Vatican  Loggia  done  by  Raphael's  pupils 
under  his  direction,  and  mostly  from  his  designs. 
The  most  exquisite  of  his  paintings  are  the  wonderful 
Sistine  Madonna  and  the  "Transfiguration".  Sculp- 
ture showed  a  marked  decline  under  Leo  X.  Michel- 
angelo offered  his  services  and  worked  from  1516  to 
1520  on  a  marble  fa<;ade  for  the  chureh  of  San  Lor- 
enzo in  Florence,  but  did  not  finish  it.  On  the.  other 
hand  the  pope  gave  especial  attention  and  encourage- 
ment to  the  minor  arts,  e.  g.  decorative  carving,  and 
furthered  the  industrial  arts.  The  greatest  and  most 
difficult  task  of  Leo  was  in  the  field  of  architecture  and 
was  inherited  from  his  predecessor,  viz.,  the  continua- 
tion of  the  new  St.  Peter's.  Bramante  remained  its 
chief  architect  imtil  his  death  in  1514.  Raphael  suc- 
ceeded him,  but  in  his  six  years  of  office  little  was 
done,  much  to  his  regret,  through  lack  of  means. 

We  may  now  turn  to  the  political  and  religious 
events  of  Leo's  pontificate.  Here  the  bright  splen- 
dour that  diffuses  itself  over  his  literary  and  artistic 
patronage,  is  soon  changed  to  deepest  gloom.  His 
well-known  peaceable  inclinations  made  the  poUtical 
situation  a  disagreeable  heritage,  and  he  tried  to  main- 
tain tranquillity  bv  exhortations,  to  which,  however, 
no  one  listened,  f  ranee  desired  to  wreak  vengeance 
for  the  defeat  of  1512  and  to  reconquer  Milan.  Venice 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  her,  whereupon  Em- 
peror Maximilian,  Spain,  and  England  in  1513  con- 
cluded a  Holy  League  against  France.  The  pope 
wished  at  first  to  remain  neutral  but  such  a  course 
would  have  isolated  him,  so  he  decided  to  be  faithful 
to  the  policy  of  his  predecessors  and  sought  accord- 
ingly to  oppose  the  designs  of  France,  but  in  doing  so, 
to  avoid  severity.  In  1513  the  Frencn  were  decisively 
routed  at  Novara  and  were  forced  to  effect  a  recon- 
ciliation with  Rome.  The  schismatic  cardinals  (see 
Julius  II)  submitted  and  were  pardoned,  and  France 
then  took  part  in  the  Lateran  Council  which  Ijqo  had 
continued. 

But  success  was  soon  clouded  by  uncertainty. 
Franco  endeavoured  to  form  an  alliance  with  Spain  and 
to  obtain  Milan  and  Genoa  by  a  matrimonial  alliance. 
Leo  feared  for  the  independence  of  the  Papal  States 
and  for  the  so-called  freedom  of  Italy.  He  negotiated 
on  all  sides  without  committing  himself,  and  in  1514 
succeeded  in  bringing  about  "an  Anglo-French  alliance. 
The  fear  of  Spain  now  gave  wav  to  the  bugbear  of 
French  supremacy  and  the  pope  began  negotiating  in 
a  deceitful  and  disloyal  manner  with  France  and  ner 


UK>                              185  UK> 

eniUDies  dmuHaneouBly.  Before  he  bad  decided  to  to  be  feared  that  Qod  Himself  would  cut  off  the  rottea 
bind  himself  in  one  way  or  the  other,  Louis  XII  died  limbs  and  destroy  them  with  fire  and  sword.  That 
and  the  yoimg  and  anient  Francis  I  succeeded  him.  very  year  this  prophetic  warning  was  verified.  The 
Onoe  more  Leo  sought  delay.  He  supported  the  salutary  reforms  of  the  Lateran  Council  found  no  prac- 
League  against  France,  but  until  the  last  moment  tical  acceptance.  Pluralism,  conunendatory  bene- 
hoped  for  an  arrangement  with  Francis.  But  the  lat-  fices.  and  the  granting  of  ecclesiastical  dignities  to 
ter  shortly  after  his  descent  upon  Italy,  won  the  great  children  remained  customary.  Leo  himself  did  not 
victory  cf  Marignano^  I3~14  September,  1515,  and  the  scruple  to  set  aside  repeatedly  the  decrees  of  the  ooun- 
pope  now  made  up  his  mind  to  throw  himself  into  the  eil.  The  Roman  Curia,  then  much  despised  and 
arms  of  the  Most  Christian  King  and  beg  for  mercy,  against  which  so  many  inveighed  with  violence,  re- 
He  was  obliged  to  alter  his  policy  completely  and  to  mained  as  worldly  as  ever.  The  pope  was  either  un- 
abandoQ  to  the  French  lung  Parma  and  Piacenza,  willing  or  not  in  a  position  to  regulate  the  imworthy 
which  had  been  retmited  with  Milan.  An  interview  and  immoral  conduct  of  many  of  the  Roman  courtiers. 
with  King  Francis  at  Bologna  resulted  in  the  French  The  political  situation  absorbed  his  attention  and  was 
Concordat  (I5I6),  that  brou^t  with  it  such  important  largely  responsible  for  the  premature  close  of  the 
ocmseauenoes  f(Nr  the  Church.    The  Pragmatic  Sano-  coimcil. 

tion  of  Bourges  (1438),  deeply  inimical  to  the  papacy,  In  March,  1516,  Emperor  Maximilian  crossed  the 
was  revoked,  but  the  pope  paid  a  hig^  price  for  tms  Alps  to  make  war  on  the  French  and  Venetians. 
ooncession,  when  he  grantee!  to  the  king  the  right  of  Ilie  pope  followed  his  iisual  course  of  shifting  and 
nomination  to  all  the  sees,  abbejrs,  and  priories  of  dissimulation.  At  first,  when  events  seemed  favour- 
France.  Through  this  and  other  concessions,  e.  g.  able  for  the  French,  he  supported  Francis.  But  his 
that  pertaining  to  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  the  former  double-dealing  had  left  Francis  in  such  ill- 
r^yal  mfluence  over  the  French  Church  was  assured,  humour  that  he  now  adhered  to  aii  antipapal  policy, 
Great  discontent  resulted  in  France  among  the  clergy  whereupon  Leo  adopted  an  unfriendly  attitude  to- 
and  in  the  parliaments.  The  abolition  of  the  Prag-  wards  tne  king.  Their  relations  were  further  strained 
matic  Sanction,  drawn  up  in  compliance  with  the  de-  apropos  of  the  Duchy  of  Urbino.  During  the  French 
erees  of  the  Council  of  Basle,  affected  the  adherents  invasion  the  Duke  of  Urbino  had  withheld  the  assist- 
of  the  conciliar  system  of  church  government.  The  ance  which  he  was  in  duty  bound  to  render  the  pope, 
abolition  of  free  ecclesiastical  elections  affected  griev-  who  now  exiled  him  and  gave  the  title  to  his  nephew, 
ously  the  interests  of  many  and  opposition  to  the  Con-  Lorenzo  dc'  Medici.  The  French  king  was  highly  dis- 
oordat  was  maintained  for  centuries.  The  advantage  pleased  with  the  papal  policy,  and  when  Francis  I  and 
to  the  Church  and  the  pope  of  such  a  great  sacrifice  Maximilian  formed  the  alliance  of  Cambrai  in  1517 
was  that  France,  hitherto  schismatical  in  attitude,  and  agreed  on  a  partition  of  Upper  and  Central  Italy, 
now  stood  firmly  bound  to  the  Holy  See,  which  thus  Pope  Leo  found  nimself  in  a  disagreeable  position.  In 
turned  aside  the  danger  of  complete  estrangement,  part  by  reason  of  his  constant  vacillation  he  had 
However,  the  way  in  which  the  French  crown  abused  drifted  into  a  dangerous  isolation,  added  to  which  the 
its  ocmtrol  over  the  Church  led  at  a  later  period  to  great  Duke  of  Urbino  reconquered  his  duchy;  to  crown 
evOs.  all  other  calamities  came  a  conspiracy  of  cardinals 
Ifoanwhile  the  Lateran  Coimcil,  continued  by  Leo  against  the  pope's  life.  The  ringleader,  Cardinal  Pe- 
after  his  elevation  to  the  papacy,  was  nearing  its  close,  trucci,  was  a  young  worldly  ecclesiastic  who  thought 
having  issued  numerous  and  very  timely  decrees,  e.  g.  only  of  money  and  pleasure.  He  and  the  other  cardi- 
t  against  the  false  philosophical  teachings  of  the  Pa-  nals  who  had  brought  about  Leo's  election,  made  after- 
duan  professor,  Pietro  Pomponazzi,  who  denied  the  wards  such  numerous  and  insistent  demands  that  the 
immortality  of  the  soul.  The  encroachments  of  pagan  pope  could  not  yield  to  them.  Other  causes  for  dis- 
Humanism  on  the  spiritual  life  were  met  by  the  simul-  content  were  found  in  the  imfortunate  war  with  Ur- 
taneous  rise  of  a  new  order  of  philosophical  and  theo-  bino  and  in  the  abolition  of  the  election  capitulations 
kmcal  studies.  In  the  ninth  session  was  promulgated  and  the  excessi  vc  privileges  of  the  cardinals.  Petrucci 
a  BuH  that  treated  exhaustively  of  reforms  in  the  bore  personal  ill-will  towards  the  *'\mgrateful  pope". 
Curia  and  the  Church.  Abbeys  and  benefices  were  who  had  removed  his  brother  from  the  government  of 
henceforth  to  be  bestowed  only  on  persons  of  merit  Siena.  He  tried  to  have  the  pope  poisoned  by  a 
and  according  to  canon  law.  Provisions  of  benefices  physician,  but  suspicion  was  aroused  and  the  plot  was 
and  ronsistorial  proceedings  were  regulated ;  ecclesi-  oetrayed  through  a  letter.  The  investigation  impli- 
astical  depositions  and  transfers  made  more  difficult;  catcd  Cardinals  Sauli,  Riario,  Soderini^  and  Castellesi; 
commendatory  benefices  were  forbidden;  and  unions  thcv  had  been  guilty  at  least  of  listening  to  Petrucci. 
and  reservations  of  benefices,  also  dispensations  for  and.  perhaps  ha^  desired  his  success,  though  their  full 
obtaining  them,  were  restricted.  Measures  were  also  complicity  was  not  actually  proved.  Petrucci  was 
taken  for  reforming  the  curial  administration  and  the  executed  and  the  others  punished  by  fines;  Riario  paid 
lives  of  cardinals,  clerics,  and  the  faithful.     The  reli-  the  enormous  sum  of  150,000  ducats. 

Sous  instruction  of  children  was  declared  a  duty.  The  affair  throws  a  lurid  li^ht  on  the  degree  of  cor- 
lasphemers  and  incontinent,  negligent,  or  simoniac  ruption  in  the  highest  ecclesiastical  circles.  Uncon- 
ecdesiastics  were  to  be  severely  punished.  Church  cemed  by  the  scandal  he  was  giving.  Leo  took  ad- 
revenues  were  no  longer  to  be  turned  to  secular  uses,  vantage  of  the  proceeding  to  create  thirty-one  new 
The  immunities  of  the  clergy  must  be  respected,  and  cardinals,  thereoy  obtaimng  an  entirely  submissive 
all  kinds  of  superstition  abolished.  The  eleventh  see-  college  and  also  money  to  carry  on  the  unlucky  war  with 
aion  dealt  with  the  cure  of  souls,  particularly  with  Urbino.  Not  a  few  of  these  cardinals  were  chosen  on 
preaching.  These  measures,  unhappily,  were  not  thor-  account  of  the  large  sums  they  advanced.  But  this 
oughly  enforced,  and  therefore  the  much-needed  gen-  wholesale  appointment  also  brought  several  virtuous 
uine  reform  was  not  realized.  Towards  the  close  and  distinguished  men  into  the  Sacred  College,  and  it 
of  the  council  (1517)  the  noble  and  highly  cultured  was  further  important  because  it  definitively  estab- 
layman,  Gianfrancesco  Pico  della  Mirandola,  dcliv-  lished  the  superiority  of  the  pope  over  the  cardinals. 
ered  a  remarkable  speech  on  the  necessity  of  a  reform  The  war  with  Urbino,  encouraged  by  Francis  I  and 
of  morals;  his  accoimt  of  the  moral  condition  of  the  Maximitianfor  the  purpose  of  increasing  Leo's  diflScul- 
clergy  is  saddening,  and  reveals  the  many  and  great  ties,  was  finally  brought  to  a  close,  after  having  cost 
difficulties  that  stood  in  the  way  of  a  genuine  reU)rm.  enormous  sums  and  emptied  the  papal  treasury.  Lor- 
He  concluded  with  the  wamine  that  if  Leo  X  left  such  enzo  de'  Medici  remained  in  possession  of  the  duchy 
offences  longer  unpunished  and  refused  to  apply  heal-  (1517).  Faithful  to  the  ancient  tradition  of  the  Holy 
ing  remedies  to  tneee  wounds  of  the  Church,  it  was  See,  from  the  ver}'  beginning  of  his  reign,  Leo  zealously 


UO  166  UBO 

advocated  a  crusade  against  the  Turks,  and  at  the  close  obliged  to  collect  10,000  ducats^  which  he  was  taxed 
of  the  war  with  Urbino  took  up  the  cause  with  renewed  over  and  above  the  usual  connrmation  fees.  To  in- 
determination.  In  November,  1517,  he  submitted  an  demnify  him,  and  to  make  it  possible  to  discharge  these 
exhaustive  memorial  to  all  the  princes  of  Europe,  and  obligations  Rome  permitted  him  to  have  preached  in 
endeavored  to  unite  them  in  a  common  eflfort,  but  in  his  territory  the  plenary  indulgence  promised  all  those 
vain.  The  replies  of  the  powers  proved  widely  dis-  who  contributed  to  the  new  St.  Peter's;  he  was  al- 
smoilar.  They  were  suspicious  of  one  another  and  lowed  to  keep  one  half  the  returns,  a  transaction  which 
each  sought  naturally  to  realize  various  secondary  brought  dishonour  on  all  concerned  in  it.  Added  to 
purposes  of  its  own.  Leo  answered  a  threatening  let-  this,  abuses  occurred  during  the  {^reaching  of  the  In- 
ter from  the  sultan  by  active  exertions.  Religious  dulgence.  The  money  contributions,  a  mere  acces- 
processions  were  held,  a  truce  of  five  years  was  pro-  sory,  were  frecmently  the  chief  object,  and  the  "Indijd- 
claimed  throughout  Christendom  and  the  Crusade  gences  for  the  Dead'' became  a  vehicle  of  inadmissible 
was  preached  (1518).  The  pope  showed  real  earnest-  teachings.  That  Leo  X,  in  the  most  serious  of  all  the 
ness,  but  his  great  plan  miscarried  through  lack  of  co-  crises  which  threatened  the  Church,  should  fail  to 
operation  on  the  part  of  the  powers.  Moreover,  Car-  prove  the  proper  guide  for  her,  is  clear  enough  fram 
dmal  Wolsey,  Lord  Chancellor  of  England,  thwarted  what  has  been  related  above.  He  recognised  ndther 
the  pope's  peaceful  efforts  and  thus  dealt  a  grievous  the  cavity  of  the  situation  nor  the  underlying  causes 
blow  to  the  international  prestige  of  the  papacy,  of  the  revolt.  Vigorous  measiures  of  reumn  mig^ 
When  the  Crusade  was  preacned  in  Germany,  it  found  have  proved  an  efficacious  antidote,  but  the  pope  was 
a  large  section  of  the  people  strongly  predisposed  deeply  entangled  in  political  affairs  and  allowed  the  im- 
against  the  Curia,  and  furnished  them  with  an  occasion  periaf  election  to  overshadow  the  revolt  of  Luther; 
to  express  their  views  in  plain  terms.  It  was  believed  moreover,  he  gave  himself  up  unrestrainedly  to  his 
that  the  Curia  mefrcly  sought  to  obtain  more  money,  pleasures  and  failed  to  grasp  fully  the  duties  of  his 
One  of  the  numerous  spiteful  pamphlets  issued  dc-  nigh  office. 

clared  that  the  real  Turks  were  in  Italy  and  that  these  The  pope's  last  political  efforts  were  directed  to  ex- 
demons  could  only  be  pacified  by  streams  of  gold,  panding  tne  States  of  the  Church,  establishing  thereby 
The  good  cause  was  graaually  merged  with  an  impor-  a  dominating  power  in  Central  Italy  by  means  of  ihe 
tant  poUtical  (question,  the  succession  to  the  imperial  acquisition  of  Ferrara.  In  1519  he  concluded  a  treaty 
throne.  Maximilian  sought  the  election  for  his  grand-  with  Francis  I  against  Emperor  Charles  V.  But  the 
son,  Charles  of  Spain.  A  rival  appeared  in  the  person  selfishness  and  encroachments  of  the  French  and  the 
of  Francis  I,  and  both  he  and  Charles  vied  witn  each  struggle  against  the  Lutheran  movemen^  induced 
other  in  seeking  to  win  the  pope's  favour  by  re-  him  soon  to  unite  with  Charles,  after  he  had  again  re- 
peated assurances  of  their  willingness  to  move  against  sorted  to  his  double-faced  method  of  treating  with 
the  Turks.  The  event  of  the  election  relegated  the  both  rivals.  In  1521  pope  and  emperor  signed  a  d©- 
crusade  to  the  background.  In  1519  the  pope  real-  fensive  alliance  for  the  purpose  of  on  vine  the  French 
ized  that  there  was  no  longer  any  prospect  of  carrj'ing  out  of  Italy.  After  some  difficulty,  the  allies  occupied 
out  his  design.  Milan  and  Lombardy.  Amid  the  rejoicings  over 
Leo's  attitude  towards  the  imp>erial  succession  was  these  successes,  the  pope  died  suddenly  of  a  malignant 
influenced  primarily  by  his  anxiety  concerning  the  malaria.  His  enemies  are  wrongly  accused  of  having 
power  and  independence  of  the  Holy  See  and  the  so-  poisoned  him.  The  magnificent  pope  was  given  a  simr 
called  freedom  of  Italy.  Neither  candidate  was  ac-  pie  funeral  and  not  until  the  reign  of  Paul  III  was  a 
ceptable  to  him,  Charjes,  if  possible,  less  than  Francis,  monument  erected  to  his  memory  in  the  Church  ot  f 
owinff  to  the  preponderance  of  power  that  must  result  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva.  It  is  cold,  prosaic,  and 
from  his  accession.  The  pope  would  have  preferred  quite  unworthy  of  such  a  connoisseur  as  L^. 
a  German  electoral  prince,  that  of  Saxony  or  later,  The  only  possible  verdict  on  the  pontificate  of  Leo 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  "sailed",  as  usual,  X  is  that  it  was  unfortunate  for  the  Church.  Sigi&- 
"with  two  compasses",  held  both  rivals  at  bay  by  a  mondo  Tizio,  whose  devotion  to  the  Holy  See  is  un- 
double  jame  played  with  matchless  skill,  and  even  doubted,  writes  truthfully:  *'In  the  general  opinion  it 
succeeded  in  concluding  simultaneously  an  alliance  was  injurious  to  the  Church  that  her  Head  should  de- 
with  both.  The  deceitfulness  and  insincerity  of  his  light  in  plays,  music,  the  chase  and  nonsense,  instead 
political  dealings  cannot  be  entirely  excused,  either  by  of  paying  serious  attention  to  the  needs  of  his  flock 
the  difficult  position  in  which  he  was  placed  or  by  the  ana  mourning  over  their  misfortunes".  Von  Reu- 
example  of  his  secular  contemporaries.  Maximilian's  mont  says  pertinently — '*  I^eo  X  is  in  great  measure  to 
death  (January,  1519)  ended  the  pope's  irresolution,  blame  for  the  fact  that  faith  in  the  integrity  and  merit 
First  he  tried  to  defeat  both  candidates  by  raising  up  a  of  the  papacy,  in  its  moral  and  regenerating  powers, 
German  elector.  Then  he  worked  zealously  for  Fran-  and  even  in  it«  good  intentions,  should  have  sunk  so 
cis  I  in  the  endeavour  to  secure  his  firm  friendship  in  low  that  men  could  declare  extinct  the  old  true  spirit 
case  Charles  became  emperor,  an  event  which  grew  of  the  CHiurch." 

daily  more  likely.      Only  at  the  last  moment  when  the  Pastor,  History  of  the  Popes,  VII  (St.  Louis,  1908):  Lwnis 

election  of  Charlw  was  certain  and  unavoidable  did  J„t^b,«-,.f.?,:tF«fb  "fJSS^^lr/ovJv^^^ 

Leo  come  over  to  his  side;  after  the  election  he  watched  (Florence.  1548.  Losi) ;  Fabroniuh,  Lconit  x.  P.  M.  vita  (Pita. 

in  cnreat  anxiety  the  attitude  the  new  emperor  might  1797):  Uosoqe,  Life  and  Pontificate  of  Le^  X  (Liverpool,  1806, 

-_-?,_-  London,  1883):  Italian  tr.  with  new  matenals  by  B«>8«i  (Milan, 

^ri  ..  XX  rx       »  x-/?      X  ism,  \\J  DIS,  H  iUoire  de  ly  on  X.etde  son  siMc  {Ftin9,lS44); 

The  most  important  occurrence  of  Leo  S  pontificate  Nirn,  Leone  X  e  la  sua  politica  (Florence,  1892);   CoNFORTi, 

and  that  of  gravest  consequence  to  the  Church  was  the  Leone  X  edU  suo  eecolo  (Parma,  1896);   Von  Reumont,  Ge- 

Pt^fnrmof  inn   xrViiVh  l^vnn  in  1  ^1 7       \Vp  rinnof  pnt^r  9chichte  derStadt  Rom,  III  (Berlin,  1870).  part  ii;  Greooroviub, 

Ketormation,  Which  began  in  ii)i/.     v\  e  cannot  enter  ^^^/^^^^^  ^^  ^,^  /^^^^  VIII  (Stuttgart,  1896);   Geiger. 

mto  a  minute  account  of  this  movement,  the  remote  Renaissance  und  Humanismus  in  Deutschland  und  Italien  (Bor- 

cause  of  which  lay  in  the  religious,  political,  and  social  lin.  1882). 

conditions  of  Germany.     It  is  certain,  however,  tliat  Klemens  L(>ffler. 

the  seeds  of  discontent  amid  which  Luther  threw  his 

firebrand  had  been  germinating  for  centuries.     The        Leo  XI   (Alessandro  Ottaviano  de'   Medici), 

immediate  cause  was  bound  up  with  the  odious  greed  Pope,  b.  at  Florence  in  1535;  d.  at  Rome  27  April, 

for  money  displayed  by  the  Roman  Curia,  and  shows  1605,  on  the  twenty-seventh  day  after  his  election  to 

how  far  short  allefforts  at  reform  had  hitherto  fallen,  the  papacy.    His  mother,  Francesca  Salviati,  was  a 

Albert  of  Brandenbui^,  already  Archljishop  of  Magde-  daughter  of  Giacomo  Salviati  and  Lucrezia  Medici, 

burg,  received  in  adtlition  the  Archbishopric  of  Mainz  the  latter  l)eing  a  sister  of  Leo  X.    From  his  boyhood 

and  the  Bishopric  of  Han)erstadt,  but  in  return  was  he  led  a  life  of  piety  and  nlwajTS  had  an  earnest  desire 


ISO  u 

to  enter  the  eceleeiutical  stete,  but  could  not  obtain 
bia  mother'!  consent.  After  her  death  he  was  ardained 
priest  and  somewhat  later  Grand  Duke  Cosimo  of  Tua- 
onny  sent  him  as  arabeissador  to  Pius  V,  a  position 
which  he  held  for  fifteen  years,    Gregory  XIII  made 


in  1590,  as  legate  te  France  where  he  did  cooil  service 
for  the  Church  in  repressing  the  Huguenot  influence  at 
the  cMiurt  of  Henry  IV,  and  helping  to  restore  the 
Catholic  religion.  On  hia  return  to  Italy  he  was  ap- 
niint«d  prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
Hegulais.  In  ItiOO  he  became  Bishop  of  the  aubur- 
Ucarian  Diocese  of  Albano,  whence  he  was  transferred 
to  Palestriua  in  1Q02,  AJest^andro  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Saint  Philip  Xeri  with  whom  he  spent  much 
thne  in  spiritual  conversation  and  whose  advice  he 
•ought  in  all  important  matters.  When  Alessandro 
wax  Tuscan  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Pius  V  Philip 
predicted  hia  election  to  the  papacy. 

On  14  March,  1805,  eleven  days  after  the  death  of 
Clement  VIII,  sixty-two  cardinals  entered  the  Con- 
clave. ProDiiuentamong  the  candidates  for  the  papacy 
were  the  great  historian  Baronius  and  the  famous 
Jesuit  controversialist  Bellarmine.  But  Aldobrandini, 
the  leader  of  the  Italian  party  among  the  cardinals. 
made  common  cause  with  the  French  party  ann 
brought  about  the  election  of  Alessandro  against  the 
express  wish  of  Kins  Philip  III  of  Spain,  King  Ilcnry 
IV  of  France,  who  had  learned  to  esteem  Alessandro 
when  papal  legate  at  his  court,  and  whose  wife,  Maria 
de'  Medici  was  related  to  Alessandro,  is  said  to  have 
spent  300,000  6ciis  in  the  promotion  of  Alessandro's 
candidacy.  On  1  April,  1605,  Alessandro  ascended  the 
papal  throne  as  I,eo  XI,  beinf;  then  seventy  years  of 
age.  He  took  sick  immediately  after  his  coronation. 
During  his  sickness  he  was  importuned  by  many  mem- 
beiB  of  the  Curia  anri  by  a  few  ambassadors  from 
foreign  courts  to  confer  the  cnnlinalate  on  one  of  his 
grandnephews,  whom  he  had  himself  educated  and 


whom  he  loved  dearly,  but  bo  had  such  an  aversion 
for  aepotism  that  he  firmly  refused  the  request.  When 
his  confessor  urged  him  to  grant  it,  he  dismissed  him 
and  sent  for  another  confessor  to  pr^jare  him  for  death. 

chitta  V  (Ko'mB,  1792),  ISl  gq.:  Caff-celatbo.  LitenlFMip 
Wirr,  it.  PoPB.  II  (2od  ed.,  London.  ISe*).  227-232. 

Michael  Orr. 
Leo  ZH,  PoFE  (Annibale  Francesco  Cleuentb 
Melchiore  GinoLAUO  Nicola  della  Genoa),  b.  at 
the  Caatello  della  Genga  in  the  territory  of  Spoleto,  22 
August,  1760;  d.  in  Rome,  ID  February,  1839.  His 
father's  family  had  been  ennobled  by  Leo  XI  in  1605; 
his  mother  was  Maria  Luisa  Periberti  of  Fabriano. 
They  had  a  large  family,  seven  sons  and  three  daugh- 
ters, of  which  Anmbale  was  the  fifth  son  and  sixth 
child.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  was  placed  in  tbe 
CoUedo  Canopana  of  Osirao,  whence  he  was  trans- 
ferred, in  1778,  to  the  Collegia  Piceno  in  Rome  and 
shortly  afterwuds  to  the  Accademia  dei  Nobili  Elccle- 
siastici.  He  was  ordained  subdcacon  four  vears  later, 
and  deacon  in  1783.  Two  months  later  he  was  or^ 
dained  priest,  dispensation  lieing  obtained  for  the  de- 
fect of  age,  as  he  was  only  twenty-three.  He  was  of 
handsome  person  and  engaging  manners  and,  soon 
after  his  oidination,  attracted  the  notice  of  Pius  VI, 
who  was  visiting  the  Accademia,  and  by  him  was 
raised  to  the  prelature  as  comertere  segrdo.  In  1790 
be  was  chosen  to  deliver  in  the  Sixtine  Chapel  the  ora- 
tion on  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II  and  ac- 
complished his  difficult  task  to  the  admiration  of  all 
hearers,  without  offending  the  susceptibilities  of  Aus- 
tria or  compromising  the  authority  of  the  Holv  See. 
in  1792  he  became  a  canon  of  the  Vatican  church,  and 
the  following  year  was  consecrate<l  titular  Archbishop 
ofTyre  and  sent  as  nuncio  to  Lucerne.  Thence  he  was 
transferred  to  the  nunciature  at  Cologne  in  1794,  a 
post  which  he  occupied  with  great  success  for  eleven 
years.  In  1805  he  was  accredited  as  nuncio  extraoi^ 
dinaiy  to  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  liy  Pius  VII  in  order 
that  be  might  deal  with  the  dithculties  between  the 
German  Church  and  its  I'rusaian  rulers.  Return- 
ing to  Rome  to  confer  with  ConsaKi  i)n  these  mat- 
ters, he  learnt  that  Napoleon  desiretl  the  substitution 
of  anothernuncio  more  devoted  to  his  interests,  in  the 
person  of  Bemier,  Bishop  of  OrWiins.  Pins  VII,  bow- 
Delia  Genga  re- 
turned to  Munich. 
In  1803  he  went 
with  Cardinal  Ca- 
prara  to  Paris  with 
the  object  of  ar- 
ranging  some 


I.  He  was  re- 
ceived, however, 
but  coldly,  and  the 
negotiations  soon 
came  to  nothing, 
Delia  Genga  rf^ 
turned  to  Rome 
where  he  witnessed 
the  indignities  of- 
fered toPius  VI I  by 
the  French.    " 


Lio  XII 


o  tlie  Abbey  of 


'turned  in  dismay  t 

Monticelli,  which  had  been  granted  t 
mendam  for  life  by  Pope  Pius  VI.  Here  he  spent  bis 
time  teaching  his  choir  of  peasants  to  play  the  organ 
and  to  sing  plain-chant. 

Expecting  to  end  his  days  there,  he  built  in  the 
abbey  church  the  toml)s  of  his  mother  and  himself. 
But  in  1811.  with  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  Pius  VII  ro- 
tumecl  to  Rome  and  Mgr  Delia  Genga  was  sent  to 
Paris  (is  envoy  extraordinary  to  convey  the  pope's  con- 


LIO 


LIO 


Kntui&tions  to  King  Louis  XVIII.  Consalvi,  how-  of  those  who  were  then  pioneen  of  tbe  greater  libertr 
ever,  who  wbh  accredited  to  all  tbe  sovereigns  tiien  at  that  had  become  inevitable.  Stern  attempts  were 
Paris,  strongly  resented  this  mission,  which  he  held  to  made  to  purify  the  Curia  and  to  control  the  crowd  of  in- 
be  a  slight  to  himself.  Louis  XVIIJ  endeavoured  to  efficient  and  venal  officialt  tbat  composed  its  staff. 
smooth  over  matters,  but  the  powerful  Secretary  of  Indifferentiam  and  the  Proteetant  proselytism  of  the 
State  had  his  way,  and  Delia  Genga  returned  to  Rome,  period  were  combated;  the  devotion  of  the  CiUbolic 
whence  he  again  retired  to  Montinelli.  Here  he  re-  world wasstimulated by  theiubileeof  1825,inapiteof 
mained  for  two  years,  when  Pius  VII  created  him  car-  the  o[>position  of  timid  and  reactionary  pr«lat«s  or 
dinalof  Santa  Maria  in  Trastevere  and  appointed  him  sovereigns;  the  persecution  of  the  Catholics  in  tbe 
Bishop  of  Sinigagtia.  But  his  ill-health  necessitated  NetherlandB  was  met  and  overcome,  and  tbe  move- 
residence  in  the  healthy  air  of  Spoleto  and  he  never  ment  for  the  emancipation  of  the  Cathohcs  ii     " 


British  isles  1 

Bured.  Popular  discontent  with 
tbe  government  of  the  Pa^ 
States  was  met  by  the  severitiefl 
of  Cardinal  Rivarola. 

The  legitimist  cause  in  Franee 
and  in  Spain,  though  marked  in 
both  countries  by  the  misuse  of 
religion  as  an  instrumeat  of  po- 
Utical  reaction,  was  supported, 
even  when  (as  in  the  suppression 
of  the  Jesuit  schools  in  Fnaet, 
and  the  vacancy  of  Mexican  sees 
owing  to  tbe  claims  of  Spain  over 
her  former  colonies)  the  repre- 
sentatives of  that  cause  showed 
themselves  indifferent  or  opposed 
to  the  interests  of  the  Faith. 
Consalvi  was  consulted  and  ad- 
mired by  the  pope,  who,  both 
in  this  case  and  that  w  tbe 
treasurer  Cristaldi,  ^owed  him- 
self too  magnanimous  to  allow 


entered  his  diocese,  which  he 
signed  two  years  later.  In  1820, 
his  health  being  improved,  he 
was  made  Vicar  of  Rome,  aroh- 
priest  of  the  Liberian  Basilica  and 
prefect  of  several  congregations. 
Tliree  years  later,  on  20  August, 
Pius  VII  died,  and  on  2  Sep- 
tember the  conclave  opened  at 
tbeQuirinal.  1 1  lasted  fort  wen  ty- 
sixdays.  Atfirstthemost prom- 
inent candidates  were  Cardinal 
Severoli,  the  representative  of 
the  Zclantt,  and  Cardinal  Castig- 
lioni  (afterwards  PiusVIII),  the 
representative  of  the  moderate 
party.  Castiglioni  was  the  can- 
didate most  desired  by  the  great 
Catholic  powers,  but,  in  spite  of 
their  wishes  Severoii's  influence 
grew  daily  and  by  the  morning 
of  21  September,  he  Tifld  received 
asmanyas  twenty-six  votes.  As 
this  meant  that  he  would  probably 
be  elected  at  the  next  scrutiny. 
Cardinal  Albani,  who  represented 
Austria  at  the  conclave,  informed 
his  colleagues  that  the  election 
of  Cardinal  Severoli  would  not 
be  acceptable  to  the  emperor 
and  pronounced  a  formal  veto. 
The  Zelanti  were  furious,  but, 
at  Severoii's  suggestion,  trans- 
ferred their  support  to  Delia 
Genga,  and  before  the  powers 
realized  what  was  happening, 
triumphantly  elected  him  by 
thirty-four  votes  on  the  morning 
of  28  September.  At  first,  bow- 
ever,  the  pope-elect  was  unwil- 
ling to  accept  the  office.  With 
tears  he  reminded  the  cardinals 
of  his  ill-health.  "  You  are  elect- 
ing a  dead  man  ",  he  said,  JDut, 
when  they  insisted  that  it  was 
bis  duty  to  accept,  he  gave  way 

and  gracefully  assuring  Caniinal  Castiglioni  that  he  and  recovered  only  ~  uj  »  uu.<«,.^  i,...u..6u  mo 
some  day  was  to  be  Pius  VIII,  announced  his  own  prayers  of  the  venerable  Bishop  of  Marittima,  Vin- 
intention  of  taking  the  style  of  Leo  XII.  cenzo  Strambi,  whose   life  was  rflered  to  God  and 

Immediately  after  his  election  he  appointed  Delia  accepted  in  tbe  stead  of  the  pope's.  On  5  Feb- 
Somaglia,  an  octogenarian.  Secretary  of  State,  an  act  ruary,  1829  after  a  private  audience  with  Cardinal 
signiUcact  of  the  policy  of  the  new  reign.  Leo  was  Bemetti,  who  had  replaced  Somaglia  as  Secretary  of 
crowned  on  5  October.  His  first  measures  were  some  State  in  1828,  he  was  suddenly  taken  ill  and  seemed 
notverysuccessfut  attempts  to  repress  the  brigandage  himself  to  know  that  his  end  was  near.  Ontfaeeighth 
and  license  then  prevalent  in  Manttima  and  the  Cam-  he  asked  for  and  received  the  Viaticum  and  waa 
pagna,  and  the  publication  of  an  ordinance  that  con-  anointed.  On  the  evening  of  the  ninth  he  lapsed 
lined  again  to  their  Ghettoes  the  Jews,  who  had  moved  into  unconsciousness  and  on  the  morning  of  the  tentii 
into  the  city  during  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  he  died.  He  had  a  noble  character,  a  passion  for  order 
These  measures  are  typical  of  the  temper  and  policy  of  and  efficiency,  but  he  lacked  insight  into,  and  sym- 
l«o  XII.  There  is  sometbing  pathetic  in  the  con-  patby  with,  the  temporal  developments  of  his  period, 
traat  between  the  intelligence  and  masterly  enerm  His  rale  was  unpopular  in  Rome  and  in  the  Papal 
displaye<i  b^  him  as  ruier  of  the  Church  and  the  inefn-  States,  and  by  various  measures  of  his  reign  be 
ciency  of  his  policy  as  ruler  of  the  Papal  States.  In  diminished  greatly  for  his  successors  their  chances 
face  of  the  new  social  and  political  order,  he  undertook  of  solving  the  new  problems  that  confronte<l  them. 
the  defence  of  ancient  custom  and  accepted  institu-  AstArn  de  Mo.'sroii  Hitioirt  du  Papt  Uon  Xlt  (Piris. 
"         I-  I- J  ......  ■  isight  into  the  hopes  and  visions     i843>;  CkateVubriand,  JW/moiVt.  rfoinir-ianift*  li  {Bnaesh, 


against  the  appreciation  oj 

but  the  cardinal's  death  ii 

prevented  the  contribution  erf  his 
wisdom  to  the  councils  of  the 
Holy  See.  The  CoUegio  Romano 
was  restoredto  the  efficient  hands 
of  the  Jesuite  in  1824;  the  Free- 
masons and  other  secret  societies 
were  condemned  in  1825;  the 
Vatican  printing  press  was  re- 
stored and  the  Vatican  tjbraiy 
enriched ;  scholars  like  Zuria, 
Martucci,  and  Champollion  were 
encouraged:  much  was  done  to- 
wards the  rebuilding  of  St.  Paij's 
and  the  restoration  of  the  seemli- 
nesa  of  worship.  But  Leo's  health 
was  too  frail  to  support  his  un- 
remitting devotion  to  the  affaire 
of  the  Church.  Even  in  Decem- 
1323,  he  had  nearly  died, 
by  a  miracle,  through  the 


tions;  he  had  little  ii 


LSO 


169 


LEO 


1852).  149-202;  XXXVIII,  50-83;  Wiseman.  RecoUediont  of 
M«  JajM  FourPopew  (Loodon^858) ;  209-362. 

Noa-GatboUc:  Bknbath  in  Hebsoo  and  ELiuck,  Real-tncyklo' 
p^ldie,  XI,  (Leipnc.  1902),  390-393.  Nielbkn,  History  of  the 
Papaeif  tn  tlU  XlXtk  Century,  II  (London,  1906),  1-30. 

Lesue  a.  St.  L.  Toke. 

Lm  ZnZy  Pope,  b.  2  March,  1810,  at  Carpineto; 
elected  pope  20  February,  1878;  d.  20  Juty,  1903,  at 
Rome.  Gioacchino  Vincenzo  Raffaele  Lui^i  was  the 
sixth  of  the  seven  sons  of  Count  Lodovico  recci  and 
his  wife  Anna  lS*osperi-Busi.  There  was  some  doubt 
as  to  the  nobility  of  the  Pecci  family,  and  when  the 
younff  Gioacchino  sought  admission  to  the  Accademia 
dei  Nobili  in  Rome  he  met  with  a  certain  opposition, 
whereupon  he  wrote  the  history  of  his  family,  showing 
that  the  Pecci  of  Carpineto  were  a  branch  of  the  Pecci 
of  Siena,  obliged  to  emigrate  to  the  Papal  States  in 
the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  under  Clement 
VII,  because  they  had  sided  with  the  Medici. 

At  the  ase  of  ekht,  together  with  his  brother  Giu- 
seppe, ased  ten,  he  was  sent  to  study  at  the  new 
Jesuit  school  in  Viterbo,  the  present  seminary.  He 
remained  there  six  years  (1818-24),  and  gained  that 
clawicaljfacility  in  tne  use  of  Latin  and  Italian  after- 
wards justly  admired  in  his  official  writing  and  his 
poems.  Much  credit  for  this  is  due  to  his  teacher, 
Padre  Leonardo  Garibaldi.  TVlien,  in  1824,  the  Col- 
legio  Romano  wasgiven  back  to  the  Jesuits,  Gioacchino 
and  his  brother  Giuseppe  entered  as  students  of  hu- 
manities and  rhetoric.  At  the  end  of  his  rhetoric 
course  Gioacchino  tiras  chosen  to  deliver  the  address  in 
Latin,  and  selected  as  his  subject,  ''The  Contrast  be- 
tween Fe^fBJi  and  Christian  Rome  ^.  Not  less  success- 
ful was  his  three  years'  course  of  philosophy  and  nat- 
ural sciences. 

He  remained  yet  uncertain  as  to  his  calling,  though 
it  had  been  the  wish  of  his  mother  that  he  should  em- 
brace the  ecclesiastical  state.  Like  many  other  young 
Romans  of  the  period  who  aimed  at  a  public  career, 
he  took  up  meanwhile  the  studv  of  theology  as  well  as 
canon  and  civil  law.  Among  his  professors  were  the 
famous  theoloeian  Perrone  and  the  scripturist  Pa- 
trisi.  In  1832  he  obtained  the  doctorate  of  theology, 
whereupon,  after  Hie  difficulties  referred  to  above,  ne 
asked  and  obtained  admission  to  the  Academy  of 
Noble  Ecclesiastics,  and  entered  upon  the  study  of 
canon  and  civil  law  at  the  Sapienza  University. 
Thanks  to  his  talents,  and  to  the  protection  of  Car- 
dinals Sala  and  Pacca,  he  was  apppointed  domestic 
prelate  by  Gregory  XVI  in  January,  1837,  while  still 
in  minor  orders,  and  in  March  of  tnat  year  was  made 
"referendario  della  Segnatura'',  which  office  he  soon 
exchanged  for  one  in  the  Congregazione  del  Buon 
Govemo,  or  Ministry  of  the  Interior  for  the  Pontifical 
States,  of  which  his  protector  Cardinal  Sala  was  at  that 
time  prefect.  Dunn^;  the  cholera  epidemic  in  Rome 
he  ably  assisted  Cardinal  Sala  in  his  duties  as  overseer 
of  all  the  city  hospitals.  His  zeal  and  ability  con- 
vinced Cardinal  Sala  that  Pecci  was  fitted  for  larger 
lesponsibilitiee,  and  he  again  urged  him  to  enter  the 
priesthood,  hinting  in  addition  that  before  long  he 
might  be  promoted  to  a  post  where  the  priesthood 
would  be  necessary.  Yielding  to  these  solicitations, 
he  was  ordained  priest  31  Dec.,  1837,  by  Canlinal 
Odeschalchi,  Vicar  of  Rome,  in  the  chapel  of  St. 
Stanislaus  on  the  Quirinal.  The  post  hint^  at  by 
Cardinal  Sida  was  wat  of  Delegate  or  civil  Governor 
of  Benevento,  a  city  subject  to  the  Holy  Sec  but  sit- 
uated in  the  heart  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples.  Its 
condition  was  very  unsatisfactorv;  the  brigands  of  the 
Neapolitan  territory  infested  the  country  in  mat 
numoers,  survivals  of  the  Napoleonic  Wars  and  the 
guerrilla  of  the  Sanfedisti.    Gregor>'  XVI  thought  a 

Cung  and  energetic  delegate  necessary.  Cardinal 
mbruschini,  secretary  of  state,  and  Cardinal  Sala  sug- 
gested the  name  of  Mgr.  Pecci,  who  set  out  for  Bene- 
vento 2  Februaiy»  18^.   On  his  recovery  from  an  at- 


tack of  typhoid  fever,  he  set  to  work  to  stamp  out 
brigandage,  and  soon  his  vigilance,  indomitable  pur- 
pose, and  fearless  treatment  of  the  nobles  who  pro- 
tected the  brigands  and  smugglers,  pacified  the  wnole 
DTOvince.  Aided  bv  the  nuncio  at  Naples,  Mgr.  di 
Pietro,  the  youthful  delegate  drew  up  an  agreement 
with  the  Naples  police  for  united  action  against  brig- 
ands. He  also  turned  his  attention  to  the  roads  and 
highways,  and  arranged  for  a  more  just  distribution 
of  taxes  and  duties,  until  then  the  same  as  those  im- 
posed by  the  invading  French,  and,  though  exorbi- 
tant, exacted  with  the  greatest  rigour.  Meanwhile 
the  Holy  See  and  Naples  were  discussing  the  exchange 
of  Benevento  for  a  streteh  of  Neapolitan  territorjr 
bordering  on  the  Papal  States.  When  Mgr.  Pecci 
heard  of  this  he  memorialized  the  Holy  See  so  strongly 
against  it  that  the  negotiations  were  broken  off. 

The  results  obtained  in  three  years  by  the  delegate 
at  Benevento  led  Gregory  XVI  to  entrust  another 
del^ation  to  him  where  a  strong  personality  was  re- 
ouired,  thouffh  for  very  different  reasons.  He  was 
nrst  destined  for  Spoleto,  but  on  17  July,  1841,  he 
was  sent  to  Perugia,  a  hotbed  of  the  anti-papal  revo- 
lutionary party.  For  three  years  he  improved  the 
material  conditions  of  his  territorv  and  introduced  a 
more  expeditious  and  economical  administration  of 
justice.  He  also  b^an  a  savings  hank  to  assist  small 
tradesmen  and  farmers  with  loans  at  a  low  rate  of 
interest,  reformed  educational  methods,  and  was  oth- 
erwise active  for  the  common  welfare. 

In  January,  1843,  he  was  appointed  nuncio  to 
Brussels,  as  successor  of  Mgr.  Fomari,  appointed 
nimcio  at  Paris.  On  19  Feb.,  he  was  consecrated  ti- 
ular  Archbishop  of  Daniiata  by  Cardinal  Lambrus- 
chini,  and  set  out  for  his  post.  On  his  arrival  he 
found  rather  critical  conditions.  The  school  ques- 
tion was  warmly  debated  between  the  Catholic  ma- 
jority and  the  Liberal  minority.  He  encouraged  the 
bishops  and  the  laity  in  their  struggle  for  Catholic 
schools,  yet  he  was  able  to  win  the  eood  will  of  the 
Court,  not  only  of  the  pious  Queen  Louise,  but  also 
of  King  Leopold  I,  strongly  Liberal  in  his  views. 
The  new  nuncio  succeeded  in  uniting  the  Catholics, 
and  to  him  is  owing  the  idea  of  a  Belgian  college  in 
Rome  (1844).  He  made  a  journey  (1845)  through 
Rhenish  Prussia  (Cologne,  Mainz,  Trier),  and  owing 
to  his  vigilance  the  schismatic  agitation  of  the  priest 
Ronge,  on  the  occasion  of  the  exposition  of  the  Holy 
Coat  of  Trier  in  1844,  did  not  affect  Belgium.  Mean- 
while the  See  of  Perugia  l)ecame  vacant,  and  Gregory 
XVI,  moved  by  the  wishes  of  the  Perugians  and  the 
needs  of  that  city  and  district,  appointed  Mgr.  Pecci 
Bishop  of  Perugia,  retaining  however  the  title  of  arch- 
bishop. 

With  a  very  flattering  autograph  letter  from  King 
Leopold,  Mgr.  Pecci  left  Brussels  to  spend  a  month  in 
London  and  another  in  Paris.  This  brought  him  in 
touch  with  both  courts,  and  afforded  him  opportuni- 
ties for  meeting  many  eminent  men,  among  others 
Wiseman,  afterwards  cardinal.  Rich  in  experience 
and  in  new  ideas,  and  with  greatly  broadened  views, 
he  returned  to  Rome  on  26  May,  1846,  where  he  found 
the  pope  on  his  deathbed,  so  that  he  was  unable  to  re- 
port to  him.  He  made  his  solemn  entiy  into  Perugia 
26  July,  1846,  where  he  remained  for  thirty-two  years. 
Gregory  XVI  had  intended  to  make  him  a  cardinal, 
but  his  death  and  the  events  that  troubled  the  opening 
vears  of  the  pontificate  of  Pius  IX  postponed  this 
honour  until  10  December,  1853.  Pius  IX  desired  to 
have  him  near  his  person,  and  repeatedly  offered  him  a 
suburbicarian  see,  but  Mgr.  Pecci  preferred  Perugia, 
and  perhaps  was  not  in  accord  with  Cardinal  Anto- 
nelli.  It  is  certainly  untrue  that  Pius  IX  designedly 
left  him  in  Perugia,  much  more  untnie  that  he  did  so 
because  Pecci 's  views  were  lilieralistic  and  concilia- 
tory. As  Bishop  of  Perugia  he  sought  chiefly  to  in- 
culcate piety  and  knowledge  of  the  truths  of  Faiths 


LIO 


170 


LIO 


He  insisted  that  his  priests  should  preach,  and  should 
catechize  not  only  tne  young  but  the  grown  up;  and 
for  this  purpose  he  wished  one  hour  in  the  afternoon 
set  apart  on  Sundays  and  feast  days,  thus  forestalhng 
one  of  the  regulations  laid  down  by  rius  X  in  1905  for 
the  whole  Church.  He  brought  out  a  new  edition  of 
the  diocesan  catechism  (1856),  and  for  his  clergy  he 
wrote  a  practical  guide  for  the  exercise  of  the  ministry 
(1857).  He  provided  frequently  for  retreats  and  mis- 
sions. After  the  Piedmontese  occupation  and  the 
suppression  of  the  religious  orders  the  number  of 
priests  was  greatly  diminished;  to  remedy  this  lack  of 
ecclesiastical  ministers,  he  established  an  association 
of  diocesan  missionaries  ready  to  go  wherever  sent 
(1875).  He  sought  to  create  a  learned  and  virtuous 
clergy^  and  for  this  purpose  spent  much  care  on  the 
matenal,  moral,  and  scientific  equipment  of  his  sem- 
inary, wnich  he  called  the  apple  of  his  eye.  Between 
1846  and  1850  he  enlarged  its  buildings  at  considerable 
personal  sacrifice,  secured  excellent  professors,  pre- 
sided at  examinations,  and  himself  gave  occasional  in- 
struction. He  introduced  the  study  of  the  philosophy 
and  theology  of  St.  Thomas,  and  in  1872  established 
an  ''Accademia  di  S.  Tommaso'',  which  he  had 
planned  as  far  back  as  1858. 

In  1872  also  he  introduced  the  government  stand- 
ards for  studies  of  the  secondary  schools  and  colleges. 
When  the  funds  of  the  seminary  were  converted  into 
state  bonds,  its  revenues  were  seriously  affected,  and 
this  entailed  new  sacrifices  on  the  bishop.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  troublesome  priests  who  relied  on 
the  protection  of  the  new  government,  the  discipline 
of  tne  clergy  was  excellent.  For  the  assistance  of 
many  priests  impoverished  by  the  confiscation  of 
church  funds,  he  instituted  in  1873  the  Society  of  S. 
Gioacchino,  and  for  charitable  works  generally,  con- 
ferences of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  He  remodelled  many 
educational  institutions  for  the  young  and  bqgan 
others,  for  the  care  of  which  he  invited  from  Belgium 
nuns  of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  Brothers  of  Mercy.  Dur- 
ing his  episcopate  thirty-six  new  churches  were  built 
in  the  diocese.  His  charity  and  foresight  worked  mar- 
vels during  the  famine  of  1854,  consequent  on  the 
earthquake  which  laid  waste  a  large  part  of  Umbria. 
Throughout  the  political  troubles  of  the  period,  he  was 
a  strong  supporter  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  Holy 
See,  but  he  was  careful  to  avoid  anvthing  that  might 
give  the  new  government  pretext  for  further  annoy- 
ances. 

Shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Perugia  there  occurred  a 
popular  commotion  which  his  personal  intervention 
sucoeeded  in  appeasing.  In  1849,  when  bands  of 
Garibaldians  expelled  from  Rome  were  infesting  the 
Umbrian  hills,  tne  Austrians  under  Prince  Liechten- 
stein hastened  to  occupy  Perugia,  but  Mgr.  Pecci,  real- 
izing that  this  foreign  occupation  would  only  increase 
the  irritation  of  the  inhabitants,  set  out  for  the  Aus- 
trian camp  and  succeeded  in  saving  the  town  from  oc- 
cupation. In  1S59  a  few  outlaws  set  up  in  Perugia  a 
provisional  government;  when  the  cardinal  heard 
that,  few  as  they  were,  they  were  preparing  to  resist 
the  pontifical  troops  advancing  under  Colonel  Schmidt 
he  wrote  a  generous  letter  to  try  and  dissuade  them 
from  their  mad  purpose  and  to  avoid  a  useless  shed- 
ding of  blood.  Unfortunately  thev  spumed  his  advice, 
and. the  result  was  the  so-called  "  Massacre  of  Perugia  " 
(20  June).  In  February,  1860,  he  wrote  a  pastoral 
letter  on  the  necessitv  of  the  temporal  power  of  the 
Holy  See;  but  on  14  September  of  that  year  Perugia 
and  Umbria  were  annexed  to  Piedmont.  ■  In  vain  he 
besought  General  Fanti  not  to  bombard  the  town;  and 
during  the  first  years  that  followed  the  annexation  he 
wrote,  either  in  his  own  name  or  in  the  name  of  the 
bishops  of  Umbria,  eighteen  protests  against  the  vari- 
ous laws  and  regulations  of  the  new  Government  on 
ecclesiastical  matters:  against  civil  marriage,  the  sup- 
pression of  the  religious  orders  and  the  inhuman 


cruelty  of  their  oppressors,  the  "  Placet "  and  "  Exe- 
quatur ''  in  ecclesiastical  nominations,  military  service 
for  ecclesiastics,  and  the  confiscation  of  church  prop- 
erty. But  withal  he  was  so  cautious  and  prudent,  m 
spite  of  his  outspokenness,  that  he  was  never  in  seri- 
ous difficulties  with  the  civil  power.  Only  once  was  he 
brought  before  the  courts,  and  then  he  was  acquitted. 

In  August,  1877,  on  the  death  of  Cardinal  de  An- 
gelis,  Pius  IX  appointed  him  camerlengo,  so  that  he 
was  obliged  to  reside  in  Rome.  Pope  Pius  died  7  Feb- 
ruary, 1878,  and  during  his  closing  years  the  Liberal 
press  had  often  insinuated  that  the  Italian  Govern- 
ment should  take  a  hand  in  the  conclave  and  occupy 
the  Vatican.  However  the  Russo-Turkish  War  and 
the  sudden  death  of  Victor  Emmanuel  II  (9  January, 
1878)  distracted  the  attention  of  the  Government,  the 
conclave  proceeded  as  usual,  and  after  the  three  scru- 
tinies Canlinal  Pecci  was  elected  by  forty-four  votes 
out  of  sixty-one. 

Shortly  before  this  he  had  written  an  inspiring  pas- 
toral to  his  fiock  on  the  Church  and  civilization.  Ec- 
clesiastical affairs  were  in  a  difficult  and  tangled  state. 
Pius  IX,  it  is  true,  had  won  for  the  papacy  the 
love  and  veneration  of  Christendom,  and  even  the  ad- 
miration of  its  adversaries.  But,  though  inwardly 
strengthened,  its  relations  with  the  civil  powers  had 
either  ceased  or  were  far  from  cordial.  But  the  fine 
diplomatic  tact  of  Leo  succeeded  in  staving  off  rup- 
tures, in  smoothing  over  difficulties,  and  in  e8taJi>lisn- 
ing  good  relations  with  almost  all  the  powers. 

Throughout  his  entire  pontificate  he  was  able  to 
keep  on  good  terms  with  France,  and  he  pledged  him- 
self to  its  Government  that  he  w^ould  call  on  afi  Catho- 
hcs  to  accept  the  RepubHc.  But  in  spite  of  his  efforts 
very  few  monarchists  listened  to  him,  and  towards  the 
end  of  his  life  he  beheld  the  coming  failure  of  his  French 
policy,  though  he  was  spared  the  pain  of  witnessing 
the  final  catastrophe  which  not  even  he  could  have 
averted.  It  was  to  Leo  that  France  owed  her  alliance 
with  Russia;  in  this  way  he  offset  the  Triple  Alliance, 
hoped  to  ward  off  impending  conflicts,  and  expected 
friendly  assistance  for  the  solution  of  the  Roman  ques- 
tion. With  Germany  he  was  more  fortunate.  On  the 
very  day  of  his  election,  when  notifying  the  emperor 
of  tne  event,  he  expressed  the  hope  of  seeing  relations 
with  the  German  Government  re-established,  and, 
though  the  emperor's  reply  was  coldly  civil,  tne  ice 
was  broken.  Soon  Bismarck,  unable  to  govern  with 
the  Liberals,  to  win  whose  favour  he  had  started  the 
Kulturkampf  (q.  v.),  found  he  needed  the  Centre 
Party,  or  Catholics,  and  was  willing  to  come  to  terms. 
As  early  as  1878  negotiations  began  at  Kissingen  be- 
tween Bismarck  and  Aloisi-Masclla.  the  nuncio  to 
Munich;  they  were  carried  a  step  farther  at  Venice  be- 
tween the  nuncio  Jacobini  and  Prince  von  Reuss;  soon 
after  this  some  of  the  Prussian  laws  against  the 
Church  were  relaxed.  From  about  1883  bishops  be- 
gan to  be  appointed  to  various  sees,  and  some  of  the 
exiled  bishops  were  allowed  to  return.  By  1884  diplo- 
matic relations  were  renewed,  and  in  1887  a  moduM 
Vivendi  between  Church  and  State  was  brought  about. 
In  1885  the  question  of  the  Caroline  Islands  arose,  and 
Bismarck  proposed  that  Pope  Leo  should  arbitrate  be- 
tween Germanv  and  Spain.  The  good  feeling  with 
Germany  found  expression  in  the  three  visits  paid  Leo 
bv  William  II  (1888,  1893,  and  1903),  whose  father 
also,  when  crown  prince  (1883),  had  visited  the  Vati- 
can. As  a  sort  of  quid  pro  quo  Bismarck  thought  the 
pope  ought  to  use  his  authority  to  prevent  the  Catho- 
lics from  opposing  some  of  his  political  schemes.  Only 
once  did  Leo  interfere  in  a  parliamentaiy  question, 
and  then  his  advice  was  followed.  In  1880  relations 
with  the  Belgian  Government  were  again  broken  off  k 
propos  of  the  school  question,  on  the  pretext  that  the 

Cope  was  lending  himself  to  duplicity,  encouraging  the 
isnops  to  resist,  and  pretending  to  the  Government 
that  he  was  urging  mcxieration.    As  a  matter  cMf  fact^ 


LEO  XIII 

CHARTRAN    (1801),   VATICAM 


had  been  settled  on  before  the  school  question 
Id  1885  the  new  Cfttholic  Government  restored  it. 
During  Pope  Leo's  pontificate  the  condition  of  the 
Church  in  Switiertand  improved  somewhat,  eapeeially 
in  the  Tioino,  in  Aargau  and  in  Basle.  In  Russia. 
3oloviev'a  attempt  on  Alexander  II  {14  April,  1879) 
and  the  silver  jubilee  of  that  csar'a  reign  (18.S0)  gave  the 
pope  an  opportunity  to  attempt  a  rapprochement.  But 
itwaanotuntilafterAlcianderincame  to  the  throne 
(1883)  that  an  agreement  was  reached,  by  which  a  few 
episcopal  sees  were  tolerated  and  some  of  the  more 
stringent  kws  against  the  CathoJic  clergy  slightly  re- 
laxed. But  when,  in  1884,  Leo  consented  to  present 
to  the  cxar  a  petition  from  the  Ruthenian  Cathdics 
against  the  oppression  they  had  to  suffer,  the  persecu- 
tion only  increased  in  bitter- 
ness. In  the  last  year  of 
Alexander  III  (May,  1S94) 
diplomatic  relations  were  re- 
established. On  the  day  of 
hia  election,  Leo  had  ex- 
pressed to  this  emperor  the 
wish  to  see  diplomatic  rela- 
tions icstored,;  Alexander,  like 
William,  though  more  warm- 
ly, answered  in  a  non-com- 
mittal manner.  Intbemean- 
time  Leo  was  careful  to  exhort 
the  Poles  under  Russian  dom- 
ination to  be  loyal  Hubjecta. 

Among  the  acts  of  Leo 
XIII  that  affected  in  a  par- 
ticular way  the  English- 
speakiuE  world  may  be 
mentioned:  for  England,  the 
elevation  of  John  Henry 
Newman  to  the  cardinalate 
(1879),  the  •'  Romanoe  Ponti- 
fices"  of  1881  concerning  the 
relations  of  the  hierarchy  and 
the  regular  clerKV,  the  beati- 
fication (1886)  offifty  English 
martyrs,  the  celebration  of 
die  thirteenth  centenary  of 
St.  Gregory  the  Great,  Apos- 
tle of  England  (1891),  the 
Encyclicals  "Ad  Anglos " 
of  1395,  on  the  return  to  Catholic  unity,  and  the 
"Apostolicee  Cune<.'  of  1806,  on  the  non-validity  of 
the  Anglican  orders.  He  restored  the  Scotch  hici^ 
archy  in  1878,  and  in  1898  addressed  to  the  Scotch  a 
very  touching  letter.  In  English  India  Pope  I*o  es- 
tablished the  hierarchy  in  188C,  and  regulated  there 
long-atanding  conflicts  with  the  Portuguese  authori- 
ties. In  1903  King  Edward  VII  paid  him  a  visit  at  the 
Vatican.  The  Irish  Church  experienced  his  pastoral 
solicitude  on  many  occasions.  His  letter  io  Arch- 
bishop McCabe  of  Dublin  (1881),  the  elevation  of  the 
same  prelate  to  the  cardinalate  in  1882,  the  calling  of 
the  Insh  bishops  to  Rome  in  1885,  the  decree  of  the 
Holy  Office  (13  April,  1888)  on  the  plan  of  campaign 
and  boycotting,  and  the  subsequent  Encyclical  of  24 
June,  ISSS,  to  the  Irish  hierarchy  represent  in  part 
his  fatherly  concern  tor  the  Irish  people,  however 
diverse  the  feelings  they  aroused  at  the  height  of  the 
land  agitation. 

The  United  States  at  all  times  attracted  the  atten- 
tion and  admii«tion  of  Pope  l,co.  He  confirmed  the 
decrees  of  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore 
(ISM),  and  raised  to  the  cardinalate  Archbishop  Gil)- 
honsof  that  city  (1886).  His  favourable  action  (1888), 
at  the  instance  of  Cardinal  Gibbons,  towards  the 
Knights  of  Labour  won  him  general  approval.  In 
18S9  he  sent  a  pf^al  del^ate,  MouEignor  Satolli,  to 
represent  him  at  Washington  on  the  occasion  of  the 


n  Lzo 

The  Apostolic  Delegation  at  Washington  was  founded 
in  18^;  in  the  same  year  amieared  nis  Encyclical  on 
Christopher  Columbus.  In  1893  he  participated  in  the 
Chicago  Exposition  held  to  commemorate  the  fourth 
centenary  of  the  discovery  of  America;  this  he  did  by 
the  loan  of  \«Iuable  relics,  and  by  sending  Monsignor 
Satolli  to  represent  him.  In  1895  he  addressed  to  the 
hierarchy  of  the  United  Slates  his  memorable  Encyo- 
lical  "Longinqua  Oceaoi  Spatia";  in  1898 appeared 
his  letter  '^Testem  Benevolentife"  to  Cardinal  Gib- 
bons on  "Americanism";  and  in  1902  his  admirable 
letter  to  the  American  hierarchy  in  response  to  their 
congratulations  on  hia  pontifical  jubilee.  In  Canada 
he  confirmed  the  aj|reement  made  with  the  Province 
of  Quebec  (1889)  for  the  settlement  of  the  Jesuit  E»- 


tat^  question,  and 


foundation  of  the  Catholic  University  of  America. 


sent  MoDsignor  Merry  del 
val  to  treat  in  his  name 
with  the  Government  con- 
cerning the  obnoxious  Mani- 
toba School  Law.  His  name 
will  alao  long  be  held  in  bene- 
diction in  ^uth  America  for 
the  First  Plenary  Council  of 
Latin  America  held  at  Rome 
(1899),  and  for  his  noble  En- 
cyclical  to  the  bishops  of 
Brazil  on  the  abolition  of 
slavery  (1888). 

In  Portugal  the  Govern- 
ment ceased  to  support  the 
Goan  schism,  and  m  1886  a 
concordat  was  drawn  up. 
Concordats  with  Montenegro 
(1886)  and  Cobmbia  (1887) 
followed.  The  Sultan  of  Tu> 
key,  the  Shah  of  Persia,  the 
Emperors  of  Japan  and  of 
China  (1885),  andtheN^:ua 
of  Abyssinia,  Menelik',  sent 
him  royal  gifts  and  received 
gifts  from  him  in  return.  His 
charitable  intervention  with 
the  negus  in  favour  of  the 
Italians  taken  prisoners  at 
the  unlucky  battle  of  Adna 
(1898)  failed  owing  to  the 
attitude  taken  by  those  who 
ought  to  have  been  moat 
grateful.  He  was  not  succ^aful  in  establishing  diieot 
diplomatic  relations  with  the  Sublime  Porte  and  wiUt 
China,  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  France  and  her  fear  of 
losing  the  protectorate  over  Christians.  During  the 
negotiationsconcemingchurchpropcrty  in  the  ralip- 
pines,  Mr.  Taft,  Uter  President  of  the  United  Stat^ 
had  an  opportunity  of  admiring  the  pope's  great  qual- 
ities,  as  he  himself  declared  on  a  memorable  occasion. 
With  regard  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  Leo  XIII 
maintained  Pius  IX's  attitude  of  protest,  thus  con- 
firming the  ideas  he  had  expressed  in  his  pastoral  of 
1860.  He  desired  complete  independence  for  the  Holy 
See,  and  consequently  its  restoration  as  a  real  sove- 
reigntj*.  Repeatedly,  when  distressing  incidents  took 
place  m  Rome,  he  sent  notes  to  the  varioua  govem- 
menta  pointing  out  the  intolerable  position  in  which 
the  Holy  See  was  placed  through  its  subjection  to  a 
hostile  power.  For  the  same  reason  he  upheld  the 
"  Non  cxpedit",  or  prohibition  against  Italian  Cath- 
olics taking  part  in  political  elections.  His  idea  was 
that  once  the  Catholics  abstained  from  voting,  the 
subversive  elements  in  the  country  would  get  the 
upper  hand  and  the  Italian  Government  be  obliged  to 
come  to  terms  with  the  Holy  See.  Events  proved  he 
was  mistaken,  and  the  idea  was  abandoned  by  Pius  X. 
At  one  time,  however,  "of^cioua"  negotiations  wen 
kept  up  between  the  Holy  Soe  and  the  Italian  Gov- 
ernment through  the  agency  of  Monsignor  Carini, 
Prefect  of  the  Vatican  Libnuy  and  a  great  friend  of 


LIO                                  172  UBO 

Crispi.    But  it  in  uot  known  on  what  lines  they  were  (22  Jan.,  1890).    In  the  Brief  "Apostolice  Curs'* 

conducted.    On  Cridpi's  part  there  could  have  l^een  no  (1896)  he  definitively  decided  against  the  validity  of 

(uicstion  of  ceding  any  territory  to  the  Holy  See.  Anglican  Orders.    In  several  other  memorable  encye- 

I^  ranee,  moreover,  then  irritated  against  Italy  be-  licals  he  treated  of  the  most  serious  questions  affectmg 

cause  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  and  fcarine  that  any  modem  society.    They  are  models  of  classical  style, 

rapprochement  between  the  Vatican  and  the  Quirinal  clearness  of  statement,  and  convincing  logic.     The 

would  serve  to  increase  her  rival's  prestige,  interfered  most  important  are:  *' Arcanum  divinsB  sapientia" 

and  forced  Leo  to  break  off  the  aforesaid  negotiations  (1880)  on  Christian  marriage;    ^'Diutumum  illud" 

by  threatening  to  renew  hostilities  against  the  Church  (1881),  and  "  Immortale  Dei''  (1885)  on  Christianity 

in  France.    The  death  of  Monsi^or  Carini  shortly  as  the  foundation  of  political  hfe;  ''Sapienti®  chrb* 

after  this  (25  June,  1895)  ^ave  rise  to  the  senseless  tianse"  (1890)  on  the  duties  of  a  Christian  citiien; 

rumour  that  he  had  been  poisoned*  Pope  Leo  was  no  '^Libertas''  (1888)  on  the  real  meaning  of  UberU^; 

less  active  concerning  the  interior  life  of  the  Church.  '^Humanum  genus"  (1884)  against  Freemasonry  (he 

To  increase  the  piety  of  the  faithful,  he  reconunendcd  also  issued  otner  documents  taring  on  this  subject), 

in  1882  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  whose  rules  in  Civilisation  owes  much  to  Leo  for  his  stand  on  the 

1883  he  wisely  modified;  he  instituted  the  feast  of  the  social  question.     As  early  as  1878,  in  his  encyclical  on 

Holy  Family,  and  desired  societies  in  its  honour  to  be  the  equality  of  all  men,  he  attacked  the  fundamental 

founded  everywhere  (1892);  many  of  his  encyclicals  error  of  Socialism.   TheEncychcal^Rerumnovarum" 

preach  the  benefits  of  the  Rosary;  and  he  favoured  (18  May,  1891)  set  forth  with  profound  erudition  the 

greatly  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  Christian  principles  bearing  on  the  relations  between 

Under  Leo  the  Catholic  Faith  made  great  progress;  capital  and  labour,  and  it  gave  a  vigorous  inipulse  to 
during  his  pontificate  two  hundred  and  forty-eight  the  social  movement  along  Christian  lines.  In  Italy, 
episcop^al  or  archiepiscopal  sees  were  created,  and  especially,  an  intense,  well-organized  movement  be- 
forty-eight  vicariates  or  prefectures  Apostolic.  Cath-  gsui;  but  gradually  dissensions  broke  out,  some  leaning 
olics  of  Oriental  rites  were  objects  of  special  attention;  too  much  towards  Socialism  and  giving  to  the  words 
he  had  the  ^ood  fortune  to  see  the  end  of  the  schism  "  Christian  Democracy "  a  political  meaning,  while 
which  arose  in  1870  between  the  Uniat  Armenians  and  others  erred  by  going  to  the  opposite  extreme.  In 
ended  in  1879  by  the  conversion  of  Mgr.  Kupelian  and  1901  appeared  the  Encyclical  "  Graves  de  Communi ", 
other  schismatical  bishops.  He  founded  a  college  destinea  to  settle  the  controverted  points.  The 
at  Rome  for  Armenian  ecclesiastical  students  (188^,  "Catholic  Action"  movement  in  Italy  was  reorgan- 
and  by  dividing  the  college  of  S.  Atanasio  he  was  able  ized,  and  to  the  **  Opera  dei  Congressi ''  was  added  a 
to  give  the  Ruthenians  a  college  of  their  own;  already  second  group  that  took  for  its  watchword  economic- 
in  1882  he  had  reformed  the  Kuthenian  Order  of  St.  social  action.  Unfortunately  this  latter  did  not  last 
Basil;  for  the  Chaldeans  he  founded  at  Mossul  a  semi-  long,  and  Pius  X  had  to  create  a  new  party  which  has 
nary  of  which  the  Dominicans  have  charge.  In  a  not  yet  overcome  its  internal  difficulties, 
memorable  encyclical  of  1897  he  appealed  to  all  the  Under  Leo  the  religious  orders  developed  wonder- 
schismatics  of  the  East,  inviting  them  to  return  to  the  fully;  new  orders  were  founded,  older  ones  increased. 
Universal  Church,  and  laying  down  rules  for  govern-  and  in  a  short  time  made  up  for  the  losses  occasioned 
ing  the  relations  between  the  various  rites  in  countries  by  the  unjust  spoliation  they  had  been  subjected  to. 
of  mixed  rites.  Even  among  the  Copts  his  efforts  at  ^ong  every  line  of  religious  and  educational  activity 
reunion  made  headway.  they  have  proved  no  small  factor  in  the  awakening  and 

The  ecclesiastical  sciences  found  a  generous  patron  strengthening  of  the  Christian  life  of  the  whole  coun- 

in  Pope  Leo.    His  Encyclical  *'^temi  Patris'' (1880)  try.     For  their  better  guidance  w^ise  constitutions 

recommended  the  study  of  Scholastic  philosophy,  es-  were  issued;  reforms  were  made;  orders  such  as  the 

pecially  that  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  but  he  did  not  Franciscans  and  Cistercians,  which  in  times  past  had 

advise  a  servile  study.     In  Rome  he  established  the  divided  off  into  sections,  were  once  more  united;  and 

Apollinare  College,  a  higher  institute  for  the  Latin,  the  Benedictines  were  given  an  abbot-primate,  who 

Greek,  and  Italian  classics.    At  his  suggestion  a  Bo-  resides  at  St.  Anselm's  College,  founded  in  Rome  under 

hemian  college  was  founded  at  Rome.    At  Anagni  he  the  auspices  of  Pope  Leo  (1883).     Rules  were  laid 

founded  and  entrusted  to  the  Jesuits  a  college  for  all  down  concerning  members  of  religious  orders  who  be- 

the  dioceses  of  the  Roman  Campagna,  on  which  are  came  secularized. 

modelled  the  provincial  or  "regional"  seminaries  de-  In  canon  law  Pope  Leo  made  no  radical  change,  yet 
sired  by  Pius  A.  Historical  scholars  arc  indebted  to  no  part  of  it  escaped  his  vigilance,  and  opportune 
lum  for  the  opening  of  the  Vatican  Archives  (1883),  on  modifications  were  made  as  the  needs  of  the  times  re- 
which  occasion  he  published  a  splendid  encyclical  on  quired.  On  the  whole  his  pontificate  of  twenty-five 
the  importance  of  historical  studies,  in  which  he  de-  years  was  certainly ,  in  external  success,  one  of  the  most 
clares  that  the  Church  has  nothing  to  fear  from  his-  brilliant.  It  is  true  the  general  peace  oetween  nations 
torical  truth.  For  the  administration  of  the  Vatican  favoured  it.  The  people  were  tired  of  that  antideri- 
Archives  and  Librarv  he  called  on  eminent  scholars  calism  which  had  led  governments  to  forget  their  real 
(Hergenrother,  Deniflc,  Ehrle;  repeatedly  he  tried  to  purpose,  i.  e.  the  well-being  of  the  governed;  and,  on 
obtainJanssen,  but  the  latter  declined,  as  he  was  eager  the  other  hand,  prudent  statesmen  feared  excessive 
to  finish  his  ** History  of  the  German  People").  For  catering  to  the  elements  subversive  of  society.  Leo 
the  convenience  of  students  of  the  archives  and  the  himself  used  every  endeavour  to  avoid  friction.  His 
Ubrarv  he  established  a  consulting  library.  The  Vat-  three  jubilees  (the  golden  jubilees  of  his  priesthood 
ican  01>servatory  is  also  one  of  the  glories  of  Pope  and  of  his  episcopate,  and  the  silver  jubilee  of  his  pon- 
Leo  XIII.  To  excite  Catholic  students  to  rival  non-  tificate)  showed  now  wide  was  the  popular  sympathy 
Catholics  in  the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  and  at  the  for  him.  Moreover,  his  appearance  either  at  Vatican 
same  time  to  guide  their  studies,  he  published  the  receptions  or  in  St.  Peter's  was  always  a  signal  for  out- 
" Pro videntissums  Deus"  (1893),  which  won  the  admi-  bursts  of  enthusiasm.  Leo  was  far  from  robust  in 
ration  even  of  Protestants,  and  in  1902  he  appointed  a  health,  but  the  methodical  regularity  of  his  life  stood 
Biblical  Commission.  Also,  to  guard  against  the  dan-  him  in  good  stead.  He  was  a  tireless  worker,  and  al- 
ters of  the  new  style  of  apologetics  founded  on  Kant-  ways  exacted  more  than  ordinary  effort  from  those 
ism  and  now  knowTi  as  Modernism  (n.  v.).  he  warned  who  worked  with  him.  The  conditions  of  the  Holy 
in  1899  the  French  clergy  (Encycl.  **  Au  Milieu"),  and  See  did  not  permit  him  to  do  much  for  art,  but  he  re- 
before  that,  in  a  Brief  ^dressed  to  Cardinal  Gibbons,  newed  the  apse  of  the  Lateran  Basilica,  rebuilt  its 
he  pointed  out  the  dangers  of  certain  doctrines  to  presbytery,  and  in  the  Vatican  caused  a  few  halls  to  be 
which  had  been  given  the  name  of  "Americanism"  painted. 


LEO 


173 


XJB00ADI4 


Baob»  LmmU  XIII  Carmina,  hitenptionss,  NtanimiuUa 
aM3),  tr.  Hjbnrt  (Philadelphia—);  Acta  Leonit  XIIL  26 
▼ok.  (Rome.  1878-1903);  Scetta  di  aUi  apoatolici  dd  card.  Peed 
(Rome,  1879);  CcnvetdumeM  de  re6tM  tcduitutieU  (14  vols., 
Rome,  1878-93);  bioNnraphiea  by  O'Rxxllt  (1886):  T'Seb- 
(XAXS  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1894-1906);  Schnbidbr  (1901);  Justin 
McCabtht  (London,  1896):  Furbt  (New  York,  1903);  Spahn 
(1905)-  Jkan  d' Arras  (Paris,  1902);  Quilubrmin  (Paris, 
1902):  BoTER  d'Aqbn,  La  Jeunetse  de  L^on  XIII  (Toura,  1S96;; 
Idbm.  La  PrUaturtde  Lron  XIII  {iHd.,  1900);  de  Germint, 
LaPolUiguedeLfion  XIII  (Paris,  1902) ;  Lefebvre  de  Blaine, 
L^n  X  III  el  le  prince  Bismarck  (Paris,  1898);  Qeffken,  Lton 
X^IIdevarU  VAlUnuiffne  (Paris,  1896):  de  Cerarb,  II  conclave 
di  Leane  XIII  (3nl  ed.,  Cittk  di  C.istello.  1887);  Bonacxna. 
ConlinuoMione  dala  Horia  eccl.  di  Rohrbacher  e  di  aaJan  (Turin, 
1899);  DB  Mebstbr,  Lean*t  XIII  e  la  chieaa  greca  (Rome,  1905); 
Pbotsner,  Die  Entufickeluno  dee  kirchlichen  EherechU  unler  Leo 
XIII  (Salsburs,  1908).  Cf.  also  The  Great  Encyclicals  of  Leo 
XIII,  ed.  Wynne  (New  York,  1902). 

U.  Benign'i. 

Leo,  Brother,  Friar  Minor,  companion  of  St.  Fran- 
eis  of  Assisi,  date  of  birth  uncertain;  d.  at  Assisi,  15 
Nov. J 1271.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Aasisi  and  not  of  \  iterbo,  as  some  later  writers  have 
asserted.  Although  not  one  of  the  original  twelve 
companions  of  St.  Francis,  Leo  was  one  of  the  first  to 
join  mm  after  the  approbation  of  the  first  Rule  of  the 
Fiiars  Minor  (1209-1210)  and  perhaps  was  already  a 
priest.  In  the  course  of  time  he  became  the  confessor 
and  secretary  of  the  saint,  and  from  about  1220  up  to 
tJie  time  of  Francis's  deatn  Leo  was  his  constant  com- 
panion, lie  was  with  the  "  Pov-erello  "  when  the  latter 
retired  to  Fonte  Colombo  near  Rieti  in  1223,  to  re-write 
the  rule  of  liie  order  and  he  accompanied  him  on  his 
subsequent  journey  to  Rome  to  seek  its  approval. 
The  year  following  Leo  was  with  the  saint  on  Mount  La 
Vema  when  Francis  received  the  stigmata  and  he  has 
left  us  a  clear  and  simple  account  of  that  great  mir- 
acle. This  statement  ne  wrote  across  the  face  of  the 
autograph  blessing  which  St.  Francis  had  given  him  on 
La  \^ma,  as  a  talisman  against  temptation,  and  which 
is  still  preser\'ed  at  S.  Francesco  in  Assisi.  The  text  of 
a  letter  ^-ritten  by  the  saint  to  Leo  some  time  before 
is  also  extant.  It  is  a  word  of  tender  encouragement 
and  counsel  to  the  **Frate  Pecorollo  di  Dio"  (little 
brother  sheep  of  God)  as  the  Saint  had  named  his 
faithful  disciple  because  of  his  simplicity  and  ten- 
derness. And  one  of  the  most  golden  chapters  in 
the  "Fioretti"  (ch.  vii)  tells  how  St.  Francis  showed 
to  Brother  Ix»o  "  which  things  were  perfect  joy  ".  Leo 
nursed  his  master  during  his  last  illness  and  as  the 
saint  lay  djdng  it  was  he,  together  with  Angelo,  an- 
other favourite  companion,  who  consoled  Francis  by 
singing  the  "Canticle  of  the  Sun  ". 

Leo  had  entered  deeply  into  the  bitter  disappoint- 
ments experienced  by  the  saint  during  the  last  few 
years  of  nis  life,  and  soon  after  Francis's  death  he 
came  into  conflict  with  those  whom  he  considered  trai- 
tors to  the  Poverello  and  his  ideal  of  poverty.  Hav- 
ing protested  against  the  collection  of  money  for  the 
election  of  the  oasilica  of  San  Francesco  and  having 
actually  smashed  the  vase  which  Brother  Elias  had 
Bet  up  for  contributions  (sec  Elias),  Leo  was  whipped 
by  order  of  Elias  and  expelled  from  Assisi.  lie  there- 
upon retired  to  some  hermitage  of  the  order  and  from 
thenceforth  we  catch  only  occasional  glimpses  of  him. 
Thus  we  find  him  present  in  1253  at  the  cfeath-bed  of 
St.  Clare  of  whom  ne  was  a  life-long  friend.  Leo  ap- 
pears to  have  passed  much  of  his  latter  years  at  the 
rorziuncola  and  to  have  employed  himself  in  writing 
those  works  which  exerted  such  a  marked  infiuenco 
on  Conrad  d'OflSda.  Angelo  Clareno,  Ll)ertino  da  Ca- 
sale,  and  other  ''Spirituals"  of  a  later  generation. 
These  writings,  in  which  Leo  set  forth  what  he  con- 
sidered to  be  the  real  intention  of  St.  Francis  regarding 
the  observance  of  poverty,  he  is  said  to  have  confided 
to  the  nuns  at  S.  Cniara  in  Assisi  in  order  to  save  them 
to  posterity.  Leo  died  at  the  Porziuncola  on  15 
Nov.y  1271,  at  an  advanced  age  and  was  buried  in  the 
bmer  church  of  San  Francesco  near  the  tomb  of  his 
leraphio  fisher.    He  is  commemorated  in  the  Fran- 


ciscan  Martyrology  which  gives  him  the  title  of 
Blessed,  and  the  cause  of  his  formal  beatification  is 
now  (1910)  pending  with  that  of  the  other  early  com- 
panions of  St.  Francis. 

Considerable  doubt  still  exists  as  to  how  much  Leo 
actually  wrote.  The  famous  "  rotuli "  and  "  ccduls  " 
which  he  deposited  with  the  Poor  Clares  have  not 
come  down  to  us,  but  these  documents  are  believed  to 
have  been  the  source  from  which  the  "Speculum  Peiv 
fectionis"  and  some  other  compilations  of  ''materia 
seraphica''  were  more  or  less  directly  derived.  This 
"Speculum  Perfectionis  "  was  first  puolished  as  a  sepa- 
rate work  in  1898  by  Paul  Sabatier,  who  called  it  the 
"Legenda  Antiquissima  S.  Francisci"  and  claimed 
that  it  was  written  by  Leo  as  early  as  1227,  as  a  mani- 
festo against  Elias  and  the  other  abettors  of  laxity 
among  the  friars.  This  claim  gave  rise  to  a  large  con- 
troversial literature.  The  majority  of  critics  ascribe 
the  "Speculum  Perfectionis"  to  a  later  date  and  re- 
gard it  as  the  work  of  different  writers.  However  this 
may  be,  the  "Speculum  Perfectionis"  remains  of  the 
utmost  value  and  interest.  In  spite  of  its  polemic 
tone — which  reflects  the  controversy  raging  within 
the  order  between  the  zelanti  and  mitigaii  m  Leo's 
day — and  its  shortcomings  from  a  literary  standpoint 
if  compared  with  the  "Legends"  of  Thomas  of  Ce- 
lano  and  of  St.  Bonaventure,  the  portrait  of  St. 
Francis  which  the  "Speculum"  presents, and  which 
all  admit  to  be  substantially  due  to  Leo,  affords  an  in- 
sight into  the  life  of  the  Poverello  such  as  no  formal 
biography  contains  and  such  as  none  but  an  intimate 
could  have  given.  Leo  was  moreover  associated  with 
Angelo  and  Rufino  in  the  composition  of  the  cele- 
brated "Legend  of  the  Three  Companions",  a  work 
which  has  been  the  subject  of  scarcely  less  controversy 
than  the  "Speculum  Perfectionis";  he  Is  also  credited 
with  the  authorship  of  a  life  of  Blessed  Giles  or  iEgid- 
ius  of  Assisi  inserted  in  the  "Chronicle  of  the  XXIV 
Generals  ",  and  is  thought  to  have  collaborated  in  the 
biography  of  St.  Clare  written  about  1257. 

No  modem  biogmphy  of  Leo  cxiata,  but  Paul  Sabatier  has 
been  at  paius  to  gatlier  all  the  contemporary  rcferenccn  to  him 
[see  jSpfcuZum  Perfectionis  ed.  Sabatier  (Paris,  1898),  pp. 
LXIl-LXXXV],  and  tlicro  is  a  good  sketch  of  his  life  by  Anns 
Macdqne.Xh  Sons  of  Francis  (London,  1902),  pp.  95-112. 
The  earU*  life  of  Leo  contained  in  the  Ckron.  XX IV  Generalium 
[Anal.  Francis.,  t.  Ill  (Quaracchi,  1897),  65  sq.]  seems  to  be  a 
compendium  of  an  older  legend;  the  one  inserted  by  Barthol. 
PwANua  in  his  De  ConformitaU  \Anal.  Francis,  IV  (1906),  188 
BO.]  gives  a  list  of  miracles  attributed  to  Leo  not  totmd  ebe- 
wticre.  On  the  writings  of  Leo  nee  Lbmmens,  Scripta  Frairie 
Leonis  in  Doc.  Ant.  Francis.,  I  (Quaracchi.  1901).  For  a  synop- 
sis of  the  controversial  literature  to  which  the  Speculum  Perfect 
tionis  gave  rise  sec  T)b  Kerval  in  Bulletiino  Critico  di  cose 
Francescane  (Dec.  1905^.  109,  and  Robinson,  Introduction  to 
Franciscan  Literature  (New  York,  1907),  12  Bq.  See  also 
Clarenub,  Ilisloria  Tribxdntionum  etc.  ed.  Ehble  in  Archiv.  fiXr 
Liu.  und  Kirchen,  III,  55.'^-623;  Wadding,  Anruiles  Minonun  ad 
an  IglO,  I.  91  n  32;  Actus  B.  Francisci  et  Sociorum  ejus.  ed. 
Sabatier  (Paris,  1902),  vii-ix  and  passim;  Balfour,  The 
Seraphic  Keepsake  (London,  1905)  passim;  Carmichabl,  />a 
Benefiizione  di  San  Francesco  (Lc»;hom,  1900):  Robinbon.  The 
Writings  of  SL  Francis  (Philadelphia,  1906),  130  sq..  and  146  8q. 

Paschal  Robinson. 

Leocadia,  Saint,  virgin  and  martyr,  d.  9  Decem- 
ber, probably  304,  in  the  Diocletian  persecution.  The 
last  great  persecution  gave  the  Church  in  Spain  a  suc- 
cession of  martyrs,  who  from  303  until  305  suffered 
death  for  the  Christian  Faith.  In  the  historical  mar- 
tyrologies  of  the  ninth  century,  St.  Leocadia  of  To- 
ledo is  honoured  among  these  martyrs  on  9  Decem- 
ber. Her  name  is  not  mentioned  by  rrudentius  in  his 
hymn  on  the  Spanish  Martyrs,  but  in  very  early  times 
there  was  a  church  dedicated  to  her  at  Toledo.  In  the 
first  half  of  the  seventh  centun'  this  church  was  men- 
tioned as  the  meeting-place  of  the  Fourth  Synod  of 
Toledo  in  633,  as  well  as  of  the  fifth  in  636,  and  the 
sixth  in  638  (Concil.  Tolctanum  IV,  mentions  the 
"  basilica  beatissimse  et  sanctae  Confcssoris  Leocadia) " ; 
Mansi,  "Concil.  Coll.",  X,  615).  Long  before  that 
date,  therefore,  I.«cocadia  must  have  been  publicly 
honoured  as  a  martyr.    The  basilica  in  question  waa 


LBODIGAB 


174 


LIO 


evidently  erected  over  her  grave.  There  is  no  doubt 
of  t^e  historic^  fact  of  her  martvrdom,  whilst  the  date 
of  9  December  for  her  annual  commemoration  ob- 
viously rests  on  ^e  tradition  of  the  Church  of  Toledo. 
More  recently  compiled  Acts  relate  that  Deocadia  was 
filled  with  a  desire  for  martyrdom  through  the  story 
of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Eulalia.  By  order  of  the 
governor,  Decianus,  who  is  described  in  the  martyr- 
ology  as  the  most  furious  persecutor  of  the  Christians 
in  Spain,  she  was  seized  and  cruelly  tortured  in  order 
to  make  her  apostatize,  but  she  remained  steadfast 
and  was  sent  back  to  prison,  where  she  died  from  the 
effects  of  the  torture.  A  church  was  built  over  her 
grave,  besides  which  two  others  at  Toledo  are  dedica- 
ted to  her.  She  is  the  patroness  of  the  diocese,  and  9 
December  is  still  given  as  her  feast  in  the  Roman  Mar- 
tvrology.    She  is  represented  with  a  tower,  to  signify 

that  she  died  in  prison.  , 

Fl6rez,  Eapafla  ^oiTnuia,  VI,  315-17;  La  Fuente,  Hidoria 
ecUndalica  de  Espafla,  2nd  ed.,  I  (Madrid,  1S73).  335-7;  Sn- 
Rxus,  Vita  Sanctorum^  9  December.  XU.  199;  Butler,  Livea  of 
the  SainU,  9  December. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Leodegar  (Leger),  Saint,  Bishop  of  Autun,  b. 
about  615;  d.  a  martyr  in  678,  at  Sarcing,  Somme. 
His  mother  was  called  Sigrada,  and  his  father  Bobilo. 
His  parents  being  of  higli  rank,  his  early  childhood 
was  passed  at  the  court  of  Clotaire  II.  He  went 
later  to  Poitiers,  to  study  under  the  ^idance  of  his 
uncle,  the  bishop  of  that  town.  Havrng  given  proof 
of  his  learning  and  virtue,  and  feeling  a  liking  for  the 
priestly  life,  his  uncle  ordained  him  deacon,  and  asso- 
ciated him  with  himself  in  the  government  of  the 
diocese.  Shortly  afterwards  he  became  a  priest  and 
with  the  bishop's  approval  withdrew  to  the  monastery 
of  St.  Maxentius  in  650.  He  was  soon  elected  abbot 
and  signalized  himself  by  reforming  the  community 
and  introducing  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict.  In  656 
•he  was  called  to  the  court  by  the  widowed  Queen 
Bathildis  to  assist  in  the  government  of  the  kingdom 
and  in  the  education  of  her  children.  In  reward  for 
his  services  he  was  named  to  the  Bishopric  of  Autun 
in  610.  He  again  undertook  the  work  of  reform  and 
held  a  council  at  Autun  in  661.  It  dealt  a  crushing 
blow  to  Manichffiism  and  was  the  first  to  adopt  the 
Creed  of  St.  Athanasius.  He  made  reforms  among 
the  secular  clergy  and  the  religious  communities,  and 
he  impressed  on  all  pastors  the  importance  of  preach- 
ing and  of  administering  the  sacraments,  especially 
baptism.  For  this  purpose  the  bishop  had  three 
baptisteries  erected  in  the  town.  The  church  of 
Samt-Nazaire  was  enlarged  and  embellished,  and  a 
refuge  established  for  the  indigent.  Leodegar  also 
caused  the  public  buildings  to  be  repaired  and  the 
old  Roman  walls  to  be  restored.  The  latter  still 
exist  and  are  among  the  finest  specimens  preserved. 

Serious  trouble  soon  arose  in  tne  state.  The  Aus- 
trasian^  demanded  a  king  and  young  Childeric  II 
was  sent  to  them  through  the  influence  of  Ebroin, 
the  mayor  of  the  palace  in  Neustria.  The  latter  was 
practically  a  ruler  and  desired  to  ^et  rid  of  all  who 
thwarted  his  plans.  The  queen  withdrew  from  the 
court  to  an  abbey  she  had  founded  at  Chelles,  near 
Paris.  On  the  death  of  Clotaire  III,  in  670,  Ebroin 
raised  Thierry  to  the  throne,  but  Leodegar  and  the 
other  bishops  supported  the  claims  of  his  elder  brother 
Childeric,  who,  oy  the  help  of  the  Austrasians  and 
Buiigundians,  was  eventualljr  made  king.  Ebroin 
was  exiled  to  Luxeuil  and  Thierry  sent  to  St.  Denis. 
Leodegar  remained  at  court,  guiding  the  young  king. 
When  the  bishop  protested  against  the  mamage  of 
Childeric  and  his  first  cousin,  he  also  was  sent  to 
Luxeuil,  his  enemies  representing  him  to  the  king  as  a 
conspirator.  Childeric  II  was  murdered  at  Bondi 
in  673,  by  a  Frank  whom  he  had  maltreated.  Thierry 
III  now  ascended  the  throne  in  Neustria,  makine  Leu- 
desius  hb  mayor.  Leodegar  and  Ebroin  hastened  from 


Luxeuil  to  the  court.  In  a  short  time  Ebroin  caused 
Leudesius  to  be  murdered,  and  became  mayor.  He 
vowed  vengeance  on  the  bisnop,  whom  he  looked  on  as 
the  cause  of  his  imprisonment.  About  675  the  Duke 
of  Champagne  and  the  Bishop  of  Chalons  and  Valence, 
stirred  up  by  Ebroin,  attacked  Autun.  To  save  the 
town,  Leodegar  surrendered  to  them.  He  was  bru- 
tally treated  and  his  eyes  put  out,  the  sockets  being 
seared  with  red-hot  irons.  Ebroin's  bloodthirsty 
iiistincts  were  not  yet  satiated*  he  caused  the  holy 
bishop's  lips  to  be  cut  off  and  nis  tongue  to  be  torn 
out.  Some  years  later  he  persuaded  the  king  that 
Childeric  had  been  assassinated  at  the  instigation  of 
Leodegar.  The  bishop  was  seized  again,  and,  after 
a  mock  trial,  was  degraded  and  condemned.  He  was 
led  out  into  a  forest  by  Ebroin's  order  and  murdered. 
His  testament  drawn  up  at  the  time  of  the  council, 
as  well  as  the  Acts  of  the  council,  are  preserved.  A 
letter  which  he  caused  to  be  sent  to  his  mother  after 
his  mutilation  is  likewise  extant.  His  relics,  which 
had  been  at  Sarcing  in  Artois,  were  translated  to  the 
Abbey  of  St.  Maxentius  at  Poitiers  in  782.  Later 
they  were  removed  to  Rennes  and  thence  to  Ebreuil, 
which  place  took  the  name  of  Saint-L^er.  Some  of 
them  are  still  kept  in  the  cathedral  of  Autun  and  the 
Grand  S^minaire  of  Soissons.  In  1458  Cardinal  Ro- 
lin  caused  his  feast  day  to  be  observed  as  a  hohday 
of  obligation. 

PiTRA.IIiaUnrede Saint  LSger  (Paris,  1846);  Bennett  in  Diet. 
Christ.  Biog.,  e.  v.  Leodegariua;  Fauriel,  Histoire  de  la  GauU 
tnfridionale,  II  (Paris,  1836),  461-473;  Guizot.  CoUeclion  dee 
nUmoirea  relalife  a  V histoire  de  France,  II  (Paris.  1823),  326; 
GufcRiN,  Vie  dee  eointe,  XI  (Paris,  1880),  619-47;  Mabillon, 
Acta  SS.  O.S.B.,  II  (Paris,  1669),  680-705;  P.  L..  XCVI,  377- 
84;  CXIII,  373;  CXXIV,  529;  Analecta  BoUandiana,  XI  (Bni»- 
sels.  1892),  104-10;  Kaulen  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v. 

A.  A.  MacEklean. 

Leo  DiaconuB,  Byzantine  historian,  b.  at  Kaloe,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Tmolos,  in  Ionia,  about  the  year  960; 
the  year  of  his  death  is  unknown.  In  his  early  youth 
he  came  to  study  at  Constantinople  and,  as  his  name 
tells,  w^as  ordained  deacon.  In  986  he  took  part  in 
the  war  against  the  Bulgars  under  the  Emperor 
Basil  II  (976-1025),  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Tria- 
ditza  (Sofia),  where  the  imperial  army  was  defeated, 
and  barely  escaped  with  his  life.  After  the  year  992 
he  began  to  write  a  history  of  the  empire,  presumably 
at  Constantinople.  The  work  is  incomplete.  Appar- 
ently he  died  before  he  could  finish  it.  The  history, 
divided  into  ten  books,  covers  the  years  from  959  to 
975,  that  is,  the  reigns  of  Romanus  II  (959-963), 
Nicephorus  Phocas  (963-969)  and  John  Zimisces 
(909-976) .  It  describes  the  wars  against  the  Arabs  in 
which  the  fortresses  of  Cilicia  and  the  Island  of  Cyprus 
were  won  back  (964-965),  the  conquest  of  Antioch 
and  Northern  Syria  from  the  Moslems  (968-969),  the 
Bulgarian  War  (969)  and  the  defeat  of  the  Southern 
Russians  (971),  one  of  the  most  brilliant  periods  of 
the  later  Empire.  For  the  reigns  of  Nicephorus 
Phocas  and  Jonn  Zimisces,  Leo  the  Deacon  is  tne  one 
source,  the  only  contemporary  historian,  from  whom 
all  later  writers  have  drawn  their  material.  His 
authorities  are  his  own  observation  and  the  account 
of  eyewitnesses.  He  says:  "The  events  as  I  saw 
them  with  my  own  eyes  (for  eyes  are  more 
trustworthy  than  ears,  as  Herodotus  says)  and 
as  I  gathered  them  from  those  who  saw  them,  these 
things  I  write  in  my  book"  (Bonn  edition,  p.  5).  Al- 
though Leo  is  so  valuable  an  authority  for  nis  perlbd, 
critics  do  not  judce  his  manner  of  writing  favourably. 
He  is  affected  ana  dull,  fond  of  foreign  (JLatin)  woros, 
and  has  a  mania  for  unusual  and  extravagant  forms; 
for  simple  words  like  "brother",  or  even  the  verb  "to 
be"  he  prefers  absurd  artificial  synonyms.  Krum- 
bacher  sums  up  his  style  as  "tri^dal  and  pedantic". 
Leo  quotes  IVocopius',  Homer,  and  especially  the 
Bible  (in  the  Septuagint).  His  loyalty  to  the  em- 
peror often  prej  udices  his  honesty.      His  nistory  is  con- 


UOH                               176  LBOH 

tinued  b^  Michad  Psellus.    Leo's  book  was  not  very  Alfonso  V  rebuilt  and  repeopled  the  city,  giving  it  its 

popular  in  the  following  centuries.     Other  writers  famous /uero,  or  charter,  a  collection  of  laws  promul- 

who  drew  their  information  from  him,  were  preferred,  gated  in  the  Ck)uncil  of  Leon.    This  council  which 

e.  g.  Nicephorus  Bryennius.    A  result  of  this  is  that  opened  1  Au^st,  1020,  had  a  politico-ecclesiastical 

only  one  manuscript  of  his  history  is  extant  (cod.  cnaracter  similar  to  that  of  the  Toledan  councils  of 

Paris,  1712).  the  Visigothic  period.     Among  other  privileges,  this 

Fint  complete  edition  in  the  Paris  Corpu%  edited  with  a  com-  fuero  secured  to  the  inhabitants  of  Leon  mviolability  of 

?K^.S5  ^.  ir^ThSI^^E^^l^  domicile  and  it  estabUshed  the  rights  of  benefadaria 

poblished  Book  VI  with  a  Latin  veraion  and  an  analysis  of  the  (whence  the  local  term,  be-hetria),  by  which  a  vassal 

whole  work  in  the  Notices  d,  exiraiU  de  la  bibliolhiqw  naiionale,  miirht  bind  himself  to  anv  lord  who  WOUld  protect 

VIII  (Paris.  1810),  2,  254-296;  Fischer.  BeUrUge  zur  histori-  i^- *                                            ^                                    *^ 

Air  Oeaiemiehiache  Oeachichiaforachung,  VII  (1886),  353-377;  In  the  spnng  of  1029  the  City  of  Leon  was  the  SCene 

BcHLUMBSBOKB.  NiUphore  PHocoa  (Paris,  1890)  of  a  bloody  event  which  was  of  transcendent  impor- 

Adrian  Fortescub.  tance  in  Spanish  history.    Don  Garcia,  C!ount  of  Gas- 
Leon.    See  QuiMPER,  Diocese  of.                     *  *?e,  who  was  about  to  be  manied  to  Dona  Sancha. 

sister  of  Bermudo  III,  King  of  Leon,  was  assassinated 

Leon,  Diocese  and  Givil  Province  of. — History,  as  he  was  entering  the  church  of  S.  Juan  Bautista.  b^ 

— ^Probably  before  the  time  of  Trajan,  the  Romans  the  Velas,  a  partv  of  Gastilian  nobles,  exiles  from  tneir 

founded  in  the  Asturias,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  own  country,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Leon.    Leon 

ancient  Lancia,  a  military  colony  to  which  they  gave  and  Navarre  disputed  the  succesaon  to  the  0)unt8hip 

the  name  of  Legio  Septima  Gemina.    From  Legio  (ace.  of  Gastile  thus  left  vacant.    Ferdinand,  son  of  Sancho 

legionem)  was  formed,  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  Elder  (or  the  Great),  of  Navarre,  married  Sancha, 

the  Romance-Gastilian  language,  the  name  LedUy  and  sister  of  Bermudo  III,  of  Leon,  and  received  the  title 

the  identity  oi  this  name  with  that  of  the  king  of  of  King  of  Gastile,  and  when,  the  war  being  renewed, 

beasts  (ledn,  from  leo,  ace.  leonem)  perhaps  explains  Bermudo  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Tamar6n,  the 

how,  by  what  in  German  is  called  a  Volksetimologiey  united  crowns  of  Leon  and  Gastile  became  the  posses- 

the  Uon  came  to  be  considered  the  heraldic  cognizance  sion  of  Ferdinand  I.    From  that  time  the  hegemony 

of  the  city  and  province  of  this  name,  and  even  of  the  which  Leon  had  enjoyed  began  to  pass  to  Gastue.  The 

whole  Spanish  people.    Very  soon  the  ori^nal  mili-  causes  of  this  change,  which  left  so  deep  an  impression 

tary  colony  admitted  civilian  colonists,  as  the  ancient  upon  the  history  of  Spain,  may  be  summed  up  as  fol- 

epitaphs  prove.    Within  a  few  years  after  its  founds-  lows:   (I)  Ferdinand,  first  King  of  Gastile,  had  van- 

tion  tne  Z^a/u8  ilu9u«to/i«  who  governed  the  Asturias  ouishea  Bermudo;    (2)  Ferdinand  I  at  his  death, 

was  residing  in  this  settlement.  aivided  his  kingdoms  between  his  sons;  Sancho,  King 

Ghristianity  must  have  been  introduced  very  early,  of  Castile,  then  wrested  the  Kingdom  of  Leon  from 

for  it  had  its  bishops  at  least  as  early  as  the  thira  Alfonso,  but,  Sancho  bein^  himself  assassinated  before 

ooitury,  and  the  names  of  Basiiides  and  Decentius  are  the  walls  of  Zamora  by  Vellido  Dolfos,  Alfonso  in  his 

known  before  the  time  of  the  Germanic  invasions,  turn  obtained  possession  of  both  the  kingdoms.     (3) 

These  invaders  do  not  seem  to  have  established  them-  The  Kingdoms  of  Gastile  and  Leon  being  once  more 

selves  in  Leon — a  stronghold  of  the  imperial  power —  separated  upon  the  death  of  Alfonso  VII  (the  Emperor 

until  Euri<r(466-84),  or  at  least  Leovigild  (572-86),  — see  below)  Alfonso  VIII  of  Gastile  notably  advanced 

drove  out  the  imperial  garrison.     In  the  Roman  per-  the  reconquest  of  Spain  by  saining  the  victory  of  Las 

secutions  Leon  had  numerous  martyrs,  among  whom  Navas  de  Tolosa  (1212)^  while  Alfonso  IX  of  Leon 

were  Sts.  Facundus,  Primitivus,  the  husband  and  wife  pursued  a  dastardly  policy  of  fomenting  civil  strife. 

Ifarcellus  and  Nonia,  with  their  sons  Glaudius,  Vic-  (4)  Ferdinand  III,  the  Saint — ^who  inherited  Gastile 

toricus,  and  Lupercus,  Vincent,  and  Ramirus.    The  through  his  mother,  Dona  Berenguela,  and  then,  on 

name  of  St.  Facundus  took,  in  the  ancient  dialect,  the  the  death  of  his  father,  Alfonso  DC,  became  King  of 

form  Sorhagiln,  which  survives  as  a  geographical  Leon — transferred  the  centre  of  his  activities  to  Cas- 

name.    A  monastery  was  built,  in  the  fourth  century,  tile.     (5)  Above  all,  Gastile  led  the  van  of  the  recon- 

on  the  spot  where  (jlaudius  and  his  brothers  sufiferea  quest  beyond  the  Garpetan  Moimtains  (Sierras  de 

martyrdom.    Leon  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Mussul-  Gata,  de  Gredos,  de  Guadarrama),  while  Leon^  by  its 

man  mvaders,  but  they  did  not  long  retain  it;  it  was  separation  from  Portugal,  found  its  expansion  ar- 

reconquered  by  Alfonso  I,  the  Gatholic.    Destroyed  a  rested  at  the  boundaries  of  Estremadura. 

second  time  by  the  Mussulmans  in  the  time  of  Abder-  The  principal  events  which  took  place  in  Leon  at 

rahman  II  (846),  it  was  again  rebuilt  by  Ordofio  I  this  period  were  the  following:  The  translation  of  the 

^850-866),  who  erected  there  a  royal  residence  which  relics  of  St.  Isidore  to  the  ancient  church  of  S.  Juan 

Ordofio  II  afterwards  transformed  into  a  cathedral.  Bautista,  which  was  rebuilt  and  dedicated  to  the 

Among  the  bishops  of  Leon  at  this  period  figure  Sevillian  Doctor,  21  December,  1063.    Alvito,  Bishop 

Siuntila,  Frunimius,  Maurus,  and  Vincent,  and  the  of  Leon,  went  to  Seville  with  an  embassy  to  Ebn  Abed, 

jffeat  St.  Froilan  (900-05),  who  was  followed  by  Gix-  to  bring  the  body  of  St.  Justa.  but,  not  finding  it, 

Da  and  Frunimius  II.  brought  that  of  St.  Isidore.    The  Monk  of  Silos  has 

However^  as  the  Gourt  remained  at  Oviedo  during  preserved  the  history  of  this  religious  expedition.    On 

all  this  period,  Leon  did  not  attain  any  great  impor-  26  May,  1135,  Alfonso  VII  was  proclaimed,  in  the 

tance.     When  Alfonso  III  (the  Great)  was  dethroned  basilica  of  Sta.  Maria,  Emperor  of  Spain  (Ildephansus 

by  his  sons  (910),  the  eldest  of  them,  Garcfa,  took  for    plus totiu8  HispanuB  impiraior).    In  1176 

himself  the  city  of  Leon,  which  then  began  to  be  the  the  Military  Order  of  Santiago  was  installed  in  the 

capital  of  a  kingdom.    Garcfa  died  early  (914),  and  hospital  of  S.Marcos.    In  the  minority  of  Ferdinand 

Galicia,  which  had  been  Ordofio's  share,  was  united  to  IV,  the  infante  Don  Juan  was  proclauned  King  of 

Leon.    Ordofio  II,  who  vanquished  the  Moors  at  Leon;  and  in  the  minority  of  Alfonso  XI,  the  parti- 

S.  Esteban  de  Gormaz,  and  was  routed  by  them  at  sans  of  the  infante  brought  his  son  Alfonso  into  the 

Valdejunquera,  reduced  the  Gounts  of   Gastile    to  city  of  Leon  and  fortified  themselves  in  the  cathedral, 

submission   and    founded    the   cathedral    of    Leon  wmch  was  almost  destroyed  by  the  attacking  party 

(914-24).    Leon  now  attained  the  chief  place  among  who  tried  to  dislodge  them.    The  Leonese  opposed 

the  Ghristian  States  of  Western  Spain,  but  in  the  mid-  Henry  of  Trastamare,  who  had  killed  his  brother 

die  of  the  same  century  (the  tenth)  Gastile  began  her  Pedro  the  Gruel  (1368).    After  his  triumph,  never- 

efforts  to  achieve  her  liberation  from  Leonese  vassal-  theless,  Henry  showed  himself  favourable  to  Leon, 

age.    Meanwhile  Leon  succumbed  for  a  brief  period  confirming  its  privileges,  and  John  I  reformed  the 

to  the  irresistible  power  of  Almanzor  (983).    But  municipal  government  which  had  been  established  by 


LBOH 


176 


LEON 


Alfonso  XI  (1390).  In  the  Cortes  of  1406  and  1407  it 
was  declared  that  the  representatives  of  Leon  had  the 
second  place  in  the  order  of  voting  (segundo  asienio) 
after  those  of  Burgos.  In  1493,  Ferdinand  the  Catho- 
lic, by  his  presence  added  solemnity  to  the  translation 
of  the  relics  of  St.  Marcellus. 

Geography. — ^The  Province  of  Leon  as  it  actually 
exists,  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  the  same  name,  is  hounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Asturias;  on  the  east  by  the  Provinces  of 
Santander  and  Valladolid;  on  the  south  by  that  of 
Zamora;  on  the  west  by  Galicia  (Provinces  of  Orcnse 
and  Lugo).  Its  natural  boundaries  are:  the  Canta- 
brian  Mountains  (which  separate  it  from  the  Province 
oi  Oviedo  on  the  north)  from  the  peak  of  Guifia  (G570 
feet)  to  the  Pena  Vieja  (8750  feet) ;  its  boundaries  are 
continued  on  the  east  by  the  range  which  separates 
the  basins  of  theCea  and  the  Carrion  and  are  prolonged 
parallel  to  the  course  of  both  those  rivers  as  far  as 
Saliagiin,  tuniing  thence  to  the  south-east  and  fol- 
lowing the  course  of  the  Cea,  which  bounds  the 
Province  of  Valladolid.  The  southern  boundaries 
are  formed  mostly  by  the  range  of  the  Pena  Ncgra, 
while  the  western,  beginning  from  Pena  Trevinca, 
skirts  Lake  Bana,  cros.ses  the  River  Sil  and  follows 
northward  the  heights  which  mark  on  one  side  the 
basin  of  that  river,  towards  the  port  of  Piedrafita. 
Most  of  the  province  is  >\'ithin  tne  great  Castilian 
plateau,  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  1000  feet  above 
the  sea  level,  rLsing  towards  the  Cantabrian  Moun- 
tains on  the  north.  From  north  to  west  it  is  drained 
by  the  Sil  and  its  tributaries,  which  receive  the  waters 
flowing  from  the  southern  slope  of  the  Cantabrian  Moun- 
tains, from  the  Pena  Ilubia  (6313  feet)  onwards;  from 
north  to  south  bv  the  Orbigo  and  the  Berncsga,  both 
affluents  of  the  fisla  (which,  in  turn,  is  an  alHuent  of 
the  Duero),  and  by  the  Cea,  wliicli  forms  the  boun- 
daries of  the  province  on  the  east  and  south-east. 
Verv  mountainous  in  the  north  and  north-west,  it 
becomes  more  level  towards  the  south-cast,  where  it 
marches  with  the  celebrated  ''Gothic  Plains"  (Camjn 
GoUiici  or  Tierradc  Camjwft).  From  north  to  soutli- 
west  it  is  traversed  by  the  Mountains  of  Leon,  which, 
joining  the  Cantabrian  Chain,  enclose  the  district  of 
fel  Vierzo,  leaving  no  other  opening  but  that  through 
which  the  Sil,  a  tributarv  of  the  Slinho,  parses. 

The  Province  of  Leon  a'I)onnds  in  minend  resources. 
The  carboniferous  formation,  which  covers  a  wide 
area  in  the  east  nms  west  wan  1  by  the  Valley  of 
Ponjos,  penetrates  into  El  Vierzo,  and,  extending 
beyond  Iguena,  San  Pedro  de  Mallo,  and  Villamartin, 
reaches  as  far  as  Fal)cro.  The  hollows  on  both  banks 
of  the  I^rnesga  contain  deposits  of  coal,  with  vast 
masses  of  carboniferous  limestone,  the  exploitation 
of  which  undoubtedly  promisi»s  great  things  for  the 
future  of  Leonesc  industrv.  There  arc  also  iron, 
copper,  and  co!)alt  mines  (e.  g.  the  "Profunda",  in 
the  municipal  district  of  Canncnes),  and  a  great  abun- 
dance of  mineral  waters — bicarljonate,  sulphurous, 
etc.  The  climate  varies  considerably — cold  in  the 
moimtAins  of  the  north,  warm  in  the  lowlands  of  the 
south-cast.  El  Vierzo,  sheltered  by  the  mountains 
from  the  north  winds,  is  one  of  the  mildest  and  mast 
humid  regions;  there  the  vine,  the  olive,  and  fruits 
of  many  kinds  arc  cultivated.  In  the  south  great 
quantities  of  wheat  and  other  cereals  are  grown,  as 
well  as  pulse,  beans,  esculent  herbs,  and  excellent 
silky  flax.  The  forests  are  rich  in  l)eech,  ilex,  and 
oak.  The  livestock  amounts  to  more  than  a  million 
head  of  .'«heep.  cattle,  and  swine.  Tise  mountainous 
character  of  the  country,  rendering  communication 
difficult,  is  somewhat  unfavourable  to  industry,  which 
is  confinerl  to  that  of  ironworks,  mills,,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  flour.  Leather  and  coarse  cloth  are  pro- 
duce<l:  linseed  oil  is  extrarterl.  and  cliocol:Ue  and 
delicious  eheesi's  are  manufaetnnMl, 

Statistics.— Lying  between  12°  4'  30"  and  42**  17' 


north  latitude,  and  between  1^  6^  and  3°  2(f  longitiide 
east  of  Madrid  (2®  35'  51'  and  21'  5r  west  of  Green- 
wich), this  provmcc  lias  an  area  of  15,377  square  kilo- 
meters (5934  square  miles).  The  land  under  culti- 
vation amounts  to  937,399  hectares  (2,316,313  acres), 
of  which  117,281  hectares  (289^801  acres)  are  irrir 
gated.  The  population,  according  to  the  ceiURis  of 
1900,  was  401,172,  whereas  the  census  of  1887  save  a 
population  of  388,830 — an  increase  of  12^342  inhab- 
itants in  thirteen  years,  and  a  proportion  of  26.7 
inhabitants  to  the  sauare  kilometre  (about  10.31  to 
the  square  mile).  Tne  Report  of  the  Institute  Geo- 
graphico  y  Estadistico  on  the  movement  of  population 
for  1901  gives  for  the  Province  of  Leon  14,784  birUia, 
10,131  deaths,  and  2987  marriages,  showing  that  the 
increase  of  population  continues. 

Civil  Division. — ^The  province  is  divided  into  ten 
judicial  districts  and  234  subdivisions  (ayurUamien- 
tos).  The  judicial  districts  are:  Astorga  (an  episcopal 
see),  La  Baneza,  Murias  de  Parcdes,  Ponierrada, 
Riano,  Saliagiin,  Valencia  de  D.  Juan,  La  Vecilla, 
Villafranca  de  Bierzo,  and  Leon.  The  capital  has  a 
population  of  17,022  inhabitants. 

Ecclesiastical  Division. — The  Diocese  of  Leon 
belongs  to  the  ecclesiastical  Province  of  Buri^os, 
though  that  of  Astorga,  which  is  in  the  same  avil 
province,  belongs  to  the  ecclesiastical  Provinoe  of 
Valladolid.  It  (Leon)  consists  of  345  parishes, 
groui)cd  in  37  archipresbyteries,  and  comprises  pari 
of  the  territory  of  the  civil  Provinces  of  Vallaoolid 
and  Oviedo.  The  lists  of  its  bishops  was  interrupted 
by  the  Arab  conquest.  It  possesses  two  ecclesiastical 
seminaries:  that  of  S.  Froilan  and  that  of  S.  Mateo  de 
Valderas.  The  college  of  S.  Isidoro  at  Leon,  for  poor 
scholars,  is  incorporated  with  the  seminary  ol  8. 
Froilan.  There  are  two  chapters  in  the  diocese:  that 
of  the  cathedral,  and  the  collegiate  chapter  of  San 
Isidoro,  with  an  abbot  and  sixteen  canons.    The 

y resent  incuml)ent  of  the  see,  the  Ri^t  Reverend 
uan  Manuel  Sanz  y  Saravfa,  b.  at  Puebla  de  los  In- 
fantes, 30  March,  1848,  was  preconiscd  27  March, 
1905. 

Religious  Communities  in  the  Diocese, — ^At  the  cap- 
ital there  is  a  convent  of  Capucliins  and  a  house  of 
Augustinians  who  have  charge  of  the  pupils  of  the 
Instituto  Provincial.  There  are  also  the  Benedictine 
nuns  of  Sta.  Maria  de  Carvajal,  Franciscan  Conce|^ 
tionists,  .Vugustinian  nuns,  and  Disc^lced  nuns  of  Sta. 
Cruz,  l:)esides  other  uncloistercil  communities  of 
women,  viz.,  the  Sisters  of  Charity  in  the  Hospital 
Provincial  and  the  Chapter  Hospital  and  in  the  Asilo 
Municipal,  an  a.sylum  of  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor, 
a  college  of  Carmelites  of  Charity,  Servants  of  Jesus 
for  the  aid  of  the  sick,  and  a  convent  of  Carmelite 
Sisters.  At  Sahagiin  three  are  Benedictines  of  Sta. 
Cruz,  and  a  hospital  and  college  of  Sisters  of  Charity; 
at  Mayorga  (Province  of  Valladolid),  a  convent  of 
Franciscan  Fathers  occupied  in  teaching,  Dominican 
nuns,  and  a  hospital  of  Sisters  of  Charity;  at  Castro- 
verde  de  Campos  (Province  of  Zamora),  Franciscan 
Fathers;  at  S.  Pedro  de  Duenas  and  in  the  monastery 
of  La  Vega,  Bene<lictine  nuns;  at  Villalpando,  ViUa- 
lobos,  and  Villafrechos  there  are  Poor  Clares;  at 
Grajal  de  Campos.  Discalced  Carmelites;  at  Cuenca 
de  Campos.  Franciscan  nunis;  at  Gradefes,  Bemardine 
nuns;  at  Villalnn,  a  hospital  of  Sisters  of  Charity; 
at  Boadilla  de  Rioscco.  a  college  of  Tertiarics  of  the 
Sacrini  Heart  of  Jesus  anil  Mar^-;  at  Saldaiia,  a  college 
of  Servants  of  Mary. 

Education. — Besides  the  colleges  of  religious  orders 
already  mentioned,  t'  ere  are  the  Instituto  Provincial 
at  Leon  and  a  local  institute  at  Ponferrada.  Leon  is 
dependent  upon  the  university  district  of  0\'iedo. 

The  Citif  of  Lrori,  capital  of  the  civil  province  and 
also  of  the  Dicx*ese  of  Leon,  is  situated  on  the  River 
Bernesga.  at  its  junction  with  the  Torio.  It  lias  a 
station  on  the  Palencia,  Conina,  and  Oviedo  railroad 


177 


A  part  of  the  ancient  city  walls  are  still  standing, 
some  of  them  being  Roman  fortifications  dating  from 
the  third  centurv  and  decorated  with  tesserae.  The 
best  preserved  of  these  remains  are  in  the  *'  Carrera  de 
los  Cubos",  on  the  north-west  side  of  the  city,  be- 
tween the  cathedral  and  the  Puerta  del  Castillo.  The 
modem  city  extends  beyond  this  enclosure  towards  the 
railroad .  The  most  notable  monuments  are  the  cathe- 
dral, the  collegiate  church  of  S .  Isidoro,  and  the  convent 
of  S.  Marcos.  The  cathedral  of  Sta.  Marfa  is  one  of  the 
best  examples  of  primitive  Gothic  in  Spain.  It  is  Bup- 
posed  to  have  been  commenced  in  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  in  the  episcopates  of  Nuno  Alvarez 
and  Martin  III  (Femdndez)  a245-80),  and  the  fa^de 
was  completed  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Its 
excessive  weight  caused  the  dilapidation  which  occa- 
sioned repairs  under  the  direction  of  Madrazo  (d. 
1881),  Demetrio  de  los  Rios  (d.  1892),  and  Lazaro. 
Its  plan  is  a  Latin  cross,  with  three  naves,  a  transept,  a 
choir  of  five  naves,  and  a  chevet  of  chapels.  Above 
the  lateral  arcade  runs  the  triforium  f^allery ^  and  above 
that  again  large  ogival  windows  filled  with  stained 
fflass  of  great  value.  The  choir,  in  the  middle  of  the 
utrg^est  nave,  is  magnificent  Florid  Gothic;  the  retro- 
choir.  Renaissance.  In  the  centre  of  the  space  behind 
the  altar  stands  the  mausoleum  of  Ordotio  II.  On  the 
Gospel  side  of  the  main  chapel  is  the  tomb  of  St. 
Aivitus;  on  the  Epistle  side,  that  of  Don  Pelayo,  the 
Bishop;  in  the  chapel  of  the  Saviour,  that  of  the 
Countess  Sancha;  in  the  chapel  of  the  Nativity,  that 
of  Bishop  Rodrigo.  The  cloister  is  in  the  Renaissance- 
Transition  ogival  style.  The  exterior,  uncovered  in 
front  and  on  one  side,  is  dominated  by  the  spires 
which  crown  the  two  lofty  and  massive  towers;  it  is 
sustained  by  pinnacles  and  buttresses,  strengthened 
with  supports  and  abutments,  and  surrounded  with 
cornices  and  pierced  parapets.  There  are  two  orders 
of  ogival  windows  and,  opening  to  the  west  and  south, 
a  tnple  doorway  which  is  profusely  ornamented  with 
magnificent  carvings,  and  gives  access  to  a  spacious 
vestibule  paved  with  marble  and  closed  by  an  iron 
grille.  The  two  towers,  of  unequal  height,  stand 
apart  from  the  nave  of  the  church  from  theu*  bases  up, 
but  are  connected  with  it  by  means  of  abutments. 
The  northern  tower,  which  is  the  less  lofty,  is  crowned 
with  a  parapet  and  an  octagonal  spire.  Tne  southern 
is  taller  and  more  ornate;  its  octagonal  spire  is  of 
exquisite  pierced  work.  Here,  in  lar^e  Gothic  charac- 
ters, may  be  read:  Maria — Jesiis  Xps — Deus  homo; 
and  higher  up:  Ave  Maria — Gratia  plena — Dns  tecum. 
The  porch  consists  of  three  arcades,  corresponding  to 
the  three  entrances;  upon  the  pillar  which  bisects  the 
middle  portal  standis  tne  laiige  and  beautiful  statue  of 
the  Blessed  Vi.^  called  la  Blanca  (the  White).  To- 
wards the  north  of  the  city  is  the  basilica  of  S.  Isidore, 
predominantly  Byzantine  in  architecture,  but  with  the 
addition  of  later  constructions.  The  church  has  three 
lofty  naves.  In  the  north  transept  may  be  read  the 
record  of  the  consecration,  performed  by  eleven  bish- 
ops, 6  March,  1149.  In  the  crypt  of  this  church  is  the 
burial-place  of  the  kings,  which  was  desecrated  by  the 
French  of  Napoleon's  army.  The  convent  of  S.  Marco 
stands  outsiae  the  city,  to  the  west.  It  was  once  a 
residence  of  the  Knights  of  Santiago.  Its  rebuilding 
was  conmienced  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  and  was 
completed  in  1715.  Its  decoration  is  in  the  Plater- 
esque  style. 

FiTA,  Epigrafia  romana  de  la  ciudad  de  Ledn  (Leon,  1806); 
FL6Bas-Ri800,  Etpafla  Sagmda,  XXXIV- VI,  Memoriae  de  la 
Sta,  IgUwia  exeiUa  de  Le&n  (Madrid,  1784-86):  Quadrado.  Ee- 
pa4a.  9ue  montunentoe  y  ariee  (Barcelona,  1S.S5):  Ceneo  de  looo 
and  Movimienio  de  la  poblacum  en  1901  in  Memoriae  del  Ineti- 
Mo  Geoffrdfico  u  Eeladtetico;  Mu5^os  y  Romero,  Fueroe  munici- 
poiee  de  Caetitta  (1847);  CoLBiBiRo.  ConetUudun  y  gobiemo  de 
he  reinoe  de  Le&n  y  CaetiUa  (Madrid.  1855);  Davila,  Teatro 
edeeideHco  de  Eepana,  1  (1618);  LiAvina.  La  caledral  de  Leon 
OCadrid.    1876);  Bblloso,   Anuario  Ecleeidatiro  de  Eepaila 

liAuOn  Ruiz  Amai>o. 


Le6n,  Diocese  of  (Leonensib),  suffragan  of  Micho* 
acan  in  Mexico,  erected  in  1863.  In  the  early  da^rt  of 
the  discovery  of  Mexico  the  whole  country  was  divided 
into  dioceses  subiect  to  the  Archbishop  of  Seville  in 
Spain  as  metropolitan.  Among  these  was  Michoacan, 
erected  as  a  bishopric  in  1536.  On  31  January,  1545, 
at  the  request  of  Charles  V,  Paul  III  formed  the 
Archdiocese  of  Mexico,  and  Michoacan  became  one  of 
its  suffragan  sees,  its  bishop  residing  in  what  is  now 
the  town  of  Morclia.  In  the  Secret  Consistory  of  16 
March,  1863,  Pius  IX  divided  the  Diocese  of  Micho- 
acan into  the  Sees  of  Michoacan,  Zamora,  Le6n,  and 
Queretaro.  The  Diocese  of  Le6n,  which  comprises 
tne  civil  State  of  Guanajuato,  about  SOOO  sq.  miles 
in  area,  and  having  a  population  of  968,163,  is  in 
the  heart  of  a  rich  agricultural  country  famous  for 
its  cotton  and  woollen  weaving.  The  richest  silver 
mines  in  Mexico  are  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Guana- 
juato. The  town  of  Guanajuato,  situated  6(XX)  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  250  miles  north-west  of 
Mexico,  is  famous  also  for  its  churches  and  monaster- 
ies. It  was  founded  by  the  Spaniards  in  1554,  and 
has  a  population  of  53,000,  though  under  Spanish  rule 
the  population  exceeded  100,(X)0.  Le6n,  or  Le6n  de 
los  Aklamas,  the  chief  town  of  the  department  of  the 
same  name,  is  the  residence  of  the  bishop,  Mgr  Eme- 
terio  Valverde  Telles.  The  town  is  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rio  Tor  bio,  at  a  height  of  50(X)  feet 
a}x)ve  sea-level,  and  had  a  population  of  (>3,263  in 
1900.  It  was  founded  in  1570.  Another  important 
town  in  the  same  department  is  San  Francisco  del 
Rinc6n.  As  an  episcopal  see  Lc6n  dates  from  1863, 
and  its  present  bisiiop  was  elected  on  7  August,  1909. 
The  cathedral  chapter  consists  of  12  canons  and  6  chap- 
lains. There  is  a  diocesan  seminary  with  24  profes- 
sors, and  the  spiritual  wants  of  the  diocese  are  looked 
after  by  264  secular  priests  and  48  regulars  (see  Mex- 
ico). Among  former  bishops  may  be  mentioned  Mgr 
Tomas  Baron  y  Morales,  appointed  1882;  Mgr  Zam- 
brano,  appoint^^l  1886;  and  M^r  Ruiz,appointed  1900. 

Oerarehia  Cattolica  (1910);  Ann.  pont.calh.  (I^IO)]  Herdbb, 
Konveraalion^Lcx.;  Diccianario  di  Cieiiciaa  eclesidaitcas. 

J.  C.  Grey. 

Le6n,  Luis  de,  Spanish  poet  and  theologian,  b.  at 
Belmonte,  Aragon,  in  1528;  d.  at  Madrigal,  23  August, 
1591.  lie  came  from  an  honourable  bourgeois  fam- 
ily, his  father  being  "king's  advocate"  at  Madrid. 
At  fourteen  the  youth  was  sent  to  Salamanca  to  study 
law.  Six  months  later  he  entered  the  Augustinian 
convent  of  that  city.  After  completing  his  theolog- 
ical studies  and  obtaining  his  university  degrees 
(1560)  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  theology. 
The  decree  of  the  (Jouncit  of  Trent  as  to  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  Vulgate  was  then  causing  great  dissen- 
sion among  the  professors  at  Salamanca.  Some  of 
them,  Grajal,  Martfnez,  de  Leon,  and  others  continued 
to  use  in  their  courses  or  in  their  exegetical  writings 
the  Hebraic  texts,  the  Septuagint,  and  even  the  ver- 
sion of  Vatable.  Some,  like  Medina  and  Leon  de 
C^tro,  saw  in  this  a  defiance  of  the  coimcil's  decree,  and 
eflfectively  denounced  their  adversaries,  whom  they 
called  raljibinists.  Early  in  1572  Grajal  and  Martfnes 
were  arrested  at  Salamanca  and  accused  of  heresy. 
On  27  March ,  de  Leon  met  the  same  fate,  and  was  in- 
carcerated at  Valladolid  by  order  of  the  Inquisition  as 
l)eing  their  al)ettor.  After  examining  liis  ^Titings  and 
hearing  the  witnesses,  the  Inquisition  summed  up  in 
seventeen  propositions  the  accusations  urged  against 
him.  In  these  propositions  he  was  not  charged  with 
heresy,  but  with  imprudence  and  rashness,  particu- 
larly on  account  of  his  rather  disrespectful  apprecia- 
tion of  the  Vulizjate.  The  tribunal  atValladolia,  after 
a  trial  extending  over  nearly  five  years,  declaI^&d 
him  guilty  and  asked  that  he  be  put  to  the  rack  and 
rebuked.  This  sentence,  however,  had  to  be  ratified 
by  the  supreme  coimcii  at  Madrid.  But  nine  days  later 


LEOHABDI 


178 


T.ttnWAltTI 


(7  December,  1576)  this  body  reversed  the  sentence, 
acquitted  de  Le6n,  and  ordered  his  chair  to  be  given 
back  to  him,  but  warned  him  to  be  more  cautious  in 
his  teaching.  He  renounced  the  chair,  however,  for 
the  time  being,  in  favour  of  the  professor  who  had 
filled  it  during  his  absence,  and  was  satisfied  with  pe- 
cimiary  compensation  and  supplementary  teaching. 

In  1582  he  got  into  fresh  difficulties  with  the  Inquisi- 
tion, having  in  some  points  opposed  the  doctrine  of  St. 
Augustine  on  predestination.  He  was  summoned  be- 
fore the  high  inquisitor  at  Toledo  and  warned  to  be 
more  circumspect.  He  was  appointed  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Salamanca  a  member  of  the  committee  on 
the  reformation  of  the  calendar,  but  in  1587  he  re- 
fused to  act  on  the  commission  for  correction  of  the 
Vulgate,  declaring  that  by  comparing  the  present 
version  with  the  original  one  would  get  further  away 
from  the  Hebrew. 

He  was  appointed  provincial  of  his  order  a  few  days 
before  his  death.  lie  left  many  works,  published  in 
six  volumes  (Madrid,  1806-1816).  The  first  five  con- 
tained his  theological  writings,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant are  BibUcal  commentaries  superior  to  any  of 
nis  time  (on  Abdias,  Jol),  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians, 
and  the  Canticle  of  Canticles).  The  sixth  volume 
contains  his  vernacular  writings;  **La  pcrfecta  cas- 
ada"  (The  Perfect  Housewife);  '^Delos  nombres  de 
CYisto'^  a  metrical  version  of  the  Canticle  of  Canti- 
cles (employed  against  him  on  his  trial),  versions  of 
the  Eclogues  and  the  Georgics  of  Virgil,  versions  of 
thirty  odes  of  Horace,  of  forty  psalms,  and  a  few  orig- 
inal odes,  the  most  cclebratect  of  which  are:  "The 
Prophecy  of  the  Tagus",  "The  Life  of  the  Fields'*, 
"The  Serene  Night",  "Hymn  on  the  Ascension". 
"La  pcrfecta  casada",  one  of  the  gems  of  sixteenth 
century  pedagogical  literature,  has  recently  been  ed- 
ited by  Elizabeth  Wallace  (Chicago  University  De- 
cennial Publications,  1903);  for  a  French  version  see 
Jane  Dieulafoy  "La  Parfaite  Epouse"  (Paris,  1904). 
Despite  a  certain  unevenness  of  style  Luis  de  Le6n  is 
one  of  the  greatest  masters  of  Castilian  lyric  poetry. 
His  virile  national  spirit,  at  once  religioas  ana  patri- 
otic, and  his  rare  classical  purity,  magnanimity,  and 
sure  judgment  conspire  to  save  him  from  effeminacy, 

affectation,  and  pedantrv. 

Obraa  del  M.  Fr.  Luis  de  Iron  (Madrid,  1804-16);  Proc€«a 
original  nur  la  In'juiHcuin  hizo  al  M.  Fr.  Luiz  de  Leon  in  Colrc- 
ci^n  tie  Documentos  in^diloa  paro  la  historia  de  Espafta,  X,  XI 
(Midrid.  1817):  Gonzalrs  de  Tbjada,  Vuia  de  Fray  Luis  de 
Ledn  (Madrid,  1863):  Getino,  Vida  y  processor  del  MaMtro  F. 
Lw'zde  L6on  (Salamanca.  1907) ;  Ticknor,  History  of  Spanish 
Liteniturc  (Benton,  1864);  Ford,  Luis  de  Let'm,  the  Spanish 
Poet,  Humanist,  and  Mystic  in  Public  Mod.  Lang,  Assoc,  of 
America,  XIV,  no.  2;   Hurtek,  Nomenclator. 

Antoine  Degert. 

Leonard!,  Giovanni,  Blessed.  See  Clerks  Reg- 
ular OF  THE  Mother  of  God  of  Lucca. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci.    See  Vinci,  Leonardo  da. 

Leonard  of  Chios,  b.  at  an  uncertain  date  on  the 
Island  of  Cliios,  then  under  Genoese  domination;  d.  in 
Chios  or  in  Italy,  1482.  He  himself  savs  he  was  of 
humble  parents.  He  entered  the  Dominican  Order  in 
Chios,  and  after  profesvsion  was  sent  to  Padua  for  his 
philosophical  ana  theological  studies.  After  ordination 
ne  taught  at  both  Padua  and  Genoa,  then  at  the  re- 
quest of  Maria  Justiniani  returned  to  his  native  island, 
and  was  made  Bisnop  of  Mytileno  on  the  island  of 
Lesboe  by  Eugene  IV.  Emperor  Constantine  Palae- 
ologus  had  sent  a  request  to  the  pope,  asking  that 
efforts  be  made  to  effect  a  union  between  the  Latin 
and  Greek  Churches:  for  this  purpose  Leonard  was 
selected  to  accompany  L«idorc,  Cardinal-Bishop  of 
Sabina,  to  Constantinople.  Some  degree  of  success 
was  attained  through  tneir  efforts,  and  a  treaty  was 
ratified  in  December,  1452.  However,  the  Greeks  re- 
fused the  aid  of  the  Latin  troops,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  Leonard  was  a  witness  to  the  devastation  of 
the  city  by  Mohammed  II .    Leonard  and  the  cardinal 


were  miraculously  spared  from  the  slaughter  which 
ensued,  the  latter  returning  to  Rome  and  Leonard  to 
his  diocese.  From  Chios  he  wrote  to  the  pope  a  de- 
tailed account  of  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  a  let- 
ter, which  is  often  reprinted  by  liistorians  ("  Historia 
captse  a  Turcis  Constantinopolis,"  Nuremberg,  1544; 
P.  G.,  CLIX,  923  sq.;  Lonicer,  "Chronica  Turcica", 
I,  Frankfurt,  1578;  "De  capta  a  Mehemete  II.  Con- 
stantinopoli  Leonardi  Chiensis  et  Godefredi  Langi  nar- 
rationes,"  ed.  L'Ecuy,  Paris,  1823).  He  governed 
his  diocese  for  the  next  three  years,  until  Lesboe  also 
fell  and  he  was  taken  captive  to  Constantinople.  He 
obtained  his  freedom  the  following  year,  and  imme- 
diately wrote  the  pope  a  description  of  the  sack  of  his 
diocese  ("  Leonardi  Chiensis  de  Lesbo  a  Turcis  capta 
epistola  Pio  Papa>  II  missa",  ed.  Hopf,  Kdnigsb^f^ 
1866).  His  best-known  writings  are  the  two  letters 
mentioned  above  and  an  apologetical  tract  in  answer 
to  the  humanist  Poggio.  Both  tracts  with  biograph- 
ical sketches  were  edited  by  Michael  Justinian  (Avila, 
1657).  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  many  of  hia 
letters  remain  unedited  in  the  Vatican  Library. 

EoHARD  AND  Ou^iF,  Scriptorcs  O.  p.,  II,  816;  Strsbkb  in 
Kirchmlex.t  s.  v.  Lconhard  von  Chios;  Hopf,  op.  cit. 

Ignatius  S&aTH. 

Leonard  of  Limousin,  Saint. — Nothing  abso- 
lutely certain  is  known  of  his  history,  as  his  earliest 
"  Life  ",  written  in  the  eleventh  century,  has  no  histori- 
cal value  whatever.  According  to  this  extraordinary 
legend,  Leonard  belonged  to  a  noble  Frankish  family 
of  the  time  of  King  Clovis,  and  St.  Remy  of  Reims  was 
his  godfather.  After  having  secured  from  the  king 
the  release  of  a  great  number  of  prisoners,  and  refusea 
episcopal  honours  which  Clovis  offered  him,  he  entered 
a  monastery  at  Micy  near  Orleans.  Later  he  went 
to  Aouitaine  and  there  preached  the  Gospel.  Hav- 
ing oI)tained,  through  prayer,  a  safe  delivery  for  the 
Queen  of  tlie  Franks  in  her  confinement,  he  received 
as  a  gift  from  the  king  a  domain  at  Noblac,  near  Li- 
moges, where  he  founded  a  monastery.  The  veneration 
paid  this  saint  is  as  widely  known  as  his  history  is  ob- 
scure and  uncertain.  It  is  true  that  there  is  no  trace 
of  it  before  the  eleventh  century,  but  from  that  time  it 
spread  ever^'where,  and  little  by  little  churches  were 
aedicate<i  to  liim,  not  only  in  France,  but  in  all 
Western  Europe,  especially  in  England,  Belgium, 
Spain,  Italy,  Switzerland,  Germany,  more  partio- 
utarly  in  Bavaria,  and  also  in  Bohemia,  Poland,  and 
other  countries.  Pilgrims,  among  them  kings,  princes, 
and  high  dignitaries  of  the  Church,  flocked  to  No- 
blac (now  St.  Leonard).  Numerous  miracles  are  a^ 
trihutcd  to  him,  and  in  one  small  town  alone,  Inchen- 
hofen,  Bavaria,  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  eighteenth 
century,  there  are  records  of  about  4000  favours 
granted  through  his  intercession.  The  saint  wrought 
the  deliverance  of  captives,  women  in  confinement, 
those  possessed  of  an  evil  spirit,  people  and  beasts 
afflicted  with  diseases.  At  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
century  his  name  had  already  become  renowned 
among  the  Crusaders  captured  by  the  Mussulmans. 
He  is  generally  represented  holding  chains  in  his 

hands.    His  feast  day  is  celebrated  on  6  November. 

PoNCELET  in  Ada  S^.,  November,  III,  139-209;  see  also 
Chevalier,  Bio-Bibl.,  s.  v.  A.  PONCEUDT. 

Leonard  of  Port  Maurice,  Saint,  preacher  and 
ascetic  writer,  b.  20  Dec.,  1676,  at  Porto  Maurizio  on 
the  Riviera  di  Ponente;  d.  at  the  monastery  of  S. 
Bona  Ventura,  Rome,  26  Nov.,  1751.  The  son  of  Dom- 
enico  Casanova  and  Anna  Maria  Benza,  he  joined,  after 
a  brilliant  course  of  study  with  the  Jesuits  in  Rome 
(Collegio  Romano),  the  so-called  Riformella,  an  off- 
shoot of  the  Ref  ormati  branch  of  the  Franciscan  Order 
(see  Friars  Minor,  II,  P,  (2)].  On  2  October,  1697, 
he  received  the  habit,  and,  after  making  Ins  no- 
vitiate at  Ponticelli  in  the  Sabine  mountains,  he 
completed  his  studies  at  the  principal  house  of  the 


LEONIDAS 


179 


UBOMTIUB 


Rifonnella,  S.  Bonaventura  on  the  Palatine  at  Rome. 
After  his  ordination  he  remained  there  as  lector  (pro- 
feasor),  and  expected  to  be  sent  on  the  Chinese  mis- 
sions. But  he  was  soon  afterwards  seized  with  severe 
gastric  haemorrhage,  and  became  so  ill  that  he  was 
sent  to  his  native  climate  of  Porto  Maurizio,  where 
there  was  a  monastery  of  the  Franciscan  Observants 
(1704).  After  four  years  he  was  restored  to  health, 
and  began  to  preach  in  Porto  Maurizio  and  the  vicin- 
ity. When  Cosimo  III  de'  Medici  lianded  over  the 
monastery  del  Monte  (that  on  San  Miniato  near 
Florence,  also  called  Monte  alle  Croci)  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Riformella,  St.  Leonard  was  sent  hither 
under  the  auspices  and  by  desire  of  Cosimo  III,  and 
began  shortly  to  give  missions  to  the  people  in  Tus- 
cany, which  were  marked  by  many  extraordinary 
conversions  and  great  results.  Ilis  colleagues  and  he 
always  practised  the  greatest  austerities  and  most 
severe  penances  during  these  missions.  In  1710  he 
founded  the  monastery  of  Incontro,  on  a  peak  in  the 
mountains  about  four  and  a  quarter  niih^  from  Flor- 
ence, whither  he  and  his  assistants  could  retire  from 
time  to  time  after  missions,  and  devote  themselves  to 
spintual  renewal  and  fresii  austerities. 

In  1720  he  crossed  the  borders  of  Tuscany  and  held 
his  celebrated  missions  in  Central  and  Southern  Italy, 
enkindling  with  zeal  the  entire  population.  Clement 
XII  and  Benedict  XIV  called  him  to  Rome;  the  latter 
especially  held  him  in  liigh  esteem  both  as  a  preacher 
and  as  a  propagandist,  and  exacted  a  promise  that 
he  would  come  to  Rome  to  die.  Everywhere  the  saint 
made  abundant  conversions,  and  was  very  often 
obliged  both  in  cities  and  country  districts  to  preach 
in  the  open,  as  the  churches  could  not  contain  the 
thousands  who  came  to  listen.  He  foundecl  manv 
ptous  societies  and  confraternities,  and  exerted  himself 
especially  to  spread  the  devotion  of  the  Stations  of  the 
Croas — the  propagation  of  which  he  greatly  furthered 
with  the  assistance  of  his  brethren — the  devotion  to  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  the  pcrptitual  adoration  of  the 
Most  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  devotion  to  the  Inmiac- 
ulate  Conception.  One  of  his  most  ardent  desires 
was  to  see  the  last-named  defined  as  a  dogma  of 
faith  by  the  Holy  See.  Besides  the  celebrated  stations 
in  the  Colosseum  at  Rome,  St.  Leonard  erected  571 
others  in  all  parts  of  Italy,  while  on  his  different  mis- 
sions. From  May  to  November,  1744,  he  preached 
in  ^e  Island  of  Corsica,  which  at  that  time  belonged 
to  the  Republic  of  Genoa  and  which  was  frightfully 
torn  by  party  strife.  In  November,  1751,  when  he 
was  preaching  to  the  Bolognese,  Benedict  XIV  called 
him  to  Rome,  as  already  there  were  indications  of  his 
rapidly  approaching  end.  The  strain  of  liis  mission- 
ary labours  and  his  mortifications  had  completely 
exhausted  his  body.  He  arrived  on  the  evening  of  26 
November,  1751,  at  liis  beloved  monastery  of  S.  Bona- 
ventura on  the  Palatine,  and  expired  on  the  same 
night  at  eleven  o'clock  at  the  age  of  seventy-five.  In 
the  church  of  this  monastery  (which  must  soon  make 
way  for  the  excavations  of  the  ground  occupied  by  the 
palace  of  the  Csesars)  the  partly  incorrupt  body  of  the 
saint  is  kept  in  the  high  altar.  Pius  Vl  pronounced 
his  beatification  on  19  June,  170(5,  and  Pius  IX  his 
canonization  on  29  June,  1867.  The  Franciscan 
Order  celebrates  his  feast  on  26  November,  but  out- 
side this  order  it  is  often  celebrated  on  27  November. 

The  numerous  writings  of  the  saint  consist  of- ser- 
mons, letters,  ascetic  treatises,  and  books  of  devotion 
for  the  use  of  the  faithful  and  of  priests,  especially 
missionaries.  The  "Diary"  (Diario)  of  his  missions 
is  written  by  Fra  Diego  da  Firenze.  A  treasure  for 
asceticism  and  homiletics,  many  of  his  writings  have 
been  translated  into  the  most  diverse  languages  and 
often  repubUshed:  for  example  his  "Via  Sacra  spia- 
nata  ed  illuminata"  (the  Way  of  the  Cross  simplified 
and  explained),  "II  Tesoro  nascosto"  (on  the  Holy 
Mass);  his  celebrated  *'  Proponimenti ",  or  resolutions 


for  the  attainment  of  higher  Christian  perfection.  A 
complete  edition  of  his  works  appearea  first  at  Rome 
in  tnirteen  octavo  volumes  (1853-84),  "Collezione 
completa  delle  opere  di  B.  Leonardo  da  Porto  Mauri- 
zio .  Then  another  in  five  octavo  volumes,  "  Opjerc 
complete  di  S.  Leonardo  di  Porto  Maurizio  "  (Venice, 
1868-9).  In  English,  German  etc.,  only  single  works 
have  been  issued,  but  a  French  translation  of  the 
entire  set  has  appeared:  "(Euvres  completes  de  S. 
Leonard  de  Port-Maurice"  (8  vols.,  Paris  and  Tour- 
nai,  185S),  and  "Sermons  de  S.  Leonard  de  Port 

Maurice"  (3  vols.,  Paris). 

Summarium  processus  beatificationis  V.  S,  D.  Leon,  a  P.  M. 
(Rome,  1781);  IUpaello  da  Roma,  Vita  del  P.  Leonardo  da 
P.  M.  (Rome,  1754) ;  Jos.  i>e  Masserano,  Vita  del  B.  Leonardo 
da  P.  M.  (Rome,  179C),  written  by  the  postulntor  and  dedi- 
cated to  the  Duke  of  York,  son  of  James  [III]  of  EDgland;  Sau- 
VATORE  DI  Ormea,  Vita  del  B.  Leonardo  da  P.  M.  (Rome,  1851); 
Heithauhen  and  Gehlen,  Lcben  dca  ael.  Leonhard  von  P.  Af . 
(Innabruck,  1869) ;  L.  de  CnERANcfe,  S.  Leonard  de  Port-Maurice 
(Paris,  1903)  in  Xouvelle  Bibliothique  Franciscaine  (Ist  seriee), 
aIII.  Chapter  xx  of  this  last-mentioned  work  had  already  ap- 
peartMi  in  Etudes  Franciscaines,  VIII  (Parifl.  1902) ,  501-10. 

Michael  Bihl. 

Leonidas  (or  Leonides),  Saint. — ^The  Roman 
Martyrology  records  several  feast  days  of  martyrs  of 
this  name  in  different  countries.  Under  date  of  28 
January  there  is  a  martyr  called  Leonides,  a  native 
of  the  Thebaid,  whose  death  with  several  companions 
is  supposed  to  have  occurred  during  the  Diocletian 

Krsecution  (Acta  SS.,  January,  II,  832).  Another 
^onides  appears  on  2  September,  in  a  long  list  of  max^ 
tvrs  headed  by  a  St.  Diomcdes.  Together  with  a  St. 
Eleutherius,  a  Lconides  is  honoured  on  8  August. 
From  other  sources  we  know  of  a  St.  Leonidas,  Bishop 
of  Athens,  who  lived  about  the  sixth  century,  and 
whose  feast  is  celebrated  on  15  April  (''Acta  SS. ",  April 
II,  378;  "Bibliothecahagiographicapwca",  2 ed.,137). 
Still  another  mart>T  of  the  name  is  honoured  on  16 
April,  with  Callistus,  Char>'sius,  and  other  companions 
(Acta  SS.,  April,  II,  402).  The  best  known  of  them 
all,  however,  is  St.  Lconides  of  Alexandria,  father  of  the 
great  Origcn.  From  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccles.,  VI,  1, 2) 
we  learn  that  he  died  a  martyr  during  the  persecution 
under  Scptimius  Severus  in  202.  He  was  condemned 
to  death  by  the  prefect  of  Egypt,  Lactus,  and  be- 
headed. His  property  was  confiscated.  Lconides 
carefully  cultivated  the  brilliant  intellect  of  his  son 
Origen  from  the  latter's  childhood,  and  imparted  to 
him  the  knowledge  of  Holy  Scripture.  The  feast  of 
St.  Leonidas  of  Alexandria  is  celebrated  on  22  April. 

J.   P.   KiRSCH. 

Leontias,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Fr^jus,  in  Provence, 
France,  b.  probably  at  Nimes,  towards  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century;  d.  in  his  episcopal  town  in  433,  ac- 
conling  to  some  authorities,  though  others  say  445 
or  even  448.  The  date  of  his  episcopal  ordination  is 
uncertain,  but  most  likely  it  took  place  between  the 
years  400  and  419;  indeed  the  obscurity  surrounding 
his  life  has  not  been  entirely  dissipated  by  the  most 
conscientious  labours  of  historians.  It  is  however, 
indisputable  that  he  was  a  man  of  eminent  sanctity, 
and  nis  episcopate  was  marked  with  important  re- 
sults, else  ne  would  not  have  been  from  an  early  date 
associated  with  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  patron  of  tlie 
cathedral  church  of  Fr^jus.  A  tenth-century  docu- 
ment mentions  him  in  this  connexion.  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  he  was  a  brother  of  St.  Castor,  Bishop 
of  Apt,  and  that  consequently  like  him  he  was  a 
native  of  Nimes.  At  times  he  nas  been  mistaken  for 
other  persons  of  the  same  name,  especially  for  Leon- 
tius.  Bishop  of  Aries,  who  lived  at  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century.  But  besides  the  diflference  in  time,  the  im- 
portant events  associated  with  the  name  of  the  latter 
Leontius  render  the  identification  impossible.  The 
principal  occurrence  during  the  episcopate  of  Leontius 
of  Frejus  was  the  establishment  of  the  monastery  of 
Lerins  at  the  beginning  of  the  fif^  century.  Hienaine 


UBOMTIUS 


180 


XAOHTIUB 


of  this  bishop  is  inseparably  united  to  that  of  Bono- 
ratus,  the  founder  of  the  monastery,  and  ho  seems  to 
have  played  an  important  part  in  tne  development  of 
the  monastic  life  in  the  south-east  of  Gaul.  Honoratus 
called  him  his  superior  and  his  father,  whilst  Cassian, 
who  i^ovemed  the  numerous  religious  of  the  Abbey  of 
St.  Victor  at  Marseilles,  dedicated  most  of  his  "Con- 
ferences '*  to  him. 

The  relations  of  the  monastery  of  L^rins  to  the 
diocesan  bishop  were  most  cordial  and  liberal.  Some 
writers  believe  that  this  was  due  merely  to  the  com- 
mon custom  of  the  age,  but  others  hold,  and  not  with- 
out reason  it  would  seem,  that  it  was  the  result  of 
special  privileges  granted  by  Leontius  to  Honoratus, 
with  whom  he  was  intimately  united  in  the  bonds  of 
friendship.  Be  that  as  it  may,  these  regulations, 
which,  while  safeguarding  the  episcopal  dignity,  as- 
sured the  independence  of  the  monastery,  and  were 
confirmed  by  the  Third  Council  of  Aries,  seem  to  have 
been  the  beginning  of  those  immunities,  which  hence- 
forward were  enjoyed  in  an  increasing  degree  by  the 
religious  communities.  Moi-eovcr,  the  most  conlial 
relations  existed  between  the  saint  and  the  sovereign 
pontiffs.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  St.  Leo  I, 
after  his  memorable  quarrel  with  St.  Honoratus, 
Bishop  of  Aries,  deprived  the  latter  of  the  preroga- 
tives which  j^ave  him  a  kind  of  primacy  over  the 
district  of  Vienne,  and  bestowed  tncm  on  L<jontius. 
It  is  true  that  this  important  event  took  place  only  in 
445,  whilst  Leontius  had  been  succeeded  in  the  epis- 
copate by  Theodore  in  4'Xi.  That  is  why  some  author- 
ities have  held  that  these  prerogatives  were  granted 
to  another  Bishop  of  Frt5jus,  likewise  named  leontius, 
who  would  have  been  a  successor  of  Theodore.  To 
this  the  supporters  of  a  loved  tradition  reply  that  St. 
Leontius  abandoned  his  see  in  432  to  go  and  preach 
the  Gospel  to  the  Teutonic  tribes,  and  returned  to  his 
diocese  in  442,  dying  only  in  445  or  even  448.  Un- 
fortunately no  very  solid  proof  of  this  apostolat«  can 
be  adduced.  Consequently  it  is  still  quite  uncertain 
whether  or  not  the  Diocese  of  Fr^ius  had  more  than 
one  bishop  called  Leontius.  Another  tradition,  mak- 
ing St.  Leontius  a  martyr,  does  not  seem  older  than  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  centurv,  and  merits  no 
credence.  Earlier  and  better  authenticatoil  docu- 
ments give  him  the  title  of  confessor,  which  alone 
is  accurate. 

Antelmi,  De  initna  Ecclcaia  ForojultcnHis  (Aix,  1080),  «')a- 
128;  BouciiE,  Deacription  de  /«i  Frovcncr,  I  (Aix,  1664),  578-9; 
DlSDiER,  Recherches  hiatorifiUfa  sur  Saint  Lroncr,  vvfqtie  tie  Fri- 
jua  rt  jHitron  du  diociae  in  bull,  dc  In  Soc.  d'rtiuU-a  acirnt.  arvfuol. 
de  Draguignan  (DraKiii«iian,  1S02-1.S65),  IV,  204.  307:  V.  71. 
138;  DU  Four,  S.  Lconliua  epiacopua  et  martur  auia  Forojulicntfi- 
bua  reatitutua  (Aviffnon,  16158);  Girardiv,  lliatoire  de  la  vxlle  et 
de  ViglUe  de  Frcjua.  II  (Pans,  172U),  40-88.  131-152;  Tillk- 
MONT,  Mem.  pour  aervir  a  Vhiatoire  ecclea.,  XII  (Paris,  1707;, 
468-70.  476-77,  676-79. 

L£oN  Clugnet. 

Leontiiis  Byzantiniis  (\e6mot  Bu^it^iof),  an  im- 
portant theologian  of  the  sixth  century.  In  spit«  of 
nis  deserveil  fame  there  are  few  Christian  writers  whose 
lives  have  been  so  much  dlscusse<l.  Till  quite  lat<jly 
even  his  period  was  not  considered  certain.  Bellar- 
mine  and  Labbe  placed  him  before  the  fifth  general 
council  (Constantmoi)le  a.  d.  553;  cf.  "Scriptores  ec- 
des.",  Venice,  1728,  VII,  204).  He  has  been  assigned 
to  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  (590-604;  Mineus, 
"Bibl.  eccl.",  Antwerp,  1639,  211);  identified  with 


Origenist  Leonti 
of  St.  Sabas "  by  Cyril  of  Scythopolis  (Canisius-Bas- 
nage,  "Thesaurus  monum.  eccles.",  Antweri>,  1725, 529 
and  533) .  There  is,  or  was,  the  same  uncertainty  about 
his  works;  the  authenticity  of  many  books  under  his 
name  has  been  discussed  continually.  In  short,  Fa- 
bridus  said  with  some  reason  that  (at  his  time)  it  was 
Impoesible  to  come  to  any  clear  conception  of  who 


Leontius  really  was,  or  what  he  really  wrote  (Fabriciua- 
Harles,  *'Biblioth.  Graca"^  Hamburg,  1802,  VIII, 
310).  In  his  account  of  hmiself,  in  a  work  whose 
authenticity  is  undisputed  (Contra  Nest,  et  Eutych.), 
he  says  that  in  his  youth  he  had  belonged  to  the 
Nestorian  sect,  but  was  converted  by  "holy  men  who 
cleansed  his  heart  by  the  works  of  true  theoloi;;ian8 " 
(P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  1358  and  1360).  Other  ^rorks 
("Adv.  Nest.",  and  "Adv.  Monoph.")  describe  him  In 
their  title  as  a  monk  of  Jerusalem  (P.  G.,  LXXXVL 
1399  and  1769).  Friedrich  Loofs  has  made  a  special 
study  of  his  life  and  works.  As  far  as  the  Life  is  con- 
cerned, his  conclusion  is  accepted  in  the  main  by  £hr- 
hard  and  Krumbacher  (Byzant.  Litt.,  55),  Barden- 
hewer  (Patrologie,  50&-508),  and  to  some  extent 
Riigamer. 

According  to  Loofs,  Leontius  was  the  monk  of  that 
name  who  came  with  others  (Scythians)  to  Rome  in 
519,  to  try  to  persuade  Pope  Hormisdas  (514-^523)  to 
authorize  the  formula  (suspect  of  Monophysitism) 
"One  of  the  Trinity  suflferea  ",  and  was  also  the  Ori- 
genist Leontius  of  the  "  Vita  S.  Sabs  ".  He  was  bom, 
probably  at  Constantinople,  about  485,  of  a  distin- 
guished family  related  to  the  imperial  general  Vitalian. 
He  then  joinc<l  the  Xestorians  in  Scythia,  but  was  con- 
verted and  became  a  stanch  defender  of  Ephesua. 
Early  in  his  life  he  became  a  monk.  He  came  to  Con- 
stantinople  in  519,  and  then  to  Rome  as  part  of  the 
embassy  of  Scythiim  monks.  After  that  he  was  for  a 
time  in  Jerusalem.  In  531  he  took  part  in  public  dis- 
putes arranged  by  Justinian  (527-565)  between  Catb- 
olics  and  the  Monophysite  followers  of  Sevenis  of 
Antioch  (538).  He  stayed  at  the  capital  till  about 
538,  then  went  back  to  his  monastery  at  Jerusalem. 
Later  he  was  again  at  Constantinople^  where  he  died, 
apparently  before  the  first  Edict  agamst  the  "Three 
Chapters  (544).  Loofs  dates  his  death  at  "about 
5-1.']  .  His  change  of  residence  accounts  for  the  va- 
rious descriptions  of  him  as  "a  monk  of  Jerusalem" 
and  "a  monk  of  Constantinople".  This  theory,  ex- 
plained and  defended  at  length  by  Loofs,  supposes  the 
identification  of  our  author  with  the  "Venerable  monk 
Leontius  and  Legate  of  the  Fathers  (monks)  of  the 
holy  citv  (Jerusalem) "  who  took  part  in  Justinian's 
controversy  (Mansi,  VIII,  818;  cf.  911  and  1019); 
with  the  Scythian  monk  Leontius  who  came  to  Rcnne 
in  519  (Mansi,  VIII,  498  and  499);  and  with  the  Ori- 
genist Leontius  of  Byzantium,  of  whom  Cyril  of  Scy- 
thopolis writes  in  his  "Life  of  St.  Sabas"  (Cotclerius, 
"Ecclesiie  gra>ci©  monumenta",  Paris,  1686). 

Riigamer  admits  the  period  of  Leontius's  life  de- 
fende*  i  l)y  Ix)ofs  (this  may  now  be  considered  accepted), 
and  the  identification  with  the  disputant  at  Constanti- 
nople (Tjcontius  von  Byzanz,  56-58).  He  thinks  his 
identity  with  the  Scythian  monk  to  be  doubtful. 
Leontius  himself  never  mentions  Scythia  as  a  place 
where  he  has  lived;  he  does  not  defend  the  famous 
sentence  "One  of  the  Trinity  suffered"  with  the  ar- 
dour one  would  expect  in  one  of  its  chief  patrons  (ibid., 
pp.  54-56).  Riigamer  altogether  denies  the  identifi- 
cation with  the  Origenist  Leontius.  Had  he  been  an 
Origenist  his  name  would  not  be  so  honoured  in  B^ 
zantine  tradition,  where  he  appears  as  "blessed  , 
"all-wise",  and  "a  great  monk^'  (ibid.,  pp.  SS-GS). 
According  to  Rugamer,  Leontius  spent  his  youth  and 
became  a  Nestorian  at  Constantinople  at  tne  time  of 
the  •Henoticon  schism  (482-519).  lie  went  after  his 
conversion  to  Jerusalem  and  became  a  monk  there.  He 
had  never  been  a  public  orator,  as  some  authors 
(Nirschl,  "Lehrbuch  der  Patrologie  und  Patristik", 
Mainz,  1S85,  p.  553)  conclude  from  the  title  trxoXatfriipfc 
(the  common  one  for  such  persons;  it  is  often  given  to 
him).  On  the  contrary,  he  shows  no  special  legal  or 
forensic  training,  and  never  refers  to  such  a  career  in 
his  youth .  So  a-xo\a(mKln  in  his  case  can  only  mean  a 
learned  man.  He  came  to  Constantinople  for  the  dis- 
putation, went  back  to  Jerusalem,  was  superior  of  • 


UBOHTOPOLIS                          181  LSPANTO 

monaatery  there,  was  an  enemy  of  Theodore  of  Moi>  physites,  hus  Aristotellanisin  marks  an  epoch  in  the 

Buestia,  but  yet  aid  not  desire  the  condemnation  of  the  history  of  Christian  philosophy.    He  has  been  de- 

"Three  Chapters",  and  died  after  5o3  (op.  cit.,  pp.  scribed  as  the  first  of  the  Scholastics  (Krumbacher* 

4^72).  Ehrhard,  "  Byzantinische  Litteratur",  p.  54). 

The  works  ascribed  to  Leontius  Byzantinus  are:  Works  m  P.  C.,  LXXXVI;  Jjwrs,  Das  Lel^  und  die  pole- 

(1)  three  books     Agamst  the  Nestonans  and  Eutych-  ^^^^  Leontius  von  Byzam  (Wuraburg,  1894)  ;Juncjlah.  leontius 

Ums      (commonly  quoted  as  ^Contra  Nestonanos  et  von  Byzam  (PaderBom,  lOOO);  Krumbacber,  GeschichU  der 

EutychianosV,   P.  G.,  LXXXVI,   1267-1396).     This  byzantinischm   LiUeratur    (Munich     189;).    54-56;    Bardbn- 

is  cirtainly  authentii  (in  other  words,  the  person  "^^^''' ^  "''^'*^' ''•  ®"^'^'' ^^'^  a"S^^  F^^^ 
about  whom  they  dispute  is  the  author  of  thLs  work). 

It  is  his  eariiest  composition.    Book  I  refutes  the  Leontopolis,  a  titular  archiepiscopal  see  of  Augus- 

Oppodte  heresies  of  Nestorius  and  Eutyches,  and  e»-  tamnica  Secunda.    Strain)  (XVII,  1, 19,  20)  places  it 

tablishes  the  Faith  of  Chalcedon.     Book  II,  in  dia-  near  Mendete  and  DiospolLs,  and  savs  (XVII,  1,  40) 

logue  form,  refutes  the  heresy  of  the  Aphthartodocetes  that  the  inhabitants  worshipped  a  lion,  whence  the 

(mitigated  Monophysites  who  made  our  Lord's  human  name  of  the  town.    In  reality,  the  name  comes,  from 

nature  incorruptible  during  His  hfe  on  earth— there-  Horus.  whoacconlingtoEgjptian  mythology  changed 

fore  not  a  true  human  nature) .     Book  III  (the  title  of  himself  into  a  lion  (Naville.'^'-  Textes  relat if s  au  mj'the 

this  book  in  Migne  belongs  really  to  Book  II)  accuses  d'llonis  ",  XVIII,  2) .    Ptolemy  (IV,  5,  22)  also  men- 

theNestorians  of  dishonest  practices  to  make  converts,  tions  the  nome  and  the  metropolis  of  Leontopolis. 

and  vehemently  attacks  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  The  The  geographers  Hierocles,  George  of  Cyprus,  and 

whole  work  is  full  of  well-selected  quotations  from  the  others  call  that  locality  Acon-cA,  reserving  the  name  of 

Fathers,  and  shows  great  learning  and  controversial  Leontopolis  for  a  town  in  the  province  of  iEg>T)ta  Prima; 

skill.    All  the  other  works  have  btH?n  disput^'d,  at  similarly  in  the  signatures  of  Vnshops  collected  by 

least  in  their  present  form.     (2)  "Against  the  Mono-  Le  Quien  (Oriens  Christianus,  II,  55,3)  Leonto  is  al- 

^ymtes"  (*' Adv.  Monophysitas",  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  wavs  found.    Leonto  is  the  modem  Tell  Mokdam  on 

1709-1902),  m  two  parts,  but  incomplete.    Part  1  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile  (l)amietta  branch),  near 

•igues  philosophically  from  the  idea  of  nature;  part  the  railwav  from  Cairo  to  Damietta  which  follows  the 

II  quotes  the  witness  of  the  Fathers,  and  refutes  text«  left  bank  of  the  river.     At  Tell  Mokdam  may  be  seen 

alleged  to  favour  Monophysitism.     (3)  "Against  the  the  remains  of  a  temple  of  Osorkon  II.    the  other 

Nestorians"  (*' Adv.  Nestorianos  ",  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  Leontopolis  was  situateil  near  Ueliopolis  or  Mataryeh. 

ia»9^1768)^meiphtbooks.of  which  the  last  is  wa^^^^^  Here  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philometor,  the  Jewish 

lest  Onias  built  a  temple  to  Jahveh,  afterwards 
by  Vespasian.    Callinice  in  Syria  was  called 


work  "  (Nirschl,  op.  cit.,  555),  explaining  high  priest  Onias  built  a  temple  to  Jahveh,  afterwards 

and  defending  all  the  issues  against  this  heresv.    Book  closed  by  Vespasian.    Callinice  in  Syria  was  called 

title  Theotokoa;  book  VII  defends  the  Leontopolis,  also  a  town  in  Isauria  (Le  Quien,  "  Oriens 

of  the  Trinity  suffered  ".     (4)  '*  Scho-  Christianus  ",  II,  1021)  not  yet  recognized. 
«t8"  ("De  Sectis",  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  »     ,         /        j  ^,  VailhI:. 


TV  defends  the 

fonnula:  *'One 

lia"  or  "Of  Sects 

119^-1268);    ten    chapters  called  "Acts"  (irp<l^«f) 


r.  G.,  LXXXVI,  1915-46).     A  refutation  of  Mono-  inated  in  the  traditional  building  of  a  fleet  there  by 

I>hy8iti8m  in  dialogue  form.    It  supposes  a  Monophy-  the  Ileraclidae  (Stralw),  IX,  iv,  7).    The  site  must  have 

site  work  (otherwise  unknown)  whose  order  it  follows.  Ix^n  chosen  on  account  of  the  strong  position  of  the 

(6)  "Thirty  chapters  against  Severus"  ("Triginta  hill,  the  fertile  plains  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  the 

capita",  P.  0.,  LXXXVl,  1901-16),  a  short  work  many  streams.    Situated  on  the  coast  of  Locris,  it 

with    many   parallels   to   the    preceding   one.     (7)  originally  belonged  to  the  Locri  Ozola;  but  was  subse- 

"Against  the  frauds  of  the  ApollinarLst** "  (**Adv.  quently  taken  by  the  Athenians,  who  in  455  b.  c,  after 

fraiuies  Apollinaristarum",  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  1947-  tlie  Third  Messenian  War,  established  there  the  Mes- 

76),  a  very  important  work,  the  beginning  of  the  senian  helots,  the  bitter  enemies  of  Sparta  (Pausanias, 

diBCOveiy  of  the  works  of  Apollinaris  of  Laodicea  IV,  xxv,  7;X,  xxxviii,  10).     After  the  battle  of  ^Egos- 

which  still  occupies  the  minds  of  students.    It  is  an  potami  (404  b.  c),  the  Spartans  captured  Naupactus, 

examination  of  certain  works  attributed  to  Athana-  drove  out  the  Messenians.  and  restored  the  town  to  the 

flius,  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  and  I'ope  Julius,  which  Locri  Ozolaj.    Sul)sequently,  it  pa-sseil  in  turn  to  the 

are  declaireci  to  be  really  by  Apollinaris,  and  fraudu-  Acha»ans,  the  Thel)an8,  andto  Philip  of  Macedon,  who 

lentlv  attributed  to  these  Fathers  by  his  followers,  gave  it  to  tlie  ^Etolians;  hence  it  was  sometimes  called 

(8)  ''^Discussions  of  Sacred  Things",  by  Leontius  and  the  "City  of  the  ^tolians"  (Strabo,  TX,  iv,  7).     For 

John  ("De^  rebus  sacris",  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  2017-  two  months  Naupactus  fiercely  resisted  the  Romans, 

2100).    This  is  a  recension  of  the  second  book  of  the  who  under  M.  Acilius  Glabrio  finally  (191  b.  c.)  cap- 

"SacniParallela"  (collections  of  text^  of  the  P'at hers)  tured  the  iovra.    Pausanias  (X,  xxxviii,  1*2-13)  saw 

of  which  a  version  is  also  attributed  to  St.  John  Da^  there  near  the  sea  a  temple  of  Poseidon,  another  of 

Iiia8cene(c.760).   (9)   Two  homilies  by  a  priest  Leon-  Artemis,  a  cave  dedicated  to  Aphrodite,  ami  the  ruins 

tius  of  Constantinople  (P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  1975-2004),  of  a  temple  of  iEsculapius.    During  Jitstinian's  reign 
eertainly  another  person.     Of  these  works,  (1)  is 
eertainly  genuine,  (8)  and  (9)  are  certainly  not.    The 

"De  rebus  sacris"  was  probably  composed  between        _._  ,, , ,     , 

614  and  627.    The  Leontius  of  the  title  is  a  bishop  of  only  ten  of  its  Greek  bishops,  the  first  of  whom  took 
that  name  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus.   Of  the  others,  Loofs  part  in  the  Council  of  Ei)hcsus  (431),  but  our  manu- 
thinks  that  (5)  and  (6)  are  fragments  of  a  large  work  by  script  lists  contain  ninety-eight  names.    The  metro- 
LeontiusByzantinus,  called ''Scholia";  (2),  (.3),  and  (4)  politan  See  of  Naupactus  deixinded  on  the  pojw,  as 
ara  later  works  founded  on  it.     (7)  is  by  anotlier  (un-  Western  Patriarch,  until  733,  when  Leo  III  the  Isau- 
known)  author,  written  between  511  and  520.     Ruga-  rian  annexed  it  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople, 
mer,  on  the  other  hand,  defends  the  authenticity  in  In  the  early  years  of  the  tenth  century  it  had  eight  suf- 
thelr  present  form  of  all  these  works,  except  (8)  f ragan  see's  (Gelzer,  "  Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der 
and  (9).^  Notitia?  epLscopatuum ",  Munich,  1900,  p.  557);  nine 
LeoQtiuB  of  Bsrsantium  is,  in  any  case,  a  theologian  about  1175  under  Emperor  Manuel  Comnenus  (Par- 
ol great  hnportaiice.    Apart  from  the  merit  of  his  they,  "Hieroclis  Synecdemus",  Berlin.  1866,  p.  121), 
OODUuvunial  work  against  Nestorians  and  Moao-  but  only  four  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  (Gel- 


LEPROSY 


182 


LIPB08T 


HBTf  op.  dt.,  635).  Annexed  to  the  Greek  Orthodox 
Churcn  in  1827,  the  see  was  suppressed  in  1900,  and 
replaced  h}r  the  See  of  Acamania  and  Naupactia, 
whose  seat  is  at  Missolonghi;  the  limits  of  this  diocese 
are  identical  with  those  of  the  nome  iBtolia  and  Aoar- 
nania.  As  to  the  Latin  archbiBhops  of  Naupactus 
during  the  Frankish  occupation,  Le  Ouien  (Oriens 
Christ.,  Ill,  995)  and  Euoel  (Hierarchia  catholica 
medii  »vi,  I,  379;  II,  222)  mention  about  twenty  in 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 

Occupied  by  the  Turks  in  1498.  Lepanto  is  chieflv 
celebrated  for  the  victory  which  tne  combined  panal, 
Spanish,  Venetian,  and  Genoese  fleets^  under  Don 
John  of  Austria,  ^ined  over  the  Turkish  fleet  on  7 
Oct.,  1571.  The  latter  had  208  galleys  and  66  small 
^ps ;  the  Christian  fleet  about  the  same  numl)er.  The 
crusaders  lost  17  ships  and  7500  men;  15  Turkish 
ships  were  sunk  and  177  taken,  from  20,000  to  30,000 
men  disabled,  and  fxom  12  000  to  15,000  Cluastian 
rowers,  slaves  on  the  Turkisn  galleys,  were  delivered. 
Thougn  this  victory  did  not  accomplish  all  that  was 
hoped  for,  since  the  Turks  appeared  the  verj'  next  year 
with  a  fleet  of  250  ships  before  Modon  and  Cape  Alata- 
pan,  and  in  vain  offered  battle  to  the  Christians,  it  was 
of  ^at  importance  as  being  the  first  great  defeat  of 
the  infidels  on  sea.  Held  by  the  Venetians  from  1687 
to  1689,  and  thence  by  the  Turks  until  1827,  it  became 
in  the  latter  year  part  of  the  new  Greek  realm.  To- 
day Naupactus,  chief  town  of  a  district  in  the  province 
of  Acamania  and  iEtolia,  has  4,500  inhabitants,  all 
Orthodox  Greeks.  The  roadstead  is  rather  small  and 
edited  up;  the  strait  connects  the  Bay  of  Patras  with 
the  Gulf  of  Corinth. 

S.  Vailh6. 

Z^sprosy. — Leprosy  proper,  or  lepra  tuberculosa,  in 
contradistinction  to  other  skin  diseases  commonly 
designated  by  the  Greek  word  'Khrpa  (psoriasis,  etc.), 
is  a  chronic  mfectious  disease  caused  by  the  bacillus 
lepras,  characterized  by  the  formation  of  growths  in 
the  skin,  mucous  membranes,  peripheral  nerves,  lx>nes, 
and  internal  viscera,  producing  various  deformities 
and  mutilations  of  the  human  body,  and  usually 
terminating  in  death. 

I.  History  op  the  Disease. — Leprosy  was  not 
uncommon  in  India  as  far  back  as  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury B.  c.  (Ctesias,  Pers.,  xli;  llerodian,  I,  i,  38),  and 
in  Japan  during  the  tenth  century  b.  c.  Of  its  origin 
in  these  regions  little  is  known,  but  Egypt  lias  always 
been  r^arded  as  the  place  whence  the  disease  was 
carried  mto  the  \Vest<?m  world.  That  it  was  well 
known  in  that  country  is  evidenced  by  documents  of 
the  sixteenth  century  b.  c.  (Ebers  Papyrus);  ancient 
writers  attribute  the  infection  to  the  waters  of  the 
Nile  (Lucretius,  "De  Nat.  rer.",  VI,  1112)  and  the 
unsanitary  diet  of  the  people  (Galen) .  Various  causes 
helped  to  spread  the  disease  beyond  Egypt.  Fore- 
most amon^  these  causes  Manetho  places  Sbe  Hebrews, 
for,  according  to  him,  they  were  a  mass  of  leprosy  of 
which  the  I^vptians  rid  their  land  (*'Hist.  Grsec. 
Fragm.",  ed.  Didot,  II,  pp.  578-81).  Though  this  is 
romance,  there  is  no  doubt  but  at  the  Exodus  the 
contamination  had  affected  the  Hebrews.  From 
Egypt  Phoenician  sailors  also  brought  leprosy  into 
Syria  and  the  countries  with  which  they  had  commer- 
cial relations,  hence  the  name  ''Phoenician  disease" 
given  it  by  Hippocrat'CS  (Prorrhetics,  II);  this  seems 
to  be  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  we  find  traces  of  it 
alon^  the  Ionian  coasts  about  the  eighth  century  b.  c. 
fHesiod,  quoted  by  Eustathius  in  "Comment,  on 
Odyss.",  p.  1746),  and  in  Persia  towards  the  fifth 
century  b.  c.  (Herodotus).  The  dispersion  of  the 
Jews  after  the  Restoration  (fifth  centur\')  and  the 
campaigns  of  the  Roman  armies  (Pliny,  "  Hist.  Nat.", 
XXVI)  are  held  responsible  for  the" propagation  of 
the  disease  in  Western  Europe:  thus  were  the  Roman 
colonies  of  Spain,  Gaul,  ana  Britain  soon  infected. 


In  Christian  times  the  canons  of  the  early  oounoils 
(Ancyra,  314),  the  regulations  of  the  popes  (e.  g.,  th« 
famous  letter  of  Gr^ory  II  to  St.  Boniface),  the  lawp 
enacted  by  the  Lombam  King  Rothar  (seventh  oen« 
tury),  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne  (eighth  century), 
the  erection  of  leper-houses  at  Verdun,  Metx,  Mae»> 
tricht  (seventh  century),  St.  Gall  (eighth  century), 
and  Canterbur>'  (1096)  bear  witness  to -the  existence 
of  the  disease  in  Western  Europe  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  invasions  of  the  Arabs  and/Iater  on,  the 
Crusades  greatly  aggravated  the  scourge,  which  spared 
no  station  in  life  and  attacked  even  royal  families. 
Lepers  were  then  subjected  to  most  stringent  regu- 
lations. They  were  excluded  from  the  church  by  a 
funeral  Mass  and  a  symbolic  burial  (Mart^e,  Da 
Rit.  ant.,"  Ill,  x).  In  every  important  conmiunity. 
asylums,  mostly  dedicated  to  St.  Lazarus  and  attended 
by  religious,  were  erected  for  the  unfortunate  victims. 
Matthew  Paris  (1197-1259)  roughly  estimated  the 
number  of  these  leper-houses  in  Europe  at  19,000, 
France  alone  having  about  2000,  and  England  over 
a  hundred.  Such  lepers  as  were  not  confined  within 
these  asylums  had  to  wear  a  special  garb,  and  cany 
"a  wooden  clapper  to  give  warning  of  their  approaco. 
They  were  forbidden  to  enter  inns,  churches,  mills,  or 
bakehouses,  to  touch  healthy  persons  or  eat  with 
them,  to  wash  in  the  streams,  or  to  walk  in  narrow 
footpaths"  (Creighton).  (See  below:  IV.  Leprosy 
in  the  Middle  Ages.)  Owing  to  strict  legislation,  lep- 
rosy gradually  oisappeareil,  so  that  at  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century  it  had  become  rare  except  in 
some  few  localities.  At  the  same  time  it  began  to 
spread  in  the  colonies  of  .Vmerica  and  the  islands  of 
Oceanica.  ''It  is  endemic  in  Northern  and  East^n 
Africa,  Madagascar,  Arabia,  Persia,  India,  China  and 
Japan,  Russia,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Italy^  Greece, 
France,  Spain,  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  and  Pacific 
Oceans.  It  is  prevalent  in  central  and  South  America* 
Mexico,  in  the  West  Indies,  the  Hawaiian  and  Philip- 
pine islands,  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  It  is  alsa 
found  in  New  Brunswick,  Canada.  In  the  United 
States,  the  majority  of  cases  occur  in  Louisiana  and 
California,  while  from  many  other  States  cases  are 
occasionally  reported,  notably  from  New  York,  Ohio. 
Pennsylvania,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  the  Carolinas  ana 
Texas.  In  Louisiana  leprosy  has  been  gaining  foot- 
hold since  1758,  when  it  was  introduced  by  the  Acad- 
ians"  (Dyer).  According  to  the  statistics  furnished 
by  delegates  to  the  second  international  conference  on 
leprosy  (at  Bergen,  Non^'ay,  Sept.,  1909),  there  are 
approximately  200,000  cases  of  the  disease  throughout 
the  world:  India,  it  is  stated,  coming  first  with  97,340 
cases;  the  United  States  contributing  146  cases,  and 
the  Panama  Canal  Zone  the  minimum  of  7  cases. 

II.  Patholooy. — How  leprosy  originated  is  un- 
known: bad  nutrition,  bad  hygiene,  constitutional 
conditions  (tuberculosis,  alcoholism,  probably  hered- 
ity, etc.)  seem  to  favour  its  production  and  propaga- 
tion. The  disease  is  immediately  caused  by  the  in- 
fection of  the  bacillus  lejrrce,  a  small  rod  bacillus  from 
.003  mm.  to  .007  mm.  in  length  and  .0005  mm.  in 
diameter,  straight  or  slightly  curved,  with  pointed, 
rounded,  or  club-shaped  extremities,  usually  found 
in  short  chains  or  beads.  This  bacillus,  discovered 
in  1868  by  Hansen,  has  been  described  since  1880  by 
many  specialists,  particularly  by  Byron,  who  suc- 
ceeded in  cultivating  it  in  agar-agar  (C«ylon  moss). 
It  is  present  in  all  leprous  tissues  and  the  secretions 
(urine  excepted;  Kobner  claims  to  have  seen  it  in  the 
blood),  and  has  been  repeatedly  observed  in  the  earth 
taken  from  the  graves  of  lepers  (Brit.  Lepr.  Commission 
of  India).  There  is  on  record  only  one  case — and 
this  somewhat  doubtful — of  leprosy  communicated 
by  artificial  inoculation.  As  to  whether  it  is  con- 
tagious from  person  to  person,  this  was  for  years  a 
much  mooted  question  among  specialists;  although  a 
scientific  demonstration  of  contagiousness  is  so  far 


LSP&OSY 


183 


ZJBPR0S7 


impossible — ^the  mode  of  contamination  being  as  yet 
unascertained,  as  well  as  the  p>eriod  of  incubation  of 
the  germ — still  there  are  unimpeachable  practical 
prooid  of  contagion,  such  as  the  effect  of  isolation  on 
the  spread  of  the  disease,  and  cases  of  healthy  persons 
contracting  the  disease  when  exposed  (Fathers  Da- 
mien  and  Boglioli,  nurses,  and  attendants),  even  acci- 
dentally, as  in  the  instance  of  a  medical  student  who 
cut  himself  while  making  a  post-mortem  on  a  leper. 
In  the  international  conference  at  Borgen,  these  evi- 
dences were  deemed  convincing  enough  to  call  for  a 
declaration  that  the  disease  be  considered  contagious. 

The  period  of  incubation  is  *^est;imated  at  from  a 
few  weeks  to  twenty  and  even  forty  years"  (Dyer). 
Like  most  infections,  leprosy  has  a  preliminary  stage, 
uncertain  in  its  character:  there  are  loss  of  appetite, 
dyspepsia,  and  nausea,  neuralgia,  rheumatic  and  ar- 
ticular pains,  fever,  intermittent  or  irregular,  unac- 
countable lassitude  and  anxiety.  Those  premonitory 
symptoms,  which  may  last  for  months,  arc  followed 
by  periodical  eruptions.  Blotches,  first  reddish,  then 
brown  with  a  white  border,  appear  and  disappear  in 
various  parts  of  the  body ;  sooner  or  later  small  tumours, 
filled  with  a  veliowish  substance  fast  turning  to 
a  darker  hue,  rise  sometimes  on  the  joints,  but  oftener 
on  tl^  articulations  of  the  fingers  and  toes.  These 
tumours,  however,  are  not  yet  specifically  leprous;  at 
the  end  they  may  leave  permanent  spots,  pale  or 
brown,  or  nodules.  Then  the  disease,  manifested 
by  the  apparition  of  specifically  leprous  formations, 
diverges  into  different  varieties,  according  as  it  affects 
the  skin  and  mucous  membranes  (cutaneous  leprosy), 
or  the  nerves  (anaesthetic),  or  both  (mixed,  or  com- 
plete); each  of  these  varieties,  however,  merges 
frequently  into  the  others,  and  it  is  sometimes  difficult 
to  araw  the  line  between  cases. 

Cutaneous  leprosy  is  either  macular  or  tulwi'cular. 
The  former  variety  is  characterized  by  dark  (L.  inacu- 
loaa  nigra)  y  or  whitish  (L.  m.  alba)  spots,  usually  form- 
ing on  the  place  of  the  old  blotches;  the  eruption,  at 
first  only  intermittent,  turns  finally  into  an  obstinate 
ulcer  with  constant  destruction  of  tissue;  the  ulcera- 
tion usually  begins  at  the  joints  of  the  fingers  and 
toes,  which  drop  off  joint  by  joint,  leaving  a  well- 
healed  stump  (L.  mutilans);  it  is  sometimes  prece<led 
by,  and  ordinarily  attended  with,  anaesthesia,  which, 
starting  at  the  extremities,  ext^inds  up  the  limbs,  ren- 
dering them  insensible  to  heat  and  cola,  pain,  and  even 
touch.  ,In  the  tubercular  tvpe,  no<losities  of  leprous 
tissue,  which  may  reach  tbe  size  of  a  walnut,  are 
formed  out  of  the  blotches.  They  may  occur  on  anv 
part  of  the  body,  but  usually  affect  the  face  (forehead, 
eyelids,  no.se,  lips,  chin,  cheeks,  and  ears),  thickening 
all  the  features  ami  giving  them  a  leonine  appearance 
{leonh'ams,  satyr hr.ia).  Tuljercular  leprosy  develops 
rapidFy.  and,  when  attacking  the  extremities,  its  des- 
tructive process  has  the  same  effect  of  ulceration, 
mutilation,  and  deformity  as  has  l>een  mentioned 
above.  Scarcely  different  from  the  prc^reding  in  the 
period  of  invasion  is  the  course  of  anaesthetic  leprosy, 
one  of  the  characttjristic  s>Tnptoms  of  which  is  the 
antesthosia  of  the  little  finger,  which  may  occur  even 
before  anj'  lesions  appear.  The  ulcer,  at  first  usually 
localized  on  one  finger,  attacks  one  by  one  the  other 
fingers,  then  the  other  hand;  in  some  cases  the  feet 
are  affected  at  the  same  time,  in  others  their  ulceration 
follows  that  of  the  hands.  Neuralgic  psLins  accompany 
the  invasion,  and  a  thickening  of  certain  nerves  may 
be  observed;  motor-paralysis  gradually  invades  the 
face,  the  hands,  and  the  feet,  ronsequent  upon  this, 
the  muscles  of  the  face  become  contracted  and  dis- 
torted by  atrophy;  ectropitm  of  the  lower  lids  prevents 
the  patient  from  slmttinsc  his  eyes;  the  lips  become 
flabby,  and  the  lower  one  drops.  The  sense  of  touch 
and  muscle-control  being  lost,  the  hands  are  unable  to 
msp,  and  the  contraction  affecting  the  muscles  of  the 
forearm  produces  the  claw-hand.    In  the  lower  ex- 


tremities analogous  effects  are  produced,  resulting 
first  in  a  shuffling  gait  and  finally  in  complete  incar 
pacity  of  motion.  Then  the  skin  shrinks,  the  hair, 
teeth,  and  nails  fall,  and  the  lopping-off  process  of  ne- 
crosis may  extend  to  the  loss  of  tiie  entire  hand  or  foot. 
The  mixed  variety  of  leprosy  is  the  combination  and 
complete  development  of  the  two  types  just  described. 
In  all  cases  a  peculiar  offensive  smeH,  recalling  that  of 
the  dissecting-room  mixed  with  the  odour  of  goose 
feathers — the  authors  of  the  Middle  Ages  compared  it 
to  that  of  the  male-goat — is  emitted  by  the  leper,  and 
renders  him  an  oi)ject  of  repulsion  to  all  who  come 
near  him.  Add  the  torture  of  an  unouenchable  thirst 
in  the  last  stages  of  the  disease,  and,  as  the  patient 
usually  preserves  his  mind  unaffected  to  the  end,  the 
utter  prostration  resulting  from  his  complete  helpless- 
ness and  the  sight  of  the  slow  and  unrelenting  process 
of  decomposition  of  his  bmly,  and  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand how  truly,  in  the  Book  of  Job  (xviii,  13),  lep- 
rosy is  called  "the  firstborn  of  death". 

The  average  course  of  leprosy  is  about  eight  years, 
the  mixed  type  being  more  rapidly  concluded. 
"  Death  is  the  ordinary  conclusion  of  everv  case,  which 
may  come  (in  3S  per  cent  of  cases)  from  the  exhaustive 
effects  of  the  disease,  from  an  almost  necessary  septi- 
caemia, or  from  some  intercurrent  disease,  as  nephritis 
(in  22.5  per  cent);  from  pulmonary  diseases  including 
phthisis  (in  17  per  cent),  diarrhoea  (in  10  per  cent), 
anosmia  (in  5  per  cent),  remittent  fever  (in  5  per  cent), 
peritonitis  (in  2.5  per  cent)"  (Dyer). 

So  far  leprosy  has  baffled  all  the  efforts  of  medical 
science:  almost  every  conceivable  method  of  treat- 
ment has  })een  attempted,  yet  with  no  appreciable 
success.  Occasionally  the  treatment  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  such  long  periods  of  remission  of  the  disease 
(fifteen  or  twenty  years)  as  might  lead  one  to  believe 
the  cure  altogether  complete;  still,  specialists  continue 
to  hold  that  in  such  instances  the  virulence  of  the 
bacillus  is,  through  causes  unknown,  merely  sus- 
pended, and  may  break  forth  again.  It  being  ad- 
mitted that  the  disease  is  l>oth  contagious  and  pre- 
ventible,  there  seems  to  he  no  doubt  that  means  of 
public  protection  should  be  provided.  To  answer  this 
purpose,  several  countries  (Nonvay  and  Sweden  in 

{)articular)  have  by  legislation  ordered  the  isolation  of 
epcrs.  In  some  other  countries  the  Governments  en- 
courage, and,  more  or  less  generously,  subsidize  pri- 
vate establishments.  Of  all  the  states  of  the  Union, 
Louisiana  is  the  only  one  to  have  taken  any  definite 
steps:  it  partly  supports  the  leper-home  at  Carville 
where  some  seventy  patients  are  housed  imder  the 
care  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
(Emmitsburg).  Some,  not  unwisely,  think  that  if  the 
federal  authorities  do  not  deem  it  ri^ht  to  interfere,  in- 
dividual states,  especially  those  which,  like  California, 
are  exposed  to  a  constant  danger  of  infection,  should 
take  means  of  preventing  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

III.  Leprosy  in  the  Bible. — ^The  foregoing  sketch 
of  the  patholog>'  of  lepros>'  may  serve  to  illustrate 
some  of  the  many  paasages  of  the  Bible  where  the  dis- 
ease is  mentioned.  From  the  epoch  of  the  sojourn  of 
the  people  of  God  in  the  desert  down  to  the  times  of 
Christ,  leprosy  seems  to  have  been  prevalent  in  Pales- 
tine: not  onlv  was  it  in  some  particular  cases  (Num., 
xii,  10;  IV  Ivings,  v,  27;  Is.,  liii,  4)  looked  upon  as  a 
Divine  punishment,  but  at  all  times  the  Hebrews  be- 
lieved it  to  be  (contagious  and  hereditary  (II  Kings, 
iii,  29);  hence  it  was  considered  as  a  cause  of  defile- 
ment, and  involved  exclusion  from  the  community. 
From  this  idea  procee<led  the  minute  regulations  of 
Lev.,  xiii,  xiv,  concerning  the  diagnosis  of  the  disease 
and  the  restoration  to  social  and  religious  life  of  those 
who  were  cleansed.  All  decisions  in  this  matter  per- 
tained to  the  priest,  before  whom  should  appear  per- 
sonally both  tnose  who  were  suspected  of  leprosy  and 
those  who  claimed  to  l>e  healed.  If,  at  the  first  exam- 
ination, the  signs— coloured  nodiile,  blister,  shining 


LEPROSY 


184 


LSPB08T 


spot  (xiii,  2),  discoloration  of  the  liair  (3) — ^^'ere  mani- 
fest, isolation  was  pronounced  at  once;  but  if  some  of 
the  signs  were  wanting,  a  seven-days  quarantine  was 
ordered,  at  the  term  of  which  a  new  inspection  had  to 
take  place;  should  then  the  symptoms  remain  doubt- 
ful, another  week's  quarantine  was  imposed.  The  ap- 
pearance of  "the  living  flesh"  in  connexion  with 
whitish  blotches  was  deemed  an  evident  sign  of  the  in- 
fection (10).  White  formations  covering  the  whole  body 
are  no  sign  of  leprosy  unless  "Uve  flesh*'  (ulceration) 
accompany  them;  in  the  latter  case,  the  patient  was 
isolated  as  suspect,  and  if  the  sores,  which  might  be 
only  temporary  pustules,  should  heal  up,  he  had  to 
appear  again  before  the  priest,  who  woulcl  then  declare 
hun  clean  (12-17).  A  white  or  reddish  nodule  affect- 
ing the  cicatrix  of  an  ulcer  or  of  a  bum  would  be  re- 
garded a  doubtful  sign  of  leprosy,  and  condemned  the 
patient  to  a  seven-days  quarantine,  after  which,  ac- 
cording as  clearer  signs  appeared  or  not,  he  would  be 
declared  clean  or  unclean  (18-28).  Another  suspicious 
case,  to  be  re-examined  after  a  week's  seclusion,  is 
that  of  the  leprosy  of  the  scalp,  in  which,  not  leprosy 
proper,  but  ringworm  should  most  hkely  be  recog- 
nized. In  all  coses  of  acknowledged  leprous  infection, 
the  patient  was  to  ''have  his  clothes  hanging  loose, 
his  head  bare,  his  mouth  covered  with  a  cloth  and  he 
was  commanded  to  cry  out  that  he  was  defiled  and  un- 
clean. As  long  as  the  disease  lasted,  he  had  to ''  dwell 
alone  without  the  camp"  (or  the  city).  Like  the 
presence  of  leprosy,  so  the  recovery  was  the  object  of 
a  sentence  of  the  priest,  and  the  reinstatement  in  the 
community  was  solemnly  made  according  to  an  elab- 
orate ritual  ^iven  in  Lev.,  xiv. 

In  connexion  with  leprosy  proper,  Leviticus  speaks 
also  of  the  "  leprosy  of  the  garments"  (xiii,  47-59)  and 
"  leprosy  of  the  house"  (xiv,  34-53).  These  kinds  of 
leprosy,  probably  due  to  fimgous  formations,  have 
nothing  to  do  with  leprosy  proper,  which  is  a  specifi- 
cally human  disease. 

Bennett,  Diseases  of  the  Bible  (London,  1887);  Dter, 
LeproKu  (New  York,  1897);  Hansen  and  Loopt,  Leprosy  in  its 
Clinical  and  Pathological  Aspects  (London.  1895);  Report  of  the 
Leprosy  Commission  to  India  (London,  1893);  Thin,  Leprosy 
(London,  1891);  Barthclinus,  De  morbis  biblicis  (CopGnhagen 
1671);  Pruner,  Die  Krankheiten  des  Orients  (Erlongen,  1847); 
Trusen,  Die  Siiten,  Gebr&uche  und  Krankheiten  der  alien  He- 
briicr  (Breslau,  1833);  Lrloir,  TraiU  pratique  et  thforiqxie  de  la 
Upre  (Paris,  1886);  Bauton,  La  Uprose  (Paris,  1901). 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 

IV.  Leprosy  in  the  Middle  Ages. — ^As  a  con- 
fle(|uence  of  the  dissemination  of  leprosv  in  Europe, 
legislation  providing  against  the  spread  of  the  dis- 
ease (which  was  considereii  to  be  contagious)  and 
regulations  concerning  the  marriage  of  leprous  per- 
sons, as  well  as  their  segregation  and  detention  in  in- 
stitutions— ^which  were  more  charitable  and  philan- 
thropic than  medical,  partaking  of  the  character  of 
asylums  or  almshouses — graduallv  came  into  opera- 
tion. The  historical  researches  of  Virchow  concerning 
leper-houses  (Icprosoria)  have  estabUshed  the  fact 
that  such  institutions  existed  in  France  as  early  as  the 
seventh  century  at  Verdun,  Metz,  Maestricht,  etc.,  and 
that  leprasy  must  even  then  have  been  widespread. 
In  the  eight n  century  St.  Othmar  in  Germany  and  St. 
Nicholas  of  Cor  bis  in  France  founded  leper-houses,  and 
many  such  existed  in  Italy.  (See  Virchow  in  "  Archiv 
fi'ir  pathologische  Anatomic",  XVIII-XX,  Leipzig, 
1860.)  I^egislati  ve  enactments  against  the  marriage  of 
lepers,  and  providing  for  their  segregation,  were  made 
and  enforced  as  early  as  the  seventh  centurv  by  Ro- 
thar,  King  of  the  Lombards,  and  by  Pepin  (757)  and 
Charlemagne  (789)  for  the  Empire  of  the  Franks. 
The  earliest  accounts  of  the  founding  of  leper-houses 
in  Germanv  is  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  century;  in 
Ireland  (Innisfallen),  869;  England,  950;  Spain,  1007 
(Malaga)  and  1008  (Valencia);  Scotland,  1170  (Ald- 
nestun);  the  Netherlands,  1147  (Ghent).  The  found- 
ing of  these  houses  did  not  take  place  until  the  disease 


had  spread  considerably  and  had  become  a  menace  to 
the  pubUc  health.  It  is  said  to  have  been  most  preva- 
lent about  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  assuming  epi- 
demic proportions  in  some  locaUties:  in  France  alone, 
at  the  time  of  the  death  of  Louis  IX,  it  was  computed 
that  there  were  some  two  thousand  such  houses,  and 
in  all  Christendom  not  less  than  nineteen  thousand 
(Hirsch,  "Handbook  of  Geographical  and  Historical 
Pathology  ",  tr.  Creighton,  London,  1885,  p.  7,  note. 
Cf.  Raymund,  "Histoire  de  TEl^phantiasis ",  Ljui- 
sanne,  1767,  p.  106).  Mdzera^r  (Hist,  de  France,  II, 
168)  says:  "  II  y  avait  ni  ville  ni  bourgade,  que  ne  fust 
oblige  de  hktiT  un  hopital  pour  les  (lepreux;  retirer". 
For  Italy  we  have  Muratori's  statement  (Antiq.  Ital. 
Med.  i£vi,  III,  5^i) ,  *'  Vix  ulla  ci vitas  quse  non  auquem 
locum  leprosis  destinatum  haberet.'' 

There  is,  however,  good  reason  to  doubt  the  accu- 
racy of  the  above  figures  (19,(XX))  as  estimated  by  our 
medieval  informants.  Besides,  "it  would  be  a  mis- 
take", writes  Hirsch  (op.  cit.,  p.  7).  "to  infer  from 
the  multiplication  of  leper-houses,  that  there  was  a 
corresponding  increase  in  the  number  of  cases,  or  to 
take  tne  number  of  the  former  as  the  measure  of  the 
extent  to  which  leprosv  was  prevalent,  or  to  conclude, 
as  many  have  done,  that  the  coincidence  of  the  Cru- 
sades implies  any  intrinsic  connexion  between  the 
two  things;  or  that  the  rise  in  the  number  of  cases  was 
due  to  the  importation  of  leprosy  into  Europe  from 
the  East.  In  jud^ng  of  these  matters  we  must  not 
leave  out  of  sight  the  fact  that  the  notion  of '  leprosy' 
was  a  very  comprehensive  one  in  the  middle  age,  not 
only  among  the  laity  but  also  among  physicians;  that 
syphilis  was  frequently  included  therein,  as  well  as  a 
variety  of  chronic  skin  diseases,  and  that  the  diagno- 
sis with  a  view  to  segregating  lepers  was  not  made  by 
the  practitioners  of  medicine  but  mostly  by  the 
laity." 

Simpson,  in  his  admirable  essay  on  the  leper-houses 
of  Britain  (Edin.  Med.  and  Surg.  Journal.  1841-42). 
writes:  "I  have  already  alluded  to  special  Orders  ol 
Knighthood  having  been  estabUshed  at  an  early  pe- 
riod for  the  care  and  superintendence  of  lepers.  We 
know  that  the  Knights  of  St.  Lazarus  separated  from 
the  general  Order  of  the  Ivnights  Hospitallers  about 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  or  beginning  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury (Index.  Monast.,  p.  28) .  They  were  at  first  desig- 
nated: Knights  of  St.  Lazarus  and  St.  Mary  of  Jeru- 
salem. St.  Louis  brought  twelve  of  the  Knights  of 
St.  Lazarus  to  France  and  entrusted  them  with  the 
superintendence  of  the  '  Lazaries '  (or  leper  hospitals) 
of  the  Ivingdom.  The  first  notice  of  their  having 
obtained  a  footing  in  Great  Britain  is  in  the  reign 
of  Stephen  (1135-54)  at  Burton  Lazars  (Leicester- 
shire). I  find  that  the  hospitals  of  Tilton,  of  the 
Holy  Innocents  at  Lincoln,  of  St.  Giles  (London), 
Closely  in  Norfolk,  and  various  others  are  annexed  to 
Burton  Lazars  as  'cells'  containing  'fratres  leprosos 
de  Sancto  Lazaro  de  Jerusalem '.  Its  [Burton'sjprivi- 
leges  and  possessions  were  confirmed  by  Henry  II, 
King  John  and  Henry  VI.  It  was  at  last  dissolved  by 
Henry  VIII."     (See  Lazarus,  St.,  Order  of.) 

As  has  already  been  stated,  these  institutions  were 
intended  principally  as  houses  to  seclude  the  infected, 
and  not  so  much  as  hospices  for  the  curative  treat- 
ment of  the  disease,  which  was  considered  then,  aa 
now,  an  incurable  disorder.  They  were  founded  and 
endowed  as  religious  establishments,  and  as  such  they 
were  generally  placed  under  the  control  and  manage* 
ment  of  some  abbey  or  monastery  by  a  papal  Bull. 
which  appointed  every  leper-house  to  be  provided 
with  its  own  churchyard,  chapel,  and  ecclesiastics— 
"  cum  cimutcrio  ecclesiam  construere  et  propriis  gau- 
dere  presbyteris "  (Semler,  "Hist.  Eccles.  Select."). 
The  English  and  Scotch  houses  were  under  the  full 
control  of  a  custos,  dean,  prior,  and,  in  some 


as  in  the  hospital  of  St.  Lawrence,  Canterbury  which 
contained  lepers  of  both  sexes — a  prioress.  T^  eode- 


185 


LS  PU7 


riartioal  oflSoen  of  the  bo8i)ital8  and  the  leper  inmates 
were  bound  by  the  regulations  laid  down  in  the  char- 
ters of  the  institution,  which  they  had  to  observe 
strictly,  especially  as  to  offering  up  prayers  for  the  re- 
pose A  the  souls  of  the  founder  and  his  family.  The 
following  extracts  from  the  regulations  of  the  leper- 
hospital  at  lUeford  (Essex),  in  1346,  by  Baldock, 
Bisnop  of  London,  illustrate  this  point:  ''We  also 
command  that  the  lepers  omit  not  attendance  at  their 
ehurch,  to  hear  divme  service  unless  prevented  by 
previous  bodily  infirmity,  and  thev  are  to  preserve 
iQence  and  hear  matins  and  mass  throughout  if  they 
are  able;  and  whilst  there  to  be  intent  on  devotion  and 
prayer  as  far  as  their  infirmity  permit  them.  We  ad- 
vise also  and  command  that  as  it  was  ordained  of  old 
in  the  said  hospital  every  leprous  brother  shall  every 
day  say  for  the  morning  duty,  an  Our  Father  and  Ilail 
Mary  thirteen  times  and  for  the  otiicr  hours  of  the 
day  .  .  .  respectively  an  Our  Father  and  a  Hail 
Ifarv  seven  times,  etc.  ...  If  a  leprous  brother  se- 
cret! v[oecti2te]  fails  in  the  performance  of  those  articles 
let  lum  consult  the  priest  of  the  saiJ  hospital  in  the 
tribunal  of  penance  (Dugdalc,  "  Monasticon  Angli- 
eanum",  II,  390).  There  was  generally  a  chaplain 
under  the  prior  and  in  some  instances  a  free  chapel 
was  attached  with  resident  canons.  The  hospital  at 
St.  Giles  (Norwich),  for  instance,  had  a  prior  and  eight 
canons  (acting  chaplains),  two  clerks,  seven  choristers, 
and  two  sisters  (^lonast.,  Index,  55). 

Matthew  Paris  has  left  us  a  copy  of  the  vow  taken 
by  the  brothers  of  the  leper-hospitals  of  St.  Julian  and 
St.  Alban  before  admission:  "I,  brother  B.,  promise 
and.  taking  my  bodily  oath  by  touching  the  most  sa- 
erea  Gospel,  amrm  before  God  and  all  the  Saints  in  this 
church  which  is  constructed  in  honour  of  St.  Julian 
(the  Gonfessor),  in  the  presence  of  Dominus  R.  the 
archdeacon,  that  idl  the  days  of  my  life  I  will  \>e  sub- 
ttrvient  and  obedient  to  the  commands  of  the  Lord 
Abbot  of  St.  Albans  for  the  time  being  and  to  his  arch- 
deacon, resisting  in  nothing,  unless  such  things  should 
be  commanded  as  could  militate  against  the  Divine 
pleasure:  I  will  never  commit  theft,  or  bring  a  false 
accusation  against  any  one  of  the  brethren,  nor  in- 
fringe the  vow  of  chastity  nor  fail  in  my  duty  by  ap- 
propriating anything,  or  leaving  anytiiing  by  will  to 
others,  unless  by  a  dispensation  granted  by  the  l)roth- 
ers.  I  will  make  it  my  study  wholly  to  avoid  all  kinds 
of  usury  as  a  monstrous  thing  and  hateful  to  God.  I 
will  not  be  aiding  or  abetting  in  word  or  thought,  di- 
'  reetly  or  indirectly  in  any  plan  by  which  any  one  shall 
be  appointed  Gustos  or  I>ean  of  the  lepers  of  St.  Julians, 
except  the  persons  appointed  by  the  Lord  Abbot  of 
St.  Albans.  I  will  be  content,  without  strife  or  com- 
plaint, with  the  food  and  drink  and  other  things  given 
and  allowed  to  me  by  the  Master;  according  to  the 
unoe  and  custom  of  the  house.  I  will  not  transgress 
the  bounds  prescribed  to  me,  without  the  special  li- 
eense  of  my  superiors,  and  with  their  consent  and  will; 
and  if  I  prove  an  offender  against  any  article  named 
above,  it  is  my  wish  that  the  Lord  Abbot  or  his  sul> 
fltitute  may  punish  me  according  to  the  nature  and 
amount  of  the  offence,  as  shall  seem  best  to  him,  and 
even  to  cast  me  forth  an  apostate  from  the  congrega- 
tion of  the  brethren  without  hope  of  remission,  except 
through  special  grace  of  the  Lord  Abbot.''  It  is  in- 
teresting to  compare  with  the  passage  on  usury  in  this 
formula  the  statement  of  M(*zcray  (Hist,  de  France), 
that  during  the  twelfth  century  two  very  cruel  evils 
(dsux  maux  Irha  eruds)  reigned  in  France,  viz.,  leprosy 
and  usury,  one  of  which,  he  adds,  infected  the  oody 
while  the  other  mined  families. 

The  C^urdi,  therefore,  from  a  remote  period  has 
taken  a  most  active  part  in  promoting  the  wcllbeine 
and  care  of  the  leper,  both  spiritual  and  temporal. 
The  Chder  of  St.  Laiarus  was  the  outcome  of  her 
practiod  gympatiiy^for  the  poor  sufferers  during  the 
long  centuries  when  the  pestilence  was  endemic  in 


Europe.  Even  in  our  own  day  we  find  the  same 
Apostolic  spirit  alive.  The  saintly  Father  Damien, 
the  martyr  of  Molokai,  whose  life-sacrifice  for  the  bet- 
terment of  the  lepers  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  is  still 
fresh  in  public  recollection,  and  his  co-laIx>urers  and 
followers  in  that  field  of  missionary  work  have  strik- 
ingly manifested  in  recent  times  the  same  apostolic 
spirit  which  actuated  the  followers  of  St.  Lazarus  in 
tne  twelfth  and  two  succeeding  centuries. 

See  the  workB  of  Mkzbray,  Muratori.  Virchow,  and  Sbm- 
LBB,  and  the  ea»ay  of  Simpaon  in  Edinb.  Meti.  ami  Surg, 
JounwU  (1841-42;,  all  quoted  in  the  body  of  this  article. 

J.  F.  Donovan. 

Z«0ptis  Magna,  a  titular  see  of  Tripolitana. 
Founded  by  the  Sidonians  in  a  fine  and  fertile  country, 
it  was  the  most  important  of  the  three  towns  which 
formed  the  Tripoli  Confederation.  The  remains  of 
the  ancient  Phoenician  town  are  still  visible,  with  the 
harbour,  quays,  walls,  and  inland  defence,  which  make 
it  look  like  Carthage.  This  Semitic  city  subsequently 
became  the  centre  of  a  Greek  city,  Neapolis,  ot  which 
most  of  the  monuments  are  buried  under  sand.  Not- 
withstanding Pliny  (Nat.  Hist.,  V,  xxviii),  who  dis- 
tinguishes Neapolis  from  Leptis,  there  is  no  doubt, 
according  to  Ptolemy,  Strabo,  and  Scyllax,  that  they 
should  be  identified.  Leptis  allied  itself  with  the  Ro- 
mans in  the  war  against  Jugurtha.  Having  obtained 
under  Augustus  the  title  of  ciuitas  it  seems  at  that  time 
to  have  been  administered  by  Carthaginian  magis- 
trates; it  may  have  been  a  municipium  during  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  Era  and  erected  by  Traian 
into  a  colony  bearing  the  name  of  Colonia  iJlpia  Tra- 
iana,  found  on  many  of  its  coins.  The  birthplace  of 
Septimius  Severus,  who  embellished  it  and  enriched 
it  with  several  fine  monuments,  it  was  taken  and 
sacked  in  the  fourth  century  by  the  Libyan  tribe  of 
Aurusiani  (Ammianus  Marcellinus,  XXVIII,  vi)  and 
has  never  since  completely  recovered.  It  was  at  that 
time  the  seat  of  the  military  government  of  Tripolitana. 

When  Justinian  took  ft  from  the  Vandals  in  the 
sixth  century,  leptis  Maioia  was  largely  in  ruins  and 
buried  under  sand.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  its  walls  were 
raised,  their  extent  l)eing  reduced  in  order  more  easily 
to  protect  the  town  a^siinst  the  attacks  of  the  Berber 
tribes  dwelling  lx?yond  its  gates.  The  duke,  or  mili- 
tarv  governor,  who  a^ain  took  up  his  residence  there, 
built  public  baths  and  several  magnificent  building?; 
the  Septimius  Severus  palace  was  restore<l,  and  five 
churches  were  built  (Procopius,  "De  a^dif.",  VI-IV). 
The  massacre  of  all  the  Berber  chiefs  of  the  Le- 
vathes,  treacherously  ordered  by  Duke  Sergius  at  Lep- 
tis Magna  in  541^,  provoked  a  terrible  insurrection, 
through  which  the  Romans  almast  lost  Africa.  Taken 
in  the  seventh  century  by  the  Arabs,  who  allowed  it  to 
be  invaded  by  the  sands,  Leptis  Magna  is  now  only  a 
majestic  ruin  calleil  Lelxla,  sixty-two  miles  east  of 
Tripoli.  Besides  vague  traces  of  several  large  build- 
ings, the  remains  of  a  vast  circus,  liSO  yards  by  sixty- 
six  yards,  are  visible.  Five  bishops  are  recorded: 
Dioga  in  255,  Victorinus  and  Maximus  in  39'?,  Salvi- 
anus,  a  Donatist,  in  4 11 ,  Calipcdcs  in  18 1 .  This  town 
must  not  be  confounded  with  Leptis  Minor,  to-day 
Lemta  in  Tunisia. 


Ueoff.f  s.  v.,  which  gives  detailed  sources. 


S.  Vailh6. 


Le  Pny,  Diockse  ok  (Aniciensi.s),  comprises  the 
whole  Department  of  Haute  Loire,  and  is  a  suffragan 
of  Bourges.  The  tcrritorv  of  the  ancient  Diocese  of 
JiG  Puy,  suppressed  by  llie  Concordat  of  1801,  was 
united  'W'ith  the  Diocese  of  Saint-Flour,  and  l)ecame 
a  diocese  again  in  1S23.  The  (list  rict  of  Brioude,  wliich 
had  belonged  to  the  Diocei?e  of  Saint-Flour  under  the 
old  regime,  was  thenceforward  included  in  the  new 
Diocese  of  Puy. 


LS  PUT 


186 


US  PITT 


The  Martjnrology  of  Ado  and  the  first  legend  of  St. 
Front  of  P^rigueux  (written  perhaps  in  the  middle  of 
the  tenth  century,  by  Gauzbert,  chorepiscopus  of 
Limoges)  speak  of  a  certain  priest  named  George  who 
was  brought  to  life  by  the  touch  of  St.  Peter's  staff, 
and  who  accompanied  St.  Front,  St.  Peter's  mission- 
ary and  first  Bishop  of  P^rigueux.  A  legend  of  St. 
George,  the  origin  of  which,  according  to  Duchesne^  is 
not  earlier  than  the  eleventh  century,  makes  that  samt 
one  of  the  seventy-two  disciples,  and  tells  how  he 
founded  the  Church  of  Civitas  Vetula  in  the  County  of 
Le  Velay,  and  how,  at  the  request  of  St.  Martial,  he 
caused  an  altar  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  to  be  erected  on 
Mont  Anis  (Mons  Anicius).  After  St.  George,  certain 
local  traditions  of  very  late  origin  point  to  Sts.  Maca- 
rius,  Marcellinus,  Roncius,  Eusebius,  Paulianus,  and 
Vosy  (Evodius)  as  bishops  of  Le  Puy.  It  must  have 
been  from  St.  Paulianus  that  the  town  of  Ruessium, 
now  St.  Paulien,  received  its  name;  and  it  was  prob- 
ably St.  Vosy  who  completed  the  church  of  Our  Lady 
of  Le  Puy  at  Anicium  and  transferred  the  episcopal 
see  from  Ruessium  to  Anicium.  St.  Vosy  was  ap- 
prised in  a  vision  that  the  angels  themselves  had  dedi- 
cated the  cathedral  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  whence  the 
epithet  Angelic  given  to  the  cathedral  of  Le  Puy.  It 
is  impossible  to  say  whether  this  St.  Evodius  is  the 
same  who  signed  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Valence 
in  374.  Neither  can  it  be  affirmed  that  St.  Benignus, 
who  in  the  seventh  century  founded  a  hospital  at  the 
gates  of  the  basilica,  and  St.  Agrevius,  the  seventh-cen- 
tury martyr  from  whom  the  town  of  Saint-Aercve  Chi- 
niacum  took  its  name,  were  really  bishops.  Duchesne 
thinks  that  the  chronology  of  these  early  bishops  rests 
on  very  little  evidence  and  that  very  ill  supported  by 
documents;  before  the  tenth  century  only  six  indivicf- 
uals  appear  of  whom  it  can  be  saiil  with  certainty  tliat 
they  were  bishops  of  Le  Puy.  The  first  of  these,  Scu- 
tarius,  the  legendary  architect  of  the  first  cathedral, 
dates,  if  we  may  trust  the  inscription  which  bears  his 
name,  from  the  end  of  the  fourth  century. 

Among  the  bishops  of  Le  Puy  are  mentioned: 
Adh6mar  of  Monteil  (1087-1100),  author  of  the  an- 
cient antiphon,  "Salve  Regina",  whom  Urban  II, 
coming  to  Le  Puy  in  1095  to  preach  the  Crusade,  ap- 
pointed his  legate,  and  who  died  under  the  walls  of 
Antioch;  Bertrand  of  Chalencon  (1200-13),  who  him- 
self led  the  soldiers  of  his  province  against  the  Albi- 
genses  under  the  walls  of  Beziers;  Guy  III  Foulques 
(1257-59),  who  became  pope  as  Clement  IV;  the  theo- 
logian Durandus  of  Samt-Pour^ain  (1318-26);  Le- 
franc  de  Pompignan  (1733-74),  the  great  antagonist 
of  the  philosopfies;  De  Bonald  (1823-39),  afterwards 
Archbishop  ot  Lyons. 

Legend  traces  the  origin  of  the  pil^mage  of  Le 
Puy  to  an  apparition  of  the  Blessea  Virgin  to  a  sick 
widow  whom  St.  Martial  had  converted.  No  French 
pilgrimage  was  more  frequented  in  the  Middle  A^es. 
Charlemagne  came  twice,  in  772  and  800;  there  is  a 
legend  tliat  in  772  he  established  a  foundation  at  the 
cathedral  for  ten  poor  canons  (dianoines  de  paupirie), 
and  he  chose  Le  Puv,  with  Aachen  and  Saint-Gillcs,  as 
a  centre  for  the  collection  of  Peter's  Pence.  Charles 
the  Bald  visited  I^  Puy  in  877,  Eudes  in  892,  Robert 
in  1029,  Philip  Aucustiis  in  1183.  Louis  IX  met  the 
King  of  Aragon  there  in  1245;  and  in  1254  passing 
through  Le  Puy  on  his  return  from  the  Holy  Land,  he 
gave  to  the  cathedral  an  ebony  image  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  clothed  in  pold  brocade.  After  him,  Le  Puy 
was  visited  by  Philip  the  Bold  in  1282,  by  Philip  the 
Fair  in  1285,  by  Charles  VI  in  1394,  by  Charles  VII  in 
1420,  and  by  the  mother  of  Blessed  Joan  of  Arc  in 
1429.  Louis  XI  made  the  pilgrimage  in  1436  and 
1475,  and  in  1476  halted  three  leagues  from  the  city 
and  went  to  the  cathedral  barefooted.  Charles  VIII 
visited  it  in  1495,  Francis  I  in  1533.  Theodulph, 
Bishop  of  Orleans,  brought  to  Our  Lady  of  I^  Puy,  as 
an  ex-voto  for  his  deliverance,  a  magnificent  Bible,  the 


letters  of  which  were  made  of  plates  of  gold  and  silver, 
which  he  had  himself  put  together,  about  820,  while  in 
prison  at  Angers.  St.  Mayeul,  St.  Odilon,  St.  Robert, 
St.  Hugh  of  Grenoble,  St.  Anthony  of  Padua,  St. 
Dominic,  St.  Vincent  Ferrer,  St.  John  Francis  Regis 
were  pilgrims  to  Le  Puy. 

The  Church  of  Le  Puy  received,  on  account  of  its 
great  dignity  and  fame,  innumerable  temporal  and 
spiritual  favours.  Concessions  made  in  9 19  by  William 
the  Young,  Count  of  Auvergne  and  Le  Velay,  and  in 
923  by  King  Raoul,  gave  it  sovereignty  over  the  whole 
population  of  the  town  (bourg)  of  Ams,  a  population 
which  soon  amounted  to  30,000  souls.  In  999,  Syl- 
vester II  consecrated  his  friend  Th^odard,  a  monk 
of  Aurillac,  Bishop  of  Le  Puy,  to  replace  Stephen  of 
Gevaudan,  whom  his  imcle  Guy,  Bishop  of  Le  Puy,  had 
in  his  lifetime,  designated  to  be  his  successor,  and 
whom  a  Roman  council  had  excommunicated.  Syl- 
vester II  exempted  Thdodard  from  all  metropolitan 
jurisdiction,  a  privilege  which  Leo  IX  confirmed  to 
the  Bishops  of  Le  Puy,  also  granting  them  the  right, 
imtil  then  reserved  to  archbishops  exclusively,  of 
wearing  the  palUum.  "Nowhere  ,  he  said  in  his 
Bull,  "  does  the  Blessed  Virgin  receive  a  more  special 
afld  more  filial  worship."  It  was  from  Le  Puy  that 
Urban  II  dated  (15  August,  1095)  the  Letters  Apos- 
tolic convoking  the  Council  of  Clermont,  and  it  was  a 
canon  of  Le  Puy,  Raymond  d' Aiguilles,  chaplain  to 
the  Count  of  Toulouse,  who  wrote  the  history  of  the 
crusade.  Gelasius  II,  Callistus  II,  Innocent  II,  and 
Alexander  III  visited  Le  Puy  to  pray,  and  witn  the 
visit  of  one  of  these  popes  must  be  connected  the  origin 
of  the  great  jubilee  wnich  is  granted  to  Our  Lady  of 
Le  Puy  whenever  Good  Friday  falls  on  25  March,  the 
Feast  of  the  Annunciation.  It  is  supposed  that  this 
jubilee  was  instituted  by  Callistus  II,  who  passed 
through  Le  Puy,  in  April,  1119,  or  by  Alexander  III, 
who  was  there  in  August,  1162^  and  June,  1165,  or  by 
Clement  IV,  who  had  been  Bishop  of  he  Puy.  The 
first  jubilee  historically  known  took  place  m  1407, 
and  in  1418  the  chroniclers  mention  a  Bull  of  Martin 
V  prolonging  the  duration  of  the  jubilee.  It  todk 
place  three  times  in  the  nineteenth  century — in  1842, 
1853,  and  1864 — and  will  take  place  agam  in  1910. 
Lastly,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  everyone  who  had 
made  the  pilgrimage  to  Le  Puy  had  the  privilege  of 
making  a  will  in  extremis  with  only  two  witnesses  in- 
stead of  seven. 

Honoured  with  such  prerogatives  as  these,  the 
Church  of  Le  Puy  assumed  a  sort  of  primacy  in  respect 
to  most  of  the  Churches  of  France,  and  even  of  Christ- 
endom. This  primacy  manifested  itself  practically 
in  a  right  to  beg^  estabhshed  with  the  authorization 
of  the  Holy  See,  in  virtue  of  which  the  chapter  of  Le 
Puy  levied  a  veritable  tax  upon  almost  all  the  Chris- 
tian countries  to  support  its  hospital  of  Notre-Dame. 
In  Catalonia  this  droit  de  qwte,  recognized  by  the 
Spanish  Crown,  was  so  thoroughly  established  that 
the  chapter  had  its  collectors  permanently  installed 
in  that  country.  A  famous  "fraternity"  existed  be- 
tween the  chapter  of  Le  Puy  and  that  of  Gerona  in 
Catalonia.  The  efforts  of  M.  Rochet  to  establish  his 
contention,  that  this  "fraternity"  dated  from  the 
time  of  Charlemagne,  have  been  fruitless;  M.  Coulet 
has  proved  that  the  earliest  document  in  which  it  is 
mentioned  dates  only  from  1470,  and  he  supposes  that 
at  this  date  the  chapter  of  Gerona,  in  order  to  escape 


with  the  Church  of  Le  Puy.  In  1479  and  in  1481 
Pierre  Bou\ner,  a  canon  of  Le  Puy^  came  to  Gerona, 
when  the  canons  invoked  against  him  certain  legends 
according  to  which  Charlemagne  had  taken  Gerona, 
rebuilt  its  cathedral,  given  it  a  canon  of  Le  Puy  for 
a  bishop,  and  established  a  fraternity  between  the 
chapters  of  Gerona  and  Le  Puy.    In  support  of  tbcise 


LS  QUIXN                              187  LI  QXTZEN 

legends  they  appealed  to  the  Office  which  they  chanted  Benedictine  monastery  of  the  Chaise  Dieu  united  in 

for  the  feast  of  Charlemagne — an  Office,  dating  from  1G40  to  the  Congregation  of  St-Maur,  still  stands,  with 

1345,  but  in  which  they  had  recently  inserted  these  the  fortifications  which  Abl^ot  de  Chanac  caused  to  be 

tales  of  the  Church  of  Le  Puy.     In  1484  Sixtus  IV  built  between  1378  and  1420,  and  the  church,  rebuilt 

prohibited  the  use  of  this  Office,  whereupon  there  ap-  in  the  fourteenth  ccnturv  by  Clement  VI,  who  had 

peared  at  Gerona  the  "Tractatus  de  captione  Ger-  made  his  studirs  here,  and  by  Gregory  XI,  his  nephew. 

unde",  which  reaffirmed  the  Gerona  legends  about  This  church  contains  the  tomb  of  Clement  VI.    The 

the  fraternity  with  Le  Puy.     Down  to  the  last  days  of  fine  church  of  8.  Julien  de  Brioude,  in  florid  Byzan- 

the  old  regime  the  two  chapters  frequently  exchanged  tine  style,  dates  from  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century. 

courtesies;  canons  of  Le  Puy  passing  through  Gerona  Besides  the  great  pilgrimage  of  Le  Puy,  we  may  men- 

and  canons  of  Gerona  passing  through  Le  Puy  en-  tion  those  of  Xotrc-Dnme  de  Pradellcs,  at  Pradelles, 

joyed  special  privileges.     In  18815  the  removal  by  the  a   pilgrimage   dating   from    1512;    of   Notre-Dame 

Bishop  of  Gerona  of  the  statue  of  Charlemagne,  which  d'Autoyrac,  at  Sorlhac,  which  was  very  popular  be- 

stood  in  that  cathedral,  marked  the  definitive  col-  fore  the  Revolution;    of  Notre-Dame  Trouv<5e,  at 

lapse  of  the  whole  fabric  of  legends  out  of  which  the  Lavoute-Chilliac. 

hermandwi  between  Le  Puy  and  Gerona  had  grown.  Before  the  passage  of  the  Law  of  Associations 

The  statue  of  Our  Ladv  of  Le  Puy  and  the  other  (1901)  there  were  at  Le  Puy,  Jesuits,  Franciscans, 
treasures  escaped  the  pillage  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Religious  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Assumption,  and  Little 
The  roving  banditti  were  victoriously  dispersed,  in  Brothers  of  Mary.  Two  important  congregations  of 
1180,  by  the  Confraternity  of  the  Chaperons  (Hooded  men  originated  and  had  their  mother-house,  in  the 
Cloaks)  founded  at  the  suggestion  of^  a  canon  of  Le  diocese.  Of  these  the  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
Puy.  In  1562  and  1563  Le  Puy  was  successfully  founded  in  1821  with  the  object  of  giving  commercial 
defended  against  the  Huguenots  by  priests  and  re-  instruction,  have  their  mothei>house  at  Paradis  and 
ligious  armed  with  cuirasses  and  arquebusses.  But  important  boarding-schools  at  Lyons,  as  well  as  in  the 
in  1793  the  statue  was  torn  from  its  shrine  and  burned  United  States  (chiefly  Bale  Saint-Louis)  and  in  Can- 
in  the  public  square.  P^rc  de  Ravignan,  in  1846,  ada  (chiefly  at  Athabaskaville).  The  Labourer  Broth- 
and  the  Abb6  Combalot,  in  1850,  were  inspired  with  ers,  or  Farmer  Brothers,  of  St.  John  Francis  R^^s 
the  idea  of  a  great  monument  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  were  founded  in  1850,  by  P^re  de  Bussy,  a  Jesuit. 
OD  the  Rocher  Comeille.  Napoleon  III  placed  at  the  and  possess  seven  model  farms  for  the  education  of 
disposal  of  Bishop  Morlhon  213  pieces  of  artiller>'  poor  children.  A  certain  number  of  congregations  of 
tal^n  by  P^lissier  at  Sebastopol,  and  the  colossal  women  originated  in  the  diocese.  The  Dominicans 
statue  of  "Notre-Dame  de  France"  cast  from  the  of  Mt^re  Agues,  who  taught  and  served  as  sick  nurses 
iron  of  these  guns,  amounting  in  weight  to  150,000  and  housekeepers,  were  founded  in  1221;  the  teaching 
kilogrammes,  or  more  than  330,000  lbs.  avoirdupois,  Sisters  of  Notre-Dame,  in  1618;  the  religious  of  St. 
was  dedicated  12  September,  1860.  Charles,  teachers  and  nurses,  in  1624,  by  Just  de  Serres, 

The  saints  specially  venerated  in  the  diocese  are:  Bishop  of  Le  Puy;  the  hospital  and  teaching  Sisters 

St.  Domninus,  martyr,  whose  body  is  preserveil  in  the  of  St.  Joseph,  in  1650,  by  P6re  M6daiUe,  who  were 

cathedral;  St.  Julian  of  Brioude,  mart\T  in  304,  and  the  iirst  congregation  placed   under  the  patronage 

his  companion,  St.  Ferr^ol;  St.  Calminius  (CarmerjO,  of  St.  Joseph;    the  cont<?mplative  religious  of  the 

Duke  ol  Auvergne,  who  prompted  the  foundation  of  Visitation  of  St.  Mary  were  founded  in  1659;   those 

the  Abbev  of  Le  Monastier,  and  St.  Eudes,  first  abbot  of  the  Instruction  of  the  Infant  Jesus,  for  teaching, 

(end  of  the  sixth  century);  St.  Theofredus  (Chaffre),  in  1667,  by  the  celebrated  Sulpician  Tronson,  parish 

Abbot  of  Le  Monastier  and  martyr  under  the  Sara-  priest  of  St.  Georges,  and  his  penitent.  Mile  Martel: 

cens  (c.  735) ;  St.  Mayeul,  Abbot  of  Cluny,  who,  in  the  the  Sisters  of  the  Cross,  for  hospital  service  and 

second  half  of  the  tenth  century,  cured  a  blind  man  teaching,  in  1673. 

at  the  gates  of  Le  Puy,  and  whose  name  was  given,  in  At  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  religious 
the  fourteenth  century,  to  the  university  in  which  the  congregations  possessed  in  the  Diocese  of  IjC  Puy: 
clergy  made  their  studies;  St.  Odilon,  Abbot  of  (luny  69  infant  schools  (('coles  maternelles),  2  schools  for 
(962-1049),  who  embraced  the  life  of  a  regular  canon  deaf  mutes,  2  orphanages  for  boys,  6  orphanages  for 
inthemonastery  of  St.  Julien  de  Brioude;  St.  Robert  girls,  1  refuge  for  penitent  women,  20  hospitals  or 
d'Aurillac  (d.  1067),  who  founded  the  monastery  of  hospices,  1  hmatic  asylum,  3  old  men's  homes,  57 
Chaise  Dieu  in  the  Brioude  district;  St.  Peter  Cha-  houses  of  religious  women  consecrated  to  the  care  of 
▼anon  (d.  1080),  a  canon  regular,  founder  and  first  the  sick  at  home.  In  1905  (end  of  the  Concordat 
provost  of  the  Abbey  of  P^brac.  At  the  age  of  eigh-  period)  the  diocese  had  314,058  inliabitants,  33  par- 
teen  M.  Olier,  afterwards  the  founder  of  Saint-Sul-  ishes,  24)?  auxiliary  parishes  {succursales)^  and  195 


781-82;  tnafrum., 
,  Le  Puy,  1860); 

r."  '^'"  "^"T^^. ;t "T    't>         i~T-"    ""tt T —  IRUGHIE,  Avosioiirttt'  ac  nguse  au    vaay  (Jjb  Puy,   1869); 

tivee  of  this  diocese:   the  Benedict  me,  Ilugues  Lan-  Duchesne,  Fortes  fpx9copaux,  II.  55-58;  1H4-35;  Rocher,  Le» 

thenas  (1634-1701),  who  e<lited  the  works  of  St.  Ber-  rapjwU  de  IV-oluieduPuy  avcelavilU  de  Girone  cnEapaane  et  le 

nard  aM  St.  ^^iselm.  ana  \^as  tlie  lu^torun  Ot  tne  i^^^^  ,y^  ^;,y^„„  (Barcelona.  1872);  Coulet,  Etude  »ur  Voffice  de 

Abbey  of  VendOme;  the  Bene<IlCtmc,  JaCf|Ues  Boyer.  Girone  en  I'honneur  de  Saint  Charlemagne  (MoutpcUicr.  1907); 

joint  author  of  "Gallia  Christiana"  U\.  v.);    Cardmat  CiiAKSAiNC.,  Cartulairedea  hospitaliern  du  Vclay  (Paris,  1888); 

de  Polignac  (d  1741),  author  of  the  "  Antih.crctius"  [?-;i;';;;"';^^^„t.>^TK"  d^'sVj^e  '/j'Wi.S 

The  cathedral  of  I^  Puy,  which  forms  the  highest  auivi  de  la  rhronique  de  S.  ISerre  du  Puy  (Le  Puy,  1882);  LAfr 

point  of  the  city,  rising  from  the  foot  of  the  Rocher  com  he.   mp^rtoire  g/mral  dea  hommage^  de  Vrvechi  du  Puy, 

gmeUte.  exhibits  architecture  of  every  perio.!  from  '!^hl!Ki]fJ,^-{dZ%f^^^e,lr^^^^^^ 

the  fifth  century  to  the  fifteenth,      i  ormerly,  the  vis-  N.  Lom»  des  Fron^aiH  (1897);  Arnaud,  Hintoire  dca  Protettanta 

iter  passed  through  a  porch  Standin*]?  well   out  from  du  Vivaraia  et  du  Velay  {2  vols.,  Paris.  18SS);  Patrard,  M^ 

4liA  K»i1/liniy  onri    offor  /lo«/»<»n*1iniy  hnnt^'ith  f  lio  n-iv«x_  rnoire  »ur  Ic  jubiU  de  A.  D.  du  Puy  (Lc  Puy.  IHio);  Chevalier, 

the  buiiumg  and,  alter  descending  heneatn  tiie  pa\e-  fopo-bihl..  s.  v.  Puy-en-Velay .-  Peyron.  Ili^toire  du  juhiU  de 

ment,  emerged  by  a  stairway  m  front  of  the  high  N^re  Dame  du  Puy  (he  Puy,  I9i0.) 

altar;  the  principal  stairway  is  now  covered  by  a  bold  Georges  Gotau. 
vaulting  which  serves  as  base  for  one  half  of  the 

church.  The  architectural  effect  is  incredibly  auda-  Le  Quien,  Michel,  French  historian  and  theolo- 
dousand  picturesque.  Thefour  galleries  of  t  heel  ois-  gian,  b.  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer,  department  of  Pas-de- 
ter were  constructed  during  a  perio<l  exteiuling  from  Calais,  8  Oct.,  IGGl;  d.  at  Paris,  12  March,  1733.  He 
the  Carlovingian  epoch  to  the  twelfth  cent  ury.    The  studie<l  at  Ple.ssis  College,  Paris,  and  at  twenty  entered 


LEBAT  If 

the  Domimean  convent  of  St-Germain,  where  he  m&de 
his  proCessioD  in  1682.  Excepting  oocujonal  short 
abaenoes  he  never  left  Paris.  At  the  time  of  his  deatli 
he  was  librarian  of  the  coovent  in  Rue  St-Honort,  a 
poaitioa  which  he  bad  filled  almost  all  his  life,  lending 
kindly  assistance  to  the  learned  men  who  sought  in- 
formation on  theology  and  eccIesiastLcal  antiquity. 
Under  the  supervision  of  the  celebrated  Pfire  Marsol- 
lier  he  mastered  the  classical  languages  Arab,  and 
Hebrew,  to  the  detriment,  it  seems,  of  his  mother- 
toueue. 

His  chief  works,  in  chronological  order,  are:  (1)  "  De- 
fense dutext«  h^breuet  de  la  version  vulgate"  (Paris, 
1690),  reprinted  in  Higne,  "Scriptune  Sacne  Cursus", 
m  (Paris,  1861),  1525-84.  It  is  an  answer  to  "  L'an- 
tiquit^  des  temps  rftablie"  by  ^e  Cistercian  Pezron, 
who  took  the  text 
of  the  Septuagint 
sole  basis  for 
chronology. 
zroD  repliei), 
i  was  again  an- 
ered  by  Le 
.  ien.  (2)  "Jo- 
hannis  Damasceni 

Greek  text  witJl 
Latin  translation 
(2  vols,  fol.,  Paris, 
1712)  in  Migne, 
"Patrologia 
Gncca",  XCIV- 
VI.  To  this  fun- 
damental edition 
he  added  excel- 
lent dissertations; 
a  third  volume, 
which  was  to  have 
contained  other 
works  of  the  great 
Damascene  and  various  studies  on  him,  was  never  com- 
pleted. (3) "  Panoplia  contra  schiama  Ura?corum  ",  un- 
der the  pseudonym  of  Stephanus  de  Altimura  Ponti- 
cencis  (Paris,  1718), a  refutation  of  the  ll(pi  <IpkS'  f<»' 
tliwa  of  Patriarch  Xeetarius  of  Jerusalem,  Lo  Quien 
maintained,  with  historical  proofs  derived  chiefly  from 
the  Orient,  the  primacy  of  the  pope.  {!)  "  La  nulliti^ 
des  ordinations  anglicanea"  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1725),  and 
"La  nullity  dcs  ordinations  anglicanes  demontri'C  de 
nouveau"  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1730),  against  Le  C'ourayer's 
apology  for  Anglican  Orders.  (5)  Various  articlra  on 
archjTology  and  ecclesiastical  history,  published  by 
Desmolets  (Paris,  1726-31).  (6)  "  Oriens  chrislianus 
in  quatuor  patriarchatus  digcstus,  in  quo  exhibentur 
EccleaiiB  patriarchie  caeterique  pnesules  totius  Orien- 
tis",  published  posthumou-sly  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1740). 
I«  (^ien  contemplated  issuing  this  work  as  early  as 
1722,  and  had  made  a  contract  with  the  printer  Si- 
mart  (Revue  do  TOricnt  latin,  1894,  II,  190).  In  edit^ 
ing  it,  he  used  the  notes  of  the  Benedictine  Sainte-Mar- 
thes,  who  had  projected  an  "OrhisChristianus",  and 
had  obligingly  handed  him  over  their  notes  on  the 
Orient  and  .Africa.  The  "OriensChristianus",  as  pro- 
jected by  Le  Quicn,  was  to  comprise  not  only  the  hier- 
archy iM  the  lour  Greek  and  Latin  patriarchates  of 
Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem, 
and  that  of  the  Jacobite,  Melchitc,  Nestorian,  Maron- 
ite.and  Armenian  patriarchates,  but  also  the  Greek  and 
Latin  texts  of  the  various  "Notitim  episcopatuum", 
a  catalogue  of  the  Eastern  and  African  monasteries, 
and  also  the  hierarchy  of  the  African  Church.  The 
last  three  parts  of  this  gigantic  project  were  set  aside 
by  Le  Quien's  literary  heirs.  As  to  the  "  Notitiie  cpis- 
copatuiun",  the  loss  is  unimportant:  the  learned  Do- 
mmicnn  had  not  a  very  clear  concept  of  the  work 
called  for  by  the  editing  of  this  text.  His  notes  on 
('hristian  Africa  and  its  monBMteries  have  never  been 


uaed.at  leastintheirentirety.  (7)  "Abi^gtf  del'bli- 
toire  de  Boulogne-sur-Mer  et  de  sea  comtea  "  in  Des- 
molets, "lUmoirea  de  litt^ratuie",  X  (Paris,  1749), 

36-112. 

Qofcnr  AND  EcHjLBO.Senpi.  onl.  Pml^  II,  808:  Jeunud  dm 
Sa«inU,a:  Hicbiud,  fiiwr.  i.mwrKlle,  XXIV.  241;  Hcbtir. 
NamtTKlaloT,  II,  lOM-fl;  Stumb  in  Kinhtnttx.,  i.  v.;  ZCc«- 
■     "     ■         :Lfarprvl.Tka>l..:T. 

6.  VuLst. 


Uilda,  DiocEBB  OP  (Ilerdenbib),  suffraran  of 
Tarragona.  La  Canal  says  it  was  erected  in  600,  but 
others  maintain  it  goes  back  to  the  third  century,  and 
there  is  mention  of  a  St.  Lycerius,  or  Glycenus,  as 
Bishop  of  L^rida  in  a.  d.  269.  The  signatures  of  other 
bishops  of  L^rida  are  attached  to  various  councils  up 
to  the  ycar716,  when  the  Moors  took  pomeesion  of  the 
town,  and  the  see  was  removed  to  Roda;  in  1101  it  was 
transferred  to  Bar1>astro.  An  unbroken  list  of  bish- 
ops of  Wrida  goes  back  to  the  year  887.  _  L£rida,  the 
Roman  Ilerda,  or  Herda,  the  second  city  in  Catalonia, 
is  built  on  the  right  bank  of  the  River  Segrs,  about 
100  miles  from  Barcelona.  During  the  FWic  wan 
it  sided  with  the  Carthaginians;  near  it  Banno  wu 
defeated  by  Scipio  in  216  b.  c,  and  Juhus  Cfsar  dft- 
fcated  Pompey's  forces  in  49  b.  c.  The  Hoors  to(A 
poi^ession  of  it  in716,  and  in  1149  Berengerof  Catft- 
lonia  drove  them  out,  and  it  became  the  residence  (rf 
the  kings  of  Aragon.  During  the  Peninsular  War  the 
French  held  it  (1810),  and  in  182.'i  Spain  once  more 
obtained  possession  of  it.     Owing  to  its  natural  po«i- 


Aei    .        - 

ithic  Cathedral,  of  which  the  r ._  __ 

the  citadel,  dates  from  1203.  During  the  Uid- 
dle  Ages  the  University  of  Lfrida  was  famous;  in 
1717  it  was  suppressed,  and  united  with  Cervara. 

In  514  or  524  a  council  attended  by  eight  bishops 
passed  decrees  forbidding  the  taking  up  of  arms  or 
the  shedding  of  blood  by  clerics.  A  council  in  54fi 
regulated  ecclesiastical  discipline.  Another  in  1173 
was  presided  over  by  Cardinal  Giacinto  Bobone, 
who  afterwards  became  Celestine  III.  A  council  in 
1246  absolved  James  I  oF  Aragon  from  tbe  sacrileee  of 
cutting  out  the  tongue  of  tlic  Bishop  of  Gcrona.  The 
cathedral  chapter  prior  to  the  concordat  consisted 
of  6  dignities,  24  canons,  22  benefices,  but  after 
the  concordat  (he  number  was  reduced  to  16  canons 
and  12  beneficed  clerics.  The  seminuy,  founded 
in  1722,  accommodaU-3  500  students,  lie  Catholic 
population  of  the  diocese  is  185,000  souls  scattered 
over  395  parishes  and  minist«red  to  by  598  prirats. 
Besides  395  churches  for  public  worship,  there  are  in 
the  diocese  five  religious  communities  of  men,  six 
of  women,  and  several  hospitals  ui  charge  of  nuns. 
Former  bishops  of  L^rida  include  Cardinal  de  Rom,- 
Cardinal  Ccrdan,  and  Inquisitor  General  Martinei  d« 
Villatoricl.  The  present  bishop,  Mgr  J.  A.  Ruano  y 
Martin,  was  bom  at  Gijude  del  Barro,  in  the  Diocese  (M 
Salamanca^  3  Xov.,  TR48.  appointed  titular  bishop  of 
Claudiopohs,  and  .\dmini-f1  rator  of  Barbastro,  3  Nov., 
1898,  and  transferrcil  to  Wrida,  14  Dec.,  1905,  when 
he  succeeded  Mgr  Josf  Meseguer  y  Costa. 

Bipa.ia  Sa^rada  (Madrid,  17S4);  Billobo,  Aniiatio'  Kdaida- 
tiai  de  EipaHa  (Madrid,  1904). 

J.  C.  Gbet. 

Urins,  Abbey  of,  situated  on  an  island  of  the 
same  name,  now  known  as  that  of  Saint-Honorat, 
about  a  league  from  the  coast  of  Provence,  in  the  De- 
partment of  the  Maritime  Alps,  now  included  in  tbe 
Diocese  of  Nice,  formerly  in  that  of  Grsase  or  of  Ad- 
tibcs.    It  was  founded  in  the  Ix^inning  of  tbe  fiftli 


eantuiy  fay  St.  Bcmontus.  This  taint  lived  there  &t 
fint  tne  luo  of  a  hermit,  but  foilowera  booh  Kfttbered 
around  him.  They  came  from  all  parts  of  Itoimui 
Qaul  aod  even  from  Brittany.  During  the  fifth,  eixtli, 
and  seventh  centuries,  the  influence  exerted  by  the 
abbey  was  considerable.  The  presence  of  the  Saracens 
in  Provence  made  the  monastic  life  impossible  or  pre- 
carious  for  two  centuries.  The  abbey  was  restored  in 
the  eleventh  century,  and  a  new  era  of  prospenty 
began.  It  was  pven  many  estates  and  churches  in 
the  neighbouring  Dioceaea  of  Antibes,  Aix,  Aries,  Fr£- 
juB,  Digne,  Senei,  Vence,  Nice,  Ventimi^lia,  etc.  The 
popes,  tlie  eounta  of  Provence,  and  the  kings  of  France 
bestowed  on  it  man^  privileges.  The  monks  were 
«bliged  durins  the  Middle  Ages  to  take  an  active  part 
in  defending  the  coasts  against  incursions  of  the  floors 
of  Algeria.  A  monumental  tower,  built  as  a  place  of 
rsfuge,  is  still  standing.  The  abbev  was  ao  important 
strst^c  position  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
oentunes  during  the  Franco-Spanish  wars.  The  eom- 
wendam,  was  introduced  at  L^rins  in  I4&4.  There  was 
a  eryiiu  need  for  reform.  The  monks  were  placed 
under  the  Italian  Congregation  of  St.  Justina  of  Padua 
(1515),  which  brought  about  for  the  monastery  a  long 
era  of  prosperity,  both  spiritual  aod  matorial.  The 
niboequent  union  with  the  French  Congregation  of  fit. 
Ifaur  (1637)  was  of  brief  duration.  A  century  later 
the  monks  were  obliged  to  leave  the  Italian  congrega- 
tifn  to  become  a  part  of  Clun^.  The  decline  Imd  al- 
leody  commenced;  it  steadily  mcreased  until  the  time 


During  the  first  period  of  its  historv',  Urinsgave  to 
the  Church  celebrated  bishops  and  writers.  iTirough 
them  the  abbey  plaved  an  important  rule.  Such  were 
8t  HonoratUB,  his  successor  St.  Hilary,  and  St.  C^ 
MiiuB,  Ajvhbishops  of  Aries;  St.  Maximus  and  FauB- 
tUB,  Btsbops  of  Riez;  St.  Euchcrius,  Di»hop  of  Lyons; 
Bt.  Lupus,  Bishop  of  Troyes ;  St.  Valerianus,  Bishop  of 
Cimiei;  9t.  Salvianus,  Bishop  of  Ucneva;  St.  Vera- 


Mteiy  has  given  rise  to  the  belief  that  i 
logical  school,  which,  however,  it  was  not.  Urinshad 
areputation  for  learning,  but  it  had  no  organized  teach- 
ing body.  The  part  given  to  the  monks  of  L^rins 
in  the  editing  ol  certain  legends  h}(  M.  Dufourcq  is 
■Irongly  contested.  We  find  no  writer  of  note  from 
theaeventh  to  the  thirteenth  century;  after  that  came 
the  troubadour  Raymond  Ffraud;  then  Giovanni 
Andres  GrwmoCortese,  who  died  in  li>48f  Dionysius 
f^tueher,  who  died  in  1562;  the  historian  of  the  abbey, 
Vincent  Banalis,  who  died  at  the  beginning  of  the 
■eventeenth  century. 


1004):  BaMUUS.  C&ronoloein  Hncforum  .  .  .  abhatnn  (ocrtf 
innfi*  Lerxntiui*  (LyoDi,  IS13);  Gocx.  Ltnnt  ou  eaunatn* 
liidt  (Piiia,  ISM);    LiHABnoc,  Dt  SchOa  Lerintnti  (Paris, 


Leros,  titular  sec  of  the  Cvclades.  sufTragan  of 
Rhodes.  According  to  Strabo  (XIV,  i.  6),  this  island 
mu$t  have  been  a  colony  of  Miletus;  it  next  became 
independent  Itefore  falling  under  the  Roman  domi- 
nation. According  to  the  poet  Phocylides,  the  inhab- 
itant,") of  Leros  had,  without  exception, an  evil  reputa- 
tion (Stralx>,  X,  v,  12).  It  was  here  that  Aristagoras, 
the  leader  of  the  Ionian  revolt  against  the  Persians 
(499  B.  c).  was  advised  to  hide  from  the  vengeance  of 
Darius.  The  island  pos%s!<cd  a  famous  sanctuary  of 
Artemis  the  Virgin,  on  the  site  of  which  the  present 
convent  of  Parthcnia  and  the  Bd|oining  church  are 
supposed  to  be  built.  Lequien  (Onens  Christianua,  I, 
945)  mentions  four  of  its  uishops:  John,  in  553;  Scr- 
gius,  in  787;  Joseph,  in869;CaJlistus,  in  tlie sixteenth 
century.  The  list  could  lie  completed,  for  Leros  has 
never  ceased  to  be  an  episcopal  s  le,  and  there  is  still  a 
metropolitan  of  Leros  and  the  neigliliouring  island 
Calj-mnos,  dependent  upon  the  Greek  I'atriarchate  of 
Constantinople.  Kubcl  ("  Hierarcliia  eatholica  mcdii 
svi",  MQnster,  I.  315)  also  mentions  two  Latin  bish- 
ops  of  the  fourteenth  century.  A  pos-seasion  ot  the 
Knights  of  Rhodes,  the  island  sustained  a  siege  in  1505, 
and  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1523;  it  was  recovered 
by  the  Venetians,  who  razed  its  fortificntions,  in  1648; 
and  it  once  more  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  Os- 
manli.  IjCros  now  forms  a  caza  of  the  sanjak  of  Chio, 
in  the  vilayet  of  Rhodes.  The  Lsland  ia  alwut  nine  and 
a  (juarter  miles  long  by  seven  ond  a  half  wide.  It  is 
barren,  mountainous,  anil  rich  only  in  marble  quarries ; 
and  has  about  eight  thousand  inHabitants,  all  tireoks. 
The  Catholic  inhabitants  arc  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Prefecture  Apostoiic  of  Rhodes. 


ruth.  Initln,U.  liO:  Suitb, 
..  164;    Lacroii.  lla  dt  ta 

Urice  U-Bnii,  18*)),  :iuo;   tuiNET,  La  Tunpiit  tTAtit  (Pa™, 

1882),!,  429-432. 

S.  VailhIc. 
Le  Sage,  AluUN-Rbn£,  writer,  h.  at  Sarseau  (Mor- 
bihan),  1668;  d.  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer,  1747.    The  .son 
of  a  notary  who  died  early  in  the  youth's  '  ' 

left  the  Jesuit  col- 
lege of  VannoB 
after  the  comple- 
tion of  bis  studies, 
and  found  himself 


Be^dea  these  wnters  and  b 


:,  L^rins  hod  also 


many  m't^fc"  of  great  sanctity;  wi 

Antoniua;  the  holy  abbot  ana  martyr  Aii^ 

tnduced  the  Botedictine  Rule  about  661;  Abbot 


r  Aigulf,  who  it 

. 3]CT.uie  uuie  aoout  661;  Abbe 

PorchariuB  II,  who  was  massacred  with  his  monks  by 
the  Saracens  about  732.  St.  Patrick,  the  apostle  of 
Ireland,  lived  some  time  in  the  monastfrj',  as  wcU  as 
St.  Cassiai),  founder  of  the  monasterj-  of  St.  Victor  at 
Uaneilles. 

The  abbey  was  restored  by  the  Congregation  of 
Sfoanque   ia   1868.     They   preserved   whatever   re- 
a  of  the  ancient  monastic  buildings,  that  is  to 


guardian  having 
squandered  h  i  s 
fortune.  He  mar- 
ried   at    the    age 


at    firai 


practised 


law,  but  he  rciin 
nuislicil  a  profes- 
sion which  did  not 
proviile  him  with 

for  his  needs,  and 
devoted  himself 
to  literature.  The  , 
Abh6  dc  Lvonne 
settled  a  sin  all 
pension  upon  him 


AUIN-RKKli  T.R   SaOB 


»  been  devoted  as  that  of  L^'rins. 

Jt  Lirin:  Hvioirt  H  Monummit  (Pari 

UN):  IDBK,  hVMiiliatt  Smrnutrc  dit  arcAiivi  d:-partmental 
j_    I, —  .y-_-^-_._.     ».  .     ■■     ,>,!__     .=~~)      fart-"-' 


icournged  him  to  study  Spanish  literature, 
Lc  Sage  Imni'Iated  a  number  of  plays  from  that 
language,  uithout  fimling  favour  in  the  public  eye. 
But  a  short  oriEinal  farce  in  |)rose,  "CriMpin  rival 
de  son  maltre",  won  marked  huccpks  fl7t)7).  lU 
merits  have  kept  it  on  the  stage.  Ia}  Sage  was 
both  a  dramatist  and  a  novelist,  and  was  a  prolific 
writer  of  plays  and  romances.    The  enmity  of  the 


LESBI 


190 


LB800T 


actors  forced  him,  like  Piron,  to  go  to  the  minor  theatre 
of  the  Foire,  for  which  he  coIIalx>rated  in  writing  about 
a  hundred  plays.  Amidst  the  sorrows  and  mfirmi- 
ties  of  age,  he  still  wrote,  hurriedly  and  incessantly,  in 
order  .o  make  a  living.  He  resided  at  Xhv,  time  with 
one  of  his  sons,  a  canon  at  Boulogne-sur-Mcr,  at  which 
place  he  died,  aged  eighty. 

Besides  the  short  farce  of  "  Crispin*',  three  works  of 
LeSage  are  worthy  of  special  mention:  *'Turcaret'*, 
*'Le  Diable  Boiteux  ",  and  ''Gil  Bias  ".  '^Turcaret 
ou  le  Financier"  (1709)  is  a  comedy  in  prose  in  which 
the  principal  character  is  a  financier.  This  upstart, 
who  has  risen  by  theft  and  usury,  is  surrouncled  by 
people  equally  unscrupulous.  It  is  an  assemblage  of 
rogues.  A  coquette  shares  her  favours  between  Tur- 
caret,  who  loves  her  and  pays  her,  and  a  fashionable 
cavalier  whom  she  loves.  Frontin,  the  cavalier's 
valet,  sums  up  the  play  fairly  well  when  he  says  to 
his  master: "  We  pluck  a  cocjuette;  the  coquette  ruins  a 
financier;  the  financier  swindles  others,  which  makes 
the  most  amusing  ricochet  of  knavish  tricks  imag- 
inable." The  dialogue  is  spirited,  the  descriptions  are 
true  to  life,  and  the  action  is  full  of  animation.  Per- 
haps no  other  play  approaches  so  closely  to  Moliere's 
great  comedies.  ' '  Le  Diable  Boiteux  "  ( 1 707)  is  based 
on  a  story  from  the  Spanish  A\Titer  Guevara  (1641): 
The  demon  Asmodeus  removes  the  roofs  of  the  hoiLscij 
of  Madrid,  to  show  to  a  Castilian  student  the  foibles 
and  vices  within  the  buildings.  Aside  from  this  I^ 
Sage  finds  his  inspiration  in  the  Parisian  himself;  he 
describes  Parisian  society  with  truth  and  pioturcsque- 
ness  in  a  series  of  detached  adventures  and  scenes. 
The  success  of  the  work  was  great.  liC  Sage's  great- 
est work,  however,  was  '^Ilistoire  de  Gil  Bias  de  San- 
tUlane"  (4  vols.,  1715-35).  The  Spaniard  Gil  Bias, 
hero  of  the  romance,  is  in  turn  lackey,  physician, 
maior-domo  of  the  great  lord,  secretary  to  an  arch- 
bishop, favourite  of  the  prime  minister.  He  is  finally 
given  a  title  and  an  estate;  he  marries  and  peacefully 
writes  his  memoirs.  The  moral  of  the  book  is  that  one 
must  constantly  guard  against  the  wiles  of  hypocrites 
and  impostors.  The  writer  correctly  paints,  with  art- 
ful satire,  French  society  as  it  was  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  in  fact  society  in  j^eneral.  In  apit«  of 
assertion,  "Gil  Bias"  is  not  plagiarized  from  a  Span- 
ish novel.  It  is  an  original  work,  and  in  France  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  masterpieces  of  romance. 

Walter  Scott,  Mittcellaneoua  Prose  Works,  III;  Ticknor, 
History  of  Spantnh  Literature^  I;  TjIntilhac,  Lepage  (Purls, 
1893);  Lb  Brettos,  Le  Roman  auXVIJInide  (Paris,  1898). 

Georcjks  Bertrin. 

Lesbi,  a  titular  see  in  Mauretania  Sitifensis,  suffra- 
gan of  Sitifis,  or  S6tif ,  in  Algeria.  It  is  not,  ajs  is  some- 
times stated,  the  island  of  I^sbos,  which  never  was 
a  titular  bisnopric.  and  which,  moreover,  posseases 
two  titular  arcnbisnoprics:  Mytilene  and  Methjinna. 
Of  Lesbi  we  only  know,  from  the  "  Itinerarium  An- 
tonini",  that  it  was  situated  twenty-five  miles  from 
Tupusuctu  or  Tiklat,  and  eighteen  miles  from  Horrea 
Amnici,  now  Ain-Roua,  south  of  Bougie.  The  town, 
therefore,  was  on  the  Sava,  i.  e.  the  Oued-Bou-Sellam, 
but  there  are  no  remains  to  be  seen.  Two  of  its 
bishops  are  recorded:  Romanus,  a  Donatist,  present 
at  the  conventionof  Carthage,  411;  Vadius,  a  Catho- 
lic, exiled  by  King  Huneric,  484. 

TOULETTK,  Ofograpnie  de  VAfrique  ehrHienne;  MaurHanies 
(Montreuil,  1894),  212.  S.  VailhI^:. 

Lescarbot,  Marc,  French  law^'er,  writer,  and  his- 
torian, b.  at  Vervins,  between  15G5  and  1570;  d.  about 
1629.  Curiosity  to  see  the  Xew  World  and  devotion 
to  the  public  weal  prompted  him  to  follow  Poutrin- 
court  to  Port-Royal,  in  Acadia,  in  1606.  His  profi- 
ciency in  Cliristian  doctrine  enabled  him  to  instruct  the 
Indians  of  the  neighbourhocxl  of  Port-Royal.  His 
material  aid  to  the  settlers  was  not  less  efficient :  he  built 
Bgristrinill  for  their  wheat,  a  still  to  produce  tar,  and 


ovens  for  making  charcoal.  After  his  return  to  France 
(1607),  he  published  (1609),  under  the  title  of  "His- 
toire  de  la  Nouvelle-France",  a  narrative  of  his  voy- 
age which  has  made  his  name  famous.  Lescarbot 
gives  in  this  work  a  summanr  of  ail  the  attempts  at 
colonising  made  by  the  French  in  America,  notaoly  in 
Florida,  Brazil,  and  Acadia,  where  he  hiinself  played 
an  important  part.  He  was  long  considered  an  excel- 
lent authority,  and  is  still  often  quoted  as  an  exact, 
alert,  and  faithful  witness.  This  work  underwent  six 
editions  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
from  1609  to  1618,  and  a  seventh  in  1866.  It  was  first 
translated  into  English  in  1609,  and  a  translation,  by 
L.  W.  Grant,  was  published  in  1907.  Lescarbot  also 
wrote  "  Adieux  k  la  France  "  (1606) ; "  Les  Muses  de  la 
Nouvelle-France"  (1609);  "La  d^faite  des  sauvages 
amouchiquois  par  le  Sagamo  Membertou"  (1609). 
After  a  journey  in  Switzerland ,  he  publishe*!  (1G13), 

in  verse,  "TahlcMMdes  treize  Cantons". 

Dictionnaire  de  Jctl;  Marcel,  Une  IfUre  xnMite  de  Lf9carboi 
(Puns,  1885):  Grant,  The  History  of  New  France  (Toronto, 
1007)  (a  tr.  of  Lescarbot *s  work). 

Lionel  Ijni>say. 

Lescot,  Plerbk,  one  of  the  greatest  architects  of 
France  in  the  pure  Renaissance  style,  b.  at  Paris  about 
1510;  d.  there,  157 1 .  The  ver>'  improbable  report  that 
he  was  never  in  Italy  has  been  sufficiently'  refuted. 
Moreover,  he  was  descended  from  the  Italian  family 
of  Alessi,  Francis  I  took  him  into  his  service,  and,  by 
this  king  and  his  successors,  I^scot  was  rewarded  with 
many  honours  and  witli  a  benefice.  At  his  death  he 
was  a  conunendatory  ablx)t  as  well  as  Lord  (sicur)  of 
Clagnv.  With  the  active  support  of  Francis  I,  the 
early  kenaissance  entered  on  a  period  of  glorious  proe- 
perity,  and  in  the  later  years  of  his  reign  display^  a 
distinctive  cliaracter.  From  that  time  it  rivalled  the 
Italian  Renaissance  in  its  zenith,  although,  by  meet- 
ing the  demands  of  French  taste,  it  became  somewhat 
more  ostentatious.  Ixjscot  proved  its  most  brilliant 
exponent.  For  the  decorations  of  his  buildings  he  as- 
sociated himself  with  the  sculptor,  Trebatti,  a  pupil  of 
Michelangelo,  and  especially  with  the  ablest  plastic 
artist  of  the  pure  style,  Jean  Goujon.  The  perfection 
of  their  achievement  depended  to  a  ^eat  extent  upon 
the  harmonious  combination  of  their  mutual  efforts. 
It  has  been  thought  that,  even  in  architectural  mat- 
ters, Lescot  was  very  dependent  upon  his  friend, 
though  the  latter  named  him  with  Philibert  de  L'Orme 
as  the  most  eminent  architects  of  France,  and  the  ac- 
counts for  the  building  of  the  Louvre  designate  Lescot 
as  the  archttect  and  (joujon  as  the  sculptor.  Francis  I 
appointed  him  architect  of  the  Louvre  in' 1546,  and 
with  this  building  his  fame  will  always  be  connected. 
For  remodelling  tlie  old  Imstions  of  the  fortress  into 
a  residence,  the  celebrated  Italian,  Serlio,  drew  up  a 
plan  which  he  himself  afterwards  put  aside  in  favour 
of  Lescot's  design.  Three  sides  of  a  square  court  were 
to  \ye  enclosed  by  living  apartments  of  royal  splendour, 
while  the  fourth  or  east  side  was  probably  destined  to 
open  with  an  arcade.  Corner  pavilions,  remark^le 
for  commanding  height  and  adorned  by  pillars  and 
statues,  replaced  the  medieval  towers. 

The  master  was  destined  to  finish  only  the  west  side 
and  part  of  the  south  side.  The  building  was  two 
stories  high  with  a  richly  ornamented  attic  crowned 
by  a  tasteful  roof.  In  the  ground  story  the  windows 
were  rounded;  the  small  round  windows  over  the 

fortals  (ceih  de  hcenf)  afterwards  became  very  popular. 
n  the  second  story  the  windows  are  square  and  fij> 
isheil  off  with  plain  Renaiasance  pediments.    Shgfatly 

f)rojecting  memliers  and  slabs  of  coloured  marble  give 
ife  to  the  massive  masonry.  A  peculiar  effect  was  ob- 
tained by  the  sparing  use  of  rough-hewn  stone  in  the 
comer  decorations.  Goujon's  noble  sculptures  and 
the  architectural  ornaments,  although  numerous  and 
splendid,  were  cleverly  subordinated  to  the  construo- 
tion.   The  style  corresponded  to  the  *'  latest  manner'* 


«f  Bnm«at«,  aa  it 


»  imitated  in  Italy  by  Sangallo, 
no,  etc.;  it  was  now  by  Lescot, 
Qoujon.  de  L'Onne,  tad  some  others,  succesBfiiUy 
■daptea  to  French  taste.  The  building  of  the  Louvre 
was  carried  on  with  greater  or  less  ability  by  several 
masten,  and  vas  fiiuuly  completed  UDder  Napoleon  I. 
Tbe  oldest  parts  of  the  paJace  are  considered  one  of  the 
greatest  arehiteotural  achievements  in  France.  "If 
among  all  the  worica  of  the  French  Renaissance  we 
wen  to  seek  for  tbe  creations  which  possess  in  the 
hi^iest  degree  qualities  which  were,  so  to  say,  the 
aim  at  the  Renaissance,  i.  e.  perfect  proportion  of 
members  and  details,  we  woula  always  be  attracted 
finally  to  Lescot  a  court  n  the  Louvre     (Geymitller) 


The  rest  of  Lescot  a  worta 
peara  not  to  have  sought  much 
for  opportunities  to  bu  Id 
Although,  accord  n^to  a  poem 
of  Ronsard,  he  bua  ed  h  mself 
■ealously  in  early  youth  w  th 
drawing  and  paint  ng  an  t 
after  his  twentieth  year  w  th 
mathematics  and  areh  lecture 
Ms  wealth  and  the  dut  cs  of 
his  offices  appear  subsequently 
to  have  interfered  with  h  s 
artistic  activity  H  s  first 
achievements  (1540-45)  were 
the  rood-screen  in  St-Oerma  n 
I'AuzerTois  and  the  Hotel  de 
Ligneris  (now  Camavalot)  n 
Paris.  Here  and  m  the  de- 
mni  of  the  Fountain  of  N  ymphs 
orlnnocents  (1547  0)  beagan 
owes  a  great  part  of  his  moder- 
ate success  to  Gou ion's  assist- 
ance. The  dassiceJ  simplicity 
of  this  woric  had  the  misfor- 
tune to  be  undervalued  during 
tbe  barocco  and  rococo  period, 
and  received  properrecognition 
only  from  a  rat«r  ase. 

HutTT.  'Ltt  Qranat  archi(€ctfa 
(Puis,  1S60);  Palubtbe.  Archi- 
UOun  dt  la  RmaiuanH  (PoHa, 
ISM):  □ethI'lleh  in  Handbuch 
drr  Artliilfklar  ton  Durm  «c.  II 

(Station,  ise8>.  vi.  1. 

U.  GiBTllANN. 


few  in  number   he  ap< 


Dalmatia'  includes  the  three 
islands  of  Hvar  (Lesina),  tbe 
ancient  Pharia  colonised  by  tbe  Greeks  in  385  b.  c; 
Braif.formerlyBrattiaorBmchia,  also  colonized  by  the 
Greeks;  and  Lissa,  formerly  iHaa.  The  residence  is  at 
Leeina,  a  small  town  on  the  iiiland  of  that  name,  said  to 
have  been  Sr^  evangelised  by  St.  Doimus  (Domnius),  a 
disciple  of  St.  Peter.  The  diocese  was  probably  founded 
about  1145  by  Lucius  II;  its  first  bishop  was  Mar- 
tinus  Hanzavim,  elected  in  1147.  Its  present  binliop, 
the  fifty-first,  is  Jordanua  Zanino^-ic,  O.P.,  conse- 
crated 19  April,  1903,  by  Leo  XIII.  The  diocese  in- 
cludes 8  deaneries,  2  vice-deaneries.  28  parishes,  14 
chaplaincies  and  62,890  faithful.  There  are  several 
religious  orders;  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Benedic- 
tine nuns,  Sistcre  of  Charity,  and  Sisters  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis.  The  cathedral  (Lombard  fa- 
cade) was  built  in  1637,  and  contains  a  paintinj;  by 
the  famous  Giacomo  Palma.  In  1S99  the  head  of 
St.  Stephen,  protomartyr,  was  given  by  Piu.s  X, 
then  Patriarch  of  Venice,  to  the  Franciscan  Fulgen- 
tiusCarev,  Bishop  of  Lesinaand  Archbishop  of  L^slcup. 
Twb^nshtma  of  tiua  diocese  were  created  cardinals: 
(^vaoni  Battiata  Pallsvieini  in  1S24;  and  Zaccarias 
n  a  gente  Delphina  in  1553.    During  the  episcopate 


Daimati*  IPaila,  1900);  Slatut  ptrionalit 

d  lotalit  dicecait  PAarmtii.  Brachimiit  H  /uctuu  (Split.  190% 
10l»):  Bouud.  Sltidi  aarici  lull'  I'ula  dc  Lttirut,  1  (Zulu, 

"*^3).  Anthony  Lawkbncb  GanGbti(5. 

Leolie,  .John,  Bishop  of  Ross,  Scotland,  b.  29  Sep. 
tember,  1527;  d.  at  Guirtenburg.  near  Brussels,  30 
May,  IMti.  He  was  of  the  ancient  House  of  Lcahe  (rf 
Balquhain,  but  apparently  illegitimate,  as  in  July, 
15:^8,  a  dispensatioQ  was  granted  to  him  to  take 
orders,  notwithstanding  thisdofeet.  lie  was  educated 
first  at  Aberdeen  Un  vera  tv  and  afterwards  in  France, 
etui  ng  at  Po  t  ers  Toulouse  oi  d  Paris,  and  grad- 
uating %  Ix-torof  laws.  Re- 
prof  e^Mor  cf  canon  law  at 
Abir  pen  was  ordained  in 
15  S  prf^  nted  to  the  parson- 
age of  0  ne,  and  appointed 
offic  I  of  the  diocese.  We 
finlhn  n  1560  named  by  the 
Lor  Is  of  the  Con^gation  to 
discuss  po  nts  of  faith  at  Edin- 
burgh aga  st  Knox  and  Wil- 
lock  In  the  following  year 
he  went  to  Fmnce  to  bring 
to  Scotland  the  young  Queen 
Mary  th  whom  he  wea  as- 
sociated d  uring  t  he  years  which 
followed  In  1565  she  made 
him  a  member  of  her  privy 
CO  nc  I  and  in  the  same  year, 
on  the  death  of  Henry  Sin- 
clair, he  was  nominated  Bish- 
op of  Ross.  He  also  held  the 
',  or  lord  of  sBs- 
co-editor  of  the 
"  Actis  and  Constitutiounis  of 
the  Realme  of  Scotland  from 
the  Reigne  of  James  I",  the 
work  of  a  commission  ap- 
pointed by  the  queen,  at  lua 
suggestion,  to  revise  and  pub- 
lisn  the  laws  of  the  kingdom. 
On  Mary's  escape  from  Loch- 
leven  in  1568.  she  was  joined 
by  Leslie,  who  never  wavered 
in  his  fidelity  to  her  cause; 
and  he  was  her  principal  com- 
missioner at  thi^  abortive 
conference  with  Queen 
Eliiabeth's  commissionera 
■ct  of  JIxin,-'s  mar^ 

.  , .  _..     -nprisoned 

by  "Elizabeth,  first  at  Ely,  and  then  in  the  Tofrer  of 
London.  During  his  afecnce  from  Scotland  he  was 
deprived  of  the  revenues  of  his  bishopric  and  was  re- 
duced til  great  poverty.  Theiner  prints  an  interesting 
letter  addressed  by  him  to  the  pope  in  15S0,  showing 
the  efforts  ho  made,  though  absent  from  his  diocese,  to 
conlirm  those  wavering  in  the  faith,  and  recover  those 
who  had  fallen  away.  Iii)emted  in  1573,  but  ban- 
ished from  the  countrj',  he  visited  various  European 
courts  to  plead  the  cause  of  hb  gucen,  and  finally 


bishop,  hia  mother's  lifelong  friend  and  champion,  to 
his  former  dignities,  but  he  never  returned  to  Scot- 
land. In  letters  he  is  principally  remembered  as  the 
author  of  a  Latin  account  of  tbe  history  of  Scotland^ 
"De  origine,  moribus,  ac  rebus  gestis  Scotije  libn 
decern  "  (Rome,  1578),  aScottish  version  bvDom  E.  B. 
Cody,  O.S.B.  It  comes  down  to  1571,  and  in  its  laU 
ter  part  presents  a  Catholic  account  of  contemporary 


IlTlM. 


192 

■ri.-/;.~~.-^i-:^^— ^-  -  '  n'-.'  ?>.-,■ —  -,-B—r.~i  ation,i.  e.  that  ft  book  writt«ii  without  the  hdp  of  tbd 

'Sb',fa°'.W!f '"«»  iSrZ^jm  Holy Oho« ™ht b«»«, Holy  toipOjoJ/ tCe Holy 

iTiiu};  Tttij:ii.  HiHorv  oiScoiiand  (Ediobuixh.  istM).  GhoBt  apparently  declared  that  the  said  book  did  not 

.tiadpaaim-.Ctro'i  iaMrod.  to  Lt'lu'i  HiMiyrvtlSrei'  contain  anythiiuc  falae.      The  coodenuiationB  issued 

U."'.ffi„'&HiiS"'S;Ki:Ka<SSl5«  ^  th.  V.lio.n  Counoa  did  not  louoh  thi.  vi.,  otW 

end  of  nrtiela  Laiii  in  Did.  Nat.  Biop..  XXXlll,  93-99.    Thu  IDS-     The  doctrme  of  Leesius  OD  grace  and  pncuo- 

BrticlB  itaelf  (by  HespEHMiM)  Li  KnticQ  irith  prejudiw.ttnd  tination,    which    was   ftooused   ot   Semipelagianism, 

d««  much  leu  ti.<m  ,i«ti«  u.  nn  able,  pious,  ud  p.t™i«  jaught   predeatination  "post  pnevisa  meriU".   the 

D.  O.  Hcntbr-BluUr.  co-opetationof  free  will  with  grace  in  such  a  way  as  to 
reject  the  "gratia  peraeefficax";  in  fact,  this  ddctrin* 

LeSBina  (Lets),  Leonajui,  a  Flemish  Jesuit  and  a  was  by  no  means  peculiar  to  LesBius.  Apologies,  anti- 
theologian  of  liigh  reputation,  b.  at  Brccht,  in  the  theses,  anti-apologies,  succeeded  on  both  aides;  the 
province  of  Antwerp,  1  October,  1554;  d.  at  Louvain,  Universities oiLouvain and  Douaicensured  the tbeseei 
15  January-,  1623.  His  parents,  honest  people  of  the  the  faculties  of  theolo^  of  Ingolatadt,  Mains,  aoa 
fanningclass,  died  when  he  was  but  six  years  old.  In  Trier  approved  them;  ^e  eeneiul  of  the  Jesuila  and 
1568  he  entered  the  college  of  Arras  in  the  University  at  hut  the  pope  was  appealed  to.  Finally  Sistus  V, 
of  Louvain,  and  there  studied  classics  and  philosophjy.  who  in  a  letter  called  the  incriminated  articles  "  arUo- 
His  brilliant  talents  enabled  him  to  become  doctor  m  ull  sanx  doctrins",  chained  his  nuncio  at  Cologne, 
philosophy  at  the  age  of  seventeen  years;  and  al-  OctavioFrangipani,  to  brln^  the  discussions  to  an  end 

though  he  did  not  leam  Greek  till  later,  ho  master"*  ■*     '■"  " t—.u  i 1 i~j  ti -.; —  f : 

BO  vSW  that  he  could  mentally  translate  into  that 
guagc  the  reading  he  hpard  in  the  refectory,  and  at 
times  wrote  hia  private  -     ^      .       —    . 

vied  with  one  another  in  seeking  to  .     .    .  _  ..  „ ,  -  . 

pupii.  In  1572,  and  not.  as  tne  date  is  sometimes  which  was  publi^ed  in  1005  and  was  dedicated  U.  ura 
given,  in  1573,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  Archduke  Albert.  Many  editions  followed  at  Ant- 
after  two  years'  noviccship  was  sent  toDouai  to  teach  werp,  Louvain,  Lyons,  Paris,  and  Venice.  Thiswoi^ 
philosophy  in  the  Jesuit  College  there  till  1581.  He  composed  with  great  accuracy,  shows  best  Uie  BOimd- 
Btudied  theology  in  Rome,  where  he  had  Francis  .  nessof  judgment,  thecommon  sense,  and  tfaecleamesa 
Suarez  as  his  professor  for  two  years.  In  15S5he  was  of  mind  which  distinguishes  Lcssius.  Thechapteraon 
back  again  at  Louvain  as  professor  of  theology  in  the  interest  and  other  commercial  subjects  are  epocb- 
Jeeuit  College  and  held  this  cliair  for  fifteen  years,  making  in  the  treatmetct  of  those  difficult  questions: 
When  he  hod  given  up  teaching,  he  was  urged  by  his  Lessius  was  especially  consulted  by  the  merchants  of 
superiors  and  companions  to  publish  the  lecturta  on  Antwerp  on  matters  of  justice.  Archduke  Albert  bad 
theology  which  he  iiad  delivered  with  such  great  sue-  the  book  constantly  on  his  desk  and  referred  to  it  as  ft 
cess;  this  he  did,  yielding  at  last  to  their  wishes.  He  guide.  A  good  compendium  of  the  work  was  pub* 
was  twice  sent  to  Rome  l>y  the  members  of  the  Gallo-  Fished  at  Douai  in  1634.  Pour  years  later  a  work  of 
Belgian  province  to  the  general  congregations  of  his  auil«  a  different  nature  was  written  by  Lessius  under 
order  in  1008  and  1615.  Cardinal  Bellarmine  and  tne  title,"Quie  fides  et  religiosit  capessenda"  (Ant- 
other  dignitaries  of  the  Church  endeavoured,  though  werp,  1609).  It  is  a  short  t>ook  of  some  150  pages,  on 
unsuccessfully,  to  retain  him  in  Rome  and  to  attach  controversy  and  apologetics,  which  brought  about  a 
him  to  the  Sacred  Penile ntiarj-.  He  was  consulted  great  many  conversions,  among  them  that  of  John 
from  all  i^uarters,  and  corresponded  on  theological  of  Nassau.  The  book  was  oft«n  repriatcd  and  was 
matterswith  the  most  learned  doctors  of  the  day,  such  translated  into  Flemish,  German,  Italian,  Hungarian, 
as  Bellarmine,  Suarei,  V'ssquez,  Molina,  etc.  But  he  Polish,  and  French.  "Die  work  "De  gratia  efncaci", 
longed  to  have  done  with  studying  and  writing  boolLS,  on  grace,  liberty,  predestination,  etc.,  appeared  in 
that  he  might  turn  to  prayer  and  contemplation  to-  1010;  with  the"  De  just  itia"  it  secures  Lessius  a  place 
wards  the  end  of  hia  career.  His  remains  are  in  the  among  the  best  theologians  of  the  day  in  dogmatic  aft 
choir  of  the  Jesuit  church  in  Louvain.  Leonard  Les-  well  as  in  moral  questions.  Some  writings  of  a  con- 
sius  was  a  man  of  great  virtue  and  of  great  science;  troversial  character  were  published  between  1611  and 
his  modesty  and  humility  were  equal  to  his  learning,  1619;  "De  Antichristo  et  ejus  prffcursoribus";  "Do- 
nor did  he  ever  hesitate  to  give  up  his  own  opinion  fenaio  potestatis  aummi  pontificis",  against  the  theo- 
when  f^d  arguments  against  it  were  presented  to  riea  put  forward  by  James  I,  King  of  England,  Bbp- 
him;  his  charity,  meekness,  patience,  and  mortifica-  clay,  Blockwell,  etc.  A  work  on  Providence  and  the 
tion  were  remarkable  throughout  bis  long  life,  in  immortaiityofthesoul  was printedin  1013,  "De  Pn> 
epito  of  the  trying  disease  he  contracted  when  fleeing  videntia  Numinis  ",  and  translated  into  dioerent  lan- 
trom 'Douai  to  escape  the  Calvinuits.  Pope  Url>an  guages,  even  into  Chinese.  His  "  Ilygiaaticon"  or 
VIII,  who  had  known  him  personally,  paid  a  special  plea  for  sobriety,  a  treatise  on  bow  to  preserve 
tribute  to  bis  sanctity;  St.  Francis  of  Sales  also  ea-  streiigth  and  to  live  long,  was  published  tn  1613,  often 
teemed  him  highly  lor  his  virtue  and  his  science,  reprinted  and  translated  into  nearly  all  the  languacea 
After  bis  death,  authentic  inrormation  was  taken  of  Europe;  it  is  a  translation  of  a  similar  work  oy 
about  hia  life  and  virtucs:heia  now  ranked  among  the  Cornaro  (Luigi  Comaro,  an  Italian  hygienist,  1467- 
venerablc,andthcproccssof  Ills beatificationlias been  15C6),  accompanied  with  the  personal  reflectiona  of 
intro4uccd.  Lessius.     Even  now  it  is  not  without  interest. 

The  literary  activity  of  Lcssius  was  not  confined  to  Among  liis  ascetical  works,  which  are  noted  for  tbs 

dogmatic  and  moral  matters;  he  wrote  also  on  ascet^  scienec  and  piety  thoy  contain,  must  be  mentioned 

icism  and  controversy.     We  give  here  tlic  most  im-  his  "De  summo  bono''  (Antwerri,  1010);  "De  pei^ 

portant  of  hia  works;  the  whole  liiit  may  be  seen  in  fectionibus  moribusque   divinia   liliri    XIV"    {Ant- 

Sommervogel.    The  first  printed  lines  which  came  werp,  1620);  and  especblly  his  posthumous  work,  on 

from  the  pen  of  Lessius.  i.e.  "Theses  theologicie"  the   Divine    names,    " Quinqua^inta    nomina    Dei" 

(Louvain,   15S0).  provoked  a  fiery  debate  with  the  (Brussels,  1040),  verj- often  reprinted  and  translated, 

doctors  of  the  University  of  Ix)uvain;  the  theses  of  After  his  death  was  published  his  theological  treatias 

Lessius  and  Hamelius,  both  professors  at  the  Jesuit  on  the  sacraments,  the  Incarnation,  etc.  (De  beati- 

College,  were  attacked  as  containing  dangerous  opin-  tudine,  dc  aetlbua  humanis,  de  incarnations  Verbi,  da 

ions  on   predestination,   grace,   inspiration   in   Iloly  sacramcntis  et  censuris,  etc.,  Louvain,  1645).     Notft 

Scripture,  etc.    As  to  the  last  point,  Lessius  hat!  few  of  bis  imprinted  works  are  preserved  at  BruSMla 

merely  suggested  an  hypotbeeis  on  subsequent  iuspir-  and  elsewhere;  they  are  made  up  especially  of  thso- 


1X8B01IS 


193 


LB880MS 


logical  treaiiaes,  notes  on  morals,  some  letters  and 
documents  on  the  discussion  mentioned  above,  ans- 
wers to  various  consultations,  etc.  No  complete 
edition  of  Lessius's  works  has  ever  appeared.  The 
books  "De  perfectionibus  divinis",  "De  gratia  effi- 
caci",  "De  summo  bono'^etc.  were  published  in  Paris 
(1878-81);  "De  divinis  nominibus  and  **De  summo 
bono"  at  Freiburg  (1862  and  1869) ;  Bouixmadea  new 
French  translation  of  the  "De  divinis  nominibus'' 
(Paris,  1882). 

Db  Ram,  Vie  ei  EcriU  de  L.  Leeeiua  in  Revue  Catholique,  XIX 
(1861),  189;  DC  Block,  Le  Pbre  Lesnus  in  Pride  Hidoriquee, 
XII  (1863),  133.  188.  210;  Hubtsr,  Nomendiiior:  Schoof8. 
J}€  Vtta  ei  Moribue  L.  Lessii  (Bnisseb,  1640);  Soumervoqel. 
BibL  de  la  Comp.  de  Jistu,  IV  (BnuBebi,  1893),  1726.  Bt6/»o- 
gpaphie  NatioruUe.Xlh  79;  IV.  774;  Wbrneb,  Derhl.  Thomae 
van  Aquino,  III  (Ratiabon,  1859),  382. 

J.  DE  GhELUNCK. 

Lassons  in  the  Liturgy  (exclusive  of  Gospel). 
L  History. — ^The  reading  of  lessons  from  the  Bible, 
Acts  of  Martyrs,  or  approved  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
forms  an  important  element  of  Christian  services  in  all 
ntes  since  tne  beginning.  The  Jews  had  divided  the 
Law  into  portions  for  reading  in  the  synagogue.  The 
first  part  of  the  Christian  synaxis  was  an  imitation  or 
contmuation  of  the  service  of  the  synagogue.  Like  its 
mredecessor  it  consisted  of  lessons  from  the  Sacred 
nookBj  pealmHsinging,  homilies,  and  prayers.  The 
Gbristians,  however,  naturally  read  not  only  the  Old 
Testament  but  their  own  Scriptures  too.  Among 
these  Christian  Scriptures  the  most  important  were 
the  histories  of  Our  Lord's  life,  that  we  call  Gospels, 
and  the  letters  of  the  Apostles  to  various  Churches. 
So  we  find  St.  Paul  demanding  that  his  letter  to  the 
Thessalonians  ''be  read  to  all  the  holy  brethren''  (I 
Theas.,  v,  27).  Such  a  public  reading  could  onlv  take 
place  at  the  sjmaxis.  Again,  at  the  end  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Colossians  he  tells  the  people  to  send  the  letter 
to  Laodicea  to  be  read  there,  and  to  demand  and  read 
his  letter  to  the  Laodiceans  (Col.,  iv,  16).  Here  too 
he  seems  to  imply  a  public  reading  ("when  this  epistle 
shall  have  been  read  with  you").  That  the  public 
reading  of  lessons  from  the  Holy  Books  was  a  well- 
known  incident  of  Christian  services  in  the  first  cen- 
turies appears  also  from  the  common  idea  that  the 
" Gospel*  to  which  St.  Paul  alludes  as  being  "  through 
all  the  churches"  (II  Cor.,  viii,  18)  was  the  written 
Gospel  of  St.  Luke  read  in  the  assemblies  (Eusebius, 
"Hist,  eccl.",  Ill,  iv,  8;  Jerome,  "De  viris  illustr.", 
vii).  TTie  famous  text  of  St.  Justin  Martyr  (I  Apol., 
Ixvii,  quoted  in  CxOSPel  in  the  Liturgy)  shows  that 
Biblical  texts  were  read  at  the  Sunday  asseml)Iics.  So 
also  Tertullian  (d.  about  240)  says  of  the  Roman 
Church,  that  she  **  combines  the  Law  and  the  Prophets 
with  the  Gospels  and  Apostolic  letters"  in  her  public 
needing  (De  praescript.  nser.,  36).  There  is  evidence 
that  at  first,  not  only  the  canonical  Scriptures,  but 
Acts  of  Martyrs,  letters,  homilies  of  prominent  bish- 
ops, and  other  edifying  documents  were  read  publicly 
in  the  assemblies.  St.  Cyprian  (d.  258)  demands  that 
his  letters  be  read  publicly  in  church  (e.  g.,  Ep.  ix,  in 
P.  L.,  IV,  253,  etc.).  The  first  Epistle  of  Clement  to 
the  Corinthians  was  used  for  public  reading;  it  is  in- 
cluded (with  II  C'lem.  ad.  Cor.)  in  the  Codex  Alexan- 
drinus.  The  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  the  **  Shep- 
herd" of  Hennas  are  in  the  Codex  Sinaiticus.  These 
manuscripts  represent  collections  made  for  public 
reading.  So  fdso  in  the  East,  Acts  of  Martyrs  were 
read  on  their  anniversaries.  Even  as  lat4>  as  his  time 
St.  John  Chrjrsostom  (d.  407)  seems  to  imply  that  let- 
ters from  various  Churches  were  still  read  in  the  Lit- 
utgy  (Horn.  30  on  II  0>r.,  in  P.  G..  LXI,  605).  ^  From 
the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  however,  the  principle 
obtained  that  in  the  liturgy  only  the  canonical 
Scriptures  should  be  read.  The  Muratorian  Canon 
(third  century)  expressl3r  forbids  the  "Shepherd"  to 
be  read  publicly.  The  ideas  of  public  reading  and 
oanonioity  beeome  aynonymousi  bo  that  the  fact  that 
DC.— 13 


a  l>ook  is  read  at  the  Liturgy  in  any  local  Church  is 
understood  to  be  evidence  that  tliat  Church  accepts  it 
as  canonical.  Headings  during  the  Office  (Matins, 
etc.)  outside  the  Liturgy  have  always  been  more  free 
in  this  regard. 

Originally,  as  we  see  from  Justin  Martyr's 
account,  the  amoimt  read  was  quite  indeterminate;  the 
reader  went  on  " as  long  as  time  allowed".  The  pre- 
siding bishop  would  then  stop  him  with  some  sign  or 
formula,  of  which  our  clause,  "Tu  autem  Domine, 
miserere  nobis",  at  the  end  of  lessons  (once  undoubt- 
edly said  by  the  celebrant)  is  still  a  remnant.  The 
gradual  fixing  of  the  whole  liturgical  function  into  set 
lorms  naturally  involved  the  fixm^  of  the  portions  of 
the  Bible  read.  There  was  an  obvious  convenience  in 
arranging  beforehand  more  or  less  equal  sections  to 
be  read  m  turn.  These  sections  were  called  "peri- 
copes"  (xepiKOTilj),  a  fragment  cut  off,  almost  exactly 
the  Grcrman  Abschnitt);  they  were  marked  in  the 
text  of  the  Bible,  as  may  be  seen  in  most  early  manu- 
scripts. An  index  (called  Xwa^dpiop  in  Greek,  capitu- 
larium  in  Latin),  giving  the  first  and  last  words  of 
the  pericopes  for  each  Sunday  and  feast,  made  it 
easier  to  find  them.  There  are  many  remnants  of  the 
practice  of  naming  a  pericope  after  its  first  words, 
as  in  the  capitularium.  The  Fathers  preach  on  Gro&- 
pels  which  they  so  call,  as  if  it  were  a  proper  name  (so 
St.  Bernard's  "Homilies  on  the  Mtssiis  est**  is  on 
Luke,  i,  26-38,  etc.).  Eventually,  for  greater  con- 
venience the  lessons  are  written  out  in  their  liturgical 
order  in  a  lectionarium,  and  later  still  they  are  inserted 
in  their  place  w^ith  the  text  of  the  whole  service,  in 
Breviaries  and  Missals  (see  Gospel  in  the  Liturgy, 

I)- 

Meanwhile  the  number  of  leasons,  at  first  undeter- 
mined, became  fixed  and  reduced.  The  reading  of 
the  Gospel,  as  being  the  most  important,  the  crown 
and  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies  in  the  Old  Law,  was 
put  in  the  place  of  honour,  last.  Every  allusion  to  the 
lessons  read  in  churches  implies  that  the  Gospel  comes 
last.  A  further  reason  for  this  arrangement  was  that 
in  some  Churches  the  catechumens  were  not  allowed 
to  hear  the  Gospel,  so  it  was  read  after  their  dismissal 
(see  Gospel  in  the  Liturgy,  I).  We  are  concerned 
here  with  the  other  lessons  that  preceded  it.  For  a 
time  their  number  was  still  vague.  The  liturgy  of  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions  refers  to  "the  reading  of  the 
Law  and  the  Prophets  and  of  our  Epistles  and  Acts 
and  Gk)8pls"  (VIII,  v,  11).  The  Sj-riac,  Coptic,  and 
Abyssinian  Rites  have  several  lessons  before  the  Gos- 
pel (Brightman,  "Eastern  Liturgies",  Oxford,  1896, 
pp.  76-8,  152-4,  212-5).  In  the  Roman  Rite  we  still 
have  Masses  with  a  number  of  lessons  before  the  Gos- 
pel. Then  gradually  the  custom  obtains  of  reading 
two  only,  one  from  the  Old  Testament  and  one  from 
the  New.  From  the  fact  that  the  text  read  from  the 
Old  Testament  is  looked  upon  as  a  promise  or  type  of 
what  followed  in  Our  Lord's  life  (vory  commonly  taken 
from  a  Prophet)  it  is  called  the  prophecy' .  The 
lesson  of  the  New  Testament  (exclusive  of  the  Gospel) 
would  naturally  in  most  cases  bo  part  of  an  Epistle  of 
St.  Paul  or  another  Apostle.  So  we  have  three  lessons 
in  the  Liturgy — prophetia,  cpistMa  (or  aposU)lus)^evaf}n 
gelium.  This  was  the  older  arrangement  of  the  lit- 
urgies that  now  have  only  two.  The  Armenian  Rite, 
derived  at  an  early  date  (in  the  sixth  century)  from 
that  of  CJonstantinople,  has  these  three  lessons  (Bright- 
man,  op.  cit.,  425-426).  St.  John  Chrysostom  also 
alludes  to  three  lessons  in  the  Byzantine  Rite  of  his 
time  (Horn.  29 on  Acts.  P.  G.,  LX'218;  cf.  Brightman, 
op.  cit.,  470).  In  the  West,  Gormanus  of  Paris  (d. 
576),  describing  the  Gallican  Rite,  mentions  them: 
"The  prophetic  lesson  of  the  Did  Testament  has  its 
place.  .  .  .  The  same  God  speaks  in  the  prophecy  who 
teaches  in  the  Apostle  and  is  glorious  in  the  light  of  the 
Gospels",  etc.  (Duchesne,  "Origines  du  Culte",  185). 
This  Gallican  use  is  still  preserved  in  the  Mozarabic 


LESSONS 


194 


LBSSOMS 


Litui^gy,  which  has  three  lessons  iu  the  Mass.  The 
Ambrosian  Rite  has  a  prophetic  lesson  on  certain  days 
only. 

The  Roman  Rite  also  certainly  once  had  these  three 
lessons  at  every  Mass.  Besides  the  now  exceptional 
cases  in  which  there  are  two  or  more  lessons  before  the 
Gospel,  we  have  a  trace  of  them  in  the  arrangement 
of  tne  Gradual  which  still  shows  the  place  where  the 
other  lesson  has  dropped  out  (see  Gradual).  The 
church  of  St.  Clement  at  Rome  (restored  in  the  ninth 
centunr  but  still  keeping  the  disposition  of  a  much 
older  basilica)  has  a  third  ambo  for  the  prophetic 
lesson.  A  further  modification  reduced  the  lessons  to 
two,  one  from  any  book  of  the  Bible  other  than  the 
Gospel,  the  second  from  the  Gospel.  In  the  Byzan- 
tine Rite  this  change  took  place  between  the  time  of 
St.  John  Chrysostom  (d.  407)  and  the  final  develop- 
ment of  the  liturgy.  The  Barberini  manuscript 
(ninth  century,  reproduced  in  Brightman,  op.  cit., 
309-344)  still  supposes  more  than  one  lesson  before  the 
Gospel  (ibid.,  314).  The  Greek  Liturgies  of  St. 
James  and  St.  Mark  also  have  only  one  lesson  before  the 
Gospel  (ibid.,  36,  118).  This  is  one  of  the  many  ex- 
amples of  the  influence  of  Constantinople,  which  from 
the  seventh  century  gradually  byzantinized  the  older 
Rites  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria,  till  it  replaced  them 
in  about  the  thirteenth  century.  In  St.  Augustine's 
sermons  we  see  that  he  refers  sometimes  to  two  les- 
sons before  the  Gospel  (e.  g.,  Sermo  xl),  sometimes  to 
only  one  (Sermo  clxxvi,  clxxx).  At  Rome,  too,  the 
lessons  were  reduced  to  two  since  the  sixth  centuiy 
("Liber  Pontificalis",  ed.  Duchesne,  Paris,  1884,  I, 
230),  except  on  certain  rare  occasions.  These  two 
lessons,  then,  are  our  Epistle  and  Gospel. 

II.  The  Epistle. — In  no  rite  is  the  first  of  these 
two  lessons  invariably  taken  from  an  Epistle.  Never- 
theless the  preponderance  of  pericopes  from  one  of 
the  Epistles  m  the  New  Testament  is  so  great  that  the 
first  lesson,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  commonly  called  the 
"Epistle''  (Epistola),  An  older  name  meaning  the 
same  thing  is  '  Apostle "  (Apostolus) .  The  Gregorian 
Sacramentarv  calls  this  lesson  Apostolus;  e.  g., 
P.  L.,  LXXVlII, 25;"deindesequitur  Apostolus";  it 
was  also  often  called  simply  Lectio  (so  the  Saint- 
Amand  Ordo,  Duchesne,  "Origines  du  Culte",  442). 
The  Eastern  rites  (Antioch,  Alexandria,  Constanti- 
nople) in  Greek  still  call  the  first  lesson  6* Ar6<rTo\oi, 
Originally  it  was  read  by  a  lector.  The  privileges  of 
the  deacon  to  sing  the  Gospel  and  (in  the  West)  of  the 
subdeacon  to  read  the  Epistle  are  a  later  develop- 
ment (sec  Gospels  in  the  Liturgy).  It  seems  that 
in  the  West  lectors  read  the  Epistle  as  well  as  the 
other  lessons  down  to  about  the  fifth  century  (Reuter, 
"Das  Subdiakonat",  Augsburg,  1890,  pp.  177,  185). 
Gradually,  then,  the  feeling  grew  that  the  Epistle  be- 
jongs  to  the  subdeacon.  This  is  apparently  an  imita- 
tion of  the  deacon's  right  to  the  Gospel.  When  the 
custom  had  obtained  of  celebrating  High  Mass  with 
two  ministers  only — a  deacon  and  a  subdeacon — in 
place  of  the  number  of  concelebrating  priests,  region- 
ary  deacons,  and  assistant  subdeacons  whom  we  see 
around  the  celebrating  bishop  in  the  first  centuries  at 
Rome,  when  further  the  liturgical  lessons  were  re- 
duced to  two,  and  one  of  them  was  sung  by  the  deacon, 
it  seemed  natural  that  the  subdeacon  should  read  the 
other.  The  first  Roman  Ordo  (sixth-eighth  century) 
describes  the  Epistle  as  read  by  a  subdeacon  (I,  10). 
But  not  till  the  fourteenth  century  was  the  subdea- 
con's  peculiar  office  of  reading  the  Epistle  expressed 
and  acknowledged  by  his  symbolic  reception  of  the 
book  of  Epistles  at  his  ordination.  Even  now  the 
Roman  Pontifical  keeps  unchanged  the  old  form  of  the 
admonition  in  the  ordination  of  subdeacons  (Adep- 
turi,  filii  dilectissimi,  ofiicium  subdiaconatus  .  .  . 
etc.),  which,  although  it  describes  their  dutios  at 
length,  says  nothing  about  reading  the  Epistle.  In 
the  correBponding  aamonition  to  deacons,  on  the  other 


hand,  there  is  a  clear  reference  to  their  duty  of  singing 
the  Gospel.  In  the  time  of  Durandus  (thirteenth  cen- 
tury) the  question  was  still  not  clear  to  every  one.  He 
insists  that "  no  one  may  read  the  Epistle  solemnly  in 
church  unless  he  be  a  subdeacon,  or,  if  no  subdeacon 
be  present,  it  must  be  said  by  a  deacon"  (Rationale 
Div.  Offic,  iv.  16) ;  but  when  he  treats  of  the  duties  of 
a  subdeacon  he  nnds  it  still  necessary  to  answer  the 
question:  "W^hy  the  subdeacon  reads  the  lessons  at 
Mass,  since  this  does  not  seem  to  belong  to  him  either 
from  his  name  or  the  office  given  to  him"  (ii,  8).  We 
have  even  now  a  relic  of  the  older  use  in  the  rubric  of 
the  Missal  which  prescribes  that  in  a  sung  Mass,  where 
there  arc  no  deacon  and  subdeacon,  a  lector  in  a  sur- 
plice should  read  the  Epistle  (Ritus  eel.  Missam,  vi, 
8);  in  case  of  necessity  at  high  Mass,  too,  a  clerk,  not 
ordained  subdeacon,  may  wear  the  tunicle  (not  the 
maniple)  and  perform  nearly  all  the  subdeacon's 
duties,  including  the  reading  of  the  Epistle  (S.  R.  C., 
15  July,  1698).  In  the  Eastern  rites  there  is  no  pro- 
vision for  a  subdeacon  in  the  liturgy,  except  in  the  one 
case  of  the  Maronites,  who  here,  too,^  have  romanixed 
their  rite.  In  all  the  others  the  Epistle  is  still  chanted 
by  a  reader  {dpaytnifrrii.) 

The  Epistle  is  the  last  lesson  before  the  Gospel,  the 
first  when  there  are  only  two  lessons.  In  this  case  its 
place  is  immediately  after  the  Collects.  Originally  it 
came  between  the  two  chants  that  we  now  call  the 
Gradual  (see  Gradual).  It  was  read  from  an  ambo, 
the  reader  or  subdeacon  turning  towards  the  people. 
AVhere  there  were  two  or  more  ambos,  one  was  uised 
only  for  the  Gospel.  The  common  arrangement  was 
that  of  an  ambo  on  either  side  of  the  church,  between 
the  choir  and  the  nave,  as  ma^  stUl  be  seen  in  many 
old  basilicas  (e.  g.,  S.  Maria  m  Cosmcdin  at  Rome, 
etc.).  In  this  case  the  ambo  on  the  north  side  was 
reserved  for  the  Gospel,  from  which  the  deacon  faced 
the  south,  where  the  men  stood  (Gospel  in  the  Lit- 
urgy). The  north  is  also  the  right,  and  therefore  the 
more  honourable,  side  of  the  altar.  The  ambo  on  the 
south  was  used  for  the  Epistle,  and  for  other  lessons  if 
there  were  only  two.  In  the  case  of  three  ambos,  two 
were  on  the  south,  one  for  all  other  lessons,  one  for  the 
Epistles.  This  arrangement  still  subsists,  inasmuch 
as  the  Epistle  is  always  read  on  the  south  side  (sup- 
posing the  church  to  be  orientated).  Where  there 
was  only  one  amix)  it  had  two  platforms,  a  lower 
one  for  the  Epistle  and  other  lessons,  a  higher  one 
for  the  Gospel  (Durandus,  "Rationale",  IV^  16). 
The  ambo  for  the  Epistle  should  still  be  used  m  the 
Roman  Rite  where  the  church  has  one;  it  is  used  regu- 
larly at  Milan.  In  the  Byzantine  Rite  the  Apostle 
may  be  read  from  an  ambo;  if  there  is  none  the  reader 
stands  at  the  "high  place",  the  solca  (jnaXia),  that 
is,  the  raised  platform  m  front  of  the  iconostasis.  Am- 
bos were  still  built  in  Western  churches  down  to  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  (see  "Ambon  "  in  Ca- 
brol's ' '  Dictionnaire  d'arch^'ologie  chr^tienne  ").  Since 
then  they  have  disappeared,  except  in  some  old 
churches.  From  that  time  the  subdeacon  as  a  rule 
stands  in  the  choir  on  the  south  side  of  the  altar  (to- 
wards what  the  rubrics  of  the  Missal  call  the  comu 
epistolw) ,  facing  the  altar,  as  he  reads  the  Epistle.  The 
Byzantine  reader,  however,  faces  the  people.  The 
Epistle  has  always  been  chanted  to  a  simpler  tone  than 
the  Gospel;  generally  it  is  simply  read  on  one  note. 
The  answer  "Deo  gratias"  after  the  Epistle  is  the 
common  one  after  the  reading  of  any  lesson  (e.  g.,  in 
the  Office  too) .  It  was  originally  a  sign  f rOm  the  cele* 
brant  or  presiding  bishop  that  enough  had  been  read. 
The  medieval  commentators  (e.  g.,  Durandus,  IV,  17) 
note  that  the  subdeacon,  having  finished  his  reading, 
goes  to  make  a  reverence  to  the  celebrant  and  kisses 
his  hand.  During  the  Epistle  in  every  rite  the  hearers 
sit.  The  First  Roman  Ordo  notes  this  (10) ;  they  also 
cover  their  heads.  This  is  the  natural  attitude  for 
hearing  a  lesson  read  (so  also  at  Matins,  eto.};  tO 


LBSBOMS 


195 


LBSBOMS 


stand  at  the  Gospel  is  a  special  mark  of  reverence  for 
its  special  dignity. 

in.  Text  of  thb  Various  Epistles. — ^The  reason 
of  the  present  order  of  Epistles  in  the  Roman  Rite 
throughout  the  year  is  even  more  dilEcult  to  find  than 
the  parallel  case  of  the  Gospels  (see  Gospel  in  the 
LrruRGT,  II).  In  the  first  period  the  Question  does 
not  so  much  concern  what  we  now  call  tne  Epistle  as 
rather  the  whole  group  of  Biblical  lessons  preceding 
the  Gospel.  We  may  deduce  with  some  certainty 
that  there  was  at  first  the  principle  of  reading  succes- 
sive books  of  the  Bible  continuously.  The  second 
book  of  the  Apostolic  Ck>nstitutions  (third  century) 
says  that "  the  reader  standing  on  a  hcieht  in  the  mid- 
dle shall  read  the  Books  of  Moses  and  Jesus  son  of 
Nave,  and  of  the  Judges  and  Kings,  and  of  Paralip- 
(nnenon  and  the  Return  [Esdras  and  Nchemias], 
after  these  those  of  Job  and  Solomon  and  the  sixteen 
Prophets  [these  are  the  first  lessons].  The  lessons 
havmg  been  read  by  two  [readers],  another  one  sliall 
sing  the  hymns  of  David  and  the  people  answer  back 
the  verses  [this  is  the  psalm  between  the  lessons,  our 
Gradual].  After  this  our  Acts  [the  Apostles  are  sup- 
posed to  be  speaking]  shall  be  read  and  the  letters 
of  Paul,  our  fellow-worker,  which  he  sent  to  the 
Churches".  ("Const.  Apost.",  II,  Ivii,  ed.  Funk,  Pa- 
derbom,  1905,  p.  161.)  This  then  implies  continuous 
readings  in  that  order.  For  the  rest  the  homilies  of  the 
Fathers  that  explain  continuous  books  (and  often  ex- 
plicitly refer  to  the  fact  that  the  passage  explained  has 
just  been  read)  show  us  certain  oooks  rcacl  at  certain 
seasons.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  Lent  Genesis  was 
read  in  East  and  West.  So  St.  John  Chrysostom  (d. 
407),  preaching  in  Lent,  says:  "To-day  I  will  explain 
the  passage  you  have  heard  read''  and  proceeds  to 
preach  on  Genesis,  i,  1  (Hom.  vii,  de  statuis,  1).  His 
nomilies  on  Genesis  were  held  during  Lent  (Hom.  i,  in 
Gen.,  i).  It  is  also  probable  that  St.  Basil's  sermons 
on  the  Hexaemeron  were  held  in  Lent.  In  the  Ro- 
man Office  still  Genesis  begins  at  Septuagesima  (in 
Matins)  and  is  read  in  part  of  Lent.  The  reason  of 
this  is  apparentljr  tliat  the  ecclesiastical  vear  was 
counted  as  oeginning  then  in  the  spring.  Other  books 
read  in  Lent  were  Job  (e.  g. ,  St.  Am  brose, '  'ad  Marcell. ' ', 
Ep.  xz,  14;  P.  L.,  XVI,  998),  as  an  example  of  patient 
giurering,and  Jonas  (ibid.,  25;  col.  1001),  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  Resurrection.  During  Eastertide  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  were  read  (St.  Augustine,  Tract,  vi 
in  Joh.  xviii,  P.  L.,  XXXV,  1433).  For  special  feasts 
and  on  special  occasions  suitable  lessons  were  chosen, 
thus  breaking  the  continuous  readings.  In  the  Aiiddle 
A^es  it  was  believed  that  St.  Jerome  (d.  420),  in  obe- 
dience to  an  order  of  Pope  Damasus,  had  arranged  the 
lessons  of  the  Roman  Liturgy;  a  spurious  letter  of  his 
to  tiie  Emperor  Constantius  was  quoted  as  the  first 
cornea,  or  list  of  lessons,  for  each  day.  Dom  G.  Morin 
thinks  that  Victor,  Bishop  of  Capua  (541-554),  was 
the  author  (Revue  B^n^ictine,  1890,  p.  416  seq.) .  The 
letter  is  c^uoted  in  Beissel,  "  Entstehung  der  Perikopen 
des  Romischen  Messbuches"  (Freiburg,  1907),  54-5. 

From  the  fifth  century  various  lists  of  lessons  were 
drawn  up.  Gennadius  of  Marseilles  (fifth  century) 
says  of  one  Muscus,  priest  of  Marseilles:  "Exhorted  by 
the  holy  Bishop  Venerius  he  selected  lessons  from 
Holy  Scripture  suitable  for  the  feast  days  of  all  the 
year"  (De  viris  illustr.,  Ixxix).  The  "  Lectionarium 
Gallicanum"  published  by  Mabillon  (in  P.  L.,  LXXII), 
written  in  Burgundy  in  the  seventh  century,  is  an- 
other scheme  of  the  same  kind.  A  codex  at  Fulda 
contains  the  Epistles  for  Sundays  and  feast  days  ar- 
ranged by  Victor  of  Capua  in  the  sixth  century. 
Probst  ("Die  filtesten  romischen  Sacramentarien  und 
Ordines",  MOnster,  1892,  p.  33)  thinks  that  thev  are 
those  read  at  Rome.  All  are  taken  from  St.  Paul  (see 
the  list.  loo.  cit.,  and  in  Beissel,  "  Entstehung  der  Peri- 
kopen'\  57-8).  From  this  time  there  are  a  number 
of  «Hiitlfli  aznuifed  for  use  in  different  Churches.    Of 


these  one  of  the  most  famous  is  the  cornea  arranged  by 
Albinus  (i.  e.,  Alcuin^  by  command  of  the  Emperor 
Charles.  This  contains  only  the  Epistles;  it  is  part  of 
the  Roman  Rite  introduced  by  Charles  the  Great  in 
the  Prankish  Kingdom  (published  in  "Thomasii  Op- 
era", ed.  Vezzosi,  V,  418,  cf.  Ranke:  "Das  kirchliche 
Perikopensystem",1850,  supplem.  Ill;  Beissel,  od.  cit., 
141).  The  "  Liber  comicus  edited  by  Dom  G.  Morin 
("AnecdotaMarcdsol.",1, 1893,  cf.  "Revue  B6n6d.", 
1892,  442)  contains  the  full  lessons  of  the  old  Moz* 
arable  use.  Paul  the  Deacon  composed  a  collection  of 
homilies  between  786  and  797,  from  which  one  may  de- 
duce the  lessons  read  on  Sundays  under  Charles  the 
Great  (P.  L.,  XCV,  1159  sq.,  cf.  Wiegand,  "Das 
Homilarium  Karls  des  Grossen",  Leipzig,- 1897,  and 
"Rev.  Bdn^.",  1898,  400  seq.).  Beissel  (op.  cit.) 
has  collected  a  great  number  of  such  comites,  lection- 
aries,  and  references  in  the  early  Middle  Ages,  from 
which  the  set  of  lessons  in  the  present  Roman  Missal 
gradually  emerges. 

Of  the  arrangement  one  can  onlv  say  that  the  spe- 
cial suitableness  of  certain  Epistles  for  the  various 
feasts  and  seasons  soon  quite  disturbed  the  principle 
of  continuous  reading.  Of  continuous  readings  there 
is  now  hardly  a*trace  in  the  Missal.  On  the  other 
hand.  Epistles  obviously  suitable  for  each  occasion 
may  be  traced  back  through  a  long  list  of  comites. 
Thus  our  Epistles  from  Romans  at  the  beginning  of 
Advent  recur  in  many  lists:  they  are  chosen  obviously 
because  of  their  appropriateness  to  that  season.  In 
some  cases  a  connexion  of  ideas  with  the  Gospel  seems 
to  be  the  reason  for  the  choice  of  the  Epistle.  In  the 
Missal  as  reformed  by  Pius  V  in  1570  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  Epistles  are  taken  from  St.  Paul;  the 
others  are  from  other  Epistles,  the  Acts,  Apocalypse, 
and  various  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  A  principle 
observed  fairly  regularly  is  that  on  fast  days  the  Epis- 
tle is  a  lesson  from  the  Old  Testament.  This  applies 
to  all  week-days  in  Lent  except  Maundy  Thursdav, 
which  has,  of  course,  a  festal  Mass.  The  Mass  on  Holy 
Saturday  is  the  first  Easter  Mass  and  has  an  Easter 
Epistle  (Col.,  iii,  1-4).  So  also  on  most  of  the  ember- 
days  (which  still  have  several  lessons);  but  on  the 
Whitsun  ember  Wednesday  the  sense  of  Pentecost 
predominates,  so  that  it  has  two  lessons  from  the  New 
Testament  (Acts,  ii  and  v).  It  may  be  a  remnant  of 
the  old  system  of  reading  Acts  in  East<;rtide  that,  ex- 
cept Friday  and  Saturday,  all  the  Masses  of  Easter 
Week  have  lessons  from  Acts,  though,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  are  all  in  themselves  appropriate.  Practi- 
cally all  feasts  and  special  occasions  have  Epistles 
chosen  for  their  suitableness,  as  far  as  such  could  be 
found. 

Occasionally,  as  on  St.  Stephen's  feast  and,  to  some 
extent.  Ascension  Day  and  Whitsunday,  it  is  the  Epis- 
tle ratner  than  the  Gospel  tliat  tells  the  story  of  the 
feast.  The  three  Epistles  for  Cliristmas  Day  are 
sufficiently^  obvious:  St.  Stephen  has  of  course  the 
story  of  his  martyrdom  from  Acts,  vi  and  vii.  Holy 
Innocents  the  lesson  from  Aix>calyi)se,  xiv.  al)out  the 
immaculate  first-fruit«  of  the  saints.  The  Epiphany 
has  a  magnificent  lesson  alx)ut  the  Gentiles  seeing  the 
glory  of  the  Lord  in  Jerusalem  and  the  people  who 
bring  gold  and  incense,  from  Isaias,  Ix.  Palm  Sunday 
in  its  Epistle  tells  of  the  olx?dicnce  of  Our  Lord  to  the 
death  of  the  Cross  and  of  His  exaltation  (Phil.,  ii),  in 
the  tone  of  the  "  Vexilla  Regis".  The  Easter  Epistle 
could  Ixj  no  other  than  the  one  appointed  (I  Cor.,  v): 
Ascension  Day  and  AMiitsunday  have  their  stories 
from  the  Acts.  The  feast  of  the  Holy  Trinity  has  the 
passage  in  Romans,  xi,  about  the  inscrutable  mystery 
of  God.  Corpus  Christi  brings,  of  course,  St.  Paul's  ac- 
count of  the  Holy  Eucharist  (I  Cor.,  xi).  St.  John 
Baptist  has  a  lesson  from  Isaias,  xlix,  about  vocation 
ana  sanctification  in  the  mother's  womb.  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  have  the  story  of  St.  Peter's  imprison- 
ment in  Acts,  xii.    For  All  Saints  we  have  the  lesson 


LS880H8 


196 


LS880H8 


about  the  saints  si^ed  by  God  and  the  great  crowd 
around  his  throne  m  Apoc.,  vii.  Most  of  Our  Lady's 
feasts  have  lessons  from  the  Sons  of  Solomon  or  Eo- 
clesiasticus  applied  mystically  toner,  as  in  her  Office. 
The  commons  of  saints  have  fairly  obvious  Epistles 
too.  It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  a  great  proportion  of 
our  pericopes  are  chosen  because  of  their  appro- 
priateness to  the  occasion.  With  n^ard  to  the  oth- 
ers, in  the  Proprium  de  tempore,  notably  those  for  the 
Sundays  after  Epiphany  and  Pentecost,  it  is  not  possi- 
ble to  find  any  dennite  scheme  for  their  selection.  We 
can  only  conjecture  some  underlying  idea  of  reading 
the  most  important  passages  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles. 
The  fact  that  every  Sunday  except  Whitsunday  has  a 
pericope  from  an  Epistle,  that  m  nearly  all  cases  it 
IS  from  St.  Paul  (the  Sundays  after  Easter,  1st,  2nd, 
3rd,  and  5th  after  Pentecost  have  Epistles  of  other 
Apostles)  still  shows  that  this  is  the  normal  text  for 
the  lesson  before  the  Gospel;  other  lessons  are  excep- 
tions admitted  because  of  their  special  appropriate- 
ness. Of  the  old  principle  of  continuous  readings  it 
is  not  now  possible  to  nnd  a  trace.  Our  pericopes 
represent  a  combination  oT  various  comitea  and  leo- 
tionaries,  between  which  that  principle  has  become 
completely  overlaid. 

The  epistle  is  announced  as  lectio,  "Lectio  epistoke 
beati  Pauli  ad  Romanos",  "Lectio  libri  Esther",  and 
80  on.  No  further  reference  is  given;  when  there  are 
several  Epistles  (e.  g.,  those  of  St.  Peter,  St.  John)  the 
title  read  out  does  not  say  which  it  is:  "Lectio  epis- 
tolse  beati  Petri  apostoli".  It  should  also  be  noted 
that  all  the  five  hooka  attributed  to  Solomon  and 
known  as  the  "Libri  Sapient  iales "  (namely,  Pro  v., 
EccL,  Cant.,  Wis.,  Ecclus.)  are  announced  as: 
"Lectio  libri  Sapienti®'*. 

The  Epistles  read  in  Eastern  Churches  are  arranged 
in  a  way  m  which  there  is  also  no  longer  any  trace  of  a 
system.  Here,  too,  the  present  arrangement  is  the  re- 
sult of  a  long  series  of  Lectionaries  between  which 
various  compromises  have  been  made.  The  Byzan- 
tine Church  reads  from  the  Epistles,  Acts,  and  Apoc- 
alypse for  the  first  lesson,  called  the  Apostle  (6  dT&rro- 
Xof).  These  lessons  are  contained  with  their  Prokei- 
mena  in  a  book  also  called  'Ax6<rroXof  or  IIpa|oT6<rroXo?. 
The  last  part  of  this  book  contains  a  selection  of  les- 
sons from  the  Old  Testament  for  use  on  special  occa- 
sions (see  the  exact  description  in  Leo  Aliatius,  "De 
libris  ecclesiasticis  Graeconun^j  Paris,  1645, 1,  xv,  4). 
We  have  noted  that  the  Armenians  stUl  have  the  older 
arrangement  of  three  lessons  in  evenr  liturgy,  a 
Prophecy  from  the  Old  Testament,  an  Epistle,  and  a 
Gospel.  The  Copts  have  no  Prophecy,  but  four  New- 
Testament  lessons,  one  of  St.  Paul  read  from  the 
"Apostle",  one  from  an  Epistle  by  another  Apostle, 
read  from  another  book  called  the  "  Katholikon  ",  then 
one  from  the  Acts  and  finally  the  Gospel  (Brightman, 
"Eastern  Liturgies",  152^);  the  Abyssinian  Church 
follows  the  use  of  Egypt  in  this  as  in  most  liturgical 
matters  (ibid.,  212-219).  The  Svrian  Jacobites  read 
firet  several  lessons  from  the  Old  Testament,  then  one 
from  the  Acts,  an  Epistle,  and  a  Gospel  (ibid.,  77-80). 
The  Nestorians  have  an  Old-Testament  lesson,  one 
from  the  Acts,  an  Epistle  and  a  Gospel  (ibid.,  256-60). 
Between  the  lessons  in  all  these  rites  are  various  frag- 
ments of  psalms,  corresponding  to  our  Gradual.  The 
reading  ot  the  Apostle  or  other  lessons  before  the  Gos- 
pel is  a  very  simple  affair  in  the  East.  A  reader,  who  is 
generally  any  layman,  simply  takes  the  book,  stands  in 
the  middle  of  the  choir,  and  sings  the  text  in  his  usual 
nasal  chant  with  a  few  enharmonic  cadences  which  are 
handed  down  by  tradition  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
very  considerably  modified  according  to  the  taste  and 
skill  of  the  singer.  Meanwhile  the  celebrant  turns 
towards  him  and  listens.  lie  does  not  also  read  the 
text  himself  in  any  Eastern  Rite.  The  Byzantine 
reader  first  chants  the  Prokeimenon  (UpoKtifupoy  roO 
iiro^6Xov— ^'placed  before",    understand  W^ixoi-) 


facing  the  altar.  This  is  a  short  verse  of  a  pealm  cor- 
responding to  our  Gradual  (which  once  preceded  the 
Epistle:  see  Gradual).  He  then  turns  to  the  people 
and  chants  the  Apoatolos.  Meanwhile  the  deacon  is 
incensing  the  altar  (Fortescue,  "  Liturgy  of  St.  John 
Chiysostom",  London,  1908,  p.  75). 

I V.  Ritual  of  the  Epistle  in  the  Roman  Rite. — 
We  have  noted  that  for  many  centuries  the  reading 
of  the  Epistle  is  a  privilege  of  the  subdeacon.  While 
the  celebrant  chants  the  last  Collect^  the  master  of 
ceremonies  brings  the  book  containing  the  Epistle 
(a  lectionarium  containing  the  Epistles  and  Gospels, 
verv  often  simply  another  Missal)  from  the  credence 
table  to  the  subdeacon  at  his  place  behind  the  deacon. 
The  subdeacon  turns  towards  him  and  receives  it,  both 
making  a  slight  inclination.  He  then  goes  to  the  mid- 
dle and  genuflects  (even  if  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is 
not  on  the  altar)  and  comes  back  to  a  place  in  pkmo  at 
some  distance  behind  the  celebrant.  Standing  there, 
facing  the  altar,  and  holding  the  book  with  both  hands, 
he  chants  the  title  "  Lectio  •••'',  etc.,  and  goes  on  at 
once  with  the  text,  to  the  end.  He  bows  at  the  Holy 
Name  and  genufiects,  if  the  rubric  directs  it,  at  his 
place  towards  the  altar  in  front.  The  normal  tone 
for  the  Epistle  is  entirely  on  one  note  (do)  without  any 
infiection,  except  that  where  a  question  occurs  it  sinks 
half  a  tone  (to  si)  four  or  five  syllables  before,  and  for 
the  last  three  syllables  has  the  inflection  la,  si  and  a 
podcUus  si-do.  The  revised  Vatican  Missal  gives  a 
rather  more  elaborate  chant  for  use  ad  libitum  in  the 
appendix  (no.  III).  While  the  Epistle  is  read  the 
members  of  the  choir  sit  with  covered  heads.  Mean- 
while the  celebrant  reads  it  (and  the  Gradual)  in  a  low 
voice  from  the  Missal  at  the  altar;  the  deacon  stands  at 
his  side,  turns  over  the  page,  if  necessary,  and  ans- 
wers, "  Deo  gratias  ",  when  tne  celebrant  has  ended  the 
Epistle,  To  the  Epistle  chanted  by  the  subdeacon 
there  is  no  answer.  The  last  three  or  four  syllables  of 
the  Epistle  are  chanted  more  slowly,  ritardando  at  the 
end.  The  subdeacon,  having  finished,  shuts  the  book, 
goes  to  the  middle  and  genuflects;  then,  still  holding 
the  closed  book  in  both  hands,  he  goes  round  to  where 
the  celebrant  stands;  here  he  kneels  facing  sideways 
(north)  on  the  step.  The  celebrant  turns  to  him  and 
rests  the  right  hand  on  the  book.  The  subdeacon 
kisses  the  hand  and  waits  with  bowed  head  while  the 
celebrant  mJakes  the  sign  of  the  cross  over  him  in  si- 
lence. He  hands  the  book  back  to  the  master  of  cere- 
monies and  then  carries  the  Missal  round  to  the  other 
side  for  the  celebrant's  Gospel. 

A^.a  sung  Mass  we  have  seen  that  the  Epistle  majr 
be  chanted  oy  a  lector  in  a  surplice  (Ritus  celebr.,  yi, 
8;  the  text  even  says  that  this  should  be  done:  "  Epis- 
tolam  cantet  in  loco  consueto  aliquis  lector  super- 
peUiceo  indutus'').  In  this  case  he  does  not  go  to 
KISS  the  celebrant's  hand  afterwards  (ibid.).  C^er- 
ally,  however,  the  celebrant  chants  the  Epistle  him- 
self at  the  comer  of  the  altar,  using  the  same  tone  as 
would  a  subdeacon.  "Deo  gratias"  should  not  bo 
answered  in  this  case  either.  At  low  Mass  the  Epis- 
tle is  read  by  the  celebrant  in  its  place  after  the  last 
Collect.    The  server  answers,  "  Deogratias  ". 

V.  Other  Lessons  at  Mass. — There  are  a  good 
many  occasions  in  the  year  on  which  one  or  more  les- 
sons still  precede  the  Epistle,  according  to  the  older 
custom.  They  are  all  days  of  a  penitential  nature, 
conspicuously  the  embeivdays.  The  lessons  are  al- 
wavs  separated  by  Graduals  or  Tracts,  generally  by 
Collects  too.  On  the  Advent  ember  Wednesday,  after 
the  first  Collect  a  lesson  from  Isaias,  ii,  is  read,  then 
comes  a  Gradual,  the  Collect  of  the  day  followed  by  the 
other  two  that  are  said  in  Advent  (or  by  commemora- 
tions), and  a  second  lesson  (the  Epistle)  from  Is., 
vii,  and  lastly  a  second  Gradual  before  the  Gospel. 
The  Advent  ember  Saturday  has  four  lessons  from 
Isaias,  each  preceded  bv  a  Collect  and  followed  bv  a 
Graduali  th^  a  lesson  from  Dan.,  iii  (with  its  Otmet 


I.I880HS 


197 


LESSOHS 


before  it),  which  introduces  the  canticle  "  Benedictus 
ee,  Domine";  this  is  sung  as  a  kind  of  Tract.  Then 
come  the  usual  Collects  for  the  day  and  the  Epistle. 
The  Lent  ember  Wednesday  has  two.  the  Saturday 
five  lessons  before  the  Gospel.  The  Whitsun  ember 
Wednesday  has  two  lessons  from  Acts,  Saturday  five 
prophecies  and  an  Epistle.  The  ember-days  in  Sep- 
teniber  have  on  Wednesdav  two  lessons,  on  Saturday 
four  lessons  and  an  Epistle  before  the  Gospel.  Wednes- 
day in  Holy  Week  also  has  two  lessons  from  Isaias. 
In  all  these  cases  the  arrangement  is  the  same:  a  col- 
lect, the  lesson,  a  gradual  or  tract.  The  lessons 
other  than  the  last  (technicaUv  the  Epistle)  are 
chanted  by  the  celebrant  to  the  Epistle  tone;  the  dea- 
con and  subdeacon  answer,  ''Deo  gratias",  except  in 
the  case  of  the  lesson  from  Daniel  that  introduces  the 
canticle  (de  Uerdt,  ''S.  litur^  praxis '',  I,  435). 
Palm  Sunday,  in  the  missa  sicca  in  which  the  pauns  are 
blessed,  has  a  lesson  from  Exodus,  xy  and  xiv,  sung  by 
the  subdeacon  as  if  it  were  an  Epistle,  as  well  as  a 
Gospel.  On  Maundy  Thursday  the  Gospel  of  the 
Mass  is  sung  again  at  the  Maundy  (washing  of  feet). 
The  Mass  of  the  Presanctificd  on  Good  Friday,  as  part 
of  its  archaic  character,  begins  with  three  lessons.  The 
first  is  the  "Prophecy  from  Osoe,  vi.  This  is  sung 
by  a  lector — ^the  only  occasion  on  which^such  a  person 
is  mentioned  in  the  text  of  the  Missal  (apart  from  the 
preface).  A  tract  and  collect  follow.  Then  comes 
the  Epistle  (in  this  case,  according  to  the  rule  for 
we^-days  in  Lent,  a  lesson  from  the  Old  Testament, 
Ex.,  xii)  chanted  by  the  subdeacon  in  the  usual  way, 
another  tract,  and  the  Gospel  (the  Passion  from  8t, 
John). 

Hol]r  Saturday  and  Whitsun  eve  keep  a  relic  of  very 
early  times  in  the  long  series  of  lessons  (called  here  too 
"Pfophecies")  before  the  Mass.  It  is  often  said  that 
they  represent  the  last  instruction  of  the  catechumens 
before  l>aptism.  Mgr  BatilTol  ("Histoire  du  Br6- 
viaire  Romain",  Paris,  1895,  pp.  114-115)  and  Father 
Thurston  ("Lent  and  Holy  Week",  London,  1904) 
see  in  them  rather  a  renmant  of  the  old  vigil-office  of 
the  type  of  the  fourth-century  vigil,  but  now  despoiled 
of  the  psalms  that  once  alternated  with  the  lessons. 
Tlie  nunier  of  the  Prophecies  on  Holy  Saturday 
varied  in  different  churches.  Durandus,  who  ex- 
plains them  in  the  usual  medieval  way  as  instructions 
for  the  catechumens,  says:  "In  some  churches  four 
lessons  are  read,  in  some  six,  in  some  twelve,  and  in 
some  fourteen",  and  proceeds  to  give  mystic  reasons 
for  these  numbers  (Rationale,  vi,  81 ) .  The  number  at 
Rome  seems  to  have  been  always,  as  it  is  now,  twelve. 
A  tradition  ascribes  the  arrangement  of  these  twelve 
to  St.  Gregory  I.  They  were  once  chanted  first  in 
Latin  and  then  in  Greek.  As  they  stand  in  the  Missal 
th^  represent  very  well  a  general  survey  of  the  Old 
Testament  as  a  preparation  for  Christ;  the  Collects 
which  follow  each  emphasize  this  idea.  The  eighth 
and  ninth  only  are  followed  by  Tracts.  They  are 
chanted  by  readers  (now  practically  anyone  from 
the  choir)  before  the  altar,  while  the  celebrant  reads 
them  in  a  low  voice  at  the  epistle  side.  They  begin 
without  any  title.  The  celebrant,  of  course,  sinj^s  the 
CoUect  that  follows  each.  Their  tone  is  given  in  the 
appendix  of  the  Vatican  Missal  (no.  11).  It  agrees 
iimh  that  for  lessons  at  Matins;  namely,  they  are 
chanted  on  one  note  (do)  with  a  fall  of  a  perfect  fifth 
(to  fa)  on  the  last  syllable  before  each  full  stop,  a  fall 
of  half  a  tone  (si)  before  a  colon,  and  the  same  cadence 
for  questions  as  in  the  Epistle  (see  above).  Only  the 
last  cadence  is  different,  being  formed  of  the  four  notes 
re,  do,  «>>,  81)^,  on  the  last  four  syllables.  The  lessons 
on  YHiitsun  eve  are  (like  the  whole  service)  an  imita- 
tion of  Holy  Saturday.  It  is  supposed  that  the  rites 
of  the  Easter  vigil,  including  the  baptisms,  were  trans- 
f emd  to  Whitsun  eve  in  the  North  because  of  the  cold 
climate.  Th^r  then  reacted  so  as  to  produce  a  dupli- 
catkm,  such  tm  is  not  uncommon  in  tne  Roman  Rite. 


The  whole  rite  follows  that  of  Easter  eve  exactly;  but 
there  are  only  six  prophecies,  being  the  3rd,  4th,  11th 
8th,  6th,  and  7th  of  the  Easter  series. 

VI.  Lessons  in  the  Office. — Lessons  of  various 
kinds  also  form  a  very  important  part  of  the  canonical 
hours  in  all  rites.  The  essential  and  original  ele- 
ments of  the  Divine  Office  in  East  and  West  are  the 
singing  of  psalms,  the  reading  of  lessons,  and  saying 
of  prayers.  The  Canons  of  flippolytus  (second  cen- 
tury) ordain  that  clerks  arc  to  come  together  at  cock- 
crow and  "occupy  themselves  with  psalms  and  the 
reading  of  Scripture  and  with  prayers"  (can.  xxi). 
The  history  of  these  lessons  is  bound  up  closely  with 
that  of  the  Office  itself  (oae  Baumer,  "ueschichte  dee 
Breviers",  Freiburg,  1895,  ch.  ii,  etc.;  Batiffol^  "His- 
toire  du  Br^viaireRomain",  Paris,  1895,  ch.  i,  etc.). 
We  may  note  here  that  in  the  Office,  as  in  the  Liturgy, 
we  see  at  first  the  principle  of  continuous  readings  from 
the  Bible;  to  these  are  added  the  reading  of  Acts  of 
Martyrs  and  then  of  homilies  of  approved  Fathers. 
In  the  West  this  idea  ha«  becYi  preser\'ed  more  exactly 
in  the  Office  than  in  Ihe  Mass.  In  the  Roman  and 
indeed  in  all  Western  Rites  the  most  important  les- 
sons belong  to  the  night  Office,  the  noctums  that  we 
now  call  Matins.  The  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  (d.  543) 
gives  us  exactly  the  arrangement  still  observed  in  the 
monastic  rite  (chap.  xi).  The  development  of  the 
Roman  Rite  is  described  by  Batiffol,  op.  cit.  (chaps, 
ii  and  iii  especially).  Till  the  seventh  century  the 
ferial  Noctum  had  no  lessons,  that  of  Sunday  had 
after  the  twelve  psalms  three  lessons  from  Scripture; 
the  lessons  followed  from  the  text  of  the  Bible  so  that 
it  was  read  through  (except  the  Gospels  and  Psalms) 
in  a  year.  The  distribution  of  the  books  was  much 
the  same  as  now  (Batiffol,  op.  cit.,  p.  93).  In  the 
seventh  century  lessons  began  to  be  read  in  the  ferial 
Office  too.  The  presiding  priest  or  bishop  gave  a  sign 
when  enough  had  been  read;  the  reader  ended,  as  now, 
with  the  ejaculation,  "Tu  autem  Domine  miserere 
nobis",  and  the  choir  answered,  "Deo  gratias". 

A  further  development  of  the  Sunday  Office  men- 
tioned by  St.  Gregory  I  (d.  604)  was  that  a  second  and 
third  noctum  were  added  to  the  first.  Each  of  these 
had  three  psalms  and  three  lessons  taken,  not  from 
the  Bible,  but  from  the  works  of  the  Fathers  (Batiffol, 
p.  96).  For  these  lessons  a  hbrarj'  of  their  works  was 
required,  till  the  homilies  and  treatises  to  be  read  be- 
gan to  be  collected  in  books  called  homilmria.  Paul 
the  Deacon  made  a  famous  collection  of  this  kind.  It 
was  published  by  authority  of  Charles  the  Great,  who 
himself  wrote  a  preface  to  it;  it  was  used  throughout 
his  kingdom.  It  became  the  chief  source  of  our  pres- 
ent Roman  series  of  les.sons  from  the  Fathers  (in  P.  L., 
XCV).  Eventually  then  the  arrangement  of  lessons 
in  the  Roman  Rite  has  bec^ome  this:  Tlie  lessons 
from  Scripture  are  arranged  throughout  the  year  in 
the  proprium  ternporis.  They  form  what  is  called  the 
scriptura  occurrens.  The  chief  books  of  the  Bible  (ex- 
cept the  Gospels  and  Psalms)  are  begun  and  read  for  a 
time.  The  shortening  of  the  lessons,  overlapping  of 
seasons,  and  especially  the  number  of  feasts  that  have 
special  lessons  have  produced  the  result  that  no  book 
is  ever  finished.  But  the  principle  of  at  least  begin- 
ning each  book  is  mahitained,  so  that  if  for  any  re^ison 
the  scriptura  occurrens  of  a  day  on  which  a  book  is  be- 
gun falls  out,  the  lessons  of  that  day  arc  read  instead 
of  the  normal  ones  on  the  next  free  day. 

Although  the  ecclesiastical  year  begins  with  Ad- 
vent, the  course  of  the  scriptwa  occurrens  is  begun  at 
Septuagesima  with  Genesis.  This  is  a  relic  of  an  older 
calculation  that  began  the  year  in  the  spring  (see 
above,  II).  The  course  of  the  continuous  reading  is 
continually  interrupted  for  special  reiusons.  So  the 
first  Sunday  of  I^nt  has  lessons  from  II  Cor.,  vi  and 
vii  ("Now  is  the  acceptable  time").  The  week-days 
in  Lent  have  no  scriptura  occurrni^  but  a  Gospel  and  a 
homily,  according  to  the  rule  for  the  feria)  that  were 


LESSONS 


198 


LESSOmi 


liturgical  from  the  beginning  and  have  a  special  Mass. 
Genesis  goes  on  on  the  second  and  third  Sundays  of 
Lent;  on  the  fourth  comes  a  pcricope  from  Exodus. 
Passion  and  Palm  Sunday  have  lessons  from  Jeremias 
.(beginning  on  Passion  Simday)  for  a  special  reason 
(the  connexion  of  the  Prophet  of  the  destruction  of  the 
temple  with  Our  Lord's  Passion).  Easter  Day  and  its 
octave  have  only  one  noctum,  so  no  scriptura  occur- 
tens.  Low  Sunday  has  special  lessons  (Col.,  iii)  about 
the  Resurrection.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  begin  on 
the  day  after  Low  Sunday  and  are  read  for  a  fortnight 
— according  to  the  old  tradition  that  connects  them 
with  Eastertide.  The  Apocalypse  begins  on  the  third 
Sunday  after  Easter  and  lasts  for  a  week.  On  the 
fourth  Sunday  St.  James's  Epistle  begins,  on  th^  fifth 
St.  Peter's  First  Epistle.  Ascension  Day  naturally 
has  its  own  story  from  Acts,  i;  but  on  the  next  day 
II  Peter  begins.  The  Sunday  following  brings  the 
First  Epistle  of  St.  John;  the  next  Wednesday,  II 
John;  the  Friday,  III  John;  Saturday,  the  Epistle  of 
St.  Jude.  Pentecost  and  its  octave,  like  Easter,  have 
no  scriptura  occurrens. 

It  will  be  noticed  tliat,  just  as  Lent  has  on  its  ferise 
only  lessons  from  the  Old  Testament,  even  in  the 
EpLstlcs  at  Mass,  so  Paschal  time  has  only  the  New 
Testament,  even  in  the  Office.  The  feast  of  the  Holy 
Trinitv  has  special  lessons  (Is.,  vi — the  Seraphim  who 
cry:  lloly.  holy,  holy);  the  next  day  we  come  back  to 
the  normal  course  and  begin  the  First  Book  of  Kings. 

II  Kings  begins  on  the  fifth  Sunday  after  Pentecost, 

III  Kings  on  the  seventh,  IV  Kings  on  the  ninth.  On 
the  first  Sunday  of  August  (from  which  day  till  Ad- 
vent we  count  by  the  months  except  for  the  Mass  and 
the  lessons  of  the  third  nocturn)  the  Books  of  Wis- 
dom begin  with  Proverbs;  Ecclesiastes  comes  on  the 
second  Sunday  of  August,  Wisdom  on  the  third,  Ec- 
clesiasticus  on  the  fourth.  Job  comes  on  the  first 
Sunday  of  September,  Tobias  on  the  third,  Judith  on 
the  fourth,  Esther  on  the  fifth.  October  brings  on  its 
first  Sunday  I  Machabees,  on  its  fourth  II  Maehabees. 
The  Prophets  begin  in  November:  Ezekiel  on  the  first 
Sunday,  Daniel  on  the  third,  Osee  on  the  fourth,  and 
then  the  other  minor  Prophets  in  very  short  frag- 
ments, obviously  in  a  hurry,  till  Advent.  Advent  has 
Isaias  throiighout.  The  mst  Sunday  after  Christmas 
begins  St.  Paul's  Epistles  with  Romans;  they  con- 
tinue to  Septuagesima.  I  0)rinthians  comes  on  the 
first  Sunday  after  Epiphany,  II  Corinthians  on  the 
second  Sunday,  Galatians  on  the  third,  Ephesians  the 
following  Wednesdav,  Philippians  on  the  fourth  Sun- 
day, CJolossians  on  the  next  Tuesday,  I  Thessalonians 
on  Thursday,  II  Thessalonians  on  Saturday,  I  Tim- 
othy on  the  fifth  Sunday,  II  Timothy  on  Tuesday, 
Titus  on  Thursday,  Philemon  on  Saturday,  Hebrews 
on  the  sixth  Sunday.  We  have  here  again  the  same 
crowded  changes  as  at  the  end  of  the  season  after 
Pentecost.  The  arrangement  then  is  one  of  continu- 
ous readings  from  each  book,  though  the  books  do  not 
follow  in  order,  but  are  distributed  with  regard  to  ap- 
propriateness. If  we  count  the  Pentateuch  as  one 
book  (that  seems  to  be  the  idea),  we  see  that  all  the 
books  of  the  Bible  are  read,  in  part  at  least,  except 
Josue,  Judges,  Ruth,  Paralipomenon,  and  the  Canticle 
of  Canticles.  Cardinal  (iuinones  in  his  famous  reformed 
Breviary  (issued  by  Paul  III  in  1535,  withdrawn  by 
Paul  IV  in  1558)  changed  all  thw  and  arranged  the 
reading  of  the  whole  Bible  in  a  year  (see  Batiffol,  on. 
cit.,  222-231).  His  proposal,  however,  came  to  notn- 
inff  ^nd  we  still  use  the  traditional  Office,  with  the  de- 
velopments time  has  brought. 

The  arrangement  of  Matins  is  this:  On  ferise  and 
simple  feasts  there  is  only  one  nocturn  with  its  three 
lessons.  On  ferias  all  three  are  from  the  scriptura  oc- 
currens: on  simples  the  third  lesson  is  an  account  of 
the  saint  insteari  of  the  Scriptural  one.  The  exception 
is  when  a  feria  has  its  own  Mass.  Such  are  the  days 
that  were  originally  liturgical  days — week-days  in 


Lenti  ember-days,  and  vigils.  In  this  case  the  lessons 
consist  of  the  fragment  of  the  Gospel  with  a  homily  as 
in  the  third  nocturn  of  semi-douoles.  On  semi-dou- 
bles and  all  higher  feasts  (Sundays  are  semi-doubles) 
there  are  three  noctums,  each  with  three  lessons. 
Such  days  are  the  festa  novem  lectianum.  The 
first  nocturn  has  always  Scriptural  lessons — ^those  of 
the  scriptura  occurreris,  or  on  special  feasts,  a  text 
chosen  for  its  suitability.  The  second  nocturn  has 
lessons  from  a  Father  of  the  Church,  here  called  sermo, 
a  life  of  the  saint  on  his  feast,  or  a  description  of  the 
event  of  the  day.  Thus,  for  instance,  St.  Peter's  Chains 
(1  August)  tells  the  stoi^  of  their  finding  and  how  they 
came  to  Rome;  S.  Maria  tit.  Auxiliiun  C^hristianorum 
(24  May)  in  the  sixth  lesson  teUs  "ex  publicis  monu- 
mentis  the  story  of  the  battle  of  Lepanto.  Some- 
times papal  Bulls  are  read  in  the  second  nocturn,  as 
the  Bull  of  Pius  IX  (Ineffabilis  Deus)  during  the  Oc- 
tave of  the  Immaculate  Conception  (8  December), 
The  second  nocturn  continually  receives  new  lessons, 
written  by  various  people  and  approved  by  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Rites.  Many  of  the  older  ones  are 
taken  from  the  "Liber  Pontihcalis".  The  third  noc- 
turn has  for  its  lessons  first  a  fragment  (the  first 
clause)  of  the  Gospel  read  at  Mass  followed  by  the 
words,  et  reliqua^  then  a  sermon  (called  Homiha) 
of  a  Father  explaining  it  through  the  three  lessons 
(the  7th,  8th,  and  9th).  In  cases  of  concurrence  of 
feasts,  the  feast  commemorated  (or  the  feria,  if  it  be  a 
liturgical  day)  has  its  own  lesson  (the  life  of  the  saint, 
or  Gospel-fragment,  and  homily)  read  as  the  nintii 
lesson. 

The  monastic  Office  differs  only  in  that  it  has  four 
lessons  in  each  nocturn  (twelve  altogether)  and  the 
whole  Gospel  of  the  day  read  after  the  Te  Deum. 
This  practice  of  reading  the  Gospel  at  the  end  of 
Matins  was  common  in  many  medieval  rites.  Thus  at 
(]?hristmas  in  England  the  genealogy  of  Our  Lord  from 
St.  Matthew  was  read  at  Christmas,  and  the  one  in  St. 
Luke  at  the  Epiphany  at  this  place.  So  in  the  By- 
zantine Rite  the  Gospel  of  the  day  is  read  at  the  Orth- 
ros. 

The  other  canonical  hours  have  short  lessons  called 
capitula,  ori^nally  lectiunculce,  sometimes  camtdla. 
The  Ambrosian  Breviary  calls  them  epistolelus  and 
collectiones.  These  are  very  short  passages  from  the 
Bible,  generally  continuous  throughout  the  hours, 
connected  with  the  feast  or  occasion.  Very  often  they 
are  from  the  same  source  as  the  Epistle.  At  Lauds 
and  Vespers  the  capitidum  is  chanted  by  the  officiat- 
ing priest  after  the  fifth  psalm,  before  the  hymn.  At 
Terce,  Sext,  None  he  chants  it  af t«r  the  psalm.  Prime 
and  Compline  (originally  private  prayers  of  monks) 
are  in  many  ways  different  from  the  other  hours. 
They  have  always  the  same  capitula.  Prime  has  I 
Tim.,  i,  17  (omitting  the  word  autem)  chanted  in 
tile  same  place.  Compline  has  Jer.,  xiv,  9b  (adding 
the  word  sanctum  after  nomen  and  the  final  clause, 
Domine,  Deus  noster).  This  is  sung  after  the  hymn 
by  the  celebrant.  At  Prime  the  officiating  priest 
chants  a  second  lesson  (called  lectio  hrevis)  at  the 
end,  after  the  blessing  that  follows  the  pTece9  and 
the  prayer  "Dirigere  et  sanctificare".  For  the  pro- 
prium  temporis  thi«»  is  ^ven  in  the  Breviary  (in  the 
psalterium) ;  on  feastjj  it  is  the  capUulum  of  None,  with 
the  addition  of  "Tu  autem  Domine  miserere  nobis". 
0)mpline  begins  after  the  blessing  with  a  lectio  bretds 
from  I  Peter,  v,  8,  9a  (with  the  additional  word 
Fr aires  at  the  beginning  and  the  clause,  Tu  aiUem, 
ete.,  at  the  end).  All  these  short  lessons  are 
answered  by  the  words  Deo  graiias,  but  the  capit- 
ula do  not  have  the  clause  "Tu  autem",  ete.  The 
Roman  Ritual  has  a  few  isolated  lessons  for  special 
occasions.  The  Office  of  the  "Visitation  and  care  of 
the  sick"  has  four  Gospels  from  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke, 
and  John  (all  about  healing  the  sick) ,  and  the  b^inning 
of  John.    The  "  Order  of  commending  a  soul "  has  two 


LESTaANOE 


199 


LESTRAliaE 


Gospels — ^the  high-priestly  prayer  in  John,  xvii,  and 
the  Passion  according  to  St.  John.  The  exorcism  has 
three  Gospels  (about  driving  out  devils).  In  the 
Pontifical,  a  Gospel  (Luke,  ix)  is  appointed  to  be  read 
at  the  openine  of  83mod8,  before  the  Veni  Creator,  and 
another  one  (Luke,  x)  is  given  for  the  end  of  the  bless- 
ing of  bells.  In  some  countries  (Germany  and  Aus- 
tria) it  is  the  custom  to  sing  the  beginning  of  each 
Gospel  during  the  Corpus  Cnristi  procession  at  the 
altars  of  repose,  before  the  benediction. 

All  the  Eastern  rites  in  the  same  way  have  lessons 
of  various  kinds  as  part  of  the  canonical  hours.  They 
constantly  use  psalms  as  lessons;  that  is  to  say.  the 
whole  text  of  a  psalm  is  read  straight  through  by  a 
reader,  as  we  read  our  lessons.  The  choral  part  of  the 
Office  consists  chiefly  of  verses,  responses,  and  ex- 
clamations of  various  kinds  (the  Byzantine  SHchera, 
Troparta,  KorUakiay  etc.,  etc.,)  that  are  not  taken 
from  the  Bible,  but  are  composed  by  various  hymn- 
writers.  In  the  Byzantine  Office  three  lessons,  gener- 
ally from  the  Old  Test££ment  (called  irapoifdai) ,  are 
read  by  a  lector  towards  the  end  of  the  hesperinos, 
soon  after  the  singing  of  the  ^(os  l\ap6v.  In  the  Or- 
ihras  the  priest  ree^is  the  Gospel  of  the  day  shortly  be- 
fore the  Canon  is  sung.  In  the  Canon  at  the  end  of 
the  sixth  ode  a  lesson  called  avva^dpioyf  describing  the 
life  of  the  saint,  or  containing  reflections  on  the  feast  or 
occasion,  is  read.  If  several  feasts  concur  the  var- 
ious synaiaria  follow  each  other  (see  Fortescue, 
"Canon  dans  le  rite  byzantin",  in  Caorol,  "Diction- 
naire  d'arch^ologie").  The  day-hours  have  no  les- 
sons, except  that  many  troparta  throughout  the  Office 
describe  tne  mystery  that  is  celebrated  and  give  in- 
formation to  the  hearers  in  a  way  that  makes  them 
often  venr  like  what  we  should  call  short  lessons. 
Lessons,  Epistles,  and  Gospels  are  read  at  many  spe- 
cial services;  thus  the  *'  Blessing  of  the  Waters"  on  the 
Epiphany  has  three  lessons  from  Isaias,  an  Epistle 
(I  Cor.,  X,  1-4),  and  a  Gospel  (Mark,  i,  9-11).  The 
Byzantine  synararia  and  menologia  are  described  by 
Leo  Allatius  (De  libris  eccl.  Graec,  I,  xv). 

DncHESNB,  Orioinea  du  ndte  chrHien  (Paris.  1808);  Gihr, 
Da*  heUioe  Mesaopfer,  II  (Freiburg.  1897).  $40.  pp.  400-08; 
BciasEL,  EnUUhung  der  Perikopen  des  rdmiachen  Measbuchea 
(Fn&buTK,  1907);  Baitmer,  Geachichte  dea  Breviera  (Freibure, 
1895);  BxTirFOL,  Hiatoire  du  Br&viaire  Romain  (Paris,  1896); 
Danibu  Codez  Liturgicua,  I  (Leipzig,  1847);  Probst.  Liturffie 
dea  IV.  Jahrhundarta  (Munster.  1893);  Idem,  Die  a  It  eaten  rom- 
iachen  SakramerUarien  und  Ordinea  (MUnster,  1802) ;  Maltzew. 
Die  Nachiwaehe,  oder  Abend  und  MorgenffottradienH  der  Orth. 
Kath,  Kirehe  dea  Morgenlandea  (Berlin.  1802). 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Lastnuige,  Louis-Henri  de  (in  religion,  Dom 
Augustine),  b.  in  1754,  in  the  Chiiteau  de  Colombier- 
le-Vieux,  Ard^che,  France;  d.  at  Lyons,  16  July,  1827. 
He  was  the  fourteenth  child  of  Loui8-C6sar  de  Les- 
trange,  oflScer  in  the  household  of  King  Louis  XV, 
and  Jeanne-Perrette  de  Lalor,  daughter  of  an  Irish 
gentleman  who  had  followed  James  II,  King  of  Eng- 
land, to  France  in  1688.  He  was  ordained  priest  in 
1778,  and  was  attached  to  the  parish  of  Saint-^ulpice. 
In  1780,  Mgr  de  Pompignan,  Archbishop  of  Vienne,  in 
Dauphin^y  chose  him  for  his  vicai^general,  with  the 
ulterior  determination  of  having  him  as  his  coadjutor 
with  the  right  of  future  succession.  This  prospect  of 
being  made  bishop  alarmed  the  Abb^  de  Lestrange. 
and  in  the  same  year  he  severed  all  the  ties  that  bound 
him  to  the  world,  and  entered  the  celebrated  monas- 
tery of  La  Trappe.  He  was  master  of  the  novices  in 
that  monastery,  when  a  decree  of  the  National  As- 
sembly, dated  4  December,  1790,  suppressed  the  re- 
ligious orders  in  France.  Dom  Augustine  with 
twenty-four  religious  left  for  Switzerland,  where  the 
Senate  of  Fribourg  authorize<l  them  to  take  up  their 
residence  in  Val-Sainte,  an  ancient  Carthusian  mon- 
astery about  fifteen  miles  from  the  city  of  Fribourg. 
From  Val-Sainte,  Dom  Augustine  estal)lished  foun- 
dations at  Santa  Susana«  in  Aragon,  Spain,  at  Mont 
Biac  in  Piedmont,  Italy,  at  Westmallo,  Belgium,  and 


at  Lulworth,  England.  In  1798  the  French  troops  in- 
vaded Switzerland,  and  the  Trappists  were  obliged  to 
leave  the  countrv.  Some  of  them  settled  at  Kenty. 
near  Cracow;  others  at  Zydichin.  in  the  Diocese  of 
Lusko,  and  in  Podolia.  In  1802  Switzerland  recalled 
them,  and  Dom  Augustine  took  possession  once  more 
of  Val-Sainte,  and  in  the  following  year  he  sent  a  col- 
ony to  America  under  Dom  Urbain  Guillet. 

In  1804  Dom  Augustine  founded  the  monastery  of 
Cervara  in  the  Republic  of  Genoa,  and  Napoleon  not 
only  authorized  the  establishment,  but  granted  it  a 
revenue  of  10,000  francs.  Moreover  he  desired  that  a 
similar  institution  be  founded  on  the  Alps,  at  Mont- 
Gendvre,  to  serve  as  a  refuge  for  the  soldiers  who  were 
to  pass  to  and  fro  between  Italy  and  France.  To  se- 
cure the  success  of  this  establishment  he  granted  it 
an  allowance  of  24,000  francs.  This  protection  was 
not,  however,  of  long  duration.  The  Republic  of 
Genoa  was  united  to  the  empire,  and  there,  as  in  all 
the  other  states  under  the  sway  of  Napoleon,  an  oath 
of  fidelity  to  the  empire  was  exacted  from  ecclesiastics 
and  religious.  The  religious  of  Cervara,  acting  on  tlie 
advice  of  some  eminent  personages,  and  of  some  in- 
fluential members  of  the  ciergy  who  assured  them  that 
the  pope  had  allowed  the  oath,  took  the  oath  of  fidel- 
ity. Dom  Augustine,  who  had  received  from  Pius  VU, 
then  prisoner  at  Savona,  knowledge  of  the  Bull  of  ex- 
communication issued  against  the  spoliator  of  the 
States  of  the  Holy  See,  commanded  the  Prior  of  Cer- 
vara to  make  immediate  retractation.  The  emperor 
became  furious.  He  caused  Dom  Augustine  to  be  ar- 
rested at  Bordeaux  and  thrown  into  prison.  At  the 
same  time,  by  a  sweeping  decree  of  28  July,  he  sup- 
pressed all  the  Trappist  monasteries  throughout  the 
empire.  The  prefect  of  Bordeaux,  upon  the  entreaties 
of  several  of  Dom  Augustine's  friends,  gave  him  the 
limits  of  the  city  for  his  prison.  The  abbot  availed 
himself  of  the  Uberty  thus  accorded  him  to  hasten  the 
departure  of  his  religious  for  America;  he  himself  ob- 
tained from  the  police  permission  to  go  to  Val-Sainte 
and  Mont-Gen^vre,  where  his  presence  was  required. 
Pursued  again  by  the  emperor,  he  crossed  Germany 
and  arrived  at  Riga,  whence  he  left  for  England  and 
America. 

Dom  Augustine  arrived  in  New  York  in  December, 
1813.  The  Jesuits  had  just  abandoned  a  building 
which  they  had  in  that  city,  and  which  they  had  used 
for  a  classical  school.  The  edifice  occupied  the  place 
where  now  stands  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  on  Fifth 
Avenue.  Dom  Augustine  purchased  the  site  for  the 
sum  of  $10,000,  and  in  1814,  on  the  downfall  of  Nar 
poleon,  Dom  Augustine  returned  to  France  and  took 
possession  once  more  of  his  former  monastery  of  La 
Trappe.  But  his  trials  were  not  ended.  He  was  ao- 
cuseu  of  imposing  extraordinary  hardships  on  his  re- 
ligious; he  was  reproached  with  his  frequent  voyages 
and  long  absences.  The  Bishop  of  S6ez,  in  whose  dio- 
cese is  the  monastery  of  La  Trappe,  deceived  by  un- 
just insinuations,  took  the  part  of  the  detractors  and 
claimed  over  the  monastery  the  authority  of  "  direct 
superior".  Dom  Augustine,  to  put  an  end  to  these 
disputes  with  his  bishop,  abandoned  La  Trappe,  and 
sought  refuge  at  Bellefontaine,  in  the  Diocese  of  An- 
gers. The  complaints  were  carried  to  Rome  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars.  Dom  Augustine  was  summoned  to  Rome. 
He  returned  justified,  and  loaded  with  favours  by  the 
pope.  Posterity  has  given  Dom  Augustine  de  Les- 
trange the  title  of  "Saviour  of  La  Trappe".  Ilis  re- 
mains repose  in  the  monastery  of  Iia  Trappe  in  the 
Diocese  of  S^z  alongside  those  of  Ablx)t  de  Ranc<5. 

RigUmenta  de  La  Trappe  et  Uaa^ea  de  la  Val-Sainte  (2  vo1b», 
Fribourg,  1794);  Odya^e  Monaatique^  Dom  Auguatin  de  Lea- 
(range  et  lea  Trappxatea  pendant  la  Revolution  (La  Grande- 
Trappe,  1898) ;  VERrrA.Cftoour.  La  Trappe  et  Bellefontaine {Paiia, 
1883);  Gallardin,  Lea  Trappiaiea  et  VOrdre  de  Citeaux  au 
XIX'  aiMe  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1§44);   Vie  du  R.  P.  Dom  Urbain 


Guillet  (Chape)le>MontUgeon,  1899). 


F.  M.  GiLOAs. 


UESnEUB 


200 


LE  TELUEB 


Lesneur,  Franpoib  ikTSTxcHE,  Jesuit  missionary 
and  philologist,  of  the  Abnaki  mission  in  Canada; 
b.  (according  to  notes  given  by  Thwaites,  apparently 
from  official  sources)  near  Coutances,  Normand>r,  22 
July,  1685  or  1686,  though  Maurault  gives  his  birth- 
place as  Lunel,  in  Languedoc;  d.  at  Montreal,  28  or 
26  April,  1760,  or  (according  to  Maurault)  at  Quebec, 
in  1755.  Although  the  principal  facts  of  his  work  ana 
writings  are  well  known,  there  is  remarkable  uncer- 
tainty as  to  dates^  places,  and  even  his  proper  name. 
This  imcertainty  is  probably  largely  due  to  the  burn- 
ing of  the  St.  Francis  mission,  with  all  its  records,  by 
the  English  in  1759.  He  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate 
in  1704  or  1705,  arrived  in  Canada  in  1715  or  1716^ 
studied  the  language  for  some  months  at  the  Abnaki 
mission  of  Sillery,  and  then  began  work  at  St.  Francis, 
the  principal  Abnaki  mission,  remaining  there  until 
1727  or  later.  He  was  at  Montreal  in  1730  and  dur- 
ing 1749-54.  According  to  Maurault,  he  arrived  in 
Canada  in  June,  1715,  and  after  a  short  stay  at  Sillery 
was  sent  to  B^cancour,  another  Abnaki  mission,  on 
the  St.  Lawrence,  where,  with  the  exception  of  occa- 
sional parochial  service,  he  remained  until  1753,  when 
he  retired  to  Quebec.  The  name  is  variously  given 
as  Francois  Eustache  (Maurault),  Jacques  I^ran^ois 
(Thwaites),  and  Jacques  (Calumet  Dance  MS.).  In 
connexion  with  his  study  of  Indian  things,  he  wrote, 
besides  prayers,  sermons,  etc.,  in  the  Abnaki  lan- 

Siage,  a  valuable  account  of  the  celebrated  Calumet 
ance,  which  gave  so  much  trouble  to  the  early 
missionaries.  The  original  French  manuscript  is  pre- 
served at  St.  Francis  mission,  PierreviUe,  Canada,  and 
was  published  in  the  "Soir^  Canadiennes"  of  1864. 
Bfanuscript  copies  are  in  St.  Mary's  College,  Montreal, 
and  with  the  Wisconsin  Historical  Society,  Madison. 
According  to  Maurault,  he  compiled  also  a  Dictionary 
of  Abnaki,  of  900  pages,  still  in  existence,  but  we  are 
not  told  where  the  manuscript  is  preserved. 

Thwaites  (ed.),  The  Jesuit  Retationa  and  Allied  Documenia, 
LXIX  (Cleveland,  1900);  Madrault.  Histoire  de»  AbenakU 
(Sorel,  1866);  Pilling,  Bibliography  of  the  Algonquian  Lan- 
guagea  iWaxAangbon,  1891). 

James  Mooney. 

Lete,  a  titular  see  of  Macedonia,  know^n  by  its  coins 
and  inscriptions,  mentioned  in  Ptolemy  (Ilf,  xiii),  the 

S hunger  Pliny,  IV,  x,  17,  Harpocration,  Stephanus 
ycantius,  and  Suidas,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  in 
Nicephorus  Brj'eimius  (IV,  xix).  The  spelling  *' Lite" 
is  incorrect  ana  comes  from  iotaoism.  Lete  appears  in 
some  "NotitiaB  episcopatuum  "  of  a  late  perioa  as  suf- 
fragan of  Thessaionica,  later  imited  to  the  See  of  Ren- 
tina.  Lete  and  Rentina  even  had  Greek  bishops  until 
the  eighteenth  century.  Lete  is  to-day  the  small  vil- 
lage ofATvati  (1000  inhabitants)  situated  a  little  north 
of  Salonica. 

DucHESNC  in  Revue  archiologi^  (1875);  Ideu,  Archives  dea 
Mission*  scientifiques^  3rd  series.  III.  276  sq.;  Deiotsas, 
'Apyeua  vcwypo^ia  ri}c  McuccSoWac  (Athens,  1870),  250-52;  Idem, 
•H  Moiteioi'ta,  I  (Athens,  1896),  666-74. 

S.  P^UDES. 

Le  Tellier,  Cuarle»-Maurick,  Archbishop  of 
Reims,  b.  at  Turin,  1642;  d.  at  Reims,  1710.  The  son 
of  Michel  Le  Tellier  and  brother  of  Ix)uvois  (both 
ministers  of  I^ouis  XIV),  he  studied  for  the  Church, 
won  the  doctorate  of  theology  at  the  Sorbonne,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  1G66.  Provided,  even  before 
his  ordination,  with  several  royal  abl>evs,  he  nipidly 
rose  to  the  coadjutorship  of  Langres,  then  to  that  of 
Reims,  and  became  titular  of  that  sec  at  the  age  of 
twenty-nine.  His  administration  was  marked  by 
zeal  and  success  along  the  lines  of  popular  education, 
training  of  clerics,  parochial  organization,  restoration 
of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  extirpation  of  Protestant- 
ism from  the  Sedan  diKtrict,  etc.  The  importance  of 
his  see  together  with  the  roval  favour  brought  him 
to  the  front  in  the  alTairs  of  the  Church  in  France. 
As  secretary  of  the  PeiUe  AsaemWe  of  1681,  he  re- 


ported for  the  king  and  against  th^  pope  on  all  dis* 
puted  points:  the  extension  of  the  royal  claim  called 
rigale^  the  forcible  placing  of  a  Cistercian  abbess  over 
the  Augustinian  nuns  of  Charonne,  and  the  expulsion 
of  the  canonically  elected  vicars  capitular  of  Pamiers. 
The  famous  Galhcan  Assembly  of  1682  was  convened 
at  his  suggestion.  Elected  president  with  Harlay,  he 
caused  the  bishops  to  endorse  the  royal  policy  of  en- 
croachment upon  church  affairs,  and  even  memori- 
alized the  pope  with  a  view  to  noake  him  accept  the 
regale.  His  comparative  moderation  in  the  matter  of 
the  four  Gallican  propositions  was  due  to  Boesuet,  who 
remarked  that  "  tne  ^lory  of  the  regale  would  only  be 
obscured  by  those  odious  propositions."  As  presiaent 
of  the  Assembly  (1700)  wnicn  undertook  to  deal  with 
Jansen^m  and  Laxism  already  judged  by  the  pope. 
Le  Tellier  was  imduly  lenient  with  the  Jansenists  Anirj 
severe  with  theologians  of  repute.  The  same  holds 
true  of  the  various  controversies  in  which  he  took 
part:  the  "Version  de  Mons",  the  theory  of  philo- 
sophical sin,  Molinism,  etc.  In  spits  of  grave  emn 
due  less  to  lack  of  loyalty  to  the  Holy  See  than  to 
e&Tly  education,  royal  fascination,  and  dislike  for  the 
Jesuits,  Le  Tellier  is  remembered  as  a  successful  ad- 
ministrator, an  orator  of  some  merit,  a  promoter  of 
letters,  a  protector  of  Saint  John  Baptist  de  la  SaUe, 
Mabillon,  Kuinart,  etc.,  and  a  bosom  friend  of  Bossuet, 
whom  he  consecrated,  and  visited  on  his  deathbed, 
and  whom  he  induced  to  write  the  "Oraison  fun^brs 
de  Michel  Le  Tellier".  His  manuscripts,  in  sixty  v<rf- 
umcs,  are  at  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale  of  Paris,  and 
his  library  of  50, OCX)  volumes  at  the  Bibliotheque 
Sainte-Genevidve. 

GiLLET,  Charles  -  Maurice  Le  TeUier^  with  an  exhausthrtt 
bibliography  (Paris,  1881),  p.  xii  and  pa«im;  Str-Bsuyb, 
Port-Royal  (ed.  1900),  index. 

J.   F.  SOLLIBR. 

Le  Tellier,  Michel,  b.  16  October,  1643,  of  a  peas- 
ant family,  not  at  Vire  as  has  so  often  been  said, 
but  at  Vast  near  Cherbourg;  d.  at  La  F16che,  2  Sep- 
tember, 1719.  He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  College 
in  Caen,  and  at  18  entered  the  order,  and  became 

grofessor,  then  rector  of  the  College  of  Louis  le 
Irand.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Journal 
de  Tr6voux",  and  opposed  Jansenism  in  three  works: 
"Observations  sur  la  nouvello  ^ition  de  la  version 
fran^oise  du  Nouveau  Testament"  (1672);  "Histoire 
des  cinq  Propositions  de  Jansenius  "  (1699) ;  "  Le  p^re 
Quesnel  s^klitieux  et  h^r^tique"  (1705).  In  1687  he 
took  part  in  the  discussion  then  going  on  about  Chi- 
nese ceremonies,  publishing  a  book  entitled:  "De- 
fense des  nouveaux  chr6tieus  et  des  missionaires  de  la 
Chine,  du  Japon,  et  des  Indcs".  The  tone  of  this 
work  was  displeasing  to  Rome,  but  the  General  of 
the  Jesuits  defended  it  before  the  Congregation  of 
the  Holy  Office.  Greatly  esteemed  by  the  Jesuits, 
no  matter  what  Saint-Simon  may  say  about  him, 
Le  Tellier,  after  the  death  of  Father  Pdtau,  was  en- 
trusted with  the  task  of  finishing  his  work,  "De 
theologicis  dogmatibus''.  From  August  1709  he  be- 
longed to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles- 
Let  tres.  Le  Tellier  was  provincial  of  his  order  in  Paris 
when  Father  La  Chaise,  the  confessor  of  Louis  XIV, 
died,  20  January,  1709.  Godet  des  Marais,  Bishop  oc 
Chartres,  and  La  Ch^tardie,  rector  of  Saint-Sulpice, 
had  a  determining  part  in  Louis's  choice  of  Le  Tellier 
as  his  new  confessor.  Saint-Simon,  giving  credence 
to  a  story  told  b^  a  surgeon,  Mardchal,  attributed  this 
choice  to  the  king's  fear  of  displeasing  the  Jesuits. 
For  two  centuries  the  greater  number  of  historians 
have  followed  Saint-Simon's  estimate  of  Le  Tellier 
and  denounced  that  "  dark,  false,  and  dread-inspiring 
countenance,  which  would  have  struck  terror  if  met 
in  a  lonely  forest",  that  "coarse,  insolent,  impudent 
confessor,  knowing  neither  the  world  nor  moderation, 
neither  rank  nor  consiclerations,  making  no  allowance 
for  anything,  covering  up  his  purposes  uy  ^  thousand 


LiToiminnjx  2r 

winduiKi''.  Scientific  Iiistnry  is  revising  Ihin  hidg- 
ment.  Saint^imon  dibIcco  Le  Tellipr  rcBponsililr  for 
the  dMtructioD  o(  Port-Royal.  Father  Bliard  points 
out  that  since  1695  Harlay  de  Champvailon,  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  and  Louis  XIV  had  contemplated 
iU  destruction;  that  the  seiiure  in  170;)  of  Qucs- 
Ofll'a  papers  had  drawn  the  king's  attention  to  the 
political  dangers  of  Jansenism;  that  as  early  as 
2G  March.  1708,  Clement  XI  at  Mie  request  of  King 
IiOuis  had  united  Port-Royal  des  Champa  with  Port- 
Royal  de  I'aria  and  supproMed  tlie  title  of  the  "Ab- 
baye  des  Chainpe";  and  that  Cardinal  dc  Noaillee, 
who  for  a  year  past  hod  iDtprdictrd  the  members  of 
Port  -  Royal  des 
Ch  impH  from  re- 
ceiving the  sacra- 
ments,   was     pre- 


it-Kii 


ckima  that  I^  Tel- 
licr  in  advising 
episcopal  nomina- 
tions, relentlessly 
pursued  all  eccle- 
siastics  suHpceted 

ommentling  only 
"  barefooteil  friare 
iind  men  ready  for 
anything".  Such 
Blurs  indicate  the 
iittitudeof  the 
sreat  nobleman 
■oinst  priests  who  lackeil  birth;  hut  a  Idler  from 
Fikielon  to  which  Father  Bli:ir(!  draws  attention 
proves  that  in  reality  it  was  F^iielon  who,  at  the  be- 
pnning  of  I«  Tellicr's  influence,  found  him  too  len- 
ient towards  certain  nrie^^ts  with  Jansenist  tendencies, 
and  pointed  out  to  nim  ihc  danger  he  would  incur 
hj  allowii^  the  Jansenist  faction  to  predominate  in 
the  episeopacy.  8ainl>^Simon,  fotlowmc  Marshal's 
■tariea,  aeeuBes  I^  Tcllier  of  having  brought  to  Louis 
XIV  an  Opinion  of  the  doctors  of  the  Stirhonne  in 
order  to  prove  that  he  could  levy  tithes  upon  his  sub- 
ieeta  witn  a  clear  conscience.  Even  atlmitting  the 
Mcuracy  of  Mardchal'ii  assertions,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  necessity  of  defending  the  kingdom 
waa  BO  urgent  that  F^elon  wrot«  on  4  August,  1710, 
"Money  must  be  taken  wherever  it  can  he  found", 
ftod  Ducloe  in  his  "Mfmoires  secrets",  dcelarca  that 
"the  imposition  of  the  tithes  was  perhaps  the  salva- 
tiOD  oT  the  State." 

Le  Tellier  is  accused  by  Saint-Simon  of  having  in 
1713  laboured  jointly  with  Madame  de  Malntcnon 
and  Biasy,  Bishop  of  Meaux,  aeainHt  Cardinal  dc 
Noailles,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  and  used  bis  influence 
with  CInnent  XI,  through  the  Jesuit  Daul>cnton  and 
Cardinal  Fabrom,  to  obtain  the  condemnation  of 
Quesnel.  And  again  after  the  publication  of  the  Bull 
"Unigenitus"  he  wished  to  have  Cardinal  de  Noaillea 
imprisoned,  and  he  increased  the  number  of  "lettrea 
de  cachet",  in  order  to  fill  the  prisonit  with  Jan^en- 
ista.  Father  Bliard  shows  the  capricious  and  exng- 
cerated  nature  of  th^se  stories,  and  establishes  from 
Janaenist  sourcefl  that  during  the  six  years  of  Le 
Tellicr's  influence,  only  twenty-eight  Jansenists 
were  punished  more  or  less  severely.  Yiy  the  tcPti- 
mony  of  the  Jansenist  Roslet  and  Da  u  lien  ton's 
report  to  F^neton,  he  shows  that  the  Bull  "Unige- 
mtua"  was  the  outeome  of  three  long  years  of  doc- 
trinal ■tudy,  and  that  the  alleged  letters  from  I^ 
TeHier  to  Chauvelin  proving  a  plot  for  abducting 
Cetdinal  de  NobHIm  wen  admitted  to  be  apocryphal 


1  LBTOUBHXUX 

Ivy  Diicloc,  though  he  was  hostile  to  the  Jesuits. 
t  mally,  certain  investigations  made  by  Father  Brucker 
lead  to  the  conclusion,  that  a  certain  letter  recom- 
mending the  destruction  of  the  Oratory  is  certainly  not 
theworkof  Le  Tellier,  who  has  been  frequently  blamed 
for  it,  and  that  tiuch  an  accusation  may  have  origi- 
nat«d  in  an  intrigue  of  Abb^  dc  Margon  agsjnst  the 
Jesuits.  LouiH  XIV  in  a  codicil  to  his  will  had  se- 
lected Le  Tellier  as  the  confessor  of  the  little  Louis 
XV,  then  seven  years  of  age;  but  a  few  days  after  the 
king's  death  the  regent^  under  the  influence  of  Saint- 
Simon  and  the  Janscinats,  informed  the  provincial 
of  the  Jesuits  that  Le  Tellier  must  leave  Pads.  He 
was  sent  by  his  superiors  to  Amiens,  and  then  to  La 
FIdche,  where  he  died.  The  menolory  of  the  Society 
of  Jes\is  uncler  the  date  of  2  September,  repeats  the 
following  remarks  addressed  by  Louis  XIV  to  the  Due 
d'Harcourt  about  Le  Tellier;  ''Do  you  see  that  man? 
His  greatest  happiness  would  be  to  shed  his  blood 
for  the  Church,  and  I  do  not  believe  there  is  a  single 
soul  in  my  entire  kingdom  who  is  more  fearless  and 
more  saintly.  " 

Saint^Biuoji,  Mtmoira:  DnctiM.  Mtmairtt  tertti  lur  Im 
Hit"  dt  IaivU  XIV  (Perw.  1701):  D'Oihanhe.  Journal  (Rome, 
1753. 6  vnh.) :  Buahd,  Lit  mfmoim  de  Saittt-Simm  H  It  piri  Le 
Trttirr  (Paria,  ITOl);  BHV.iirn.  Cn  -DQeumenl  B«-a.iv.^' Jaut- 
trmentattribneavvhrLt  Tritxrria  EtudrM.  LXXXVIII  (Pun 
1901):  Bbou,  La  JitMila  dt  la  Ugnde  (Paiii,  1007).^ 

Latounieiix,  Nicolas,  well-known  French  preacher 

and  aecctical  writer  of  Jsnscnislic  tendencies,  b.  at 
Rouen,  30  .^pril,  IMO:  d.  at  Paris,  28  November, 
1686.  His  parents  were  poor,  but  the  conspicuous 
talents  and  the  gift  of  eloquence  he  displayed  even  at 
an  early  age  attracted  the  attention  of^some  wealthy 
benefactors,  whow  assistance  enabledhini  to  study  the 
humanities  at  the  Jesuit  College  in  Paria,  and  later 
philosophy  at  the  Collj^ge  des  Grasaina.  To  Dr.  Her- 
sant,  his  teacher  at  the  latter  institution,  may  be 
traced  the  jansenistic  views  which  mar  his  writings. 
Ordained  priest  at  Rouen  in  1662.  he  served  for  some 
years  as  curate  there.  Abotit  1670  he  removed  to 
Paris,  Iwcamc  closely  associated  with  tlie  Port-Royal- 
ists, and  l)cgan  to  eultii-atc  Jansenistic  asceticism. 
He  exehangefl  his  soutane  for  a  coarse  grey  robe  and 
abstained  from  celebrating  Mass,  to  expiate  in  this 
manner  what  he  esteemed  his  guilt  in  having  accepted 
ordination  at  so  early  an  age  (22).  His  intercourse 
with  Lemaltrc  restored  him  to  more  normal  views; 
returning  to  pastoral  duties,  he  acted  as  chaplain  at 
theColU^godcsGrassins.  Hisscrmons  at  various  Paris 
churclies  ijuicldy  placed  him  in  the  front  rank  of  the 
preachers  of  his  day,  and  in  1675  his  work  on  the  text 
"Martha,  Martha,  thou  art  careful"  (Luke,  x,  41)  won 
the  Balzac  prize  for  clo(|Ucnce  awarded  by  the  French 
Academy,    In  such  esteem  was  he  held  by  his  spiritual 


Royal,  and  also  a  member  of  the  archiepiscopal  com- 
mission for  the  emendation  of  the  Breviary.  His  re- 
lations with  the  lending  Janaenists,  however,  soon 
awakened  distrust.,  and  he  foimd  it  necessary  to  retire, 
in  Ifi82,  to  the  Priorj-  of  Villieni-sur-Fi^re,  a  benefice 
granted  him  by  his  patron,  Cardinal  Colliert  of  Rouen. 
In  this  retirement  he  de^-oted  the  remainder  of  his 
life  to  his  ascetieal  compositions.  His  principal  writ- 
ings are:  "Histoirc  de  la  vie  dc  Jfous-Christ '  (about 
lera);  "I*  catdchisme  de  la  p*nitencc"  (1676); 
"l/Aim^-  rhrtticniie,  ou  les  Messes  des  Dimaiiches, 
Furies  ct  Fetes  de  f  oiite  I'ann^,  on  latin  et  en  franjais, 
ai-ec  I'explicution  dps  Epitrea  ct  des  EvangQes  et  un 
abr^gi  de  lu  Vie  des  Saints,  dont  on  fait  I'Oflice".  Of 
this  last  work  I.*loumeux  wrote  nine  volumes,  and 
two  were  adiled  by  the  Belgian  Jansenist,  Ruth  d'Ans. 
Sue  \-olunies  were  publL-hed  Ijcfore  1686,  when  they 
were  condemned  lor  their  Jansenistic  views.  The 
work  was  placed  on  the  Index  on  7  Sept.,  1895.  Amoiig 
the  other  works  of  Letoumeux  may  be  mentioned: 


LETTER 


202 


LETTERB 


•*  Principes  et  regies  de  la  vie  chr^tienne"  (Paris,  1688) : 
"  Explication  litt^raire  et  morale  de  T^pttre  de  S.  Paul 
aux  Romains''  (Paris,  1695);  '^Br^viaire  Romain  en 
latin  et  franyais"  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1687),  condemned  by 
the  archiepiscopal  authorities  because  it  was  an  in- 
novation contrary  to  the  spirit  and  practice  of  the 
Church,  and  because  it  contamed  much  that  was  heret- 
ical and  much  that  was  conducive  to  heresy  and  error. 
Although  the  episcopal  ban  was  subsequently  re- 
moved, and  the  work  was  never  placed  on  the  Roman 
Index,  the  Jansenistic  leanings  of  Ix^toumeux  stand 
conspicuous  to-day  in  this  as  in  the  remainder  of  his 
writmgs. 

Diet,  dea  Hvrea  Janainist.,  I,  63;  II,  305:  III.  307;  Stb- 
Beuve,  Port-Ropal,  V,  vi,  2;  Chaudon  et  Delandine,  Diet, 
untv.  Hist.,  Cnt.  et  Bitliogr.;  Mob£ri,  Orand  Did.  Htstor.; 
JuNOMANN  in  Kirchenlex.,  8.  v. 

Thomas  Kennedy. 

Letter,  Ccmmendatory.  See  Letters,  Ecclesi- 
astical. 

Letterkenny.    See  Raphoe,  Diocese  of. 

Letters,  Apostolic.    See  Bulls  and  Briefs. 

Letters,  Dimissorial.    See  Dimissorial  Letters. 

Letters,  Ecclesiastical  (Litteile  EccLEsiASTiCiG) , 
are  publications  or  announcements  of  the  organs  of 
ecclesiastical  authority,  e.  g.  the  synods,  more  partic- 
ularly, however,  of  popes  and  bishops,  addressed  to 
the  faithful  in  the  form  of  letters. 

I.  Letters  of  the  Popes  in  tfie  Period  of  the  Early 
Church. — The  popes  began  early,  by  virtue  of  the 
primacy,  to  issue  laws  as  well  for  the  entire  Church  as 
tor  individuals.  This  was  done  in  the  form  of  letters. 
Such  letters  were  sent  by  the  popes  either  of  their  own 
will  or  when  application  was  maae  to  them  by  synods, 
bishops,  or  individual  Christians.  Apart  from  the 
Epistles  of  the  Apostle  Peter  the  firat  example  of 
this  is  the  Letter  of  Pope  Clement  I  (90-99?)  to  the 
Corinthians,  in  whose  community  there  was  grave  dis- 
sension. Only  a  few  papal  letters  of  the  first  three 
Christian  centuries  have  been  preserved  in  whole  or 
part,  or  are  known  from  the  works  of  ecclesiastical 
writers.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  Church  was  recog- 
nized by  the  State  and  could  freely  spread  in  all  direc- 
tions, the  papal  primacy  of  necessity  began  to  develop, 
and  from  this  time  on  the  number  of  papal  letters  in- 
creased. No  part  of  the  Church  and  no  question  of 
faith  or  morals  failed  to  attract  the  papal  attention. 
The  popes  called  these  letters,  with  reference  to  their 
legal  character,  decreta:  statuta:  decretalia  constittUa, 
even  when  the  letters,  as  was  often  the  case,  were 
hortatory  in  form.  Thus  Siricius,  in  his  letter  of 
the  year  385  to  Himerius  of  Tarragona  [JafF^, 
"Regesta  Pontificum  Romanorum"  (2na  ed.,  Leip- 
zig, 1885-88),  I,  no.  255].  Or  the  letters  were  called 
sententiw,  i.  e.  opinions  (Svn.  Tur.,  II,  an.  567,  c.  ii); 
prcDcepta  (Syn.  Bracar.,  1,  an.  501,  praef.);  auctori- 
tates  [Zosimus,  an.  417;  Jaffd,  "Regesta",  2nd  ed.,  I, 
no.  3491.  On  the  other  hand  more  general  letters, 
especially  those  of  doginatic  importance,  were  also 
called  at  times  tomi;  indicidi;  commonitoria;  epis^ 
tola  tractoruB,  or  tractatorice.  If  the  matter  were 
important,  the  popes  issued  the  letters  not  by  their 
sole  authority,  but  with  the  advice  of  the  Koman 
presbytery  or  of  a  synod.  Consequently  such  letters 
were  also  called  epistolw  synodicas  (Syn.  Tolet.,  Ill, 
an.  589,  c.  i).  By  epistola  synodica,  however,  is  also 
understood  in  Christian  antiquity  that  letter  of  the 
newly  elected  bishop  or  pope  by  which  he  notified 
the  other  bishops  of  his  elevation  and  of  his  agree- 
ment with  them  in  the  Faith.  Thus  an  ejnsiola 
of  this  kind  liad  a  certain  relationship  to  the 
liUera  forrnaios  by  which  a  bishop  certifiea.  for  pre- 
sentation to  another  bishop,  to  the  orthouoxy  and 
unblemished  moral  character  of  an  ecclesiastic  of  his 
diocese.    Closely  related  to  the  liUera  formaUe  arc 


the  liUercB  dimissoriiB  (dimissorials)  by  which  a 
bishop  sends  a  candidate  for  ordination  to  another 
bishop  to  be  ordained.  While  these  names  indicate 
sufficiently  the  legal  character  of  the  papal  letters,  it 
is  to  be  noted  that  the  popes  repeatedly  demanded  in 
explicit  terms  the  observance  of  their  decrees;  thus 
Siricius,  in  his  letter  of  the  year  385  to  Ilimerius 
(Jaff^,  "Regesta",  2nd  ed.,  I,  no.  255),  and  Innocent 
I  in  his  letter  of  the  year  416  addressed  to  Deccntius 
of  Gubbio  (JafT6,  "R^esta",  2nd  ed.,  I,  no.  311). 
In  the  same  manner  they  repeatedly  required  from 
the  persons  to  whom  they  wrote  that  these  should 
bring  the  letter  in  question  to  the  notice  of  others. 
Thus  tigain  Siricius,  in  his  letter  to  Himerius  (Jafif^, 
''Regesta'',  2nd  ed.,  I,  no.  255);  and  Pope  Zosimus, 
in  the  year  418  to  Hesychius  of  Salona  (Jaff4.  "  Re- 
gesta'',  2nd  ed.,  I,  no.  339).  In  order  to  secure  such 
knowledge  of  the  papal  laws  several  copies  of  the 
papal  letters  were  occasionally  made  and  dispatched 
at  the  same  time.  In  this  way  arose  the  letters  a 
pari:  a  paribus  uniformes,  rd  (ffa  (Jaff^,  "Regesta'^ 
2nd  ed.,  I,  nos.  331,  334,  373).  FoUowing  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Roman  emperors  the  popes  soon 
established  archives  (scrinium)  in  whicn  copies  of 
their  letters  were  placed  as  memorials  for  further  use, 
and  as  proofs  of  authenticity.  The  first  mention  of 
papal  archives  is  found  in  the  Acts  of  a  synod  held 
about  370  under  Pope  Damasus  I  (Constant,  "Epis- 
tolaB  Romanorum  Pontificum '^^  Paris,  1721,  500). 
Pope  Zosimus  also  makes  mention  in  419  of  the  ar- 
chives (Jaff^,  "  Regesta",  2nd  ed.,  I,  no.  350).  Never- 
theless, forged  papal  letters  appeared  even  earlier 
than  this.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  the  papal 
letters  of  the  first  millennium,  however,  have  been  lost. 
Only  the  letters  of  Leo  I,  edited  by  the  brothers  Bal- 
lerini,  the  "Registrum  Epistolarum"  of  Gregory  I, 
edited  by  Ewalaand  Ilartmann,  and  the  "Rc^trum 
Epistolarum"  of  Gregory  VII,  edited  by  Jaffd,  have 
been  more  or  less  completely  preserved.  As  befitted 
their  legal  importance,  the  papal  letters  were  also  soon 
incorporated  m  the  collections  of  canon  law  (Maassen, 
''Gcscliichte  der  Qucllen  und  Literatur  des  kanon- 
ischen  Rechts  im  Abendlande  bis  zum  Ausgang  des  Mit- 
telalters".  Graz,  1870, 281  sqq.).  The  first  to  collect  the 
epistles  ot  the  popes  in  a  systematic  and  comprehen- 
sive manner  was  the  monk  Dionysius  Exisuus,  at  the 
b^inning  of  the  sixth  century  (Maassen,  Geschichte 
der  Quellen ",  422  sqq.).  In  this  way  the  papal  letters 
took  rank  with  the  canons  of  the  synods  as  of  equal 
value  and  of  equal  obligation.  The  example  of  Diony- 
sius was  followed  afterwards  by  almost  all  compilers 
of  the  canons,  Pseudo-Isidore  and  the  Gregorian  can- 
onists, e.  g.  Anselm  of  Lucca,  Dcusdedit,  etc. 

II.  Letters  of  the  Popes  in  the  Medieval  Period, — 
With  the  development  of  the  primacy  in  the  Middle 
Ages  the  papal  letters  grew  enormously  in  number. 
The  popes,  following  the  earlier  custom,  insisted  that 
their  rescripts,  issued  for  individual  cases,  should  be 
observed  in  all  analogous  ones.  According  to  the 
teaching  of  the  canonists,  above  all  of  Gratian,  every 
papal  letter  of  general  character  was  authoritative 
for  the  entire  Church  without  further  notification. 
The  names  of  the  letters  of  general  authority  were  very 
varied:  constitutio  (c.  vi,  X,  De  elect.,  I,  vi);  edictum 
(c.  unic,  in  Vlto,  De  postul.,  I,  v);  statutum  (c. 
XV,  X,  De  sent,  excomm.,  V,  xxxix);  aecretum  (c.  i,  in 
Vlto.  De  pra?b.,  Ill,  iv);  decretalis  (c.  xxix,  in  Vlto, 
De  elect.,  I,  vi);  sanctio  (c.  unic,  in  Vlto,  De  cler. 
segrot.,  Ill,  v).  Decrees  (decreta)  was  the  name  given 
especially  to  general  ordinances  issued  with  the  advice 
of  the  cardinals  (Schulte,  *'  Geschichte  der  Quellen  und 
Literatur  des  kanonischen  Rechtes",  Stuttgart,  1876, 
I,  252  s(i.).  On  the  other  hand  ordinances  issued  for 
individual  cases  were  called:  rescriptcL^  responsa, 
mandata.  Thus  a  constitution  was  always  under- 
stood to  be  a  papal  ordinance  which  r^gulat^xl  ec- 
clesiastical conditions  of  a  general  character  judi 


LXTTSBS 


203 


LETTERB 


ciallv,  in  a  durable  manner  and  form,  for  all  time; 
but  by  a  rescript  was  understood  a  papal  ordinance 
issued  at  the  petition  of  an  individual  tnat  decided  a 
lawsuit  or  granted  a  favour.  Compare  the  Bulls  of  pro- 
mul|Dition  prefixed  to  the  *'  Decretals''  of  Gregory  IX, 
the^iber  Sextus  "  of  Boniface  VIII,  and  the  'M^lemen- 
tinss'';  also  the  titles,  "  De  constitutionibus"  and  **  Dc 
rescriptis  "  in  the  *  *  Corpus  Juris  Canonici ' ' .  Notwith- 
standmg^Edl  this,  usage  remained  uncertain  (c.  x^v, 
in  Vlto,  I)e  praeb.,  Ill,  iv) .  The  above-mentioned  dis- 
tinctions between  papal  documents  were  based  on  the 
extent  of  their  authority.  Other  names  again  had 
their  origin  in  the  form  of  the  papal  dociunents.  It 
is  true  they  all  had  more  or  less  evidently  the  form  of 
letters.  But  essential  differences  appeared,  especially 
in  regard  to  the  literary  form  {stylus)  of  the  docu- 
ment and  the  method  of  sealing,  these  depending  in 
each  case  on  the  importance  of  the  contents  of  the 
respective  dociunent.  It  was  merely  the  difference  in 
the  manner  of  sealing  that  led  to  tlic  distinction  be- 
tween Bulls  and  Brieis.  For  Bulls,  legal  instnmients 
almost  entirely  for  important  matters,  the  seal  was 
stamped  in  wax  or  lead,  seldom  in  gold,  enclosed  in  a 
case,  and  fastened  to  the  document  by  a  cord.  For 
Briefs,  instruments  used,  as  a  rule,  in  matters  of  less 
importance,  the  seal  was  stamped  upon  the  docu- 
ment in  wax.  Curial  letters  (liUerce  curiales  or  de 
curia)  denoted  particularly  letters  of  the  popes  in  po- 
litical affairs.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  just  as  in  the 
early  Church,  the  letters  of  the  popes  were  deposited 
in  the  P&pal  archives  either  in  tne  original  or  by 
copy.  They  are  still  in  existence,  and  almost  com- 
plete in  niunber,  from  the  time  of  Innocent  III  (1198- 
1216).  Many  papal  letters  were  also  incorporated,  as 
Jheir  legal  nature  required,  in  the  ''Corpus  Juris  Ca- 
nonici .  Others  are  to  be  found  in  the  formularies, 
many  of  which  appeared  unofficially  in  the  Middle 
A^es,  similar  in  kind  to  the  ancient  official  ''Liber 
Diumus"  of  the  papal  chancery  in  use  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Gregory  Vll.  The  papal  letters  were  for- 
warded fay  the  papal  officials,  above  all  by  the  chan- 
cery, for  whose  use  the  chancer^'  rules,  regulce  can- 
cdUuia  ApoatolioBf  were  drawn  up;  these  rules  had 
r^;ard  to  the  execution  and  dispatch  of  the  papal 
letters,  and  date  back  to  the  twelfth  ccnturj'.  Is  ever- 
theless,  the  forcing  of  papal  letters  was  even  more  fre* 

2uent  in  the  Middle  Ages  than  in  the  early  Church. 
anocent  III  (in  c.  v,  X,  De  crimine  falsi,  V,  xx)  refers 
to  no  less  than  nine  methods  of  falsification.  From 
the  tJiirteenth  century  on  to  a  few  years  ago  it  sufficed, 
in  order  to  give  a  papal  document  legal  force,  to  post 
it  up  at  Rome  on  the  doors  of  St.  Peter's,  of  the  Lat- 
eran,  the  Apostolic  Chancery,  and  in  the  Piazza  del 
Campo  di  Fiori.  Since  1  January,  1909,  they  acquire 
force  by  publication  in  the  "Acta  Apostolicee 
Sedis". 

III.  Letters  of  the  Popes  in  Modem  Times, — In 
the  modem  period  also,  papal  letters  have  been  and 
still  are  constantly  issued.  Now,  however,  they  pro- 
ceed from  the  popes  themselves  less  frequently  than 
in  the  Middle  Ages  and  Christian  antiquity;  most  of 
thCTfi  are  issued  by  the  papal  officials,  of  whom  there 
is  a  greater  number  than  m  the  Middle  Ages,  and  to 
whom  have  been  granted  large  delegated  powers,  which 
include  the  issuing  of  letters.  Following  the  example 
of  Paul  III,  Pius  IV,  and  Pius  V,  Sixtus  V  by  the  Bull 
''Immensa  jetemi**  of  22  January,  1587,  added  to  the 
already  existing  bodies  of  papal  officials  a  numl^er  of 
congre^tions  of  cardinals  with  clearly  defined  powers 
of  edmmistration  and  jurisdiction.  Succeeding  popes 
added  other  congregations.  Pius  X,  however,  m  the 
Constitution  "Sapienti  consilio"  of  29  June,  1908, 
reorganized  the  papal  Curia.  Papal  writinp  are  yet 
divided  into  Constitutions,  Rescripts,  Bulls,  Briefs, 
and  Apostolic  Letters  (Ldtterce  ApostoHcw).  The  LU- 
tertB  ApostoUcoB  are  further  divided  into  lAUercB  ApostO' 
UoB  rimpUcet  or  BreoeUi,  Chirographa,  Encydicm  (En-. 


cyclicals),  and  Mot  us  Proprii,  By  LiJtterai  Apostoliat 
simplices  are  understood  all  documents  drawn  up  by 
virtue  of  papal  authorization,  and  signed  with  the 
pope's  name  out  not  by  the  pope  personally.  Docu- 
ments signed  by  the  pope  personally  are  called  Chiro- 
grapha.  Encyclicals  are  letters  of  a  more  hortatory 
nature,  addressed  to  all  or  to  a  majority  of  the  higher 
officials  of  the  Church.  A  Motu  Proprio  is  a  dociunent 
prepared  at  the  personal  initiative  ot  the  pope,  without 
previous  petition  to  him,  and  issued  with  a  partial 
avoidance  of  the  otherwise  customary  forms  of  the 
chancery.  By  Constitution  is  understood,  as  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  a  papal  document  of  general  authority; 
by  Rescript,  a  similar  document  applicable  td  an  in- 
dividual case.  Bulls  and  Briefs  are  distinguished  from 
each  other  by  characteristics  of  form  which  have  al- 
ways remained  essentially  the  same.  The  papal  docu- 
ments are  still  deposited  in  the  Roman  archives. 
There  are  no  official  collections  of  them  corresponding 
to  the  medieval  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici".  The  last 
official  collection  is  that  of  the  Constitutions  of  Bene- 
dict XIV  (1740-1758).  From  the  sixteenth  century, 
on  the  other  hand,  private  collections  have  appeared, 
some  of  which  are  called  buUiiria,  from  the  more  im- 
portant part  of  their  contents.  Many  papal  letters 
are  also  found  in  the  collections  of  tne  Acts  of  the 
Councils.  The  documents  issue<l  by  the  officials  of  the 
Curia  and  the  Congregations  of  Cardinals  contain  either 
resolutions  (decisions)  for  individual  cases,  or  declara- 
tions (exiensivce  or  comprehensivw)  interpreting  laws, 
or  decrees,  which  are  entirely  new  laws.  Some  con- 
gregations of  cardinals  have  issued  official  collections 
of  their  decisions. 

IV.  Collections  of  the  Letters  of  the  Popes  and  of  the 
Roman  Officials. — Constant,  "Epistoke  Romanorum 
Pontificum  et  quse  ad  eos  scripto;  sunt  a  S.  Clemente 
I  usque  ad  Innocentium  III  (Paris,  1721),  goes  to 
only  440;  Schonemann,  "Pontificum  Romanonim  a 
Clemente  I  usque  ad  Leonem  M.  genuinse  .  .  .  epifh 
tobe"  (Gottingen,  1796)  ;Thiel, "  Epistolae  Romanorum 
Pontificum  genuinse  .  .  .  a  S.  Hilaro  usque  ad  Pela- 

Flum  11"  (Brunshyrg  1868).  From  1881  the  Ecole 
ranyause  of  Rome  has  published,  with  particular 
reference  to  France,  the  Registra"  of  Gregory  IX, 
Innocent  IV,  Alexander  IV.  Urban  IV,  Clement  IV, 
Gregor>'  X  John  XXI  ^ficholas  III  Martin  IV, 
Honorius  IV,  Nicholas  IV,  Boniface  VIlI,  and  Bene- 
dict XI.  The  "  Registra"  of  the  Avignon  popes  are 
also  in  course  of  publication.  Cf .  "  Melanges  cParch6- 
ologie  et  d'histoire"^  XXV,  443  sqq.;  Hergenr6ther, 
"Leonis  X  Pontificis  Maximi  Reg^ta"  (Freiburg, 
1884 — );  "Regesta  dementis  Papse  V  cura  et  studio 
monachorum  ordinis  S.  Benedicti"  (Rome,  1885—); 
Pressuti,  "Registrum  Ilonorii  III"  (Rome,  1888—). 
There  are  innumerable  collections  of  papal  letters 
issued  from  a  partisan  point  of  view.  All  Known  papal 
letters  up  to  1198  are  enumerated  by  JaflFd  in  the  "Ke- 
gesta  Rom.  Pont."  The  papal  letters  of  1198-1304 
are  found  in  Potthast,  "  Regesta  Pontificum  Roman- 
orum ab  anno  1198  ad  annum  1304"  (Berlin,  1874). 
Professor  Paul  Kehr  is  preparing  a  critical  edition  of 
all  papal  letters  up  to  Innocent  III.  See  the  "  Nach- 
richten",  of  the  Gottingen  Academy  of  Sciences,  1896, 
72  sqq. ;  "  Pii  IX  acta  "  (Rome,  1854—) ;  "  Leonis  XIII 
acta^'  (Rome,  1881);  "Pii  X  acta"  (Rome,  1907). 
For  the  Bullaria,  see  Tomasetti,  "  BuUarum,  diploma- 
tum  et  privilegiorum  s.  Romanorum  Pontificum  Tau- 
rinensis  editio  locupletissima"  (Turin,  1857 — );  for 
collections  of  the  Acts  of  the  Councils,  Mansi,  "Sa- 
crorum  conciliorum  nova  et  amplissima  collectio" 
(Florence  and  Venice,  1759),  goes  to  1439.  It  is  con- 
tinued by  "Collectio  conciliorum  recentioris  ecclesifls 
universae",  ed.  Martin  and  Petit  (Paris,  1905);  "De- 
creta  authentica  S.  Congregationis  Indulgentiarum 
edita  jussu  et  auctoritate  Leonis  XIII"  (Ratisbon, 
1883) ;  "  Jus  Pontificium  de  Propaganda  Fide  Leonis 
Xni  jussu  recognitum"  (Rome,  1888);    "Decieta 


LBUBITS 


204 


LITIBOTJX 


auihentica  Con^gationis  S.  Rituum  •  .  .  promul- 
gata  sub  auspiciis  Lconis  XIII"  (Rome,  1898). 

V.  Letters  of  Bishops. — Just  as  the  popes  rule  the 
Church  largely  by  means  of  letters,  so  also  the  bishops 
mi^e  use  of  letters  for  the  administration  of  their  dio- 
oeses.  The  documents  issued  by  a  bishop  are  divided 
according  to  their  form  into  pastoral  letters,  synodal 
and  diocesan  statutes,  mandates,  or  ordinances,  or 
decrees,  the  classification  depending  upon  whether 
they  have  been  drawn  up  more  as  letters,  or  have  been 
issued  by  a  synod  or  the  chancery.  The  pastoral 
letters  are  addressed  either  to  all  the  members  of  the 
diocese  {litierce  pastorales)  or  only  to  the  cler©r,  in  this 
case  generally  in  Latin  (liMerce  encycUca:) .  The  man- 
dates, decrees,  or  ordinances  are  issued  either  by  the 
bishop  himself  or  by  one  of  his  officials.  The  synodal 
statutes  are  ordinances  issued  by  the  bishop  at  the 
diocesan  synod,  with  the  advice,  but  in  no  way  with 
the  legislative  co-operation,  of  the  diocesan  clergy. 
The  diocesan  statutes  regularly  speaking,  are  those 
episcopal  ordinances  which,  because  they  refer  to  more 
wei^ty  matters,  are  prepared  with  the  obligatory  or 
facultative  co-operation  of  the  cathedral  chapter.  In 
order  to  have  legal  force  the  episcopal  documents 
must  be  published  in  a  suitable  manner  and  according 
to  usage.  Civil  laws  by  which  episcopal  and  also  papal 
documents  have  to  receive  the  approval  of  the  State 
before  they  can  be  published  are  irrational  and  out  of 
date  (Vatican  Council,  Sess.  Ill,  De  eccl.,  c.  iii).  (See 
Exequatur.) 

For  the  extensive  literature  on  papal  lctt«re  see  works  on  papal 
diplomatics;  Griaar  in  Kirchenfex.,  s.v.  BuUen  und  Breven  (to 
18o4);  Pttra,  Analecta  novissima  bptcilegii  Solesmenais.  Altera 
continuatio.  Tom.  I:  Dc  epistolis  d,  regiatris  Romanorum  Poniiii- 
ctim  (Paris,  1886);  Brrhslau,  Handhuch.  derUrkundenlehrefQr 
Deutschland  und  Italien  (Leipzig,  1880),  65  sqq.;  Gnir,  Manuel 
de  diplomatique  (Paris,  1804),  6ol  sqq.;  SrHMi-n-KALLENBERO, 
Die  Lehre  von  den  Papsturkunden  in  Meister,  Orundriss  der 
0eschichtsuns9en8thafl  (Leipzig,  1906 — ),  I,  pt.  I,  172  sqq.:  cf. 
also,  Ptlugk-Harttuno,  Die  BtUlen  der  Papste  bis  turn  Ende 
deals.  Jahrhunderis  (Gotha,  1901);  Stkin  acker.  AfiUei/un^en 
dea  Institute  far  oMcrreiehische  Oeechichtsforachung,  XXIII,  1 
gaq.;  Kehr,  EroHnzungeband  d.  Alitteilungen,  VI,  70  sqq.; 
Wbrnk.  Jua  decrdalium,  I  (2nd  ed.,  Rome,  1905 — ),  159  sqq., 
311  S9q.,  350  sqq.,  379  sqq.;  Laurentius,  InstittUionee  juris 
ecclesia8tici{2iul  (h1.,  Freiburg im  Br.,  1908),  no.  11  sqq.,  23 sqq., 
288qq.:  SXomOller.  Lrhrbuch  des  katholischen  Kxrmenrechts 
(2nd  ed.,  Freiburg.  MH)0),  858qq..  129  sqq.,  153  sqq.,  164  sqq. 

Johannes  Baptist  SaomDlleb. 

LeubuSy  a  celebrated  ancient  Cistercian  abbey, 
situated  on  the  Oder,  northwest  of  Breslau,  in  the 
Prussian  Province  of  Silesia.  The  year  of  foundation 
is  not  quite  certain,  the  deed  of  foundation  of  1175, 
formerly  considered  genuine,  having  been  proved  a 
forgery,  but  the  statement  of  the  old  Cistercian  chroni- 
cles and  Polish  annalists,  that  I^eubus  was  founded 
16  August,  1163,  by  Duke  Boleslaus  the  Tall,  is  the 
most  probable  one.  Formerly  the  Benedictines  were 
there.  The  Cistercians  of  Leubus  have  done  a  great 
deal  for  tin?  cultivation  and  Germanization  of  Silesia, 
which  was  formerly  wilderness,  primeval  forest,  morass 
and  moorland,  altliough  their  activity  has  been  over- 
rated. The  mother-house  of  Leubus  was  Pforta.  From 
Leubus  itself  there  sprang  the  houses  of  Mogila  and 
Klara  Tumlm  at  Cracow,  Heinrichau  at  Munsterberg, 
and  Kamcnz  at  Glatz.  Leubus  had  extensive  pos- 
sessions. In  the  Hussite  wars  the  monastery  with 
all  the  buildings  was  burned  to  the  ground  (1432). 
When  it  had  recovered  from  these  misfortunes,  it  was 
severely  oppressed  by  the  Dukes  of  Sagan  and  MOn- 
sterberg,  and  was  in  their  possession  for  seven  years 
(1492-98),  the  inmates  of  the  convent  having  fled. 
The  abbot  Andreas  Hoffmann  (1498-1534)  infused 
new  life  into  the  monastery.  During  the  Thirty  Years* 
War  it  was  occupied  by  the  Swedes  in  1632  and  pil- 
laged. All  the  treasures  of  the  church  fell  into  their 
hands.  A  few  years  later  they  returned  once  more 
and  carried  off  the  valuable  library,  which  had  taken 
centuries  to  collect,  to  Stettin,  where  it  was  after- 
wards destroyed  by  lightning.  As  long  as  the  war 
lasted,  Leubus  was  practically  a  ruin,  but  after  the 


peace  Abbot  Arnold  (1636-72)  restored  it  in  a  com- 
paratively short  time  and  embellished  the  church  and 
Duildings.  He  called  in  the  skilful  painter  Michael 
Willmann,  who  was  employed  forty  years  at  Leubus 
(until  his  death.  1706).  Under  Arnold  and  Johann 
IX  (1672-91)  theological  and  philosophical  studies 
also  flourished.  The  monastery  reached  its  zenith 
under  Ludwig  Bauch  (1696-1729),  under  whose  rule 
the.  enormous  and  imposing  building  was  erected, 
which  is  considered  the  largest  building  in  Germany 
and  one  of  the  largest  in  Europe.  The  principal 
facade  is  225  metres  long,  the  wings  are  118  metres 
long.  Under  Constantine  (1733-47)  the  interior  was 
decorated,  the  hall  of  princes  and  the  library  being 
adorned  with  extravagant  magnificence.  In  the  first 
Silesian  War.  and  in  the  Seven  Years'  War  ^1740-42 
and  1756-63),  Leubus  was  terribly  impoverished  by 
the  Prussians  and  Austrians,  so  that  it  had  a  debt 
of  200,000  Reichsthaler.  On  21  Nov.,  1810,  it  was 
suppressed  by  the  Prussian  Government  and  confis- 
cated with  its  59  villages  and  10  domains.  Part  of  the 
buildings  are  now  used  as  a  lunatic  asylum,  in  con- 
nexion with  which  the  large  and  beautiful  church  is 
utilized  for  Catholic  worship. 

BuscHiNo,  Die  Urkunden  des  Klosters  Letdnts  (Breslau,  1821); 
Wattenbach,  Monumenta  Lu6e>tnd  (Brealau,  1861);  Thoma, 
Die  Kolonisatorische  TUtigkeii  des  Klosters  Leubus  (Leipsi^ 
1894);  ScHULTE,  Die  Anfdnge  der  deutschen  Kolanisation  %n 
Schlesien  in  Silesiaca  (Breslau,  1898;)  Wintera,  Letdms  in  iSfw* 
dien  und  MitteUungen  aus  dem  Benedictiner-  und  ZisUrzienstT' 
prrfCTi  (1904),  XXy,  502-614;  676-697;  Weub.  JCtojter  LeubuB 


in  Schlesien  (Breslau,  1908). 


Klemens  LOfflbr. 


Leuce,  a  titular  see  of  Thrace,  not  mentioned  by 
any  ancient  historian  or  geographer.  However,  its 
bishop,  Symcon,  attended  the  (Council  of  Constanti-^ 
nople  (Lequien,  "  Oriens  Christ.*',  1, 1 167).  The  "  No- 
titise  cpiscopatuum''  of  the  tenth  to  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries  mention  Leuce  among  the  suf- 
fragans of  Philippopolis.  It  is  probably  the  modem 
village  of  CJopolovo,  south  of  Philippopolis,  or  Plovdiv, 
Bulgaria.  g.  PimuDfes. 

Levadoux,  Michaj:l,  one  of  the  first  band  of  Sul- 
picians  who,  owing  to  the  distressed  state  of  religion  in 
France,  went  to  the  United  States  and  founded  St. 
Mary's  Seminary  in  Baltimore;  b.  at  Clermont-Fer- 
rand, in  Auvergne,  France,  1  April,  1746;  d.  at  Le- 
Puy-en-Velay,  13  Jan.,  1815.     He  entered  the  Sul- 

Eician  Seminary  at  Clermont,  30  Oct.,  1769,  where 
e  studied  theology,  then  went  to  the  "  Solitude ", 
or  Sulpician  novitiate,  for  one  year.  He  was  ap- 
pointed, in  1774,  director  of  the  seminary  at  Limoges, 
where  he  remained  till  1791.  In  consequence  of  the 
threatening  aspect  of  affairs  in  France,  Rev.  J.  A. 
Emery,  Superior-General  of  the  Sulpicians,  deemed  it 
prudent  to  found  a  house  of  their  institute  in  some 
foreign  country,  and  at  the  suggestion  of  Cardinal 
Dugnani,  nuncio  at  Paris,  the  United  States  was  chosen. 
Negptiations  were  opened  with  Bishop  Carroll,  but 
lately  consecrated,  and  after  some  delay  Rev.  Francis 
C.  Nagot,  S.S.^as  named  first  director  of  the  projected 
seminary  at  Baltimore.  With  him  were  associated 
MM.  Levadoux,  Tessier,  Gamier,  and  Montd^sir,  to- 
gether with  several  seminarians.  Rev.  M.  Delavau. 
Canon  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  and  Chateaubriana 
joined  the  party,  which  sailed  from  St.  Malo,  8  April, 
1791,  and  after  a  tempestuous  and  roundabout  voyage 
reached  Baltimore  10  July.  For  one  year  M.  leva- 
doux, as  treasurer,  assisted  M.  Nagot  in  organizing  the 
Seminary  of  St.  ^Iary*s,  and  was  then  sent  by  the 
latter  to  the  Illinois  mission,  for  which  M.  Emery  had 
at  first  destined  M.  Chicosneau,  deeming  M.  Levadoux 
a  better  administrator  of   temporal  affairs.    £m- 

Sowered  as  vicar-general  by  Bishop  Carroll,  he  took  his 
eparture  for  the  West  on  15  Jan.,  1792. 
His  missionary  labours  centred  around  Cahokia  and 
Kaskaskia.  The  registers  of  the  latter  place  bear  his  sig- 


LSTAU  21 

nature  from  Deo.,  1792,  and  he  seems  to  have  spuit 
most  of  his  time  from  1793  to  1 796  at  Cahokia,  though 
after  M.  Placet  left  Vincemies  in  1795  he  visited  that 
poetalso.  Meanwhileas  the  health  of  H.Nagot,  supe- 
rior of  the  SulpicianA  in  the  United  States,  was  failing 
fast,  he  was  desirous  of  having  M.  Levadoux  near  him 
at  Baltimore,  that  he  nuEht  be  ready  to  succeed  him  in 
ofBce;  but  fiiahop  CairoU  was  no  less  anxious  to  secure 
the  services  of  the  lealous  miseionaiy  for  E)etroit .  The 
biabop'a  wishes  prevailed,  and  M.  Levadoux  became 
pariiO  priest  of  St.  Anne's  in  1796.  It  was  he  who 
performed  the  obsequies  of  Rev.  F.  X.  Dufaux,  S.S., 
missionary  to  the  Hurona  at  the  pariah  of  the  Assump- 
tion opposite  Detroit,  who  died  at  his  post  10  Septem' 
ber,  1796.  After  the  demise  of  the  latter,  M.  Leva- 
doux had  frequent  occasion  to  minister  to  the  spiritual 
wants  of  the  Indians  and  of  other  scattered  Catholics 
from  Sandusky  and  Mackinaw  to  Fort  Wayne.  In 
1801 M .  Nagot  recalled  M.  Levadoux  to  Baltimore,  and 
in  1803  he  received  orders  from  M.  Emery  to  return  to 
France,  where  he  was  soon  appointed  superior  of  the 
Seminary  of  St.  Flour  in  Auvergne,  and  remained 
there  until  the  dispersion  of  the  Sulpicians  by  Na- 
poleon I,  in  1811.  When  their  institute  was  revived, 
in  1814,  the  Rev.  M.  Duclaux,  successor  of  M.  Kmery, 
placed  M.  Levadoux  at  the  head  of  the  Seminary  of 
Le-Puy-en-Velay.  For  years  he  had  Ijeen  suffering 
from  the  stone,  which  disease  was  the  cause  of  h^ 
death  in  the  foltowijig  year.  He  bore  the  intense  pains 
of  his  last  iltnesB  wiw  exemplary  fortitude  and  resig- 
nation. 

3m*.  Hh(.  o/Cort.  Ch.  in  Ae  V.  S.,  II,  379.  407.  483,  486. 
480-490,  eoe:  Ph^in  de  RivikBE.  VU  di  M.  Rvhard,  S^., 
MS.  in  81.  Uoru'i  Stmiiuirv  ArcAitm.  Buitiniorv,  369,  note; 
DiLBET.  Elat  di  tialitt  CatAaligiu  du  du  diocite  dii  ElaU  Unit; 
ManvKrijjt  rrauten  of  the  Jmmaculale  Conception  Church, 
KukukU,  ud  of  MacluDBw.  A.  E.  JONES. 

Lerftn  (Lb  Vau),  Louis,  acontemporary  of  Jacques 
Lemercier  and  the  two  Mansarts,  and  the  chief  archi- 
tect of  the  firat  decade  of  Louis  XIV's  independent 
reign,  b.  1612;  d.  at  Paris,  10  Oct.,  1670.  Although 
pOBterity  has  refused  to  consider  him  a  genius,  he  de- 
veloped a  distinctive  style  which  aimed  at  classic  sim- 
plicity of  construction  and  el^ance  in  decoration.  It 
IS  true,  however,  that  he  more  often  depended  on  Man- 
sart's  or  Lendtrc's  ptans.  Of  his  life,  wo  have  few  par- 
ticulars except  as  regards  his  works.  He  had  two  sons 
who  shared  nis  labours;  of  these  I^uis  died  in  1661, 
and  of  Francis  we  know  nothing  except  that  in  1656, 
in  the  capacity  of  royal  architect,  he  received  a  salary 
of  600  livres.  In  1653  the  father  became  first  royal  in- 
spector of  buildinxs,  and  in  1656  received  a  salary  of 
3000  livres.  In  bis  death  certificate,  he  ia  called 
"king's  councillor,  general  inspector,  and  director  of 
the  royal  buildine  enterpriser.  His  Majesty's  secre- 
tary, and  the  pride  of  France.  Le\'au  won  renown 
by  the  erection  of  many  handsome  buildings  in  Paris 
and  elsewhere.  The  oldest  are  the  Hdtel  Lunbcrt  and 
the  chAteau  of  Vaux-le-Vicomte.  After  1651  he  com- 
pleted the  south  and  north  wings  of  the  Louvre  as 
succesBor  to  Lescot  and  Lemercier,  and  then  built  the 
east  wiiu,  thereby  concluding  the  square  up  to  the 
coIonnaOG  on  the  cast  aide.  His  design  for  the  latter 
was  rejected  as  being  not  sufficiently  ornate,  and  that 
of  Claude  Pcrrault  aul>Btitute<l.  In  this  work  Levau 
had  a  faithful  assistant  in  his  son-in-law,  Dorbay. 
He  next  directed  some  changes  in  the  Tuileries.  An- 
other considerable  achievement  was  the  College  dee 


15  U  TEBRIEB 

(q.  V.) ,  it  was  finished  by  Harduuin-Mansart  and  later 
architects.  But  the  first  rough  sketch  and  the  sub- 
stantial form  are  due  to  Iicvau.  Versailles  became  a 
standard,  not  only  because  of  the  imposing  splendour 
of  the  interior  and  the  exterior  simplicitv,  but  above 
all  through  the  fact  that  the  court,  instead  of  being  en- 
closed, lay  in  front  of  tbe  facade.  Levau  extended  the 
so-called  marble  court  of  the  old  palace  by  the  ad- 
dition of  side  wings,  and,  by  pushing  these  back  lat- 
erally, he  gave  to  the  court  a  greater  breadth.  He 
proceeded  in  the  same  way  with  the  widely  extended 
wings,  which  wore  also  pushed  back  sideways  and  en- 
close the  present  so-called  King's  (^urt.  Louis  XIV 
caused  the  long  side  wings  to  be  extended  still  further, 
thereby  giving  an  immense  width  to  the  front.  Levau 
seems  to  be  responsible  for  the  monotonous  garden 
fagade,  while  the  chapel,  among  other  thines,  consti- 
tutes Mansart's  claim  to  renonTi.  The  epoch-making 
church  of  8t-Sulpice,  a  counlcriwrt  of  St-Eustache, 
was  begun  on  Gamard's  design  in  1646.  but  it  was 
really  carried  on  hy  Levau  in  his  own  style  until  1660. 
when  Gittard  took  his  place.  The  cliurcb  is  planned 
on  a  large  scale,  but  the  effect  docs  not  correspond  to 
the  vast  design. 

Las™,  nin.  del  ardiilrrl't  (Parin,  1873);  Gcblitt,  OfdL 
da  Barotkiiiit  &utlsan,  1KS7):  Geyih  1.UIK  m  Haadbuck  dtr 
ArchilrktoT  ron  Oarm,  e,r..  11  (StuttcBit.  1B98).  vi.  1.  For 
further  particulnn  njTuiiill  Archire,  de  Tart  fmncait  and  Nou- 
rdUt  anJiiva  dc  I'ari  fraa^ait.  Q.  GiBTMANN. 

Le   Vorrier,    Thbais -Jean -Joseph,   astronomer 

and  director  of  the  observatory  at  Paris,  b.  at  Saint 
lid,  the  ancient  Briodurum  later  called  Saint-Laudi- 
fanum,  in  north- 
western France, 
11  May,  1811;  d. 
at  Pans,  25  Sep- 
tember,  1877. 
From  1831  tbe 
talented  youth 
studied  at  the 
Ecole  Polytech- 
nique  with  such 
success  that  at  the 
end  of  his  course  he 
was  appointed  an 
instructor  there. 
While  connected 
with  the  school  he  j 
showed  a  strong 
predilection  for 
mathematical 


lAH-JoRIFB  Le   VlRBIBB 


Quatn 
the  ol 


, __J  church.     The  latter  consisted 

atructure:  a  cupola  carried  out  without  

over  a  cylinder  which  was  not  perfectly  round,  and 
four  Hurtoimdirw  spaces,  in  one  of  which  was  the  mon- 
ument of  the  founder,  Maiarin.  During  the  entire 
course  of  the  next  century,  Levau's  influence  was  felt 
in  palace-buQding  on  account  of  his  work  on  the  ex- 
teiuion  of  VersaDlea.    Begun  in  1624  by  Lemercier 


the  "  Mfcanique 
oileste".  Le  Ver- 
rier  soon  received  an  appointment  in  the  govern- 
ment administration  of  tobaccos;  later  he  became  a 
professor  at  the  College  Stanislas  at  Paris,  and  finally, 
m  1646,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  celestial  me- 
chanics in  the  faculty  of  sciences  at  the  University  of 
Paris.  As  eurly  as  1839  he  published  a  calculation  of 
the  variations  of  the  planetary  orbits  tor  the  period  of 
time  from  the  year  100,000  a.  c.  to  the  year  100,000 
A.D.,  in  which  lie  proveiihyfigures  thestabihty  of  the 
solar  sj'stem,  which  Laplace  hiid  only  indicated.  His 
calculation  of  the  transit  of  Mercur>'  of  1845  and  of  the 
orbit  of  Faye's  comet  demonstrated  his  ability  in  that 
province  in  which  he  was  soon  to  gain  an  almost  un- 
dreamed-of triumph  from  the  discovery,  by  means  of 
theoretical  calculation-s,  of  the  planet  Neptune.  The 
variations  ol)scrved  in  I'miius,  up  to  then  the  most 
distant  planet  known,  led  iiim  to  look  for  tlie  cause  of 
the  disturbance  outride  of  its  ori)it.  His  calculations 
enabled  him  to  specify  the  very  spot  in  the  heavens 
where  the  liody  causing  the  |>crturi>ations  in  question 


LEVITES 


206 


LEVITES 


was  to  be  sought,  so  that  the  astronomer  Galle  of  Ber- 
lin was  able  by  the  aid  of  his  specifications  to  find  the 
new  planet  at  once  upon  looking  for  it,  2.3  September, 
1846.  In  this  way  Le  Verrier  gave  the  most  striking 
confirmation  of  the  theory  of  gravitation  propounded 
by  Newton.  He  now  became  a  memljer  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  in  1852  wa»s  made  a  senator,  and  after 
Arago's  death  (1853)  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Paris  Observatory,  a  position  he  held  with  a  short  in- 
terruption (1870-73)  until  his  death.  Under  his  skil- 
ful and  prudent  administration  the  observatory  made 
important  progress  both  as  to  equipment  in  instru- 
ments and,  mort'  particularly,  as  reganls  pre-eminent 
scientific  achievements  of  which  Le  Verrier  was  the  in- 
spiration. He  was  the  founder  of  the  International 
Meteorological  Institute  and  of  the  Association  Scien- 
tifique  de  Franco,  Ixjing  tJic  pennanent  president  of 
the  latter.  lie  also  gave  careful  attention  to  tJie  geo- 
detic work  wliich  was  iiit(*n<le<i  to  give  the  most  comr 
pletc  presentation  possil)lo  of  the  configuration  of  the 
earth.  The  instruments  of  precision  with  which,  in 
order  to  attain  tliis  end,  he  e(iuippetl  the  observers 
were  remarkably  complete. 

His  most  important  work,  however,  was  the  con- 
struction of  tables  representing  the  movements  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  planets:  "Tai)les  du  Soleil"  (1S5S); 
"Tables  de  Mercure"  (1859);  "Tables  de  Venus" 
(1861);  *'Tablosde  Mars'*  (1801);  "Tables  de  Jupi- 
ter" (1870);  "Tables  de  Satume"  (1870);  "Th<5orie 
d'Uranus"  (1S70);  "Th^wie  de  Neptune"  (1876); 
"Tables  (I'l'nmus"  (1877).  All  these  publications 
were  preceded  by  theoretical  investigations:  "Theorie 
du  mouvcment  apparent  du  Soleil"  (1858);  "Throne 
de  Mercure"  (1859);  "Th<5orie  de  V6nus"  (1861); 
"Th(f'orie  do  Mars"  (1861),  etc.  Considerations  simi- 
lar to  those  which  led  to  the  discover^'  of  the  planet 
Neptune  caused  Le  Verrier  to  infer  the  existence  of  a 
planet  l)etween  Mercury  and  the  sun.  But  far  greater 
difficulties  both  were  and  are  here  connected  with 
actual  discovery  than  was  the  case  with  Neptune. 
However,  Le  Verrier  on  this  occa^^ion  also  showed  his 
masterly  skill  in  handling  the  various  problems  of  the 
reciprocal  perturbations  of  the  planets  and  other 
heavenly  bodies,  as  is  shown  in  his  writings  on  the 
subject:  "Formules  propres  il  simplifier  le  calcul  des 
perturbations"  (1876);  "Variations  s^culaires  des 
orbitefl"  (1876).  etc. 

With  all  his  erudition  Le  Verrier  was  a  zealous  ad- 
herent and  true  son  of  the  Catholic  Church;  even  as 
deputy  of  the  Assemblv  he  openly  acknowle<lge(i  and 
delended  his  Catholic  faith  Ixjfore  all  the  world.  He 
was  also  a  ready  speaker,  one  in  no  way  discomposed 
by  the  attacks  of  opponents,  for  he  knew  how  l>y  pro- 
found and  logical  statements  to  convince  his  hearers' 
quickly.  When  d ving  he  said  in  the  words  of  t he  aged 
Simeon:  "Nunc  cfimittis  servum  tuum,  Domine,  in 
pace".  Thase  who  spoke  at  the  funeral  of  this  re- 
markable man  could  tnithfuUy  assert  that  the  study 
of  the  star-worlds  stimulated  in  him  the  living  l^lief  of 
the  Christian  to  new  fervour.  Even  in  the  sessions  of 
the  Academv  he  made  no  concealment  of  his  faith  nor 
of  his  childfike  defXindence  on  the  Catholic  Church. 
When,  on  5  June,  1870,  he  presents!  to  the  Academy 
his  completer!  tables  for  Jupiter,  the  result  of  thirty- 
five  years  of  toil,  he  emphasized  particularly  the  fact 
that  only  the  thought  of  the  great  Creator  of  the  uni- 
verse had  kept  him  from  flagging,  and  had  main- 
tained his  enthusiasm  for  his  task.  He  also  on 
this  occasion  spoke  strongly,  like  his  colleague  Du- 
mas, against  the  materialistic  and  sceptical  tenden- 
cies of  so  many  scholars.  To  Lo  \  errier  is  due 
the  organization  of  the  meteorological  ser\'ice  for 
France,  especially  the  weather  warnings  for  sea- 
porU,  by  which  t<Mlay  the  weather  for  the  follow- 
ing twenty-four  hours  can  be  announced  with  much 
pn>bability,  a  matter  of  especial  importance  for  agri- 
eulture  and  shipping.    The  "Annales  de  I'C^bserva- 


toire  de  Paris ",  published  during  the  adminiBtratioa 
of  Le  Verrier,  consist  of  thirteen  volumes  of  theoreti- 
cal treatises  and  forty-seven  volumes  of  observations 
(180Q-1876) .  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  making 
plans  for  equipping  the  obser\'atoiy  with  a  large  new 
telescope,  and  it  may  be  that  the  stunulating  influence 
exerteu  in  this  direction  contributed  not  a  little  tp  the 
result  that  everj'where,  particularly  in  North  America, 
generous-minded  patrons  appeared  who,  each  in  his 
own  land,  gave  the  money  necessary  to  obtain  larger 
instruments.  On  27  June,  1889,  a  statue  of  the  dis- 
tinguished savant  which  cost  nearly  32,000  francs 
($6400),  was  erected  by  subscription  in  front  of  the 
observatory  where  he  had  laboured  for  so  many  years. 

FiQUiER,  L'annee  acientifiqur  tt  indiuirieUe,  XXI  (Paris. 
1877);  Dknza,  CommemoTozione  Hi  alcuni  w^mini  iUutiri  nelia 
sciema  (Turin,  1877);  Heuzeau,  Vtidr-mfcum  de  Vaainmoniir 
(Bnimeb.  18S2):Annuaire  ((or  1K90)  published  by  tho  Bureau 
aes  Lon^tudes;  Kneller,  Dns  Chrittentum  und  die  Verireier  dtr 
Naturwissenschaft  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1904). 

AdOLPH   Mt^LLER. 

Levites  (D^7,  from  ^yp,  Jycvi,  name  of  the  ances- 
tral patriarch,  generally  interpreted  "joined"  or  "at- 
tached to" — ^see  Gen.,  xxix,  84,  also  Num.,  xviii,  2.  4, 
Hebrew  text), — the  sulx)rdinate  ministers  appointed 
in  the  Mosaic  Law  for  the  .stTvice  of  the  TaDcmacle 
and  of  the  Temple.  I-.evi  was  the  third  son  Iwme  to 
Jacol:)  by  Lia,  and  full  brother  of  Ruben,  Simeon,  and 
Juda.  Togetlier  with  Simeon  he  avenged  the  humilia- 
tion of  their  sister  Dina  by  the  slaughter  of  Sichem  and 
his  iKJople  (Gen.,  xxxiv),  for  which  deed  of  violence 
the  two  brothers  were  reproved  both  in  Gen.,  xxxiv. 
30,  and  in  the  prophecy  attributed  to  the  patriarch  in 
Gen.,  xlix,  5-7.  Waiving  all  critical  discussion  con- 
nected with  this  incident  as  also  with  the  other  events 
connected  with  the  history-  of  the  trilx?,.the  next  point 
to  l>e  noticed  is  the  connexion  of  Levi  with  the  priest- 
hood. According  to  the  received  Biblical  account,  all 
the  male  descendants  of  the  patriarch  were  set  apart 
bv  Moses,  acting  under  Divine  command,  for  the  ser- 
vice of  the  sanctuary,  a  distinction  which  may  have 
lx»en  due  to  the  religious  zoal  manifested  l>y  the  tribe 
on  the  occasion  of  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  golden 
calf  (Ex.,  xxxii,  25-29).  As  it  was  also  the  tril>e  to 
which  Moses  himself  belonged,  it  coidd  probably  be 
rclie<l  upon  mort*  than  the  others  to  sustain  the  legis- 
lator in  the  establishment  and  promotion  of  his  reli- 
gious institutions  among  the  people.  The  sacred  calling 
of  the  Levites  is  mentioned  in  various  passages  of  the 
Pentateuch.  For  instance,  the  author  of  the  first 
chapters  of  Numbers  (P),  after  recalling  (iii;  cf.  Ex., 
xxviii,  xxix;  Lev.,  \nii,  ix)  the  names  and  sacred  func- 
tions of  the  sons  of  Aaron,  adds  the  desi^ation  of  the 
entire  tribe  of  Levi  who  were  to  *'  stand  m  the  sight  of 
Aaron  the  priest  to  minister  to  him.  And  let  them 
watch,  and  observe  whatsoever  appertaineth  to  the 
service  of  the  multitude  l^efore  the  tabernacle  of  the 
testimony,  and  let  them  keep  the  vessels  of  the  taber- 
nacle, 8er\'ing  in  the  ministry  thereof."  Thoujzh  in 
Num.,  xviii,  23,  the  special  mission  of  the  tnbe  is 
described  broadly  as  a  mediation  between  the  Lord 
and  his  people,  and  though  the  Levite  mentioned  in 
the  interesting  and  very  ancient  passage  of  Judges 
(xvii,  xviii)  is  represented  as  exercising  without  quali- 
fication the  functions  of  the  priesthood,  it  is  held  by 
many  commentators  that  at  an  early  date  a  distinc- 
tion was  made  between  the  priests  of  the  familv  of 
Aaron  and  the  simple  Levites — a  distinction  which 
became  ver>'  pronounce<l  in  the  later  religious  history 
of  the  Chosen  P(K)ple.  The  ceremonies  with  which  the 
simple  Levites  were  consecrated  to  the  service  of  the 
Lord  are  descril>e(l  in  Num.,  viii,  5-22.  Besides  their 
general  function  of  a.<sir<ting  the  priests,  the  Levites 
were  assigned  to  carr>'  the  Tabernacle  and  its  utensils, 
to  keep  watch  about  the  sanctuar>',  etc.  As  most  of 
their  duties  required  a  man's  full  strength,  the  Levitea 
did  not  eiit<T  upon  their  functions  before  the  age  of 


LftyiTIOUS 


207 


thirty.  In  the  distribution  of  the  Land  of  Chanaan 
after  the  conouest,  Josue,  acting  according  to  instruc- 
tions receivea  from  Moses,  excluded  the  tribe  of  Levi 
from  sharing  like  the  others  in  the  territory .  "  But  to 
the  tribe  of  Levi  he  gave  no  possession:  because  the 
Lord  the  God  of  Israel  himself  is  their  possession'' 
(Jos.,  xiii,  33.)  It  may  be  noted  that  a  very  different 
reason  for  this  exception  is  mentioned  in  Gen.,  xlix, 
5-7.  In  lieu  of  a  specified  territory,  the  members  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi  received  permission  to  dwell  scat- 
tered among  the  other  tribes,  special  provision  being 
made  for  their  maintenance.  Besides  the  tithes  of  the 
produce  of  land  and  cattle,  and  other  sacerdotal  dues 
already  granted  by  Moses,  the  Levites  now  received 
from  each  of  the  other  tribes  four  cities  with  suburban 
pasture  lands,  or  forty-eight  in  all  (Jos.,  xxi).  Among 
these  were  included  the  six  cities  of  refuse,  three  on 
each  side  of  the  Jordan,  which  were  set  aside  to  check 
the  barbarous  custom  of  blood  revenge,  still  existing 
among  the  Arab  tribes,  and  in  virtue  of  which  the 
kinamen^of  a  man  put  to  death  consider  it  a  duty  to 
avenge  him  by  the  killing  of  his  intentional  or  even  un- 
intentional slayer.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  these 
administrative  dispositions  concerning  the  Levites 
were  not  fully  carried  out  until  some  time  after  the 
conquest,  for,  during  the  long  period  of  transition  be- 
tween the  wandering  life  of  the  desert  and  the  fully 
organised  civilization  of  later  times,  the  priests  and 
Levites  seem  to  have  had  a  rather  precarious  mode  of 
existence.  Taking  the  stoiy  of  Michas  (Judges,  xvii) 
as  illustrative  of  the  condition  of  the  Levitical  order 
durine  that  early  period,  it  would  appear  that  the 
priestly  functionaries  were  inadequately  provided  for 
and  had  to  wander  about  to  secure  a  livelihood. 

The  elaborate  and  highly  differentiated  organiza- 
tion of  the  priestly  or  Levitical  system,  described  with 
such  abimaance  of  detail  in  the  priestly  writings  of  the 
Old  Testament,  was  doubtless  the  result  of  a  long  pro- 
cess of  religious  and  ritualistic  development  which  at- 
tained its  fullness  in  the  post-Exilic  period.  As  else- 
^ere  in  the  history  of  ancient  religions,  there  appears 
in  the  beeinnin^  of  Hebrew  history  a  period  when  no 
priestly  class  existed.  The  functions  of  the  priesthood 
were  performed  generally  by  the  head  of  the  family  or 
clan  without  need  of  a  special  8anctuar>',  and  there  is 
abundant  evidence  to  show  that  for  a  long  time  after 
the  death  of  Moses  the  priestly  office  was  exercised, 
not  only  occasionally,  but  even  permanently,  by  men 
of  non-Levitical  descent.  The  Deuteronomic  legisla- 
tion insists  on  tiie  unity  of  sanctuary,  and  recognizes 
the  descendants  of  Levi  as  the  sole  le^timatc  mem- 
bers of  the  priesthood,  but  it  ignores  the  sharply  de- 
fined distinction  between  priests  and  simple  Levites 
which  appears  in  the  later  writings  and  legislation, 
for  the  whole  class  is  constantly  referred  to  as  the 
"levite  priests".  This  category  excludes  the  purely 
lay  priest  who  is  no  longer  tolerated,  but  if  any  Levite 
be  willing  to  leave  his  residence  in  any  part  of  the  land 
and  come  to  Jerusalem,  *'He  shall  minister  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord  his  God,  as  all  his  brethren  the  Le- 
vites do.  that  shall  stand  at  that  time  before  the  Lord. 
He  shall  receive  the  same  portion  of  food  that  the  rest 
do;  besides  that  which  is  due  him  in  his  own  city,  by 
succession  from  his  fathers"  (Deut.  xviii,  6-8)'  In 
the  post-Exilic  writings  the  detailed  organization  and 
workings  of  the  levitical  system  then  in  its  full  vigour 
are  adec|uately  described,  and  a  certain  nunilx?r  of  the 
regulations  pertaining  thereto  arc  a^crilwd  to  King 
David.  Thus,  it  is  to  the  pc»rio<l  of  his  reign  that  I  Par. 
refers  the  introduction  of  the  system  of  counses  where- 
by the  whole  sacerdotal  Ixxly  waM  divided  into  classes, 
named  after  their  respective  chiefs  and  presided  over 
by  them.  They  carried  out  their  various  functions 
week  by  week,  their  particular  duties  beinR  doter- 
mine<l  by  lot  (cf.  Luke,  i,  5-9).  We  road  also  that  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  David  the  rt*a>t  of  the  Lovites,  to  tlio 
number  of  thirty-eight  thousand,  mnging  from  the 


age  of  thirty  years  and  upwards  receive  a  special  or- 
ganization (I  Par.,  xxiii-xxvi).  Levites  are  men- 
tioned only  three  times  in  the  New  Testament  (Luke, 
X,  32;  John,  i,  19;  Acts,  iv,  36),  and  these  references 
throw  no  li^ht  on  their  status  in  the  time  of  Christ. 

Leqendris  m  Vio.,  Did.  de  la  Bible,  8.  v.  I^vt,  Tribu  de  (III); 
Baudissin  in  Haat.,  Did.  of  the  Bible,  n.  v.  PrieHa  and  Levitet; 
GiooT,  Outline*  ofJewith  Hidory,  vui,  |2,  etc. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Leviticus,  the  third  book  of  the  Pentateuch,  so 
called  because  it  treats  of  the  offices,  ministries,  rites, 
and  ceremonies  of  the  priests  and  Levites  (see 
Pentateuch). 

Lewis,  David.   See  Baker,  Charles,  Venerable. 

Lex  (Law). — ^The  etymology  of  the  Latin  word  lex 
is  a  subject  of  controversy.  Some  authorities  derive  it 
from  the  Old  Norse  log,  neuter  plural  of  lagf  which 
would  be  the  root  of  the  English  laWf  signifying  '*  to  put 
in  order",  " put  in  place".  Others  derive  it  from  the 
Latin  legere,  "to  reiad",  thus  giving  it  an  exclusively 
Latin  origin  (Br^l,  "Sur  Torigine  aes  mots  d^ignant 
le  droit  et  la  loi  en  latin"  in  "Nouvelle  Revue  his- 
torique  de  droit  franyais  et  stranger'',  VII,  Paris, 
1883,  610-1 1).  We  shall  not  examine  here  the  divers 
meaning  of  the  word  laWf  but  merely  treat  of  certain 
expressions  beginningwith  the  word  lex  or  leges. 

(1)  Roman  Use. — The  word  lex  followed  by  a  per- 
sonal name  in  the  feminine  gender  (Lex  Julia,  Lex 
Papia  Poppsa)  signified,  in  Itoman  Law,  a  lex  rogakif 
i.  e.  a  legislative  enactment  that  was  the  outeome  of 
an  interrogation  (from  rogare)  by  the  magistrate  of  the 
Roman  people:  the  magistrate  proposed  the  law  to  the 
citizens,  and  they  declared  tneir  acceptance.  The 
law  was  called  by  the  family  name  of  the  author  or 
authors  of  the  proposal. 

(2)  Leges  Romance  of  Teutonic  Peoples. — ^While  offi- 
cial or  priyate  collections  of  Roman  Law  made  under 
the  Empire  are  dalled  codiceSf  e.  g.  "Codex  Theodosi- 
anus",  probably  because  they  were  written  on  parch- 
ment sheets  bound  together  in  book  form,  the  title  lex 
was  given  to  collections  of  Roman  Law  made  by  order 
of  the  barbarian  kings  for  such  of  their  subjects  as  fol- 
lowed that  legislation.  When  the  Teutonic  tribes 
occupied  territories  that  had  once  belonged  to  the 
empire,  the  natives  of  these  territories  continued  to 
follow  the  Ronmn  Law.  It  was  for  them  that  Alaric 
II,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  published,  probably  in  506, 
the  "l2x  Romana  Wisigothorum"  (Roman  Law  of 
the  Visigoths) ;  according  to  the  most  probable  opin- 
ion, he  wished  to  reduce  the  number  of  sources  that 
the  lawyers  of  those  days  had  to  consult  for  the  Ra- 
man Law,  and  which  were  too  numerous  for  them  to 
understand  thoroughly.  This  code  was  only  one  year 
in  force  in  Gaul,  but  it  lasted  in  Spain  till  the  middle  of 
the  seventh  century.  So  long  as  it  continued  to  be 
applied  as  the  personal  law  of  Romans  under  the 
Giothic  regime,  it  was  the  accepted  form  of  Roman 
Law  in  the  West.  It  is  also  called  "  Breviarium  Alar- 
ici"  (Rdsum6  of  Alaric).  or  "Breviarium  Aniani", 
from  the  name  of  the  referendary  by  whom  the 
copies  of  the  "Lex  Romana  Wisigothorum "  were 
signed;  even  the  name  "Lex  Romana"  was  some- 
times given  to  it.  The  "Lex  Romana  Burgundi- 
onum"  is  due  to  the  initiative  of  (lundobad,  King  of 
the  Burgundians  (d.  516).  It  was  enactecl  for  the 
Gallo-Roman  subjects  of  his  kingdom,  and  was  not, 
like  the  prece<ling  oolUM'tion,  a  r^sum4  of  the  Roman 
Law,  but  rather  a  kind  of  official  instruction  drawn  up 
for  the  use  of  judges,  calling  their  attention  to  the 
more  im|)ortant  i)oint8  of  Roman  legislation.  This 
collection  is  known  also  an  "Papianus",  or  "Liber 
Papiaiii".  The  "Lex  Romana  R^tica  Curiensis"  is 
of  a  later  date  (middle  of  the  eighth  or  beginning  of  the 
ninth  cenlury).  and  differs  vory  much  in  character 
from  the  preceding  **h*ges";  it  is  a  collection  contain- 
ing extracts  from  the  "  Ixix  Romana  Wisigothorum" 


LXX  208  UX 

and  enactments  from  Gennan  law,  drawn  up  for  which  it  has  reached  ua,  it  canoot  be  older  th&n  the  eTid 

Rhtetia  and  the  Griaons.     With  these  miEht  be  men-  of  the  seventh  centuiy.     It  was  modified  by  the  Jus- 

tioned  the  "Lex  Dei  quam  precepit  Oominus  ad  tinian  Code  and  especially  by  the  influence  of  Chris- 

Moysen"  (Law  which  God  gave  to  Moses),  now  com-  tisnity.     The  "Lex  Allamanorum"  (I^wof  Ute  Alla- 

monly  known  as  "Coliatio   legum  Mosaicanun  et  mani)  was  drawn  up  in  its  definitive  form  prolMbly 

Romanarum",  a  comparison  of  Mosaic  and  Roman  between  the  years  717  and  719  by  Duke  Lanfridus; 

biWa  made  by  a  Christian  between  390  and  438,  to  the  "Lex  Bajuwariorum "   (Law  of  the  Bavarians) 

^ow  the  extent  to  which  they  agreed.    The  "Lex  about  748-52;  the  "Lex  Frieionum"  (Iaw  of  the 

Romana  canonice  compta"  (i.  c.  concepla  or  compo-  Frisians)  dates  back  to  the  second  half  of  the  eighth 

Mita)  is  a  collection  of  Roman  laws  made  in  Italy  in  the  century.    Authorities   attribute   to   the   Synod  of 

ninth  century  (after  825).    It  comprises  those  enact-  Aachen  (802  or  803)  tbe"LexSaxoniun"  (I^wof  the 
eRomi  -,         -^  ... 


mentsofthe 
Iavi,  and  especially 
of  the  Justinian 
Code,  which  were  of 
special  import  to  the 


C3iurch. 
(3)1 


«  Barbaro- 
lis  title 
denotes  the  collec- 
tions of  laws  drawn 
up  by  the  barbarian 
kmgs  for  their  Teu- 
tonlo  aubjecls.  It  is 
difficult  to  assign  a 
precise  date  to  each 
of  these  collections; 
several  of  them  were 
reissued  at  a  later 
period.and  the  earli- 
est form  has  not 
always  been  pre- 
served. The  most 
ancient  of  these 
compilations  is  the 
"Lex  Salica",  the 
earliest  redaction  of 
which  does  not  in- 
dicate clearly  a 
Christian  or  a  pagan 
origin;  it  is  believed 
to  date  from  the 
reign  of  Clovis,  be- 
tween the  years  486 
and  496.  The  most 
important  new  re- 
daction is  the  "  Lex 
Salica  emendata ' ' 
(a  Carolo  mogno 
emendata),  a  prod- 
uct of  the  Carlo- 
vingian  age,  though 
'  apparently  it  cannot 
be  attributed  to 
Charlemagne.  In 
the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury the  Salic  Law 
was  invoked  to  ex- 
clude women  from 
theeuccession  tothe 
Vtench  throne.  The 
''Lex  Ribuariii'',  or 
"Ripuaria",  reprodi 


'mm 


'y 


BUTli 


(«<««» 


'■     cUrAd   xafhn    ' 


Fronioii  Vlll-n 


t  the  Salic  Law,  but 


it  is  manifestly  influenced  by  Christianity  and  the 
Roman  Law.    It  was  drawn  up  bj-  the  authority  of  a    officio  judi 
■'"  — ■■""*ive  form  dates  appar- 
The  "L<«  Barbara 


Saxons), 

"Lex  Angliorum  et 
Werinorum,  hoc  est 
Thuringorum"  pro- 
mulgated for  the  in- 
habit&nts  of  north- 
eastern Thuringia. 
The  "Lex  Chama- 
vorum"  (Lawofthe 
Chamavi,  identified 
with  the  inhabitant* 
of  the  Lower  Rhine 
and  the  Yssel  and 
the  Netherlands  ter- 
ritory of  Drenthe) 
was  composed  about 
the  end  of  the  eighth 
or  bezinnmg  of  the 

(about  8027).  The 
firat  version  of  the 
"  EdiotuB  " ,  or  "  Lex 
Longobardorum  ' ' , 
enacted  fortbeLom- 
hards  of  Italy,  be- 
longs to  the  year 
&43 .  It  was  revised 
by  King  Grimoald 
in  668  and  by  ICiag 
Liutprand  between 
713  and  735,  while 
additions  to  it  wer« 
made  by  King  Rat- 
cbis  in  745-46  and 
Km^Aiatulf  in  755. 
A  critical  edition  ctf 
the '  'Leges  Borbaio- 
rum  "  and  of  certain 
"Leges  Romano- 
rum"  is  published 
in  "Uon.  Germ. 
Hist.:  Legea",  III- 
V  (Hanover.  I8ft3- 
89),  and  "Legum 
Sectio  I",  I-II 
(Hanover,  1002). 
(4)  In  the  MiddU 

. — ■  -  .^^M'      Aga. — In  this  peti- 

ii-r  OF  THE  Lei  Sauca  od  fci  Was  employed 

SliflHbibliolhPk,  St-GiJI  to  denote  a  body  ti 

righte.  The  name  t» 

•tTop'<lil'i"n  signified  all  the  rights  of  a  metropolitoo 

■'        .ffragan  bishops  of  his  province  (c.  xi,  "De 

lis  ordinarii",  X,  I,  xxxi):  by  the  name  far 

c.  ix,  "De  majoritate  et  obedientia",  X.  I, 

.,  .     lex  ditgcemna  juritdiclionit  (c.  ix,  "Do 

hecreticis",  X,  V,  vii),  was  meant  all  the  rights  of  a 

However,  a  distinction  ^"" 


1  c«.j.<L*i* 


Burgundionum"  belongs  to  the  fifth  century 

attributed  to  King  Gundobad,  who  promulgated  the  bishop  in  his  diocese. 

"Lex   Romana   Burpundionuin";   under  the  Carlo-  drawn  later  Irath  by  law  and  by  the  doctore  between 

_-__-_...   7j^  ^^  ordinarily  callml  the  "Lex  Gunde-  the  Ifx dueresann  a ' 

,  __.w  of  Gomlcbauil,  whrnce  its  French  name.  "De  officio  judicis  i  ,  ,  . 
"Loi  GombetteJ'.  It  in  a  collection  of  the  ordinances  dealing  with  the  profitable  rights  of  the  bishop  U.  . .. 
of  that  prince  and  his  predcrcpsors.  The  first  redac-  tain  fixed  incomes  like  the  procuratio,  the  col/iedro- 
tion  of  llie  "I,ex  Barliara  Wisigothorum "  belongs  to  tieiim,  etc.,  and  the  latter  treating  of  the  other  righta 
the  reign  of  King  Euric  (40G-84),  but  it  was  reiisinl  of  the  l)isiii)p.  e.  g.  tlie  exereise  of  jurisdiction  in  con- 
by  several  of  Iiih  auecessors.     In  the  complete  forin  in  tentious  matters,  the  mmistry  of  souls,  l^e  power  and 


lifiA  of  ordoiniiig.  This  distinotion  waa  made  in 
view  of  the  exemntioiia  which  the  religioua  orders  en- 
joyed in  their  reUtione  with  the  bishope.  The  defi- 
oitiioQ  given  of  these  two  kga  by  Benedict  XIV  does 
not  Beem  accurate;  according  to  that  learned  canonist 
(De  synodo  diceceaana,  I,  iv,  n.  3),  the  lex  iurudic- 
tioni*  is  the  complexua  of  rights  which  a  bishop  has 
over  exempted  r^ulara;  the  lex  diacexaTia,  the  com- 

Slexua  of  eplHcopal  rights  from  which  the  rCKular  oi^ 
ere  are  exempt  (Schcrer,  "Handbuch  des  Kirchen- 
rechtes",  I,  Gra>,  1886,  560).  This  distraction  is  no 
longer  of  any  practical  importance. 

Uomuui.  JUaniK)  dei  anliqutiit  Tomaina,  French  tr.  Girakd, 
VI  (Paiu.  1888).  1,  351  «)□.:  KauoEH.  ffiainn  d«  (dutch  du 
Onil  nmaiK,  French  tr.  BaraaiDD  (Fncu.  1S94):  Eiiueih, 
Coun  iUmailairt  d'hiatoirt  du  droit  ftanaiU  (4th  «(.,  Pnrig, 
IMS);  VioLur,  HiMH'n  du  droit  civil  frantai*  (Pniu.  1803}i 
Bbvmmib,  D«itodUSaAt«0acAieAU  (Leipiig.  1887], 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Lsmu,  JiTAN  Bautista  sg,  theologian,  b.  at  Mad- 
rid, 23  Nov.,  1586;  d.  in  Rome,  29  March.  1659.  He 
took  the  habit  at  Alberca,  in  Old  Castile,  18  Oct., 
IflOO,  and  made  his  profession  at  the  house  of  the  Car- 
melites of  the  Old  Observance  at  Madrid,  in  1602; 
studied  philosophy  at  Toledo,  theology  at  Salamanca, 
partly  at  the  college  of  the  order,  partly  at  the  univer- 
eit;^  under  Juan  Marquei,  and  finally  at  AIcaM  under 
Luis  de  Monteaion.  For  some  yeara  he  was  employed 
as  lecturer  at  Toledo  and  Alcal^,  but  having  been  sent 
to  the  genetal  chapter  of  1625  as  delegate  of  his  prov- 
ince, he  remained  in  Rome  as  professor  of  theology. 
At  tne  following  chapter  (1645),  at  which  he  assisted 
in  the  (^lality  of  titular  provincial  of  the  Holy  Land, 
he  obtained  some  votes  for  the  generalship,  but  re- 
ToaininK  in  the  minority  he  was  nominated  assistant 
geoenit;  for  some  years  he  also  filled  the  office  of  pro- 
curator general.  Inaddition  to  these  dignities  within 
the  Older,  he  filled  for  sixteen  years  the  chair  of  meta- 
phjrses  at  the  Sapienza.  and  became  consultor  to  the 
Congregation  of  tne  Index  under  Urban  VIII,  and  to 
that  of  Rites  under  Innocent  X.  Appointed  to  a  bish- 
opric, he  requested  a  saintly  nun  to  recommend  an 
important  matter  (the  nature  of  which  he  did  not  dis- 
olaae)  to  Our  Lord  m  prayer,  and  received  through  her 
the  answer,  which  he  acl«d  upon,  that  it  would  be 
more  perfect  for  him  to  refuse  the  dignity. 

Leaana  was  a  great  authority  on  canon  law,  dog- 
matic theology,  and  philosophy,  and  his  writings  on 
these  subjects  still  cany  weight.  His  historical  works, 
however,  are  not  of  the  same  high  standard.  A  notice 
on  hie  "Annals  of  the  Carmelite  Order"  (four  folio 
vols,  were  published  between  1645  and  1656.  and 
there  remains  another  vol.  in  MS.)  will  be  found  m  the 
bibliography  aeoompanying  the  article  Carueute 
Order.  The  foUowmg  are  the  principal  products  of 
his  indefatigable  pen:  (1)  "Liber  apologeticus  pro 
Immaeulata  Coneeptione "  (Madrid,  1016).  (2)  "^De 
regularium  reformatione "  (Rome,  1627),  four  times 
reprinted  and  translated  into  French,  although  it  is 
doubtful  whether  tbe  translation  appfarcd  in  print. 
(3)  "Summa  quteationum  regularium  ,  five  vols.,  the 
first  of  which  appeared  in  Rome  (1637),  the  last  in 
1647,  most  of  Uiem  were  repoatedlv  reprinted.  (4) 
and  (5)  Two  works.  "Columna  immobilis  ,  and  "Tur- 
ns Davidiea  ",  on  tne  Blessed  Virgin  del  Filar,  at  Sara- 
gossa  (16.55 and  1656).  (6)  "Maria  patrona"  (Rome, 
1648).  (7)  Life  of  8t.  Mary  Magdalene  de  Pa«w,  in 
Spanish  (Rome,  1648).  (8)  "Summa  theologiiB  sac- 
tB"  (3  vols.,  Rome,  1651  sqq.).  (9)  "Consulta  varia 
thetriogiea"  (Venice,  1656).  A^  some  less  important 
works.  B.  KruMESMAN. 

L'HaapitaL  Michel  de,  b.  at  Aigucp^rse,  al>out 
1604;  d.  at -Courdimanche,  13  March.  1573.  ^\'hile 
very  youtw  he  went  to  Italy  to  join  his  father,  who  had 
been  afoUower  of  the  traitor,  the^omitjible  of  Bour- 
bon, in  the  camp  of  Charles  V.  He  ncquirM  Iiih  ju- 
ridical tiunlng  first  aa  a  student  at  Pa<luu  and  then  aa 
IX.— W  . 


19  L'HOSPZTIL 

auditor  of  the  Rota  at  Rome,  and  in  1537  became  a 
councillorof  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  In  1547hewaa 
charged  hy  Henrv  II  with  a  mission  to  the  (Ecumen- 
ical council,  which  had  been  transferred  from  Trent  to 
Bologna,  returning  after  sixteen  months  to  take  liis  seat 
in  the  Parliament.  He  was  next  appointed  chancellor  of 
Berry  by  Marguerite  of  France,  the  daughter  of  Fran- 
cis I,  in  1554  became  first  president  of  the  court  of  ex- 
chequer [chambre  dct  eomplei),  and,  upon  the  acces- 
sion of  Francis  II  (1559),  entered  the  privy  council 
throutch  the  patronage  of  the  Guises.  Catharine  de' 
Medici  appointed  him  chancellor  in  1.560.  On  the  one 
hanrl,  L'Hospital  had  written  a  culogv  in  Latin  verse 
on  the  Duke  of  (iuise  and  the  Cardinal  of  I^rrainc;  on 
the  other  hand,  he  was  the  husband  of  a  Protestant 
wife,  and  had  ha(i  his  children  brought  iip  Protestants. 
At  the  opening  of  bis  career  atJ  chancellor  his  complex 
personality  is  thus  dcscriltcd  by  Brantome:  "  He  was 
neld  to  be  a  Huguenot,  though  he  went  to  Maes;  but  at 
court  they  said, 
'God  save  Mr 
from  L' Hospital's 
Mass!'"  Tbfo- 
dorc  de  B^ze  had 
had  a  portrait  ot 
L'Hospital  made, 
in  which  he  was 
represented  with  a 
lighted  torch  be- 
hind his  back,  a 
way  of  indicatiiw 
that  the  chancel- 
lor had  known  the 
"light"  of  the 
Reformation,  but 
would    not    look 

of  fact,  the  policy 
of  tolerance,  o! 
which  he  was  the 
apostle  in  ('ranee, 
was,  perhaps,  in- 
spired by  a  certain  scepticism;  the  dilTerenccB  of  re- 
ligious 1>clief  seemed  to  him  leas  serious  and  less  pro- 
found than  they  really  were;  he  would  have  readily 
classed  in  thesamecategorytheCouiicil  of  Trent  and 
certain  Calvinistic  manifestations,  as  equally  embar- 
rassing (o  the  State;  and  (he  state  of  mind  of  which 
he  WFtt  a  representative  was  much  nearer  te  tliat  of 
the  i'ightccnth-century  philosophers  than  it  was  to 
that  of  men  living  in  his  own  day,  whether  Protee- 
tants  or  Catholics. 

The  Edict  of  Romorantin  (May,  1560)  gave  to  the 
bishops  criminal  jurisdiction  in  cases  of  heresy,  and  to 
the  secular  courts  the  function  of  punishing  the  offence 
of  holding  Protestant  meetings.  This  was  L'Hospi- 
tel's  first  efforts  to  draw  the  lino  between  spiritual  and 


temporal — between  the  religion  of  the  kingdom  and  its 
police  regulation.  His  addre.ts  at  the  opening  of  the 
States  General  of  Orifians   (13  Decemlxr,    1560)   is 


summed  up  in  these  words:  "  The  knife  is  worth  little 
against  the  spirit.  Wc  must  camish  ourselves  with 
virtues  and  good  morals,  and  then  assail  the  Protest- 


Lutheran,  Huguenot,  Papist — names  of  factions  and 
sedit  ions.  Let  us  keep  to  the  nanw  of  Christian, "  To 
this  programme  of  tolrmnco  he  added  some  extremely 
severe  threats  against  Protestants  who  should  stir  up 
seditions,  while,  on  thf  other  hand,  the  religious  arti- 
cles of  the  Ordinance  of  Ori(!ans  (31  January,  1561) 
essayed  to  bring  back  the  Church  of  France  to  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Boiirges,  to  restore  to  it  certein 
elective  franchisca,  and  thus  to  do  away  with  the  ex- 
clusive rights  which  the  pojie  and  the  king  had  exer- 
cised over  it  since  the  concordat  of  Francis  I,  On  Ifl 
.\pril,  1561,  li'Hospitalsent  to  thego\'emore,  without 


UAFWIH 


210 


previously  submitting  it  to  the  Parliament,  an  edict 
granting  to  aU  subjects  the  right  of  worshipping  as 
they  pleased  in  their  own  homes.  In  July,  1561,  he 
caused  all  prosecutions  for  religious  opinions  to  be  sus- 
pended imtil  a  *' council''  should  be  assembled.  This 
" council",  which  was  the  Colloquy  of  Poissy,  resulted 
in  nothing.  By  another  edict  (15  January,  1562)  he 
granted  to  the  Protestants  liberty  of  worship  outside 
of  cities,  and  recognized  their  right  to  hold  meetings  in 
private  houses,  even  within  the  limits  of  cities.  This 
edict  the  Protestants  always  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
charter  of  enfranchisement,  and  during  the  religious 
wars  they  constantly  demanded  its  restoration. 

But  other  measures  touching  the  Church,  taken  by 
L'Hospital  at  the  same  time,  gave  the  Holy  See  good 
reason  for  uneasiness.  He  caused  a  thesis  on  the  pope ' 
to  be  denounced  before  the  Parliament,  because  it 
seemed  to  him  too  ultramontane;  he  opposed  the  mon- 
itorium  by  which  Pius  IV  had  invited  Jeanne  d'Al- 
bret  to  appear  in  France  before  the  Inouisition.  At 
last  Pius  IV  in  1562  requested  of  the  French  Court 
that  the  chancellor  be  dismissed.  L'llospital,  in  fact, 
was  not  present  at  the  conclusion  of  the.coimcil  which 
decided  on  war  against  Cond^  and  the  Protestants;  he 
returned  to  court  only  after  this  first  war  of  religion, 
when  the  Edict  of  Amboise  (19  March,  1503)  restored 
religious  peace  by  guaranteeing  certain  liberties  to  the 
Protestants.  He  agreed  with  Catharine  de'  Medici 
that  the  cause  of  peace  would  be  served  by  having 
Charles  IX  declared  of  age,  and  by  letting  him  make  a 
progress  through  the  country.  The  declaration  of  the 
king's  majority  took  place  m  1563,  and  from  1564  to 
1566  L'Hospital  caused  him  to  make  an  extensive 
journey  through  France.  During  this  tour  the  Ordi- 
nance ot  Moulins  (February,  1566)  was  promulgated 
b^  the  chancellor,  to  reform  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice. But  L'Hospital's  plans  failed;  party  violence 
continued,  and  the  Catholics  blamed  him  for  his  indul- 
gence towards  the  Protestants,  all  the  more  bitterly 
because  he  refused  to  let  the  Council  of  Trent  be  pub- 
lished in  France.  In  February,  1504,  he  had  declared 
himself  so  strongly  against  the  acceptance  of  the  Tri- 
dentine  decrees  that  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  ex- 
claimed :  *'  You  should  take  off  your  mask  and  embrace 
Protestantism."  The  same  cardinal  also,  when  he 
appeared  before  L'Hospital  at  Moulins  (February, 
1566)  to  demand  the  abrogation  of  the  Edict  of  Am- 
boise, treated  him  as  a  worthless  fellow  {htlitre). 

Meanwhile,  suspicion  of  him  continued  to  increase  in 
the  Catholic  camp,  and  after  the  Protestants  had 
made  an  attempt  at  Meaux  (26-28  September,  1567) 
to  get  possession  of  the  kind's  person,  thus  precipitat- 
ing the  second  war  of  religion,  Catharine  ae'  Medici 
turned  against  the  chancellor  with  the  brutal  words: 
"  It  is  you  who  have  brought  us  to  this  pass  with  your 
counsels  of  moderation  ".  From  that  day  the  policy 
of  moderation,  which  had  been  L'Hospital's  clream, 
was  exploded;  his  repeated  assurances  of  Huguenot 
loyalty  were  belied  by  the  conspiracy  of  Meaux,  and 
he  retired,  disheartened,  to  his  estate  at  Vignay.  Ir- 
removable as  chancellor,  he  had  to  give  up  the  seals  on 
24  May,  1 568.  He  followed  from  a  distance  the  events 
which  little  by  little  brought  Catharine  de'  Medici  to 
the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  His  daughter,  who 
was  in  Paris  at  the  time  of  the  massacre,  was  saved 
through  the  protection  of  Francois  de  Guise's  widow. 
L'Hospital  himself  and  his  wife  were  threatened  by 
the  peasantry  of  Vignay,  and  a  report  was  spread  that 
they  had  been  killed;  Catharine  sent  some  soldiers  to 
protect  him.  On  1  February,  1573,  the  Court  com- 
pelled L'Hospital  to  resign  the  chancellorship,  and  he 
died  six  weeks  later.  His  Latin  poems,  which  in  the 
seventeenth  centur>'  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  Jan 
de  Witt,  grand  pensionary  of  Holland,  were  published 
in  1732,  in  a  more  complete  edition  than  that  of  his 
grandson  (1585).  His  complete  works,  edited  by 
l)ufey,  appeared  at  Paris,  in  1824,  in  five  volumes. 


VniUBiiAiN,  Etudea  tTHiaUnre  modeme  (2nd  ad.,  Paris,  1850); 
Amphoux,  Michel  dt  VHdpilal  el  la  Ubert^  de  conecienee  au 
XM'  eUde  (Paris.  1900);  Atkinson,  Michel  de  L'HoepHal 
(London,  19€k));  Dupr^Lasalb,  Miaiel  de  VHu^jntal  avarU 
eon  iUvation  au  posle  de  chancelier  de  France  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1S75- 
1899);  Shaw,  Michel  de  VHoepital  and  Hie  Policy  (London. 
1905). 

Georges  Gotau. 
Liafwin  (Liefwin),  Saint.    See  Lebwin,  Saint. 
Liao-tnng.    See  Manchuria. 

Libel  (Lat.  libeUuSf  a  little  book),  a  malicious  pub- 
lication by  writing,  printing,  picture,  effigy,  sign,  or 
otherwise  than  by  mere  speech,  which  exposes  anv 
living  person,  or  the  memory  of  any  person  deceasea, 
to  hatred,  contempt,  ridicule,  or  obloquy,  or  which 
causes  or  tends  to  cause  any  person  to  be  ashamed  or 
avoided,  or  which  has  a  tenclency  to  injure  any  per- 
son, corporation,  or  association  of  persons,  in  his,  ner, 
or  its  business  or  occupation.  The  use  of  the  wonl 
libel,  as  relating  to  defamatory  WTitings,  seems  to  have 
originated  early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Such  a 
writing  then  became  known  as  a  libellus  famosuSf  i.  e., 
a  scurrilous  or  defamatory  pamphlet.  Since  the  ear- 
liest ages  every  civilized  community  has  provided  for 
the  protection  of  the  citizen  from  defamation  of  char- 
acter, and  practically  the  same  theories  of  redress  and 
penalties  as  exist  to-dajr  were  held  under  the  very 
ancient  laws.  The  Mosaic  law  provided  penalties  for 
the  offence  (Ex.,  xxiii),  and  under  the  laws  of  Solon  it 
was  punished  by  a  severe  fine.  A  libel  may  be  either 
a  civil  injury  or  a  criminal  offence.  The  theory  upon 
which  it  IS  made  the  subject  of  criminal  law  is  that  it  is 
calculated  to  cause  a  breach  of  the  public  peace. 
Libel  differs  essentially  from  slander,  in  that  it  may  be 
the  subject  of  both  criminal  and  civil  litigation, 
whereas  slander  is  not  a  criminal  offence. 

Many  statements  may  be  actionable  per  se  when 
^Tittcn  or  printed,  and  published,  which  would  not  be 
actionable  if  merely  spoken,  without  claiming  and 
proving  special  damage.  Thus,  unwritten  words  im- 
puting immoral  conduct  are  not  actionable  per  96 
unless  the  misconduct  imputed  amounts  to  a  cnminal 
offence,  for  which  the  person  slandered  may  be  in- 
dicted. If  the  published  matter  holds  a  person  up  to 
public  scorn,  contempt,  and  ridicule,  it  is  libellous 
per  se.  Libel  per  se  embraces  all  cases  which  would  be 
actionable  if  made  orally,  and  also  embraces  all  other 
cases  where  the  additional  gravity  imparted  to  Uie 
charge  bv  the  publication  can  fairly  be  supposed  to 
make  it  damaging.  The  nature  of  the  charge  must  be 
such  that  the  court  can  legally  presume  that  the  plain- 
tiff has  been  degraded  in  the  estimation  of  his  acquain- 
tances or  of  the  public,  or  has  suffered  some  loss,  either 
to  his  property,  character,  or  business,  or  in  nis  do- 
mestic or  social  relations,  in  consequence  of  the  publi- 
cation of  such  charges.  Ck)mpensation  for  mentuU 
suffering  caused  bv  the  libel  may  be  included  in  the 
damages  recovered.  In  cases  of  libels  upon  the  dead, 
although  no  private  injury  in  the  ordinary  sense  re- 
sults to  anyon^,  they  are  properly  the  subject  of  crim- 
inal prosecution,  as  being  likely  to  cause  a  breach  of 
the  peace,  on  accoimt  of  the  resentment  of  the  surviv- 
ing relatives. 

In  criminal  prosecution  in  Great  Britain,  and  in 
many  jurisdictions  in  America,  for  many  years  the 
lury  have  been  made  judges  of  both  the  Law  and  the 
fact  (Fox's  Criminal  Libel  Act,  32  George  III,  c.  60). 
In  such  cases  it  is  still  the  duty  of  the  presiding  rfidg/i 
to  inform  and  instruct  the  jury  as  to  the  law  of  evi- 
dence, and  to  decide  all  questions  arising  in  that  re- 
gard. 

The  law  of  libel  is  not  limited  to  injuries  done^  to 
personal  reputation,  but  also  includes  the  protection 
of  the  reputation  of  property;  and  this  form  of  libel  is 
common ly  called  slander  of  tit  le.  Slander  of  title  wbs 
actionable  at  common  law  upon  proof  of  special  dam- 
age.     A  claim  of  title  made  in  good  faith,  however* 


UBELLATIOI 


211 


UBELLATIOI 


and  ufion  probable  cause  cannot  be  considered  as 
furnishing  ^xpunds  for  a  cause  of  action,  but  the  prin- 
ciple sustaining  this  form  of  actionable  libel  is  well- 
established.  A  corporation  can  maintain  an  action 
for  libel  per  «e.when  the  libel  necessarily  and  directly 
occasions  pecuniary  injury.  A  distinction  between 
criticism  and  defamation  is,  that  criticism  deals  only 
¥rith  such  things  as  invite  public  attention  or  call  for 
public  comment,  and  does  not  follow  a  man  into  his 
private  life,  or  pry  into  his  domestic  concerns.  It 
never  attacks  the  mdividual,  but  only  his  work.  A 
criticism  of  a  public  man,  consisting  of  imputations 
upon  his  motives,  which  arise  fairly  and  legitimately 
out  of  his  conduct,  is  generally  regarded  as  justifiable. 

Publication. — To  constitute  a  lilxjl  there  must  be  a 
publication,  as  well  as  a  writing.  While  a  defamatory 
writing  is  not  libel  if  it  remains  with  the  writer  unde- 
liverea,  yet  if  it  goes  t^^  other  hands,  even  inadvert- 
ently, there  has  been  a  publication.  The  writing 
must  go  into  the  hands  of  persons  who  by  a  knowledge 
of  the  language  or  of  reading  are  able  to  becc<me  ac- 
quainted with  its  content,*!.  In  relation  to  criminal 
libel,  it  has  been  adjudged  that,  even  if  the  defama- 
tory conununication  has  been  seen  by  no  one  but  the 
person  to  whom  it  is  addressed,  a  case  has  been  made 
out,  as  in  such  an  event  it  is  likely  to  cause  a  breach  of 
the  public  peace.  [Barrow  v.  Lewellen,  Hobart's  (K. 
B.)  Reports,  62  a  (152);  Lyle  v.  Clason,  1  Caimes 
(N.  Y.),  581 J 

Malice. — n  is  an  essential  ineredient  in  both  \\\ye\ 
and  slander  that  the  defamation  oe  malicious.  A  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  malice  in  fact  and  malice  in 
law.  Jn  a  le^al  sense,  any  act  done  wilfully  to  the 
preju^ce  and  injur>'  of  another,  which  is  unlawful,  is, 
as  against  that  person,  malicious.  The  falsity  of  the 
charge  establishes  a  presumption  of  malice.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  render  an  act  m  law  malicious  that  the 
party  be  actuated  by  a  feeling  of  liatred  or  ill-will 
toward  the  individual,  but  if  m  pursuing  a  design, 
even  if  actuated  by  a  general  good  purpose,  he  wil- 
fully inflicts  a  wrong  on  others  which  is  not  warranted 
by  law,  such  act  is  malicious. 

Privileged  Communications.  —  A  communication 
made  to  a  person  entitled  to,  or  interested  in,  the  com- 
munication, by  one  who  is  also  interested  in  or  en- 
titled to  make  it,  or  who  stood  in  such  a  relation  to  the 
former  as  to  afford  a  reasonable  ground  for  supposing 
his  motive  innocent,  is  presumecl  not  to  be  malicious, 
and  is  called  a  privile|2:ed  communication.  To  sup- 
port the  claim  of  privilege  there  must  be  something 
more  than  a  social  or  moral  duty,  for.  no  matter  how 
praiseworthy  the  motive  may  be,  unless  the  circum- 
stances are  such,  in  the  opinion  of  the  court,  as  to 
come  within  the  above  definition,  privilege  cannot  be 
successfully  pleaded.  Two  elements  must  exist:  not 
only  must  the  occasion  create  the  privilege,  but  the 
occasion  must  be  made  use  of  bona  fide  and  without 
malice.  Reports  of  proceedings  in  legislative  assem- 
blies and  in  judicial  tribunals  (where  the  published 
matter  is  pertinent  to  any  cause  of  which  the  court  has 
jurisdiction)  are  absolutely  privileged. 

Justification. — The  truth  of  a  charge  is  always  a 
justification  and  a  complete  answer  to  a  civil  proceed- 
ing for  libel.  In  criminal  proceedings  it  is  the  general 
rule  that  it  must  be  sho\vn  in  addition  that  the  publi- 
cation was  for  the  public  benefit  and  for  justifiable 
ends.  This  has  been  the  law  in  almost  all  of  the 
United  States  for  manv  years,  and  in  Great  Britain 
since  1843  (6  and  7  Victoria,  c.  96).  Formerly  in 
criminal  cases  the  truth  of  the  charges  constituting  the 
alleged  libel  was  no  defence,  the  rulf*  lioing  embodied 
in  tne  maxim,  "The  greater  the  truth  the  greater  the 
libel".  There  was  sulvitantial  reason  for  this  theory, 
as  it  was  deemed  that  a  truthful  dofamatorv  stati»- 
ment  was  more  apt  to  cause  a  breach  of  the  public 
peace  than  one  that  was  untrue.  It  is  a  well-estal>- 
[ished  and  universal  fact  that  courts  will  never  assume 


that  there  has  been  wrongdoing,  and  the  burden  in 
both  civil  and  criminal  litigation  is  upon  the  person 
making  the  charge  to  sustain  it.  Moreover,  if  the  de- 
famatory matter  consists  of  charges  involving  moral 
turpitude,  and  subject  to  crimimd  prosecution,  the 
re<iuirpments  as  to  the  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  same 
arc  substantially  as  strict  as  if  the  person  claiming  to 
have  been  defamed  was  on  trial  for  the  alleged  of- 
fences. 

A  striking  and  interesting  illustration  of  the  applica- 
tion of  this  rule  is  to  be  found  in  the  record  of  the  case 
of  the  Queen  against  Newman,  the  defendant  being 
Dr.  (afterwards  Cardinal )  Newman.  This  was  a  pro- 
ceeding for  criminal  libel  instituted  by  Giovanm  G. 
Achilli,  who  had  formerly  been  a  priest  of  the  Cathohc 
Church,  but  had  been  disciplined  and  suspended  by 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  The  complainant,  prior 
to  the  publication,  had  been  delivering  public  ad- 
dresses, attacking  the  Church  and  it^  institutions,  and 
giving  a  wrong  impression  as  to  the  circumstances  con- 
nected with  his  suspension.  Dr.  Newman  published 
a  statement  setting  forth  the  facts  in  relation  to  the 
complainant's  suspension,  and  making  specific  charges 
of  a  number  of  instances  of  sexual  immorality,  in  one 
case  a  young  girl  of  alx)ut  fifteen  years  being  involved. 
The  acts  charged  took  place  on  the  Continent  of  Eu- 
rope, and  the  persons  who  could  have  supported  the 
statement  by  their  testimonjr  were  beyond  the  juris- 
diction of  the  English  court  in  which  the  proceeding 
was  conducted.  Dr.  Newman  was,  therefore,  unable 
to  prove  the  truth  of  the  twenty-one  charges  made, 
except  the  one  in  relation  to  the  proceedings  con- 
ducted by  the  Church,  and  which  was  supported  by 
documentary  evidence.  He  had  pleaded  the  truth  of 
the  alleged  libel  under  the  statuto  of  Victoria.  The 
court  found  him  guilty  and  he  was  fined  one  hundred 
pounds. 

It  may  be  generally  stated  that  any  circumstances 
that  would  appeal  to  a  reasonable  person  as  being  mit- 
igating mav  l)e  introduced  in  evidence  in  either  crim- 
inal or  civil  litigation  under  a  plea  of  mitigation,  even 
including  a  belief  in  the  truth  of  the  matter,  or  an  at- 
tempt subsequently  to  repair  the  alleged  wrong  by  a 
retraction  or  apoloj^y. 

MuNROE,  Engltsk  Dictionary  of  Hi^orical  Principles  (Oxford, 
19(Xi);  Qoou&Y,  Wrongs  and  their  Remedies,!:  Tor/a  (Chica^, 
1S88);  New  York  Penal  Code;  Blaekstonc'a  Commentartea; 
^' EN  DELL,  Starkie  on  Slander  and  Libel  (West  Brookfield,  Mas- 
sachusetts, 1852). 

EuGEXE  A.  Philbin. 

Libellatici,  Libelli. — The  lihelli  were  certificates 
issued  to  Christians  of  the  third  century.  They  were 
of  two  kinds:  (1)  certificates  of  conformity,  to  attest 
that  the  holders  had  conformed  to  the  rehgious  tests 
require<l  by  the  edict  of  Decius;  (2)  certificates  of 
indulgence,  in  which  the  confessors  or  mart.\Ts  inter- 
ceded for  the  lapsi  (i.  e.  those  who  had  apastatized). 
The  opprobrious  term  libetlatid  is  applied  only  to 
holders  of  the  former  kind.  The  edict  of  Decius 
(Dec.,  240,  or  Jan. ,250),  coming  as  it  did  after  a  com- 
paratively long  period  of  peace,  frightened  many 
Christians  into  submission.  But  the  methods  and 
extent  of  submission  were  of  several  kinds:  the  lapsi 
might  he:  (a)  apostates,  who  had  entirely  abandoned 
their  religion,  or  (b)  sacrificati,  thurifiooiti,  who  had 
taken  part  in  the  pagan  rites,  or  (c)  libellaticij  who 
had  secure<l  certificates  (libelli)  of  conformity  from 
the  proper  civil  authorities.  Three  such  libelli  are 
extant,  all  of  them  of  Eg\'ptian  origin  ("OxjThyn- 
chus  Papyri",  IV,  658;  Gebhardt.  "Acta  Martyrum 
Selecta").  Therein  the  petitioner  declares  that  he 
was  ever  conr^tant  in  sacrificing  to  the  gods,  and  has 
actually  performed  the  test  of  conforrnity.  in  attesta- 
tion of  wnich  he  l>egs  the  pagan  commissioners  to  sign 
this  certificate.  However,  it  seems  that  the  declara- 
tion w«as  sometimes  accepted  for  the  deed,  or  the  deed 
itself  performed  by  proxy;   and  no  doubt  the  docu- 


XJBEKALISM 


212 


UBERALUM 


ment  might  be  bought  from  amenable  commiBeioiiers 
without  any  declaration  of  paganism. 

It  was  in  connexion  with  the  reconciliation  of  these 
libeUatici  as  well  as  other  lapsi  that  the  libeUi  pads, 
or  letters  of  indulgence,  were-  introduced.  The  lapH 
were  in  the  habit  of  seeking  the  intercession  of  the 
confessors,  who  were  suffering  for  the  Faith;  and  the 
latter  would  address  to  the  bishop  libeUi  pacts  peti- 
tioning for  the  reconciliation  of  the  apostates.  The 
libeili  were,  however,  more  than  mere  reconmienda- 
tions  to  mercy;  the  confessors  were  understood  to  be 
petitioning  that  their  own  merits  should  be  applied 
to  the  excommunicated,  and  procure  them  a  remission 
of  the  temporal  punishment  due  to  their  defection. 
And  this  indulgence  was  not  simply  a  remission  of  the 
canonical  penance;  it  was  believed  that  it  availed 
before  Goa  and  remitted  the  temporal  punishment 
that  would  otherwise  be  required  after  death  (Cyprian, 
"De  Lapsis",  ad  fin.),  luis  custom  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  established  in  Rome,  but  it  was  partic- 
ularly prevalent  in  Carthage,  and  was  not  unknown 
in  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor.  Even  in  the  time  of  Ter- 
tullian,  the  lapsi  of  Carthage  were  in  the  habit  of  thus 
appealing  to  the  intercession  of  the  confessors  ("Ad 
Mart.",  i;  "De  Pudicitia",  xxii).  In  the  letters  that 
Saint  Cyprian  wrote  from  his  place  of  exile  he  has 
freauent  occasion  to  complain  of  the  abuse  of  the 
libeUi.  There  was  a  party  of  laxists  who  ignored  the 
necessity  of  the  bishop's  sanction,  and  their  leader 
actually  promulgated  a  general  indulgence  to  all  the 
lapsi  (Cyprian,  "Epp.",  xxxiv,  2.3).  The  confessors 
themselves  seem  to  have  lacked  discretion  in  the 
petitions  they  presented.  Cyprian's  letter  to  them 
(ep.  xv),  couched  though  it  is  in  the  tenderest  of 
terms,  begs  them  to  be  more  judicious,  to  avoid  vague 
petitions,  such  as  "  Let  him  and  his  people  be  received 
mto  communion  ",  and  not  to  lend  tneir  services  to  the 
schemes  of  the  seditious  or  the  avarice  of  traffickers. 
The  bishop's  own  method  of  treating  the  petitions  for 
indulgence  varied  according  to  circumstances.  Ep. 
xviii  contains  instructions  that  the  lapsi  who  held 
such  letters  should  be  reconciled  in  ease  of  sickness. 
Subsequently,  however,  owing  no  doubt  to  the  above- 
mentioned  abuses  and  the  need  for  wider  methods, 
the  libdli  were  not  given  any  special  mention  in  the 
general  conditions  of  reconciliation  (African  Councils, 
I,  38). 

See  the  Letters  of  St.  Cyprian,  e.  g.  in  P.  L.,  IV  and  V;  and 
notably  his  treatise  De  iMpsis;  Vita  S.  Cypriani  per  Pontium 
diaconum  ejus  acripta;  Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl.,  IV,  xfii;  Beniion, 
Cyprian  (I/ondon,  1897):  Allaro,  Histoire  des  Persecutions,  II 
(2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1896),  \'iii. 

James  Bridge. 

Liberalism,  a  free  way  of  thinking  and  acting  in 
private  and  public  life.  I. — Definition. — The  word 
liberal  is  derived  from  the  Latin  liber,  free,  and  up 
to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  signified  only 
"  worthy  of  a  free  man  ",  so  that  people  spoke  of  "  lib- 
eral arts  ", "  liberal  occupations  ".  Later  the  term  was 
applied  also  to  those  qualities  of  intellect  and  of  char- 
acter, which  were  considered  an  ornament  becoming 
those  who  occupied  a  higher  social  position  on  ac- 
count of  their  wealth  and  education.  Thus  liberal 
got  the  meaning  of  intellectually  independent,  broad- 
minded,  magnanimous,  frank,  open,  and  genial. 
Again  Liberalism  may  also  mean  a  political  system 
or  tendency  opposed  to  centralization  and  absolutism. 
In  this  sense  Liberalism  is  not  at  variance  with  the 
spirit  and  teaching  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Since 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  centur>%  however,  the  word 
has  been  applied  more  and  more  to  certain  tendencies 
in  the  intellectual,  religious,  political,  and  economical 
life,  which  implied  a  partial  or  total  emancipation  of 
man  from  the  supernatural,  moral,  and  Divine  order. 
Usually,  the  principles  of  1789,  tliat  is  of  the  French 
Revolution,  are  considered  as  the  Magna  Chartji  of 
this  new  form  of  IJI)eralism     The  most  fundamental 


Srinciple  asserts  an  absolute  and  unrestrained  free- 
om  of  thought^  religion,  conscience,  creed,  speech, 
press,  and  politics.  The  necessaxy  conseauences  of 
this  are,  on  the  one  hand,  the  abolition  of  uie  Divine 
right  and  of  every^  kind  of  authority  derived  from  God; 
the  relegation  of  religion  from  the  public  life  into  the 
private  domain  of  one's  individual  conscience;  the  abso^ 
lute  ignoring  of  Christianity  and  the  Church  as  public, 
legal,  and  social  institutions;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
putting  into  practice  of  the  absolute  autonomy  of 
every  man  and  citizen,  along  all  lines  of  human  activ- 
ity, and  the  concentration  of  all  public  authority  in 
one  ''sovereignty  of  the  people'*.  This  soverei^ty 
of  the  people  in  all  brancnes  of  public  life  as  l^isla- 
tion,  aaministration,  and  jurisdiction,  is  to  be  exer- 
cised in  the  name  and  by  order  of  all  the  citlsens,  in 
such  a  wa^',  that  all  shottld  have  share  in  and  a  con- 
trol over  it.  A  fundamental  principle  of  Liberalism 
is  the  proposition:  '.'It  is  contrarv  to  the  natural, 
innate,  and  inalienable  right  and  liberty  and  dignity 
of  man,  to  subject  himseS  to  an  authority,  the  root, 
rule,  measure,  and  sanction  of  which  is  not  in  himself  *\ 
This  principle  implies  the  denial  of  all  true  authority; 
for  authority  necessarily  presupposes  a  power  outside 
and  above  man  to  bind  him  morally. 

These  tendencies,  however,  were  more  or  less  active 
long  before  1789;  indeed,  they  are  coeval  with  the 
human  race.  Modem  Liberalism  adopts  and  propa- 
gates them  under  the  deceiving  mask  of  Liberalism 
in  the  true  sense.  As  a  direct  offspring  of  Humanism 
and  the  Reformation  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  modern  Liberalism  was  further  developed 
by  the  philosophers  and  liierati  of  England  especiiuly 
Locke  and  Hume,  by  Rousseau  and  the  Encyclope- 
dists in  France,  and  by  Lessing  and  Kant  in  Germany. 
Its  real  cradle,  however,  was  the  drawing-rooms  of 
the  moderately  free-thinking  French  nobiOty  (173(>- 
1789),  especially  those  of  Mme  Necker  and  her 
daughter,  Mme  de  StaSl.  The  latter  was  more  thaya 
anybody  else  the  connecting  link  between  the  free- 
thinking  elements  before  and  after  the  Revolution 
and  the  centre  of  the  modern  Liberal  movement 
both  in  France  and  Switzerland.  In  her  politico- 
religious  views  she  is  intimately  connected  with  Mira- 
beau  and  the  Constitutional  party  of  the  Revolution. 
These  views  find  their  clearest  exposition  in  her  woric 
''Considerations  sur  les  princlpaux  ^v^nements  de  la 
Revolution  frangaise*'.  She  pleads  for  the  greatest 
possible  individual  hberty,  and  denounces  as  absurd 
the  derivation  of  human  authority  from  God.  The 
legal  position  of  the  Church,  according  to  her,  both 
as  a  public  institution  and  as  a  property-owner  is  a 
national  arrangement  and  therefore  entirely  subject 
to  the  will  of  the  nation;  ecclesiastical  property  be- 
longs not  to  the  church  but  to  the  nation;  the  abolition 
of  ecclesiastical  privileges  is  entirely  justified,  since 
the  clerg>'  is  the  natural  enemy  of  the  principles  of 
Revolution.  The  ideal  form  of  government  is  in 
smaller  states  the  republic,  in  larger  ones  the  consti- 
tutional monarchy  after  the  model  of  England.  The 
entire  art  of  government  in  modem  times,  consists, 
according  to  Mme  de  Sta^l,  in  the  art  of  directing 
public  opinion  and  of  yielding  to  it  at  the  right 
moment. 

II. — Development  and  Principal  Types  op  Mod- 
ern LiBERAUSM  IN  NON-EnOLISH-SPEAKING  COUN- 
TRIES.— Since  the  so-called  Liberal  principles  of  1789 
are  based  upon  a  wrong  notion  of  human  liberty,  and 
are  and  must  forever  be  contradictory  and  indefinite 
in  themselves,  it  is  an  impossibility  in  practical  life 
to  carry  them  into  effect  with  much  consistency. 
Conseciuentlv  the  most  varying  kinds  and  shades  of 
LilK^ralism  fcave  l>cen  developed,  all  of  which  re- 
mained in  fact  more  conservative  than  a  logical  appli- 
cation of  Lil>eral  principles  would  warrant.  Liber- 
alism was  first  formulated  by  the  Protestant  Genevese 
TRousseau,  Necker,  Mme  de  Sta^l,  Constant,  Guisot); 


LZBIRALI8M 


213 


XJBSRALISM 


neverthelesB  it  was  from  France,  that  it  spread  over 
the  rest  of  the  world,  as  did  its  different  representa- 
tive types.  These  developed  in  closest  connexion 
with  the  different  Revolutions  in  Europe  since  1789. 
The  principal  types  are: — 

(A) — AnHrecdesiaatical  Liberalism. — (1)  The  old 
Liberalism,  first  advocated  by  Mme  de  Sta^l  and  Con- 
stant. It  may  be  described  as  the  drawing-room 
Liberalism  of  the  free-thinking  educated  classes,  who, 
however,  did  not  condescend  to  become  practical 
politicians  or  statesmen;  they  were  superior  ooservers, 
infallible  critics,  standing  above  all  parties.  In  later 
days  some  few  of  these  old  Liberals,  animated  by  a 
truly  liberal  chivalry,  stood  up  for  the  rights  of  sup- 
pressed minorities  against  Jacobin  majorities,  for 
instance,  Littr^  and  Laboulaye  in  France  (1879- 
1880).  (2)  Closely  connected  with  this  old  Lil)eral- 
ism  of  Mme  de  Sta^l  is  doctrinaire  Liberalism  which 
originated  in  the  lecture -hall  of  Rover -Collard 
and  in  the  salon  of  the  Due  de  Broglie  (1814-1830). 
It  was  the  Liberalism  of  the  practical  politicians  and 
statesmen,  who  intended  to  re-est^iblish,  maintain, 
and  develop,  in  the  different  states,  the  constitutional 
form  of  government  based  upon  the  principles  of  1789. 
The  most  prominent  representatives  of  this  bo<ly  were, 
besides  de  Broglie,  Royer-Collard,  Guizot  in  Fnince, 
Gavour  in  Italy,  von  Kotteck  and  his  partisans  in 
Germany. 

(3)  BDurseois  Liberalism,  was  the  natural  out- 
growth  of  doctrinaire  Liberalism.  It  adapted  itself 
more  to  the  interests  of  the  propertied  ana  moneyed 
classes;  for  the  cleigy  and  nobility  having  been  dis- 
possessed of  their  political  power,  these  were  the  only 
classes  which  could  make  use  of  the  new  institutions, 
the  people  not  being  sufficiently  instructed  and  organ- 
iiea  to  do  so.  The  rich  industrial  classes,  therefore, 
were  from  the  very  beginning  and  in  all  countries  the 
mainstay  of  Liberalism,  and  Liberalism  for  its  part 
was  forced  to  further  their  interests.  This  kind  of 
bourgeois  Liberalism  enjoyed  its  highest  favour  in 
France  during  the  time  of  the  citizen-king,  Jjouis- 
Philippe  (1830-40),  who  openly  avowed  his  dei)end- 
enoe  upon  it.  It  flourisned  in  Germany,  as  '^na- 
tHmal  Liberalism",  in  Austria,  as  ''political  Libor- 
alism  in  generar',  in  France,  as  the  Liberalism  of 


Gambettas  Opportunist  party.  Its  characteristic 
traits  are  materialistic,  sordid  ideals,  which  care  only 
for  unrestrained  enjoyment  of  life,  egoism  in  ex- 
{doiting  the  economically  weak  by  means  of  tariffs 
which  are  for  the  interests  of  the  classes,  a  systematic 
persecution  of  Christianity  and  especially  of  the 
Catholic  Church  and  her  institutions,  a  frivolous  dis- 
regpard  and  even  a  mocking  contempt  of  the  Divine 
moral  order,  a  cynical  indifference  in  the  choice  and 
use  of  means — slander,  corruption,  fraud,  ete. — in 
fighting  one's  opponents  and  in  acquiring  an  absolute 
mastery  and  control  of  everything. 

(4)  The  Liberal  "parties  of  progress"  are  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  Conservatives  and  the  Liberals  of  the 
bourgeois  classes,  in  so  far  as  these,  when  once  in 
power,  usually  care  little  or  nothing  for  further  im- 
provements according  to  their  liiberal  principles, 
whereas  the  former  lay  more  stress  on  the  fundamental 
tenets  of  Liberalism  themselves  and  fight  against  a 
<nniical  one-sided  policy  of  self-interest;  for  this  reason 
Ukey  appear  to  an  outsider  more  fair-minded.  (5) 
Lil>cral  Radicals  are  atUierents  of  progressive  modem 
ideas,  which  they  try  to  realize  without  consideration 
for  tne  existing  order  or  for  other  people's  rights, 
ideas,  and  feelings.  Such  was  the  first  Liberal  polit- 
ical party,  the  Spanish  Jacobinos  in  1810.  This  is  the 
Radicalism,  which  imder  the  mask  of  liberty  is  now 
annihilating  the  rights  of  Catholics  in  France.  (6) 
Tlie  Liberal  Democrats  want  to  make  the  masses  of 
the  common  people  the  deciding  factor  in  public  af- 
fairs. Tliey  rely  especially  on  the  middle  classes, 
^ibose  interests  they  pretend  to  have  at  heart.    (7) 


Socialism  is  th^  Liberalism  of  self-interest  nurtured  by 
all  classes  of  Liberals  described  above,  and  espoused 
by  the  members  of  the  fourth  estate  and  the  proleta- 
riat. It  is  at  the  same  time  nothing  but  the  natural 
reaction  against  a  one-sided  policy  of  self-interest. 
It^  main  branches  are:  (a)  Communism,  which  tries  to 
reorganize  the  social  conditions  by  alx)lishing  all 
i/rivate  ownership;  (b)  Radical  Social  Democracy  of 
Marx  (founded  1848),  common  in  Germany  and  Aus- 
tria; (c)  Moderate  Socialism  (Democratic  Socialistic 
Federation  in  England,  Possibilists  in  France,  etc.); 
(d)  Anarchist  parties  foimded  by  Bakunin,  Most,  and 
Krapotkin,  after  1868,  for  some  periods  allied  to  So- 
cial Democracy.  Anarchism  as  a  system  is  relatively 
the  most  logical  and  radical  development  of  the  Lil>- 
eral  principles. 

(B) — Ecclesiastical  Liberalism  (Liberal  Catholicism), 
— (1)  The  prevailing  political  form  of  modem  Liberal 
Catholicism,  is  that  which  would  regulate  the  relations 
of  the  Church  to  the  State  and  modem  society  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Liberal  principles  as  expounded  by 
Benjamin  Constant.  It  had  its  predecessors  and  pat- 
terns in  Gallicanism,  Febronianism,  and  Josephinism. 
Founded  1828  by  Lamennais,  the  system  was  later  de- 
fended in  some  respects  by  Lacordaire,  Montalembert, 
Parisis,  Dupanloup,  and  Falloux.  (2)  The  more  theo- 
logical and  religious  form  of  Liberal  Cathohcism  had 
its  predecessors  in  Jansenism  and  Josephinism;  it  aims 
at  certain  reforms  in  ecclesiastical  doctrine  and  disci- 
pline in  accordance  with  the  anti-ecclesiastical  hberal 
Protestant  theory  and  atheistical  "science  and  en- 
lightehment "  prevailing  at  the  time.  The  newest 
phases  of  this  Liberalism  were  condemned  by  Pius 
A  as  Modernism.  In  general  it  advocates  latitude 
in  interpreting  dogma,  oversight  or  disregard  of  the 
disciplinary  and  doctrinal  decrees  of  the  Roman  Con- 
gregations, sympathy  with  the  State  even  in  its  enact- 
ments against  the  liberty  of  the  Church,  in  the  action 
of  her  bishojw,  clcrjpr,  religioas  orders  and  congrega- 
tions, and  a  disposition  to  regard  as  clericalism  the  ef- 
forts of  the  Church  to  protect  the  rights  of  the  family 
and  of  individuals  to  the  free  exercise  of  religion. 

III.  Condemn ATioN  of  Liberalism  by  the 
Church. — By  proclaiming  man's  absolute  autonomy 
in  the  intellectual,  moral  and  social  order,  Liberalism 
denies,  at  least  practically,  God  and  supematural  re- 
ligion. If  carried  out  k>gically,  it  leads  even  to  a  theo- 
retical denial  of  (iwl,  by  putting  deified  mankind  in 
place  of  God.  It  has  been  censured  in  the  condemna- 
tions of  Rationalism  and  Naturalism.  The  most  sol- 
emn condemnation  of  Naturalism  and  Rationalism 
was  contained  in  the  Constitution  "De  Fide'*  of  the 
Vatican  Council  (1870) ;  the  most  explicit  and  detailed 
condemnation,  however,  was  administered  to  modem 
Liberalism  by  Pius  IX  in  the  Encyclical  "Quanta 
cura"  of  8  December,  1864  and  the  attached  Syllabus. 
Pius  X  condemned  it  again  in  his  allocution  of  17 
April,  1907,  and  in  the  Decree  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Inquisition  of  3  July,  1907,  in  which  the  principal 
errors  of  Modernism  were  rejected  and  censured  in 
sixty-five  propositions.  The  older  and  principally  po- 
litical form  of  false  Liberal  Catholicism  had  been  con- 
demned by  the  Encyclical  of  Gregory  XVI,  "Mirari 
Vos",  of  15  August,  18:^2  and  by  many  briefs  of  Pius 
IX  (see  S^gur,  '*  nommagc  aux  Catholiques  Lib^raux  ", 
Paris,  1875).  The  definition  of  the  papal  infallibility 
by  the  Vatican  council  was  virtually  a  condemnation 
of  Liberalism.  Besides  this  many  recent  decisions 
concern  the  principal  errors  of  Liberalism.  Of  great 
importance  in  this  respect  are  the  allocutions  and  en- 
cvclicals  of  Pius  IX,  Leo  XIII,  and  Pius  X.  (Cf., 
Recueil  des  allocutions  consistorales  encycliques  .  .  . 
cit^  dans  le  Svllabus",  Paris,  1865)  and*  the  encycli- 
cals of  I.eo  XIII  of  20  Januar\',  1888,  **0n  Human 
Liberty";  of  21  April,  1878,  **0n  the  Evils  of  Modem 
Society*';  of  28  December,  1878.  '*0n  the  Sects  of  the 
Socialists,  Commimists,  and  Ninilists";  of  4  August, 


UBERA 


214 


LXBERA 


1879,  "On  Christian  Philosophy";  of  10  February, 

1880,  "On  Matrimony";  of  29  July,  1881,  "On  the 
Origin  of  Ci\'il  Power";  of  20  April,  1884,  "On  Free- 
masonry"; of  1  November,  1885,  "On  the  Christian 
State";  of  25  December,  1888,  "On  the  Christian 
Life";  of  10  January,  1890,  "On  the  Chief  Duties  of  a 
Christian  Citizen";  of  15  May,  1891,  "On  the  Social 
Question";  of  20  January,  1894,  "On  the  Importance 
of  Unity  in  Faith  and  Union  with  the  Church  for  the 
Preservation  of  the  Moral  Foundations  of  the  State"; 
of  19  March,  1902,  "  On  the  Persecution  of  the  Church 
all  over  the  World".  Full  information  about  the  re- 
lation of  the  Church  towards  Liberalism  in  the  differ- 
ent countries  may  be  gathered  from  the  transactions 
and  decisions  of  the  various  provincial  councils. 
These  can  be  found  in  the  "Collectio  Lacensis"  under 
the  headings  of  the  index:  Fides,  Ecclesia,  Educatio, 

Francomuratores. 

Frbraje,  Spiritualiame  el  libSraliame  (Paris.  1887);  Idsm, 
TradUionaliame  ei  uUramontaniame  ^Paris,  1880);  d'Haussom- 
viLXJB,  Le  aalon  de  Mme  Necker  (Pans.  1882) ;  Ladt  Bleni<7er- 
BASSET,  Frau  wn  Stail  (1887-^);  Laboulaye,  Le  iparti 
liberal  (Paris,  1864);  Idem  in  the  Introduction  to  his  edition 
of  Coura  de  politique  conetittUionelle  de  Bcnj.  Constant  (Paris, 
1872);  Constant,  DetorcZiiTum  (Paris,  1824-31);  Bluntschu, 
AllgemeineStaatslehre(St\ittKa.Tt,lS7o),472;  Samuel.  Liberal- 
\9m  (1902);  Dbvas,  Political  Economy  (London,  1901),  122, 
531,  650  seq.j  Viluers,  Opportunity  of  Liberaliam  (1904); 
Rudel,  Oeschtchte  dea  Liberatiamua  und  der  deut«chen  Reichaver' 
faaaung  (1891);  Debidottr,  Hvftoire  dea  rappoHa  de  VSgliae  et  de 
Vitat  1789-1905  (Paris,  1898-1906);  BrOck.  Die  Gehnmen 
Oeaellachaftcn  in  Spanien  (1881);  Handicorlerbuch  der  Stoat a- 
tpiasenachaften^  I,  296-327,  s.  v.  Anarchismua ;  Ferrer  im 
Lichte  der  Wahrheit  in  Oermania  (Berlin,  1909);  Meffert, 
Die  Ferrer- Bewegung  ala  Selbatentlarvung  dea  Freidenkertuma 
(1909). 

Works  concerning  ecclesiastical  Liberalism: — (A)  Protes- 
tant Churches: — Gotau,  L'AUemagne  religieuse,  le  proteatan- 
tiame  (Paris,  1898);  Sabatxbe,  Religiona  of  Authority  and  the 
Religion  of  the  Spirit;  Pollock,  Religioua  Equality  (London, 
1890);  Re\ille,  Liberal  Chriaiianity  (London.  1903);  Idem, 
Anglican  Liberaliam  (London,  1908).  (B)  Concerning  Catho- 
lic Liberalism: — Weill,  Hiaioire  du  Catholiciame  Itb&ral  en 
France,  1828-1908  (Paris,  1909).  (C)  Concerning  Modern- 
ism: Schell,  Katholuiamua  ala  Primip  des  Forlnchritta  (1897); 
Idem,  Dieneue  Zeit  und  der  neue  Glaube  (1898);  MOuler, 
Reformkatholiziamua  (these  three  works  are  on  the  Index); 
Stufler,  Die  Heiligkeit  Gotlea  in  Zeit.  fur  kath.  Theol.  (Inns- 
bruck. 1908),  100-114;  364-368. 

Critique  and  condemnation  of  Liberalism:  —  Faoubt,  Le 
Liberaltame  (Paris,  1906):  Frantz,  Die  Religion  dea  Xntional- 
libcnUiamua  (1872).  From  the  Catholic  8tandpK>int :  — 
Don  at.  Die  Freiheit  der  Wiaaenachaft  (1910);  Von  Ket- 
TBLER,  Freiheit,  Autoritit  und  Kirche  (Mainz.  1862);  Idem, 
Die  Arbeiterfrage  und  daa  Chriatenihum  (Mains,  1864);  De- 
champs,  Le  liUraliame  (1878);  Donoso  Cortks,  Catholicism, 
Liberaliam  and  Socialism  (tr.  Philadelphia,  1862);  H.  Pksch, 
L^eraliamus,  Sozialiamua  und  chriatliche  Geaellschaftsordnung 
(Fseiburg,  1893-90);  Cathrein,  Der  Sozialiamua  (Froiburg. 
1906);  Fallen.  What  f<»  Liberalism  f  (St.  Louis.  1889);  Mort.l, 
Somme  centre  le  catholicisme  liberal  (Paris,  1876):  Die  Encyk- 
lika  Piua  IX.  vom  8  Dez.  tSOA  in  Slimmen  aua  Maria-Laach; 
Chr.  Pesch,  Theologische  Zeiifragen,  IV  (1908);  Heiner.  Der 
Syllabus  (Pius  IX.)  (1905) ;  Der  Syllabus  Pius  X.  und  das  Dek- 
ret  des  hi.  Ofhziums  *'  Lamentabili"  vom  3  Juli,  1907  (1908); 
Brown80N,  Conversations  on  Liberalism  and  the  Church  (Now 
York.  1869),  reprinted  in  his  Works,  VII  (Detroit  1883-87 ^ 
305;  Ming,  Data  of  Modem  Ethics  Examined  (New  York,  1897), 
X,  xi;  M\Nv»NO,  Lif>frty  of  the  Press  in  Essays,  third  scries 
(London,  1892);  T^\lJMI:B,  European  Civilization  (London,  1855), 
xxxiv.  XXXV,  Ixvii;  Idem,  Letters  to  a  Sceptic  (tr.  Dublin,  1875), 
letter  7;  Gibbons,  Faith  of  Our  Fathers  (Baltimore.  1871).  xvii, 
Xvm\  The  Church  and  Liberal  Catholicism,  pastoral  letter  of  the 
English  bishops,  reprinted  in  Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
XXXVI  (New  York,  1901),  180-93;  cf.  also  Dublin Review,nGW 
series,  XV HI,  1.285;  XXV,  202;  XXVh  204,  487;  third  series 

X^y* 58.  IIerm.  Gruber. 

Libera  Me  (Domine,  de  morte  aetema,  et<;.),  the 
responsonr  sung  at  funerals.  It  is  a  responsory  of  re- 
dundant form,  having  two  versicles  (''Tremens  factus 
sum"  and  *'Dieii  ilia").  As  in  all  the  Office  for  the 
Dead,  the  verse  *' Requiem  ffitemam"  takes  the  place 
of  "Gloria  Patri";  then  all  the  first  part,  down  to  the 
first  versicle,  is  repeated.  Its  form  therefore  is  ex- 
ceptional, considerably  longer  than  the  normal  re- 
sponsory. It  is  a  prayer  in  the  first  person  singular  for 
mercy  at  the  Last  Day.  This  should  no  doubt  he 
understood  as  a  dramatic  substitution ;  the  choir  speaks 
for  the  dead  person .  A  great  part  of  our  Office  for  the 
Dead  is  made  up  of  such  prayers  about  the  Last  Day, 


the  meaning  of  which  appears  to  refer  rather  to  the 
people  who  say  them  than  to  the  dead  (the  sequence 
''Dies  irse",  most  of  the  Vespers,  Matins,  and  I^uds). 

Another  dramatic  substitution  is  involved  in  the 
prayers  of  this  responsory  (and  throughout  the  Office 
for  the  Dead)  that  the  person  for  whom  we  pray  may 
be  saved  from  hell.  That  question  was  settled  ir- 
revocably as  soon  as  he  died.  This  is  one  instance  of 
the  dramatic  displacement  or  rearrangement  of  the 
objective  order  of  things  that  occurs  continual];^^  in  all 
rites  (compare  for  instance  in  the  baptism  service  the 
white  robe  and  shining  light  given  after  the  essential 
form,  in  the  ordination  of  priests  the  power  to  forgive 
sins  given  after  the  man  has  been  ordained  and  nas 
concelebrated,  the  Epiclesis  in  Eastern  liturgies,  etc.). 
The  explanation  of  all  these  cases  is  the  same.  Since 
we  cannot  express  ever^'thin^  at  one  instant,  we  are 
forced  to  act  and  speak  as  if  things  really  simulta- 
neous followed  each  other  in  order.  And  in  the  eter* 
nity  of  God  all  things  (including  our  consecutive 
prayers)  are  present  at  once — nunc  starts  ceterniUu. 
The  responsory  "  Libera  me"  is  begun  by  a  cantor  and 
continued  by  the  choir  in  the  usual  way  (the  cantor 
alone  sinking  the  versicles)  at  the  begmning  of  the 
**  Absolution",  that  is  the  service  of  prayers  for  the 
dead  person  said  and  sung  by  the  bier  mimediately 
after  the  Mass  for  the  Dead.  As  soon  as  Mass  is  over 
the  celebrant  exchanges  his  chasuble  for  a  (black) 
cope  (all  the  sacred  ministers  of  course  take  off  their 
maniples)  and  cliant^  the  prayer  "Non  intres  in  judi- 
cium". Then  "Libera  me"  is  sung.  MeanwhUe  the 
cetcbrant  puts  incense  into  the  thurible,  assisted  by 
the  deacon.  During  the  whole  Absolution  the  sub- 
deacon  stands  at  the  head  of  the  bier,  facing  the  altar, 
with  the  processional  cross. 

The  ninth  responsory  of  Matins  for  the  Dead  also 
begins  with  "Liljera  me",  but  continues  a  different 
text  (Domine,  de  viis  inferni,  etc.).  This  is  built  up 
according  to  the  usual  arran^ment  (with  "Requiem 
seternam"  instead  of  "Gloria  Patri").  But  on  All 
Souls'  Day  (2  November),  and  whenever  the  whole 
Office  of  nine  lessons  is  said,  the  "Libera  mo"  of  the 
Absolution  is  8ubstitute<l  for  it.  The  Vatican  Grad- 
ual gives  the  new  chant  for  the  "Libera  me"  after  the 
Mass  for  the  Dead. 

Adrian  Fortescub. 

Libera  Nos,  the  first  words  of  the  Embolism  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer  in  the  Roman  Rite.  Most  litui^ee 
contain  a  prayer  developing  the  idea  of  the  last  clause 
of  the  Our  Father  (But  deliver  us  from  evil),  and  spec- 
ifying various  evils  from  which  we  pray  to  be  deliv- 
ered. This  prayer,  which  always  follows  the  Our 
Father  immediately,  is  called  its  Embolism  {4fifio\ifffiAs, 
insertion).  In  many  rites  (Antiochene,  Alexandrine, 
Nestorian)  it  is  rather  of  the  nature  of  an  insertion 
into  the  Our  Father,  repeating  ap;ain  and  enlarging 
on  its  last  clauses  (e.  g.  the  Antiochene  Embohsm: 
"And  lead  us  not  into  temptation,  O  Lord,  Lord  of 
Hosts  Who  knowest  our  weakness,  but  deliver  us  from 
the  evil  one,  and  from  his  works  and  all  his  might  and 
art,  for  the  sake  of  Thy  Holv  Name  invoked  upon  our 
lowliness").  The  Roman  fenibolism  is  said  secretly 
by  the  celebrant  as  soon  as  he  has  added  Amen  to  the 
last  clause  of  the  "Pat<jr  noster"  sung  by  the  choir 
(or  said  by  the  server).  In  the  middle  (aft<?r  omnxhtta 
sajiclis)  he  makes  th(»  sign  of  the  cross  with  the  paten 
and  kisses  it.  During  the  last  clause  (Per  eundem 
Dominvm  nostrum  .  .  .)  ho  puts  the  paten  under  the 
Host,  he  fat  high  Mass  the  deacon)  uncovers  the  chal- 
ice, genuflects,  breaks  the  Host  over  the  chalice,  puts 
a  small  fraction  into  the  chalice  and  the  rest  on  the 
paten.  This  rite  is  the  Fraction  common  to  all  litur- 
gies. The  last,  words  {Per  omnia  8<FCtda  scccularum) 
are  sung  (or  said)  aloud,  forming  the  Ecphonesis  be- 
fore the  Pax).  Only  on  Good  Friday  does  he  sing  it 
aloud,  to  the  tone  of  a  ferial  Collect,  and  the  choir 


UBUULTORE                          215  UBSE 

answers  Amen.    In  this  case  the  Fraction  does  not  garded  b^  many  as  the  greatest  philosopher  of  his  day. 

take  place  till  the  Embolism  is  finished.    In  the  Mi-  It  is  a  tnbute  to  his  holiness  of  life  ana  deep  religious 

lanese  and  Mozarabic  Rites  he  sings  it,  and  the  choir  spirit  that  his  brethren  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  were 

answers  Amen.    For  the  Galilean  Embolism  (of  Ger-  less  impressed  by  his  varied  talents  and  immense 

mamis  of  Paris,  d.  576)  see  Duchesne,  ''Origines  du  learning  than  by  the  many  virtues  displayed  during 

Culte  Chretien"  (Paris,  1898),  211.    The  present  Mi-  his  long  and  fruitful  life  as  scholar,  professor,  writer, 

lanese  form  is  veiy  similar  to  that  of  Rome.    It  will  be  academician,  director  of  souls,  and  rector.    His  name 

found  with  its  chant  in  any  edition  of  the  Ambrosian  will  long  be  in  blessed  memory  amone  all  those  who 

MieBal.    Tlie  Mozarabic  Embolism  with  its  chant  is  love  the  Church.    The  following  are  the  best  known, 

in  liie  *'Missale  Mistmn"  (P.  L.,  LXXXV,  659-60^.  perhaps,  of  his  works:  " Institutiones  Philosophic®": 

In  both  rites  the  Fraction  has  preceded  the  Lords  ^'Instructiones  Ethical";   various  compendiums  of 

Prayer.    The  Embolisms  of  the  Eastern  rites  are  logic,  metaphysics,  ethics,  and  natural  law;  "Delia 

given  in  Brightman,  ''Eastern  Liturgies"  (Oxford,  Ck)noscenza  intellettuale " ;  *'Del  Composto  umano"; 

1896),  namely:  Antiochene,  60, 100;  Alexandrian,  136,  "Deir  Anima  umana ";  "Dcgli  Universali ";  "Chiesa 

182;  Nestorian,  296;  Armenian,  446.    In  all  these  the  e  Stato";  "Dialoghi  filosofici";  "II  Matrimonio"; 

Embolism  is  said  secretly,  with  the  last  words  aloud  "Roma  e  il  mondo " ; " II  Matrimonio  e  lo Stato ";  " Le 

(£!cphonesis) ;  thepeople  answer  Amen.    The  Byzan-  Commedie  filosofiche  ":  and  *  *  Spicilegio ' '. 

tine  Rite  has  no  Embolism  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  but  Cxv^^^  Cattoli^,  series  XV.  t.  iv  .152-36(5;  Amerkan  EccUn. 

only  the  final  clause:  "For  Thine  is  the  kingdom  and  ^^t{\^  (December.  1892);  boMMERvoGEL.  BM.  de  la  C. 

the  power  and  the  glory,  of  the  Father  and  the  Son  J.  H.  Fisher. 

and  the  Holy  Ghost,  now  and  for  ever  and  for  ages  of        ,  ju^.4.^^  xt,^^ "  ..,     a  ^  a  ,  J^.^r^   xt,^«^x'a 

ages.    R.  Ahien"  (ibid.,  392  and  410).    Tliat  it  once  Lib^atore,  Niccolo  di.    See  Alunno,  Niccolo. 

had  this  prayer,  like  the  parent  Rite  of  Antioch,  seems  Liberatus  of  Oarthage  (sixth  century) ,  archdeacon. 

certain  from  the  fact  that  there  is  an  Embolism  in  the  author  of  an  important  history  of  the  Nestorian  and 

Nestorian  and  Armenian  Liturgies,  both  derived  at  an  Monophysite  troubles.     In  535  he  was  sent  to  Rome, 

eariy  date  from  Constantinople.  as  legate  of  a  great  African  national  synod  of  two 

Adrian  Fortebcxjb.  hundred  and  seventeen  bishops,   to  consult  Pope 


Agapetus  I   (535-6)  about  a  number  of  questions 


the  Jesuits  at  Naples  m  1825,  and  a  year  later  applied  frequently  employed  by  the  African  bishops  as  their 

for  admission  into  the  Society  of  Jesus.    His  remark-  ambassador  in  the  disputes  that  arose  from  that  ques- 

able  innocence,  bnUiant  talents,  and  strength  of  char-  ^j^n.     "Tired  with  the  fatigue  of  traveling,  and  rest- 

acter  made  him  a  most  acceptable  candidate,  and  he  j^g  t^e  mind  a  little  from  temporal  cares '^(introduc- 

entered  the  novitiate  on  9  October,  1826.     The  lone  ^^^^  ^  his  book),  he  used  his  leisure  to  compose  a 

course  of  studies  was  completed  by  him  with  unusual  summary  histor\'  of  the  two  great  heresies  of  thejpre- 

success,  and  resulted  m  his  teaching  philosophy  for  the  ceding  centurv.*^  His  object  in  writing  it  was  avow- 

space  of  eleven  years,  from  1837  until  the  Revolution  ^^ly  to  show  how  misjudged  the  emperor's  condemna- 

of  1848  drove  him  to  Malta.    On  returning  to  Italy  he  ^ion  of  the  Three  Chapters  was.    The  work  is  called 

was  appointed  to  teach  theology,  but  gave  up  his  pro-  «  ^  Short  Account  of  the  Affair  of  the  Nestorians  and 

:^^?rl*R  *°  ^S"  „  *"°  assume  charge  in  1850  of  the  Rutychians"   (Breviarium  causse  Nestorianorum  et 

"Civilt^Cattohca",apenodical  founded  by  the  Jesuits  Eutychianorum).    It  begins  with  the  ordination  of 

to  defend  the  cause  of  the  Church  and  the  papacy,  and  Nestorius  (428)  and  ends  with  the  Fifth  General  Council 

to  8i>read  the  knowledge  of  the  doctrine  of  bt.  Thomas  (Constantinople  II,  553).     From  the  fact  that  the 

Aquums.    Indeed  it  is  Libera  tore  s  chief  ^lory  to  have  author  mentions  Thcodosius  of  Alexandria  as  being 

brought  about  the  revival  of  the  Scholastic  philosophy  g^ju  jjive  (xx),  it  is  evident  that  it  was  written  before 

of  St.  Thomas.    This  movement  he  inaugurated  by  557   jq  ^hich  year  Theodosius  died.     On  the  other 

pubhshing  his  course  of  philosophy  m  1840,  at  a  time  ij^nd,  Liberatus  records  the  death  of  Pope  Vigilius 

when  the  prevailmg  methods  of  teaching  that  science,  (jy^e,  555).     His  authorities  are  the  "ITistoria  tri- 

cven  among  certain  Cathohcs^  were,  to  say  the  least,  partita"  of  Cassiodorus,  acts  of  synods,  and  letters  of 

htUe  calculated  to  provide  solid  foundation  for  Catho-  contemporary  Fathers.     In  spite  of  Liberatus's  con- 

?fL  Sf!5?^*  x7^  "^L-Y^-!°xu     ^"PP®'!*^  *?     !    ?"  troversial  purpose  and  his  indignation  against  Mono- 

._  X        .      .     ±  „.  X     X  ■  abettors  of  the  condemna- 

short  history  is  well  and 

.-,      .,.-,-            ,        ,  fairly  written.     It  forms  an  important  document  for 

extensive  works,  and  also  by  his  work  as  member  of  ^he  history  of  the  two  heresies. 

the  Accademia  Romana  by  appointment  of  Leo  XIII.  Libbratub,  Bremarium  cauaa  Nestorianorum  et  Eutuchiano- 

For  more  than  half  a  century  he  was  the  tireless  nmi  in  P.  L.,  LXVIII.  903-1052;  also  in  ^IAN8I,  Sacrotwn 

Altamninnrtf  fnifk  infliofiAlHa/if  rkViilrko/^nhvonrl  fliorki  ConcUiorum  nova  et  anipIiMtma  coUectto,  IX  (Florence,  1759), 

Cl»mpionottrummtneneldSOtpmiO«)phyandtneol-  659_7oo:    FABRiciua-HARLE«,  Bibliotheca  Oraca,  XII  (Ham- 

Ogy,  and  of  the  nghts  of  the  Chureh.    His  pen  was  con-  burg,  1809),  685-92.  a  liat  of  Libcratus's  sources;    KRfoER, 

Stantly  at  work,   analysing  the   vexed   problems  of  Manophyntische  StreUigkeiien  {Jena,   1884):    FEssLKR-JuNa- 

Chnj^n  Ufe,  both  theoretical  and  practical,  marking  ^'^^S^^^^.^t^^rS^^rfls^^^'!"  ''*''  ""^^ 

out  the  relations  between  Chureh  and  State,  and  the  Adrian  Fortesctjb. 
moral  and  social  aspects  of  life.   His  watehfulness  over 

the  foundations  of  the  faith  is  attested  by  his  success-  Liber  Diumus  Romanonim  Pontificum,  a  mis- 

ful  struggles  with  Rationalism,  Ontelogism,  and  Ros-  cellaneous  collection  of  ecclesiastical  formularies  used 

minianism.    His  literary  activity  may  be  estimated  in  the  papal  chancery  until  the  eleventh  century.    It 

from  the  fact  that  Sommervogel  records  more  than  contains  models  of  the  important  official  documente 

forty  of  his  published  works,  and  gives  the  titles  of  usually  premred  by  the  chancery;  particularly  of  let- 

inore  than  mne  hundred  of  his  articles  (including  re-  ters  ana  official  documents  in  connexion  with  the 

views)  which  appeared  in  the  **CiviltiL"  alone.    The  death,  the  election,  and  the  consecration  of  the  pope: 

most  prominent  'characteristics  of  his  writings  are  the  installation  of  newly  elected  bishops,  especially  or 

keenness  of  judgment,  strength  of  argument,  breadth  the  suburbicarian  bishops;  also  models  for  the  profes- 

"lium  on  areh- 
and  dispensa- 

confirmationof 


UBERU 


216 


UBS&tl. 


ftctfl  by  which  the  Church  acquired  property,  the  es- 
tablishment of  private  cliapels,  and  m  general  for  all 
the  many  decrees  called  for  oy  the  extensive  papal  ad- 
ministration. The  collection  opens  with  the  super- 
scriptions and  closing  formula)  used  in  writing  to  the 
emperor  and  empress  at  Constantinople,  the  Patricius, 
the  Exarch  and  the  Bishop  of  Ravenna,  a  king,  a  con- 
sul; to  patriarchs,  metropolitans,  priests,  and  other 
clerics.  The  collection  is  important  both  for  the  his- 
tory of  law  and  for  church  history,  particularly  for  the 
history  of  the  Roman  Church.  The  formulwies  and 
modcfs  set  down  are  taken  from  earlier  papal  docu- 
ments, especiallv  those  of  Gelasius  I  (492-6)  and 
Greeory  I  (590-604). 

Tnis  collection  was  certainly  compiled  in  the  chan- 
cery of  the  Roman  Church,  but  pronably  a  comparar- 
ti vely  small  numl>er  of  the  formularies  contained  in  the 
extant  manuscripts  were  included  at  first,  the  re- 
mainder being  aadt»d  from  time  to  time.  There  is  no 
systematic  arrangement  of  the  formularies  in  the 
manuscripts.  In  its  final  form,  as  seen  in  the  two  ex- 
isting manuscripts  (one  codex  in  the  Vatican  Ar- 
chives, and  another,  originally  from  Bobbio,  in  the 
Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan),  the  LilH?r  Diumus  dates 
back  to  the  eighth  century.  Concerning  the  more 
exact  determination  of  the  date  of  its  compilation, 
there  is  even  a  still  great  diversity  of  opinion.  Gamier 
gives  in  his  edition  the  vear  715.  Zaccaria,  in  his 
"  Disscrtationes"  (P.  L.,  CV,  119  sqq.),  attributes  the 
com()iIatiou  to  the  ninth  century ;  Kozi^re,  to  whom 
we  owe  the  first  good  edition  (see  below),  decides  for 
the  period  685  to  751 — the  former  date,  because  Em- 
peror Constantine  Pogonatus  (d.  685)  is  mentioned  as 
dead,  and  the  latter,  because  in  751  Northern  Italy 
was  conquered  by  the  Lombanls  and  the  Byzantine 
administration  at  Ravenna  came  to  an  end  (see  Intro- 
duction, pp.  25  sqq.).  Nickel,  however,  in  his  "Prole- 
gomena and  in  his  researches  on  the  Liber  Diumus 
(see  below),  has  shown  that  the  work  possess^  by  no 
means  a  uniform  character.  He  recognizes  in  it  three 
divisions,  the  first  of  whit^h  he  a-scribes  to  the  time  of 
Honorius  I  (625-38),  the  second  to  the  end  of  the 
seventh  centurv,  and  the  third  to  the  time  of  Hadrian 
I  (772-95).  Duchesne  (Biblioth^que  de  TEcole  des 
Chartes,  LII,  1801,  pp.  7  sqq.)  differs  from  Sickel, 
and  maintains  that  the  original  version  of  most  of  the 
formularies,  and  among  tliem  the  most  important, 
must  Imj  referrt»d  to  the  years  aft«r  682,  and  that  only 
the  last  formularies  (nn.  lxxx\'i-xcix)  were  added  in 
the  time  of  Hadrian  I,  though  some  few  of  these  mav 
have  existed  at  an  earlier  dato.  Hartmann  defends 
the  views  of  Sickel  (Mitteilungen  des  Instituts  fOr 
(jsterrcich.  Gesch.,  XIII,  1892,  pp.  239  s<jq.).  Fried- 
erich  (Sitzungsbericht«  der  Imver.  Akademie  der 
Wiss.  zu  MQnchen,  Phil.-liist.  Kl.,  I,  1890,  pp.  58 
sqq.)  investigated  more  closely  the  case  of  some  of  the 
fonnularies  attributed  by  Sickel  to  one  of  the  afore- 
said periods,  and  attempted  to  indicate  more  nearlv 
the  occasions  and  pontificates  to  which  they  belonged. 
These  investigations  have  established  Ijcyond  doubt 
that  the  collection  had  already  attained  its  present 
form  towards  the  end  of  the  eighth  ccntun',  though  no 
insignificant  portion  ha<l  l)een  compiled  during  the 
seventh  centur>'.  The  Lil)er  Diurnus  was  used  offi- 
cially in  the  papal  cliancer>'  until  the  eleventh  century, 
after  which  time,  as  it  no  longer  corresponded  to  tfie 
needs  of  papal  administration,  it  gave  way  to  other 
collections.  Twelfth  century  canonists,  like  Ivo  of 
^'hartres  and  Gratian,  continued  to  use  the  Liber 
Diumus,  i)ut  suKMccjuently  it  censed  to  be  consulted, 
and  was  finally  completely  forgotten. 

Lucas  Holstenius  (q.  v.)  was  the  first  who  under- 
took to  edit  the  Liber  Diumus.  He  had  found  one 
manuscript  of  it  in  the  monastery  of  Santa  Croce  in 
Gerusalemme  at  Rome,  and  obtained  another  from 
the  Jesuit  College  de  Clermont  at  Paris;  but  as  Hol- 
stenius died  in  the  meantime  and  his  notes  could  not 


be  found,  this  edition  printed  at  Rome  in  1650  was 
withheld  from  publication,  by  advice  of  tho  ecclesias- 
tical censors,  and  the  copies  put  away  in  a  room  at  the 
Vatican.  The  reason  for  so  doing  was  apparently 
formula  Izxxi v,  which  contained  the  profession  of  f a^ 
of  the  newly  elected  pope,  in  which  the  latter  recog- 
nized the  Sixth  General  Council  and  its  anathemas 
against  Pope  Honorius  for  his  (alleg^)  Monothelism. 
The  edition  of  Holstenius  was  reprinted  at  Rome  in 
1658;  but  was  again  withdrawn  in  1662  by  papal 
authority,  though  in  1725  Benedict  XIII  permitted 
the  issue  of  some  copies.  From  the  Clermont  manu- 
script, which  has  since  disappeared,  Gamier  prepcured 
a  new  edition  of  the  Liber  Diumus  (Paris,  1680),  but 
it  is  very  inaccurate,  and  contains  arbitrary  altera- 
tions of  the  text.  In  his  *' Museum  Italicum"  (I,  II, 
32  sqq.)  Mabillon  issued  a  supplement  to  tlus  edition 
of  Gamier.  From  these  materials,  the  Liber  Diumus 
was  reprinted  at  Basle  (1741),  at  Vienna  (1762),  and 
by  Migne  (P.  L..  CV,  Paris,  1851).  The  first  good 
edition,  as  stated  above,  we  owe  to  Eug.  de  Roiidre 
(Liber  Diumus  ou  Recueil  des  formules  usit^es  par  la 
Chancellerie  pontificale  du  V®  au  XI®  si^cle,  Paris. 
1869).  In  the  interest  of  this  edition  Daremberg  ana 
Renan  compared  Gamier 's  text  with  the  Vatican 
manuscript,  then  regarded  as  the  only  authentic  one. 
From  this  manuscript  Th.  von  Sickel  prepared  a  crit- 
ical edition  of  the  text: "  Liber  Diumus  Rom.  Pont,  ex 
unico  codice  Vatican©  denuo  ed."  (Vienna,  1889). 
Just  after  the  appearance  of  this  work,  however,  Ceri- 
ani  announced  the  discovery  of  a  new  manuscript, 
originally  from  Bobbio,  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at 
Milan;  towards  the  end  this  was  more  complete -than 
the  Vatican  manuscript.    This  text  was  published  by 

Achille  Ratti  (Milan,  1891). 

PoTTHAST.  BibL  hiat,  medii  crvt,  I,  734-5;  Roniuu,  Recher" 
che»  mr  U  Liber  Diumua  des  PorUifet  romaint  (Paris,^  1868): 
SicKKL,  Prolegomena  rum  Liber  Diumus,  I  and  II,  in  Sitguno*' 
benchte  der  k.k.  Akad.  der  Wiss.  in  Wien,  Phil.-hist.  KL,  CXVU 
(1888-9).  nn.  7,  13,  also  edited  separately;  loxii.  Die  Vita 
Hadriani  Nonanlulana  und  die  Diumusliandschriften  in  Neun 
Archiv,  XVIII  (1893),  107  sqq.;  cf.  ibid.,  XV  (1890).  22  so.; 
Idem,  Nouveaux  Maircissements  sur  la  premiere  fditian  du 
Diumus  |n  MHanges  Julien  Havel  (Paris.  1895),  14-38;  CiioB- 
ai,  Storia  eslema  del  codice  Valicano  del  Liber  Diumus  Rom. 
Pont,  in  Archivio della  Societh  Romana di storia  patria,  XI  (1889!-. 
641  sqq.;  Ccriani.  Notizin  diun  antico  mantuiritto  AmbrosiaMto 
del  Lwer  Diumtis  in  Rendiconli  del  IsLituto  lA>mbardo  di  scierut, 
2nd  series,  XXVI,  376  sqq.:  Duchkhnk,  Le  Liber  Diumus  H 
les  flections  pontificales  au  VII*  sifcle  in  Bibl.  de  VEeole  dm 
ChaHes,  111  (1891),  5-30;  Hahtmann,  Die  Bntstehwufsgeit 
des  Liber  Diumus  in  Mitteilungen  de*  Instituts  fur  OsUrr.  Oeseh,, 
XIII  (1892).  239-64;  Friedrich,  Zur  Entstehunq  des  Liber 
Diumus  in  Sitsungaber.  der  k,  layer.  Akademie  der  Wiss.,  PAt'l.- 
hisl.  Kl,  I  (1890),  58-141. 

J.  P.  K1R8CH. 

Ziiberia,  a  republic  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  be- 
tween 4**  2(/  and  7**  2(/  N.  lat .,  extending  from  the  Sher- 
bro  river  on  the  north-west,  near  the  south  l>oundary  of 
the  British  colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  to  the  Pedro  river  on 
the  south-east,  a  distance  along  the  coast  of  nearly  six 
hundred  miles.  It  has  enjoyed  the  status  of  a  sove- 
reign State  since  1874,  when  its  independence  was  for- 
mallv  recognized  by  England,  France,  and  Germany, 
The  habitable  region  of  the  country  is  a  strip  from  t^ 
to  twelve  miles  wide  along  a  slightly  indente<i  shore 
line  of  350  miles.  The  area  over  which  the  poUtical 
jurisdiction  of  the  republic  extends  is  estimated  at 
9700  square  miles.  The  interior  is  one  of  the  wildest 
and  least  visited  sections  of  Africa. 

Liberia  had  its  origin  in  the  scheme  of  the  American 
Colonization  Society  to  found  in  Africa  a  place  to 
which  free  blacks  and  persons  of  African  descent  might 
return  from  the  United  States.  Charles  Carroll,  of 
CarroUton,  was  at  one  time  president  of  this  society, 
which  sent  out  its  first  colony  to  Africa  on  6  Feb.,  1820. 
They  settled  first  onSherbro  Island,  but  in  April,  1822, 
abandoned  this  site  for  the  more  promising  location  at 
Cape  Mesurado,  between  Sierra  I^one  and  tho  Ivory 
CcMist.  Here  the  colony  became  permanently  estal>- 
lisbed,  and  continued  under  the  management  of  the 


UBCRnni 


217 


UBEBIUS 


Ccdcmuation  Society  until  the.  politioal  exi^ncies  of 
commercial  intercourse  with  other  countnes,  espe- 
oially  with  England,  forced  Liberia,  26  July,  1847,  to 
make  a  declaration  of  independence  as  a  sovereign 
State.  It  is  divided  into  tour  counties,  Mesurado, 
Grand  Bassa^  Sinou,  and  Maryland.  The  capital  and 
largest  town  is  Monrovia,  a  seaport  on  Cape  Mesurado, 
called  after  James  Monroe^  Inresident  of  the  United 
States,  imder  whose  administration  the  colonizing 
scheme  was  begun.  There  are  no  harbours,  and  ac- 
cess to  the  most  important  rivers  is  prevented  for  ves- 
ads  of  deep  draught  by  a  sand-bar.  The  temperature 
Taries  from  56  to  105  degrees  Fahrenheit,  with  an 
average  of  80  degrees  and  a  rainfall  of  about  100  inches 
a  year.  The  rainy  season  begins  in  May  and  ends  in 
November,  the  hottest  month  being  December  and  the 
coolest  August.  The  climate  is  d^idly  to  white  men, 
African  fever  being  prevalent. 

Some  12,000  quasi- American  negroes  constitute  the 
governing  class.  With  these  are  affiliated  about  30,- 
000  who  are  civilised,  native  bom^  and  native  bred. 
The  wflder  tribes  of  the  interior,  estimated  as  number- 
ing about  2,000,000,  are  the  descendants  of  the  ahor- 
igmes.  The  Americo-Libcrian  settlers  are  to  be  found 
on  the  sea-coast  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  two  mast  im- 
portant rivers.  Of  the  native  tribes  the  principal  are 
the  Veys,  the  Pessehs.  the  Barlines,  the  Bassas,  the 
Kroos,  the  Frebos,  ana  the  Mandingos.  Outside  of  the 
negroes  of  American  origin  not  many  Liberians  are 
Christians.  The  converts  have  been  made  chiefly 
among  the  Kroos  and  the  Frebos.  Methodist,  Bap- 
tist, Presbyterians,  and  Episcopalian  missions  have 
been  established  for  many  years  with  scant  results. 
As  a  number  of  the  first  American  colonists  were  Cath- 
dio  negroes  from  Maryland  and  the  adjoining  states, 
the  attention  of  Propaganda  was  called  to  their  spirit- 
ual needs  and  the  second  Provincial  Coimcil  of  Balti- 
more in  1833  undertook  to  meet  the  difficulty.  In 
accordance  with  the  measures  taken,  the  Very  Rev.  Ed- 
ward Barron.  Vicar-General  of  Philadelphia,  the  Rev. 
John  Kelly  or  New  York,  and  Denis  Pindar,  a  lay  cate- 
chist  from  Baltimore,  volunteered  for  the  mission  and 
saUed  for  Africa  from  Baltimore  on  2  DecemWr,  1841. 
They  arrived  there  safe  and  Father  Barron  said  the 
first  Mass  at  Cape  Palmas  on  10  Feb.^  1842.  After  a 
time,  finding  tnat  he  did  not  receive  missionaries 
enough  to  accomplish  anything  practical,  Father  Bar- 
ron returned  to  tne  United  States,  and  thence  went  to 
Rome  where  he  was  made  on  22  Jan.,  1842,  Vicar  Apo»- 
totic  of  the  Two  Guineas,  and  titular  Bishop  of  Con- 
stantia.  With  seven  priests  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
B[0ly  Ghost  he  returned  to  Liberia,  arriving  at  Cape 
Palmas  on  30  Nov.,  1843.  Five  of  these  priests  died 
on  the  mission  of  fever,  to  which  Denis  Pindar,  the  lay 
cateehist,  also  fell  a  victim,  1  Jan.,  1844.  Bishop 
BaiTon  and  Father  Kelly  held  out  for  two  years,  and 
then,  wasted  by  fever,  they  determined  to  return  to 
the  United  States,  feeling  that  it  was  impossible  to 
vrithstand  the  climate  any  longer.  Bishop  Barron 
died  of  yellow  fever  during  an  epidemic  at  Savannah, 
Georma,  12  Sept.,  1854,  and  after  a  long  puxtorate  Fa- 
iher  Kelly  died  at  Jersey  City,  New  Jei-wy,  28  April, 
1866. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  took  uf)  the 
work,  were  also  forced  by  the  ciimato  to  abandon  it  in  a 
couple  of  years,  and  the  permanent  mission  lapsed  until 
26  Feb.,  1884.  The  Fathers  of  Montfort  (Company  of 
Ifary),  under  Fathers  Blanchet  and  Lorber,  tlien  laid 
the  foundation  of  another  mission  at  Monrovia. 
The  president  of  the  republic,  Mr.  Johnson,  and  the 
people  generally  gave  them  a  cordial  welcome,  but  the 
sectiArian  ministcars  organized  a  cabal  against  them, 
and  endeavoured  to  thwart  all  their  efforts  to  spread 
the  Faith.  They  made  some  progress  in  spite  of  this, 
and  in  the  fdlowing  year,  having  received  reinforce- 
ments from  France,  opened  a  school  for  boys  and  ex- 
tended their  operations  Into  other  places.    Father 


Bourzeix  learned  the  native  language,  in  which  he 
compiled  a  catechism  and  translated  a  number  of 
hymns.  Later,  when  he  returned  to  France,  he  wrote 
a  history  of  Liberia.  He  died  in  1886.  Deaths  among 
the  missionaries  and  the  health  of  the  others  shattered 
by  fever  forced  these  priests  also  to  abandon  the  Li- 
beria mission.  After  this  it  was  visited  occasionally 
by  missionaries  from  Sierra  Leone  until  1906,  when 
Propaganda  handed  its  care  over  to  the  Priests  of  the 
African  Missions  (Lyons),  and  three  Irish  priests,  Fa- 
thers Stephen  Kyne,  Joseph  Butler,  and  Dennis  O'Sul- 
livan,  with  two  French  assistants,  went  to  work  with 
much  energy,  and  continue  (1910)  to  make  much 
progress  among  the  2800  Catholics  the  vicariate  is 
estimated  to  contain  (st»e  .\fuica,  subtitle  The  Cath- 
olic Church).  The  British  Colony  of  Sierra  Leone  on 
the  west,  and  the  French  colonies  of  the  Ivory  Coast  to 
the  east,  and  French  Guinea  to  the  north  have  gradu- 
ally l)ecn  encroaching  on  its  territory,  and  internal 
troubles  over  deficits  adding  other  complications,  Li- 
beria sent  in  1908  an  urgent  appeal  to  the  United 
States  Government  for  help  to  preserve  its  integrity. 
To  learn  the. conditions  there,  and  find  out  what  as- 
sistance could  best  be  given,  a  commission  of  three 
was  appointed  by  the  president;  it  sailed  from  New 
York  24  April,  1909,  and  returned  in  the  following 
August.  Tne  diary  kept  by  Father  John  Kelly  dur- 
ing his  stay  in  Liberia  was  published  in  the  United 
States  C-atholic  Historical  Society's  "  Records  '^  (New 
York,  1910). 

Stock  WELL,  The  Rejjuhlic  of  Liberia  (New  York,  1868);  An- 
nual Report  Smithsonian  Innt.  (WiwhinRton,  1905);  Piolet, 
AfiiM.  Cath.,  V  (Paris,  1902).  172:  Clakk,  Liictt  of  Deceased 
Bishops  U.  S.,  II  (New  York,  1872),  npncnJix;  Catholic  Al- 
manac (Baltimore.  1855):  Shea,  Hist.  Cath.  Ch.  in  U.  S.  (New 
York.  1856)-  KiRLiN,  Catholicity  in  Philadelphia  (Philadel- 
phia, 1909);  Fi,TNN,  The  Cath.  Church  in  New  Jersey  (Moms- 
town,  1904).  92  sqq. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Liberius,  Pope  (352-66). — Pope  Julius  died  on  12 
April,  according  to  the  "  Liberian  Catalogue  ",  and  Li- 
berius  was  consecrated  on  22  May.  As  this  was  not  a 
Sunday,  17  May  was  probably  tlie  day.  Of  his  pre- 
vious life  nothing  is  known  save  that  he  was  a  Roman 
deacon.  An  epitaph  preserved  in  a  copy  by  a  seventh- 
century  pilgrim  is  attribute*!  to  Liberius  by  De  Rossi, 
followed  by  many  critics,  including  Duchesne.  The 
principal  points  in  it  are  that  the  pope  confirmed  the 
Nicene  Faith  in  a  council,  and  died  in  exile  for  the 
Faith,  unless  we  render  "a  martyr  by  exile".  The 
epitaph  is  attributed  by  Funk  to  St.  Martin  I.  De 
Rossi,  however,  declared  tliat  no  epigraphist  could 
doubt  that  the  verses  are  of  tlie  fourth  antl  not  of  the 
seventh  century;  still  it  is  not  easy  to  fit  the  lines  to 
Liberius.  The  text  is  in  De  Rossi,  "Inscr.  Christ. 
Urbis  Romae",  etc.,  II,  S3,  85,  and  Ducliesne,  "Lib. 
Pont.",  I,  209.  See  De  Rossi  in  "Bull.  Archcol. 
Crist."  (1SS3),  5-62;  and  Von  Funk  in  " Kirchcugcsch. 
Abhandl.",  I  (Padorborn,  1897),  391;  Grisarin  "Kir- 
chenlex.",  s.  v.;  Suvio,  '*  Nuovi  Studi ",  etc. 

First  Years  of  Pontikicatk. — By  the  death  of 
Constans  (Jan.,  350),  (.^otLstantius  ha<.I  Ix-tcomo  master 
of  the  whole  empire,  and  was  l.)ent  on  uniting  all 
Christians  in  a  mwlilicd  form  of  Ariniiism.  Liborius, 
like  his  predecessor  Julius,  upheld  the  acijuittal  of 
Athanasius  at  Sardica,  and  uiatlo  the  decisions  of 
Nicapa  the  test  of  orthodoxy.  After  the  final  defeat  of 
the  usurper  Magnentius  and  his  death  in  3515,  Lilxirius, 
in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  a  large  number  of 
Italian  bishops,  sent  legates  to  the  ein[x;ror  in  Gaul 
l>egging  him  to  hold  a  council.  Constantius  was  press- 
ing the  bishops  of  CJaul  to  condemn  Athanasius,  and 
assembled  a  number  of  them  at  Aries  wht^re  ho  had 
wintered.   The  court  bisho[)s,  who  constantly  accom- 

?anied  the  emperor,  were  the  rulers  of  the  council, 
'he  poi)e's  legat.es  (of  whom  one  was  Vincent  of  Capua, 
who  nad  l.)een  one  of  the  papal  legates  at  the  (Council  of 
Nicyca)  w(^re  so  weak  jw  to  consent  to  renounce  the 


LIBERIXTS 


218 


UBE&ZUS 


cause  of  Athanasius.  on  condition  that  all  would  con- 
demn Arianlsm.  Tne  court  party  accepted  the  com- 
pact, but  did  not  carry  out  their  part;  and  the  legates 
were  forced  by  violence  to  condemn  Athanasius.  with- 
out gaining  any  concession  for  themselves.  Lioerius, 
on  receiving  the  news,  wrote  to  Hosius  of  Cordova  of 
his  deep  grief  at  the  fall  of  Vincent;  he  himself  desired 
to  die,  lest  he  should  incur  the  imputation  of  having 
agreed  to  injustice  and  heterodoxy.  Another  letter  in 
the  same  strain  was  addressed  by  the  pope  to  St.  Euse- 
bius,  Bishop  of  Vercelli,  who  had  formerly  been  one  of 
tho  Roman  clergjr. 

Eailicr  than  this,  a  letter  against  Athanasius  signed 
by  many  Eastern  bishops  had  arrived  at  Rome.  The 
emperor  sent  a  special  envoy  named  Montanus  to  Alex- 
andria, where  he  arrived  22  May^  353,  to  inform  the 
patriarch  that  the  emperor  was  willing  to  grant  him  a 
personal  interview;  but  Athanasius  had  never  asked 
lor  this;  he  recognized  that  a  trap  had  been  set  for  him, 
and  did  not  move.  He  quitted  Alexandria  only  in  the 
following  February,  when  George,  an  Arian,  was  set  up 
as  bishop  in  his  place,  amid  disgraceful  scenes  of  vio- 
lence. But  Athanasius  had  already  heli  a  council  in 
his  own  defence,  and  a  letter  in  his  favour,  signed  by 
seventy-five  (or  eighty)  Egyptian  bishops,  had  ar- 
rived at  Rome  at  the  end  of  May,  353.  Constantius 
pubhcly  accused  the.  pope  of  preventing  peace  and  of 
suppressing  the  letter  of  the  Easterns  against  Athanar 
sius.  Liberius  replied  with  a  dignified  and  touching 
letter  (Obsecro,  tranquillissime  imperator),  in  which 
he  declares  that  he  read  the  letter  of  the  Easterns 
to  a  council  at  Rome  (probably  an  anniversary  coun- 
cil, 17  May,  353),  but,  as  the  letter  which  ar- 
rived simultaneously^  from  Egypt  was  signed  by  a 
greater  number  of  bishops,  it  was  impossiljle  to  con- 
demn Athanasius;  he  himself  had  never  wished  to 
be  pope,  but  he  had  followed  his  pre  lecessors  in 
all  things;  he  could  not  make  peace  with  the  East- 
ems,  for  some  of  them  refused  to  condemn  Arius,  and 
they  were  in  communion  wit  h  George  of  Alexandria, 
who  accepted  the  Arian  priests  whom  Alexander  had 
long  ago  excommunicated.  He  complains  of  the 
Council  of  Aries,  and  Ixjgs  for  the  assemljling  of  an- 
other council,  by  means  of  which  the  exposition  of 
faith  to  which  all  had  agreed  at  Nicaea  may  be  en- 
forced for  the  future.  The  letter  was  carried  by  Luci- 
fer, Bishop  of  Calaris  (Cagliari),  the  priest  Pancratius, 
and  the  deacon  Hilary,  to  the  emjx^ror  at  IVIilan.  The 
pope  asked  St.  Eusebius  to  assist  the  legates  with  his 
mnuence,  and  wrote  again  to  thank  him  for  having 
done  so.  A  council  was  in  fact  convened  at  Milan, 
and  met  there  alK>ut  the  spring  of  355.  St.  Euscl)ius 
was  persuaded  to  be  present^  and  he  insisted  that  all 
should  begin  by  signing  the  N  icene  decree.  The  court 
bishops  declined.  The  military  were  called  in.  Con- 
stantius ordered  the  bishops  to  take  his  word  for  the 
guilt  of  Athanasius,  and  condemn  him.  Eusebius 
was  banished,  t<)gether  with  Lucifer  and  Dionysius  of 
Milan.  Liberius  sent  another  letter  to  the  emperor; 
and  his  envoj-s,  the  priest  Eutropius  and  the  cleacon 
Hilary,  were  also  exiled,  the  deacon  being  besides 
cruelly  beaten.  The  Arian  Auxentius  was  made 
Bishop  of  Milan.  The  pope  wrote  a  letter,  generally 
known  as  "  Quamuis  sub  imagine  ",  to  the  exiled  bish- 
ops, addressing  them  as  martyrs,  and  expressing  his 
regret  that  he  had  not  been  the  first  to  suffer  so  as  to 
set  an  example  to  others;  he  asks  for  their  prayers  that 
he  may  yet  oe  worthy  to  share  their  exUe. 

That  these  were  not  mere  words  was  proved,  not 
only  by  Liljerius's  noble  attitude  of  protest  during  the 
preceding  years,  but  by  his  subsequent  conduct.  Con- 
stantius was  not  satisfied  by  the  renewed  condemna- 
tion of  Athanasius  by  the  Italian  bishops  who  had 
lapsed  at  Milan  under  pressure.  He  knew  that  the 
pope  was  the  only  ecclesiastical  superior  of  the  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  and  he  "strove  with  burning  desire  . 
Bays  the  pagan  Ammianus,  "that  the  sentence  should 


be  confirmed  by  the  higher  authority  of  the  bishop  of 
the  eternal  city".  St.  Athanasius  assures  us  that 
from  the  beginning  the  Arians  did  not  spare  Liberius, 
for  they  calculated  that,  if  they  could  but  persuade 
him,  they  would  soon  get  hold  of  all  the  rest,  Con- 
stantius sent  to  Rome  his  prefect  of  the  bed-chamber, 
the  eunuch  Eusebius,  a  very  powerful  personage,  witii 
a  letter  and  gifts.  "  Obey  the  emperor  and  take  this  " 
was  in  fact  his  message,  a&ys  St.  Athanasius,  who  pro- 
ceeds to  give  the  pope's  reply  at  length:  He  could  not 
decide  against  Athanasius,  who  had  been  acauitted  by 
two  general  synods,  and  had  been  dismissea  in  peace 
by  the  Roman  Church,  nor  could  he  condemn  the  ab» 
sent;  such  was  not  the  tradition  he  had  received  from 
his  predecessors  and  from  St.  Peter;  if  the  emperor 
desired  peace,  he  must  annul  what  he  had  decreed 
against  Athanasius  and  have  a  council  oelebnted 
without  emperor  or  counts  or  judges  present,  so  that 
the  Nicene  Faith  might  be  preserved;  the  foUowers  of 
Arius  must  be  cast  out  and  their  heresy  anathema- 
tized; the  unorthodox  must  not  sit  in  a  synod;  the 
Faith  must  first  be  settled,  and  then  only  could  other 
matters  be  treated;  let  Ursacius  and  VaJens,  the  oowt 
bbhops  from  Pannonia,  be  disregarded,  for  they  had 
already  once  disowned  their  bad  actions,  and  were  so 
longer  worthy  of  credit. 

The  eunuch  was  enraged,  and  went  off  with  his 
bribes,  which  he  laid  before  tne  confession  of  St.  Peter. 
Liberius  severely  rebuked  the  guaniians  of  the  ho^ 

Elace  for  not  having  prevented  this  unheard-of  saon- 
}ge.  He  cast  the  gifts  away,  which  angered  the 
eunuch  yet  more,  so  that  he  wrote  to  the  emperor  that 
it  was  no  lon<i:cr  a  question  of  simply  getting  Liberine 
to  condemn  .Vthanasius,  for  he  went  so  far  as  formaDy 
to  anathematize  the  Arians.  Constantius  was  per- 
suaded by  his  eunuchs  to  send  Palatine  officers,  nota- 
ries, and  counts,  with  letters  to  the  Prefect  of  Rome. 
Leontius,  ordering  that  Liberius  should  be  seized  either 
secretly  or  by  violence,  and  despatched  to  the  court. 
There  followed  a  kind  of  persecution  at  Rome. 
Bishops,  says  St.  Athanasius,  and  pious  ladies  were 
obligcfl  to  hide,  monks  were  not  safe,  foreigners  were 
expelled,  the  gates  and  the  port  were  watched.  **The 
Ethiopian  eunuch",  continues  the  saint,  "when  he 
understood  not  what  he  read,  believed  St.  Philip; 
wncreas  the  eunuchs  of  Constantius  do  not  believe 
Peier  when  he  confesses  Christ,  nor  the  Father  indeed, 
when  He  reveals  His  Son  '* — ^an  allusion  to  the  declain- 
tions  of  the  popes  that  in  condemning  Arianism  tb^ 
spoke  with  tne  voice  of  Peter  and  repeated  his  confes- 
sion, "Thou  art  [the]  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living 
God  ",  which  the  Father  Himself  had  revealed  to  the 
Apostle.  Liberius  was  dragged  l>efore  the  emperor  at 
Milan.  He  spoke  boldly,  bidding  Constantius  cease 
fighting  against  God,  and  declaring  his  readiness  to  go 
at  once  into  exile  before  his  enemies  had  time  to  trump 
up  charges  against  him.  Theodoret  has  preserved  the 
minutes  of  an  interview  between  "  the  glorious  Libe- 
rius" and  Constantius,  which  were  taken  down  by 
good  people,  he  says,  at  the  time.  Lil)erius  refuses  to 
acknowledge  the  decision  of  the  Council  of  Tyre  and  to 
renounce  Athanasias;  the  Mareotic  acts  against  him 
were  false  witness,  and  Ursacius  and  Valens  had  con- 
fessed as  much,  and  had  asked  pardon  from  the  Synod 
of  Sardica.  Epict'Ctus,  the  young  intruded  Bishop  of 
CentumcelLT,  interposes,  saying  that  Liberius  only 
wanted  to  be  able  to  boast  to  the  Roman  senators  that 
he  had  beaten  the  emperor  in  argument.  "  Who  are 
you  ",  adds  Constantius,  "  to  stand  up  for  Athanasius 
against  the  world?"  Lil)erius  replies:  "Of  old  there 
were  found  but  three  to  resist  the  mandate  of  the 
king."  The  eunuch  Eusebius  cried:  "You  compare 
the  emperor  to  Nabuchodonosor."  Liberius:  *'No, 
but  you  condemn  the  innocent.**  He  demands  that 
all  shall  su!>scribe  the  Nicene  formula,  then  the  exiles 
must  be  restored,  and  all  the  bishops  must  assemble  at 
Alexandria  to  give  Athanasius  a  fair  trial  on  tJie  spot 


usxRina 


aa:  "But  the  public  convayfAicei  will  not  be 
mough  UxMrrj  to  many."  Liberius:  "They  will  not 
be  needed;  the  eccleaiastics  are  rich  enough  to  send 
their  trishtqM  as  far  aa  the  sea."  CouBtaiitiua:  "  Gen- 
eml  synods  must  not  be  too  numerous;  you  alone  holil 
out  against  the  judgment  of  thb  whole  world.  He  has 
injuicd  alt,  and  me  above  all;  not  content  with  the  mur- 
der of  mv  eldest  brother,  he  iiet  Constaus  also  against 
me.  I  snould  prize  a  victory  over  him  more  than  one 
€»ver  Silvanus  or  Magnentius."  Liberius;  "  Do  not 
employ  bishops,  whose  hands  are  meant  to  bless,  to 
revenge  your  own  enmity.  Have  the  bishops  restored 
ftnd,  if  they  agree  with  the  Nicene  Faith,  let  them  con- 
sult aa  to  the  peace  of  the  world ,  that  an  innocent 
bo  not  emidemaed."     Constantius:  "  1  am  willing 


Arian  Bishop  Acadus  oT  Cssarea  had  been  arranged 
by  Epictfltus  at  the  emperor's  order.  The  people  of 
Rome  ignored  the  antipope.  Constantius  paid  his 
tirat  visit  to  Rome  on  1  April,  357,  and  was  able  to  see 
for  iiimself  the  failure  of  his  nominee.  He  was  awaie 
that  there  was  no  canonical  justification  for  the  exile 
ot  Li ijeri us  and  the  intrusion  of  l''e]ix;  in  other  cases  he 
bad  always  acted  in  accordance  witli  tlie  decision  of  a 
council.  He  was  also  greatly  moved  by  the  yrandeur  of 
the  Ji]tenial  City^o  Ammianiis  aaaures  us.  He  was 
impressed  by  tne  praj-ers  for  the  return  of  the  pope 
boldly  addressed  to  him  by  the  noblest  of  the  Roman 
ladies,  whose  husbands  had  insufhcient  courage  for  the 
venture.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  Felix 
i  outside  Rome,  unless 


•end  you  back  to  Rome,  if  you 
ion  (x^the  Church.  Make  peace,  and  sign  the  condc 
nation."  Liberius:  "I  have  already  bidden  farewell 
at  Rome  to  the  brethren.  The  laws  of  the  Church  are 
more  important  than  residence  in  Rome,"  The  em- 
peror gave  the  pope  three  days  for  consideration,  oiid 
then  raniahed  bim  to  Dercca  in  Thrace,  sending  him 
five  hundred  gold  pieces  (or  his  e^gienscs;  but  he  re- 
fused them,  saying  Constantius  ncpiled  tliem  to  pay 
bis  soldiers.  The  empress  sent  him  the  same  amount, 
but  he  sent  it  to  the  emperor,  sai-ins:  "  If  he  does 
not  need  it,  let  him  give  it  to  Auxentius  or  Epictetus, 
who  want  such  things."  Eusebius  the  eunuch 
brought  him  yet  more  money:  "  Voii  have  \a\d  waste 
the  Qiurches  of  the  world  ",  the  pope  broke  out,  "  and 
do  vou  bring  me  alms  as  to  a  condemned  man?  Go 
UHl  fiiBt  become  a  Christian." 

Exile. — On  the  departure  of  Libciiii-i  from  Komi-. 
all  the  clergy  had  sworn  that  they  n-ouKI  receive  no 
other  bishop.  But  soon  many  of  tliem  accepted  as 
pope  the  ArchdeacOTi  Felix,  wbo-se  consecration  by  the 


by  the  court  party  and  a  few  extreme  Arians,  and  the 
uncompromising  attitude  (if  T.ibprius  through  at  least 
the  greater  part  of  hi.?  biir.ishnicnt  must  have  done 
more  harm  to  the  cause  the  emperor  had  at  heart  than 
his  constancy  had  done  when  h'ft  i>t  Home  in  peace. 
It  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  Liberius  returned  to 
Rome  before  tite  end  of  357,  and  that  it  was  noised 
abroad  that  he  must  ha\'e  signed  the  condemnation  of 
Athanasius  and  perhaps  some  Arian  Creed.  His  res- 
toration is  placed  by  some  critics  in  358,  but  this  is 
impossible,  for  St.  .\thanaaius  telts  us  that  he  endured 
the  rigours  of  exile  for  two  s'cara,  and  the  "  fiesta  inter 
Lilierium  ctFelicemepisconos".  which  forms  the  pref- 
ace to  the  "  Liber  Preeum  of  Fausliniia  and  Marcel- 
linue,  t«lla  us  that  be  returned  "in  the  thirdyear". 
The  cause  of  liia  return  is  variously  related.  Tneodo- 
ret  says  that  Constantius  wom  moved  by  the  Roman 
matrons  to  restore  him.  but  when  his  letter  to  Rome, 
sayini:  that  Lil^rius  and  Felix  were  to  lie  bishops  side 
by  side,  was  read  in  the  circus,  the  Romans  jeered  at 
it,  and  filled  the  air  with  cries  of  "  One  God,  one  Christ, 


UBsanni  220  ubebius 

one  bishop  *\    The  Arian  historian  Philostorgius  also  mentions  the  presence  of  Western  bishops,  and  this 

speaks  of  the  Romans  having  eagerly  demanded  the  suits  357;  he  says  that  Eudoxius  spread  the  rumour 

return  of  their  pope,  and  so  does  Runnus.    St.  Sulpi-  that  Liberius  had  signed  the  second  Sirmian  formula, 

cius  Severus,  on  tne  other  hand,  gives  the  cause  as  se-  and  this  suits  357  and  not  the  time  of  Semi-Arian 

ditions  at  Rome,  and  Sozomen  agrees.  Socrates  is  more  ascendancy.     Further,  the  formula  "in  all  things 

precise,  and  declares  that  the  Romans  rose  against  like"  was  not  the  Semir Arian  badge  in  358,  but  was 

Felix  and  drove  him  out,  and  that  the  emperor  was  forced  upon  them  in  359,  after  which  they  adopted  it, 

obli^  to  acquiesce.    The  reading  in  St.  Jerome's  declaring  that  it  included  their  special  formula* 'like  in 

"Chronicle"  is  doubtful.    He  says  that  a  year  after  substance".    Now   Sozomen   is   certainly  following 

the  Roman  clergy  had  perjured  themselves  they  were  here  the  lost  compilation  of  the  Maceclonian  (L  e. 

driven  out  togetner  with  Felix,  until  (or  because)  Li-  Semi-Arian)  Sabinus,  whom  we  know  to  have  been 

berius  had  re-entered  the  city  in  triumph.     If  we  read  imtrustworthy   wherever   his   sect   was   concerned. 

"  until ",  we  shall  understand  that  after  Liberius's  re-  Sabinus  seems  simply  to  have  had  the  Arian  story  be- 

turn  the  forsworn  clergy  returned  to  their  allegiance,  fore  him,  but  regarded  it,  probably  rightly,  as  an  in- 

If  we  read  "because",  with  the  oldest  MS.,  it  will  seem  vention  of  the  party  of  Eudoxius;  he  thinks  the 

rather  that  the  expulsion  of  Felix  was  subsequent  to  truth  must  have  been  that,  if  Liberius  signed  a  Sirmian 

and  consequent  on  the  return  of  Liberius.    St.  Pros-  formula,  it  was  the  harmless  one  of  Sbl;  if  he  con- 

per  seems  to  have  understood  Jerome  in  the  latter  demned  the  **  Homoousion",   it  was  only  in  the  sense 

sense.    The  preface  to  the  "  Liber  Precum  "  mentions  in  which  it  had  been  condemned  at  Antioch;  he  makes 

two  expulsions  of  Felix,  but  does  not  say  that  either  of  him  accept  the  Dedication  Creed  (which  was  that  of 

them  was  previous  to  the  return  of  Liberius.  the  Semi-Arians  and  all  the  moderates  of  the  I^ut), 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Arian  Philostorgius  related  and  force  upon  the  court  bishops  the  Semi-Arian 

that  Liberius  was  restored  only  when  he  had  con-  formula  of  359  and  after.     He  adds  that  the  bishops 

sented  to  sign  the  second  formula  of  Sirmium,  which  at  Sirmium  wrote  to  Felix  and  to  the  Roman  clergy, 

was  drawn  up  after  the  summer  of  357  by  the  court  asking  that  Liberius  and  Felix  should  both  be  accented 

bishops,  Germinius,  Ursacius,  Valens;  it  rejected  the  as  bishops.    It  is  quite  incredible  that  men  like  BasO 

terms  homoouaioa  and  homoiousios;  and  was  some-  and  his  party  should  have  done  this, 
times  called  the  "  formula  of  Hosius",  who  was  forced        Later  Years  of  Liberius. — At  the  time  of  his  re- 

to  accept  it  in  this  same  year,  thoueh  St.  Hilary  is  turn,  the  Romans  cannot  have  known  that  Liberius 

surely  wrong  in  calling  him  its  author.    The  same  had  fallen,  for  St.  Jerome  (who  is  so  fond  of  tellins  us 

story  of  the  pope's  fall  is  supported  by  three  letters  of  the  simplicity  of  their  faith  and  the  delicacy  oftneir 

attnbuted  to  him  in  the  so-called  "Historical  Frag-  pious  ears)  says  he  entered  Rome  as  a  conqueror.    It 

ments"  (*'  Fragmenta  ex  Opere  Historico"  in  P.  L.,  A,  was  clearly  not  supposed  that  he  had  been  conquered 

678  sqq.)  of  St.  Hilary,  but  Sozomen  tells  us  it  was  a  by  Constantius.    There  is  no  s^  of  his  ever  having 

he,  propagated  by  the  Arian  Eudoxius,  who  had  just  admitted  that  he  had  fallen.    In  359  were  held  the 

invadea  uie  See  of  Antioch.    St.  Jerome  seems  to  simultaneous  Councils  of  Seleucia  and  RiminL   At  the 

have  believed  it,  as  in  his  "Chronicle"  he  says  that  latter,  where  most  of  the  bishops  were  orthodox,  the 

Liberius  "conquered  by  the  tedium  of  exile  and  sub-  pressure  and  delay,  and  the  underhand  machinations 

scribine  to  heretical  wickedness  entered  Rome  in  of  the  court  party  entrapped  the  bishops  into  error, 

triumpn".    The  preface  to  the  "  Liber  Precum"  also  The  pope  was  not  there,  nor  did  he  send  legates.    After 

speaks  of  his  yielding  to  heresy.    St.  Athajiasius,  the  council  his  disapproval  was  soon  known,  and  after 

writing  apparently  at  tne  end  of  357,  says:  "  Liberius,  the  death  of  Constantius  at  the  end  of  361  he  was  able 

having  been  exiled,  gave  in  after  two  years,  and,  in  publicly  to  annul  it,  and  to  decide,  much  as  a  council 

fear  of  the  death  with  which  he  was  threatened,  under  Athanasius  at  Alexandria  decided,  that  the 

signed",  i.  e.  the  condemnation  of  Athanasius  himself  bishoi)s  who  had  fallen  could  be  restored  on  condition 

(Hist.  Ar.,xli);  and  again:  "If  he  did  not  endure  the  of  their  proving  the  sincerity  of  their  repentance  by 

tribulation  to  the  end  yet  he  remained  in  his  exile  for  their  zeal  against  the  Arians.    About  366  he  received 

two  years  knowing  the  conspiracy  against  me."    St.  a  deputation  of  the  Semi-Arians  led  by  Eustathius;  he 

Hilary,  writing  at  Constantinople  in  360,  addresses  treated  them  first  as  Arians  (which  he  could  not  have 

Constantius  thus:  "I  know  not  whether  it  was  with  done  had  he  ever  joined  them),  and  insisted  on  their 

greater  impiety  that  you  exiled  him  than  that  you  accepting  the  Nicene  formula  before  he  would  receive 

restored  him"  (Contra  Const.,  II).  them  to  communion;  he  was  unaware  that  many  of 

Sozomen  tells  a  story  which  finds  no  echo  in  any  them  were  to  turn  out  later  to  be  unsound  on  the  ques- 
other  writer.  He  makes  Constantius,  after  his  return  tion  of  the  Divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  We  learn  also 
from  Rome,  summon  Liberius  to  Sirmium  (357),  and  from  St.  Siricius  that,  after  annulling  the  Council  of 
there  the  pope  is  forced  by  the  Semi-Arian  leaders,  Rimini,  Liberius  issued  a  decree  forbidding  the  re- 
Basil  of  Ancyra,  Eustathius,  and  Eleusius,  to  condemn  baptism  of  those  baptized  by  Arians,  which  was  being 
the  "  Homoousion" ;  he  is  induced  to  sign  a  combina-  practised  by  the  Luciferian  Bchismatica. 
tion  of  three  formulae:  that  of  the  Catholic  Council  of  Forged  Letters. — In  the  fragments  of  St.  Hilary 
Antioch  of  267  against  Paul  of  Samosato  (in  which  are  embedded  a  number  of  letters  of  Liberius.  Frag- 
homoousios  was  said  to  have  been  rejected  as  Sa-  ment  IV  contains  a  letter,  "Studens  paci",  together 
bcllian  in  tendency),  that  of  the  Sirmian  assembly  with  a  very  corrupt  comment  upon  it  by  St.  Hilary, 
which  condemned  Photinus  in  351 ,  and  the  Creed  of  the  The  letter  nas  usually  been  considered  a  forgery  since 
Dedication  Council  of  Antioch  of  341.  These  formula)  Baronius  (2nd  ed.),  and  Duchesne  expressed  the  corn- 
were  not  precisely  heretical,  and  Liberius  is  said  to  have  mon  view  when  he  said  in  his  "Histoire  ancienne  de 
exacted  from  Ursacius  and  Valens  a  confession  that  TEglise"  (1907)  that  St.  Hilary  meant  us  to  under- 
the  Son  is  "  in  all  things  similar  to  the  Father' ' .  Hence  stand  that  it  is  spurious.  But  its  authenticity  was  de- 
Sozomcn's  story  has  neen  very  generally  accepted  as  fended  by  Tillemont,  and  has  been  recently  upheld  by 
giving  a  moderate  account  of  Lit^rius's  fall,  admitting  Schiktanz  and  Duchesne  (1908),  all  Catholic  writers, 
it  to  Ixj  a  fact,  vet  explaining  why  so  many  writers  Hermant  (cited  by  Coustant),  followed  by  Savio,  be- 
implicitly  deny  it.  But  the  date  soon  after  Con-  lieved  that  the  letter  was  inserted  by  a  foi^gcr  in  the 
stantius  w^as  at  Rome  is  impossible,  as  the  Semi-  place  of  a  genuine  letter,  and  he  took  the  first  words  of 
Arians  only  united  at  the  beginning  of  358,  and  their  St.  Hilary  s  comment  to  be  serious  and  not  ironical: 
short-lived  influence  over  the  emperor  began  in  the  "What  in  this  letter  does  not  proceed  from  piety  and 
middle  of  that  year;  hence  Duchesne  and  many  others  from  the  fear  of  God?"  In  this  document  Liberius  is 
hold  (in  spite  of  the  clear  witness  of  St.  Athanasius)  made  to  address  the  Arian  bishops  of  the  East,  and  to 
that  Liberius  returned  only  in  358.    Yet  Sozomen  declare  that  on  receiving  an  epistle  against  St.  Atha* 


XJBIRIin 


221 


UBSBICTS 


nasius  from  the  Oriental  bishops,  which  iiad  bceu  sent 
to  his  predecessor  Julius,  he  had  hesitated  to  condemn 
that  saint,  since  his  predecessor  had  absolved  him, 
but  he  had  sent  legates  to  Alexandria  to  sunmion  him 
to  Rome.  Athaiuisius  had  refused  to  come,  and 
liberius  on  receiving  new  letters  from  the  East  had  at 
once  excommunicated  him,  and  was  now  anxious  to 
communicate  with  the  Arian  party.  Duchesne  thinks 
this  letter  was  written  in  exile  at  the  beginning  of  357, 
and  that  Liberius  had  really  sent  an  embassy  (in  352- 
3),  sugeestin^  that  Athanasius  should  come  to  Rome; 
now  inhis  exue  he  remembers  that  Athanasius  had  ex- 
cused himself,  and  alleges  this  as  a  pretext  for  con- 
demning him.  It  seems  inconceivable,  however,  that 
after  heroically  supporting  Athanasius  for  years,  and, 
having  suffered  exde  for  more  than  a  year  rather  than 
condemn  him,  Liberius  should  motive  his  present 
weakness  by  a  disobedience  on  the  saint's  part  at 
which  he  had  testified  no  resentment  during  all  this 
stretch  of  time.  On  the  contrary- ,  St.  Hilar>''s  com- 
ment seems  plainly  to  imply  that  the  letter  was  forged 
b^  Fortunatian,  Metropolitan  of  Aquilcia,  one  of  the 
bishops  who  condemned  Athanasius  and  joined  the 
court  party  at  the  Council  of  Milan  in  355.  Fortuna- 
tian must  have  tried  to  excuse  his  own  fall,  bv  pre- 
tending that  the  pope  (who  was  then  still  in  Rome) 
had  entrusted  this  letter  to  him  to  give  to  the  emperor, 
*'  but  Potamius  and  Epictetus  did  not  believe  it  to  be 
genuine  when  they  condemned  the  pope  with  glee  (as 
the  Council  of  Rimini  said  of  them)  ,  else  they  would 
not  have  condemned  him  to  exile,  *'and  Fortunatian 
sent  it  also  to  many  bishops  without  getting  any  ^in 
by  it".  And  St.  Hilary  goes  on  to  declare  that  For- 
tunatian had  further  condemned  himself  by  omitting 
to  mention  how  Athanasius  had  been  acquitted  at 
Sardica  after  the  letter  of  the  Easterns  against  him  to 
Pope  JuUus,  and  how  a  letter  harl  come  from  a  council 
at  Alexandna  and  all  ^ypt  in  his  favour  to  Liberius, 
as  earlier  to  Julius.  Hilary  appeals  to  documents 
^iiiiich  follow,  evidently  the  letter  "Obsecro"  to  the 
emperor  (already  mentioned),  in  which  Liberius  at- 
tests that  he  received  the  defence  by  the  Egyptians 
at  the  same  time  with  the  accusation  by  the  Arians. 
The  letter  "Obsecro"  forms  fragment  V,  and  it  seems 
to  have  been  immediately  followed  in  the  original 
work  by  fragment  VI,  which  opens  with  the  letter  of 
Liberius  to  the  confessors,  "Quamuis  sub  imagine" 
(l»roving  how  steadfast  he  was  in  his  support  of  the 
uiitJi),  Allowed  by  quotations  from  letters  to  a  bishop 
of  ^x>leto  and  to  Hosius,  in  which  the  pope  deplores 
the  iflJl  of  Vincent  at  Aries.  These  letters  are  mcon- 
testably  genuine. 

There  follows  in  the  same  fragment  a  paragraph 
which  declares  that  Liberius,  when  in  exile,  reversed 
all  these  promises  and  actions,  writing  to  the  wicked, 
prevaricating  Arians  the  three  letters  which  complete 
the  fragment.  These  correspond  to  the  authentic 
letters  which  have  preceded,  each  to  each:  the  first, 
"Pro  deifico  timore  is  a  parody  of  "Obsecro";  the 
second,  "Quia scio uos",  is  a  reversal  of  cverj' thing  said 
in  "  QuamuLs" ;  the  thinl "  Non  doceo",  is  a  palinode, 
painful  to  read,  of  the  letter  to  Hosius.  The  three  are 
clearly  forgeries,  composed  for  their  present  position. 
They  defend  the  authenticity  of  "Studens  paci*', 
which  they  represent  as  having  been  sent  to  the  em- 
peror from  Rome  by  the  hands  of  Fortunatian;  the 
genuine  letters  are  not  contested,  but  it  is  shown  that 
Liberius  changed  his  mind  and  wrote  the  ''Studens 
paci"j  that  in  spite  of  this  he  was  exiled,  through  the 
machinations  of  his  enemies,  so  he  wrote  *'  Pro  deifico 
timore"  to  the  Easterns,  assuring  them  not  only  that 
he  had  condemned  Athanasius  in  "Studens  paci", 
but  that  Demophilus,  the  Bishop  of  Bercea  (repro- 
bated as  a  heretic  in  "Obsecro"),  had  explained  to 
him  the  Sirmian  formula  of  357,  and  he  had  willinglv 
accepted  it.  This  formula  disapproved  of  the  words 
homoauHoi  Bad  kamoimuioa  alike;  it  had  been  drawn 


up  by  Germinius,  Ursacius,  and  Valens.  "Quia  scio 
nos"  is  addressed  precisely  to  these  three  court  bishops 
and  Liberius  begs  them  "to  pray  the  emperor  for  his 
restoration,  just  as  in  "Quamuis"  he  had  begged  the 
three  confessors  to  pray  to  God  that  he  too  might  be 
exiled.  "  Non  doceo' '  parodies  the  grief  of  Liberius  at 
the  fall  of  Vincent;  it  is  addressed  U>  Vincent  himself 
and  be^  him  to  get  the  Campanian  bishops  to  xneet 
and  wnte  to  the  emperor  for  the  restoration  of  Libe- 
rius. Interspersed  m  the  first  and  second  letters  are 
anathemas  *'  to  the  prevaricator  Liberius",  attributed 
by  the  former  to  St.  Ililary.  The  forger  is  clearly  one 
of  the  Luciferians,  whose  heres\'  consisted  in  denying 
all  validity  to  the  acts  of  those  bishops  who  had  fallen 
at  the  CJouncil  of  Rimini  in  359;  whereas  Pope  Libe- 
rius had  issued  a  decree  admitting  their  restoration  on 
their  sincere  repentance,  and  also  condemned  the 
Luciferian  practice  of  rebaptizing  those  whom  the 
fallen  bishops  had  baptized. 

The  aforesaid  "Fragments"  of  St.  Hilary  have 
recently  been  scrutinize  by  Wilmart,  and  it  appears 
that  they  belonged  to  two  different  books,  the  one 
written  in  356  as  an  apology  when  the  saint  was  sent 
into  exile  by  the  Synod  of  Edziers,  and  the  other  writ- 
ten soon  after  the  Council  of  Rimini  for  the  instruction 
(says  Rufinus)  of  the  fallen  bishops;  it  was  entitled 
"  Liber  ad  versus  Valentem  et  Ursacium".  The  letters 
of  Liberius  belonged  to  the  latter  work.  Rufinus  tells 
us  that  it  was  interpolated — he  implies  this  of  the 
whole  edition — and  that  Hilary  was  accused  at  a  coun- 
cil on  the  score  of  these  corruptions;  he  denied  them, 
but,  on  the  book  being  fetched  from  his  own  lodging, 
they  were  found  in  it,  and  St.  Hilary  was  expelled  ex- 
communicate from  the  council.  St.  Jerome  denied  all 
knowledge  of  the  incident,  but  Rufinus  certainly  spoke 
with  good  evidence,  and  his  story  fits  in  exactly  with 
St.  Hilary's  own  account  of  a  council  of  ten  bishops 
which  sat  at  his  urgent  request  at  Milan  about  364  to 
try  Auxentius  whom  he  accused  of  Arianism.  The 
latter  defended  himself  by  equivocal  expressions,  and 
the  bishops  as  well  as  the  orthodox  Emperor  Valen- 
tinian  were  satisfied;  St.  Ililary,  on  the  contrary,  was 
accused  by  Auxentius  of  heresy,  and  of  joining  with 
St.  Eusebius  of  Vercelli  in  disturbing  the  peace,  and  he 
was  banished  from  the  city.  He  does  not  mention  of 
what  heresy  he  was  accused,  nor  on  what  grounds;  but 
it  must  have  been  Luciferianism,  and  Rufinus  has  in- 
formed us  of  the  proofs  which  were  offered.  It  is  in- 
teresting tliat  the  fragments  of  the  book  against  Valens 
and  Ursacius  should  still  contain  in  the  forged  let^rs 
of  IJl)erius  (and  perliaps,  also  in  one  attributed  to  St. 
Eusebius)  a  part  of  the  false  evidence  on  which  a  Doc- 
tor of  the  Church  was  turned  out  of  Milan  and  appar- 
ently excommunicated. 

It  would  seem  that  when  St.  Hilarj'  wrote  his  l)ook 
*'  Ad  versus  Constant  ium"  in  360,  just  before  his  return 
from  exile  in  the  East,  he  l)elievcd  tliat  Liberius  had 
fallen  and  had  renounced  St.  AthanasiiLs;  but  his 
words  are  not  quite  clear.  At  all  events,  when  he  wrote 
his  **  Ad  versus  Valentem  et  Ursacium"  after  his  re- 
turn, he  showed  the  letter  "  Studens  paci"  to  be  a  for- 
gery, by  appending  to  it  some  noble  letters  of  the  pope. 
Now  this  seems  to  prove  that  the  Luciferians  were 
making  use  of  '*  Studens  paci"  after  Rimini,  in  order  to 
show  that  the  pope,  who  was  now  in  their  opinion  too 
indulgent  to  the  fallen  bishops,  had  himself  been 
guilty  of  an  even  worse  betrayal  of  the  Catholic  cause 
before  his  exile.  In  their  view,  such  a  fall  would  un- 
pope  liim  and  invalidate  all  his  subsequent  acts.  That 
St.  Hilary  should  have  taken  some  trouble  to  prove 
that  the  **  Studens  paci"  was  spurious  makes  it  evident 
that  he  did  not  believe  Liberius  had  fallen  subse- 
ouently  in  his  exile;  else  his  trouble  was  useless. 
Consequently,  St.  Hilary  becomes  a  strong  witness  to 
the  innocence  of  Liberius.  If  St.  Athanasius  believed 
in  his  fall ,  this  was  when  he  was  in  hiding,  and  immedi- 
ately after  the  euppoeed  event;  he  waa  apparently  de- 


LTBBRTUS 


222 


LIBEBIU8 


ceived  for  the  moinent  bv  the  rumours  spread  by  the 
Allans.  The  author  of  the  preface  to  the  "  Liber  Pre- 
cum''  of  Faust inuB  and  MarcelUnus  is  an  Ursinian 
masquerading  as  a  Luciferian  in  order  to  eet  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  toleration  accorded  to  the  latter  sect, 
and  he  takes  the  Luciferian  view  of  Libcrius;  possibly 
he  followed  Jerome's  *' Chronicle",  which  seems  to  b!e 
following  the  forged  letters;  for  Jerome  knew  St. 
Hilary 'a  book  *'  Against  Valens  and  Ursacius",  and  he 
refused  to  accept  the  assertion  of  Rufmus  that  it  had 
been  interpolated.  In  his  account  of  Fortunatian 
(De  Viris  Illust.,  xcvii)  he  says  this  bishop  "  was  iji- 
famous  for  having  been  the  first  to  break  the  courage 
of  Liberius  and  induce  him  to  give  his  signature  to 
heresy,  and  this  on  liis  way  into  exile".  This  is  in- 
credible, for  St.  Athan:isius  twice  tells  us  that  the 
pope  held  out  two  whole  years.  Evidently  St.  Je- 
rome (who  was  veiy  careless  about  history)  had  got 
hold  of  the  story  that  Fortunatian  had  a  letter  of 
Liberius  in  his  hands  after  the  Council  of  Milan,  and 
he  concludeb  that  he  must  have  met  Liberius  as  the 
latter  passed  through  Aquileia  on  his  way  to  Thrace: 
that  is  to  say,  Jerome  has  read  the  forged  letters  and 
has  not  quite  understood  them. 

Rufinus,  who  was  himself  of  Aquileia,  says  he  could 
not  find  out  whether  Liberius  fell  or  not.  This  seems 
to  be  as  much  as  to  say  that,  knowing  necessarily  the 
assertions  of  St.  Jerome,  he  was  unable  to  discover  on 
what  they  were  based.  He  himself  was  not  deceived 
by  the  forgeries,  and  there  was  indeed  no  pther  basis. 

Positive  evidence  in  favour  of  Liberius  is  not  want>- 
ing.  About  432  St.  Prosper  re-edited  and  continued 
St.  Jerome's  "Chronicle",  but  he  was  careful  to  omit 
the  words  Ujedio  victtia  exilii  in  relating  the  return  of 
Liberius.  St.  Sulpicius  Severn*  (403)  says  Lilxjrius 
was  restored  ob  seditiones  Romanas,  A  letter  of  Pope 
St.  Anastasius  I  (401)  mentions  him  with  Dionysius, 
Hilary,  and  Eusebius  as  one  of  those  who  would  have 
died  rather  than  blaspheme  Christ  with  the  Arians. 
St.  Ambrose  remembered  him  as  an  exceedingly  holy 
man.  *  Socrates  has  placed  the  exile  of  Lil^erius  after 
the  Council  of  Milan,  through  too  carelessly  following 
the  order  of  Rufinus;  unUke  Rufinus,  however,  he  is 
not  doubtful  about  the  fall  of  Liberius,  but  gives  as 
sufficient  reason  for  his  return  the  revolt  of  the  Ro- 
mans against  Felix,  and  he  has  expressly  omitted  the 
story  which  Sozomen  took  from  Sabinus,  a  writer  of 
whose  good  faith  Socrates  had  a  low  opinion.  To 
Theodoret  Liberius  is  a  glorious  athlete  of  the  faith; 
he  tplls  us  more  of  him  than  any  other  writer  has  done, 
ana  he  teUs  it  with  enthusiasm. 

But  the  strongest  arguments  for  the  innocence  of 
Liberius  are  a  priori.  Had  he  really  given  in  to  the 
emperor  during  his  exile,  the  emperor  would,  have 
puolished  his  victory  far  and  wide;  there  would  have 
Been  no  possible  doubt  about  it;  it  would  have  been 
more  notorious  than  even  that  gained  over  Hosius. 
But  if  he  was  released  because  the  Romans  demanded 
him  back,  because  his  deposition  had  been  too  un- 
canonical,  because  his  resistance  was  too  heroic,  and 
because  Felix  was  not  generally  recognized  as  pope, 
then  we  might  be  sure  he  would  be  suspected  of  having 
given  some  pledge  to  the  emperor;  the  Arians  and  the 
Felicians  alike,  and  soon  the  Luciferians,  would  have 
no  difficulty  in  spreading  a  report  of  his  fall  and  in 
winning  credence  for  it.  It  is  hard  to  see  how  Hilary 
in  banishment  and  Athanasius  in  hiding  could  dis}:>e- 
lieve  such  a  story,  when  they  heard  that  Liberius  had 
returned,  though  the  other  exiled  bishops  were  still  un- 
relieved. 

Further,  the  pope's  decree  after  Rimini,  that  the 
fallen  bishops  could  not  be  restored  unless  they  showed 
their  sincerity  by  vigour  against  the  Arians,  would 
have  been  laughable,  if  he  himself  had  fallen  vet 
earlier,  and  had  not  publicly  atoned  for  his  sin.  Vet, 
ve  oan  her  quite  certain  that  he  made  no  public  conr- 
fmiongfihftving  fallen,  no  recantation,  no  atonement. 


The  forged  letters  and,  still  more,  the  strong  words 
of  St.  Jerome  have  perpetuated  the  belief  in  his  guilt. 
The  "  Lil>er  Pontificalis  "  makes  him  return  from  exile 
to  persecute  the  followers  of  Felix,  who  becomes  a 
martyr  and  a  saint.  St.  Eusebius,  mart>T,  is  repre- 
sented in  his  Acts  as  a  Roman  priest,  put  to  death  by 
the  Arianizing  Liberius.  But  the  curious  "Gesta 
Liberii ",  apparentlv  of  the  time  of  Pope  Symmachus, 
do  not  make  any  clear  allusion  to  a  fall.  The  Hiero- 
nymian  Martyrology  gives  his  deposition  both  on  23 
Sept.  and  17  May;  on  the  former  date  he  is  commem- 
orated by  Wandalbert  and  by  some  of  the  enlarged  MSS. 
of  Usuard.    But  he  is  not  in  the  Roman  Martyrology. 

Modern  Judgments  on  Pope  Liberius. — Histo- 
rians and  critics  have  been  much  divided  as  to  the  guilt 
of  Liberius.  Stilting  and  Zaccaria  are  the  best  known 
among  the  earlier  defenders;  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, Palma,  Reinerding,  Ilergenrdther,  Jungmann, 
Grisar,  Feis,  and  recently  Savio.  These  have  been  in- 
clined to  doubt  the  authenticity  of  the  testimonies  of 
St.  Athanasius  and  St.  Jerome  to  the  fall  of  Liberius, 
but  their  arguments,  though  serious,  hardly  amount 
to  a  real  probability  against  these  texts.  On  the  other 
hand,  Protestant  and  Gallican  writers  have  been  se- 
vere on  Liberius  (e.  g.  Mocller,  Barmby,  the  Old- 
Catholic  Langen,  and  DoUinger),  but  they  have  not 
pretended  to  decide  with  certainty  what  Arian  for- 
mula he  signed.  With  these  Renouf  may  be  grouped, 
and  lately  Schiktanz.  A  more  moderate  view  is  repre- 
sented by  Hefele^  who  denied  the  authenticity  of  the 
letters,  but  admitted  the  truth  of  Sozomen 's  story, 
looking  upon  the  union  of  the  pope  with  the  Semi- 
Arians  as  a  deplorable  mistake,  but  not  as  a  lapse  into 
heresy.  He  is  followed  by  Funk  and  Duchesne  (1907), 
while  the  Protestant  Kriiger  is  altogether  undecided. 
The  newest  view,  brilliantly  exposed  by  Duchesne  in 
1908,  is  that  Liljerius  early  in  357  (because  the  pre- 
face to  the  "  Liljer  Precum  makes  Constantius  speak 
at  Rome  in  April-May  as  though  Liberius  had  al- 
ready fallen)  wrote  the  letter  "Studens  paci",  and, 
finding  it  did  not  satisfy  the  emperor,  signed  the  in- 
definite and  insufficient  formula  of  351,  and  wrote  the 
three  other  contested  letters;  the  Arian  leader^  were 
still  not  satisfied,  and  LilMjrius  was  only  restored  to 
Rome  when  the  Semi-Arians  were  able  to  influence 
the  emperor  in  358,  after  Lil>erius  had  agreed  with 
them  as  Sozomen  relates.  The  weak  points  of  this 
theory  are  as  follows:  There  is  no  other  authority 
for  a  fall  so  early  as  the  beginning  of  357  but  a  casual 
word  in  the  document  referred  to  above;  the  "Sttt- 
dens  paci"  is  senseless  at  so  late  a  date;  the  letter 
"  Pro  deifico  timore  *'  plainly  means  that  Liberius  had 
accepted  the  formula  of  357  (not  that  of  351),  and  had 
he  done  so,  he  would  certainly  have  been  restored  at 
once;  the  story  of  Sozomen  is  untrustworthy,  and 
Liberius  must  have  returned  in  357. 

It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  the  question  of  the 
fall  of  Liberius  is  one  that  has  been  and  can  be  freely 
debated  among  Catholics.  No  one  pretends  that,  if 
Liberius  signed  the  most  Arian  formuhc  in  exile,  he 
did  so  freelv;  so  that  no  question  of  his  infallibility  is 
involved.  It  is  admittecl  on  all  sides  that  his  noble 
attitude  of  resistance  lx?fore  his  exile  and  during  his 
exile  was  not  belied  by  any  act  of  his  after  his  return, 
that  he  was  in  no  way  sullied  when  so  many  failed  at 
the  Council  of  Rimini,  and  that  he  acted  vigorously 
for  the  healing  of  orthodoxy  throughout  the  West 
from  the  grievous  wound.  If  he  really  consorted  with 
heretics,  condemned  Athanasius,  or  even  denied  the 
Son  of  God,  it  was  a  momentary  human  weakness 
which  no  more  compromises  the  papacy  than  does  that 
of  St.  Peter. 

The  letters  of  Liberius,  together  with  his  sermcm  on 
the  occasion  of  the  consecration  of  St.  Ambrose's  sis- 
t<?r  to  virginitv  (preserv'cd  by  that  Father,  "  De  Virg." 
I,  ii,  iii),  and^  the  dialogue  Vith  the  emperor  (Theo* 
doret,  '^Hist.  £ccl.'',  II,  xvi)  are  oolleotea  in  Coustanty 


LXBEBBCAMN 


223 


UBEBBCAMN 


"Epistoke  Rom.  Pont."  (repnot  in  P.  L.,  VIII).  A 
eiitical  edition  from  MSS.  of  the  three  spurious  epis- 
tles of  St.  Hilary,  'Frag.'  VI,  in  "Ilevue  B6n6d." 

(Jan.,  1910). 

Stilting  in  Acta  55.,  Sept.,  VI  (1757),  572;  Tillemont. 
M*nnoireji,  VI;  Zaccaria,  DUaeriatio  de  commentitio  Liberii 
lapni  in  Petaviub.  Theol.  dog.,  II,  ii  (1757);  Palma,  Pnrlec- 
iione»  Hv4.  EccL,  I  (Rome,  1838);  Reinerdino.  Beitrdge  zur 
Honoriua  und  Libenusjrape  (1865):  Ls  Paob  Rbnouf,  The 
Condemnation  of  Pope  Honoriua  (London,  1868);  Hefele, 
ConeUienpcaehicfUet  I  (2nd  od.  and  later  ones;  Eng.  tr.  lol.  II. 
1876):  JuNOMANN,  DiaaerUUionea  atUcta,  II  (Ratiabon  and 
New  York,  1881):  Babmbt  in  Diet.  ChrisL  Biog.,  s.  v.:  IIer- 
OBifBOTBER,  Kirekengeach.,  I  (1884)  374;  Grisar  in  Kirchenhx., 
M.  v.;  Fbi8,  Storia  di  Liberio  Papa  e  deUo  aciama  dti  Semiariani 

iRome.  1894)jM(ELLBR-ScHUBBRT,  Lehrbuch  der  Kirchengeach., 
(Leipiig..l902)^  Loofs  in  RealencykltmUdie  fitr  jiroleiUaniiache 
Thoologie  und  /CtreAe.  s.  v.  Hilariua ;  Kruoer,  ibid.,  fl.  v.  Lihe- 
riwt;  ScHiKTANS,  Die  Hilariua fragmerUcVBreaXfiM,  1905) ;  Saltet, 
La  formation  da  la  Ifgende  dea  papea  Libire  et  Filix  in  BulUiin 
de htf.  eeesL  (July.  1905) ;  Idem,  Fraudea  littcrairea dea  Luciferiena, 
ibid,  (Oct.,  1906);  Idem«  Lea  Itilrea  du  pape  Libi.rede'S57,  ibid. 
(Dee.,  1907);  Wilmart,  L'Ad  Conatantium  liber  I  de  5.  Hilaire 
m  Revue  BirUd.  (April  and  July,  1907) ;  Idem,  Lea  Fragmenta 
huloriqvea  et  le  aynodede  BHiera,  ibid.  (April.  1008);  Idem.  La 
queaiion  du  pape  Libtre,  ibid.  (July,  1908);  Duchesne,  Libera 
fl(  Porlunatien  in  MSlangeade  Vicole  francaiaedeRome,  XXVIII, 
Mi  <Jan.-April,  1908);  Savio,  La  queatione  di  papa  Liberio 
(Rome,  1907;  an  answer  to  Schiktanz);  Idem,  Nuovi  aiudi 
mdia  queatione  di  papa  Liberio  (Rome,  1909;  in  reply  to  Dv- 
chbsne);  Chapman.  TKe  eonteated  lettera  of  Pope  Liberiua  in 
Rewue  BfrUd.  (Jui^-*  April,  July,  1910;  in  reply  to  Duchesne); 
Fedbr,  Stwiien  zu  Hilariun  von  Poittera,  I,  in  Siizungaber.  der 
K.  Akad.  Wiaa,  von  Wien  (Vienna,  1910),  follows  Duchesne. 

John  Chapman. 

Libermaim,  Francis  Mary  Paul,  Venerable, 
founder  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart 
of  Mary,  which  was  afterwards  merged  in  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Holy  Ghost  (q.  v.).  The  son  of  a  Jewish 
rabbi,  he  was  born  at  Saveme  in  Alsace,  12  April, 
1804;  and  he  died  at  Paris,  2  February,  1852.  He  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Jacob  at  his  circumcision,  and  was 
the  third  youngest  of  seven  children  whom  his  mother 
Lia  Susanna  Haller,  bore  to  his  father,  Lazarus  Liber- 
mann.  He  was  brought  up  according  to  the  sternly 
strict  tenets  of  the  Talmud,  and  his  mind  was  early 
imbued  with  a  special  horror  of  the  "Goim",  or 
Christians.  He  lost  his  mother  when  he  was  nine 
years  old;  and  this^  together  with  the  liarsh  treatment 
he  received  from  his  schoolmaster,  caused  his  boyhood 
to  pass  in  much  bitterness.  The  learned  and  univer- 
sally esteemed  rabbi  of  Saveme  fixed  his  mind  on  his 
son,  Jacob,  as  his  successor  in  the  rabbinical  office. 
With  this  in  view,  he  sent  him  to  Metz  to  perfect  Ids 
studies  in  the  Talmud,  and  in  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic. 
But  God  had  other  designs  on  the  young  man,  who 
was  then  in  his  twentieth  year.  During  his  stay  at 
Hetx,  the  Gospels,  translatc^d  into  Hebrew  came  acci- 
dentally into  nis  hands,  and  impressed  him  deeply. 
Moreover,  his  eldest  brother  first,  and  afterwanls  two 
other  brothers,  embraced  Catholicity.  And,  although 
Jacob  deeply  resented  their  change  of  religion,  he  grad- 
ually came  to  recognize  their  happiness  and  peace  of 
soul,  which  was  in  strong  contrast  with  his  own  dis- 
tracted frame  of  mind.  Finally,  he  obtained  from  his 
father  permission  to  go  to  Paris;  and  there  he  came 
under  the  influence  of  M.  Drach,  a  convert  from  Juda- 
ism, who  had  him  received  into  the  CoUoRe  Stanislas, 
where  he  was  instructed  in  the  truths  of  Faith,  wliich 
he  embraced  with  ea^mess.  He  was  baptized  on 
Christmas  Eve,  1826,  m  the  twenty-thin  1  year  of  his 
age.  At  baptism  he  took  the  three-fold  name  of 
Francis  Mary  Paul,  the  first  two  in  gratitude  to  his 
godfather.  Baron  Francois  de  Mallet,  and  to  his  f^- 
mother,  Comtesse  Mane  d'lleuse,  and  the  last  as  a 
mark  of  hb  admiration  of  the  great  Apostle  of  the 
Gentiles,  whom,  he  was  so  closely  to  imitate  in  many 
respects. 

Immediaielv  after  his  conversion,  M.  Libermann 
displayed  marked  signs  of  a  vocation  for  the  ecclesias- 
tical state.  His  protectors  and  friends  found  a  place 
for  him,  first,  in  the  college  of  the  Missions  de  France, 
where  he  received  tonsure  five  months  after  his 
baptism,  and  later  in  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpioe, 


which  he  entered  in  October,  1827.  On  the  very  eve 
of  his  promotion  to  subdeaconship,  he  was  stricken 
down  by  an  attack  of  epilepsy  which  was  to  be  his  com- 
panion for  tlie  next  five  years.  During  that  time  he 
was  kept  by  his  charitable  superiors  at  the  seminary  of 
Issy.  It  was  there  that  he  was  brought  into  close 
apostolic  relationship  with  two  Creole  seminarians, 
M.  I-.e  Vavasseur,  from  Bourbon,  and  M.  Tisserand, 
from  Santo  Domingo,  both  of  whom  were  filled  with 
zeal  for  the  evangelization  of  the  poor  ex-slaves  of 
those  islands.  This  acquaintanceship  evoked  the 
first  concept  of  a  religious  society  for  the  conversion 
of  those  abandoned  souls.  It  took  five  years  more  of 
prayer  and  patience  to  accomplish  the  foundation  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary, 
for  that  purpose.  Meanwhile,  M.  Libermann  was 
called  away  to  become,  though  yet  only  in  minor  or- 
ders, master  of  novices  for  the  Eudist  Fathers  at 
Renncs.  After  two  years  of  devotion  to  that  work 
(1838-39),  he  felt  a  very  positive  call  from  God  to  unite 
with  MM.  I^  Vavasseur  and  Tisserand  in  furthering 
the  apostolate  to  the  negroes.  At  their  suggestion,  he 
proceeded  to  Rome  and  laid  his  plans  before  the  Holy 
bee.    The  year  of  his  sojourn  at  Rome  (1840-41)  was 

Eassed  in  great  obscurity  and  poverty.  He  profited 
y  the  time  he  was  kept  waiting  for  a  decision  to  write 
the  provisional  rules  of  the  proposed  institute,  as  well 
as  a  remarkable  "Commentary  on  St.  John's  Gospel". 
At  last,  after  a  year's  waiting,  the  obscure  and  friend- 
less ecclesiastic  received  the  warm  encouragement  of 
the  Cardinal  Prefect  of  Propaganda,  to  pursue  his 
project  for  the  evangelization  of  the  negroes.  He  re- 
paired to  the  seminary  of  Strasburg  to  prepare  for  his 
ordination,  which  took  place  at  Amiens,  18  Septem- 
ber, 1841.  On  the  twenty-seventh  of  the  same  month 
the  novitiate  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary  was  opened  in  the  neighbouring  village 
of  La  Neuville. 

The  first  occupants  of  the  novitiate  were  the  foun- 
der himself,  his  first  associate.  Father  Le  Vavasseur, 
and  a  sub-deacon,  M.  Collin.  Others  filled  with 
apostolic  zeal  quickly  joined  them,  among  the  number 
beinp  Rev.  Ignatius  Schwindemhaminer,  who  was 
destined  to  wt  the  founder's,  immediate  successor. 
Missions  were  soon  offered  to  the  infant  society  in 
Alauritius,  where  Father  Laval  wrought  wonders 
which  continue  to  the  pn'sent  day;  in  l3ourl)on  and 
Hayti;  and,  especially  in  Africa.  Father  Lil)ermann's 
sons  were,  practically,  the  first  since  the  downfall  of 
the  African  Church  to  penetrate  the  Dark  Continent. 
Most  of  the  first  missioners  paiil  for  their  heroism  with 
their  lives;  but  others  filled  their  places;  and  the 
widespread  prosperity  of  the  Church  in  Africa,  at  the 
present  day  is,  in  large  measure,  due  to  the  initiative 
and  sclf-sacrilice  of  the  first  nurrnlx»rs  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mar\'.  The  Vener- 
able Libermann  was  the  heart  and  soul,  the  father  and 
model  of  the  nascent  community  during  the  seven  years 
of  its  indei)endent  existence,  18-U-1818.  By  that 
time  it  had  IxH^ome  numerous  and  flourishing;  and 
Divine  Providence  ordained  that  it  should  Ix?  engrafted 
on  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  had  a 
similar  object,  but  which  had  l)ecome  almost  extinct 
during  the  Revolution  (see  Holy  Ghost,  Reugious 
CoNCjREOATioxs  OF  THE,  I).  This  difficult  and  deh- 
cate  task  of  uniting  two  congregations  was  successfully 
accomplished,  at  the  request  of  the  Holy  See,  by  Father 
Libermann;  an<l  he  was  chosen  superior  general  of  the 
united  societies,  a  post  he  occupied  till  his  death. 
By  the  time  of  his  death,  the  Venerable  Libermann 
enjoyed  the  reputation  of  the  highest  sanctity  in  the 
minds  of  all  who  knew  him ;  and  shortly  after  his  death 
there  was  a  widespread  desire  to  have  the  cause  of  his 
beatification  introduced.  The  usual  ecclesiastical 
tribunal  was  erected  in  Paris,  in  18()7:  its  lal)Our8  were 
continued  till  1872,  when  the  depositions  of  the  wit- 
nesses and  the  other  documents  bearing  oa  thA 


UBSB  224                               LIBIB 

were  forwarded  to  Rome.  After  mature  examination  Modem  criticism  deals  chiefly  with  two  points,  the 
and  deliberation,  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  period  in  which  the  Liber  Pontificalis,  in  its  earliest 
unanimously  decreed  the  introduction  of  his  cause,  part,  was  compiled,  and  the  sources  then  available  to 
This  decree  was  ratified  a  few  days  afterwards,  1  June,  the  author  of  this  oldest  division  of  the  Liber  Pontifi- 
1876,  by  Pius  IX,  who  thus  declared  the  holy  convert  calis.  Duchesne  has  proved  exhaustively  and  con- 
from  Judaism  Venerable.  Since  that  time,  the  cause  vincingly  that  the  first  series  of  biographies,  from  St. 
of  his  beatification  has  progressed  through  the  usual  Peter  to  Felix  III  [IV  (d.  530)],  were  compiled  at  the 
forms;  and  his  spiritual  sons  throughout  the  world  latest  under  Felix's  successor,  Boniface  11  (530-2), 
expect  to  sec  him  ere  long  declared  Blessed.  and  that  their  author  was  a  contemporary  oi  Ana- 
Several  thousand  of  his  letters  have  been  preserved;  stasius  II  (496-8)  and  of  Symmachus  (408-514).  His 
and  these,  together  with  all  his  other  writings,  have  principal  arguments  are  the  following.  A  great  many 
been  examin^  and  approved  by  the  Holy  Sec.  His  oiographies  of  the  predecessors  of  Anastasius  II  are 
method  of  spiritual  direction,  was,  like  his  life,  a  min-  full  of  errors  and  mstorically  untenable,  but  from 
glingof  sweetness  and  solfnienial,  breathing  peace  and  Anastasius  II  on  the  information  on  the  ecclesiastico- 
courage,  in  the  midst  of  all  manner  of  trials.  His  pub-  political  history  of  the  popes  is  valuable  and  histori- 
hshed  writings  are,  *'I^ttrcs  SpirituelIes'^  2  vols,  cally  certain.  In  addition,  some  manuscripts  ofTer  a 
(Paris,  1880);  "EcritsSpirituels"  (Paris,  1891); "Com-  summary  of  the  earlier  part  of  the  Liber  Fontificalis 
mentaire  sur  TEvangile  de  St.  Jean"  (Paris,  n.  d.).  as  far  as  Felix  III  (IV),  whence  the  name  "catalogus 
PiTRA,  Vtcdu  72.  P.  LiVrmonn,  (Paris,  1872):  V'lVfdu 72.  P.  Felicianus";  Consequently,  the  Liber  Pcmtifioilii 
l^ermann  jyir  un  p rc  de  l^Cong.du  s.  Esnrit  (Pans  1878);  ^^  j^ave  been  accessible  to  the  author  of  this  sum- 

GOEPFERT,  Life  of  \  en.  P.  M,P.  Libermann,  (Dublin,  1880).  *»*»«»'  »***'^  •-'v.^u  »v^/%^.v.«>  vx*  v*.^^  c»i«vi^^.  -k,^  v^amo  omm<- 

JoHN  T.  MuHPHT.  mary  m  a  recension  that  reached  to  the  above-men- 
tioned Felix  III  (IV).    This  observation  tallies  well 

T.o.^  •B^.A-A^^i:     /T5                       T>        \       u»  with  the  aforesaid  fact  that  the  biographies  from 

Liber  Pontificalis  (Book  of  toe  Popes),  a  his-  Anastasius  II  on  exhibit  accurate  historical  informih 

tory  of  the  popes  l>cgianmg  with  St.  Peter  and  con-  ^^^^     Duchesne  defended  successfully  this  opinioQ 

tinued  down  to  the  fifteenth  century-  m  the  form  of  ^^  ^aits  and  Mommsen,  who  placed  the  firat 

biographies.   The  first  complete  collection  of  the  papal  ^j^j^^j^  ^^  ^j^^  Liber  Pontificalis  in  the  beginning  of  the 

biographies  in  the  origimil  form  of  the  Liber  Pontifi-  ^^^j^^y,  century.    To  bear  out  this  view  they  Appose 

calls  reached  to  Stephen  \  (H8a-91)    They  were  after-  ^hat  from  the  time  of  Anastasius  II  to  that  5^he 

wards  continued  in  a  difTerent  style  as  far  as  Eugene  author  a  genuine  and  reliable  historical  source,  since 

ry  (d.  1440  and  Pius  II  (d    14(>4).    The  individual  i^  ^^s  at  his  disposal.    Since,  moreover,  thev  can- 

biographies  are  very  unequal  in  extent  and  unpor-  ^ot  explain  the  summary  ending  with  Felix  III  (IV), 

tance.  In  mast  ca^es  they  exhibit  a  definite  symmetn^  ^  easily  is  done  by  the  hypothesis  of  Duchesne,  the 

cal  form,  which  in  the  old  Liber  Pontificalis  is  quite  letter's  opinion  meets  with  the  general  approval  of 

uniform.    These  brief  sket<ihes  give  the  origin  and  historians,  and  has  recently  been  perfected  by  investi- 

birthplace  of  the  pope,  the  length  of  hjs  pontificate  gators  like  Grisar.    The  first  part,  therefore,  to  the 

the  decrees  issued  by  him  on  cjuestions  of  ecclesiastical  death  of  Felix  III  (IV),  i.e.  to  530,  should  be  considered 

discipline  and  liturg>',  civil  and  ecclesiastical  events,  ^  complete  work,  the  compilation  of  some  author  who 

the  building  and  renovation  of  Roman  churches,  y,.^^  shortly  after  the  death  of  Pope  Felix;    later 

donations  to  churches  of  land,  jiturgicaJ  furniture  biographies  were  added  at  different  times  in  groups  or 

re  iquanes,  va  uable  tapcstnes  and  the  like,  transfer  of  separately  by  various  authors. 

relics  to  churches,  the  numlx^r  of  the  principal  ordmar  %«  compiler  of  the  first  parti  made  use  of  two 

tions  (bishops, priests,  deacons)  the  bunal-place  of  the  ancient  catalogues  or  lists  of  the  popes,  taking  from 

pope,  and  the  time  duniig  which  the  sec  was  vacant.  them  the  order  of  succession,  the  chronological  data» 

Historical  criticism  has  for  a  long  time  dealt  with  and  also  certain  historical  notes;  these  lists  were:  (a) 

this  ancient  text  in  an  exhaustive  way,  especially  the  so-called  "Catalogus  Liberianus",  and  (b)  a  list  of 

m  recent  decades  after  Duchesne  liad  begim  the  pubii-  the  popes  that  varies  in  length  in  the  manuscripts,  and 

cation  of  hLs  classic  edition.     In  most  of  its  manu-  perhaps  depends  on  the  "Catalogus  Liberianus^*  for 

scnpt  copies  there  is  found  at  the  bcginnmg  a  spurious  the  period  before  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century.  The 

correspondence  l^etween  Pope  Dama^us  and  Saint  "  CJatalogus  Liberianus"  is  so  called  because  it  termi- 

ifT?^\  ^"^^  ^^^*^'"*  ^'^***^  considered  genume  in  the  nates  with  Pope  Liberius  (352-66) .    It  has  reached  tia 

Middle  A(^s;  conseciueutly,  in  those  times  St.  Jerome  in  the  so-called  "  Chronographus  anni  354",  an  anciimt 

was  considered  the  author  of  the  biographies  as  far  as  manuscript  that  contains  the  valuable  lists  of  the 

Damasus,  at  whose  request  it  was  l)elieved  Jerome  had  "Depositio  martyrum"  and  the  "Deposltio  episco- 

written  the  work,  the  subsequent  lives  having  been  porum".     In  the  "Catalogus  Liberianus"  there  are 

addeii  at  the  command  of  each  individual  pope.  When  already  short  historical  notices  of  some  popes  (Peter, 

the    above-mentioned    correspondence    was    proved  Pius,  Pontianus,  Fabianus,  Cornelius,  Lucius,  Xystus, 

entirely  apocr\'phal,  tlus  view  was  abandoned.     In  Marcellinus,  Julius),  which  were  taken  over  by  the 

the  sixteenth  century  Onof no  Panvmio  on  quite  in-  author  of  the  Liber  Pontificalis.    For  its  list  of  the 

sufficient  grounds  attributed  to  Anast^ius  Bibliothe-  eariiest-  popes  the  "  Catalogus  Liberianus"  was  able  to 

carius  in  the  ninth  ceiiturj'  the  continuation  of  the  draw  on  the  papal  catalogue  given  by  Hippolytus  of 

biographies  as  far  a.s  Aicliolas  I.    Although  Baronius  Rome  in  his  "Liber  generationis",  thou^  even  this 

in  great  measure  corrected  this  false  impression,  the  list  is  not  the  oldest  list  of  popes.     It  is  probable  that 

earlier  editions,  which  appeared  in  the  seventeenth  from  the  bcginnmg  of  the  second  century  there  was 


qua;  sub  nomme  Anastasu  circumferuntur",  Rome,  [Lightfoot,  "The  Apostolic  Fathers",  Part  I;  "St. 

1688),  f?chelstnite  ( 'Dissertatiode  antiquis  Romano-  Clement  of  Rome*',  I  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1890),  201 

rum  Pontificum  catalogis    ,  Rome,  1692),  and  other  sqq.;  Hamack,  "Gesch.deraltchristl.Litt.",  Partll: 

scholars,  disprove  any  possil^le  claim  of  Anastasius  to  "Die  Chronologic",  I  (I^ipzig,  1897),  70  sqq.;  Segna, 

the  authorship  of  this  work.    The  conclusive  re-  "De  Successione  Romanorum  Pontificum^'  (Rome, 

searches  of  Ducliesnc  have  estabhshed  l)eyond  a  doubt  1897)].    Such  a  catalogue  of  popes  has  reached  us, 

that  in  its  eariier  part,  as  f:ir  as  the  ninth  centur\',  the  as  above  stated,  in  the  "Catalogus  Liberianus",  and 

LilM>rPontificahswas  gradually  compiletl,  and  that  the  forms  a  basis  for  the  eariiest  recension  of  the  work, 
later  continuations  were  added  unsystematically.    In        The  compiler  of  the  Liber  Pontificalis  utilised  abo 

only  a  few  cases  is  it  possible  to  ascertain  the  authors,  some  historical  writings  (e.  g.  St.  Jerome,  **  De  ViriB 


XJBSR 


225 


LIBER 


niustribus"))  A  number  of  apocryphal  fragments  (e.  g. 
the  Pseudo-Clementine  Recognitions),  the  ''Con- 
stitutum  Silvestri",  the  spurious  Acts  of  the  alleged 
Synod  of  275  bishops  under  Silvester  etc.,  and  fifth 
century  Roman  Acts  of  martvrs.  Finally,  the  com- 
piler distributed  arbitrarily  along  his  list  of  popes  a 
number  of  papal  decrees  taken  from  imauthentic 
sources;  he  Ukewise  attributed  to  earlier  popes  htur- 
gical  and  disciplinary  regulations  of  the  sixth  century. 
The  building  of  churches,  the  donations  of  land,  of 
churdi  plate  and  furniture,  and  many  kinds  of  precious 
ornaments  are  specified  in  great  detail.  These  latter 
items  are  of  great  value,  since  they  are  based  on  the 
records  of  tl^  papal  treasurv  {vesiiarium)^  and  the 
conclusion  has  Been  drawn  that  the  compiler  of  the 
Liber  Pontificalis  in  its  earliest  form  must  nave  been  a 
derk  of  the  treasurv.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  actual 
Liber  Pontificalis  thaf/  we  have  was  not  the  only  work 
of  this  kind.  There  existed  a  similar  collection  of 
biographies,  executed  under  Pope  Hormisdas 

l.~  523),  ol  which  a  lengthy  fragment  has  reached  us 
mtum  Laurentianum) ;  it  gives  the  end  of  the 
Bfe  of  Anastasius  II  (d.  49S)  and  the  life  of  his  sue- 
eesBor  Symmachus.  The  text  of  the  early  Liber 
Pontificalis  (first  half  of  the  sixth  century),  as  found 
in  the  manuscripts  that  exhibit  the  later  continua- 
tions, is  not  the  original  text.  Duchesne  gives  a  recon- 
struction of  the  earliest  text  of  tne  work.  After  Felix 
ni  (IV)  the  Liber  Pontificalis  was  continued  by 
various  authors  at  intervals,  each  writer  treating  a 
group  of  papal  lives.  Duchesne  recognizes  a  first  con- 
tinuation as  far  as  Pope  Silverius  (536-7),  whose  life  is 
attributed  to  a  contemporary.  The  limits  of  the  next 
continuation  are  more  difficult  to  determine;  more- 
over in  its  earliest  biographies  several  inaccuracies  are 
met  with.  It  is  certain  that  one  continuation  ended 
with  Pope  Conon  (d.  687);  the  aforesaid  summary 
ending  with  this  pope  (Catalogus  Cononianus)  and 
certain  lists  of  popes  are  proof  of  this. 

After  Conon  the  lives  down  to  Stephen  V  (885-91) 
were  regularly  added,  and  from  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century  usually  by  contemporaries  of  the  popes  in 
question.  While  manv  of  the  biographies  are  very 
curcumstantial,  their  historical  value  varies  mucli; 
from  a  literary  point  of  view  both  stvle  and  diction  are, 
as  a  rule,  of  a  low  grade.  Nevertheless  they  are  a  vcrv 
important  historical  source  for  the  period  coverea. 
Some  of  these  biographies  were  begun  in  the  lifetime 
of  the  pope,  the  incidents  being  set  down  as  they 
occurred.  The  authors  were  Roman  ecclesiastics,  and 
some  of  them  were  attached  to  the  papal  court .  In  onl  v 
two  cases  can  the  author's  name  be  discovered  with 
any  probability.  The  life  of  Stephen  II  (752-7)  was 
probably  written  by  the  papal  '*  Primicerius  "  Christo- 

Eher.  Anastasius  Bibliothecarius  perhaps  wrote  the 
fe  of  Nicholas  I  (858-67),  a  genuine,  tnou^  brief, 
history  of  this  pope;  this  author  may  also  have 
worked  at  the  lite  of  the  following  pope,  Adrian  II 
(867-72),  with  whose  pontificate  the  text  of  this  Liber 
Pontificalis,  as  exhibited  in  the  extant  manuscripts, 
comes  to  an  end.  The  biographies  of  the  three  follow- 
ing popes  are  missing  and  that  of  Stephen  V  (885-91) 
is  moomplete.  In  its  original  form  the  Liber  Pontifi- 
calis reaclied  as  far  as  the  latter  pope.  From  the  end 
of  the  ninth  century  the  series  of  the  papal  lives  was 
long  interrupted.  For  the  whole  of  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  centuries  there  are  only  lists  of  the  popes 
with  a  few  short  historical  notices,  that  usually  give 
only  the  pope's  origin  and  the  duration  of  his  feign. 
After  Leo  IX  (1049-54)  detailed  biographies  of  the 
popes  were  again  written;  at  first,  however,  not  as 
continuations  of  the  Liber  Pontificalis,  but  as  occasion 
offered,  notably  during  the  Investitures  conflict.  In 
this  way  Boniso  of  Sutri,  in  his  "  Liber  ad  amicum"  or 
"  De  persecutione  ecclesise",  wrote  lives  of  the  popes 
from  Leo  IX  to  Gregory  VII;  he  also  wrote,  as  an 
introduction  to  the  fourth  book  of  his  ''Decretals",  a 
"".—16 


"Chronicon  Romanorum  Pontificum"  as  far  as  Urban 
II  (1088-99).  Cardinal  Beno  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Roman  Church  in  opposition  to  Gregorv  VII,  **  Gesta 
Romanse  ecclesise  contra  Hildebrandum  (Mon.  Germ. 
Hist.,  Libelli  de  lite,  II,  368  sqq.).  Important  infor- 
mation concerning  the  popes  is  contained  in  the 
"  Annales  Romani",  from  1044  to  1187,  and  is  utilized, 
in  part,  by  Duchesne  in  his  edition  of  the  Liber  Ponti- 
ficalis (below).  Only  in  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth 
century  was  a  svstematic  continuation  again  under- 
taken. This  is  the  Liber  Pontificalis  of  Petrus  Guil- 
Icrmi  (son  of  William),  so  called  by  Duchesne  after  the 
manuscript  written  in  1142  by  this  Petrus  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Gilles  (Diocese  of  Reims).  But 
Petrus  Guillermi  merely  copied,  with  certain  additions 
and  abbreviations,  the  biographies  of  the  popes  writ- 
ten by  Pandulf,  nephew  of  Hugo  of  Alatri.  Following 
the  Imes  of  the  old  Liber  Pontificalis,  Pandulf  had 
made  a  collection  of  the  lives  of  the  popes  from  St. 
Peter  doi^Ti;  only  from  Leo  IX  does  he  add  any 
original  matter.  Down  to  Urban  II  (1088-99)  his 
information  is  drawn  from  written  sources;  from 
Paschal  II  (1090-1118)  to  Honorius  II  (1124-30), 
after  whose  pontificate  this  recension  of  the  Liber 
Pontificalis  was  written,  we  have  a  Contemporary's 
own  information.  Duchesne  holds  that  all  biographies 
from  Gregory  VII  on  were  written  by  Pandulf,  while 
earlier  historians  likeGicsebrecht  ("Alfgemeine  Monats- 
schrift",  Halle,  1852,  260  sqq.)  and  Watterich  (Ro- 
manorum Pontificum  vito,  I,  LXVIII  sqq.)  had  con- 
sidered Cardinal  Petrus  Pisanus  as  author  of  the  lives 
of  Gregory  VII,  Victor  III,  and  Urban  II,  and  had 
attributed  to  Pandulf  only  the  subsequent  lives — ^i.  e. 
those  of  Gelasius  II,  Oallistus  II,  and  Honorius  II. 
This  series  of  papal  biographies,  extant  only  in  the 
recension  of  Petrus  Guillermi,  is  continued  in  the 
same  manuscripts  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Gilles  as  far 
as  Martin  II  (1281-5);  however,  the  statements  of 
this  manuscript  have  no  sp)ecial  value,  being  all  taken 
from  the  Chronicle  of  Martinus  Polonus. 

On  the  other  hand  the  series  of  papal  lives  written 
by  the  cardinal  priest  Boso  (d.  about  1178),  has  inde- 
pendent value;  it  was  his  intention  to  continue  the 
old  Liber  Pontificalis  from  the  death  of  Stephen  V 
with  which  life,  as  above  said,  the  work  ends.  For  the 
popes  from  John  XII  to  Gregory  VII  Boso  drew  on 
Bonizo  of  Sutri;  for  the  lives  from  Gelasius  II  (1118- 
19),  to  Alexander  III  (1179-81)  underwhomBoso  filled 
an  important  office,  the  work  has  independent  value. 
This  collection,  nevertheless,  was  not  completed  as  a 
continuati(Hi  of  the  Liber  Pontificalis  and  it  remained 
unnoticed  for  a  long  time.  Cencius  Camerarius,  after- 
wards Honorius  III,  was  the  first  to  publish,  together 
with  his  "Liber  censuum",  the  "Gesta  Romanorum 
Pontificum"  of  Boso.  Biographies  of  indiNndual 
popes  of  the  thirteenth  century  were  written  by  vari- 
ous authors,  but  were  not  brought  together  in  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Liber  Pontificalis.  Early  in  the 
fourteenth  century  an  unknown  author  carried  farther 
the  above-mentioned  continuation  of  Petrus  Guil- 
lermi, and  added  biographies  of  the  popes  from  Martin 
IV  (d.  1281)  to  John  XXII  (1316-34);  but  the  infor- 
mation is  taken  from  the  "Chronicon  Pontificum"  of 
Bemardus  Guidonis,  and  the  narrative  reaches  cmly  to 
1328.  An  independent  continuation  appeared  in  the 
reign  of  Eugene  IV  (1431-47). 

From  Urban  V  (1362-70)  to  Martin  V  (1417-31), 
with  whom  this  continuation  ended,  the  biographies 
have  special  historical  value;  the  epoch  treated  is 
broadly  the  time  of  the  Great  Western  Schism.  A 
later  recension  of  this  continuation,  accomplished 
under  Eugene  IV,  offers  several  additions.  Finally, 
to  the  fifteenth  century  belong  two  collections  of 
papal  biographies,  which  were  thought  to  be  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Liber  Pontificalis,  but  nevertheless 
have  remained  separate  and  independent  collections. 
The  first  comprises  the  popes  from  Benedict  XII  (1334r 


UBER 


226 


LIBER 


42)  to  Martin  V  (1417-31),  and  in  another  manuscript 
to  Eugene  IV  (1431-47);  the  second  reaches  from 
Urban  VI  (1378-89)  to  Pius  II  (1458-64).  For  the 
last  popes  in  each  case  they  exhil)it  valuable  historical 
material.  In  consequence  of  the  peculiar  develop- 
ment of  the  Liber  Pontificalis  as  a  whole,  it  follows 
that,  in  onler  to  obtain  the  full  value  of  the  historical 
sources  used  in  the  Liber  PontificalLs,  each  particular 
life,  each  larger  or  smaller  group  of  lives,  needs  separate 
critical  treatment.  The  Liber  Pontiticulis  was  first 
edited  by  J.  Busa^us  imder  the  title  "  Anastasii  biblio- 
thecarii  Vitce  seu  Gcsta  Romanorum  Ponlificum" 
(Maina,  1602).  A  new  edition,  with  the  "Historia 
ecclcsiastica"  of  Anastasius,  was  edited  by  Fabrotti 
(Paris,  1647).  The  best  of  the  older  editions  of  the 
primitive  Liber  Pontificalis  (down  to  Hadrian  II),  with 
edition  of  the  life  of  Stephen  VI,  was  done  by  Fr.  Bian- 
cliini  (4  vols.,  Rome,  1718-35;  a  projected  fifth  volume 
did  not  appear).  Muratori  added  to  his  reprint  of  tliis 
edition  tne  lives  of  later  popes  down  to  John  XXII 
(Scriptores  rcrum  Italicarum,  III).  The  edition  of 
Bianchini  with  several  appendixes  is  found  also  in 
Migne  (P.  L.,  CXXVII-VIII).  For  a  classic  edition 
of  the  early  Liber  Pontificalis,  with  all  the  above- 
mentioned  continuations,  we  are  indel)ted  to  the  tire- 
less industry  of  Louis  Duchesne,  "  Liber  Pontificalis. 
Tcxte,  introduction  et  commentaire"  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1886-92).  Mommsen  began  a  new  critical  edition  of 
the  same  work  under  the  title  "  Gestorum  Pontificum 
Romanorum  pars  I:  Liljer  Pontificalis"  (Mon.  Germ, 
hist.);  the  first  volume  extends  to  715  (Berlin,  1S98). 
On  the  plan  of  the  Roman  Liber  Pontificalis,  and  in 
obvious  imitation,  Agnellus,  a  priest  of  Ravenna, 
wrote  the  history  of  the  bishops  of  that  city,  and  callea 
it  "Liber  Pontificalis  Ecclesia)  Ravennatis".  It  be- 
gan with  St.  Apollinaris  and  reached  to  about  485  (see 
Agnellus  of  Ravenna).  This  history  of  the  bishops 
of  Ravenna  was  continued,  first  by  the  unknown  author 
to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  (1296),  and  after- 
wards to  1410  by  Petnis  Scordilli,  provost  of  Ravenna. 
Other  medieval  chroniclers  have  also  left  collections 
of  biographies  of  the  bishops  of  particular  sees,  ar- 
ranged on  the  lines  of  the  Lilxjr  Pontificalis.  Thus  in 
1071-2,  at  the  order  of  Bishop  Gundecharus  of  Eich- 
statt,  the  "Liber  Pontificalis  Eichstcttensis"  (ed. 
Bethmann  in  "  Mon.  (Jcrm.  hist..  Script.",  VIT,  242- 
50).  Many  metlieval  archiepiscopal  and  episcopal 
sees  possess,  under  the  title  of  "  (icsta",  histories  of  the 
occupants  of  these  sees.  Most  of  them  offer  very  im- 
portant original  material  for  local  diocesan  history  (for 
a  list  of  them  consult  Pott  hast,  "  Bibliotheca  historica 

mcdii  wvi",  2nd  e<l.,  I,  511,  514-6). 

Besides  the  learned  Proltgomena  to  the  editions  of  DucnESifE 
and  MouMSE.v,  see  DuchiiIHNK,  Etude  nur  le  Lihtr  Pontificalis  in 
Bill,  den  Ecolcn  franraiAes  d'Atht^eA  et  dt-  Rome  (Ist  serins,  Paris, 
1877);  Idkm.  La  date  H  lea  r>  cennions  du  Liber  Pont,  in  Revue  de 
quest,  hist.,  XXVI  (1879),  49.J-M0;  Ii>em.  Lt  premier  Liber 
Pont.,  Ibid.,  XXIX  (1881).  246-62;  Idem.  U  nouvelle  idUion 
du  LihrrPont.  in  Melanges  d'arch/oL  et  d'hist.,  XVIII  (1898). 
J81-417;  Grihar,  Der  Liber  Pontif.  in  ZeitM-hr.Jur  kath.  Theol., 
XI  (1887),  417-46;  Idem.  Analecta  Romana.  I  (Home,  1899). 
1  sqq.;  Waitz,  Vfbcr  die  italienischf-n  Handschriften  des  Liber 
Pont,  in  \ru*-s  Archir,  X  (1S85).  455-65  Idem.  Cefper  den 
sntjrnnanten  Catalo<iu»  Felicianus  der  P^Pf^r,  ibid.,  XI  (1886), 
217-rn:  Idem.  Viber  die  verschiedenen  Tcxte.  des  Liber  Pont., 
ibid.,  IV  (1879).  216-73;  RuArKMANN,  Reise  nach  Italien, 
ibid.,  XXVI  (lOOn,  209  -.147:  Giohoi.  Appunti  intomo  ad 
alruni  mnnoscritti  drj  Librr  Pont,  in  Arehirxo  ftrJln  Sne.  romniui 
di  ti,ria  p^trin,  XX  (l*'97i.  247  son.:  WATTKRicn.  Vita 
Pnntif.  Roman.  (2  vols..  I^ipxiK.  1862);  LioimrooT,  The 
Aponiolir  FnthrrK,  Part  T:  S.  (Irmeid  of  Rome,  I  (London. 
1890).  303-25:  Farrf.  Etnd*-  nur  Ir  Lihrr  Cmsuum  de  VEQlise 
romaine  in  Fiibl.  dtn  Ernirn  frnn^aineM  d'Athinrs  et  de  Rome, 
n.  Ixii  (1st  Horio«.  Paris.  1S<M»;  (^lahhchrodrr.  Des  Lucas 
Holxtmius  Sammhing  von  Papnthbrn  in  Romische  Quartfd- 
itehr..  IV  (1890),  125  sntj.;  Idem.  Vitce  aliquot  Pontificum  sac. 
XV.  ibid.,  V  (1891),  178  sqa.;  Idem.  Zur  Quellenkunde  der 
Pavntarsrh.  des  XIV.  Jahrhunaerts  in  Hi^orichrs  Jahrhurh,  XI 
(1890).  240  !»qq.:  IIaknack,  Veher  die  Ordinationen  im  Papsf- 
buch  in  Sitzunosher.  der  Akad.  der  Witts,  zu  Berlin  (1897).  761 
flqq.;  Momm^en,  Ordo  et  spnfia  epiwojutrum  Romanorum  in 
Libra  Pontifirali  in  Neues  Arrhiv,  XXI  (1894),  333  sqq^.;  Sio- 
mCi.i.kr  I)i*tn'rh  »v>n  A'lVm  und  dtr  Libt-r  Pontifiralin  in  Hist. 
Jahrbueh,  XV  (1894).  802  sqq.;  Ro^exfeld.  Ueber  die  Kom- 
p09Uion  des  Liber  Pcniifieatis  bis  zu  Konstaniin,  Dissert.  (Mar- 


hurg.  1896);  ScmrttRBR.  Der  Verfasser  der  Vita  Stephani  It 
752-757)  im  Liber  Pontificalis  m  Hislor.  Jahrbueh,  XI  (1890). 
425  sqq.;  Potthaht.  Bibl.  hist,  medii  avi,  I,  737-0;  de  Smcdt, 
Introaurtio  generalis  ad  hislcriam  eccl.  critice  traetandam  (Ghent, 
1876).  220  sqq. 

J.   P.   KiRSCH. 

Liber  Sententiftmm.    See  Peteb  Lombard. 

Liber  Septtmua. — ^Three  canonical  collections  of 
quite  different  value  from  a  legal  standpoint  arc  known 
by  this  title.  (1)  The  **  Constitutiones  Clementis  V"  or 
**Clementinaj",  not  officially  known  as  "Liber  Septi- 
mus", but  so  designated  by  historians  and  canonists 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  even  on  one  occasion  by  John 
XXII,  in  a  letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Strasburg.  in  1321. 
This  collection  was  not  even  considered  a  *' Liber". 
It  was  officially  promulgated  by  Clement  V  in  a  con- 
sistory held  at  Monteaux  near  Carpentras  (France)  on 
21  March,  1314,  and  sent  to  the  Universities  of  Or- 
l(Sans  and  Paris.  The  death  of  Clement  V,  occurring 
on  20  Apr^l  following,  gave  rise  to  certain  doubts  as  to 
the  legal  force  of  the  compilation.  Consequently, 
John  XXII  by  his  Bull,  ''Quoniam  nulla",  of  25  Octo- 
ber, 1317,  promulgated  it  again  as  obligatory,  without 
making  any  changes  in  it.  Johannes  Andrete  compiled 
its  commentary',  or  gloam  ordtnaria.  It  was  not  an 
exclusive  collection,  and  <iid  not  abrogate  the  previ- 
ously existing  laws  not  incorporated  in  it  (see  Corpus 
Juris  Can-qxici;  Decretals,  Papal).  (2)  A  canon- 
ist of  the  sixteenth  centur\',  Pierre  Mathieu  (Petrus 
Matthffus),  published  in  1690,  under  the  title  of 
"Septimus  Liber  Decretalium",  a  collection  of  canons 
arranged  according  to  the  order  of  the  Decretals  of 
Gregory'  IX,  containhig  some  Decretals  of  preceding 
popes,  especially  of  those  who  reigned  from  the  time 
of  SLxtus  IV  (1464-71)  to  that  of  Sixtus  V,  in  1590. 
It  was  an  entirely  private  collection  and  devoid  of 
scientific  value.  Some  editions  of  the  "Corpus  Juris 
Canonici"  (Frankfort,  1590;  Lyons  1621  and  1671; 
Bohmer's  edition,  Halle,  1747),  contain  the  text  of  this 
"Lilwr  Septimus"  as  an  appendix. 

(3)  The  name  has  been  given  also  to  a  canonical 
collection  officially  known  as  "Decretales  Clementis 
Papaj  VI 1  r ' .  It  owes  t he  name  of ' *  Liber  Septimus" 
to  Canlinal  Pinelli,  prefect  of  the  special  congregation 
apnointe*!  by  Sixtus  V  to  draw  up  a  new  ecclesiastical 
cooe,  who,  in  his  manuscript  notes,  applied  this  title  to 
it.  Fagnanus  and  Benedict  XIV  imitated  him  in  this, 
and  it  has  n'tained  the  name.  It  was  to  supply  the 
defect  of  an  official  coilification  of  the  canon  law  from 
the  date  of  the  publication  of  the"  Clementinae"  (ISIT), 
that  Ciregory  XIII,  al)out  the  year  1580  appointed  a 
Ixxly  of  cardinals  to  undertake  the  work.  In  1587 
Sixtus  V  established  the  congregation  mentioned 
alwvc.  The  printed  work  was  submitted  to  Clement 
VIII,  in  1598,  for  his  approbation,  which  was  refused. 
A  new  revision  undertaken  in  1607-08  had  a  similar 
fate,  the  reigning  pone,  Paul  V,  declining  to  approve 
the  "  Lil>er  Septimus^'  as  the  obligatory  legal  code  of 
the  Church.  It  is  divided  into  five  books,  siibdivided 
into  titles  and  cliapters,  and  contains  disciplinary  and 
dogmatic  canons  of  the  Councils  of  Florence,  Lateran, 
and  Tnmt,  and  constitutions  of  twenty-eight  popes 
from  (;rogon'  IX  to  Clement  VIII.  The  refusalB  of 
approbation  by  Clement  VIII  and  Paul  V  are  to  be 
attributed,  not  to  the  fear  of  seeing  the  canons  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  glossed  hv  canonists  (which  was  for- 
bidden bv  the  Bull  of  Piilil  IV.  "  Benedictus  Deus". 
confirming  the  Council  of  Trent),  but  to  the  politioal 
situation  of  the  <lay,  several  states  having  rel used  to 
admit  some  of  the  constitutions  inserted  in  the  new 
collection,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  the  Coimcil  of 
Trent  had  not  yet  lM>en  accepted  by  the  French  Gov- 
ernment; it  was  therefore  feared  that  the  Govern- 
ments would  refuse  to  recognize  the  new  code.  It 
seems  a  mistake,  too,  to  have  included  in  the  work 
decisions  that  were  purelv  and  exclusively  dogmatic 
and  as  such  entirely  foreign  to  the  domain  of  eanon 


UBia                                 227  T.TBRARTTBS 

law.    This  ooUection,  which  appeared  about  the  cud  we  have  any  precise  knowledge  is  tlmt  of  Tello  io 

of  the  sixteenth  oentunr,  was  edited  by  Francis  Sen-  Mesopotamia,  discovered  through  the  excavations  of 

tiaC'ClementisPapfflVniDecretales",Freiburg,1870).  M.  de  Saraec  and  now  in  great  part  removed  to  the 

JrSS^J^irSt^T^^^  9i?;iT;./,L^'^'  toha^•e  consistecl  of  more  than 

•qa.,277;  ScaMUMR,HandbuchdeMKirchmreehu,l\GnLz,lS86),  20.0(K)  tablets  inscribed  With  cuneiform  wnting  and 

2A3;  ScHNMDSB.  Die  Lehre  v.  d.  Kirchenrechtmjufllen  (Rotis-  belonging  to  the  time  of  Gudcu,  ruler  of  Laeash. 

boo,  1002).  166  sqq.,  177;  text-booka  of  Wkhns,  Uaoiii;lleb.  -i---"-"'^-            r...,                                         ..      o~     .» 

•*c-  A.  Van  Hovk. 

.    ¥^i  *?**"  ^^^^^^T*  *i?  ***!? ^^  ^r®  ''^'}??;  Ashiiix^blniiiaKeeS  to  628  B.Tr'The  Ktterl^MrSI 
leal  coUection  coinpiied  under  order  of  Boniface  VIII 

byOuillai 


of  Siena,  vice-chancellor  of  the  ^pe.  by  whom  it  was  tain  that  the  collection  comprised  texts,  impressed  of 

^T!^i^.^^Jt^^^!'''f'^  S""^  ^  i^«  i'^*'!"^  "? n*"®  «>""«  "P«^  clay  ^l^l^ts,  dealing  with  eve^  branch 
Bim  'Sacpoaanctffi '  of  3  March  1^8.  Like  the  De-  of  learning  and  science  known  to  the  wise  men  of  his 
wetd^ofGregwylX  the'I^berSext^^^^  day.  More  than  twenty  thousand  of  these  tablets 
five  books,  subc^yided  into  titl(^  and  chapters.  It  have  been  brought  to  EGrope  and  are  now  preserved 
COTtains  in  addition  eighty-ei^t  rul^  of  law  (r^^-  in  the  British  Museum.  All  the  more  important  texts 
lite  j«n«)l»rrowed  from  the  Roman  law,  and  com-  are  marked  with  a  formula  attesting  that  they  belong 
piled  probably  by  Dmo  de  Rossoni,  professor  of  civil  to  the  palace  of  Ashurbanipal,  and  the  formula  con- 
law  at  tlw  University  of  Bologna.  It  is  an  obli-  eludes  with  an  imprecation  interesting  to  compare 
Eitory  code  of  b^  abrogating  all  previous  general  with  those  so  often  found  in  the  manuscripts  of  medi- 
uSL^i  rV?™  ^®TJ?^*^fi  *u  Publication  of  the  eval  Ubraries:  "  Whosoever  shall  carry  off  this  tablet, 
"DcCTetals  of  Grego^r  IX  tdl  the  a«^  otBoni.  or  shaU  inscribe  his  name  upon  it  side  by  side  ^itll 
^■SS^Yl"  ^^  September,  1234  to  24  Decem!>er,  1294),  mineown,may  Ashur  and  Belit  overthrow  him  in  wrath 
inth  the  exception  of  those  that  were  reserved  (re-  and  anger,  and  may  they  destroy  his  name  and  pos- 

•?T^""i'l^  ^  ^  ^*A  ^i^^^irS^  y^  ^y^^^^r'  ^"*y  ^^  ^^^  land  "  (Wallis,  Budge,  and  King, "  Guide 

eitlKar  by  decretals  inserted  in  the  "Sextus",  declar-  to  Babvlonian  and  Assyrian  Antiquities",  1908,  p. 

mgthattheeekwsTOre  toremaminforce  orb^^^  41).     In  Eg>'pt  collections  of  papvrus  rolls  must  un- 

IncipU  bcmg  included  m  the  collection.    1  he    Deere-  doubtedl v  have  been  made,  though  the  more  perish- 

tals  of  GregOTy  IX     were  revoked,  m  so  far  as  they  able  nature  of  the  material  has  not  permitted  any 

were  inconsistent  with  the  new  statutes.    Although  considerable  remains  to  be  preserved  from  the  eariier 

Win  holds  the  contrary,  we  beheve  that  the  eighty-  ages  of  Egvptian  historv.     Of  collections  of  books 


GoBFUB  Juris  CANONia.  oerning  tlie  holy  gifts  ^' 
,r^.  ®"^??i^,T^^"^l''^.  ^"^^^f^^^  Boniface        with  regaixi  to  pagan  Rome  and  Greece  we  have 

Vm  hiDMelf  the    Liber  Swctus\  firstly,  be^  ^^re  precise  evidence.     Pisistratus  is  said  to  have* 

continuation  of  the  five  books  of  the  /  Decretals  of  formed  a  library  which  was  carried  off  to  Persia  by 

^^^S?^  ^\j  ^*f  ^^!^H'  ^^-^  «^^.  *s  a  ^rfect  Xerxes  and  afterwards  restorefi.     Aristotle,  the  phil- 

number.    This  title  will  indicate,  he  says  m  the 3iill  of  osopher,  as  his  writings  prove,  miLst  certainly  have 

approbation  (Sacrosancta),  that  the  complete  body  haj  some  sort  of  libraVat  his  command,  and  this 

of  cancm  law,  henceforth  collecteil  into  six  b^^^  collection,  after  coming  to  Athens,  is  said  to  have 

yjerfect  number  of  books),  will  furnish  a  perfect  rule  been  ultimately  taken  bv  Sulla  to  Rome.     But  by 

of  Mtion  and  be  a  safe  guide  m  morals.    According  farthe  most  famous  libraries  of  the  Greek  workl  were 

to  Euchd.  the  number  six  is  perfect,  Ixjcause  it  is  ^hose  of  Pergamum  and  Alexandria.    The  former, 

equal  to  the  sim  of  aU  its  factors  (1+2  +  3^.6).     Ac-  ^.i^j^.^  ^ad  been  formed  bv  the  kings  of  the  familv  o^ 

cording  to  Boethius,  a  number  is  to  be  compared  to  an  Attains  from  a])out  the  vear  2()0  b.  r.,  must  have  been 

organised  body,  aU  the  parts  of  which  (factors,  quo-  ^   ^^^v  remarkable  collection.     Modem  archiuolog- 

tients,  or  ahquot  parts)  represent  the  members.    A  "  .    -    .  


^.^»^  ...  ^^  .-^ >  :t  :?  — r—-— -~-  --'  - — — -;  i5onm  Acaaemv,  iJ>;^-i,  i.i;)'.;-/u;.     -f\s  lor  ine  dooks 

Mem  of  virtue   («rtu/w  ^mii/ojor)   and,  caUing  this  themselves,  we  "learn  from  Plutarch  that  two  hundred 

newoompJation  the    Liber  Sextus  ,  the  pope  wished  thousand  volumes,  or  rather  rolls,  wore  removed  by 

to  ngnifv  the  happy  effwts  which  tins  collection  of  ^j^^k  Anthon v  to  Alexandria  and  given  to  Cleopatra 

^S2Sf  ^S^^TlTt  I'^S^^^mmluno  Bonifm  ^  f-P^^-  the  libn.ry  which  had  U^^n  accidentally 

VUlTLSb.  Sat.  Decretal.  Bonif.  PP.  VIII.  in  Archiv  fiir  kath.  destroyed  l)y  fire  in  Julius  C  a>sar  s  Egyptian  cam- 

KirdkieHreehi.  LXXXII  (Mains,  1902),  pp.  425  sqq.;  Lauriv,  paign.    The  I ibrarv  so  d<'st roved,  which  was  known  as 

t!Z^'f*!i  "^TLiZ:^  S?V^.vrw^'yJl?w/^-  Voi.fVi'  that  of  the  Masaniin,  was  formed  by  Ptolemy  Phila- 

ScBDfUDBB,  DiB  Le/ure  von  aen  KxrcnmrechtequeUirn  (2n(l  od.,  ,  i   i           i        .  Oi»rk                Ti.  •    ^     ^i  •    ru     _   li    x  ^u^ 

^tkboa.  1892),  151  m\.\  Werni.  Ju9  DecrdlaUum,  I  (Rome!  delphus  about  200  H.  c.     It  IS  to  this  library  that  the 

1808).  328  Mq.;  Schxbxb,  Handbuch  dea  Kirchenrechtn,  I  legend  attaches  of  the  origin  of  the  Septuagint  (q.  V.), 

(Gns,  188(9)t  252.                                   A.  Van  Hove.  as  recorded  in  the  apoorvphal,   but  verv  ancient, 

LibertlM.  Gaujcan.    See  Galucanism.  "Letter  of  Aristeas".    According  to  this  legend,  De- 

Aiui«wim,  xjAAdtfVAi^.    o^  v*Ai^u*v.Ai^io^.  metrius  Phalereus,  the  keeper  of  the  librar>',  advised 

Ubniief,  that  is  to  say,  collections  of  books  ao-  his  master,  King  Ptolemy,  to  endeavour  to  obtain 

cumulated  and  made  accessible  for  public  or  private  for  it  a  translation  of  the  Law  of  the  Jews.    Envoys 

use,  we»  known  to  the  ancients  before  the  cominj^  of  were  accordingly  despatched  to  the  High  Priest  Elea- 

Chiut.    PrabaUy  the  meet  ancient  library  of  which  zar  of  Jerusalem,  who  sent  so'enty  (or,  more  exactly. 


UBBARISS 


228 


UBBARISS 


aeventy-two)  scholars  to  Alexandria  to  make  the 
Greek  version  required.  The  work  was  completed  in 
seventy  days,  and  the  translation  was  read  aloud  by 
Demetrius  and  approved  as  final. 

The  "  Musseum '   (i.  e.,  building  consecrated  to  the 
Muses),  which  contained  this,  the  older  of  the  two 
libraries,  seems  to  have  been  located  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  palace,  but  the  other,  of  later  date, 
was  formed  in  connexion  with  the  temple  of  Serapis, 
hence  called  the  Serapeum.    Much  havoc  was  wrought 
among  its  treasures  when  Bishop  Theophilus  made  his 
attack  upon  pagan  worship  at  Alexandria  in  a.  d.  390, 
and  whatever  remained  of  the   library  must  have 
perished  after  the  incursion  of  the  Arabs  in  641.    Al- 
though Polybius,  writing  in  the  second  century  before 
Christ,  speaks  (xii,  27)  as  though  libraries  would  natu- 
rally be  found  m  any  large  town,  it  is  only  in  the  last 
years  of  the  Roman  Republic  that  we  hear  much  of 
libraries  in  Rome  itself.    At  first  these  collections  were 
in  private  hands— Cicero,  for  example,  seems  to  have 
taken  much  pains  in  acauiring  booW—but,  after  an 
unfulfilled  project  of  Julius  Csesar  to  form  a  library 
for  public  use,  C.  Asinius  PoUio  carried  this  idea  into 
execution  a  little  later  by  means  of  the  spoils  he  had 
obtained  in  his  Illjyrrian  campaign  39  b.  c.    The  Em- 
peror Augustus  himself  soon  followed  the  same  ex- 
ample, and  we  hear  of  the  collections  both  of  Greek 
ana  Latin  books  formed  by  him,  first  in  the  Porticus 
Octaviae,  which  he  restored  about  the  year  33  b.  c. 
and,  secondly,  within  the  precincts  of  the  temple  of 
Apollo  on  the  Palatine,  dedicated  in  28  b.  c.    From 
this  time  forth  public  libraries  multiplied  in  Rome 
under  the  imperial  patronage  of  Tiberius  and  his  suc- 
cessors, until  they  numbered,  it  is  said,  as  many  as 
twenty-six  in  all.    From  allusions  in  such  writers  as 
Ovid,  Horace,  and  Aulus  Gellius,  it  seems  probable 
that  these  libraries,  for  example  that  of  the  Palatine 
Apollo,  were  furnished  with  copies  of  books  on  all 
subjects,  and  that  as  soon  as  a  new  work  of  any  well- 
known  writer  was  given  to  the  world  the  Roman 
libraries  acauired  it  as  a  matter  of  course.    We 
also  know  tnat  they  were  administered  by  special 
officials,  and  that  they  served  as  places  of  resort  for 
literary  men,  while  one  or  more  of  them  —  notably 
the  Bibliotheca  Ulpia  in  the  forum  of  Trajan — were 
tised  as  depositories  for  the  public  archives. 

At  the  time  that  Christianity  appeared  upon  the 
scene  in  Rome,  it  is  interesting  to  leam  from  Seneca 
how  firm  a  hold  the  fashion  of  maintaining  libraries, 
either  public  or  private,  had  taken  of  Roman  society. 
"What",  asks  Seneca,  **is  the  use  of  books  and  li- 
braries innumerable,  if  scaree  in  a  lifetime  the  master 
reads  the  titles?  .  .  ,  Forty  thousand  books  were 
burnt  at  Alexandria.  I  leave  to  others  to  praise  this 
splendid  monument  of  royal  opulence.  .  .  .  Procure 
as  many  books  as  will  suffice  for  use,  but  not  one  for 
show.  .  .  .  Why  should  you  excuse  a  man  who 
wishes  to  possess  book-presses  inlaid  with  arbor-vits 
wood  or  ivory,  who  gathers  together  masses  of  au- 
thors either  unknown  or  discredited,  and  who  derives 
lus  chief  delight  from  their  edges  and  their  tickets? 
You  will  find,  then,  in  the  libraries  of  the  most  arrant 
idlers  all  that  orators  or  historians  have  written — book- 
cases built  up  as  high  as  the  ceiling.  Nowadays  a 
library  takes  rank  with  a  bathroom  as  a  necessaiy 
ornament  of  a  house.  I  could  forgive  such  ideas,  if 
they  were  due  to  extravagant  desire  for  learning.  As 
it  is,  these  productions  of  men  whose  genius  we  revere, 
paid  for  at  a  high  price,  with  their  portraits  ranged  in 
line  above  them,  are  got  together  to  adorn  and  Dcau- 
tify  a  wall"  (De  Tranquil.  Animi,  ix). 

These  were  the  fashions  that  prevailed  in  the  more 
cultured  circles  of  the  Roman  Empire  at  the  time 
when  Christianity  began  ite  life-andndeath  stru^Ie 
with  paganism.  The  use  of  books,  even  if  attended 
with  a  certain  amount  of  shallow  affectation,  was  not 
A  weapon  which  the  Church  could  afford  to  neglect. 


In  itself  the  accumulated  learning  of  past  i^ed  was  i 
good  influence,  and  the  teachers  of  the  new  &ith  wen 
not  slow  in  striving  to  enlist  it  on  their  side.     In  any 
case  some  small  collection  of  books  was  needed  for  tlie 
church  services  which  seem  from  the  very  b^rinning 
to  have  consisted  in  part — as  does  the  Divme  Office  (3 
the  present  day — of  readings  from  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  and  from  worfi  of  Christian  instruction 
and  edification.     In  this  way  every  church  that  was 
founded  became  the  nucleus  of  a  library,  and  we  need 
not  be  surprised  to  find  St.  Jerome  counselline  Pam- 
machius  (Ep.  xlix,  3)  to  make  use  of  these  colkcti<mB 
(ecclesiarum  bibliothiBcia  fruere),  and  apparently  as- 
suming that  wherever  there  was  a  congregation  of  the 
faithful  suitable  books  would  be  available.     But  thm 
must,  of  course,  have  been  certain  centres  where,  on 
account  of  their  position,  antiquity,  or  the  exceptional 
generosity  of  benefactors,  more  important  accumula- 
tions existed.    Of  these  the  earliest  known  to  us  is  the 
library  formed  at  Jerusalem,  principally  by  Bishop 
Alexander,  about  the  year  250,  and  containing,  as 
Eusebius  atteste,  a  number  of  letters  and  historioftl 
documents  (Hist.  Eccles.,  VI,  xxj.    Still  more  im- 
portant was  the  library  of  Csesarea  m  Palestine.    This 
was  collected  by  the  martyr  Pamphilus,  who  suffered 
in  the  year  308,  and  it  contained  a  number  of  the 
manuscripts  which  had  been  used  by  Origen  (Jerome, 
In  Titum,  III,  ix).     At  about  the  same  period  again 
we  hear  that,  in  the  persecution  which  devastated 
Africa  (303-304),  "the  officers  went  to  the  church  at 
Cirta,  in  which  the  Christians  used  to  assemble,  and 
despoiled  it  of  chalices,  lamps,  ete.,  but  when  they 
came  to  the  library  [bibliotn€cam]f  the  presses  [oT' 
niaria]  were  found  empty  "  (see  appendix  to  Optatus). 
Julian  the  Apostate,  in  362,  demanded  that  the  books 
formerly  belonging  to  George,  the  Arian  Bishop  of 
Alexandria,  including  "many  philosophical  and  rhe- 
torical works  and  many  of  the  doctnnes  of  the  im- 
pious Galileans'',  should  be  sent  him  for  a  libraiy 
lormerly  established  by  (Ik>nstantiu8  in  the  imperial 
palace  (Julian,  Epist.  ix).    On  the  other  hand,  when 
St.  Augustine  was  dying,  "he  directed  that  the  li* 
brary  of  the  church  and  all  the  books  should  be  care- 
fully  kept  for  posterity  forever",  and  "he  bequeathed 
libraries  to  the  church  containing  books  and  treatises 
by  himself  or  other  holy  persons"  (Possidius,  "Vita 
Aug.",  n.  31).     In  Rome  it  would  seem  that  Pope 
Dainasus  (366-384)  built  a  record-office  (arckivum) 
which,  besides  being  the  depository  of  official  docu- 
ments, served  also  as  library  and  chancery.     It  was 
connected  with  the  Basilica  of  St.  LAwrence,  on  the 
facade  of  which  was  an  inscription  which  ended  with 
the  three  following  lines: — 

Archivis  fateor  volui  nova  condere  tecta. 
Addere  prsBterea  dextra  laevaque  columnas. 

Quae  Damasi  teneant  proprium  per  ssecula  nomen. 

"V 

(I  confess  that  I  have  wished  to  build  a  new  abode 
for  archives  and  to  add  columns  on  the  right  and  left  to 
preserve  the  name  of  Damasus  forever.)  It  is  no 
doubt  this  building  which  St.  Jerome  refers  to  as 
"cliartarium  ecclesise  Romanse".  De  Rossi  and 
Lanciani  conjecture  that  Damasus,  following  the 
model  of  one  of  the  great  libraries  of  Rome,  which  in 
its  turn  had  imitated  the  arrangement  of  tne  famous 
library  of  Pergamum,  had  first  Duilt  a  basilica  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Lawrence  and  then  added  on  the  north 
and  south  sides  a  colonnade  from  which  the  rooms 
containing  the  records  would  be  readily  accessible 
(Lanciani,  Ancient  Rome,  pp.  187-190).  WheUier 
this  building  did  or  did  not  ever  strictly  deserve  tJia 
name  of  a  literary,  we  have  evidence  that  Pope  Aga- 
petus  (535-36)  set  about  the  erection  of  another  buud- 
ing  on  the  Coelian  Hill  intended  for  the  keeping  of 
books  and  aften^'ards  known  as  the  Library  of  St. 
Gregory.  There,  at  any  rate,  an  inscription  was  to  be 
leadi  in  the  ninth  century  speaking  of  the  long  amy 


229  T.TBRARTM 

cfportnits  which  adontied  the  walla  and,  amongst  the  clearly  proved  than  in  En^and.    The  whole  h*fe  of 

rest,  of  that  of  Pope  Agapetus: —  the  Venerable  Bede  might  serve  to  illustrate  this 

Hob  inter  residens  Agapetus  jure  sacerdos  theme.    But  it  is  Bede  who  tells  us  from  first  hand 

Codicibus  pulchrum  condldit  arte  locum.  knowledge  of  Benedict  Biscop,  Abbot  of  Wearmouth, 

(Mid  these  oy  right  takes  Agapetus  place,  who  who,  having  visited  Rome  in  671, ''brought  home  not 
built  to  guud  ms  books  this  fair  aoode.)  The  cele-  a  few  books  of  aU-divine  erudition,  either  bought  for 
brated  Cassiodorus,  who  had  been  the  friend  of  Aga-  a  fixed  price  or  given  him  by  the  kindness  of  friends: 
petus,  withdrew  from  the  world  in  his  declining  years  and  when  on  his  return  he  came  to  Vienne  he  received 
and  gathered  round  him  a  religious  community  at  those  which  he  had  bought  and  entrusted  to  his 
Vivariimi,  in  Southern  Italy,  There  he  formed  a  li-  friends  there"  (Hist.  Abl>at.,  iv).  In  678  he  paid 
brary  as  an  adjunct  of  primary  necessity  for  such  an  another  visit  to  Rome  and  "  brought  home  a  multi- 
institute.  Further,  he  enjoined  upon  the  brotliren  tudo  [tnnu7MeraWlem  comawij  of  books  of  every  kind  ". 
that  if  tiiey  met  with  any  book  which  he  wanted  they  In  liLs  last  illness  Beneclict  Biscop  gave  directions  that 
should  make  a  copy  of  it,  "that  by  the  help  of  Go3  the  very  noble  and  complete  hbrary  which  he  had 
and  their  labour  the  library  of  the  monastery  might  brought  from  Rome  as  necessary  for  the  instruction 
be  benefited"  (De  Inst.  Div.  Litt.,  viii).  Cassiodorus  of  the  Church,  should  be  scrupulouslv  preserved  en- 
abo  tells  us  a  good  deal  about  his  libraiy  contrivances,  tire  and  neither  suffer  iniury  throi^n  want  of  care 

But  at  the  break-up  of  the  civilization  of  the  Roman  nor  be  dispersed  (Hist.  Aob.,  xi) .    Further  we  learn 

Empire  the  great  influence  which  contributed  more  that  this  collection,  which  was  divided  between  Wear- 

than  anything  else  to  preserve  in  the  West  some  scat-  mouth  and  Jarrow,  was  doubled  by  the  energy  of 

tered  remnants  of  the  learning  of  the  classical  period  Ceolfrid  his  successor  (Hist.  Abb.,  xv).     It  was  from 

was  undoubtedly  monasticism,  and  in  particular  that  this  collection,  which  Ceolfrid  enriched  with  three  new 

form  of  monasticism  which  was  identified  with  the  copies  of  the  Vulgate  and  with  one  of  the  Itala,  that 

Rule  of  St.  Benedict.    Even  in  Africa,  as  the  Rule  of  the  famous  Codex  Amiatinus  (q.  v.)  was  taken,  which 

St.  Pachomius  and  the  writings  of  Cassian  clearly  Ceolfrid  on  a  later  occasion  carried  with  him  to  Italy 

show,  the  maintenance  of  the  ideal  of  coenobitical  as  a  present  for  the  pope.    This  manuscript,  now  in 

life  was  in  some  measure  dependent  upon  the  use  of  the  Laurentian  library  in  Florence,  has  been  described 

books.    St.  Pachomius,  for  example,  enjoined  that  as  "  perha}>s  the  finest  book  in  the  world "  (White  in 

the  books  of  the  house  were  to  be  kept  in  a  cupboard  "Studia  Biblica,"  II,  273),  but  it  seems  not  to  have 

in  the  thickness  of  the  wall.    Anv  brother  who  w^antoil  been  tlie  work  of  native  scribes  but  of  Italians  brought 

a  book  might  have  one  for  a  week,  at  the  end  of  which  over  to  England. 

he  was  bound  to  return  it.     No  brother  might  leave  a  Although  Jarrow  had  not  itself  a  great  scriptorium 

book  open  when  he  went  to  church  or  to  meals.     In  with  a  staff  of  trained  copyists — such  as,  for  example, 

the  evening  the  officer  called  the  "second" — that  is  belonged  to  Lindisfame,  which  followed  Irish  tradi- 

ihe  second  in  command — ^was  to  take  charge  of  the_  tions,  and  to  Canterbury,  where  the  dominant  in- 

books,  count  them,  and  lock  tiiem  up  (see  P.  L.,*  fluence  was  Italian — still,  through  Archbishop  Egbert, 

XXIII,  68,  and  cf.  Butler,  "Palladius",  1, 236).     We  whom  Bede  loved  and  visited  at  York,  Ceolfrid's  li- 

know  from  a  letter  of  St.  Augustine's  that  at  Hippo  brarj'  must  have  exercised  a  profound  influence  upon 

even  the  nuns  had  a  library,  and  that  it  was  the  duty  Alcuin  (q.  v.),  and  through  him  again  upon  the 

of  one  of  the  sisters  to  distribute  and  then  to  collect  scholarship    of    all    Western    Christendom.    Alcuin 

the  books  at  the  hours  set  apart  for  reading.     Nor  was  the  librarian  of  the  fine  collection  of  books  which 

could  the  large  place  that  study — but  more  particu-  Egbert  had  formed  in  the  monastery  at  York,  and  in 


larly  the  stu^  of  the  Scriptures — ^played  in  tne  lives  one  of  his  poems  he  gives  a  rather  florid  account  of 

of  ascetic  women  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  be  its  contents  (Migne,  P.  L.,  CI,  843)  which  has  l)een 

more  clearly  illustrated  than  in  the  story  of  St.  Me-  descril:)ed  as  the  earliest  catalogue  of  any  English 

lania  the  younger,  the  friend  of  St.  Augustine  and  St.  library.    If  we  could  trust  this  list,  the  collection 

Jerome,  who^  made  it  a  rule  to  spend  daily  a  pre-  was  really  one  of  extraordinary  range,  including,  not 

scribed  time  in  reading,  and  whose  labours  as  a  scribe  merely  the  be-st-known  of  the  Latin  Fathers,  but  Atha- 

were  long  renowned.     But  of  all  the  written  docu-  nasius,  Basil,  and  Chrysostom,  among  tne  Greeks, 

ments  much  have  influenced  the  preservation  of  and  l^esides  these  a  certain  number  of  historians, 

books,  the  text  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  is  the  most  with  philosophers  like  Aristotle  and  Boethius,  with 

important.     Upon  this  is  chiefly  based  that  love  of  the  most  representative  of  the  Latin  classics  and  a 

learning  distinctive  of  the  great  monastic  orders:  fair  sprinkling  of  grammarians.     When  Alcuin  be- 

" Idleness",  says  the  Rule,  "is  an  enemy  to  the  soul,  came  the  trusted  adviser  of  Charlemagne,  that  great 

and  hence  at  certain  times  the  brethren  ought  to  oc->  monarch's  influence  was  evcr^nvhere  exerted  to  foster 

GUpy  themselves  with  manual  labour  and  at  others  the  spread  of  learning  and  the  accumulation  of  books, 

with  holv  reading  .  .  ."     And,  after  specifying  the  In  an  onlinance  of  789.  Charlemagne  made  provision 

hours  to  be  devoted  to  reading  at  various  seasons,  the  for  the  setting-up  of  schools  for  boys  in  which  he  di- 

Rule  further  lays  down: "  During  Lent  let  them  apply  rected  that  "  in  every  monastery  and  cathedral  [epis- 

themselves  to  reading  from  morning  until  the  end  of  copium]"  they  were  to  learn  '*  the  psalms  and  canti- 

the  third  hoiir  .  .  .     And  in  these  days  of  Lent  let  cles,  plain  chant,  the  computus  [or  regulation  of  the 

each  one  receive  a  book  from  the  library  and  read  it  calendar]  and  grammar''.    And  he  adds,  "Let  them 

all  through  in  order.    These  books  are  to  be  given  out  also  have  Catholic  books  well  corrected  ". 

at  the  beginning  of  Lent.     Above  all,  let  one  or  two  ^   All  this,  directly  or  indirectly,  must  have  given  an 

seniors  be  appointed  to  go  round  the  monastery  at  the  immense  stimulus  towards  the  formation  of  libraries 

hours  when  the  brethren  are  engaged  in  reading  and  in  Western  Europe.     Neither  can  we  leave  out  of  ao- 

aee  that  there  be  no  slothful  brother  giving  himself  to  count  the  great  influence  which  had  been  exerted  at  a 

idleness  or  to  fooUsh  talk  and  not  applying  himself  to  somewhat  earlier  period  by  St.  Columban  and  the 

his  reading,  so  that  he  is  thus  not  only  useless  to  him-  Irish  missionaries  who  settled  at  Luxeuil  in  France, 

self  but  a  distraction  to  others.     If  such  a  one  be  found  at  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland,  at  Bobbio  in  Italy,  at  Wi  i  rz- 

(which  God  forbid)  let  him  be  corrected  once  and  a  burg  in  Gennany,  and  in  many  other  places.    Still,  as 

second  time",  and  the  Rule  adds  that  if  all  this  be  in-  at  St.  Gall,  for  example,  the  Benedictine  Rule  often 

effectual,  the  delinquent  is  to  be  chastised  in  such  a  supplanted  the  Columoan,  and  it  was  in  its  Benedictine 

way  as  to  strike  tem>r  into  others.  days  that  the  Swiss  abbey  attained  its  greatest  re- 

That  these  principles  were  fully  taken  to  heart,  nown  as  a  centre  of  learning,  and  formed  the  library 

and  boie  fruit  in  the  respect  shown  for  books  and  in  which  still  exists.    Many,  however,  of  its  most  pre- 

the  leal  displayed  to  acquire  them,  was  nowhere  more  dons  vohimes  were  at  one  time  removed  to  Reich* 


UBRARXn                           230  LTBHAWltt 

enau  as  a  measure  of  safety,  and  they  seem  xx)t  to  same  dhaptor  put  on  record  th*  samM  of  tbe  booli 
have  been  all  returned  to  tneir  owners  when  quiet  and  of  those  wno  receive  them." 
was  restored.  At  the  same  time  there  is  abundant  J.  W.  Clark  gives  a  summary  of  the  airan^^ements 
evidence  for  the  existence  of  a  system  of  lending  peculiar  to  the  different  orders.  Both  the  Ciuniacs  and 
manuscripts  by  one  house  to  another  among  friendly  Benedictines,  he  says,  put  the  books  in  chaive  of  the 
monastenes,  lor  the  purpose  of  transcription  and  precentor,  often  also  s^led  armariuSf  and  there  is  to 
collation.  This  latter  process  may  often  be  traced  be  an  annual  audit  and  registration  similar  to  that 
in  the  copies  which  still  survive:  for  example,  two  of  just  described.  Among  the  later  Benedictines  we 
our  oldest  manuscripts  of  Bede's  *'  Ecclesiastical  His-  also  find  a  further  regulation  that  the  precentor  is  to 
tory"  have  evidently  been  collated,  and  the  readings  keep  all  in  repair  and  personally  to  supervise  the 
of  one  transferred  to  the  other.  ^  daily  use  of  the  manuscripts,  restoring  each  to  its 
The  most  famous  libraries  of  the  Carlovingian  proper  place  when  done  with.  Among  these  later 
period  were  those  of  Fulda,  Reichenau,  Corvey,  and  benedictine  rules,  as  found,  for  exazbple,  at  Abing- 
Sponheim  in  Germany,  and  those  of  Fleury,  St-Ri-  don  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  firet  appears  the 
quier,  Clunv,  and  Corbie  in  France.  fThe  library  of  important  permission  to  lend  booira  to  others  outside 
Fulda,  under  the  great  scholar  Rhabanus  Maurus,  the  monastery  on  receipt  of  an  adequate  pledge. 
was  regarded  as  the  best  equipped  in  Christendom,  The  Carthusians  also  maintained  the  principle  of  lend* 
and  a  contemporary  speaks  of  the  books  he  saw  there  in|^.  As  for  the  monks  themselves,  each  brother 
as  "almost  countless  .  Even  at  the  beginning  of  might  have  two  books,  and  he  is  to  be  specially  careful 
the  sixteenth  century  the  abbey  still  possessed  nine  to  keep  them  clean.  Among  the  Cistercians  a  par- 
hundred  volumes  of  manuscripts,  mast  of  which  seem  ticular  official  has  charge  oi  the  books,  about  the 
to  have  been  destroyed  or  scattered  in  the  Thirty  safety  of  which  great  care  is  to  be  taken,  and  at  ccp- 
Years'  War.  In  the  case  of  Reichenau  we  still  pos-  tain  times  of  the  day  he  is  to  lock  the  press.  This 
sess  the  catalogue  made  by  the  librarian,  Rcginbcrt,  last  regulation  is  also  observed  by  the  i^remonstra- 
before  a.  d.  831,  wliich  enumerates  over  500  works  tensians,  who  further  require  their  librarian  to  take 
contained  in  256  volumes.  All  the  libraries  just  note  of  books  borrowed  as  well  as  books  lent.  Il- 
mentioned  owed  directly  or  indirectly  a  good  deal  to  nally,  the  Augustinians,  who  are  very  full  in  thdr 
the  support  of  Charlemagne.  In  southern  Italy  the  directions  regarding  the  use  of  the  library,  also  permit 
abbey  of  Monte  Cassino,  the  cradle  of  Benedictine  books  to  be  lent  outside,  but  insist  much  on  the  need 
monasticism,  well  illustrates  the  perils  to  which  books  of  proper  security  (see  Clark,  *'  Care  of  Books  ",  58-73). 
were  exposed  owing  to  the  wildncss  of  the  times.  The  importance  of  the  permission  to  lend  consists. 
After  it  nad  been  demolished  by  the  Lombards  in  the  of  course,  in  this:  that  the  monasteries  thus  became 
sixth  century,  the  monastery  was  rebuilt,  and  a  new  the  public  libraries  of  the  surroimding  district  and 
Ubrary  painfully  brought  together.  But  in  the  ninth  diffused  much  more  widely  the  benefit  afforded  by 
century  came  the  Saracens,  and  when  the  abbey  was  -their  own  command  of  books.  The  practice  no  douM 
despoiled  the  library  perished  in  the  flames.  None  involved  much  risk  of  loss,  and  there  was  a  dispositkxk 
the  less,  the  monks  set  to  work  once  more  to  acquire  sometimes  manifested  to  forbid  the  lending  of  books 
books  and  to  make  new  copies,  and  this  collection  of  altogether.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  clear  that  there 
manuscripts^  which  still  survives,  is  among  the  most  were  those  who  looked  upon  this  means  of  helping 
remarkable  in  Italy.  their  neighbours  as  a  duty  prescribed  by  the  laws  5 
In  Spain,  at  an  earHer  date,  we  gain  some  insight  charitv.  Thus,  in  1212,  a  synod  held  in  Paris  passed 
into  the  ornamentation  of  a  well-appointed  library  the  following  decree:  "We  forbid  those  who  belong  to 
from  certain  verses  written  by  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  a  relicious  order  to  formulate  any  vow  against  lenmng 
(600-636)  to  inscribe  upon  the  portraits  which  hung  their  books  to  those  who  are  in  need  of  them;  seeing 
over  his  book-presses.  Upon  tne  door  of  the  room  that  to  lend  is  enumerated  among  the  principal  works 
were  also  displayed  another  set  of  verses  as  a  warning  of  mercv.  After  due  consideration  let  some  books  be 
to  talkative  intruders,  the  last  couplet  of  which  runs:  retained  in  the  house  for  the  use  of  the  brethren;  but 
Non  patitur  quenquam  coram  se  scriba  loquentem;  let  others  according  to  the  decision  of  the  abbot  be 
Non  est  hie  quod  agas,  gamile,  perge  foras.  ^^nt  to  those  who  are  in  need  of  them,  the  rights  of  the 
'a7k;«i,  «,„,,  K«  ^^A^r.^\.  house  being  safeguarded.  In  future  no  penalty  of 
Which  may  be  rendered.-  anathema  fs  to  Be  attached  to  the  remo^  of  any 
A  wnter  and  a  talker  CAut  agree;  book,  and  we  annul  and  grant  absolution  from  all 
Hence,  idle  chatterer;  'tis  no  place  for  thee.  anathemas  of  the  sort"  (Delisle  in  "Bib.  de  I'Ecole 
Speaking  of  Western  Kuropc  as  a  whole,  we  may  des  Chartes",  Scr.  3, 1,  225).  It  is  noteworthy,  aJso, 
regard  it  as  an  undisputed  principle  throughout  the  that  in  this  same  thirteenth  century  many  volumes 
Middle  Ages  that  a  library  of  some  sort  was  an  essen-  were  bequeathed  to  the  Augustinian  house  of  St. 
tial  part  of  every  monastic  establishment.  "Claus-  Victor,  raris,  on  the  express  condition  that  they 
trum  sine  armario,  castrum  sine  armamentario",  ran  should  be  so  lent.  Xo  doubt  most  of  the  lending  was 
the  adage;  that  is  to  say,  a  monastery  without  a  li-  for  the  benefit  of  other  monasteries,  either  for  reading 
brary  is  a  fort  without  an  armourj'.  In  all  the  de-  or,  still  more  often,  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  copy. 
velopments  of  the  Benedictine  Rule,  regulations  of  Against  the  dangers  thus  incurred  it  would  seem  that 
some  kind  are  laid  down  for  the  use  of  books.  We  some  protection  was  soujjht  by  invoking  anathemas 
may  quote,  for  example,  the  directions  given  by  upon  the  head  of  the  faithless  borrower.  How  far 
Lanfranc  for  the  annual  calling-in  of  librar}MX)oks  on  excommunications  were  seriously  and  validly  enacted 
the  first  Sunday  of  Lent.  Tlie  monks  are  bidden  to  against  the  unlawful  detainers  of  such  volumes  is  a 
bring  back  all  ]>ooks  to  the  chapter  house,  and  there-  matter  of  some  uncertainty,  but,  as  in  the  case  of 
upon,  "let  the  librarian  read  a  document  [breve]  set-  Asliur-])an-i-pars  cuneiform  tablets,  the  manuscripts 
ting  forth  the  names  of  the  brethren  who  have  had  of  medieval  monasteries  freouently  contain  on  the 
books  during  the  past  year;  and  let  each  brother  fly-leaf  some  brief  form  of  malediction  against  unjust 
when  he  hears  his  oa\ti  name  pronounced,  return  the  possessors  or  detainers.  For  example,  in  a  Jumie^^ 
book  which  has  Ixjcn  entrusted  to  him  for  reading,  and  oook  we  find:  "Should  anyone  by  craft  or  any  device 
let  him  who  is  conscious  of  not  having  read  the  book  whatever  al)stract  this  book  from  this  place  [Jumi^ 
through  which  he  has  received,  fall  down  on  his  face,  gcs]  may  his  soul  suffer  in  retribution  for  what  he  has 
confess  his  fault,  and  pray  for  forgiveness.  And  let  done,  and  may  his  name  be  erased  from  the  book  of 
the  aforesaid  librarian  hand  to  each  brother  another  the  li\nng  anrf  not  be  recorded  among  the  Blessed." 
book  for  reading:  and  when  the  books  have  been  dis-  But  in  general  such  formulae  were  more  compendious^ 
tributed  in  ordor,  hi  the  aforesaid  librarian  in  the  as,  for  example,  the  following  foimd  in  many  B%, 


231 


Alban's  books:  "This  book  belongs  to  St.  Alban.  May 
whoever  steals  it  from  him  or  erases  his  inscription 
of  ownership  [titulum  deleverit]  be  anathema.   Amen.'' 

The  high  value  set  on  books  is  also  emphasized  by 
the  many  decrees  enjoining  care  in  their  use.  **  Wlien 
the  rcli^ous  are  enj^ud  in  reading'',  says  an  order 
of  the  Cieneral  Benedictme  Chapter,  **  they  shall,  if  p<^ 
Bible,  hold  the  books  in  their  left  hands,  wrapped  in 
the  sleeve  of  their  tunics  and  resting  on  their  knees, 
their  right  hands  sliall  be  uncovered,  with  which  to 
hold  and  turn  ^e  leaves  of  the  aforesaid  books" 
(Gasquet,  "Old  English  Bible",  29).  Numl)erless 
other  appeals  recommending  care,  tenderness,  and 
even  reverence,  in  the  treatment  of  books  might  be 
quoted  from  medic^  sources.  In  the  ''Philobi1> 
km"  of  Bishop  Richard  of  Bury  we  have  a  whole 
treatise  upon  the  subject,  written  with  an  enthusiasm 
which  could  not  have  been  exccc<lcd  by  a  nineteenth- 
century  bibliophile.  lie  says,  for  example  (chap, 
xvii):  "And  surely  next  to  the  vestments  and  vessels 
dedicated  to  our  liord's  Bod}',  holy  books  deserve  to 
be  rightly  treated  by  the  clergy-,  to  which  great  iniury 
18  done  BO  often  as  they  are  touched  oy  imclean 
hands."  This  care  naturally  extended  to  the  presses 
in  which  the  books  were  permanently  lodged.  The 
Augustinians,  in  particukr,  had  a  formal  rule  that 
"the  press  in  which  the  books  are  kept  ought  to  be 
fined  mside  with  wood,  that  the  damp  of  the  walls 
may  not  moisten  or  stain  the  books' ,  and  de\ices 
were  further  suggested  to  prevent  the  books  from 
being  "packed  so  close  as  to  injure  each  other,  or 
delav  those  who  want  to  consult  them"  (Clark, 
"Care  of  Books",  71). 

Still,  the  monastic  system  did  not  until  much  later 
make  provision  for  any  separate  room  to  1>e  used  as  a 
fibrary.  It  was  in  the  cloister,  in  which  little  alcoves 
called  "carrels"  were  fitted  up,  securing  a  certain 
amount  of  privacy  for  each  student,  that  the  literary 
work  of  the  house,  whether  in  reading  or  transcribing, 
was  mainly  done.  The  result  of  this  system  was  that 
the  books  were  not  kept  all  together  but  preserved  in 
presses  in  different  parts  of  tlie  building.  At  Dur- 
nam,  for  example,  "some  were  kept  in  the  church, 
others  in  the  'spendiment'  or  trea$ur>%  and  others 
again  in  the  refectory',  and  in  more  than  one  place  in 
the  cloister"  (Gasquet,  "Old  Eng.  Bible",  10).  This 
Bcatterinff  of  the  books  was  the  more  likely  to  happen 
because,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  a  collection 
of  volumes  written  by  hand  and  kept  up  only  by 
limited  monastic  resources  could  never  be  very  vast. 
Until  the  art  of  printing  had  lent  its  aid  to  multiplv 
books  and  to  cheapen  them,  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  cupboards  were  sufficient  to  contain  the 
literary  treasures  of  the  very  largest  monastery.  At 
Christ  Church,  Canterbury,  Henr>'  de  Estria's  Cata- 
logue of  about  the  year  loOO  enumerates  3CKK)  titles  in 
Bome  1850  volumes.  At  Glastonbury^  in  1247  there 
were  500  works  in  340  volumes.  The  Benedictines  at 
Dover  in  1389  possessed  449,  while  the  largest  English 
monastic  library,  so  far  as  is  known  to  us,  viz.,  that 
at  Buiy  St.  Edmimds,  at  the  l)eginning  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  contained  2000  volumes. 

The  practice  just  referred  to,  of  scattering  ]xx)ks  in 
different  presses  and  collections,  was  prol>a})Iy  also 
much  influenced  bv  the  custom  of  lending,  or  allowing 
outsiders  to  consuftj  books,  upon  which  something  has 
previously  been  said.  Naturally,  there  will  always 
nave  been  volumes  which  any  community,  monastic 
or  collegiate,  reserved  for  the  exclusive  use  of  its  mem- 
bers. Liturgical  books  and  some  asccticul  treatises, 
eicular  copies  of  the  Scripture,  etc.,  will  have  he- 
ed to  this  class,  while  there  will  have  been  divi.s- 
ions  even  among  the  books  to  which  the  outside  world 
had  access.  The  following  passage,  for  example,  is 
Tery  suggestive.  Thomas  CJascoigne  says  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans at  Oxford  alx)ut  the  year  144o:  "They  had 
two  libnuries  in  the  same  house;  tlio  one  oallod  l  h<^  con- 


vent library,  and  the  other  the  library  of  the  Bchooh; 
whereof  the  former  was  open  only  to  graduates:  the 
latter  to  the  scholars  they  called  seculars,  who  lived 
among  those  friars  for  the  sake  of  learning  ".  All  this 
must  have  been  very  inconvenient,  and  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  in  the  course  of  the  fifteenth  century  the 
desirability  of  gathering  their  hbrary  treasures  into 
one  large  apartment  where  study  might  be  carried  on 
occurred  to  the  authorities  of  many  monastic  and  col-* 
legiate  institutions.  During  the  whole  of  this  period, 
therefore,  libraries  of  some  pretensions  began  to  be 
built.  Thus,  to  take  a  few  examples,  at  Cluist  Church, 
Canterbury,  a  Ubrar>',  60  feet  long  by  22  broad,  was 
built  by  Archbishop  Chichele,  between  1414  and  1443, 
over  the  Prior's  Chapel.  The  library'  at  Durham  was 
constructed  between  1416  and  1446,  by  Prior  Wes- 
syngton,  over  the  old  sacristy;  that  at  Citeaux,  in 
1480,  over  the  scriptoriumj  or  writing-room,  forming 
part  of  the  cloister;  that  at  Clairvaux,  between  1495 
and  1503,  in  the  same  position;  that  at  the  Augustin- 
ian  monastery  of  St- Victor  in  Paris,  between  1501  and 
1508;  and  tliat  at  St-Germain  des  Pr^  in  the  same 
city,  about  1513,  over  the  south  cloister. 

The  transformation  of  Clairvaux  is  easy  to  under- 
stand on  account  of  two  descriptions  left  us  at  a  later 
date.  A  visitor  in  1517  tells  us:  *' On  the  same  side  of 
the  cloister  are  fourteen  studies  [the  carrels]  where  the 
monks  write  and  study;  and  over  the  said  studies  is 
the  new  library,  to  which  one  mounts  by  a  broad  and 
lofty  spiral  staircase  from  the  aforesaid  cloister. "  The 
description  goes  on  to  extol  the  beauty  of  this  new 
construction,  which,  adapting  itself,  of  course,  to  the 
shape  of  the  cloister  below,  was  189  feet  long  by  17 
wide.  In  it,  we  are  told,  "there  were  48  seats  [bavcsl 
and  in  each  seat  four  shelves  [poulpitres]  furnishea 
with  books  on  all  subjects".  These  books,  although 
the  writer  does  not  say  so,  were  probably  chained  to 
the  shelves  after  the  custom  of  tnat  |)eriod.  At  any 
rate  this  is  what  the  authors  of  the  "Voyage  htt^r- 
aire",  two  hundred  years  later,  say  of  the  same  li- 
brary: "From  the  great  cloister  you  pass  into  the 
cloister  of  conversation,  so  called  l^ecause  the  brethren 
are  allowed  to  converse  there.  In  this  cloister  there 
are  twelve  or  fifteen  little  cells  [the  carrels],  all  of  a 
row,  where  the  brethren  fomicrlv  used  to  wnte  books; 
for  this  reason  they  are  still  called  at  the  present  day 
the  writing  rooms.  Over  these  cells  is  the  Library', 
the  building  for  wliich  is  large,  vaulted,  well  lighted, 
and  stocked  with  a  large  numl>er  of  manuscripts  fast- 
ened by  chains  to  desks,  but  there  are  not  many 
printed' books." 

This,  then,  is  a  type  of  the  transformation  which 
was  going  on  in  the  last  century  of  the  Middle  Ages,  a 
process  immensclv  accelerated,  no  doubt,  by  the  mul- 
tiplication of  books  consequent  uiX)n  the  invention  of 
printing.  The  newly  constructea  libraries,  whether 
connected  with  imiversitics,  or  cathedrals,  or  religious 
houses,  were  rooms  of  considerable  size,  generally 
broken  up  into  compartments  or  stalls,  such  as  may 
still  be  seen  in  Duke  Humphrey's  Librar\'  in  the  Bod- 
leian at  Oxford.  Here  the  books  were  chained  to  the 
shelves,  but  they  could  l)e  taken  down  and  laid  upon 
the  desk  at  which  the  student  sat,  and  at  which  he 
could  also  use  his  writing  materials  without  incon- 
venience. Some  few  survivals  of  this  old  arranRoment, 
for  example  at  Hereford  Cathedral,  and  at  Zutphen 
(where,  however,  the  diained  books  can  only  be  con- 
sulted standing),  still  exist.  But  it  was  not  for  very 
many  years  that  this  system  lasted,  except  as  a  per- 
p(»tuation  of  old  tradition. 

Mode  KM  Libraries. — Foremost  among  the  agen- 
cies which  have  contributed  to  the  collection  and  pres- 
ervation of  books  in  later  times  is  the  papacy.  The 
popes,  as  munificent  puitrons  of  learning,  have 
founded  a  number  of  libraries  and  enriched  them  with 
manuscripts  and  documents  of  the  greatest  value. 
The  most  important  of  thc^se  papal  foundations  is  the 


LIOniTIATE 


232 


U09FXILD 


Vatican  Library,  which  will  be  described  in  another 
article  (see  Vatican  Library).  Indirectly,  also,  the 
popes  have  furthered  the  establishment  of  libraries  by 
rounding  and  encouraging  universities.  Each  of  these 
naturally  regarded  the  library  as  the  indispensable 
means  of  research;  and  in  modem  times  especially 
these  university  collections  have  been  enriched  by  the 
ever-growing  mass  of  scientific  literature.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  the  nucleus  of  the  library  was  often 
obtained  by  taking  over  the  books  and  manuscripts 
which  had  been  preserved  in  monasteries  and  other 
ecclesiastical  estaDlishments.  A  glance  at  the  histoiy 
of  the  universities  will  show  how  much  they  are  in- 
debted in  this  respect  to  the  care  and  industry  of  the 
monks  (see,  e.  g.,  the  brief  accounts  in  "Minerva'*,  II, 
Stras'oUJg,  1893).  From  the  same  sources  came,  in 
many  instances,  the  books  which  served  as  the  begin- 
nings of  the  Ubraries  founded  by  sovereigns,  princes, 
churchmen,  national  governments,  municipalities,  and 
private  individuals.  In  recent  times,  moreover,  nu- 
merous and  successful  attempts  have  been  made  to 
provide  the  people  at  large  with  the  facilities  which 
were  once  the  privilege  of  the  student.  Among  the 
efficient  means  for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  must  be 
reckoned  the  public  library  which  Is  foundf  in  nearly 
every  town  of  importance.  While  this  multiplication 
of  libraries  is  due  chiefly  to  the  advance  in  popular 
education,  it  has  led,  on  the  other  hand,  to  the  creation 
of  what  might  be  called  a  special  art  or  science.  Much 
attention  is  now  given  to  the  proper  housing  and  care 
of  books,  and  systematic  instruction  is  provided  for 
those  who  are  to  engage  in  lil)rary  work.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising, then,  that,  along  with  tfie  growing  realization 
of  the  value  and  iraportAnce  of  libraries,  there  should 
gradually  have  come  alx)ut  a  fairer  appreciation  of  what 
was  done  by  the  Church  for  the  preservation  of  books. 

The  following  list  gives  the  founders  and  dates  of 
some  famous  libraries: — 

Aml^rosian  (q.  v.),  Milan;  Cardinal  Federigo  Bor- 
romeo,  1603-09. 

Angelica,  Rome;  Angelo  Rocca,  O.S.A.,  1614. 

Bodleian,  Oxford;  Sir  Thomas  Bodley,  c.  1611. 

British  Museum,  London;  George  III  and  George 
IV  (largely  with  I^LSS.  taken  from  monasteries  by 
Henry  VIII),  c.  1759. 

Casanatense,  Rome;  Cardinal  Girolamo  Casanata 
(q.  v.)^  1698. 

Congressional^  Washington;  U.  S.  Government,  1800. 

Mazarine,  Pans ;  Cardinal  Alazarin,  1643 ;  public  1688. 

Mediceo-Laurenziana,  Florence;  Clement  VII,  1571. 

Nationale,  Paris;  Charles  V  of  France,  1367. 

Royal,  Beriin;  Elector  Fred.  William,  c.  1650. 

Roval,  Munich;  Duke  Albert  V,  c.  1560. 

Vailioeliana,  Rome;  Achille  Stazio,  1581. 

Vatican.  Rome  (see  Vatican  Library). 

Clark,  The  Care  of  Books  (Cambridge,  1902),  a  work  of  the 
very  highest  value  and  indispooBable  to  any  fuller  etudy  of  the 
subject;  Pohlb  and  Stahl  in  Kirchenlex.  a.  v.  Bibliotheken; 
ScuDAMORE  in  Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiq.;  Gasqubt,  Mediaeval 
Monastic  Libraries  in  The  Old  English  Bible  and  other  Essays 

i London,  1897),  1-42;  Ehrlb,  Jamba,  and  others  in  Fasciculus; 
'oanni  Willis  Clark  Dicatus  (Cambridge.  1909);  Gottlikb, 
Ueber  mitUlalterlicke  Bibliotheken  (Leipiig,  1890);  Edwards, 
Memoirs  of  Libraries,  2  vols.,  (London,  1895):  Pauly-Winowa, 
Realencykiopfidie  der  kla»aischen  Altertumsicissenschaft  (1893-); 
Becker,  Catalog  Bihliothecarum  antiqui  (Bonn,  1885);  James, 
The  Ancient  Libraries  of  Canterbury  and  Dover  (Cambridge. 
19a'?);  Macray,  Annals  of  the  Bodleian  Library  (Oxford,  1890); 
RoBiMSo;?  AND  Jamba,  Tne  Manuscripts  of  \yeMminHer  Abbey 
(Cambi  " 
Mona 
bridgt 

34;  Dblwle,  in  Bib.  de  I'EcoIe  des  Charles  fl849).  21(V-31;  In., 
CabinH  des  MSS.  de  la  Bib.  Xationale  (3  vols.,  Paris.  1874-76); 
Thomas,  The  Philobiblon  of  Richard  of  Bury  (London,  1888). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Licentiate.    See  Arts,  Master  of;  University. 

Lichfield,  Ancient  Diocese  of  (Lichfeldensis). 
This  diocese  took  its  rise  in  the  conversion  of  Mercia 
by  St.  Cedd  [q.  v.]  and  his  three  companions  in  652  and 
subsequent  years.    One  of  these  was  Diuma  who  was 


made  Bishop  of  Mercia  about  656.  Among  the  suc- 
cessors of  Diuma  was  St.  Chad,  who  fixed  his  seat  at 
Lichfield,  where  he  built  a  monastery.  As  time  went 
on  other  dioceses  were  carved  out  of  the  Mercian  terri- 
tory— the  sees  afterwards  known  as  Hereford,  Wor- 
cester, and  Dorchester.  But  Lichfield,  though  les- 
sened in  territory,  grew  in  political  imoortance  until 
the  time  of  the  ascendancy  of  Mercia  under  Offa,  when 
that  king  determined  to  raise  Lichfield  as  a  nval  to 
Canterbury.  At  the  Council  of  Chelsea  in  785  legates 
from  the  pope  invested  Bishop  Hi^bert  of  Lichfield 
with  the  archiepiscopal  pallium,  giving  him  metro- 

S>litan  authority  over  Worcester,  Leic^ter^  Lincoln, 
ereford,  and  the  East  Anglian  dioceses  oi  Tglmham 
and  Dunwich.  On  the  death  of  OfTa  the  pope  restored 
the  full  power  of  Canterbur3r,  and  in  803  the  Council  of 
Clovesho  accepted  the  decision  of  the  Holy  See.  Dur- 
ing the  ninth  century  the  diocese  suffered  mudi  from 
the  Danes,  and  the  great  Abbey  of  Reiiton  was  sacked. 
The  next  step  was  the  gradual  conversion  of  the  invad- 
ers. In  the  anarchy  that  ensued  in  the  MiHImmIi^  after 
the  Conquest,  the  estates  of  the  see  were  devastated, 
and  lichfield  it^f  was  so  poor  a  place  that  alUar  the 
Synod  of  1075,  which  directed  the  removal  of  all  sees 
to  walled  tow^ns,  Bishop  Peter  fixed  on  Chester  as  his 
cathedral  city,  and  his  successor,  Robert  de  Lunesey, 
transferred  his  seat  to  Coventry. 

The  chapter  at  Lichfield  was  neverthelesB  main- 
tained, ana  one  of  the  early  Norman  bishops.  Ro^r 
de  Clinton,  rebuilt  its  cathedral  there,  Te-<feaicating 
it  to  St.  Chad,  whose  relics  he  there  enshrined.  En- 
mity and  jealousy,  however,  marked  for  many  yean 
the  relations  between  the  Lichfield  secular  canons  and 
the  Coventrv  monks,  and  successive  episcopal  elec- 
tions were  tne  occasions  for  fresh  quarrels.  Gregoiy 
IX  (1227-41)  settled  the  dispute  by  arranging  that 
the  elections  should  be  made  alternately  l^  each 
chapter.  During  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  oen- 
tunes  the  building  of  the  cathedral  continued.  Though 
not  one  of  the  laiger  cathedrals,  it  has  many  beauties^ 
including  the  west  front  and  the  Lady  Chapel,  and  is 
altogether  exceptional  in  having  three  spires.  When 
the  Reformation  swept  away  au  abbeys  and  monas- 
teries, the  great  monastic  cathedral  church  of  Coven- 
try was  destroyed,  and  the  diocese  was  robbed  by  the 
king  of  many  manors.  The  churches  were  plundered 
and  the  shrine  of  St.  Chad  in  Lichfield  catbedral  was 
violated  and  stripped .  The  schismatical  bishops,  Ro- 
land Lee  and  Ricnard  Sampson,  wasted  the  diocesan 
property.  The  last  Catholic  bishop  was  Ralph  Bayne, 
who  was  deprived  of  the  temporalities  of  his  see  by 
Elizabeth  and  imprisoned  in  tne  house  of  the  Protec- 
tant bishop,  Grindal.  There  he  died  in  November.  1559. 
The  following  is  the  list  of  the  bishops  of  Licnfield, 
the  dates  of  tne  Saxon  bishops  being  very  doubtful: — 

Bishops  of  Mercia:  Diuma,  656;  CeoUach,  658; 
Thumere,  659;  Jaruman,  663.  Bishops  of  lAchMd: 
St.  Chad,  669;  Winfred.  673;  St.  Sexwulf,  675;  Headdi, 
691:  Aldwini  (Wor.).  721;  Witta,  737;  Hemele,  752; 
Cuthred,  765;  Berhthun,  768;  Higbert,  785;  Aldulf, 

801:  Humbert, ;  Herewin,  816;  Higbert  11, ; 

Aethelwald,  818;  Hunbeight,  828;  Tunberht,  ; 

Cineferth,  870;  St.Cumbert. ;  Tunbriht,  890:  Wig- 

mund,901  (?);  Ella,  920;  Alfgar,944  (al.935);  Kynw, 
960  (al.  949);  Wynsy,  974  (al.  961  or  964);  Elph^;e, 
992  (al.973);  Godwin  1002;  Leofgar,  1020;  Brihtmar, 
1026;  Wulsy,  1039;  Leofwin,  10.')3;  vacancy,  1066; 
Peter,  1072;  Robert  de  Limesey,  1086;  vacancy,  1117. 
Bishops  of  Coventry  and  Lichfield:  Robert  Peche,  1121; 
Roger  de  Clinton,  1129;  Walter  Durdent,  1149;  Rich- 
ard Peche,  1161;  vacancv,  1181;  Gerard  la  Pucelle, 
1183;  vacancy,  1184;  Hugh  Nonant,  1188  (al.  1184); 
Geofrey  de  Muschamp,  1198:  vacancy,  1208;  William 
de  Comhill.  1215;  Alexander  de  Stavenby,  1224; 
Hugh  Pateshull,  1240;  vacancy,  1242;  Roger  Wese- 
ham,  1245;  Roger  de  Meyland  (Longespie),  1258; 
Walter  de  Langton,  1296;  Roger  de  Northbuigh,  1322; 


LICHFIELD   CATHEWIAL 


LXOBTXliAU                          233  UEBER 

Robert  Stretton^  1360 ;  Walter  Skirlaw,  1386:  Richard  people  increased  unceasingly.    In  1615  her  relics  were 

Scroope.  1386;  John  de  Buighill,  1398;  John  Catterick,  conveyed  to  Brussels,  but  in  1871  they  were  returned 

1415;  William  Heyworth,  1419:  William  Booth,  1447;  to  Schiedam.    On  14  March,  1S90,  Leo  XIII  put  the 

Nicholas  Cloose,  1452;ReginalaBolars  (Butler),  1453;  official  sanction  of  the  Church  upon  that  veneration 

John  Hales,  1459;  William  Smith,  1492;  John  Arun-  which  had  existed  for  centuries. 

del,   1496;  Godfrey  Blyth,    1503:  Roland  Lee,   1524;  Coudurier,  Vie  de  la  bienheureuM  Lidwine  (Paris.  1862); 

Richard   Sampson,    (elected   schismatically),    1543;  JRwADENyiRA,  La  wd««Luft«ne.w«ify«(V^ 

T»   i_u  T>  ^   ^eeV                                                 <j/j              f  Thomas  A  Kempis,  \  tta  Lidevngxa  mrfftnis  in  Opera  Omnia,  iv 

Kalpb  Basrne,  1004.                            .  ,  .  ,  o  ,,  .     ,     ,    ,  (FVdburg.   1905);   HuYSMANS.  Sainie  Lydwine  de  Schiedam 

In  Cathohc  days  the  Diocese  of  Lichfield  included  (Paris.  1901). 
the  counties  of  Derby,  Salop,  Stafford,  and  most  of  P.  Albers. 
Warwickshire.    It  was  divided  into* four  archdeacon- 
ries: Derby.  Shrewsbury,  Stafford,   and  Coventry.  Lieber,  Ernst  Maria;  b.  at  Camberg  in  the  Duchy 
The  arms  of  the  see  were:  party  per  pale,  gules  and  of  Nassau,  16  Nov.,  1838;  d.  31  March,  1902.     He  was 
argent,  a  cross  potent  and  quadrate  in  the  centre  the  principal  leader  of  the  Centre  Party  in  the  German 
between  four  crosslets  patee  of  the  second  and  or.  Imperial  Parliament  (Reichstag)  and  the  Prussian  Diet 
».'ft".f^**''^"'^'?'?"\^v'**'^*'*^?^*^'^7T**'7*^  (Landtag)  after  the  death  of  Dr.  Windthorst.     Lie- 
i^if{fi:^s^rS'St^cJ'St^Jk  (tfelf!?9&"2:  ber•^  father   Mont*  Lieber   CouncUlor  of  I^ation, 
Short  account  of  the  City  and  Clone  of  Lichfield  (Lichfield.  1819);  had  long  endeared  himself  to  his  Catholic  country- 
?i?AT'  M^***^  and  AntiquiUea  of  Staffordshire  (Londjm.  1798-  men  by  boldly  defending  their  rights  against  bureau- 
1801):  Harwood.  Htatory  of  Lichfield  (Gloucester,  1806):  Brit-  «^i.:«  «««^«»oo;^«a  ;«  iliAVvn44-ir  n^-^ar^  of  n^Ao      T?«.nc>f 
Tos/ History  ani  Antiquities  of  Lichfield  Cathedral  (London,  jratic  aggressions  m  the  petty  German  states.     H-mst 
1820) ;  DuGDAUB.  Monasticon  Anglicanum,  VI,  pt.  Ill  (London,  Maria  was  trained  from  his  earnest  vears  to  take  an  ac- 
y^^^  \  7!^^^^*  Cathedral  Churches  of  England  and  Wales  (iKm-  ti  ve  interest  in  public  and  especially  Catholic,  affairs. 

don,  I860):  Ston«,  Lichfield  Cathedral  (Birmmffham.  18/0):  Af*«»  ^».m.^.,o4^:.w*  f«^m    4-U^  «*^rrv«v.«e;it*n     V.^  o^-iiri:^^ 

BolVon,  Statutes  of  the  Cathedral  Church  of  LichAtld  (StafiFord.  After  graduatmg  from  the  gymnasium,  he  studied 

1871):  BEKEflPORD.  Lichfield  (written  with  strong  anti-Catholic  law  at  W  Qrzburg,  Munich,  Bonn,  and  Heidelberg,  and 

^^?^  *P^  ^j°*^!i  9*H**^  l^^ff  ^^"^^^^P^^i^^li-  Clifton,  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Civil  and  Canon  Law, 

^i!^U%''S!X^  V^^^^Jl^^ndlf^iiohTitl^^i  30  July,  1861      The  next  four  years  he  devoted  to  a 

Pkoob,  Memoirs  of  Roger  de  Weseham  (London,  1*61);  Idem,  profoimd  study  of  philosophy,  history,  literature,  and 

Life  of  Robert  Orossetsste  (London,  1793).  taw^  ^th  the  hope  of  becoming  a  university  professor. 

-  Edwin  Burton.  He  was  obliged,  however,  to  abandon  his  purpose  and 

Ifichtenaa,  Conbad  op.     See  Konrad  op  Lich-  retired  to  his  native  town,  where  he  established  his 

TBNAU.  regular  abode.     In  the  meantime  he  became  actively 

Li^n.    ROM^  EMPEBOH.     See  Co.stx.t.kk  ^^^I'^oL^'o^fffi^lPs^t^'d^l^S^a^ys^^ 

•  separate  schools,  such  as  existed  in  Prussia,  instead  of 

Udwina,  Saint,  b.  at  Schiedam,  Holland,  18  the  mixed  public  schools  where  all  were  educated  to- 
April,  1380;  d.  14  April,  1433.  Her  father,  Peter  gether  without  regard  to  creed.  In  the  agitation  car- 
by  name,  came  of  a  noble  family  while  her  mother  ried  on  for  this  purpose  Lieber  was  a  zealous  worker. 
Petronella,  bom  at  Kethel,  Holland,  was  a  poor  When  Garibaldi  invaded  (1868)  the  Papal  States, 
country  ^rl.  Both  were  poor.  Very  early  in  her  life  Liclxjr  called  a  great  mass-meeting  in  Walmerod  to 
St.  Lidwina  was  drawn  towards  the  Mother  of  God  protest  against  this  aggression.  In  1870  the  peas- 
and  prayed  a  great  deal  before  the  miraculous  image  anta  of  the  WesterwaUi  (West  Forest)  elected  him 
of  Our  Lady  of  Schiedam.  During  the  winter  of  the  their  representative  in  the  Prussian  Diet,  and  later, 
year  of  1395,  Lidwina  went  skating  with  her  friends,  when  the  German  Empire  was  created  (1871),  in 
one  of  whom  caused  her  to  fall  upon  some  ice  with  the  Reichstag.  In  this  capacity  he  took  an  active 
such  violence  that  she  broke  a  rib  in  her  right  side,  part  in  founding  the  famous  Centre  Party,  which  was 
This  was  the  beginning  of  her  martyrdom.  No  medi-  organized  at  Berlin  in  December,  1870,  by  about  fifty 
cal  skill  availed  to  cure  her.  Gangrene  appeared  in  Catholic  members  of  the  Reichstag.  These  deputies 
the  ^«round  caused  by  the  fall  and  spread  over  her  en-  had  foreseen  the  conflict  with  the  Church  (Kvltur- 
tire  body.  For  years  she  lay  in  pain  which  seemed  to  kampf)^  and  announced  their  intention  to  act  on 
increase  constantly.  Some  looked  on  her  with  sus-  purely  constitutional  lines.  From  1870  to  1878  the 
picion,  as  imder  the  influence  of  the  evil  spirit.  Her  members  of  the  new  party  were  mostlv  engaged  in  the 
pastor,  Andries,  brought  her  an  unconsecrated  host,  great  battle  for  the  interests  of  the  Church.  During 
but  the^saint  distinguished  it  at  once.  But  God  re-  this  time  Lieber  developed  his  talent  as  a  parliamen- 
warded  her  with  a  wonderful  gift  of  prayer  and  also  t^iry  orator  and  popular  speaker,  though  as  yet  he 
with  visions.  Numerous  miracles  took  place  at  her  wielded  no  influence  as  a  leader.  The  KuUurkampf 
bed-side.  The  celebrated  preacher  and  seer,  Werm-  was  chiefly  the  work  of  the  indiWdual  states,  the  Em- 
bold  of  Roskoop,  visited  her  after  previously  behold-  pire  taking  no  great  part  in  it,  except  in  the  matter  of 
ing  her  in  spirit.  The  pious  Arnold  of  Schoonhoven  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  carried  out  by  virtue  of  an 
treated  her  as  a  friend.  Hendrik  Mande  wrote  for  imperial  law.  In  1878  a  decided  change  took  place  in 
her  consolation  a  pious  tract  ^in  Dutch.  When  Joan-  the  inner  political  situation  of  Germany.  Bismarck 
nes  Busch  brought  this  to  her,  he  asked  her  what  she  was  meditating  a  change  of  attitude  toward  the  tariff 
thought  of  Henarik  Maude's  visions,  and  she  answered  and  needed  the  votes  of  the  Centre  to  secure  a  major- 
that  they  came  from  God.  In  a  vision  she  was  shown  ity  in  the  coming  parliamentary  contest.  Windthorst 
a  rose-bush  with  the  words,  "When  this  shall  bo  in  took  advantage  or  the  situation  to  win  influence  for  his 
bloom,  your  suffering  will  be  at  an  end."  In  the  spring  party  in  the  Reichstag.  His  diplomatic  attitude  on 
of  the  year  1433,  she  exclaimed,  "  I  see  the  rose-bush  the  social  (question,  and  the  abilities  of  many  of  his 
in  full  bloom! "  From  her  fifteenth  to  her  fifty-third  followers,  aided  him  in  the  accomplishment  of  his  pur- 
year,  she  suffered  every  imaginable  pain;  she  was  one  pose.  Among  these  followers  was  Liel^er.  For  the 
sore  from  head  to  foot  and  was  greatly  emaciated.  On  moment,  however,  he  was  too  interested  in  the  great 
the  morning  of  Easter-day,  1433,  she  was  in  deep  con-  Question  of  the  relations  between  Church  and  State  to 
templation  and  beheld,  in  a  vision,  Christ  coming  to-  acvote  himself  to  social  questions,  though  he  fully 
wards  her  to  administer  the  Sacrament  of  Extreme  realized  what  a  prominent  place  the  social  programme 
Unction.  She  died  in  the  odour  of  great  sanctity .  At  was  to  hold  in  the  history  of  the  German  Empire.  He 
once  her  grave  became  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  and  as  also  knew  that  the  Centre  might  hope  for  great  sue- 
early  as  1434  a  chapel  was  built  over  it.  Joannes  cess,  should  it  manifest  a  sincere  interest  in  the  cause 
Brugmann  and  Thomas  k  Kempis  related  the  history  of  social  improvement.  In  the  years  that  followed 
of  her  life,  and  veneration  of  her  on  the  part  of  the  Lieber  advocated  unceashigly  his  party's  programma 


23-1  LIEBSS 

for  the  protection  of  the  labouring  classes,  a  policy  that  hiin,  especially  the  southern  members,  thereby  con- 
was  gradually  adopted  by  all  other  groups.  stitutiug  him  unquestionable  leader  of  the  party  and 

The  Centre  did  not,  however,  become  identified  with  Windthorst's  successor.  The  Reichstag  was  dissolved 
the  Government  as  a  result  of  its  temporary  alliance,  by  the  emperor  and  a  new  election  took  place  amid 
Though  the  KuUurkampf  was  gradually  discontinued,  great  popular  interest  and  enthusiasm.  The  Ccnti« 
other  difficulties  with  Bismarck  succeeded,  especially  Farty  returned  to  the  Reichstag  as  the  most  numerous 
in  regard  to  the  socio-political  agitation.  The  ^reat  and  unportant  political  factor  m  Germany, 
chancellor  imderstood  its  importance,  but  lx?lieved  Liebcr's  great  qualities  as  a  leader  were  demon- 
that  the  duty  of  the  State  in  respect  of  social  reform  strated  from  1893  to  1898,  during  which  period  his 
was  hmited  to  the  insurance  of  labourers  against  sick-  prominence  became  more  and  more  manifest;  at  the 
ness,  accidents,  and  disability.  The  Centre,  on  the  same  time  took  place  the  greatest  domestic  develop- 
other  hand,  paid  more  att(^nt  ion  to  the  legal  protection  ment  of  the  Empire  since  1870.  In  those  years  Ger- 
of  lalx)urers  against  extortion  and  overtaxation.  In  many  so  developed  its  political  organization  and  be^ 
the  meantime  the  chancellor's  demands  in  the  matter  came  so  self-reliant  that  the  imperial  idea  has  ever 
of  the  army  led  to  a  rupture  between  himself  and  the  since  dominated  the  popular  mind,  completelv  over- 
Centre.  In  the  delates  on  the  Army  Bill  (1887),  the  shadowing  the  local  patriotism  of  the  individual  states, 
so-called  Septennate,  Bismarck  strenuously  resisted  This  is  primarily  due  to  three  main  factors:  the 
the  influence  of  the  hated  party.  He  even  tried  to  Russo-German  commercial  treaty  of  1894;  the  civil 
diminish  the  power  of  the  Reichstag,  and  to  increase  code  of  1896  with  its  resultant  commercial  law;  as 
that  of  the  Prussian  Landtag,  in  order  to  cfTcct  his  well  as  the  reform  of  the  procedure  in  army  cases  and 
object.  During  the  heated  debates  which  followed  the  law  of  1898  concerning  the  navy,  the  foundation 
it  was  Lieber  who  attacked  Bismarck  and  his  asso-  of  the  actual  German  navy.  These  measures  were  so 
ciates  in  the  Landtag  with  the  greatest  vehemence,  thoroughly  discussed  in  Parliament  as  to  bring  home 
In  1890  Emperor  William  II  relieved  Bismarck  of  the  to  the  uerman  people  the  full  si^ificance  of  an  united 
chancellorship,  and  declared  himself  in  favour  of  state  Empire.  It  is  to  Liebcr's  credit  that  he  grasped  this 
protection  for  the  lal)ouring  classes.  In  succeeding  idea  fully  and  that  he  induced  his  party,  and  others  in 
years,  almost  ever>'  bill  for  this  purpose  advocated  by  the  Reiclistag,  to  forget  their  differences  and  finish 
the  Centre  since  1877  has  received  imperial  sanction,  this  great  work  in  umon  with  the  Government.  At 
The  Prussian  ministry  and  Landtag,  however,  re-  the  same  time  he  re-organizcd  his  party.  Its  former 
tained  their  power  in  local  politics,  notwithstand-  organization,  dating  from  the  time  of  the  Xw/ftiritawijoA 
ing  Bismarck  s  retirement.  On  14  March,  1891,  the  owed  its  origin  to  a  politico-religious  condition  oi 
Centre  lost  its  leader  by  the  death  of  Windthorst.  affairs,  and  it  aimed  at  special  legislation.  Beginning 
Several  prominent  memlxjrs  of  the  party  were  of  with  1890,  a  new  organization  had  come  into  existence 
opinion  that  they  ijhould  come  to  an  understanding  with  social  reform  as  its  principal  object,  the  Volksver- 
with  the  Prussian  Government  and  with  the  Conserva-  einfiir  das  Koiholische  Dcvischland  (People's  Union  for 
tive  Party,  in  order  to  obtain  more  influence  in  Prus-  Catholic  Germany).  Liel^er  made  numerous  speeches 
sian  affairs.  This  policy  met  with  Liebcr's  approval,  in  many  cities  on  Wialf  of  this  association.  He  re- 
but fell  through  temporarily,  when,  in  the  spring  of  garded  it  as  the  most  important  means  of  ensuring  the 
1892,  the  Government  withdrew  a  bill  in  the  interest  continuance  of  the  Centre  bv  giving  it  a  wider  sphere 
ofChristian  public  schools.  This  bill  endorsed  the  prin-  of  activity  in  the  domain  of  politics  than  was  attain- 
ciples  of  Christian  education,  but  failed  owing  to  the  able  by  a  merely  ecclesiastical  party ,  also  by  reshaping 
violent  opposition  of  the  Liberals.  A  few  weeks  later,  it  along  such  lines  as  would  make  it  permanently  in- 
thc  Prussian  Liberals  and  Conservatives  formed  a  coali-  fluential  as  an  imperial  party,  ejctending  to  all  the 
tion  in  order  to  cripple  the  Centre  policy  of  extendhig  states  of  the  Empire,  witn  social  reform  for  its  chief 
to  the  miners  the  advantages  already  granted  to  the  object  (eine  sociaie  mid  foderaiive  Reichspartei). 
labourers.  The  Catholic  party  was  hopelessly  outvoted.        Lieber  was  very  active  during  these  years;  his  great 

The  situation  now  l)ecame  very  critical  for  the  speeches  are  full  of  vivid  German  patriotic  sentiment, 

Centre.    Their  failure  to  pass  their  bills  was  aggrav-  and  recall  at  once  the  pofitical  romanticists  of  1813- 

ated  by  discord  within  the  party  itself,  so  serious  as  to  60  and  the  heroes  of  1848.     His  idea  was  the  political 

jeopardize  its  existence.     Its  unity  had  suffered  by  unity  of  Germany,  so  established,  however,  as  to  pre- 

the  loss  of  Windthorst.    The  defence  of  the  rights  of  serve  the  historical  peculiarities  of  the  different  na- 

the  Church,  on  wliich  his  followers  had  hitherto  been  tionaUties,   with   German   science   and   educational 

as  one  man,  no  longer  held  the  first  place  in  the  po-  methods,  German  industrial  life,  and  the  .unifying 

litical  field,  being  overshadowed  by  the  differences,  power  of  a  universal  system  of  commerce.     He  was 

mostly  economical,  which  had  arisen  between  North  ever  mindful  of  the  prestige  of  the  fatherland  abroad, 

and  South  Germany.    To  protect  their  diverging  in-  and  was  ever  a  sincere  friend  of  universal  peace  and  of 

terests  it  appeared  best  to  dissolve  the  partv.    The  an  amicable  rivalry  in  the  pursuit  and  furtherance  of 

possibility  of  a  split  between  the  northern  and  south-  civilization.    He  crossed  the  ocean  three  times  to 

em  members  of  the  Centre  grew  more  threatening  visit  the  United  States.     In  his  speeches  he  urged  the 

when,  in  1893,  a  great  agrarian  agitation  arose  in  Ger-  preservation  of  the   German  racial  characteristics, 

many.    This  led  the  Catholic   voters  of  Bavaria,  He  was  anxious  for  this  in  proportion  as  he  studied 

nearly  all  farmers,  to  desert  the  Prussian  followers  of  American  institutions,  and  realized  their  value,  espe- 

the  Centre,  whose  interests  in  this  matter  diverged  from  cially  in  their  possible  application  to  Germany, 
theirs.    The  crisis  was  approaching  its  culmination,        When  the  election  for  the  Reichstag  took  place  in 

but  was  obviated  when  in  December,  1893,  the  govern-  1898,  Lieber's  party  returned  to  Berlin  with  its  former 

ment  introduced  a  bill  in  the  Reichstag  to  increase  strength.     New,  and  perhaps  more  difficult,  problems 

the  army.    This  caused  great  excitement  throughout  awaited  solution:  the  completion  of  the  navy,  the  re- 

the  Empire.    All  the  members  of  the  Centre  were  newal  of  the  commercial  treaties),  and  the  reform  of  the 

united  in  their  determination  to  grant  only  a  part  of  financial  affairs  of  the  Empire.     Prussia  wa«  also 

the  Kaiser's  demands.    The  two  most  prominent,  endeavouring  to  secure  greater  infiuenoe  in  German 


ably  led  by 

tees  of  the  several  state-governments.   Lieljer  learned     Miquel,  Minister  of  Finance,  formerly  Lieber'a  friend, 
that  the  governments  would  not  give  the  required     but  now  his  intriguing  opponent, 
guarantees,  and  moved  for  the  consideration  of  the        Lieber  now  fell  fatally  ill.    He  continued  his  woA 
estimates  only.    The  majority  of  the  Centre  seconded    without   flinching,   however,   until  January,    190Q, 


USBEB  235  LIEBERMANN 


Landtag.  But  the  Canal  bill,  by  means  of  which  he  its  seasions  held  in  1840  at  Breslau,  and  in  1S57  at  Sabs- 
hoped  to  achieve  this  end,  failedf  at  the  last  moment;  burg,  the  predecessors  of  the  great  Catholic  congresses, 
he  himself  prevented  the  financial  reform  which  he  and  as  president  of  the  Breslau  Congress  he  drew  up 
had  desired  only  as  a  means  of  cancelling  debt^,  and  the  protest  of  the  "  Katholische  Vercin  Deutschlands 
not  as  a  measure  for  regulating  the  financial  relations  agamst  the  proposals  for  reform  made  by  the  Freiburg 
of  the  Empire  with  the  confederated  states,  that  were  professor,  J.  B.  Ilirscher,  in  his  work  "  Erdrterungen 
ttt  this  time  overburdened  by  their  share  of  imperial  uber  die  grossen  religidsen  Fragen  dcr  Gcgenwart "  (3 
taxation.  In  the  Polish  question,  he  went  no  further  parts,  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1846-55).  In  the  conflict  be- 
than  to  outline  a  positive  programme,  by  no  means  tween  the  ecclesiastical  Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine 
committing  his  party  to  a  policy  of  opposition.  He  and  the  Government,  Licber  interposed  with  a  second 
endorsed,  however,  the  completion  of  tne.navy,  and  pamphlet,  "In  Sachen  der  oberrheinischen  Kirchen- 
emphaaixed  the  need  of  a  united  national  spirit  in  provmz"  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1853);  and,  especially  in 
Paniament  by  means  of  which  such  great  resiilts  had  nis  last  years,  as  a  member  of  the  Upper  Chamber  of 
been  obtained  in  the  former  Reichstag.  In  a  word,  he  Nassau  he  w^as  an  energetic  champion  of  the  interests 
was  the  Catholic  parliamentarian  who  attained  the  of  the  Church,  for  which  he  also  used  his  personal  influ- 
most  definite  results  for  the  nation  in  the  Reichstag,  euce  with  his  duke,  who  had  appointeii  him  counsellor 
a  skilled  tactician,  a  politician  ripe  in  knowl^ge  ancl  of  legation.  His  philanthropy  is  evidenced  by  his 
experience,  discreet,  shrewd  and  cautious,  inspired  erection  of  a  hospital  at  Kambcrg,  towards  the  founda- 
by  lofty  aims  and  an  enthusiasm  for  high  ideids.  He  tion  of  which  his  father  had  left  a  rich  bequest. 
was  a  brave  German  citizen,  unselfish,  yet  eager  for  ,  ?^S^'  Gcxhichte  der  kfUholischcn  Kirche  im  J9.  Jahrhun- 
«tion  a  true  Catholic  Christian  both  in  principle  and  ^:  ^jSlrfo^Scffijf  dJ^'c^'^X^^mUS^'S^S^^ 

in  conduct.  Deutschlands  (Colofnio  ,19(K^>,  52  sq.,  106i»q..  and  passim;  Histo- 

Stonographio  ReooidB  of  the  Reichstag  and  T^andtag;  Hrld,  riseh-politisehe  Blatter,  XXIII   (1849).  785  sq.;    XXIV,   118 

Bidooium  (deUvenxl  on  3  April.  1903),  pp.  63;   Spahn,  ErMt  sq.;    Der  Katholik,  XLI  (1861),  I,  127  sq. 
lAiber,  a  biographical  essay  (1906).  Gregor  ReinholD. 

M.  Spahn. 

^,  ^      ,,  ,.  .  .  ,       , ,.  .     ,  ,  Lieber,  Thomas.    See  Erastus  and  Erastianism. 

Ueber,  Moriz,  pohtician  and  publicist,  b.  at  the 

eastle  of  Blankenheim  in  the  Eifel,  1  Oct.,  1790;  d.  at        Liebennann,  Bruno  Franz  Leopold,  Catholic 

Kamberg,  in  Hesse-Nassau,  29  Dec,  1860;  a  man  of  theologian,  b.,  at  Molsheim  in  Alsace  12  Oct.,  1759;  d. 

eminent  ability,  great  learning,  and  the  highest  culture,  at  Strasburg,  11  Nov.,  1S44.  Having  finished  his  hu- 

from  his  youth  to  his  death  a  true  Christian  and  a  manities  in  the  college  at  Molsheim,  he  studied  theol- 

faithful  son  of  the  Church,  and  an  intrepid  champion  ogy  from  1776  to  1780  in  the  seminary  at  Strasburg, 

oC  her  rights  and  interests.    His  earliest  literary  activ-  after  which,  as  he  was  too  young  for  ordination,  he  was 

ity  was  the  translation  of  prominent  Catholic  works  as  subdeacon  appointed  teacher  in  the  college  at  Mols- 

mmi  foreign  tongues,  seeking  thus  to  combat  the  spirit  heim.    He  became  a  deacon  and  a  licentiate  of  theol- 

of  "ralightenment"  and  rationalism  which  had  been  ogy  in  1782,  and  was  ordained  priest  on  14  June,  1783. 

rampant  in  Germany  since  the  days  of  Joseph  II.    He  lie  shortly  afterwards  became  professor  in  the  Stras- 

first  published  under  the  title  "  Die  Werke  des  Grafen  burg  seminary,  in  1784  preacher  at  the  cathedral,  and 

Joseph  von  Maistre"  (5  vols.,  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  1787  pastor  at  Ernolshcim  near  Molsheim.    During 

1822-24),  the  three  principal  works  of  de  Maistre:  the  Revolution  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  across 

"Du  pape",  "De  TEgUse  gallicane  dans  son  rapport  the  Rhine  (1792),  and  the  13ishop  of  Strasburg,  Car- 

avecfesouverainpontife",  and  "Lessoin»es  de  Saint-  dinal  Rohan,  appointed  liim  rector  of  the  seminary 

P^terabourg".    He   also   translated    John    Milner's  which  had  been  transferred  for  the  time  to  the  Abbey 

"The  End  of  Religous  Controversy"  under  the  title  of  All  Saints,  in  the  Black  Forest.     Here  he  taught 

"Ziel  und  Ende  religi5ser  Kontroversen "  (Frankfort,  dogmatic  theology  and  canon  law,  and  wrote  his  un- 

1828;  new  ed.,  Padertx>m,  1849) ;  and  Thomas  Moore's  published  "  Institutiones  iuris  canonici  universalis  ", 

"Travels  of  an  Irish  Gentleman  in  Search  of  a  Reli-  In  1795  he  secretly  returned  to  his  parish  at  Emols- 

gion":  "Reisen  eines  Irlftnders  um  die  wahre  Religion  heim,  where  he  laboured  in  secret  and  in  great  dan- 

lu  suchen"  (Aschaffenburg,  1834;  6th  ed.,  1852).    In  ger  for  the  cure  of  souls  until  1801,  holding  at  the  same 

answer  to  the   pamphlet   "  Bruchstiick   eines   Ge-  time  the  office  of  extraordinary  episcopal  commissary 

aprftches  Qber  die  Pnesterehe"  (Iladamar,  1831),  in  for  this  division  of  the  diocese.     lu  1801  he  was  called 

which  an  anonymous  "friend  of  the  clergy  and  of  to  Strasburg  as  preacher  at  the  cathedral  and  secretary 

women"  attacked  the  celibacv  of  the  Catholic  priest-  of  the  diocese,  but  returned  once  more  to  Ernolsheim 

hood,  Lieber  wrote  "  Vom  Cftlibat "  (Frankfort.  1831) .  in  1803.     On  12  March,  1804,  he  was  there  unexpect- 

As  a  member  of  the  Lower  Chamber  of  Nassau,  nepul>  edly  arrested,  and,  on  the  ^oundlcss  suspicion  tliat 

liflhed  "  Blick  auf  die  jOngste  Session  der  Landesde-  he  was  in  secret  communication  with  the  royal  family, 

Sutierten  «ur  St&ndeversammlung  des  Herzogthums  was  held  a  prisoner  in  Paris  for  eight  raontlis.     When, 

fassau"  (Frankfort,  1832).     Liel^r's  name  became  through  the  intercession  of  Bishop  Col  mar  of  Mainz 

known,  however,  throughout  Germany  by  his  manly  with  Napoleon,  he  regained  his  freodom,  he  was  called 

ehampionship  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  Clemens  by  this  bishop  to  Mainjs  in  1805  as  rector  of  the 

August  von  Droste-Vischering,  who  had  been  im-  newly  founded  seminary  there,  and  in  1806  became 

prisoned  by  the  Prussian  Government.    In  his  defence  also  a  member  of  the  cathedral   chapter.     In  the 

ne  issued  under  the  pseudonvmof  "A  Practical  Ju-  seminar}^  he  lectured  on  canon  law,  church  history, 

rist"  the  powerful  polemic,  "Die  Gefangennehmung  pastoral  theology,  and,  after  1812,  also  on  dogmatic 

des  Erzbischofs  von  K6ln  und  ihre  Motive  "  (3  parts,  theologj'. 

Frankfort,  1837-38).    Effective  as  were  his  published         Personally  and  through  the  clergy  trained  by  him, 

writings  for  the  liberties  and  interests  of  the  Church,  Liel>ermann  exerted  a  w^holesome  and  long-continued 

even  more  valuable  were  his  professional  opinions  and  influence  upon  the  revival  of  the  ecclesiastical  spirit  in 

advice.    Thus  he  was  entrusted  by  the  assembly  of  Mainz  and  the  adjoining  dioceses.     Among  his  pupils 

biahope  at  WOrsburg  in  1848  and  by  the  first  confer-  were  the  future  bishops  Riiss,  Weis,  Geissel,  and  such 

enoe  of  the  bishops  of  the  ecclesiastical  Province  of  the  other  distinguished  men  as  Klee,  Ltift,  Lennig,  Rem- 

Upper  Rhine  held  at  Freiburg  in  1851,  with  the  com-  ling,  and  Nickel.    After  he  had  declined  in  1823  the 

miarion  to  draw  up  a  memorial  to  the  Government,  appointment  to  the  See  of  Metz,  Bishop  Tharin  sura- 

His  greatest  servioesi  however,  were  rendered  in  the  moned  him  as  his  vicai^general  to  Strasourg,  where  he 


UIOI 


236 


XJEQI 


continued  his  fruitful  activity.  Under  Th&rin's  suc- 
cessor, Bishop  Lepappe  de  Trevem,  he  withdrew  more 
from  public  me.  His  last  years  were  spent  in  retire- 
ment in  the  mother-house  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 
Liebermann's  name  will  live  in  theological  literature 
through  his  well-known  "  Institutiones  theologicfle", 
first  published  in  five  vols.  (Mainz,  1819-27;  6th  ed., 
1844)  and  later  m  two  (10th  ed.,  Mainz,  1870).  Ow- 
ing to  the  correctness  of  its  contents  and  its  clear  and 
well-ordered  style,  this  work  w^as  used  as  a  textbook 
for  years  in  many  theological  seminaries  in  Germany, 
France,  Bel^um,  and  America.  During  the  time  of 
the  Revolution,  Liebermann  pubUshed  several  anonv- 
mous  pamphlets  in  defence  of  the  rights  of  the 
Church  ana  against  the  required  oath  of  tne  civil  con- 
stitution of  the  clergy.  Of  his  sermons  several  have 
been  published  separately,  e.g."  Lob-  und  Trauerrede 
bei  Uelegenheit  des  Hintrittes  des  hochwtirdigsten 
Herm  Joseph  Ludwig  Colmar,  Bischof  zu  Mainz" 
(Mainz,  1818).  After  his  death  appeared: — "Lieber- 
mann's  Predigten,  herausgegeben  von  Freunden  und 
Verehrem  des  Verewigten  "  (3  vols.,  Mainz,  1851-3). 
From  1825  to  1826  he  was  editor  of  the  "Katholik". 

GuERBER,  Bruno  Fram  Leopold  Liebermann  (Freiburg  im 
Br.,  1880):  //M/.-poI.  BlatL,  IJCXXVI  (1880).  735-57;  Kalholik, 
I  (1881),  90-109,  201-12;  Fei.der-Waitzrnegger.  OeUhrten- 
itnd  Scnri/lsteller-Lcxikon  der  deiUachen  kathol.  GeistlicfikeU,  III 
(Landshut,  1822),  287-94;  Guerber  in  Kirchenlex.^  8.  v.; 
Reusch  in  Allgem.  deut.  Biog.,  XVIII.  578-80. 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 

Lidge,  Diocese  op  (Legdiensis). — ^Lidge  (Virus 
Leudicus;  Leodium;  Legia)  is  now  the  capital  of  a 
Belgian  province  of  the  same  name. 

Tlie  first  capital  of  this  diocese  was  Tongres,  north- 
east of  Lidge;  its  territory  originallv  belonged  to  the 
Diocese  of  Trier,  then  to  Cologne;  but  after  the  first 
half  of  the  fourth  century  Tongres  received  autono- 
mous organization.  The  boundaries  were  those  of  the 
Citntas  Tungrorum,  and  they  remained  unchanged 
until  1559.  These  boundaries  were,  on  the  north,  the 
Diocese  of  Utrecht;  east,  that  of  Cologne;  south,  the 
Dioceses  of  Trier  and  Reims;  west,  that  of  Cambrai. 
Thus  Tongres  extended  from  France,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Cnimay,  to  Stavelot,  Aachen,  Gladbach,  and 
Venlo,  and  from  the  banks  of  the  Semois  as  far  as 
Eeckeren,  near  Antwerp,  to  the  middle  of  the  Isle  of 
Tholen  and  beyond  Moerdyck,  so  that  it  included  both 
Latin  and  Germanic  populations.  In  1559,  its  1656 
parishes  were  grouped  m  eight  archdeaconries,  and 
twenty-eight  coimcils,  chritientcSj  or  deaneries.  Some 
trace  the  bishops  of  Tongres  to  the  first  century,  but 
the  first  Bishop  was  St.Servais,  installed  in  344  or  345, 
assisted  at  the  C^ouncil  of  Rimini  (359-60),  and  died 
in  384  (?) .  The  invasion  of  406  shattered  the  diocese, 
and  its  restoration  required  a  long  time.  The  conver- 
sion of  the  Franks  began  under  Falco  (first  half  of  the 
sixth  century)  and  continued  under  Sts.  Domitian, 
Monulphus,and  Gondulphus  (sixth  and  seventh  centur- 
ies) .  St.  Monulphus  built  oyer  the  tomb  of  St.  Servais  a 
sumptuous  church,  near  which  liis  successors  often  re- 
sided. During  the  whole  of  the  seventh  century  the 
bishops  had  to  struggle  against  paganism.  St.  Aman- 
dus  (647-50)  abandoned  the  episcopal  chair  in  dis- 
couragement, and  built  monasteries.  St.  Remaculus 
(650-60)  did  the  same.  St.  Theodard  (660-69),  died 
a  martyr. 

St.  Lambert  (669-705?)  completed  the  conversion 
of  the  pagans;  probably  about  705  he  was  murdered  at 
Vicus  Leudicus,  for  his  defence  of  church  property 
against  the  avarice  of  the  neighbouring  lords,  and  he 
was  popularly  regarded  as  a  martyr.  His  successor, 
St.  HuDcrt,  built,  to  enshrine  his  relics,  a  basilica 
which  became  the  true  nucleus  of  the  city,  and  near 
which  the  residence  of  the  bishops  was  fixed. 

Those  bishops,  nevertheless,  continued  to  use  the 
style  of  Bishop  of  the  Church  of  Tongres.  or  Bishop  of 
Tongres  and  of  Lidgs.    Agilbert  (708-64),  and  Gei^ 


bald  (785-810)  were  both  placed  in  the  see  bv  Charle- 
magne. Hartgar  built  the  first  episcopal  palace. 
Bishop  Franco,  who  defeated  the  Normans,  is  cele- 
brated bv  the  Irish  poet  Sedulius.  Stephen  (903-20), 
Richaire  (920-45),  Hugh  (945-47),  Farabert  (947-63), 
and  Rathier  were  promoted  from  the  cloister.  To 
Stephen,  a  writer  and  composer,  the  Church  is  in- 
debted for  the  feast  and  the  Office  of  the  Blessed 
Trinity.  Rathier  absorbed  all  the  learning  of  his 
time.  Heraclius,  who  occupied  the  see  in  959,  built 
four  new  parish  churches,  a  monastery,  and  two  col- 
legiate churches.  He  inaugurated  in  his  diocese  an 
era  of  great  artistic  activity. 

The  domain  of  the  Church  of  Li6ge  had  been  devel- 
oped by  the  donations  of  sovereign  princes  and  the  ac- 
quisitions of  its  bishops.  Notger  (972-1008),  by  se- 
curing for  his  see  the  feudal  authonty  of  a  countship, 
became  himself  a  sovereign  prince.  This  status  his 
successors  retained  until  the  French  Revolution;  and 
throughout  that  period  of  nearly  eight  centuries  the 
Prince-Bishopric  of  Lidge,  with  a  temporal  jurisdic- 
tion of  less  extent  than  its  spiritual,  succeeded  in  main- 
taining its  autonomy,  though  theoretically  attadied 
to  the  Empire.  Tliis  virtual  independence  it  owed 
largely  to  the  ability  of  its  bishops,  under  whom  the 
Principality  of  Lidge,  placed  between  France  and 
Germany,  on  several  occasions  played  an  important 
part  in  international  politics.  Notger,  the  founder  of 
this  principality,  was  also  the  second  founder  of  his 
episcopal  city.  He  rebuilt  the  cathedral  of  St.  Lam- 
bert and  the  episcopal  palace,  finished  the  collegiate 
church  of  St.  Paul,  begun  by  Heraclius,  faciliated  Hoe 
erection  of  Sainte-Croix  and  Saint-Denis,  two  other 
collegiate  churches,  and  erected  that  of  St.  John  the 
Evangelist.  This  bishop  also  strengthened  the  paro- 
chial organization  of  the  city.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
to  spread  the  observance  of  All  Souls'  Day,  which  he 
authorized  for  his  diocese.  But  the  most  notable  char- 
acteristic of  Notger]s  administration  was  the  develop- 
ment which,  following  up  the  work  of  Heraclius,  ne 
gave  to  education:  thanks  to  these  two  bishops  and  to 
Wazo, "  Lidge  for  more  than  a  century  occupi^  among 
the  nations  a  position  in  regard  to  science  which  it  has 
never  recovered".  "The  schools  of  Lidge  were,  in 
fact,  at  that  time  one  of  the  brightest  literary  foci  of 
the  period."  Balderic  of  Looz  (1008-18).  Walbodon 
(1018-21),  Dunindus  (1021-25),  Reginard  (1025-38), 
Nitard  (1038-42),  the  learned  WazOj  and  Theoduin 
(1048-75)  valiantly  sustained  the  hentage  of  Notger. 
The  schools  went  on  forming  many  brilliant  scholars, 
and  gave  to  the  Catholic  Church  Popes  Stephen  DC 
and  Nicholas  II. 

In  the  rei^  of  Henr}'  of  Verdim  (1075-91)  a  tribu- 
nal was  instituted  (tribunal  de  la  pair)  to  take  cogni- 
zance of  infractions  of  the  Peace  of  God.  Otbert 
(1091-1119)  increased  the  territorv  of  the  principality. 
He  remained  faithful  to  Henry  IV,  who  died  as  ms 
guest.  The  violent  death  of  Henry  of  Namur  (1119- 
21)  won  for  him  veneration  as  a  martyr.  Alexander 
of  Juliers  (1128-34)  received  at  Lidge  the  pope,  the 
emperor,  and  St.  Bernard.  The  episcopate  oi  Raoul 
of  Zachringen  was  marked  by  the  preacning  of  the  re- 
former, Lambert  le  B6gue,  who  is  credited  with  found- 
ing the  brines.  The  time  at  length  came  when  the 
schools  of  Liege  were  to  jneld  to  the  University  of 
Paris,  and  the  diocese  supplied  that  university  with 
some  of  its  first  doctors — \Villiam  of  Saint-Thierry, 
Gerard  of  Li^ge,  Godfrey  of  Fontaines. 

Albert  of  Lou  vain  was  elected  Bishop  of  Li^ge  in 
1191,  but  Emperor  Henry  VI,  on  the  pretext  that  the 
election  was  doubtful,  gave  the  see  to  Lothair  of 
Hochstadt.  Albert's  election  was  confirmed  by  the 
pope,  and  he  was  consecrated,  but  was  assassinated  at 
Reims,  in  1 192,  by  three  German  knights.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  emperor  was  privy  to  this  murder,  the 
victim  of  which  was  canonized.  In  1195,  Albert  de 
Cuyok  (1195-1200)  formally  recognised  the  francMscs 


UESBOBM 


237 


LZE8B0BN 


of  the  people  of  Lidge.  In  the  twelfth  oentuiy  the 
cathedral  cti&pter  assumed  a  position  of  importance  in 
relation  to  the  bishop,  and  began  to  play  an  important 
part  in  the  history  of  the  principality. 

The  struggles  between  the  upper  and  lower  classes, 
in  which  the  prince-bishops  frequently  intervened, 
developed  through  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies, to  culminate,  in  the  fifteenth,  with  the  pillage 
and  destruction  of  the  episcopal  city.  In  the  reign  of 
Robert  of  Thourotte,  or  of  Lan^s  (1240-46),  St. 
Juliana^  a  religious  of  Comillon,  Lidge,  was  led  by  cer- 
tain visions  to  the  project  of  having  a  special  feast  es- 
tablished in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  After 
much  hesitation,  the  bishop  approved  of  her  idea  and 
caused  a  special  oflBce  to  be  composed,  but  death  pre- 
vented his  instituting  the  feast.  The  completion  of 
the  work  was  reserved  for  a  former  prior  of  the  Domin- 
icans of  Lidge,  Hugh  of  Saint-Cher,  who  returned  to 
the  city  as  papal  legate.  Hugh,  in  1252,  made  the 
feast  one  of  obhgation  throughout  his  legatine  jurisdio- 
tion.  John  of  Troyes,  who,  after  having  been  arch- 
deacon at  Liftge,  was  elected  pope  as  Urban  IV,  caused 
an  office  to  be  composed  by  St.  Thomas,  and  extended 
the  observance  of  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  to  the 
whole  Church.  Another  archdeacon  of  Li(>ge,  becom- 
ing pope  under  the  name  of  Gregory  X,  deposed  the 
unworthy  Henry  of  Gueldres  (1247-74) .  The  Peace  of 
Fexhe,  signed  in  1316,  in  the  reign  of  Adolph  of  La 
Marck  (1313-44),  regulated  the  relations  of  the  prince- 
bishop  and  his  subjects;  nevertheless  the  intestinal 
discord  continued,  and  the  episcopate  of  Amould  of 
Homes  (1378-89)  was  marked  by  the  triumph  of  the 
popular  party.  Louis  of  Bourbon  (1456-82)  was 
placed  on  the  throne  by  the  political  machinations  of 
the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  who  coveted  the  principality. 
The  destruction  of  Dmant,  in  1466,  and  of  Liege,  m 
1468y  by  Charles  the  Bold,  marked  the  ending  of 
democratic  ascendancv. 

Erard  de  la  Marck  brought  a  period  of  restoration; 
he  was  an  enlightened  protector  of  the  arts.  He  it  was 
who  commenced  that  struggle  against  the  Reforma- 
tion, which  his  successors  mamtaincd  after  him,  and  in 
which  Gerard  of  Groesbeeck  (1564-80)  was  especially 
distinguished.  With  the  object  of  assisting  in  this 
struggle,  Paul  IV,  by  the  Bull  "Super  Universi"  (12 
May,  1559),  created  the  new  bishoprics  of  the  Low 
Countries.  This  change  was  effected  largely  at  the 
expense  of  the  Diocese  of  Li^c;  many  of  its  parishes 
were  taken  from  it  to  form  the  entire  Dioceses  of 
Ruremonde,  Bois-le-Duc  (Hertogenbosch),  and  Na- 
mur,  as  well  as,  in  part,  those  of  Mechlin  and  Ant- 
werp. The  niunber  of  deaneries  in  the  Diocese  of 
Lidffe  was  reduced  to  thirteen. 

Host  of  the  bishops  in  the  seventeenth  century 
were  foreigners,  many  of  them  holding  several  bish- 
oprics at  once.  Their  frequent  absences  gave  free 
scope  for  those  feuds  of  the  Chiroux  and  the  Grignoux 
to  which  Maximilian  Henry  of  Bavaria  (1650-88)  put 
a  stop  by  the  Edict  of  1684.  In  the  middle  of  the 
ei^t^nth  century  the  ideas  of  the  French  eyicydo- 
pidistes  be^ui  to  be  received  at  Lidge;  Bishop  de 
Velbruck  (1772-84),  encouraged  their  propagation  and 
thus  prepared  the  way  for  the  Revolution,  which  biu^t 
upon  the  episcopal  city  on  18  August,  1789,  during 
the  reign  oi  Bishop  de  Hoensbroech  (1784-92).  At 
last  the  territory  of  the  principality  was  united  to 
France,  and  thenceforwara  shared  the  destines  of  the 
other  Belgian  provinces.  The  diocese,  too,  disap- 
peared in  the  Revolution. 

The  new  diocese,  erected  10  April,  1802,  included 
the  two  Departments  of  Ourte  and  Meuse-Inf^rieure, 
with  certain  parishes  of  the  Forest  districts.  In  1818 
it  lost  a  certain  number  of  cantons,  ceded  to  Prussia. 
After  the  establishment  of  the  Kingdom  of  the 
NetherUuids,  the  diocese  comprised  the  Provinces  of 
li^e  and  Limbuig.  On  6  May,  1833.  Mgr  Van 
BoHimel  divided  the  Ftovince  of  Lidge  into  two  dean- 


eries. Th  1839  the  diocese  lost  those  parishes  which 
were  situated  in  Dutch  Limbuig.  The  present  Dio- 
cese of  Lidge,  suffragan  to  Mecnlin,  consists  of  670 
parishes,  grouped  in  40  deaneries,  and  has  (1909)  a 
population  of  1,152,151,  the  majoritv  (Walloons) 
speaking  French;  the  minority,  Flemish  or  German. 
Diocesan  statistics  (1909) :  deaneries,  40;  curacies,  44; 
succursal  parishes,  620;  chapels,  30;  vicariates  paid  by 
the  State,  307 ;  annexes,  22.  After  the  Concordat,  the 
diocese  was  governed  by  Zaepffcl  (1802-08) ;  after  him, 
Lejeas,  nonunated  in  1809  by  Napoleon,  failed  to  ob- 
tain canonical  institution,  and  tne  diocese  was  ad- 
ministered successively  by  the  two  vicars-capitular, 
Henrard  (1808-14)  and  Barrett  (1814-29).  The  suc- 
ceeding bishops  have  been:  Comeille  Van  Boihmel 
(1829-52),  Th6)dore  de  Montpellier  (1852-79),  Victor 
Joseph  Doutroloux  ( 1 879-1 901 ) .  Mgr  Martin-Hubert 
Rutten,  the  present  bishop  was  instituted  in  1901. 
On  account  of  the  Law  of  Separation,  a  number  of 
French  religious  communities  have  settled  in  the 
diocese. 

FisEN,  Flares  ecclencB  Leodierma  (Lille,  1647) ;  Idem.  Hialoria 
eccUsict  leodierutis  (Li^ge,  1696);   Foullon,  HisUnia  leodiensU 


du dioctae  etdela  principauU  de  Lihge,  Dea originea a  1879  (Libget 
1868-92);  Paquay,  Lea  originea  chrfticnnea  dana  U  diachae  de 
Tongrea  (Tonsjres,  1909);    Kurth,  La  cU6  de  LUge  au  moyen 


d*Art  et  d'Histoire  du  dioct'ae  de  Likge  (Li^e,  1881—);  Leodium 
riiH^e,  1902 — );  Vtrksnk,  BibliographiederhiatoiredeBeigiqiie 
(Brussels,  1902),  after  that,  in  Archivea  Belgea, 

Joseph  Bbassinne. 

Liesbom,  a  former  noted  Benedictine  Abbey  in 
Westphalia,  Germany,  founded  in  815;  suppressed  in 
1803.  It  was  situated  near  Bcckum,  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  district  of  MUnster.  According  to 
an  old  tradition  the  monastery  was  established  in  785 
by  Charlemagne.  More  probably,  however,  it  was 
built  in  815  by  two  laymen,  Bozo  and  Bardo,  whom 
the  register  of  deaths  of  Liesbom  names  as  the  found- 
ers. At  first  Liesbom  was  a  convent  for  women.  As 
time  passed  on  the  nuns  mw  more  and  more  worldly, 
so  that  in  1131  Bishop  Egbert  of  Mttnster  expelled 
them,  and  installed  Benedictine  monks  in  their  place. 
It  was  several  times  besieged  by  enemies,  and  from  the 
thirteenth  century  ascetic  life  steadily  declined  as  the 
abbey  increased  in  wealth.  The  monasteir  became  a 
kind  of  secular  foundation,  into  which  the  nobility 
gained  admittance  through  influence.  In  1298  the 
property  of  the  abbey  was  divided  into  separate  pre- 
tends, tw^enty-two  of  them  full  prebends,  and  six  for 
boys.  The  Bursfeld  Union  successfully  worked  here 
also  (1 465)  for  the  restoration  of  discipline.  To  the  Un- 
ion was  due  the  flourishing  condition  of  Liesbom  in 
the  period  of  the  excellent  abbots  Heinrich  of  Cleves 
(1464-90), and  Johann  Smalel)ecker  (1490-1522),  who 
restored  the  buildings  and  greatly  improved  the  econo- 
mic condition  of  the  abbey.  Monastic  life,  art,  and 
study  flourished  again.  The  zeal  of  Licsborn  influenced 
other  Benedictine  abbeys,  and  it  succeeded  in  re-ea- 
tablishing  discipline  and  the  cloister  in  several  con- 
vents for  women.  The  beautiful  altar-paintings  with 
which  Abbot  Heinrich  adomed  the  church  became 
famous,  but  under  French  administration  (1807)  they 
sold  for  a  mere  song.  The  artist  is  unknown,  and 
the  best  pictures  are  now  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London. 

The  pious  Bernard  Witte,  a  warm  friend  of  Human- 
istic leaming,  was  a  monk  at  Liesbom  (1490  to  about 
1 534) .  He  wrote  a  history  of  Westphal ia  and  a  chron- 
icle of  the  abbey.  The  period  of  prospcritv,  however, 
did  not  last  long.  Abbot  Anton  Kalthoff  (1522-32) 
adopted  the  doctrines  of  the  Anabaptists  and  was  de- 
posed; Gerlach  Westhof  (1554-82)  favoured  the  Prot- 
estants and  involved  the  monastery  heavily  in  debt| 


UESBORN 


238 


under  Johann  Rodde  (1582-1601)  immorality  and 
economic  decay  again  increased.  Conditions  were 
still  worse  dming  tne  disorders  caused  by  the  wars  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  It  was  not  until  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia  (1648)  ttiat  any  improvement  appeared, 
and  then  it  was  only  for  a  short  time,  for  the  wars  of 
the  eighteenth  century  also  laid  waste  Liesbom  so  that 
at  the  time  of  the  suppression  there  were  still  several 
thousand  thalers  of  aeot.  The  abbey  was  suppressed 
2  May,  1803,  and  was  declared  the  property  of  the 
Prussian  Crown.  The  Gothic  church,  rebuilt  1499- 
1506,  and  several  monastic  buildings,  are  still 
standing. 

Studien  und  MiUeilungen  aua  dem  Benediktiner-  tend  Zister^ 
gienaer-orden,  XXV  (1904),  738-744;  Schmitz-Ka.llenbero, 
Moruuticon  West  folia  (MQnstcr,  1909),  41;  Becker.  Dw  Wirt- 
achaflaverhdUniaM  de»  Klofftera  Liesbom  am  Ende  dea  MiUelaUera 
(MOnater  Dissertation,  1909). 

KlEMENS  L6FFLER. 

Liesbom,  Master  of,  a  Westphalian  painter,  who 
in  1465  executed  an  altar-piece  of  note  m  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  Liesoom,  founded  by  Charle- 
magne. His  name  is  not  mentioned  by  the  historian 
of  the  monastery,  who,  however,  declares  that  the 
Greeks  would  have  looked  on  him  as  an  artist  of  the 
first  rank.  Even  in  the  fourteenth  century  the  Cologne 
school  of  painting  found  a  rival  in  Westphalia,  and  in 
the  fifteenth  century  the  latter  could  oppose  the  great 
Liesbom  painter  to  Stephen  Lochncr.  These  two 
have  sometliing  in  common  with  each  other  and  with 
the  Van  Eycks  in  Flanders,  and  both  in  their  work 
rather  reflect  the  past  than  look  into  the  future.  On 
the  suppression  of  the  monastery  in  1807,  the  chef 
d'ceuvre  of  the  Westphalian  artist  was  unfortunately 
sold,  divided  into  parts,  and  thus  scattered.  The 
principal  parts,  some  of  tnese  purely  fragmentary,  are 
now  to  be  found  in  the  National  Gallery  of  London,  in 
the  MUnster  Museum,  and  in  private  hands.  A  fair 
idea  of  the  altar-piece  may  be  formed  from  a  copy  in  a 
church  at  Lilnen.  The  altar  had  not  folding  wings, 
the  painting  being  placed  side  by  side  on  a  long  panel: 
in  tne  centre  was  the  Redeemer  on  the  Crass,  while 
Mary  stood  on  one  side  with  Cosmas  and  Damian,  and 
on  the  other  Jolm,  Scholastica,  and  Benedict.  Four 
angels  caught  the  blood  which  poured  from  the 
wounds.  The  touchingly  beautiful  head  of  the  Sav- 
iour is  still  preserved,  as  are  the  busts  of  the  saints, 
whose  countenances  are  so  full  of  character  and  no- 
bility, and  several  angels  \^ith  golden  chalices.  The 
background  is  also  golden.  Four  scenes  chosen  from 
Sacred  History  were  reproduced  on  the  sides. 

The  painting  of  the  Annunciation  represents  a 
double  apartment  with  vaulted  ceiling,  the  front  room 
being  represented  as  an  oratory  and  the  other  as  a 
sleeping  chamber:  the  marble  floor,  the  damask  cur- 
tains which  surround  the  bed,  a  wardrobe,  a  bench, 
some  vases,  and  writing  mat«rial,all  are  carefully  drawn 
and  with  due  regard  for  perspective;  the  arched  door- 
way and  the  partition  wall  are  adorned  with  figures 
of  Prophets  and  Christ,  and  a  representation  of  the 
world.  The  window  looks  out  on  a  landscape.  The 
Blessed  Virgin^  clad  in  a  blue  mantle  over  a  robe  of 

gold  brocade,  is  seen  in  the  front  room  turning  from 
er  prie-dieu  towards  the  angel,  who,  richlv  robed  and 
bearing  in  his  left  hand  a  sceptre,  delivers  his  greeting. 
Of  the  Nativity  group,  there  still  remain  five  l>eauti- 
ful  angels,  who  kneel  on  the  ground  around  the  efful- 
gent form  of  the  Child:  there  also  remain  two  busts  of 
male  figures  which  were  probably  part  of  this  scene. 
Of  the  '*  Adoration  of  the  Magi "  there  is  but  one  frag- 
ment left.  The  "  Presentation  in  the  Temple  "  shows 
a  venerable  priest,  to  whom  the  Mother  presents 
her  Child  laid  on  a  white  cloth:  three  witnesses  sur- 
round the  priest,  while  the  mother  is  attendee!  >)y  two 
maidservants  carrying  the  doves.  Several  panels  have 
been  lost.  The  Liesbom  artist  is  not  as  skilfully 
teah'stic  as  van  Eyck,  but  his  genius  for  delineation 


becomes  quite  apparent  when  one  obeervee  the  no- 
bility of  expression  about  the  mouths  of  his  figures,  the 
almond-shaped  eyes,  the  looee  curly  ludr,  and  the 
natural  folds  of  the  garments.  But  his  most  charac- 
teristic claim  to  fame  lies  in  the  purity  of  his  taste  and 
in  his  ideal  conception  of  a  sacr^  subject.  The  great 
master's  influence  is  evident  in  other  works,  but  no 
second  work  can  be  attributed  directly  to  him. 

NoBDHOPF,  Die  ChroninUn  dea  Kloatera  Lieabom  (MOnater, 
1866);  FuRSTER.  Oeach.  der  deutachen  Kunst,  pt.  II  (Leipsif, 
1853);  Janitschxk,  Geach.  der  deutachen  Maleret  (Berlin,  1890). 

C.  Gl£TlCANN. 

Liessies,  a  Benedictine  monastery  near  Aveanes,  in 
the  Diocese  of  Cambrai,  France  (Nora),  founded  iU>out 
the  middle  of  eighth  century  and  dedicated  to  St. 
Lambert.  The  monastery  appears  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed twice  in  the  wars  of  the  ensuing  centuries,  and 
was  only  finally  established  about  the  year  1110  by 
Theodoric  of  Avesnes  and  his  wife  Ada.  From  this 
time  its  continued  history  is  on  record,  but  without 
any  fullness  of  detail;  a  list  of  the  abbots  may  be  found 
in  "  Galiia  Christiana  ".  The  chief  glory  of  Liessies  is 
the  famous  Louis  de  Blois,  who  became  a  monk  there 
at  the  early  age  of  fourteen.  In  1530  he  was  made 
abbot  and  at  once  inaugurated  his  well  known  series 
of  reforms,  which  were  rendered  necessary  by  the 
gradual  decline  from  strict  monastic  observance  (see 
Blosius).  After  the  death  of  Abbot  Blosius  the  next 
six  abbots  seem  to  have  maintained  the  high  state  of 
observance  inaugurated  by  him,  but  the  forty-first  ab- 
bot, Lambert  Bouillon,  was  of  a  different  type.  He  is 
said  to  have  lived  extravagantly,  exhausted  the  mon- 
astery exchequer  with  lawsuits,  and  diverted  the  rev- 
enues to  the  advantage  of  his  nephews  and  nieces. 
The  illustrious  F6nelon,  then  Archbishop  of  Cambrai, 
accordingly  held  a  visitation  of  the  abbey  in  the  vear 
1702  and  left  certain  instructions  of  which  the  abbot 
circulated  a  largely  fictitious  account.  The  arch- 
bishop, however  having  secured  the  changes  he  de- 
sired, refrained  from  any  public  disavowal  of  the  ab- 
bot's declaration.  After  Abbot  Bouillon's  death  in 
1708  the  existence  of  the  monastery  continued 
smoothly  until  the  final  suppression  of  rehgious  houses 
in  France.  In  1791  the  la!st  abbot.  Dom  Mark  Ver- 
dier,  and  his  community  signed  a  declaration,  as  or- 
dered by  the  decree  of  14  October,  1790,  in  which  they 
protested  their  earnest  desire  to  remain  in  religion,  but 
the  suppression  followed  nevertheless.  The  property 
of  the  monastery  was  sold  in  1791  and  1792  and  tfaie 
church  pillaged  and  destroyed.  The  valuable  paint- 
ings for  which  the  abbey  was  famous,  which  included  a 
series  of  "religious  founders",  were  burned  or  dis- 
persed, a  few  being  still  to  be  seen  in  neighbouring 
churches. 

Chronicon  Ladienae.  in  Reiffenburo,  Mon,  HxeL  Namwr., 
VII,  393;  Ocdlia  Christiana,  III  (Paris,  1725).  123-126;  Ma- 
billon.  Annalea  Bened.,  II.  190,  278;  V.  522;  Binbt.  Abr(ig4 
dea  vifa  dea  principaux  fondateura  dea  religiona  ae  VBgHee,  repr^ 
aentez  dans  le  chaeur  de  Vabbaie  de  a.  Lambert  de  Lieaaiea  .... 
(/\jitwcrp,  1034).  Blosiu'%,  A  Benedictine  of  the  sixteenth  om- 
turj/f  tr.  LovAT  (London.  1878). 

G.  Roger  Hudlestdn. 

Life  ^Gk.  r<^;  Lat.  vUa;  Fr.  La  vie;  Ger.  ZXm  Ltben; 
vital  prmciple;  Gk.  ^vx^;  Lat.  anima,  via  vitalis;  Ger. 
Ijehenskraft). — ^The  enigma  of  life  is  still  one  of  the 
two  or  three  most  difficult  problems  that  face  both 
scientist  and  philosopher,  and  notwithstanding  the 
progress  of  knowledge  during  the  past  twenty-three 
hundred  years  we  do  not  seem  to  have  advanced  ap- 
preciably beyond  the  position  of  Aristotle  in  regard  to 
the  main  issue.  Wliat  are  its  characteristic  manifes- 
tations? WTiat  are  its  chief  forms?  What  is  the  in- 
ner nature  of  the  source  of  vital  activity?  How  has 
life  arisen?  Such  are  among  the  chief  questions 
whichpresent  themselves  with  regard  to  this  subject. 

I.  History. — A.  Greek  Period, — ^The  early  Greek 
philosophers  for  the  most  part  looked  on  movement  as 


un 


239 


un 


the  most  esaential  characteriatic  of  life,  different 
Bchools  advocating  different  material  elements  as  the 
ultimate  principle  of  life.  For  Democritus  and  most 
of  the  Atomists  it  was  a  sort  of  subtle  fire.  For  Di- 
ogenes it  was  a  form  of  air.  Hippo  derives  it  from 
water.  Others  compound  it  ot  all  the  elements, 
whilst  some  of  the  Pythagoreans  explain  it  as  a  har- 
mony— ^foreshadowing  modem  mecuanical  theories. 
Aristotle  caustically  remarks  that  all  the  elements  ex- 
cept earth  had  obtained  a  vote.  With  him  genuine 
scientific  and  philosophic  treatment  of  the  subject  be- 
gins; and  the  position  to  which  he  advanced  it  is 
amon£  the  finest  evidences  of  both  his  encyclopedic 
knowledge  and  his  metaphysical  genius.  His  chief 
discussions  of  the  topic  arc  to  bo  found  in  his  ircpi 
i^vx^  and  repl  ^t^r  yevdfftun. 

For  Aristotle  the  chief  universal  phenomena  of  life 
are  nutrition,  growth,  and  decay.  Movement  or 
change  in  the  widest  sense  is  characteristic  of  all  life, 
but  plants  are  incapable  of  local  movement.  This 
followB  on  desire,  which  is  the  outcome  of  sensation. 
Sentiency  is  the  differentia  wliich  constitutes  the  sec- 
ond graae  of  life — tliat  of  the  animal  kingdom.  The 
highest  kind  of  life  is  mind  or  reat^on,  exerting  itself  in 
thought  or  rational  activity.  This  last  properly  bo- 
longs  to  man.  There  are  not  in  man  three  really  dis- 
tinct souls,  as  Plato  taught.  Instead,  the  hij^hest  or 
rational  soul  contains  eminently  or  virtually  m  itself 
the  lower  animal  or  vegetative  faculties.  But  what 
is  the  nature  of  the  inner  reality  from  which  vital  ac- 
tivity issues?  Is  it  one  of  the  material  elements?  Or 
is  it  a  harmony,  the  resultant  of  the  balance  of  bodily 
forces  and  tendencies?  No.  The  solution  for  Ari^ 
totle  is  to  be  found  in  his  fimdamental  philosophical 
analysis  of  all  Bensil)le  Ixiing  into  the  two  ultimate 
principles,  matter  and  form.  Prime  Matter  (nuitcria 
jnima)  is  the  common  passive  potential  element  in  all 
sensible  substances;  form  is  tne  determining  factor. 
It  actualises  and  perfects  the  potential  element. 
Neither  prime  matter  nor  any  corporeal  form  can  exist 
apart  from  each  other.  They  are  called  sul>stantial 
principles  because  combined  they  result  in  a  being; 
but  they  are  incomplete  beings  in  themselves,  incapa- 
ble of  existing  alone.  To  the  form  is  due  the  spe- 
cific nature  of  the  being,  with  its  activities  and  prop- 
erties. It  is  the  principle  also  of  unity.  (Sec  Fokm; 
Matter.)  For  AristotJe,  in  the  cast^  of  living  natural 
bodies  the  vital  principle,  ^wxiJ»  i«  the  form.  His  doc- 
trine is  embodied  in  his  famous  definition:  ^^xi^  iartv 
irrtkix^'h  ^P^V  (ffifJuiTOi  0i;<r(4(ou  dvvdfiei  ^V  fx^^^^*» 
(De  Anima,  II,  i),  i.  e.  the  soul  is  therefore  the  first  en- 
telechy  (substantial  form  or  perfect  actualization)  of  a 
natural  or  organized  body  potentially  possessing  life. 
The  definition  applies  to  plants,  animals,  and  man. 
The  human  soul,  however,  endowed  with  rationality 
is  of  a  higher  ^rade.  It  is  form  of  the  body  which  it 
animates,  not  in  virtue  of  its  rationality  but  through 
the  vegetative  and  sentient  faculties  which  it  also 
possesses.  The  union  of  these  two  principles  is  of  the 
most  intimate  chfuracter,  resulting  in  one  individual 
being.  The  form,  or  entelochy,  is  therefore  not  a 
substance  possessed  of  a  distinct  Ixiing  from  that  of 
the  body;  nor  in  the  case  of  animals  and  plants  is  it  a 
reality  separable  from  the  body.  The  himian  soul, 
however,  seems  to  be  of  a  different  kind  {y^yos  jircpop) , 
and  separable  as  the  eternal  from  the  perishable. 
Aristotle's  conception  of  the  soul  differs  fundamen- 
tally from  that  of  Plato  for  whom  the  vital  principle 
is  related  to  the  body  only  as  the  pilot  to  the  ship;  who 
moreover  distinguishes '  three  numerically  different 
soulfl  in  the  individual  man. 

B,  Medieval  Period. — ^The  Aristotelian  theory  in  its 
essential  features  was  adopted  by  Al))crtus  Magnus 
and  St.  Thomas,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  vital  prin- 
ciple as  form  of  the  body  prevailed  supreme  through- 
out the  Middle  Ages.  The  differences  separating 
the  rational  soul  from  the  vital  principle  of  the  plant 


or  animal,  and  the  relations  between  intellectual  ao* 
tivity  and  sensory  cognition  became  more  clearly 
defined.  The  human  soul  was  conceived  as  a  spiritual 
substantial  principle  containing  virtually  the  lower 
faculties  of  sensory  and  vegetative  life.  It  is  through 
this  lower  organic  capacity  that  it  is  enabled  to  inform 
and  animate  the  matter  of  the  body.  But  the  human 
soul  always  remains  a  substance  capable  of  sulxdsting 
of  itself  apart  from  the  body,  although  the  operations 
of  its  lower  faculties  would  then  necessarily  be  sus- 
pended. Because  of  its  intrinsic  substantial  union 
with  the  material  of  the  organism,  the  two  principles 
result  in  one  substantial  being.  But  since  it  is  a 
spiritual  being  retaining  spiritual  activities,  intrinsi- 
cally independent  of  the  body,  it  is,  as  St.  Thomas 
says,  noji  totalUer  immersa^  not  entirely  submerged  in 
matter,  as  are  the  actuating  forms  of  the  animal  and 
the  plant. 

Moreover,  the  vital  principle  is  the  only  substantial 
fonn  of  the  individual  being.  It  determines  the  spe- 
cific nature  of  the  living  being,  and  by  the  same  act 
constitutes  the  prime  matter  with  which  it  is  imme- 
diately and  intrinsically  united  a  hving  organized 
body.  The  Scotist  School  differed  somewliat  from 
this,  teaching  that  antecedently  to  its  union  with  the 
vital  principle  the  organism  is  actuated  by  a  certain 
subordinate  forma  corporeitutis.  They  conceive<.l  this 
form  or  collection  of  forms,  however,  as  incomplete 
and  requiring  completion  by  the  principle  of  life.  This 
conception  of  inferior  forms,  though  not  easy  to  recon- 
cile with  the  substantial  unity  of  the  human  being, 
has  never  been  theologically  condemned,  and  has 
found  favour  with  some  modern  Scholastic  writers,  as 
being  helpful  to  explain  certain  biological  phenomena. 

With  respect  to  the  question  of  the  origin  of  life 
Aristotle,  followed  by  Albcrtus  Magnus,  St.  Thomas, 
and  the  Schoolmen  generally,  believed  in  the  spon- 
taneous generation  even  of  organisms  comparatively 
high  in  tlie  animal  kingdom  (see  Biogenesis).  The 
corruption  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter  seemed  to 
result  in  the  spontaneous  generation  of  worms  and  in- 
sects, and  it  was  universally  assumed  that  the  earth 
under  the  influence  of  moisture  and  the  sun's  heat 
coukl  produce  many  forms  of  plant  and  animal  hfe. 
St.  Augustine  taught  in  the  fifth  century  that  many 
minute  animals  were  not  formally  created  on  the 
sixth  day,  but  only  potentially  in  a  seminal  condition 
in  certain  portions  of  matter;  and  subsequently  sev- 
eral Catholic  pliilosophers  and  theologians  admitted 
this  view  as  a  probable  theory  (cf.  St.  Thomas,  I,  Q. 
Ixix,  a.  2: 1,  Q.  Ixxi,  ad  1).  Ilowever,  the  concurrent 
agency  oi  a  higher  cause  working  in  nature  was  as- 
sumed as  a  necessarv  factor  by  all  Christian  thinkers  (cf . 
Salis  Sewis,  "Vera  ^ottrina  di  S.  Agostino  e  di  S.  Tom- 
maso  contra  la  generazione  spontanea  ",  Rome,  1S97). 

C.  Modern  Period. — In  respect  to  the  nature  of  life, 
as  in  regard  to  so  many  other  questions,  Descartes 
(1596-1650)  inaugurated  a  movement  against  the 
teaching  of  Aristotle  and  the  Scholastics  which,  rein- 
forced by  the  progress  of  science  and  other  influences, 
has  during  the  post  two  centuries  and  a  half  com- 
manded at  times  considerable  support  among  both 
philosophers  and  scientists.  For  Descartes  there  are 
but  two  agents  in  the  universe — ^niatt^r  and  mind. 
Matter  is  extension ;  mind  is  thought .  There  is  no  pos- 
sibilitv  of  interaction  l^etwecn  them.  All  changes 
in  bodies  have  to  be  explained  mechanically.     Vital 

Erocesses  such  as  "digestion  of  fowl,  pulsations  of 
eart,  nutrition,  and  growth,  follow  as  naturally  from 
dispositions  of  the  organism  as  the  movements  of  a 
watch".  Plants  and  animals  are  merely  ingeniously 
constructed  machines.  Animals,  in  fact  are  merely 
automata.  In  the  "Traits  de  I'homme"  (1664), 
he  applie<l  the  language  of  cogs  and  pulleys  also  to 
human  physiology.  Thus  muscular  movement  was 
explained  as  dme  to  the  discharge  of  "animal  spirits" 
from  the  brain  ventricles  through  the  nervca  \^lo  ^V>ft. 


Lira 


240 


ura 


muscles,  the  latter  being  thereby  filled  out  as  a  glove 
when  one  blows  into  it.  This  tendency  to  regard  the 
organism  as  a  machine  was  also  fostered  by  the  rapid 
advances  made  in  physics  and  chemistry  diuing  the 
eighteenth  century  and  the  earlier  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth, as  well  as  by  the  progress  in  anatomical  re- 
search of  the  Italian  schools,  and  even  by  the  dis- 
coveries of  such  men  as  Harvey,  Malpighi,  and  Bishop 
Stensen.  The  earlier  crude  mechanical  conceptions 
were,  however,  constantly  met  by  criticism  from  men 
like  Stahl.  If  the  advance  of  science  seemed  to  ex- 
plain some  problems,  it  also  showed  that  life-phenom- 
ena were  not  so  simple  as  had  been  supposed.  Thus 
Lyonet's  work  on  the  goat-moth  revealed  such  a  mi« 
croscopic  complexity  that  it  was  at  first  received  with 
incredulity. 

Stahl  (1660-1734)  himself  advocated  an  exagger- 
ated form  of  vitalism.  Rejecting  the  mechamcal 
theories  of  the  Cartesian  School,  he  taught  that  life  has 
its  source  in  a  vital  force  which  is  identical  with  the 
rational  soul  in  man.  It  is  conceived  as  constructor 
of  the  body,  exerting  and  directing  the  vital  processes 
in  a  subconscious  but  instinctively  intelligent  manner 
by  what  he  calls  X670S  in  contrast  with  \oyLffijM, 
whilst  it  rather  inhabits  than  informs  the  body.  Oth- 
ers separated  the  vital  force  from  the  sentient  soul 
and  adopted  ''didynamism".  Notwithstanding  the 
growth  of  materialism,  vitalism  achieved  considerable 
success  during  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. It  was,  however,  mostlv  of  a  vague  and  incon- 
sistent charact<5r  tinged  with  Cartesian  dualism.  The 
entity  by  which  the  organic  processes  were  regulated 
was  generally  conceived  as  a  tertium  quid  between  soul 
and  body,  or  as  an  ensemble  of  the  vital  forces  in  an- 
tagonism and  conflict  with  those  of  inanimate  matter. 
Tms  was  substantially  the  view  held  by  the  Mont- 

Ejllier  school  (e.  g.  Barthez,  B^rard,  Lordat)  and  by 
ichat.  Even  to  men  like  Cuvier  life  was  simply 
a  tourbiUon,  a  vortex,  a  peculiar  kind  of  chemical 
gnroscope.  The  Bildungstrieb  or  nisus  fonnativus  of 
Blumenoach  (1752-1840),  who  judiciously  profited  by 
the  work  of  his  predecessors,  exhibits  an  improve- 
ment; but  succeeding  vitalists  still  showed  the  same 
want  of  philosophic  grasp  and  scientific  precision. 
Even  a  physiologist  of  the  rank  of  Claude  Bernard 
was  constantly  wavering  between  une  idie  creatrice — 
whatever  that  may  mean — and  une  sorte  de  force  /<*- 
gislatiye  mais  nuUemeni  exi^cutive,  and  the  meclianical 
organism  of  Descartes.  Von  Baer,  Treviranus,  and 
J.  Mailer  favoured  a  mild  kind  of  vitalism.  Lotze 
here,  as  in  his  general  philosophy,  manifests  a  twofold 
tendency  to  t-eleological  idealism  and  to  mechanical 
realism.  The  latter,  however,  seems  to  prevail  in  his 
view  as  to  the  nature  of  vegetative  life.  The  second 
and  third  quarters  of  the  nineteenth  century  witnessed 
a  strong  anti-vitalist  reaction:  a  materialistic  meta- 
physic  succeeded  the  idealistic  Identilatfiphiloaophie, 
Even  the  crude  matter-and-motion  theories  of  Mole- 
schott,  Vogt,  and  Biichner  gained  a  wide  vogue  in 
Germany,  whilst  Tyndall  and  Huxley  represented  pop- 
ular science  philosophy  in  England  and  enjoyed  con- 
siderable success  in  America. 

The  advent  of  Darwinism,  too,  turned  men's  minds 
to  "  phyjpgeny  ",  and  biologists  were  busy  establishing 
genetic  relationships  and  tracing  back  the  infiniU 
varietv  of  living  types  to  the  lowly  root  of  the  genea* 
logical  tree.  To  such  men  life  was  little  better  than 
the  movements  of  a  complicated  congeries  of  atoms, 
evolved  from  some  sort  of  primitive  protoplasmic 
nebula.  The  continuous  rapia  advance  both  of  phys- 
ics and  chemistry  flattered  the  hope  that  a  complete 
"explanation"  of  vital  processes  was  at  hand.  The 
successful  syntheses  of  organic  chemistry  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  law  of  the  conservation  of  energy  in 
the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  were  pro- 
claimed as  the  final  triumph  of  mechanism.  Ludwig, 
Helmholtz,  Huxley,  Hftckel,  and  others  brought  out 


new  and  improved  editions  of  the  seventeenth-centuiy 
machine  view  of  life.  .  All  physiology  was  reduced  to 
processes  of  filtration,  osmosis,  and  diffusion,  plus 
chemical  reactions.  But  with  the  further  advance  of 
biological  research,  especially  from  about  the  third 
c^^uarter  of  the  last  century,  there  be^an  to  find  expres- 
sion among  many  investigators  an  mcreaaing  convic- 
tion that  though  physico-chemistiy  might  shed  light 
on  sundry  stages  and  operations  of  vitcu  processes,  it 
always  left  an  irreducible  factor  unexplamed.  Phe- 
nomena like  the  healing  of  a  wound  and  even  regular 
functions  like  the  behaviour  of  a  secreting  cell,  or  the 
ventilating  of  the  lungs,  when  closely  studied,  did  not 
after  all  prove  so  completely  amenable  to  physical 
treatment.  But  the  insufiSciency  of  physico-chem- 
istry  became  especially  apparent  in  a  new  and  most 
promising  branch  of  biolc^cal  research, — experimen- 
tal morphology,  or  as  one  of  its  most  distinguished 
founders,  W.  Roux,  has  called  it,  Entwicklungsm^ 
chanik.  The  embryological  problem  of  individualistio 
development  had  not  been  adequately  studied  by  the 
older  vitalists — ^the  microscope  nad  not  reached  any- 
thing like  its  present  perfection — and  this  was  one 
main  cause  of  their  failure.  The  premature  success 
of  the  evolution  theory  too,  had  led  to  a  blind,  un- 
questioning faith  in  *' heredity",  "variation",  and 
"natural  selection",  as  the  final  solvents  of  all  difiS- 
culties,  and  the  full  significance  had  not  yet  been 
realized  of  what  Wilson  styles  "  the  key  to  all  ultimate 
biological  problems" — ^the  lesson  of  the  cell.  Recent 
investigation  in  this  field  and  better  knowledge  of 
morphogenesis  have  revealed  new  featiures  of  life 
which  have  conduced  much  towards  a  widespread  neo- 
vitalistic  reaction. 

Among  the  chief  of  these  has  been  the  increased 
proof  of  the  doctrine  of  epigenesis.  Already  in  the 
eighteenth  century  embryologists  were  sharply  divided 
as  to  the  development  of  the  individual  organism. 
According  to  the  advocates  of  preformation  or  pre- 
delineatwti,  the  growth  of  the  embryo  was  merely 
the  expansion  or  evolution  of  a  miniature  organism. 
This  theory  was  held  bv  ovulista  like  Swanunerdam, 
Malpighi,  Bonnet,  and  ^allanzani,  and  by  animalcu- 
lists  like  I^eeuwenhoek,  Hartsoeker,  and  Leibniz.  In 
this  view  the  future  organism  pre-existed  in  the  prim- 
itive germ-oviun  or  spernmtazoon,  as  the  flower  m  the 
bud.  Development  is  a  mere  "  unfolding  " ,  analogous 
to  the  unrolling  of  a  compressed  pocket-liandkercnief. 
Though  not  quite  so  crude  as  these  early  notions,  the 
views  of  men  like  Weismann  are  really  reducible  to 
preformation.  Indeed  the  logical  outcome  of  all  such 
theories  is  the  "encasement"  of  all  succeeding  genera- 
tions within  the  first  germ-cell  of  the  race.  Tne  oppo- 
site doctrine  of  "epigenesis",  viz.,  that  the  develop- 
ment of  the  embrj'o  is  real  successive  production  of 
visible  manifoldness,  real  construction  of  new  parts, 
goes  back  to  Aristotle.  It  was  upheld  by  Harvey, 
Stahl,  BuiTon,  and  Bliunenbach.  It  was  also  advo- 
cated by  the  distinguished  Douai  priest,  J.  Turber- 
ville  Needham  (1713-1781),  who  achieved  distinction 
in  so  many  branches  of  science.  In  its  modem  form 
0.  Hertwig  and  Driesch  have  l)een  amongst  its  noost 
distinguished  defenders.  With  some  limitations  J. 
Reinke  may  also  l>e  classed  with  the  same  school, 
thougli  his  system  of  "dominants"  is  not  easy  to  reo- 
conrile  with  unity  of  form  in  the  living  being  and  leaves 
liim  what  Driesch  styles  a  "problematic  vitalist". 
The  modem  theory  of  epigenesis,  however,  in  the  form 
defended,  e.  k.  by  Driesch,  is  probably  not  incompati- 
ble with  the  hypothesis  of  prelocalized  areas  of  spe- 
cific cytoplasmic  stuffs  in  the  body  of  the  germ-cells, 
as  recently  advocated  by  Conklin  and  Wilson.  But 
anyhow  the  nio<lem  theory  of  pre-delineation  de- 
mands a  regulating  fonnative  power  in  the  Mnbyro 
just  as  necessarily  as  the  epigenctic  doctrine.  More- 
over, in  addition  to  the  difficulty  of  epigenesis,  the  in- 
adequacy of  mechanistic  theories  to  account  for  the 


Lzn 


241 


Lin 


vqgeneration  of  damaged  parts  of  the  embiyo  Is  be- 
ooming  more  clearly  recogxuxed  every  day.  The  trend 
of  the  best  scientific  thought  is  clearly  evident  in  cur- 
rent bioloffical  literature.  Thus  I^fessor  Wilson  of 
Columbia  University  in  1906  closes  his  admirable  ex- 
position of  the  course  of  recent  research  over  the  whole 
held  with  the  conclusion  that  "the  study  of  the  cell 
has  on  the  whole  seemed  to  widen  rather  than  to  nar- 
row the  enormous  gap  that  separates  even  the  lowest 
form  of  life  from  the  inorganic  world  "  (The  Cell,  4.34). 
In  these  words,  however,  ne  is  only  affirming  a  fact  to 
which  the  distinguished  Oxford  biologist  Dr.  Haldane 
also  testifies:  *'To  any  physiologist  who  candidly  re- 
views the  progress  of  the  last  mty  years,  it  must  bo 
perfectly  evident  that,  so  far  from  having  advanced 
towards  a  physico-chemical  explanation  oflife,  we  are 
in  appearance  very  much  farther  from  one  than  we 
were  fifty  years  ago.  We  are  now  more  definitely 
aware  of  the  obstacles  to  any  advance  in  this  direction, 
and  there  is  not  the  slightest  indication  that  they  will 
be  removed,  but  rather  that  with  further  increase  of 
knowledge  and  more  refined  methods  of  physical  and 
ehemicalinvestigation  they  will  only  appear  more  and 
more  difficult  to  surmount."  (Nineteenth  Centurv, 
1898,  p.  403).  In  Germany  Hans  Driesch  of  Heidcl- 
beix  is  at  the  present  day,  perhaps,  the  most  candid 
and  courageous  advocate  of  vitalism  among  German 
biologists  of  the  first  rank.  Since  1899  he  has  pro- 
claimed his  belief  in  the  "autonomy"  and  "dynam- 
ical teleology  "  of  the  organism  as  a  whole.  The  vital 
factor  he  boldly  designates  "entelechy",  or  "psy- 
choid", and  recommends  us  to  return  to  Aristotle  for 
the  most  helpful  conception  of  the  principle  of  life. 
His  views  on  some  points  are  unfortunately  and  (piite 
unnecessarily,  as  it  seems  to  us,  encumbered  by  Kan- 
tian metaphysics;  and  he  appears  not  to  have  adtv 
quately  grasped  the  Aristotelian  notion  of  entclechy 
as  a  constitutive  principle  of  the  living  being.  Still, 
he  has  furnished  valuable  contributions Imth  to  science 
and  the  philosophy  of  life. 

Side  by  side  with  this  vitalistic  movement  there 
continues,  of  course,  an  energetic  section  of  represen- 
tatives of  the  old  mechanical  school  in  men  like 
H&ckel,  Loeb,  Le  Dantec,  and  Verworn,  who  still  at- 
tempt physico-chemical  explanations;  but  no  new  ar- 
guments have  been  adduced  to  jastify  their  claims. 
Many  others,  more  cautious,  aclopt  the  attitude  of 
agnosticism.  This  position,  as  Reinke  justly  olv 
serves,  has  at  least  the  merit  of  dispensing  from  the 
labour  of  thinking.  The  present  neo- vitalistic  reac- 
tion, however,  as  the  outcome  of  very  extensive  and 
thorough-going  research,  is,  we  venture  to  think,  the 
harbinger  of  a  widespread  return  to  more  accurate 
science  and  a  sounder  philosophy  in  respect  to  this 
great  problem.  With  ref^ard  to  the  auestion  of  the 
origin  of  life,  the  whole  weight  of  scientiuc  evidence  and 
auUiority  during  the  past  half  centur\'  lias  gone  to 
demonstrate  with  increasing  cogency  Harvey's  axiom 
Omne  vivena  ex -vivo,  that  life  never  arises  in  this 
world  save  from  a  previous  living  l)eing.  It  claims 
even  to  have  established  Virchow's  generalization 
(1858)  Omnia  cdlula  ex  cdluUiy  and  even  Flemming's 
further  advance  (1882),  Omnia  nudeua  e  nncleo. 

The  history  of  vitalism,  which  we  have  thus  briefly 
outlined,  shows  how  the  advance  of  biological  re- 
search and  the  trend  of  the  best  modern  scientific 
thought  is  moving  steadily  back  in  the  direction  of 
that  conception  of  life  to  be  found  in  the  scholastic 
phiioeophy,  itself  based  on  the  teaching  of  Aristotle. 
We  shall  now  attempt  a  fuller  positive  treatment  of  the 
dodnne  adopted  by  the  great  body  of  Catholic  phi- 
kMophers. 

II.  Doctrine. — A.  Science, — Life  is  that  perfec- 
tion in  a  living  beinf^  in  virtue  of  which  it  is  capable  of 
self-movement  or  mmianent  action.  Motion,  thus 
understood  includes,  besides  change  of  locality,  all 
alterations  in  quality  or  quantity,  and  all  transition 
IX.— 16 


from  potentiality  to  actuality.  The  term  is  applied 
onl^  analogically  to  God,  wno  is  exempt  from  even 
accidental  modification.  Self-movement  of  a  being 
is  that  effected  by  a  principle  intrinsic  to  the  nature  of 
the  beinff,  though  it  may  be  excited  or  stimulated 
from  without.  Immanent  action  is  action  of  which 
the  terminus  remains  within  the  agent  itself,  e.  g. 
thought,  sensation,  nutrition.  It  is  contrasted  with 
transiejxt  action,  of  which  the  effect  passes  to  a  being 
distinct  from  the  agent,  e.  g.  pushing,  pulling,  warm- 
ing, et<5.  Immanent  activity  can  be  the  property  only 
of  a  principle  which  is  an  intrinsic  constituent  of  the 
agent.  In  contrast  with  the  power  of  self-movement 
inertia  is  a  fundamental  attrioute  of  inanimate  mat- 
ter. This  can  only  be  moved  from  without.  There 
are  three  grades  of  life  essentially  distinct:  vegetative, 
sentient  or  animal,  and  intellectual  or  spiritual  life; 
for  the  capacity  for  immanent  action  is  of  three  kinds. 
Vegetative  operations  result  in  the  assimilation  of 
inaterial  elements  into  the  substance  of  the  living  be- 
ing. In  animal  conscious  life  the  vital  act  is  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  sentient  organic  faculty ;  whilst  in  rational 
life  the  intellect  expresses  the  object  by  a  purely  spir- 
itual modification  of  itself.  IJfe  as  we  know  it  in  this 
world  is  always  bound  up  with  organized  matter,  that 
is,  with  a  material  structure  consisting  of  orgaas,  or 
heterogeneous  parts,  specialized  for  different  func- 
tions and  combined  into  a  whole. 

The  ultimate  units  of  which  all  organisms,  whether 
plant  or  animal,  arc  composed,  are  minute  particles  of 
protoplasm,  calle<i  cells.     But  even  in  the  cell  there  is 
differentiation  in  structural  parts  and  in  function.    In 
other  words,  the  cell  itself  living  apart  is  an  organism. 
The  complexity  of  living  structures  varies  from  that 
of  the  single  cell  ama?ba  up  to  the  elephant  or  man. 
All  higher  organisms  start  from  the  fusion  of  two  germ- 
cells,  or  gametes.   When  these  are  unecjual  the  smaller 
one — the  spermatozoon — is  so  minute  in  relation  to 
the  larger,  or  ovum,  that  their  fusion  is  commonly 
spoken  of  as  the  fertilization  of  the  ovum  by  the 
si)ermatozoon.     The  ovum  thus  fertilized  is  endowed 
with  the  power,  when  placed  in  its  appropriate  nu- 
trient medium,  of  building  itself  up  into  the  full-sized 
living  being  of  the  specific  tvpe  to  which  it  belongs. 
Growth  throughout  is  effected  by  a  continuous  process 
of  cell  cleavage  and  multiplication.    The  fertilized 
ovum  undergoes  certain  internal  changes  and  then  di- 
vides into  two  cells  juxtaposed.     Each  of  tlie  pair 
passes  through  similar  changes  and  subdivides  in  the 
same  way,  forming  a  cluster  of  four  like  cells;  then  of 
eight;  thcn>pf  sixteen  and  so  on.    The  specific  shape 
and  different  organs  of  the  future  animal  only  grad- 
ually manifest  themselves.     At  first  the  cells  present 
the  appearance  of  a  bunch  of  grapes  or  the  grains  of  a 
mulberry,  the  monda  stage;  the  growth  proceeds  rap- 
idly, a  cavitv  forms  itself  inside  and  the  blasiosphere 
stage  is  reached.     Next,  in  the  case  of  invertebrates, 
one  part  of  the  sphere  invaginates  or  collapses  inwards 
and  the  embr\'o  now  takes  the  shape  of  a  small  sac, 
the  gastrula  stage.     In  vertebrates  instead  of  invagi- 
nation there  is  une<|ual  growth  of  parts  and  the  dfe- 
velopment  continuing,  the  outlines  of  the  nervous 
system,  digestive  cavity,  viscera,  heart,  sense-organs, 
etc.  ajjpear,  and  the  specific  type  becomes  more  and 
more  distinct,  until  there  can  lie  recognized  the  struc 
ture  of  the  particular  animal — the  fish,  bird,  or  mam- 
mal.   The  entire  organism,  skin,  bone,  nerve,  muscle, 
etc.  is  thus  built  up  of  cells,  all  derived  by  similar 
processes  ultimatelv  from  the  original  germ  cell.    All 
the  characteristic  features  of  life  and  the  formative 
power  which  constructs  the  whole  edifice  is  thus  jxw- 
scssed  by  this  germ-cell,  and  the  whole  problem  of  life 
meets  us  here. 

The  chief  phenomena  of  life  can  l>e  seen  in  their 
simplest  form  in  a  unicellular  organism,  such  as  the 
amoeba.  This  is  visible  under  the  microsco|)e  as  a 
minute  speck  of  transparent  jelly-like  5^ti^^Q\\'dSK^« 


uns 


242 


Lxn 


with  a  nucleus,  or  a  darker  spot,  in  the  interior.  This 
latter,  as  Wilson  says,  may  be  regarded  as  "a  con* 
trolling  centre  of  cell  activity".  It  plays  a  most  im- 
portant part  in  reproduction,  and  is  probably  a  con- 
stituent part  of  all  normal  cells,  though  this  point  is 
not  yet  strictly  proved.  The  amoeba  exhibits  irrita- 
bility or  movement  in  response  to  stimulation.  It 
spreads  itself  around  small  particles  of  food,  dissolves 
them,  and  absorbs  the  nutritive  elements  by  a  process 
of  intussusception,  and  distributes  the  new  material 
throughout  its  substance  as  a  whole,  to  make  good  the 
loss  which  it  is  constantly  undergoing  by  decompo- 
sition. The  operation  of  nutrition  is  an  essentially 
inmianent  activity,  and  it  13  part  of  the  metabolism, 
or  waste  and  repair,  which  is  characteristic  of  living 
organisms.  The  material  thus  assimilated  into  the 
living  organism  is  raised  to  a  condition  of  chemically 
imstablc  equilibrium,  and  sustained  in  this  state  w^hile 
it  remains  part  of  the  living  being.  When  the  assimi- 
lation exceeds  disintegration  the  animal  grows.  From 
time  to  time  certain  cnaiigcs  take  place  m  the  nucleus 
and  body  of  the  cell,  which  divides  into  two,  part  of 
the  nucleus,  reconstituted  into  a  new  nucleus,  remain- 
ing with  one  section  of  the  cell,  and  part  with  the 
other.  The  separated  parts  then  complete  their  de- 
velopment, and  grow  up  into  two  dist  inct  cells  like  the 
original  parent  cell.  Here  we  have  the  phenomenon 
of  reproQuction.  Finally,  the  cell  may  be  destroyed 
by  physical  or  chemical  action,  when  all  these  vital 
activities  cease.  To  sum  up  the  account  of  life  in  its 
simplest  form,  in  the  words  of  Professor  Windle: — 
"The  amoeba  moves,  it  responds  to  stimuli,  it  breatlies 
and  it  feeds,  it  carries  on  complicated  chemical  pro- 
cesses in  its  interior.  It  increases  and  multiplies  and 
it  may  die."     (What  is  Life?,  p.  30.) 

B.  Philosophy. — These  various  phenomena  consti- 
tuting the  cycle  of  life  cannot,  according  to  the  School- 
men, t)e  rationally  conceived  as  the  outcome  of  any 
collection  of  material  particles.  They  are  inexplica- 
ble by  mere  complexity  of  machinery,  or  as  a  result- 
ant of  the  physical  and  chemical  propert  ies  of  matter. 
They  establish,  it  is  maintained,  the  existence  of  an 
intrinsic  agency,  energy,  or  power,  which  unifies  the 
multiplicity  of  material  parts,  guides  the  several  vital 
processes,  dominates  in  some  manner  the  physical  and 
chemical  operations,  controls  the  tendency  of  the  con- 
stituents of  living  substance  to  decompose  and  pass 
into  conditions  of  more  stable  equilibrium,  and  regu- 
lates and  directs  the  whole  series  of  changes  involved 
in  the  growth  and  the  building-up  of  the  living  being 
after  the  plan  of  its  specific  type.  This  agency  is  the 
vital  -principle;  and  according  to  the  Scholastic  phi- 
losopners  it  is  best  conceived  as  the  substantial  form  of 
the  body.  In  the  Peripatetic  theory,  the /orm  or  cn- 
telechy  gives  unity  to  the  living  being,  determines  its 
essential  nature,  and  is  the  ultimate  source  of  its  spe- 
cific activities.  The  evidence  for  this  doctrine  can  be 
stated  only  in  the  briefest  outline. 

(1)  Argument  from  physiological  unity. — ^The  phys- 
iological unity  and  regulative  power  of  the  organism 
as  a  whole  necessitate  the  admission  of  an  internal, 
formal,  constituent  principle  as  the  source  of  vital 
activity.  Tlie  living  Iwing — protozoon  or  vertebrate, 
notwithstanding  its  differentiation  of  material  parts 
and  manifoldness  of  structure,  is  truly  07ie,  It  exer- 
cises immanent  activity.  Its  organs  for  digestion,  se- 
cretion, respiration,  sensation,  etc.,  are  organs  of  one 
being.  They  function  not  for  their  own  sakes  but  for 
the  service  of  the  whole.  The  well-being  or  ill-being 
of  each  part  is  bound  up  in  intimate  sympathy  with 
every  otner.  Amid  wide  variations  of  surroundings  the 
living  organism  exhibits  remarkable  skill  in  selecting 
suitable  nutriment;  it  regulates  its  temperature  and 
the  rate  of  combustion  uniformly  within  very  narrow 
limits;  it  similarly  controls  respiration  and  circula- 
tion; the  composition  of  the  blood  is  also  kept  un- 
changed with  remarkable  exactness  throughout  the 


species.  In  faot,  life  selects,  abeorbe,  distributes, 
stores  various  materials  of  its  environment  for  the 
good  of  the  whole  organism,  and  rejects  waste  prod- 
ucts, spending  its  energy  with  wonderful  wisdom. 
This  would  not  be  possible  were  the  living  being 
merely  an  aggr^ate  of  atoms  or  particles  of  matter  in 
local  contact.  Each  wheel  of  a  watch  or  engine — nay 
each  part  of  a  wheel — is  a  being  quite  dist  met  from, 
and  in  its  existence  intrinsically  independent  of  every 
other.  No  spoke  or  rivet  sickens  or  thrives  in  sympa- 
thy with  a  bar  in  another  part  of  the  machine,  nor  does 
it  contribute  out  of  its  actual  or  potential  substance 
to  make  good  the  disintegration  of  other  parts.  The 
combination  is  artificial;  the  imion  accidental,  not 
natural.  All  the  actions  between  the  parts  are  tran- 
sient, not  immanent.  The  phenomena  of  life  thus 
establish  the  reahty  of  a  imifying  and  regulating  prin- 
ciple, energy,  or  force,  intimately  present  to  every  por- 
tion of  the  Jiving  creature,  making  its  manifold  iparts 
one  substantial  nature  and  regulating  its  activities. 

(2)  Morpho-genetic  argument:  Growth. — ^The  tiny 
fertilized  ovum  placed  in  a  suitable  medium  grows  rap- 
idly by  division  and  multiplication,  and  builds  up  an 
infinitely  complex  structure,  after  the  type  of  the 
species  to  which  it  belongs.  But  for  this  something 
more  than  the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  the 
material  elements  engaged  is  required.  There  must 
be  from  the  beginning  some  intrinsic  formative  power 
in  the  germ  to  direct  the  course  of  the  vast  series  of 
changes  involved.  Machines  may,  when  once  set  up, 
be  constructed  to  perform  very  ingenious  operations. 
But  no  machine  constructs  itself;  still  less  can  it  en- 
dow a  part  of  its  structure  with  the  power  of  building 
itself  up  into  a  similar  machine.  The  establishment 
of  the  aoctrine  of  epigenesis  has  obviously  increased 
indefinitely  the  hopelessness  of  a  mechanical  explana- 
tion. When  it  is  said  that  life  is  due  to  the  organisa- 
tion of  matter,  the  c^uestion  at  once  arises:  W^hat  is  the 
cause  of  the  organization?  What  but  the  formative 
power — the  vital  principle  of  the  germ  cell?  Again, 
the  growing  organism  has  been  compared  to  the  build- 
ing up  of  the  cr>'stal.  But  the  two  are  totally  different. 
The  crystal  grows  by  mere  i^gregation  of  external 
surface  layers  which  do  not  afl^ct  the  interior.  The 
organism  grows  by  intussusception,  the  absorption  of 
nutriment  and  the  distribution  of  it  throughout  its 
own  substance.  A  cr^'stal  liberates  energy  in  its  for- 
mation and  growth.  A  living  body  accumulates  poten- 
tial energy  in  its  growth.  A  piece  of  crystal  too  is  not 
a  unity.  A  part  of  a  crystal  is  still  a  crj'stal.  Not  so, 
a  part  of  a  cow.  A  still  more  marvellous  characteristic 
of  life  is  the  faculty  of  restoring  damaged  parts.  If 
any  part  is  wounded,  the  whole  organism  exhibits  its 
sympathy;  the  nonnal  course  of  nutrition  is  altered, 
the  \ital  energy  economizes  its  supplies  elsewhere  uia 
concentrates  its  resources  in  healing  the  injured  part. 
This  indeed  is  only  a  particular  exercise  of  the  faculty 
of  adaptation  and  of  circumventing  obstacles  that 
interfere  with  normal  activity,  which  marks  the  flexi- 
bility of  the  universal  working  of  life,  as  contrasted " 
with  the  rigidity  of  the  machine  and  the  immutability 
of  physical  and  chemical  modes  of  action. 

The  argument  in  favour  of  a  vital  principle  from 
growth  has  been  recently  reinforced  in  a  new  way  by 
the  introduction  of  experiment  into  embryology. 
Roux,  Driesch,  Wilson,  and  others,  have  shown  that 
in  the  case  of  the  sea-urchin,  amphioxus,  and  other 
animals,  if  the  embryo  in  its  earliest  stages,  when  con- 
sisting of  two  cells,  four  cells,  and  in  some  cases  of 
eight  cells,  be  carefully  divided  up  into  the  separate 
single  cells,  each  of  these  may  develop  into  a  complete 
animal,  though  of  proportionately  smaller  sise.  That 
is,  the  fertilized  ovum  which  was  naturally  destined  to 
become  one  normal  animal,  though  prevented  by  arU* 
ficial  interference  from  achieving  that  end,  has  yet  at- 
taimnl  its  purpose  by  producing  several  smaller  ani- 
mals; and  m  doing  so  has  employed  the  cells  which  ft 


Lin 


243 


LIFE 


podue«d  to  form  quite  other  parte  of  the  organion 
ihan  thoee  for  which  they  were  normally  designed. 
This  proves  that  there  must  be  in  the  original  cell  a 
flexible  formative  power  capable  of  directing  the  vital 
proceeaea  of  the  embryo  along  the  most  devious  paths 
and  of  adapting  mucn  of  its  constituent  material  to 
the  most  diverse  uses. 

(3)  Pmfchical  Argument. — Finally,  we  have  imme- 
diate ancf  intimate  knowledge  of  our  own  living  con- 
scious unity.  I  am  assured  that  it  is  the  same  ulti- 
mate principle  within  me  which  thinks  and  feels, 
which  originates  and  directs  my  movements.  It  is 
this  same  principle  which  has  eovcmed  the  growth  of 
aU  my  sense-organs  and  members,  and  animates  the 
whole  of  mv  body.  It  is  this  which  constitutes  me 
one  rational,  sentient,  Uving  being. 

All  these  various  classes  of  facts  prove  that  life  is 
not  explicable  by  the  mechanical,  physical,  and  chem- 
ical properties  of  matter.  To  account  for  the  phe- 
nomena there  is  required  within  the  living  being  a 
principle  which  has  built  up  the  organism  after  a  defi- 
nite plan;  which  constitutes  the  manifold  material  a 
single  being;  which  is  intimately  present  in  every  part 
of  it;  which  is  the  source  of  its  essential  activities;  and 
which  determines  its  specific  nature.  Such  is  the 
vital  principle.  It  is  therefore  in  the  Scholastic  ter- 
minology at  once  the  final,  the  formal,  and  even  the 
efficient  cause  of  the  livine  being. 

C.  Unity  of  the  Living  Being. — In  each  animal  or 
plant  there  is  only  one  vital  principle — one  substan- 
tial form.  This  is  obvious  from  the  manner  in  which 
the  various  vital  functions  are  controlled  and  directed 
to  one  end — ^the  good  of  the  whole  being.  Were  there 
more  than  one  vital  principle,  then  we  should  have 
not  one  being  but  a  collection  of  beings.  Tlie  prac- 
tice of  abstraction  in  scientific  -descriptions  and  dis- 
cussions of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  cell  has 
sometimes  occasioned  exaggerated  notions  as  to  the 
independence  and  separateness  of  existence  of  the 
individual  cell,  in  the  organism.  It  is  true  that  cer- 
tain definite  activities  and  functions  are  exercised  liy 
the  individual  cell  as  by  the  eye  or  the  liver;  and  we 
may  for  convenience  consider  these  in  isolation :  but  in 
concrete  reality  the  cell,  as  well  as  the  eye  or  the  liver, 
exerts  its  activity  by  and  throueh  llie  Ii\ing  energy  of 
the  whole  bein^.  In  some  lowly  organisms  it  is  not 
easy^  to  determine  whether  we  are  in  presence  of  an 
individual  being  or  a  colony;  but  tliis  docs  not  affect 
the  truth  of  the  proposition  that  the  vital  principle 
being  the  substantial  form,  there  can  only  l^e  one  such 
principle  animating  the  living  being.  With  res{)ect  to 
the  nature  of  this  unity  of  form  there  has  been  much 
dispute  among  the  adherents  of  the  Scholastic  phi- 
losophy down  to  the  present  dav.  It  is  agreed  that  in 
the  case  of  man  the  unity,  which  is  of  the  most  perfect 
kind,  is  founded  on  the  simplicity  of  the  rational  or 
spiritual  soul.  In  the  case  of  the  higher  animals  also 
it  has  been  generally,  though  not  universally  held  that 
the  vital  principle  is  indivisible.     With  respect  to 

1>lants  and  lower  forms  of  animal  life  in  which  the  parts 
ive  after  division,  the  disagreement  is  considerable. 
According  to  some  writers  tlie  vital  principle  here  is 
not  simpfe  but  extende<l,  and  the  unity  is  clue  merely 
to  its  continuity.  According  to  others  it  is  actually 
simple,  potentially  manifold,  or  divisible  in  virtue  of 
the  nature  of  the  extended  organism  which  it  ani- 
mates. There  does  not  seem  to  be  much  prospect  of 
a  final  settlement  of  the  point.  (Urraburu,  "Psy- 
chologia",  bk.  I.) 

D.  UUimaie  Orimn  of  Li/p.— The  whole  weight  of 
the  evidence  from  biological  investigation  during  the 
last  fifty  years,  as  we  have  already  obsrrved,  goes  to 
prove  with  constantly  increasing  force  that  life  never 
appears  on  the  earth  except  as  originating  from  a 
previous  living  being.  On  tne  other  hand  science  also 
proves  that  there  was  a  time  in  the  past  when  no  life 
ccndd  have  posribly  existed  on  this  planet.    How  then 


did  it  begin?  For  the  Christian  and  the  Theist  ths 
answer  is  easy  and  obvious.  Life -must  in  the  first 
instance  have  been  due  to  the  intervention  of  a  living 
First  Cause.  When  Weismann  says  that  for  him  the 
assumption  of  spontaneous  generation  is  a  "logical 
necessity"  (Evolution  Theory,  II,  366),  or  Ivarl  Pear- 
son, that  the  demand  for  "  special  creation  or  an  ultra- 
scientific  cause"  must  be  rejected  because  "it  would 
not  bring  unity  into  the  phenomena  of  life  nor  enable 
us  to  economize  thought  (Grammar  of  Science,  353), 
we  have  merely  a  psychological  illustration  of  the 
force  of  prejudice  even  in  the  scientific  mind.  A  bet- 
ter sample  of  the  genuine  scientific  spirit  and  a  view 
more  consonant  with  actual  evidence  are  presented  to 
us  by  the  eminent  biologist,  Alfred  Russel  Wallace, 
who,  in  concluding  his  discussion  of  the  Darwinian 
theory,  points  out  "that  there  are  at  least  three  stages 
in  the  development  of  the  organic  world  when  some 
new  cause  or  power  must  necessarily  have  come  into 
action.  The  nrst  stage  is  the  change  from  inorganic 
to  organic,  when  the  earliest  vegetable  cell,  or  the  liv- 
ing protoplasm  out  of  which  it  arose,  first  appeared. 
This  is  often  imputed  to  a  mere  increase  of  complexity 
of  chemical  compounds;  but  increase  of  complexity, 
with  consequent  instability,  even  if  we  admit  that  it 
may  have  produced  protoplasm  as  a  chemical  com- 
pound, could  certainly  not  have  produced  living  pro- 
toplasm— protoplasm  which  has  the  power  of  growth 
and  of  reproduction,  and  of  that  continuous  process  of 
development  which  has  resulted  in  the  marvellous 
varietv  and  complex  organization  of  the  whole  vege- 
table kingdom.  There  is  in  all  this  something  quite 
beyond  and  apart  from  chemical  changes,  however 
complex;  and  it  has  been  well  said  that  the  first 
vegetable  cell  was  a  new  thing  in  the  world,  possessing 
altogether  new  powers — ^that  of  extracting  and  fixing 
carbon  from  the  carl)on  dioxide  of  the  atmosphere, 
that  of  indofmite  reproduction,  and  still  more  marvel- 
lous, the  ix)wcr  of  variation  and  of  reproducing  those 
variations  till  endless  complications  of  structure  and 
varieties  of  form  have  l)een  the  result.  Here,  then, 
we  have  indicat  ions  of  a  new  power  at  work,  which  we 
may  term  vilalitt/,  since  it  gives  to  certain  forms  of 
matter  all  those  characters  and  properties  which 
constitute  Life"  (*'  Darwinism",  London,  1889,474-5). 
For  a  discussion  of  the  relation  of  life  to  the  law  of 
the  conservation  of  energy,  see  Eneroy,  where  the 
question  is  treated  at  length. 

Having  thus  expounded  what  we  believe  to  be  the 
teaching  of  the  l)est  recent  science  and  philosophy 
respecting  the  nature  and  immediate  origin  of  life,  it 
seems  to  us  most  important  to  bear  constantly  in  mind 
that  the  Catholic  Church  is  committed  to  extremely 
little  in  the  way  of  positive  definite  teaching  on  the 
subject.  Thus  it  is  well  to  recall  at  the  present  time 
that  three  of  the  most  eminent  Italian  Jesuits,  in  phi- 
losophy and  science,  during  the  nineteenth  century. 
Fathers  Tongiorpi,  Secchi,  and  Palmieri,  recognized 
as  most  competent  theologians  and  all  professors  in 
the  Gregorian  University,  all  held  the  mechanical 
theor>'  in  regard  to  vegetative  life,  whilst  St.  Thomas 
and  the  entire  body  of  theologians  of  the  Middle  A^es, 
like  everylwdy  else  of  their  time,  believed  implicitly 
in  spontaneous  generation  as  an  evcr\'day  occurrence. 
If  therefore  these  decay e<l  scientific  hypotheses  should 
ever  l>e  rehabilitated  or — which  does  not  seem  likely — 
lx>  even  established,  there  would  l>e  no  insuperable 
diflficulty  from  a  theological  standpoint  as  to  tneir  ac- 
ceptance. 

Many  articles  deal  with  questions  toiirhr<l  upon  in  the  present 
fluhjeot:  Actus  et  Potentia;  Bioc.enehis:  Huhxkjy;  Enerot; 
Evoli'tion;  Form:  Matter.  The iB;eneraI  literature  is  solaiiKe 
our  selection  must  do  somewhat  nrbftrarj'. 

Historical. — Aristotle,  DeAnimn,  tr.  Hammond  (Ix>ndon, 
1902);  also  tr.  Hk'kr;  Idem,  De  Generations  Animalium;  De 
Hifitoria  Ammalium,  tr.  Ores  well;  St.  Thomas.  I,  Q.  Ixxvi, 
and  paasim;  Uolfes,  Die  SubstanliaU'  Form  und  der  Begriffder 
Sccle  bri  AridoUleH  (Faderbom,  1800);  Bouilurr,  Du  Prin- 
cipe vital  et  de  Vdme  jfenaante  (Pam,  \Hfik^\  VJi^x-is^ca.,  \>rr 


LIOAMEN 


244 


LIGHTS 


Vitalitmua  aJa  QewhichU  und  dU  Lehre  (Leipzig,  1005) ;  Fostbb. 
Hiatorji  of  Phyaiology  (Cambridge.  1901);  Locr,  Bioloffy  ana 
its  M<Scer9  (New  York.  1908). 

8CISNCE  AND  PmiiOaOPBT  OF  LlFB. WlNDLW,  Wfuit  u  Lifef 

(London,  1008) :  Driesch.  The  Science  and  Philoaophy  of  the 
Organim  (London,  1007-1008);  Wilson,  The  Cell  in  Develojy- 
ment  and  Inheritance  (New  York,  1006);  Jennings,  Contri- 
btUiona  to  the  Study  of  the  Behaviour  of  Lower  Organiema  (Wash- 
ington, 1004) ;  Gerard,  The  Old  Riddle  and  the  Neweat  Answer 
(London,  1908) ;  Maber,  Psychology  (New  York  and  London, 
1905) ;  Dressel.  Der  belebte  und  tier  unbelebte  Stoff  (Freibura:, 
1883);  GuTBERLET,  Der  Kampf  um  die  Seele  (Mainz,  1800); 
fDnit,  Naturphilosophie  (Monster,  1003);  KmiifKja,  Philosophie 
der  Botanik  (Leipzig,  1005) ;  Wasmann,  Die  Modcme  Biologie 
und  die  Entwicfclungstheorie  (Freiburg,  1006);  Mercxer,  La 
difinUion  phihsophique  de  la  vie  (Lou vain,  1808) ;  Faroes,  La 
vie  ei  Vivolution  des  espkces  (Paris,  19(X)) ;  Grasbbt,  Lea  limites 
de  la  biologie  (Paris,  1906);  La  Gbiesa,  La  Biomeccanica^  il 
n4ovit€UiainOt  il  vitalismo  tradisionale  (Rome,  1900);  Carazzz, 
Teorie  e  critiche  neUa  modema  biologia  (Padua,  1906) ;  Gemelu, 
L* enigma  della  vita  (Florence.  1910). 

Limited  Mecbanicism. — Tongiorgi,  Inslitxdiones  Philoso* 
phiccB  (Brussels,  1869);  Carbonelle,  Les  confins  de  la  science 
et  de  la  philosophic  (Paris,  1881);  Seccbi,  Lunith  d€Ua  forte 
fisiche  (Rome,  1860);  Palmieri,  Jnatitutionea  Philosophies,  II 
(Rome,  1875);  Materiaustio  mecbanical  views. — Weis- 
MANN,  Evolution  T/ieory  (Ixtndon  and  New  York,  1004);  Le 
Dantec,  The  Nature  and  the  Origin  of  Life  (London,  1007); 
Verworn,  General  Physiology;  (tr.  London  and  New  York, 
1800);  Pearson,  Orammar  of  Science  (London,  1900). 

Michael  Maher. 

Ligamen  (Lat.  for  hond)^  the  existing  marriage  tie 
which  constitutes  in  canon  law  a  public  impediment  to 
the  contracting  of  a  second  marriage.  As  marriage  is 
monogamous  and  indissoluble,  it  follows  that  one  who 
is  still  united  in  valid  marriage  cannot  contract  an- 
other vaUd  marriage  (Matt.,  v,  31  sq.,  xix,  4  sqq.; 
Mark,  x,  11  sq.;  Luke,  xvi,  18;  I  Cor.,  vii,  10  sq.). 
The  existence  of  a  previous  valid  marriage  at  the  mo- 
ment of  contracting  a  second  entails  of  itself  the  in- 
vahdity  of  the  latter.  The  Church  enforces  the  law 
that  no  one  can  contract  two  or  more  marriages  at  the 
same  time.  Protestantism  on  the  contrary  docs  not 
take  this  stand  as  is  shown,  among  other  cases,  by  the 
action  of  Luther  and  other  reformers  in  the  case  of  the 
double  marriage  of  the  I^andgrave  Philip  of  Hesse 
(Janssen,  "History  of  the  German  People  at  the  close 
of  the  Middle  Ages",  VI  (tr.  London,  1908),  book  II, 
xii,  75  sc^c^.;  Rockwell,  "Die  Doppelehe  des  Land- 
grafen  Philipp  von  Hessen"  (Marburg,  1904);  Paulus, 
"Cajetan  ana  Luther  (ibcr  die  Polvgamie"  in  "His- 
torisch-pohtische  Blatter",  CXXXV,  81  sqq.;  Kohler 
"Die  Doppelehe  des  Landgrafen  Philipp  von  Hessen" 
in "  Histonsche  Zeitschrift ",  XCI V,  385  sqq.).  Hence 
he  who  has  already  contracted  a  marriage,  in  order  to 
proceed  legally  with  another,  must  prove  that  the  first 
marriage  tie  {ligamen)  no  longer  exists.  Since  mar- 
riage, apart  from  "  matrimonium  ratum"  wliich  is  dis- 
solved for  one  party  by  religious  profession,  is  regu- 
larly dissolved  by  death  alone,  proof  of  this  death 
must  be  established  before  the  second  marriage  can 
validly  be  contracted  (C.  19,  X,  de  spousal.,  IV,  I). 

The  proof  of  death  required  is  either  an  official 
death  certificate,  issued  by  the  parish  priest  or  other 
authorized  ecclesiastic,  or  by  the  proper  civil  official, 
the  directors  of  hospitals,  the  military  commanding 
officer,  or  satisfactory  evidence  from  other  public 
records  and  reports.  The  decision  of  a  secular  judge 
supported  by  a  death  certificate  cannot  ipso  facto  de- 
cide the  question  for  the  ecclesiastical  authorities; 
they  may,  however,  utilize  the  same.  Death  may  be 
proved  by  two  credible  witnesses  on  their  oath;  by  one 
witness  of  such  rank  or  character  that  he  is  above  sus- 
picion; by  hearsay  witnesses,  if  their  statements  orig- 
mate  from  unsuspected  sources.  Should  such  credible 
evidence  be  unattainable  directlv,  and  from  eccle- 
siastical sources,  the  bishop  should  try  as  far  as  possi- 
ble to  obtain  at  least  a  moral  certainty  regarding  the 
position  of  the  contracting  parties.  He  ought  also  to 
consider  the  previous  marital  relations  of  the  missing 

eirty,  his  religious  attitude,  age,  health,  property  re- 
tions  with  the  surviving  spouse,  etc. 
Should  the  bishop  be  unable  to  obtain  moral  cer- 
tainty or  should  the  case  be  extraordinary,  appeal 


must  be  made  to  the  Apostolic  See  (C.  8,  X,  qui  filii 
sint  legit.,  IV,  17;  Cong.  S.  Off.,  13,  Mai,  1868,  L  e.  the 
**  Instructio  ad  probanaum  obitum  alicuius  coniugis"; 
Sac.  CJong.  Inq.,  18  Juli,  1900).  Whoever,  in  spite  of  the 
certaintv  of  an  existing  marriage,  attempts  to  contract 
a  second,  conmiits  an  act  juridical]^  null  and  void,  is 
guilty  of  the  sin  of  bigamy,  mcurs  the  ecclesiastical  pen- 
alty of  infamy,  and  is  exconmiimicated  with  a  conse- 
quent refusal  of  the  sacraments  and  Christian  burial. 
Should  it  prove,  however,  that  in  fact  the  first  marriage 
at  the  time  of  contracting  the  second,  was  really  dis- 
solved, then  the  second,  despite  bad  faith,  would  be 
valid.  Should  the  second  marriage  have  been  con- 
tracted in  good  faith,  if  only  by  one  party,  and  it  sub- 
sequently appear  that  the  first  spouse  still  lived,  then 
the  second  marriage  would  not  only  be  invalid  but 
the  parties  to  it  must  be  separated  by  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal authorities,  and  the  first  marriage  re-established. 
However,  the  second  and  invalid  marriage  would  en- 
joy the  advantage  of  being  putative  marriage  (C.  8, 
5C,  qui  filii  sint  legit.,  IV,  17).  This  second  marriage, 
thouffh  illegal  during  the  lifetime  of  the  first  spouse, 
may  be  validly  contracted  after  his  or  her  death;  in- 
deed, should  the  party  who  acted  bona  fide  demand 
it,  the  guilty  one  is  then  bound  to  contract  marriage 
validly  with  the  petitioner. 

Since  monogamy  and  the  indissolubihty  of  marriage 
arc  founded  on  the  natural  law,  this  impediment  of 
ligamen  is  binding  also  on  non-Catholics  and  on  the 
unbaptized.  If  an  unbaptizcd  person  hving  in  polyg- 
amy become  a  Christian,  he  must  keep  the  wife  he  had 
first  married  and  release  the  second,  in  case  the  first 
wife  is  converted  with  him.  Otherwise,  by  virtue  of 
the  "Pauline  privilege",  the  converted  husband  may 
choose  that  one  of  his  wives  who  allows  herself  to  l>e 
baptized  (C.  8,  X,  de  divort.,  IV,  19,  Pius  V,  "Ro- 
mani  Pontificis  ",  2  Aug.,  1571 ;  Gregory  XIII,  "  Popu- 
lis  ac  nationibus'*,  25  Jan.,  1585).  Polygamy  is  like- 
wise forbidden  by  the  civil  law,  though  it  is  much 
more  indulgent  tnan  the  Church  in  the  dissolving  of 
marriages  and  granting  divorces,  and  often  permita 
a  new  marriage  where  the  first  marriage  still  exists. 
In  this  matter  Catholics  must  not  follow  the  civil  law 
where  it  confficts  with  the  law  of  the  Church. 

WerKz,  Jus  decretaliumt  IV  iRomc,  1904 <,  520  saq.;  Lau- 
RENTius,  Institutiones  juris  ccclesiastiei  (Freiburg,  1908)^.  626 
sqq.;  Pauu,  Archiv  far  kaiholisches  Kirchenrecht^  LXXXVIIIr 
273  BQQ-;   Smith,  Elements  of  Ecclesiastical  Law  (New  York* 

1877-89).  Johannes  Baptist  SaqmCllek. 

Lights. — Upon  the  subject  of  the  litureical  use  of 
lights,  as  an  adjunct  of  tne  services  of  tlie  Church, 
something  has  already  been  said  under  such  head- 
ings as  Altar  (in  Liturgy),  sub-title  Altar-Candles; 
Benediction  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament;  Candles; 
Candlesticks;  Lamps  and  Lampadarii.  The  present 
article  will  be  concerned  only  with  the  more  ^ncrai 
aspect  of  the  Question,  and  in  particular  with  the 
charge  so  often  levelled  against  Catholicism  of  adopt- 
ing wholesale  the  ceremonial  practices  of  the  pagan 
world. 

How  far  the  use  of  lights  in  the  daytime  as  an  ad- 
junct of  the  Liturgy  can  be  traced  back  to  the  second 
or  third  century  a.  d.  is  not  quite  easy  to  decide.  On 
tlic  one  hand,  there  seems  to  be  some  evidence  that 
the  Christians  themselves  repudiated  the  practice. 
Although  Tertullian  ("Apol.'S  xlvi  and  xxxv;  "De 
Idololat.'',  xv)  does  not  make  any  direct  reference 
to  the  use  of  lights  in  religious  worsnip,  still  he  speaks 
in  strong  terms  of  the  uselessness  of  burning  lamps 
in  the  daytime  as  an  act  of  piety  towards  the  emper- 
ors. This  would  be  somewhat  inconsistent,  if  the 
Christians  themselves  had  Ixjen  open  to  the  same  re- 
proach. Moreover,  several  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
fourth  century  might  seem  to  be  more  explicit  in 
their  condemnation  of  a  display  of  lamps.  For  ex- 
ample, about  the  year  303,  Lactantius  writes: 
'*  Tney  [the  pagans]  bum  lights  as  to  one  dwelling  in 


LIOBtS 


246 


LZ0HT8 


darkucss.  .  .  Is  he  to  bo  thought  in  his  right  mmd 
who  offers  for  a  gift  the  light  of  candles  and  wax  tapers 
to  the  author  and  giver  of  light?  .  .  .  But  their 
Gods,  because  the^  are  of  the  earth,  need  h^ht  that 
they  need  not  be  in  darkness"  ("  Institut.  Div.",  VI, 
ii) .  In  like  manner,  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  towards 
the  end  of  the  same  century,  observes:  "Let .not  our 
dwelling-place  blaze  with  visible  li^ht  and  resoimd 
with  mmstrelsy,  for  this  indeed  is  the  custom  of  the 
Greek  holy-month,  but  let  us  not  honour  God  with 
these  things  and  exalt  the  present  season  with  unbe- 
coming rites,  but  with  purity  of  soul  and  cheeriuhiess 
of  mind  and  with  lamps  which  enlighten  the  whole 
body  of  the  Church,  i.  e.  with  divine  contemplations 
and  thoughts"  (Orat.,  v,  35).  The  rhetorical  char- 
acter of  such  passages  makes  it  dan^rous  to  draw 
inferences.  It  may  well  be  that  the  writers  are 
merely  protesting  against  the  illuminations  which 
formed  part  of  the  ordinary  reU^ous  cultus  of  the 
emperors,  and  wish  to  state  forcibly  the  objections 
agSLinst  a  similar  practice  which  was  beginning  to 
find  favour  among  Christians.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  cer- 
tain that  even  earlier  than  this  the  hturgical  use 
of  lights  must  have  been  introduced.  The  decree 
of  the  Spanish  Council  of  Illiberis,  or  Ehira  (about 
A.  D.  305),  is  too  obscure  to  afford  a  firm  basis  for 
argument  (see  Hefele-Leclercq,  **nist.  des  Conciles", 
I,  212).  Still  this  prohibition,  "that  candles  be  not 
lighted  in  a  cemetery  during  the  day,  for  the  spirits 
of  the  saints  ought  not  to  be  disquieted  "  (can.  xxxiv), 
at  least  shows  that  the  practice — ^which  we  know  to 
have  been  long  in  use  among  pagans — of  burning 
lights,  for  some  syml)olicaI  or  superstitious  reason,  even 
in  the  daytime,  was  being  adopted  among  the  Chris- 
tians also.  To  discuss  in  detail  the  perplexing  and 
seemingly  inconsistent  references  of  St.  Jerome  to 
the  use  of  lights  would  not  be  possible  here.  But 
two  facts  stand  out  clearly:  (1)  that  he  admitted  the 
existence  of  a  pretty  general  custom  of  burning  can- 
dles and  lamps  in  honour  of  the  martyrs,  a  custom 
which  he  apologizes  for  without  unreservedly  ap- 
proving it;  and  (2)  that  the  saint,  though  he  denies 
that  there  is  any  general  practice  among  the  Christians 
of  burning  lights  during  the  davtime,  still  admits  at 
least  some  instances  of  a  [lurely  liturgical  use  of  light. 
Thus  he  says:  "Apart  from  honouring  the  relics  of 
martyrs,  it  is  the  custom,  through  all  the  Churches  of 
the  East,  that  when  the  gospels  are  to  he  read  lights 
are  kindled,  thoueh  the  sun  is  already  shining,  not, 
indeed,  to  dispel  darkness,  but  to  exhibit  a  token  of 
joy  .  .  .  and  that,  under  the  figure  of  bodily  light, 
that  light  may  be  set  forth  of  which  we  read  in  the 
psalter  '  thy  word  is  a  lamp  to  my  feet  and  a  light  to 
my  paths'"  (C.  Vieilantium,  vii).  This  testimony  is 
particularly  valuable  because  it  so  clearly  refutes  any 
exclusively  utilitarian  view  of  the  use  of  lights  in  the 
churches. 

From  Eusebius,  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola,  the  "  Peregri- 
natio  iEtheris"  (Pilgrimage  of  iEtheria),  and  other 
authorities,  we  have  abundant  evidence  that  the 
Christians  of  the  fourth  century,  and  probably  earlier 
still,  upon  Easter  eve  and  some  other  solemn  festivals, 
made  a  great  display  of  lamps  and  candles  of  all  kinds. 
Moreover,  this  does  not  seem  to  have  been  confined 
to  the  nocturnal  vigil  itself,  for  St.  Paulinus,  in  de- 
scribing the  feast  of  St.  Felix  to  whom  his  church  was 
dedicated,  tells  us  in  verse  how  "the  bright  altars  are 
crowned  with  lamps  thickly  set.  Lights  are  burnt, 
odorous  with  waxed  papyri.  They  shine  by  night  and 
day;  thus  night  is  radiant  with  the  brightness,  of  the 
day,  and  the  day  itself,  bright  in  heavenly  beauty, 
shmes  yet  more  with  light  doubled  by  countless 
lampa"  ("  Poem.",  xiv,  "  Nat. "  iii,  in  P.  L.,  LXI,  467). 
Stillthis  poetical  language  may  very  possibly  mean  no 
more  thain  that  in  a  rather  dark  church  it  was  found 
desirable  to  keep  the  hunps  burning  even  in  daytime 
upon  great  festivalz,  when  there  was  a  lurge  concourse 


of  people.  It  tells  us  nothing  of  any  use  of  lights 
which  IS  liturgical  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  word. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  various  references  to  the 
festal  adornment  of  churches  with  lamps  and  candles 
which  may  be  found  in  the  writings  of  the  Christian 
poet  Prudentius  (cf.  P.  L.,  LIX.  819,  829;  and  LX. 
300).  Still,  when  we  find  in  the  newly  discovered 
*  *  Testament  of  our  Lord  "  (1. 19)  an  injunction  regard- 
ing church  buildings,  tliat "  all  places  should  be  lighted 
both  for  a  type  and  also  for  reading",  it  seems  clear 
that  St.  Jerome  was  not  alone  in  attaching  a  mysti- 
cal significance  to  the  use  of  lights.  Henc«  we  may 
infer  that  before  the  days  (about  a.  d.  475)  of  the 
liturgical  homilist  Narsai  (see  Lamps  and  Lampa- 
DARU)  the  use  of  lamps  and  candles  around  the  altar 
during  the  Liturgy  had  become  universal. 

It  imould  be  added  that  no  great  importance  can  be 
attached  to  the  mention  by  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola,  of 
"a  perpetual  light"  in  the  church  ("continuum  scy- 

?hus  argenteus  aptus  ad  usum";  cf.  P.  L.,  LXI,  539). 
his  certainly  cannot  be  assumed  to  have  been  in- 
tended as  a  mark  of  respect  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
reserved  for  the  sick.  In  the  days  before  the  inven- 
tion of  matches  the  continuance  of  some  source  of  fire 
from  wliich  a  light  could  ]ye  readily  obtained  was  a 
matter  of  great  convenience.  Such  a  perpetual  light 
seems  to  Imve  been  usually  kept  up,  then  as  now,  in 
Jewish  synagogues  (cf.  Ex.,  xxvii,  20;  Lev.,  xxiv,  2). 
but  it  was  only  the  later  Talmudists  who  discovered 
in  this  a  purpose  of  honouring  the  Torah,  or  Books  of 
the  Law,  preserved  in  the  Ark.  The  same  utilita- 
rian design  probably  underlay  any  Christian  practice, 
which,  after  all,  is  not  very  widely  attested,  of  keeping 
a  light  perpetually  burning  in  the  church. 

But  to  return  to  the  liturgical  use  of  lights  in  the 
stricter  sense,  there  are  not  wanting  many  considera- 
tions to  suggest  that,  despite  the  lack  of  direct  evi- 
dence, this  practice  is  probably  of  very  much  older 
date  than  tiie  fourth  century.  To  begin  with,  the 
seven-branched  "candlestick",  or  more  accurately 
lamp-stand,  was  a  permanent  element  in  the  Temple 
ritual  at  Jerusalem  and  more  than  one  Jewish  festival 
(e.  g.  the  Dedication  feast  an<l  that  of  Tabernacles), 
was  marked  by  a  profuse  use  of  lights.  Moreover,  the 
Apocalypse  (i,  12;  iv,  5;  xi,  4),  in  the  prominence 
wnich  it  gives  to  the  mention  of  candlesticks  and 
lamps,  is  proha!>ly  only  echoing  the  more  or  less  litur- 
gical concpptions  already  current  at  the  time.  Again, 
the  fact  tliat  the  Liturgy  was  at  first  no  doubt  cele- 
brated in  the  evening  (cf.  I  Cor.,  xi,  21),  ^s  also  the 
necessity  that  the  faithful  should  often  assemble  by 
stealth  (as  in  the  catacombs)  or  in  the  early  hours  of 
the  morning  (cf.  PHny,  "Epp",  X,  n.  97 — ante  hicem 
convenire;  and  Tertullian,  "De  Cor.",  iii — aiitclucanis 
caHbus)y  render  it  highly  probable  that  artificial  light 
must  have  come  to  be  regarded  as  an  ordinary  adjunct 
of  the  Liturgy.  Hence  the  use  of  lamps  and  can- 
dles was  probably  continued  even  when  not  actually 
needed,  just  as,  in  more  modem  days,  the  bishop^a 
bugia,  which  in  the  beginning  served  an  entirely  practi- 
cal purpose,  has  come  in  time  to  Ix?  pun?ly  ceremonial. 
It  is  also  noteworthy  that  early  representations  of  the 
Last  Supper  nearly  always  give  prominence  to  the 
lamp,  while  something  of  the  same  kind  obtains  in  the 
first  rude  sketches  of  Christian  altars.  In  any  caiMj, 
lamps  and  chandeliers  are  conspicuous  amongst  tlio 
earliest  recorded  presents  to  churches  (see  the  "  LiUfr 
Pontificalis",  ed.  Duchesne,  passim;  and  cf.  the  in  vi*ri- 
tory  of  Cirta,  a.  d.  303,  in  Morcelli,  "Africa  ChrJHif- 
ana",  II,  183;  and  Beissel,  "Bilder  aus  der  alU'Ur'mis 
Kunst",  247). 

Both  in  ancient  and  modem  times,  tlu*  rt*\trtmrh 
has  l)een  leveled  against  the  Church  tliiit  in  Imt  I'v.rt^ 
monial  use  of  lights  she  has  taken  over  wit  himi,  K/Tupli? 
the  sensuous  and  often  idolatrous  itrwAlivrH  ttl  |i(i^Ar>- 
ism.  For  this  charge  there  is  very  liltl*?  r«^l  jjnii/i**- 
tion.    To  begin  with,  it  must  In*  ttwUU^ii  that  waA 


LIGHTS 


246 


LZOHTS 


simple  eleiueutsa^  light,  mudic,  rich  attire,  procesaioiiK, 
ablutions,  aud  lustrations,  flowers,  unguents,  incense, 
etc.,  belong,  as  it  were,  to  the  common  stock  of  all 
ceremonial,  whether  religious  or  secular.  If  there  is 
to  be  any  solemnity  of  eictemal  worship  at  all  it  must 
include  some  at  least  of  these  things,  and  whether  wo 
turn  to  the  polytheistic  ritual  of  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome,  or  to  the  nations  of  the  far  East,  or  to  the  com- 
paratively isolated  civilizations  of  the  aborigines  of 
Mexico  and  Peru,  human  striving  after  impressiveness 
is  found  to  manifest  itself  in  very  similar  ways.  A 
multiplicity  of  lights  is  always  in  some  measure  joyous 
and  decorative,  and  it  is  a  principle  taught  by  every- 
day experience  that  marks  of  respect  which  are  shown 
at  first  with  a  strictly  utilitarian  purpose  are  regarded 
in  the  end  as  only  the  more  honorific  if  they  are  con- 
tinued when  they  are  plainly  superfluous.  Thus  an 
escort  of  torches  or  candle-bearers,  which  is  almost  a 
necessity  in  the  dark,  and  is  a  convenience  in  the  twi- 
light, becomes  a  formality  indicative  of  ceremonious 
respect  if  maintained  in  the  full  li^ht  of  day.  Again, 
since  the  use  of  lights  was  so  familiar  to  Jewish  ritual, 
there  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  regarding  the  Chris- 
tian Church  as  in  this  respect  imitative  either  of  the 
religions  of  Greece  and  Rome  or  of  the  more  oriental 
Mitnra  worship.  At  the  same  time,  it  seems  probable 
enough  that  certain  features  of  Christian  ceremonial 
were  directly  borrowed  from  Roman  secular  usages. 
For  example,  the  later  custom  that  seven  acolytes 
with  candlesticks  should  precede  the  pope,  when  he 
made  his  solemn  entry  into  the  church,  is  no  doubt  to 
be  traced  to  a  privilege  which  was  common  under  the 
Empire  of  escorting  the  ^reat  functionaries  of  the 
State  with  torches.  This  nght  is  expressly  recognised 
in  the  '*  Notitia  Dignitatum  ,  but  it  may  also  be  found 
in  embryo  at  an  earlier  date,  when  the  Consul  Duilius 
for  his  victory  over  the  Carthaginians,  in  the  third 
century  before  Christ,  obtained  the  privilege  of  being 
escorted  home  by  a  torch  and  a  flute  player.  But 
granting,  as  even  so  conservative  an  historian  as  Car- 
dinal Baronius  is  fully  prepared  to  grant,  a  certain 
amount  of  direct  borrowing  of  pagan  usages,  this  is  no 
subject  of  reproach  to  the  Cathol ic  Church.  '  *  WTiat ' ' , 
he  savs,  '*  is  to  prevent  profane  things,  when  sanctified 
by  the  word  of  God,  being  transferred  to  sacred 
purposes?  Of  such  pagan  rites  laudably  adopted 
for  the  service  of  the  Christian  religion  we  have 
many  examples.  And  with  regard  more  especially 
to  lamps  and  candles,  of  which  we  are  now  speaking, 
who  can  reasonably  find  fault  if  those  same  things 
which  were  once  offered  to  idols  are  now  consecrat(Kl 
to  the  honour  of  the  martyrs?  If  those  lamps  which 
were  kindled  in  the  temples  on  Saturdays — not  as 
though  the  gods  needed  light,  as  even  Seneca  points 
out  (Ep.  XV,  66),  but  as  a  mark  of  veneration — are 
now  lighted  in  the  honour  of  the  Mother  of  God?  If 
the  candles  which  were  formerly  distributed  at  the 
Saturnalia  are  now  identified  with  the  feast  of  the 
Purification  of  our  Lady?  What,  I  ask,  is  there  so 
surprising  if  holy  bishops  have  allowed  certain  cus- 
toms firmly  rooted  among  pagan  peoples,  and  so 
tenaciously  adhered  to  by  them  that  even  aifter  their 
conversion  to  Christianity  they  could  not  be  induced 
to  surrender  them,  to  be  transferred  to  the  worship  of 
the  true  God?"  (Baronius,  "  Annales",  ad  ann.  58,  n. 
77). 

With  regard  to  the  use  of  lights  in  direct  connexion 
with  the  Iioly  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  we  find  the  whole 
system  of  portable  lights  elaborated  in  the  earliest  of 
the  "Ordines  Romani".  Indeed,  St.  Jerome's  plain 
reference,  already  quoted,  to  the  carrying  of  lights  at 
the  Gospel,  seems  probably  to  take  the  practice  back 
to  at  least  three  hundred  years  earlier,  even  if  we  may 
not  appeal,  as  many  authorities  have  done,  to  the 
words  of  the  Act^  of  the  Apostles  (xx,  7-8) :  "  And  on 
the  first  day  of  the  week,  when  we  were  assembled  to 
break  bread,  Paul  discoursed  with  them.  .  .  .  And 


there  were  a  great  number  of  lamm  in  the  upper 
chamber  where  we  were  asscmblecf."  It  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  customary  to  place  lights  upon  Uie 
altar  itself  before  the  eleventh  century,  out  the  "Or- 
dinos  Romani"  and  other  documents  make  it  clear 
that,  many  centuries  before  this,  lights  were  carried  in 
procession  by  acolytes  (see  Acolyte),  and  set  down 
upon  the  ground  or  held  in  the  hand  while  Mass  was 
being  offered  and  the  Gospel  read.  A  decree  of  the 
so-called  Fourth  Council  of  Carthage  directs  that  in 
the  ordination  of  an  acolyte  a  candlestick  is  to  be 
eiven  him.  but  this  collection  of  canons  does  not  be- 
long, as  wckS  once  supposed,  to  the  year  398,  but  to  the 
time  of  St.  Csesarius  of  Aries  (about  a.  d.  512).  A 
httle  later,  i.  e.  in  636,  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  (EtymoL, 
VII),  xii,  n.  29)  speaks  quite  explicitly  on  the  point: 
"  Acolytes  ",  he  says, "  in  Greek,  are  called  Ceroferarii 
in  Latin,  from  their  carrying  wax  candles  when  the 
Gospel  is  to  be  read  or  the  sacrifice  to  be  offered.  For 
then  lights  are  kindled  by  them,  and  carried,  not  to 
drive  away  darkness,  as  the  sun  is  shining,  but  for  a 
sign  of  joy,  that  under  the  form  of  material  li^ht  may 
be  represented  that  Light  of  which  we  read  in  the 
Gospel:  That  was  the  true  light."  It  was  only  at  a 
later  date  that  various  synodal  decrees  required  the 
lighting  of  first  one  candle,  and  afterwaros  of  two, 
during  the  time  of  the  celebration  of  Mass. 

The  use  of  lights  in  baptism,  a  survival  of  which  stiU 
remains  in  the  candle  given  to  the  catechumen,  with 
the  words:  "  Receive  this  burning  liffht  and  keep  thy 
baptism  so  as  to  be  without  blame  ,  etc.,  is.a^  of 
great  antiquity.  It  is  probably  to  be  connected  in  a 
ver^'  immediate  way  with  the  solemnities  of  the  Easter 
vied,  when  the  font  was  blessed,  and  when,  after  care- 
ful preparation  and  a  long  series  of  "scrutinies",  the 
catechumens  were  at  last  admittod  to  the  reception 
of  the  Sacrament.  Dom  Morin  (Revue  B^n^ctine, 
\^II,  20;  IX,  392)  has  ^ven  excellent  reason  for  be- 
lieving thai  the  ceremonial  of  the  paschal  candle  may 
be  traced  back  to  at  least  the  year  382  in  the  lifetime 
of  St.  Jerome.  Moreover  the  term  ^xaTiffd^yres  (iUumi- 
riati),  so  constantly  applied  to  the  newly  baptieed  in 
early  WTitings,  most  probably  bears  some  reference  to 
the  illumination  which,  as  we  know  from  many  sources, 
marked  the  night  of  Holy  Saturday.  Thus  St.  Am- 
brose (De  Laps.  Virg.,  v,  19),  speaking  of  this  occasion. 
mentions  'Hue  blazing  light  of  the  neophytes",  ana 
St.  Gregoi>'  of  Nazianzus,  in  his  great  ''Sermon  on 
Holy  Baptism  ",  tells  the  candidates  that  ''the  lamps 
which  you  will  kindle  are  a  symbol  of  the  illumination 
with  which  we  shall  meet  the  Bridegroom,  with  the 
lamps  of  our  faith  shining,  not  carele^y  lulled  to 
sleep"  (Orat.,  xl,  46;  cf.  xlv,  2). 

Again,  the  pagan  use  of  lights  at  funerals  seems  to 
have  been  taken  over  by  the  Church  as  a  harmless 
piece  of  ceremonial  to  which  a  Christian  colour  might 
easily  be  given.  The  early  evidence  upon  this  pomt 
in  the  wTitings  of  the  Fathers  is  peculiarly  abundant, 
beginning  with  what  Eusebius  tells  us  of  the  lyinc  in 
state  of  tnc  body  of  the  Emperor  Constantino:  "They 
lighted  candles  on  golden  stands  around  it,  and 
afforded  a  wonderful  spectacle  to  the  beholders,  such 
as  never  was  seen  under  the  sun  since  the  earth  was 
made"  (Vila.  Const.,  iv,  66).  Similarly,  St.  Jerome 
tells  us  of  the  ol:)semiies  of  St.  Paula  in  386:  "She  was 
borne  to  the  grave  by  the  hands  of  bishops,  who  eyen 
put  their  shoulders  under  the  bier,  while  other  pon- 
tiffs carried  lamps  and  candles  Ixjfore  her  "  (Ad  Eus- 
toch.,  ep.  cviii,  n.  29).  So,  again  in  the  West,  at  the 
funeral  of  St.  Germanus  of  Auxerre,  "The  number  of 
lights  beat  back  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  maintained 
their  brightness  even  through  the  day''  (Constautius, 
"VitaS.  Gemmni",  II,  21). 

It  is  also  certain  that,  from  a  very  early  period. 
lamps  and  candles  w^ere  burnt  around  the  bodies,  and 
then,  by  a  natural  transition,  before  the  relics,  of  the 
martyrs.    How  far  this  was  merely  a  development 


LXatJGE 


247 


ULIUS 


of  the  use  of  lights  in  funerals,  or  how  far  it  sprang 

from  the  earlier  pagan  custom  of  displaying  a  number 

of  lamps  as  a  tribute  of  honour  to  the  emperor  or 

others,  it  is  not  easy  to  decide.    The  practice,  as  we 

have  seen,  was  known  to  St.  Jerome,  and  is  with  some 

reservation  defended  by  him.    This  burning  of  lights 

before  shrines,  relics,  and  statues  naturally  assiuned 

great  developments  in  the  Middle  A^es.    Bequests 

to  various ''  lights"  in  the  churches  which  the  testator 

desired  to  benefit  generally  occupy  a  considerable 

space  in  medieval  wills,  more  particularly  in  England. 

Upon  the  symbolism  of  ecclesiastical  lights  much 

has  Deen  written  by  medieval  litun^sts  from  Amala- 

rius  downwards.    That  all  such  lights  typify  Jesus 

Christ,  TVTio  is  the  Light  of  the  World,  is  a  matter  of 

general  agreement,  wnile  the  older  text  of  the  "Ex- 

ultet"  rendered  familiar  the  thought  that  the  wax 

produced  by  virgin  bees  was  a  figure  of  the  human 

Dody  which  Christ  derived  from  His  immaculate 

Mother.    To  this  it  was  natural  to  add  that  the  ^nck 

was  emblematic  of  Christ's  human  soul,  while  the 

flame  represented  His  Godhead.     But  the  medieval 

liturgists  also  abound  in  a  variety  of  other  symbolic 

expositions,  which  naturally  are  not  always  quite 

consistent  with  one  another. 

Bauickr  in  Kirdunlex.,  s.  v.  Kme;  Schrod,  ibid.,  s.  v. 
Lieht;  Hcddamorb  in  Did.  Christ.  Antia.,  s.  v.;  Barontus. 
AnfMlet  ad  ann.,  5S;  Thalbofer,  Liturgik,  I  (Freiburg,  1883), 
665-S3:  Mf-HLBAUER,  Oeachichtc  und  Bedeuiung  der  WachJ^ 
Kchter  hex  den  kinhlichen  Funclionrn  (Augsburg,  1874) ;  Stalky, 
Studif  in  Ceremonial  (London,  1901),  169-04. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Ugug^y  a  Benedictine  Abbey,  in  the  Diocese  of  Poi- 
tiers, France,  was  founded  about  the  year  a.  d.  360, 
bv  St.  Martin  of  Tours.  The  miracles  and  reputation 
of  the  holy  founder  attracted  a  large  number  of  disci- 

f)le8  to  the  new  monastery.  When  however,  St.  Martin 
jecame  Bishop  of  Tours  and  establishecl  the  monastery 
of  Marmoutiers  a  short  distance  from  that  city,  the 
fame  of  LigugS  declined  considerably.    Among  St. 
Martin's  successors  as  abbots  of  Ligu;^  may  Ije  men- 
tioned St.  Savin,  who  resigned  the  post  of  abbot  to  be- 
come a  hermit,  and  Abbot  Ursinus,  during  whose 
reign  the  monk  Defensor  compiled  the  well-known 
"ScintUlarum  Liber"  printed  m  P.  L.,  LXXXVHI. 
The  Saracenic  invasion,  the  wars  of  the  dukes  of  Aqui- 
taine  and  the  early  Carlovingians,  and  lastly  the  Nor- 
man invasion  were  a  series  of  disasters  that  almast  de- 
stroyed the  monastery.     By  the  eleventh  century  it 
had  sunk  to  the  position  of  a  dependent  priory  at- 
tached to  the  Abbey  of  Maill^ais,  and  finally  reached 
the  lowest  level  as  a  benefice  in  commendam.    One  of 
the  commendatory  priors,  GeofTrey  d'Estissac,  a  great 
patron  of  literature  and  the  friend  of  Ilabelais,  built 
ths  existing  church,  a  graceful  structure  but  smrJler 
by  far  than  the  ancient  ba.silica  which  it  replacc<l.    In 
1607  Ligug^  ceased  to  be  a  monastery  and  was  an- 
nexed to  the  Jesuit  college  of  Poitiers  to  which  institu- 
tion it  served  as  a  country  house  until  the  suppression 
c/  the  society  in  1762.    At  the  French  Revolution  the 
buildings  and  lands  were  sold  as  national  property,  the 
diurch  being  used  for  some  time  as  the  Municipal 
Council  chaT]d>er.    Eventually,  when  the  upheaval  of 
the  Revolution  had  subsided,  the  building  was  consti- 
tuted a  parish  church. 

In  1S49  the  famous  Mgr  Pie,  afterwards  cardinal, 
became  Bishop  of  Poitiers.  This  prelate  was  the  inti- 
mate friend  ot  Dom  Prosper  Gu^ranger,  re-founder  of 
the  French  Benedictine  Congregation  of  monks,  and  in 
1852  he  established  at  Ligiigd  a  colony  of  monks  from 
Solesmes.  In  1864  the  priory  was  erected  into  an  ab- 
bey by  Pope  Pius  IX,  and  Dom  L6on  Bastide  was  ap- 
pcnnted  first  abbot.  When,  in  1880,  the  monks  were 
driven  from  their  cloister  as  a  result  of  the  "Ferry 
laws",  many  of  them  retired  under  Dom  Bourigaucl, 
the  suooessor  of  Dom  Bastide,  to  the  monastery  of 
Sflot  in  Spain  ▼^eh  was  saved  from  extinction  by  the 


recruits  thus  received.  Some  ^^ears  later  the  buildings 
at  Ligug^  were  sold  to  a  s}iidicate,  civil  in  its  constitu- 
tion, by  which  they  were  leased  to  the  abbot  and 
community  who  thus  entered  their  monastery  once 
more.  Novices  now  came  in  considerable  numbers 
and,  in  1894,  the  ancient  Abbey  of  St.  Wandrille  de 
Fontenellc  in  the  Diocese  of  Rouen  was  repeopled  by  a 
colony  from  J^igiig^.  In  1902  the  community  were 
again  driven  out  bv  the  "  .Association  Laws",  and  they 
are  now  settled  in  Belgium  at  Chevetoigne,  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Namur.  On  Dom  Bourigaiid's  resignation,  in 
1907,  Dom  I^opold  Gau^ain  was  elected  a))l>ot.  The 
community  now  numlxirs  about  forty  choir  monks 
and  ten  lay  brothers.  . 

Gallia  Christiana,  II  (Paris,  1720),  1222;  CnA&iARDpiS^  Mar- 
tin et  wn  vionnMire  de  Ligugi  (I'aris,  1873);  Ouiifp  LiaugA 
premier  monaHirt  des  Gaules  in  Revue  d'Aouitaine,  I  (lS7o), 
467-478);  Bk«mk,  St.  Martin* 8  Abbey  Ligugi,  in  Doumside  Re- 
view,  XVIII  (1H99).  128-139). 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Liguori,  Alphoxsus.  See  Alphonsus  Liguori, 
Saint. 

Lilienfeld,  a  Cistercian  Abbey  fifteen  miles  south 
of  St.  Polten,  Lower  AiLstria,  was  founded  in  1202  by 
Leopold  the  Glorious,  Margrave  of  Austria,  the  first 
monks  being  supplied  from  the  monastery  of  Heiligen 
Kreuz  near  Vienna.    The  early  history  of  the  foumla- 
tion  presents  no  exceptional  features,  but  as  time  went 
on  the  monastery  became  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
influential  in  the  empire,  the  abbots  not  infrequently 
acting  as  councillors  to  the  emperor.    Perliaps  the 
most  remarkable  in  the  whole  long  series  was  Matthew 
KoUweis  (1 650-1 C95)  who,  when  the  Turks  advanced 
against  Vienna,  literally  turned  his  monastery  into  a 
fortress,  instilling  a  j^arrison  and  gi\'ing  shelter  to  a 
large  number  of  fugitives.     In  1789  Emperor  Joseph 
II  aecree<l  the  suppression  of  the  ablx>y  and  the  s]X)lia- 
tion  was  actually  l>egun.    The  arcliives,  manuscripts, 
and  valuables  of  all  kinds  were  carried  away  to  Vienna, 
the  librar>'  was  dispersed,  and  the  monuments  in  the 
church  mostly  reniovetl  or  destroyed.    Ijuckily,  how- 
ever, Joseph  il  died  before  the  ruin  was  completed  and 
one  of  the  first  acts  of  his  successor,  Leopold  II,  was  to 
reverse  the  decree^  suppressing  Lilicnfefd,  which  thus 
preserveil  its  ancient  territorial  possessions.     In  1810 
a  disastrous  fire  ravaged  the  abl>ey  buildings,  but  the 
church,  considered  one  of  the  finest  in  the  empire, 
fortunately  escaped  damage.     The  ruined  monastery 
was  aftcnvards  restored  at  great  expense  and  is  now  a 
fine  specimen  of  the  Austrian  type  of  abbey;    vast, 
somewhat  heavy  in  style  and  suggesting  in  its  out- 
ward appearance  the  power  and  dignity  of  an  institu- 
tion which  hiis  survived  from  feudal  times.     In  1910 
the  community  numbered  forty-nine  choir  monks,  the 
abbot  being  Dom  Justin  Panscliab.     The  abbey  l)e- 
longs  to  the  Austro-llungarian  Congregation  Com- 
munis observant iiv  in  which  the  observance,  both  as 
regards  spirit  and  tradition,  is  allied  far  more  closely 
to  that  of  the  Black  Monks  of  St.  Benedict,  than  to  the 
reform  of  Abbot  de  Rancd,  commonly  known  as  the 
Trappist  Congregation. 

Janauschek,  Oriffines  Cisfcrcicnsf.n  I  (Vioivia,  1877),  212; 
Hanthaler,  Fafti  Campililienttcs  (Linz,  1747-17r>4);  Brun- 
NBR,  Cialerzienscrbuch  (Wiirzburg,  1881),  139-205;  Han- 
THALEHt,  Rcctmsus  diplomatico-gcncalo'jicua  archicii  Campililien' 
sis,  2  vols.  (Vienna.  1819-1820);  Tkhtz,  Archiv.,  VI  (1831), 
185-186. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Lilius,  Aix)i8ius,  principal  author  of  the  Gregorian 
Calendar,  was  a  native  of  Cir6  or  Zir6  in  Calabria. 
His  name  was  originally  Aloigi  Giglio,  from  which  the 
Latinized  form  now  used  is  derived.  Montucla  (His- 
toire  des  Mathdmatiques,  I,  678)  erroneously  calls  him 
a  Veronese,  and  Delambre  (Histoiro  de  I'Astronomie 
moderne,  1SI2,  I,  5  and  57)  calls  him  Luigi  Lilio 
Giraldi,  mixing  up  Aloigi  with  Lilius  Gregorius  Gi- 
raldi,  the  author  of  a  work  *'  De  Annis  et  l^lensibua  % 


XJUUS 


248 


LILIU8 


Of  Lilius's  life  nothing  is  known  beyond  the  fact  that 
he  was  professor  of  medicine  at  the  University  of 
Perugia  as  early  as  1552.  In  that  year  he  was  recom- 
mended by  Cardinal  Marcello  Cervini  (afterwards  Pope 
Marcellus  II)  for  an  increase  of  salary  as  an  eminent 
professor  and  a  man  highly  esteemed  by  the  entire 
university.  This  date  may  explain  why  Lilius  did  not 
live  to  see  his  calendar  introduced  thirty  years  later. 
The  statement  in  Pog^endorff's  "  Handworterbuch", 
that  Lilius  was  a  physician  in  Rome  and  that  he  died 
in  1576,  is  apparently  not  supported  by  recent  re- 
searches. In  that  year,  1576,  nis  manuscript  on  the 
reform  of  the  calendar  was  presented  to  the  Roman 
Curia  by  his  brother  Antonius^  likewise  doctor  of  arts 
and  m^icine.  Antonius  was  probably  many  years 
younger,  as  he  survived  the  reform  and  owned  the 
copyright  of  the  new  calendar,  until,  by  retarding  its 
introduction,  he  lost  that  privilege,  and  its  printing 
became  free.  Mention  is  made  of  a  Mgr  Thomas 
Giglio,  Bishop  of  Sora,  as  first  prefect  of  the  papal 
commissions  for  the  reform.  If  lie  was  a  relative  of 
the  two  brothers,  he  was  not  guilty  of  family  favourit- 
ism, as  he  proved  himself  an  obstruction  to  Aloigi's 
plans.  Lihus's  work  cannot  be  understood  without  a 
Knowledge  of  wliat  was  done  before  him  and  in  what 
shape  his  reform  was  introduced. 

Gbegorian  Reform  of  the  Calendab. — From  the 
Council  of  Niccea  to  that  of  Constance. — ^The  reform  of 
the'calendar  was  from  the  start  connected  with  general 
councils,  viz.  those  of  Nicaea  (325),  of  Constance  (1414 
-1418),  of  Basle  (1431),  the  Fifth  of  the  Lateran 
(1512-1517),  and  that  of  Trent  (1545-1563).  The 
double  rule,  ascribed  to  the  first  council,  that  the  ver- 
nal equinox  shall  remain  on  21  March,  where  it  then 
was,  and  that  Easter  shall  fall  on  the  Sunday  aft«r  the 
first  vernal  full  moon,  was  not  respected  by  all  those 
that  planned  reforms,  but  was  stnctly  adhered  to  in 
the  Gregorian  Calendar.  It  was  well  known,  at  the 
time  of  the  Council  of  Nicaea,  that  both  the  Julian  year 
and  the  lunar  cycle  of  Meton  were  too  long;  yet  a 
remedy  could  not  be  adopted  until  the  errors  were 
more  exactly  determined.  This  state  of  knowledge 
lasted  throughout  the  first  twelve  hundred  years  of  our 
era,  as  is  testified  by  the  few  representatives  of  that 
period:  Gregory  of  Tours  (544-595),  Venerable  Bede 
(c.  673-735).  and  Alcuin  (735-804).  Some  progress 
was  made  aurin^  the  thirteenth  centurv.  In  the 
"Computus"  of  ^uigister  Chonrad  (1200)  the  error  of 
the  calendar  was  again  pointed  out.  A  first  approxi- 
mation of  its  extent  was  almost  simultaneously  given 
by  Robert  Grosseteste  (Greathead,  1175-1253),  Chan- 
cellor of  Oxford  and  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  by  the 
Scottish  monk  Joannes  a  Sacrobosco  (Holvwood  or 
Halifax) .  According  to  the  former  one  leap  day  should 
be  omitted  ever>'  300  years;  according  to  tne  latter  288 
Julian  years  were  just  one  day  too  long,  and  19  Julian 
years  were  one  and  one-third  hours  snorter  than  the 
lunar  cycle.  While  the  latter  error  is  estimated  cor- 
rectly, the  other  two  numbers  300  and  288  should  be  re- 
placed by  128.  The  Franciscan  friar,  Roger  Bacon  of 
Ilchester  (1214-1294),  basing  his  views  on  Grosseteste, 
recommended  to  the  pope  a  series  of  reforms,  the 
merits  of  which  he  did  not  decide.  Campanus  (be- 
tween 1261  and  1264)  made  to  Urban  IV  the  specific 
proposition  to  replace  the  lunar  cycle  of  19  years  by 
two  others  of  30  and  304  years.  The  most  important 
step  in  the  thirteenth  centur}'  was  made  by  the  ap- 
pearance, in  1252,  of  the  astronomical  tables  of  King 
Alplionsus  X  of  Castile. 

The  fourteenth  century  is  remarkable  for  an  astro- 
nomical conference  held  at  the  papal  court  in  Avignon. 
In  1344  Clement  VI  sent  invitations  to  Joannes  de 
Muris,  a  canon  of  Mazi^res  (Canton  Bourges),  who  was 
held  to  be  no  mean  astronomer,  and  to  Firminus  de 
Bella valle  (Beauval),  a  native  of  Amiens,  and  others. 
The  result  of  the  conference  was  a  treatise  written  by 
the  two  authors  just  mentioned:  "I^istola  super  re- 


formatione  antiqui  Calendarii''.  It  had  four  parts:  the 
solar  year,  the  lunar  year,  the  Golden  Number,  Easter. 
A  third  author  was  the  monk  Joannes  de  Thermis. 
Whether  he  was  a  member  of  the  same  conference  or 
not,  certain  it  is  that  he  was  charged  bv  Clement  VI  to 
write  his  ''Tractatus  de  tempore  celebrationis  Pas- 
chalis'\  It  appeared  nine  years  after  the  conference 
(1354)  and  was  dedicated  to  Innocent  VI,  successor  to 
Clement  VI.  In  the  same  centurv  other  treatises  on 
the  errors  and  the  reform  of  the  calendar  are  recorded, 
one  of  Magister  Gordianus  (between  1300  and  1320) 
and  one  of  a  Greek  monk,  Isaac  Argyros  (1372-3). 

The  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basie, — ^The  fifteenth 
century  marks  an  epoch  in  the  reform  of  the  calendar 
by  two  scientific  authorities,  Pierre  d'AiUy  and  Nico- 
las de  Cusa,  both  cardinals.  Pierre  d'Ailhr  (1350- 
1425),  Bishop  of  Cambrai  and  Chancellor  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  followed  the  views  of  Roger  Bacon.  After 
advising  Pope  John  XXIII  in  1412,  he  pointed  out  to 
the  Council  of  Constance,  in  1417,  the  great  errors  of 
the  calendar.  He  suggested  different  remedies:  first, 
to  omit  one  leap  day  every  134  years,  thereby  correct- 
ing the  solar  year;  second,  to  omit  one  day  of  the 
lunar  cycle  every  304  years:  or  third,  to  abandon  all 
cyclical  computation  and  follow  astronomical  observa- 
tion. It  must  be  noticed  that  the  first  and  third 
proposition  of  Cardinal  d'Ailly  are  reiterated  in  our 
own  days  (substituting  for  134  the  correct  number 
128).  The  first  and  second  of  d'Ailly's  propositions 
were  elaborated  and  again  proposed  by  Caniinal  de 
Cusa  a401-1446)  to  the  Council  of  Basle.  The  error 
should  be  corrected  by  omitting  7  days  in  the  solar 
cycle  (passing,  in  1439,  from  24  May  to  1  June)  and  3 
days  in  the  lunar  cycle.  His  *'  Reparatio  Calendarii" 
furnished  much  information  to  subsequent  reformers. 
He  was  the  first  to  take  into  account  differences  of 
longitude  for  various  meridians.  The  two  councils 
wisely  postponed  the  reform  of  the  calendar  to  some 
future  time.  The  fifteenth  century  was  not  to  cloee, 
however,  without  considerable  progress  connected  with 
the  names  of  Zoestius,  John  of  Gmund,  George  of  Pur- 
bach,  and  John  of  Koenigsberg  (Regiomontanus).  A 
treatise  on  the  reform  of  the  calendar  by  Zoestius  ap- 
peared after  1437.  The  first  printed  almanacs  were 
issued  by  John  of  Gmund  (d.  1442),  dean  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  Vienna.  His  disciple  was 
Purbach,  afterwards  professor  of  mathematics  at  the 
same  university  and  teacher  of  John  Milller,  called 
Regiomontanus  aft^r  his  native  place  in  Franken. 
The  latter  (1435-1476)  continued  the  work  of  the 
chancellor  in  publishing  calendars  that  served  as 
models  for  a  century  to  come.  The  Golden  Numbers 
of  the  lunar  cycle  were  retained,  but  the  lunations 
were  taken  from  observation.  This  combination  made 
the  errors  of  Easter  more  and  more  manifest.  Regio- 
montanus was  called  to  Rome  by  Sixtus  IV^  for  the 
purpose  of  reforming  the  calendar,  but  died  shortly 
after  his  arrival  at  the  age  of  fortv-one. 

The  Councils  of  the  Lateran  and  of  Trent, — The  two 
councils  of  the  sixteenth  century  were  finally  to  pave 
the  way  for  the  long  desired  reform.  The  efforts  tnade 
at  the  Lateran  Council  are  described  by  Marsi.  From 
the  twelve  or  more  authors  enumerated  by  him  it  will 
suffice  to  mention  the  two  that  exercised  a  decisive  in- 
fluence: Paul  of  Middleburg,  who  started  the  proceed- 
ings, and  Copernicus,  who  brought  them  to  a  tempo- 
rarv  conclusion.  The  life  of  the  former  is  described  by 
Bnldi  in  Appendix  I  to  Marzi.  Paul  bom  in  1445, 
died  as  Bishop  of  Fossombrone  in  1534.  He  was 
called  from  Louvain  to  Italy  by  the  Republic  of  Ven- 
ice, became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Padua,  and 
physician  and  astrologer  to  the  Duke  of  Urbino.  B^ 
tore  the  opening  of  the  council  in  1512  he  asked  JuliusII 
to  attend  to  the  calendar.  Leo  X  sent  out  briefs  to 
Maximilian  I,  the  princes,  bishops,  and  universities,  to 
obtain  their  opinion  on  the  calendar,  and  appointed 
the  Bishop  of  Fossombrone  as  president  of  the  oooi- 


xjumi 


249 


LILIV8 


mission  for  the  reform.  The  treatise  which  Paul  of 
Bfiddelbuii;  laid  before  the  council  is  entitled:  ''Pau- 
lina sive  de  recta  Paschse  celebratione  etc. ''  (Fossom- 
brone,  1513).  He  was  against  bringing  the  eauinox 
back  to  21  March,  and  opposed  the  idea  of  abandoning 
the  lunar  cycle  or  putting  Easter  on  a  fixed  Sunday 
of  the  year.  He  proposedf,  however,  a  change  in  the 
^cle  by  reducing  xhe  seven  cmbolismic  months  to  five. 
Emperor  Maximilian  charged  the  Universities  of 
Vienna,  Tubingen,  and  Louvain,  to  express  an  opinion. 
Vienna  supported  the  first  and  thiru  propositions  of 
Cardinal  a'Ailly  at  the  Council  of  Constance,  viz.  to 
correct  the  Julian  intercalation  by  omitting  a  leap  day 
every  134  years,  and  to  abandon  the  lunar  c^cle.  Tu- 
bingen was  of  the  same  opinion,  and  agreed  with  Bishop 
Paw  in  leaving  the  equinox  where  it  was. 

Copernicus  had  be«n  asked  by  the  papal  conmiis- 
mon  in  1514  to  state  his  views,  and  his  decision  was,  that 
the  motions  of  sun  and  moon  were  not  yet  sufficiently 
known  to  attempt  a  reform  of  the  calendar.  The 
commission  was  to  make  definite  propositions  in  the 
tenth  session  of  the  council.  Although  this  was  post- 
poned from  1514  to  1515,  no  conclusion  was  reached. 
After  the  Lateran  Council  considerable  progress  was 
made.  Copernicus  had  promised  to  continue  the  ob- 
Bervations  of  sun  and  moon  and  he  did  so  for  more 
thui  ten  years  longer.  The  results  laid  down  in  his 
immortal  work  "  De  Revolutionibus  Orbium  Cceles- 
tium"  (1543)  enabled  Erasmus  Reiiihold  to  compute 
the  Prutenic  Tables  (Wittenberg,  1554),  which  were 
afterwards  made  the  basis  of  tne  Gregorian  reform. 
The  principal  writers  at  the  time  are  the  following: 
Albertus  Pighius,  magister  at  the  University  of  Lou- 
vain. who  dedicated  to  Leo  X,  in  1520,  a  treatise  in 
whi(m  he  supported  Cardinal  d'Ailly's  intercalation, 
omitting  a  leap  day  every  134  years,  out,  on  the  other 
hand,  recommended  the  retention  of  the  lunar  cycle. 
About  the  equinox  he  committed  an  error,  reckoning 
it  from  the  constellation  of  Aries  and  advising  the 
omission  of  16  days.  The  two  Florentine  monks, 
Joannes  Lucidus  and  Joannes  Maria  de  Tholosanis, 
may  be  mentioned  in  passing.  The  latter  pleaded  for 
cyclic  reckoning  but  was  opposed  to  changing  the  date 
ol  the  equinox.  During  the  Council  of  Trent  a  num- 
ber of  plans  lime  written  and  proposed  to  the  council 
and  to  the  pope.  Cardinal  Marcellus  C-ervinus,  presi- 
dent of  the  council,  summoned  to  Trent  the  Veronese 
Girolamo  Fracas  toro,  a  physician  and  renowned  as- 
tronomer, and  had  several  conferences  with  him  on  the 
subject  of  the  calendar.  In  154S  Bartholomscus  Cali- 
ganus,  a  priest  in  Padua,  offered  a  memorandum  to 
the  Bishop  of  Bitonto,  wherein  he  based  his  plans  on 
Paul  of  Midddburg^  otoefflcr,  and  Joaimes  Lucidus. 
The  Spanish  Franciscan  Joannes  Salon,  addressed  a 
proposition  to  Cardinal  Gonzaga,  first  president  of  the 
council  under  Pius  IV.  An  abridgment  of  it  he  of- 
fered, immediately  after  the  council,  in  1564,  to  Pius 
IV,  and,  on  the  advice  of  Sirleto,  also  to  Gregory  XIIJ, 
in  1577*  His  memorandum  is  remarkable  for  the  rea- 
sons he  puts  forth  against  an  immovable  Easter,  and 
for  the  advice  that  a  leap  day  should  be  omitted  by 
the  pope  on  the  occasion  of  general  jubilees. 

Other  memoranda  were  that  of  Begninus,  a  canon  of 
ReimB,  which' was  handed  to  Cardinal  de  Lorraine  on 
bis  way  to  the  council;  that  of  Lucas  Ciauricus,  who 
aimed  himself  Episcopua  Civitatensis,  and  based  his 
"Cakndarium  Ecclesiasticum "  of  IHS  on  Paul  of 
ICiddelburg;  that  of  the  Spanish  priest  Don  Miguel  of 
Valencia,  which  was  presented  to  Pius  IV  in  1564. 
If  ore  important  than  all  these  was  a  plan  proposed  by 
the  Veronese  mathematician  Petrus  Pitatus.  Basing 
his  ideas  likewise  on  Paul  of  Middelburg  he  wanted 
the  lunar  Cyde  retained  and  the  equinox  restored  to 
Gaesar's  date,  bv  the  omission  of  fourteen  days,  which 
for  two  years  should  be  taken  from  the  seven  months 
having  dl  days  each.  His  original  idea,  which  took 
final  effect  in  the  Gregorian  reform,  was  to  correct  the 


Julian  intercalation  of  the  solar  year,  not  eveiy  134 
years,  h^ut  by  full  centuries.  No  earlier  writer  seems 
to  have  called  attention  to  the  fact,  that  ajpplying  the 
rule  of  134  years  three  times  comes,  within  a  small 
error,  to  the  same  thing  as  omitting  three  leap  days  in 
400  years.  His  "  Compendium "  was  published  and 
offered  to  Pius  IV  in  1564.  The  Council  of  Trent  was 
the  first  since  that  of  Nicsea  that  took  a  positive  step 
towards  a  reform  of  the  calendar.  In  the  last  session, 
4  December,  1563,  it  charged  the  pope  to  reform  both 
Breviary  and  Missal,  which  included  the  perpetual 
calendar. 

After  the  Council  of  Trent. — Pius  V  published  a 
Breviary  (Rome,  1568),  with  a  new  perpetual  calen- 
dar, which  was  faulty  and  soon  discarded.  Gregory 
Xlll,  the  immediate  successor  of  Pius  V,  charged 
Carolus  Octavianus  Laurus,  lector  of  mathematics  at 
the  Sapienza,  with  working  out  a  plan  of  reform.  It 
was  completed  in  1575,  and  it  again  recommended  the 
correction  of  the  intercalations  by  full  centuries.  A 
certain  Paolo  Clarantc  also  composed  a  calendarium 
and  offered  it  to  the  pope  for  examination.  In  1576 
the  famous  manuscript  of  the  late  Aloisius  Lilius  was 
presented  to  the  papal  Curia  by  his  brother  Antonius. 

Whether  Antonius  acted  in  response  to  the  pope's 
request  is  not  known.  Certain  it  is  that  Aloisius  Lilius 
commenced  his  work  before  the  accession  of  Gregory 
XIII  to  the  throne  and  even  before  the  publication  of 
the  new  Breviarj',  spending  ten  years  on  it.  Gregory 
then  organized  a  commission  to  decide  upon  the  best 

Elan  of  reform.  During  the  many  sessions  the  mem- 
ers  of  the  commission  changed  several  times.  From 
the  names  of  those  who  signed  the  report  offered  to 
Gregory  XIII  it  may  be  inferred  that  its  composition 
was  intended  to  represent  various  nations,  grades,  and 
rites  of  the  Church.  Besides  four  Italians  there  was 
tlie  French  Auditor  of  the  Hota  Seraphinus  Olivarius, 
the  German  Jesuit  Christoph  Clavius,  the  Spaniard 
Petrus  Ciaconus,  and  the*  Syrian  Patriarch  Nehemet 
Alia.  Religious  Orders  were  represented  by  Clavius, 
by  the  celebrated  Dominican  triar  Ignatius  Dantes 
and,  for  a  while,  by  the  Benedictine  monk  Teofilus 
Martins.  The  hierarchy  we  find  represented  by  Vin- 
cent ius  Laureus,  Bishop  of  Mondovi,  by  the  Patriarch 
of  Antioch,  and  by  Cardinal  Sirleto.  The  laity  was 
represented  by  Antonius  Lilius,  doctor  of  arts  and 
medicine,  and,  as  it  seems,  collaborator  of  his  I^rother 
Aloisius  in  the  reform.  Auout  the  Spaniard  Ciaconus 
or  Chacon  nothing  seems  to  be  known. 

The  first  president  of  the  commission,  Bishop  Giglio. 
did  not  succeed  in  securing  a  majority.  He  favourea 
the  corrections  suggested  for  Lilius's  manuscript  by 
the  two  professors  of  the  Roman  Sapienza,  the  mathe- 
matician Carolus  Laurus  and  the  professor  of  Greek, 
Giovanni  Battista  Gabio.  The  commission,  however, 
condemned  the  corrections  as  false  and  addressed  itself 
directly  to  Gregory  XIII.  Thomas  Giglio,  being  pro- 
moted to  the  See  of  Piacenza  in  1577,  was  superseded 
as  president  by  the  learned  and  pious  Cardinal  Sirleto, 
a  native  of  Calabria  like  Lilius.  Another  disagree- 
ment was  caused  by  the  Sienese  Teofilus  Martius,  who 
was  mentioned  above.  He  blamed  the  commission 
for  the  spirit  of  innovation  and  for  lack  of  reverence 
towards  the  Council  of  Nicaja;  he  wanted  the  equinox 
restored  to  the  older  Roman  date  24  or  25  March;  he 
rejected  the  new  cycle  of  Lilius,  and  wanted  tlie  old 
cycle  corrected;  he  accepted  neither  the  Alphonsine 
nor  the  Prutenic  Tables  and  he  desired  a  leap  day  to  be 
omitted  every  124  years  or  ten  years  sooner  than  the 
Alphonsine  Tfables  rccjuired.  Teofilus  put  his  dissent 
on  record  in  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Reform  of  the  Calen- 
dar" (after  1578)  and  in  a  "Short  Narration  of  the 
Controversy  in  the  Congregation  of  the  Calendar". 
This  would  seem  to  show  that  he  was  a  member  of  the 
commission;  at  least  for  a  time,  for  he  did  not  sign  the 
report  of  the  latter  to  the  pope.  It  was  probably  ow- 
ing to  his  objections  that  the  new  cycle  ol  "Fa^^sJv&^^a 


LXUnS  250  ULZUS 

dianged  at  least  twice  and  recommended  by  the  com-  the  new  cycle  of  Epacte  in  harmony  with  the  year  Yxy 

mission  in  a  third  or  even  later  form.  two  equations  so  called,  the  solar  and  the  lunar.   The 

The  opposition  of  the  Sienese  Teofilus  against  the  solar  equation  diminishes  the  enacts  by  a  unit  when- 

innovation  of  the  Epacts  was  supported  by  Alexander  ever  a  Julian  leap  day  is  omitted,  as  in  1900;  the  lunar 

Piccolomini,  coadjutor  Bishop  oi  Siena.    If  he  was  not  equation  increases  the  epacts  by  unity  every  300 

a  member  of  the  commission,  he  was  at  least  re-  years,  or  (after  seven  repetitions,  the  eighth  time)  in 

quested  to  express  an  opinion.     He  laid  down  his  400  years.    The  former  eauation  accounts  for  the  er- 

tneories  in  a  "  Libellus  on  the  new  form  of  the  ecclcsias-  ror  in  the  Julian  year  and  tne  latter  for  the  error  in  the 


Tables  he  gave  preference  to  Albategni's  length  of  the  that  greater  exactness  could  be  reached  by  applying 

year  and  advocated  the  correction  of  the  Julian  inter-  the  interval  of  400  years  the  tenth  time.    It  may  hap- 

calation  once  in  every  hundred  years  (thinking  the  pen  that  the  two  equations  cancel  each  other  and  leave 

error  to  amount  to  one  day  in  106  years).     Piccolo-  the  epacts  unchanged,  as  happened  in  1800.   The  new 


rius,  Clavius,  Ciaconus,  Lilius,  Dantes,  all  mentioned  Kings  of  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  from  the  Dukes  of 

above.    The  last  mentioned,  usually  called  Ignazio  Ferrara,  Mantua,  Savoy,  Tuscany,  Urbino,  from  the 

Danti,  was  afterwards  made  Bishop  of  Alatri.     His  Republics  of  Venice  and  Genoa,  from  the  Universities 

scientific  reputation  may  l)e  inferred  from  the  praises  or  Academies  of  Paris,  Vienna,  Salamanca,  Alcali, 

given  to  him  more  than  a  himdred  years  later  (1703)  Cologne,  Lou  vain,  from  several  bishops  and  a  number 

by  Clement  XI  for  his  large  solar  instruments  in  of  mathematicians. 

Rome,  Florence,  and  Bologna,  which  affirmed  the  cor-  The  Bull  "Inter  Gravissimas '*. — ^The  contents  of  the 
rectness  of  the  Gregorian  equinox.  The  instruments  answers  are  not  officially  recorded,  but  in  the  Bull  of 
consisted  of  meridian  lines  and  gnomons.  The  former  Gregory  they  are  called  concordant.  How  the  concord- 
were  usually  strips  of  white  marble  inset  in  stone  ance  is  to  be  understood  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
floors.  The  gnomon  was  sometimes  replaced  by  a  answers  from  Paris  and  from  Florence.  While  the 
small  opening  in  a  wall,  which  projccte<l  the  image  of  Sorbonne  not  only  rejected  the  "Compendium"  but 
the  sun  on  the  meridian  line.  An  arrangement  of  this  condemned  every  change  in  the  calencuir,  the  king's 
description  is  visible  in  the  old  Vatican  Observatory,  Parlement  fully  adopted  the  reform  proposed  Dy 
called  the  Tower  of  the  Winds.  It  was  on  this  line  Lilius.  The  Duke  of  Tuscany  forwardea  to  the  pope 
that,  according  to  Gilii  and  Calandrelli,  the  error  of  ten  the  judgments  of  several  Florentine  mathematicians, 
days  was  demonstrated  in  the  presence  of  Gregory  no  two  of  which  agreed  among  themselves,  while  he 
XIII.  himself  gave  full  approval  to  the  Gregorian  reform. 

The  manuscript  of  Lilius  was  never  printed  and  has  The  King  of  Portugal  presented  two  professional 
never  been  discovered.  Its  contents  are  known  only  answers  without  adding  a  judgment  of  his  own.  The 
from  the  manuscript  report  of  the  commission  and  emperor  also  confined  himself  to  forwarding  the  reply 
from  the  "Compendium"  of  Ciaconus,  which  was  from  the  University  of  Vienna.  The  answers  from 
printed  by  Clavius.  The  request  of  Clarante,  that  his  Savoy,  Hungary,  and  Spain  were  in  approbation  of 
"  Calendarium "  be  distributed  together  with  the  Lilius's  plan.  All  the  princes  may  have  seen  the  ne- 
"  Compendium  '*,  was  not  granted  by  the  commission,  cessity  of  a  reform  and  desired  it.  This  is  confirmed 
The  "Compendium"  was  sent  out  in  1577  to  all  Chris-  by  a  letter  of  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State  to 
tian  princes  and  renowned  universities,  to  invite  ap-  Charles  Borromeo,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  dated  16 
probation  or  criticism.  With  Lilius,  it  left  open  the  June,  1582,  in  which  the  statement  is  made  that  the 
questions,  whether  the  equinox  should  be  placed  on  24  reform  of  the  calendar  was  concluded  witi  tiie  appro- 
March  or  21  March,  following  the  old  Roman  Calendar  bation  of  all  Catholic  princes.  The  consent  of  the 
or  the  Council  of  Nicspa;  and  if  the  latter  (which  princes  had  more  influence  with  the  pope  than  the 
seemed  preferable),  whether  the  ten  days  should  be  opinion  of  scientists.  To  bring  about  an  agreement  of 
omitted  at  once,  in  some  suitable  month  of  1582,  or  the  latter  was  utterly  hopeless,  and,  in  view  of  the 
gradually  by  declaring  all  of  the  next  forty  years  com-  labours  of  the  papal  commission,  unnecessary.  The 
mon  years  and  thus  completing  the  reform  in  1620.  variety  of  opinions,  collected  by  Kaltenbrunner  and 
That  the  error  from  the  Nica^an  regulation  of  the  equi-  Schmid,  bears  testimony  to  this,  quite  apart  from  the 
nox  had  amounted  to  ten  days,  was  sufficiently  known  bitter  polemics  that  followed  the  Gregorian  reform 
from  various  observers,  like  Toscanelli,  Danti,  Coper-  and  which  does  not  concern  us  in  this  article, 
nicus  (Calandrelli,  "Opuscoli  Astronomici ",  Rome,  The  propositions  made  in  answer  to  the  "Compen- 
1822,  30).  The  motions  of  sun  and  moon  were  taken  dium"  may  be  summed  up  as  follows.  In  regard  to 
from  the  Alphonsine  Tables.  \Vhether  the  Prutenic  the  solar  year,  the  date  ot  the  equinox  should  be  25 
Tables  of  1554  were  at  the  time  known  to  Lilius  may  March,  where  Julius  Ca?sar  had  put  it — this  was  the 
be  doubted.  He  could  be  no  stranger,  however,  to  wish  of  the  Humanists — or  24  March,  where  it  was  at 
Cardinal  d'Ailly's  "  Exhortatio  ad  Concilium  Con-  the  time  of  Christ's  resurrection — this  was  the  propo- 
stantiense",  in  which  the  Julian  intercalation  was  sal  of  Salamanca — or  21  March,  where  the  Coimcil  of 
showTi  to  be  one  day  in  error  everv  134  years,  or  to  the  Nicaea  had  put  it,  or  finally  should  be  left  on  1 1  March, 
proposition  of  the  Veronese  matbematician  Pitatus,  where  it  was  at  the  time.  Those  who  would  not  ac- 
who  wanted  the  correction  applied  by  a  cycle  of  four  cept  the  correction  of  the  Julian  intercalation  by  full 
centuries.  Lilius  considered  fractions  of  centuries  un-  centuries  wanted  a  leap  day  omitted  as  often  as  the 
fit  for  all  cyclic  or  non-astronomical  reckoning  and  error  amounted  to  a  full  day — ^by  the  Alphonsine 
used  centurial  corrections  for  both  solar  and  lunar  Tables  every  1'34  years — ,  or,  as  the  theological  fac- 
motions.  ulty  of  the  Sorbonne  demanded,  no  correction  at  all. 

Lilius's  masterpiece  is  the  new  "Nineteen  Years'  As  to  the  lunar  cycle,  no  university  attempted  an  im- 

C>'cle  of  Epacts  ",  by  which  he  kept  the  Nica?an  Easter  pro vement  on  Lilius's  epacts.    Salamanca  and  Alcali, 

regulation  apace  with  the  astronomical  moon.    The  asweknowfromalctterofCla\'ius  to  Moleto  in  Padua, 

old  lunar  cycle  gave  the  lunations  four  or  more  clays  fuUv  approved  Lilius's  reform.    Vienna  rejected  all 

in  error,  and  Easter  could  thus  (by  taking  the  Sunday  cvclical  computation,  whi4c  the  theolo^cal  faculty  of 

after  Luna  XIV)  fall  on  Luna  XXVI,  within  a  few  tne  Sorbonne  pleaded  for  the  retention  of  the  old 

days  of  the  astronomical  new  moon.    liilius  brought  cycle,  uncorrected.    Tlie  ans^^'ers  from  Louvaixi  de- 


T.TT.f.g 


251 


ULLE 


8erv«  special  mention  because  of  the  full  approval  of 
Lilius's  calendar  bv  the  famous  astronomer  Cornelius 
Gemma,  while  Zeelstius  (1581)  sided  with  the  Univer- 
sity of  Vienna.  The  answers  from  Padua  were  pe- 
culiar. Biaciffni,  in  a  letter  to  Sirleto  (1580),  accepted 
the  idea  of  tiio  Spanish  Franciscan  Salon  and  pro- 
posed that  durine  general  jubilees  a  number  of  mathe- 
maticians be  calTed  to  Rome  by  the  pope  to  decide 
upon  the  date  of  the  eauinox.  Apparently  the  first  to 
aavocate  an  immovable  Easter  Sunday  was  Spcronc 
Speroni,  who  calls  himself  a  layman  in  mathematics. 
According  to  him  Easter  shoukl  be  fixed  on  the  Sun- 
day nearest  to  the  25  March;  or,  as  the  Spaniard 
Franciscus  Flussas  Candalla  proposed,  on  the  Sunday 
nearest  the  er^uinox. 

Thus,  every  imaginable  proposition  was  made;  only 
one  idea  was  never  mentione<l,  viz.  the  al>andonment 
of  the  seven-day  week.  The  answers  delayed  the 
publication  of  the  papal  Bull  from  1581  to  1582,  and 
some  arrived  even  later.  The  consent  of  the  Catholic 
princes  on  the  one  side  and  the  variety  of  scientific 
opinions  on  the  other  left  to  the  papal  commission  no 
alternative,  but  forced  it  to  follow  its  own  judgment. 
The  final  framing  of  the  reform  seems  to  have  been  in 
great  part  the  work  of  Clavius;  for  ho  alone  after- 
wards took  up  its  defence  and  furnished  full  explana- 
tions (" Apologia",  1588;  "Explicatio",  lCO:i;  see 
Clavius).  Sirleto  writes  of  him  that  he  was  among 
the  foremost  workers  in  the  reform  (cum  jn-itnis  egrc- 
gie  laboravil),  and  Clement  VIII  savs,  in  his  Bull 
"Quacunque"  (17  March,  1603),  that  Clavius  did 
signal  services  for  the  calendar.  The  papal  com- 
mission decided,  17  ^larch,  1580,  that  out  of  reverence 
for  ecclesiastical  tradition,  the  equinox  should  be  re- 
stored to  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Niciea.  The 
majority,  under  the  leadership  of  the  Bishop  of  Mon- 
dovl,  declared  itself  against  astronomical  lunations 
and  for  the  cycle  of  Epacts.  Lilius's  ccntur\'  rule  for 
the  omission  of  leap  days  was  adopted,  hut  his  lunar 
cvcle  was  modified.  The  Prutenic  Tables  were  made 
tne  basis,  and  the  epacta  were  all  diminished  by 
unity,  in  other  words,  Luna  XIV  was  put  one  day 
later,  to  remove  all  danger  of  Easter  ever  Ix'ing  ccle- 
Ixated  on  the  day  of  the  astronomical  full  moon,  as 
was  forbidden  by  the  old  canons.  It  is  known  that  the 
month  of  October,  1582,  was  to  have  twenty-one  d;iys 
(not  twenty,  as  Montucla  says)  and  the  ten  days 
should  be  expunged  by  passing  from  4  October  to  15 
October.  The  reform,  as  recornmeniliMl  by  the  com- 
mission on  14  Septemlxir,  1580,  rcc(^ive<l  papal  siinc- 
tion  by  the  Bull  *' Inter  Gmvisssinias",  datorl  24  IVI> 
ruaty,  1581.  and  published  on  1  March,  15S2.  The 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Nicaja  wtTe  in  this  manner 
mi  on  a  cvclical  basis  that  secured  their  correctness 
or  nearly  four  thousand  years,  a  space  of  time  more 
than  long  enough  for  any  human  institution.  The 
original  task  of  the  papal  commission  seems  to  have 
exceeded  its  strength  and  time.  The  dates  of  Eai^tcr 
were  actually  computed  for  the  next  three  thousand 
years;  the  ''Liber  Xov»  Rationis  Kestituendi  Cal- 
endarii",  which  was  to  accompany  the  reform,  was 
never  written,  and  the  Martyrolog>'  did  not  appt^ar 
unta  1586  under  Sixtus  V.  In  Um,  Clavius  was  the 
only  surviving  member  of  the  impal  commis.sion.  It 
was  by  command  of  Clement  VIII  that  he  composed 
his  "Explanation  of  the  new  Calendar". 

For  the  technical  part  of  the  CIregorian  reform  see 
Calendar,^ Reform  of  the;  Chronology. 

Clavius,  Novi  Calendarii  Romani  Apologia  (Uoino,  1.S8S); 
Idem.  Romani  CaUiuIarii  a  Oreoorio  XI/I  P.  M.  rrntUuti  Kxpli- 
eatio  (Rome,  1603);  Libri,  HiMoire  <Un  .SViWirr.x  Math/mutiquea 
tn  ludie,  Iv  (HaOc,  1865):  Kaltrnrrinner.  Die  Vorae- 
Khichie  diT  OrwgorianUchen  KaUndrrrrfnrm  in  Siizungfberirhte 
der  Akademie  pAilM.  kiMor,  Klanse,  LXXXII  (Vicnnii.  1876). 
280;  KALTBiiBBUmoEil,  Die  Polnrn'k  uft*-r  die  GrrgorianiHche 
KaUnderrtfbrm,  ibidem,  LXXXVII  (1»<77).  48');  Kaltem- 
BBintWER.  BmtiQ9  *^f  Oetchiehte  drr  (irraoriani/vhe  Kahn- 
dtmjtorm,  ibidem,  XCVII  (lASO)  T.7:  RriTMin.  Zur  Gfuchirhu 
der  Urfgorianieehtn  Kaltndfm form  in  (i  rrf-'umtU-'choU,  Jlis- 


I 


iorieche*  Jahrfnich  188$  and  1884:  Marzi,  La  queelume  deOa 
Ri/orma  del  Calendario  nel  Quinto  Concilio  Lateranenee  16 IM^ 
16 i7  (Florence.  1896j;  DtpREZ,  Ecole  Franeaiae  de  Rome: 
Milangea  d" Archiologie  et  d'Hiatoire  XIX  (1S99)  131. 

J.  G.  Hagen. 

Lille,  the  ancient  capital  of  Flanders,  now  the 
chief  town  of  the  D^'partement  du  Nord  in  France. 
A  very  important  religious  centre  ever  since  the 
eleventh  century,  Lille  Ix^came  in  the  nineteenth  a 
great  centre  of  industrv-  \N'ith  a  population  of  12,818 
in  1789,  of  24.;5(X)  in  1821,  of  140,(X)0  in  18C0,  and  of 
21 1, OCX)  in  1905,  it  is  to-day  the  fourth  city  of  France 
in  population.  (For  the  early  history  of  Christianity 
at  Lille,  see  Cambkai,  Auchdiockse  of.)  The  le- 
gend according  to  which  the  giant  Finard  was  killed 
m  the  seventh  century,  by  Lideric,  whose  mother, 
Enncngarde,  he  held  prisoner,  and  according  to  which 
Lideric  founded  the  dynasty  of  the  counts  of  Flanders, 
was  invented  in  the  thirteenth  ccnturj'.  The  first 
Count  of  Flanders,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  was  Baldwin 
of  the  Iron  Arm.  in  the  ninth  century  (see  Flanders), 
and  nothing  certain  is  known  of  Lille  Ix^forc  the  middle 
of  the  eleventh  centur\'.  The  citv  seems  to  have  been 
founded  alx)ut  that  time  by  Count  Baldwin  V,  and  in 
lOoi  it  was  already  so  well  fortified  that  Henry  III, 
Emperor  of  Germany,  did  not  dare  to  lx?siegc  it.  In 
1055  Baldwin  V  laid  the  foundation  stone  of  the  colle- 
giate church  of  St.  Peter,  which  was  detlicated  in  1CK>6. 

One  of  the  oldest  chronicles  of  Flanders  says  that 
the  foundation  of  this  collegiate  church  was  the  be- 
ginning of  the  prosperity  of  the  town.    St.  Peter's 
was  served  by  forty  canons  and  had  verj-  prosperous 
schools  as  early  as  the  end  of  the  eleventh  centur>\ 
About  the  same  time  Raiml>erts  a  Nominalist,  who 
tiiught  philoso])hy  in  St.  Peter's  school,  was  in  conflict 
with  Odo,  a  Realist,  aftenvards  Bishop  of  Cambrai, 
but  at  that  time  profeKsor  at  the  convent  of  Notre- 
Dame  de  Touniai.     llaimlx»rt's  Nominalism,  how- 
ever, was  never  carried  to  the  extremes  which  caused 
Roscelin's  condemnation  in  1092.     Another  teacher 
in  St.  Peter's  school  was  the  celebrate<i  Gautier  de 
Chatillon  (twelfth  centur>')»  the  author  of  the  "  Alex- 
andreis",  a  I/atin  epic  on  Alexander  the  (.ireat.  which 
was  used  as  a  substitute  for  Virgil's  work  in  some  of 
the   meilieval   schools.     Connected   with   the   same 
school  al>out  the  same  time  were  Alain  de  Lille,  sur- 
named  the  Cniversal  Dm-tor  (see  Alaix  de  l'Ihlk); 
Adam  de  la  Bas«6e,  a  canon  of  the  collegiate  church, 
who  composed  l>eautiful  liturgical  chants;  Lietlxirt, 
Abbot  of  Saint-Ruf,  author  of  a  great  eommentary 
on  the  Psalms,  "Flores  Psalmorum".     St.  Thomas 
of  Canterbury  and  St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  visit*^ 
the  collegiate  church  of  Lille,  and  in  it  Philip  the  ( Jood, 
Duke  of  I^urpundy,  held,  in  1431,  the  first  chanter  of 
the  Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  founded  by  liim  in 
1430  for  the  defence  of  Christendom  against  the 
Turks.     In  a  neighbouring  palace  was  held  the  fa- 
mous "  Feast  of  the  Pheasant "  (1453).  in  the  nii<l.st  of 
which  Religion,  mounted  on  an  elephant  which  was 
led  by  a  giant  Saracen,  entered  the  bancjuet  hall  to 
b(»g  aid  from  the  Knights  of  the  Golden  Fleece.    .lean 
Mielot.  a  canon  of  St.  Peter's  at  Lille,  wrote  for  Philip 
the  (lood  twenty-two  works,  including  translations, 
ascctical  works,  and  biographies.     The  most  iniixir- 
tant  of  these*  works. "  La  Vie  de  sainte  Catherine  d'A16- 
xandrie",  was  printed  later.  Miniatures  of  that  period 
often  represent  this  canon  offering  Philip  a  1)ook.     It 
was  he  who,  after  the  "  Vani  du  Faisan",  translate*!  a 
work  of  the   Dominican   Father    Brochart..   "Advis 
directif  pour  fain»  le  passage  d'oultrtvmer",  and  a  de- 
scription of  the  Holy  I^incl. 

About  this  time  the  preacher  Jean  d'Eeckhout, 
another  canon  of  Lille,  author  of  two  celebrated  as- 
eetical  tn^atises.  on  the  espousals  of  God  the  Father 
and  the  Virgin,  and  on  the  espousals  of  God  the  S<m 
and  the  sinful  soul,  yielded  to  the  pn»valent  ini^julw. 
towards  pilgrimage*  to  t\w.  WcA"^*  Va.\v\,  ^xA  ^\sA.  ^V^s^ 


LZLLE                                202  LILLE 

on  his  pilgrimage,  in  1472.    Influenced  by  the  same  Archbishop  of  Cashel  in  Ireland,  and  sufifered  bitter 

movement,  Anselm  and  John  Adomo,  members  of  a  persecution  in  that  diocese.     Until  the  sixteenth  cen- 

distinguished  Genoese  family  settled  at  Bruges,  made  tury  the  school  of  St.  Peter's  was  the  only  one  in  Lille 

a  visit  to  the  Holy  Land  of  which  the  narrative  is  pre-  where  Latin  and  the  hmnanities  were  taught;  the  city 

served  in  a  manuscript  at  Lillc.     John  Adomo,  on  his  then  oi)ened  a  school  which  was  entrusted  to   the 

return,  became  a  canon  of  Lille  and  devoted  himself  Jesuits  in  1592,  and  where  the  humanist  John  Silvius 

to  spreading,  throughout  Flanders,  the  devotion  to  taught.  The  collegiate  church  of  St.  Peter  disappeared 

St.  Catherine  of  Alexandria,  whose  relics  he  had  seen  with  the  Revolution. 

on  Mount  Sinai — hence  the  large  number  of  Flemish  After  having  in  medieval  and  modem  times  foUowed 

works  of  art  ha\ing  St.  Catherine  for  their  subject.  the  destinies  of  Flanders,  which  passed  from  the 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  statue  of  Notre-Dame  House  of  Burgundy  to  the  House  of  Austria,  the  city 
de  la  Treille,  which  stood  in  the  collegiate  church  of  St.  of  Lille  became  French  when  it  was  conquered  by 
Peter,  drew  thither  many  pilgrims.  The  reputed  Louis  XIV  in  1667  and  fortified  by  Vauban.  In  1792  it 
miracles  of  14  June,  1254,  are  famous.  It  is  not  cer-  heroically  resisted  the  Austrians.  During  the  nine- 
tain  from  what  year  of  that  same  cxjntury  the  Confra-  teenth  century  two  manufacturers  of  Lille,  Philibert 
temity  of  Notre-Dame  de  la  Treille  dates;  but  it  is  Vrau  (1829-1905)  and  Camille  F^ron-Vrau  (1831- 
historically  certain  that  in  1470  Margaret,  Countess  of  1908)  laboured  to  form  among  the  numerous  working- 
Flanders,  decreed  that  every  year,  on  the  first  Sunday  men  of  the  city  a  centre  of  Catholic  activity.  With  the 
after  Trinity  Sunday  and  for  the  nine  days  following,  aid  of  the  Abb^  Bernard,  Phililxjrt  Vrau  founded,  in 
processions  commemorating  these  miracles  should  1863,  the  Lille  Union  of  Prayer,  the  "Bulletin"  of 
be  held  in  the  city.  The  fragment  of  the  True  Cross  which  gradually  increased  its  circulation  to  22,000;  in 
which  is  still  preserved  at  St-Etienne,  LiJle,  was  given  1866  he  established  the  **Cercle  de  Lille",  which  for 
to  the  chapter  of  St.  Peter's  bv  the  Flemish  priest,  many  years  held  the  district  Catholic  Congress  for  the 
Walter  of  Courtrai,  who  was  chancellor  of  the  Em-  D^partement  du  Xord  and  the  Pas  de  Calais,  and  in 
peror  Baldwin  I  at  Constantinople.  From  the  four-  1871  the  lay  association  for  buildine  new  churches  in 
teenth  to  the  sixteenth  century,  the  collegiate  church  the  suburbs.  Philibert  Vrau  and  Camille  F^ron- 
of  St.  Peter  was  annually  the  scene  of  the  curious  elec-  Vrau  undertook  to  build  a  basilica  for  the  statue  of 
tion  of  the  "  Bishop  of  Fools",  on  the  Eve  of  the  Epiph-  Notre  Dame  de  la  Treille,  hoping  that  the  city  of  Lille 
any,  and,  on  the  feast  of  the  Holy  Innocents,  of  the  would  some  day  be  detached  from  the  Diocese  of  Cam- 
election  by  the  choristers  of  a  **  Bishop  of  the  Inno-  brai  and  become  the  seat  of  a  new  diocese  with  Notre 
cents",  who  was  solemnly  carried  in  procession.  An-  Dame  de  la  Treille  as  its  cathedral.  In  1885  they 
other  much  frequented  religious  festival  at  Lille  was  established  the  Cor[X)ration  ot  St.  Nicholas  for  spin- 
that  of  the  '^Epinette"  (little  thorn),  the  solemnities  ners  and  weavers,  with  an  employers'  and  a  workmg- 
of  which  Ijegan  on  Quinquagesima  Sunday  and  lasted  men's  council,  and  a  co-operative  fund  supported  by 
until  Mid-Lent.  The  feast  was  instituted  in  the  first  monthly  assessments  on  both  employers  and  em- 
half  of  the  thirteenth  centurv  shortly  after  the  con-  ployees. 

vent  of  the  Dominicans  at  Lille  had  received  from  the  The  Catholic  University  of  Lille,  lastly,  was  the 

Countess  Jeanne  a  fragment  of  the  Crown  of  Thorns;  result  of  their  continued  and  generous  efforts.     Tliis 

it  ceased  in  1487,  when  the  burghers  began  to  find  the  scheme  was  presented  by  Phili&rt  Vrau  in  1873  at  the 

expense  too  heavy.    The  veneration  of  the  Mater  Catholic  Congress  of  tte  North;    the  Abb^  Mortier, 

Dolorosa  originated  in  Flanders  in  the  fifteenth  cen-  later  Bishop  of  Gap,  and  the  Abb^  Dehaisnes,  known 

tury.    The  first  treatise  on  this  devotion,  which  dates  for  his  writings  on  the  history  of  Flanders,  were  ap- 

from  1494,  was  the  work  of  the  Dominican  Michel  pointed  to  report  on  the  question.     In  1874,  in  the 

FrauQois,  Bishop  of  Selimbria,  and  confessor  of  Philip  ancient  hall  of  the  Prefecture,  which  had  been  rented 

the  Fair,  a  native  of  Templemars,  near  Lille.    The  for  the  purpose  by  Philibert  Vrau,  law  courses  were 

chapter  of  St.  Peter's  immediately  combined  this  de-  opened  to  tne  public.     The  passing  of  the  law  on  the 

votion  with  that  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  Treille,  and  freedom  of  higher  education  (12  July,  1875)  hastened 

erected  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter  the  stations  of  the  the  success  of  the  foundation.     On  18  Nov.,  1875,  a 

Seven  Dolours,  to  be  made  in  the  same  manner  as  the  complete  law  course   was   organized;    on   18  Jan.. 

Way  of  the  Cross.  1877,  the  four  faculties  of  law,  sciences,  letters,  and 

The  collegiate  church  also  originated  some  impor-  medicine  were  inaugurated;    on  22  Nov.,  1879,  the 

tant  charitable  works.     Among  these  were  the  Cour  cornerstone  of  the  universitv  was  laid.     As  early^  as 

Gilsoriy  a  row  of  houses  established  by  Canon  Robert  1878  it  was  ascertained  that  tne  hospital  of  St.  Eueenia, 

Gillesson  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  rents  of  which  attached  to  the  faculty  of  medicine,  had  cared  for  as 

were  to  be  used  for  works  of  piety  and  charity,  the  many  as  2448  patients,  and  that  the  contributions 

orphanage  of  the  Grange,  founded  in  the  sixteenth  received  for  the   university   already  amounted   to 

century  by  Canon  Jean  de  Lacu;    the  ''marriage  6,473,263  francs  (about  $1,294,000).     Philibert  Vrau 

burses ',  or  dowries  for  poor  girls,  instituted  by  Canon  also  took  the  initiative  in  establishing,  in  1880,  the 

Etienne  Ru^lin  in  the  sixteenth  century  *  the  "  preb-  only  professedly  Catholic  commercial  school  in  France, 

ends  of  the  poor",  a  fund  instituted  by  Hangouard,  The  school  for  higher  industrial  studies  was  estab- 

dean  of  the  chapter,  to  enable  the  a^»ci  poor  to  live  lished  in  1885.     A^  early  as  1876  Philibert  Vrau  con- 

with  their  children  or  kin  without  being  a  burden  to  templated  the  foundation  of  a  Catholic  school  of  arts 

them;  and  an  apprenticeship  fund  for  the  benefit  of  and  crafts  at  Lille,  but  it  was  not  until  1898  that  the 

young  workmen,   established  by    Provost   Manare.  institute  was  inaugurated  under  Father  Lacoutre, 

Very  modem  ideas  of  assisting  the  poor  were  devised  S.  J.     In  1894  there  was  added  to  the  faculty  of  Jaw  a 

and  carried  out  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century  by  department  of  social  and  political  science,  and  lectures 

the  canons  of  St.  Peter's  and  through  the  liberality  of  are  now  given  every  year  by  the  most  distinguished 

Jean  de  Lannoy,  the  collegiate  scholasticuSf  a  mont-de-  Catholic  savants  of  France.     The  system  of  political 

pi^t^  was  established  to  lend  money  free  of  interest  to  economy  opposed  to  the  intervention  of  %he  State  in 

the  needy.     The  collegiate  church,  again,  hospitably  labour  affairs — a  system  long  favoured  by  the  (Jatho- 

received  the  English  refugees,  when  the  persecution  of  lie  industriels  of  Lille — was  gradually  overthrown  by 

Catholics  was  raging  in  England.     Among  its  English  the  teaching  given  in  this  department,  and  Professor 

canonswereJohnMarshall (1534-68), Allen's auxiliaiy  Duthoit's  "Vers  I'organisation  professionelle",  put 

in  the  foundation  of  Douai,  and  Gilford  (1554-1629),  lished  in  the  spring  of  1910,  finally  confirmed  the 

who,  in  1603,  at  the  peril  of  his  life  performed  a  mis-  victory  of  Catholic  social  ideas  at  LiDe. 

sion  in  England  for  the  Holy  See,  and  who  died  Arch-  In  1897,  following  the  initiative  taken  by  Cambridge 

bishop  of  Reims:  David  Kearney,  who  in  1603  became  and  Oxford,  the  Catholic  University  of  Lille  established 


ULLI8                            253  LOLOOBT 

a  "XJniveraity  Hlxteusion"  for  tbo  orgaaiiation  o{  LiUoo(!t,]iieaniiig"wiIdouion",  thcuaioeby  whkb 
lectures  by  tne  university  profcsson  tluougliout  the  they  are  commonly  koowii,  is  properly  the  name  of 
maDufacturing  centres  in  the  vicinitv  of  LilJc.  In  one  of  their  former  settlements  ncnr  Pcmberton,  and 
1898  the  univeisity  organised  higher  education  for  the  is  also  a  tipeciol  designation  of  the  lower  division. 
Catholic  eirla  of  Lille.  In  April,  1907,  the  Conseil  They  have  no  name  for  themselves  as  a  tribe,  but  an 
G&i&sl  du  Nord  suggested  the  suppression  by  the  known  aa  Stlatlimuq  to  the  neighbouring  Shuswap 
State  of  the  freedom  of  higher  education  and  insisted  and  Thompson  Indians,  whom  they  closely  resemble. 
Upon  ordinaaecB  preventing  physicians  coming  from  Although  it  is  known  that  the  Lillooet  and  adjacent 
tneCatholic  facultvof  Liite  from  attending  paupers  in  tribes  bad  obtained  some  knowlcMlge  of  the  Catholic 
the  lWpart«meat  aa  Nord  at  the  expense  of  the  Stat«.  religion  aa  early  at  least  as  1810  from  the  Canadian 
Before  the  creation  of  district  universities  by  the  employees  of  the  North-West  Fur  Company,  the  bo- 
French  Government,  the  Catholic  University  of  Lille  ginning  of  civilization  and  Christianity  in  the  tribe 
presented  the  first  example  of  these  institutions.  As  properly  dateit  from  the  advent  of  Father  Modeete 
early  aa  1886,  M.  Lavisse,  a  professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  Demers,  who  canie  out  from  Quebec  in  1837,  in  com- 
spoke  in  high  terms  of  this  unpressive  group  of  facul-  pany  with  Father  Norbert  Blanchet,  and  after  several 
ties,  saying  that  in  centralized  France  it  was  a  dis-  yearsof  workintheColumbiaregion,  inl812ascended 
tinguished  Honour  to  the  University  of  Lille  to  have  the  Frascr  Bivcr  to  Stuart  l^ke,  preaching  and  bap* 
been  incorporated  in  Flanders.  The  faculties  of  tizinp  among  all  the  tribes  on  the  way.  In  1845  the 
higher  education  which  the  State  controlled  at  Douai  Jesuit  Father  John  Nobili  went  over  nearly  the  same 
were  transferred  to  Lille  in  1888  and  raised,  six  years  ground  on  his  way  to  the  more  northern  I)Sn6  tribes. 
later,  to  the  rank  of  a  state  university.  Mgr  Baunard  In  1 847  the  first  Ublate  missionaries  in  the  Columbia 
resigned  the  rectorship  of  the  Catholic  University  in  region  arrived  at  Fort  Wallawalla,  Washington,  and  in 
Oct.,  1908,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mgr  Margerin,  who  1861   Father  Charles  Grandidier  of  that  order  was 


bad  disting^uidied  himseif  in   1888  at  Foumics  by  preaching  to  the  Lillooet.    In  the  some  year  the  Ob- 

plaeing  himself  between  the  workmen  and  the  fire  of  late  mission  of  Saint  Mary's  was  established  on  Froser 

the  soldierB.     Among  the  noteworthy  works  of  art  River,  thirty-five  miles  above  New  Westminster,  and 

possessed  by  the  city  of  Lille  is  a  wax  head,  preserved  became  the  centre  of  mission  work  for  the  whole  lower 

m  the  museum,  purchased  in  Italy  by  Wicar  during  Fraser  country.    In  1863  the  industrial  school  was 

the  Revolution;   it  is  ascribed  by  tliis  connoisseur  to  added.    The  entire  tribe  of  the  Lillooet  is  now  offi- 

Raphael;  Alexandre  Dumas  the  younger  attributed  it  ctally  reported  asCatlioUc,  with  the  exception  of  about 

to  Leonardo  da  Vinci:   Henry  Thode  claims  that  it  twenty  individuals  attached  to  the  Anglican  form, 

was  an  antique  modelled  after  the  head  of  a  younz  Twelve  villaxcs  have  churches,  while  a  number  of 

Roman  girl  whose  remains  were  found  in  1485;  M.  children  are  being  educated  at  St.  Mary's  mission, 

Frans  WickhoS,  on  the  other  hand,  is  inclined  to  re-  under  charge  of  the  Oblate  Fathers  and  the  Sisters  of 

Srd  it  as  the  work  of  one  of  the  pupils  of  Victor  of  Saint  Anne. 

rtona  (end  of  the  seventeenth  century  or  the  be-  For  all  that  concerns  the  primitive  condition  of  the 

ginning  or  the  eighteenth),  and  iaof  opioion  that  it  is  Lillooet  our  best  authority  is  Tcit.     In  habit  and  cere- 

the  head  of  a  virgin  and  martyr.  monial  they  closely  resembled  the  cognate  Okanagan, 

Vis  IIenoe,  Hi'atoi're  lU  LilU  dr  eto  h  jsoi  (LiBe,  1876);  ShuBwap,  and  Thompson  Indians,  and  a  description  of 

f^^  yf!.^"HiJ^.^?1'XT^  T  Wl/"  wS;.iH",i  t^"  0"e  will  answer  fairly  well  for  the  others.     They 

iSl!ti^T8St?0'Lt^i«oiTl^;?fff^1j'jf=S(l"r^  lived  hy  fishing,  hunting,  and  the  gathering  of  wilS 

Oft  (uDa.  183S);    HAirrciKira.  Ooeuniimli  lUuraitratt  tl  n/rm-  roots  and  berries.      Salmon  fishing  was  their  most  im- 

JMigiMidi  f'ArfiH  "IMnofe  -It  S.Pirrrt  rf.  LiUt  lUlle,  1895);  portant  industn-,  the  fish  being  taken  bv  spearing,  by 

ra^f  ?S!?r89S- '1"?.'^  ^iiSlrl'Jh^iJi;^  iH:  Uk  and  Hn*,  iy  nets  and  bylveirs,  at  -favourite  fish". 

^/tapOn  .1.  Pitrre  dt  Lille  (3  vob..  li\le,  ISOfi-OO);  LEHRiDUf,  ing  stations,   and  dried  in  the  Hun  or  by  smoking. 

LaCAaMl>ri>  di  WWUllft  lSB7i;  LefEbvre,  lyEj^dtiFmu  Their  Ordinary  hunting  implement  was  a  highly  doco- 

l'*^l5^i''E^'*F;^fi"l^^::;t^d^'iX'<fe  ratedflatl>ow;withsinew,£rd,andant,wstfppilwith 

BiUHABD  yin^-eiaa  ann^fi  ri<  iwtoraf  <ParB,  IMO);  BiODRii^  stone,  copper,  bone,  Or  beaver  teeth.      The  principal 

^i*^'  ''.^T;!!^'™™'  ^^jf^VS  ''T?  '^  ^"?^  ™''?"'?J!^n1*  game  animals  were  the  deer,  cariliou,  bear,  mountain 


£■, 


2ta*"/";K.';SK'.Tr.XSirWZ:  5~t,  bigkora^.,>d  bc,.r,  h..id.,  th.  n„,c 


IBOl.   '                                                                 '                  '  its  ouills.     Traps,  nooses,  pitfalls,  and  deodfallB  were 

Geohoes  Goyau.  used.    Dogs  were  carefully  trained  for  hunting,  and 

lJlliB.THO»iAgF.  g€»LBAVBNWon™,DiocE8EO*.  were  also  a  tavourito  fowl  article     A  great  vanotv  of 

'  *'•"— ~'"-   "*-'                            I      "^"^    "  roots  was  gathered,  some  of  which  were  roasted  m 

EdUooet  Indiana,  an  important  tribe  of  Salishan  pits  in  the  ground  after  the  manner  of  camas.     Ber- 

linguistic  stock,  in  fMuthem  British  Cohunbia,  for-  ries,  particularly  service  berries,  were  dried  in  targe 

merlv  holding  a  mountainous  territory  of  about  one  quantities,  pressed  into  cakes,  and  used  at  home  or 

hunoredmileBinlengthfromnorth  to  south,  including  traded  to  other  tribes.     Provisions  were  stored  in 

the  river  and  lake  of  the  same  name,  with  Bridge  cellars  for  winter  supply  or  sale. 

River,Andetson,andSctonLake8,andapartof Harri~  The  winter  house  was  sometimes  a  double-lined 
son  lake,  and  extending  on  the  north-east  to  beyond  mat  lodge,  but  more  usually  a  semi-suliterranean 
Fraser  River,  They  are  now  settled  upon  rescrva-  roundBtructure,fromeight4?cntofifty foctindiamcter, 
tiona  within  the  same  territory,  attached  to  Williams  of  logs  lined  with  bark  an<l  co\'ered  with  earth.  En- 
I^ke  and  Fraser  River  agencies.  They  have  several  trance  was  by  a  ladder  through  a  hole  in  the  roof,  the 
bands  grouped  in  two  mam  divisions  distinguished  by  projecting  ends  of  the  ladder  and  of  the  house  posts 
slight  dialectic  differences,  and  commonly  known  being  carved  and  painted  with  figures  of  the  clan 
respectively  as  Upper  (Williams  Lake  agency)  and  totem,  in  the  style  of  the  tot-em  poles  of  the  coast 
Lower  (Fraser  River  agency).  Their  principal  settle-  tribes.  The  ordinary  summer  dwelling  was  a  reetan- 
ments  are  Fountain  and  Bridge  River,  of  the  Upper  eular  communal  Etrurturc  of  li^  framework  and  cedar 
band;  and  Pemberton,  and  Skookumchuck,  of  the  boards.withharkroof,  from  thirty-rivetoseventy-fivo 
Ltnrar  band.  Prom  a  population  of  perhaps  four  feet  in  length,  with  fire-places  range<l  along  the  centre 
thousand  souls  a  century  ajijo  they  are  now  reduced  by  to  accommodate  from  four  to  eight  families.  The 
disease  and  former  dissipation  after  the  advent  of  the  bed  platform  was  next  the  wall.  The  furnishing  con- 
whites  to  about  1230,  the  most  notable  destruction  sisted  chiefly  of  baskets,  bags,  and  mats.  They  were 
having  been  the  result  of  a  amall-pox  visitaticn  which  expert  buket  weavers,  and  liasket  making  is  still  a 
■wept  all  the  tribes  of  the  Fraser  River  country  in  principal  industry  in  the  tribe.  Large  closely-wovea 
1882.  baskets  were  used  for  holding  water  in  wbica  to  boil 


ULLOOET 


264 


ULLOatT 


food  by  xneaxis  of  heated  stones.  Matfi,  blankets,  and 
ba^  werp  woven  from  nu^es,  bark  fibre,  twisted 
Btnoa  of  skin,  and  various  kinds  of  animal  hair,  in- 
cluding that  of  a  special  breed  of  long-haired  white  dog 
now  extinct.  Knives,  hammers,  scrapers,  etc.,  were 
of  stone;  bowls  and  dishes  of  wood.  They  were 
skilled  in  the  making  and  use  of  canoes,  both  bark  and 
du^-out,  together  with  snowshoes  for  ^-inter  travel. 
Skms  were  dressed  soft,  but  seldom  smoked.  Fire 
was  obtained  by  means  of  the  fire  drill.  Housea  and 
much  of  their  portable  handiwork  were  adorned  with 
native  paint. 

The  dress  was  of  skins,  or  fabrics  woven  from  wool 
or  bark  fibre,  and  included  caps,  head  bands,  robes, 
shirts,  belts,  sashes,  aprons,  G-strings,  leggings,  and 
moccasins,  with  ornamentation  of  fringes,  beads, 
feathers,  porcupine  quills,  dentalium  and  abalone 
shells.  Nose  and  ear  pendants  were  worn  by  both 
sexes.  The  hair  was  cut  across  the  forehead,  and 
either  hung  loose  or  was  bunched  on  top  and  beliind. 
Youne  women  braided  their  hair,  and  that  of  slaves 
was  close  cropped.  The  face  was  painted  with  sym- 
bolic designs  and  tattooing  was  common  with  both 
sexes.  Head  flattening  was  not  practised,  and  was 
held  in  contempt.  Of  weapons,  besides  the  bow, 
they  had  stone  knives,  stone-bladed  spears,  and  vari- 
ous kinds  of  clubs.  Protective  body  armour  of  thin 
boards,  rods,  or  heavy  elk  skin  was  used,  but  shields 
were  unknown.  Scalpine  or  beheading  was  imcom- 
mon.  Many  villages  and  communal  houses  were  in- 
closed bv  elaborate  stockades.  Captives  were  usually 
enslaved  and  sometimes  sold  to  other  tribes.  They 
had  many  games,  including  dice,  target  games,  throw- 
ing at  hoops,  wrestling,  horse  racing  and  the  nearly 
universal  Indian  ball  game.  Some  of  these  games  had 
song  accompaniment. 

They  had  the  clan  system,  but  without  marriage 
restriction  or  fixed  rule  of  descent,  the  clan  being 
frequently  identical  with  the  village  community. 
There  were  hereditary  village  chiefs,  each  assisted  by 
a  council,  but  no  tribal  head  cliief.  Most  of  the  prop- 
erty of  a  deceased  owner  went  to  his  widow  and  chil- 
dren, instead  of  being  destroyed,  as  in  some  other 
tribes.  There  was  a  great  number  of  dances  and 
other  ceremonials,  including  mask  dances  and  the 
great  gift  distribution  kno^n  as  Potlatch  among  the 
tribes  of  the  North- West  coast.  Children  and  young 
men  at  certain  times  were  subjected  to  a  whipping 
ordeal  to  test  their  fortitude.  Menstrual  women  were 
rigorously  secluded  as  in  other  tribes,  and  pregnancy, 
birth,  and  puberty  were  attended  by  elaborate  rites 
and  precautions.  The  puberty  ritual  for  the  young 
woman  was  especially  severe,  involving  seclusion,  fast- 
ing, prayer,  and  special  training  for  a  period  of  two 
years,  during  which  time  she  was  allowed  to  go  out 
only  at  night,  wandering  through  the  forest  masked  and 
shaking  a  rattle,  and  sitting  alone  in  the  puberty  lodge 
through  the  day,  for  the  first  month  squatting  in  a 
hole  with  onlv  her  head  above  the  surface.     The 

Euberty  ordeal  for  the  young  man  continued  for  as 
>ng  a  period,  while  for  shaman  candidates  the  tests 
and  training  extended  over  several  years.  Young  men 
also  fast«d  and  prayed  in  solitary  places  to  obtain 
visions  of  their  guardian  spirits.  Marriage  was  pre- 
ceded and  accompanied  by  considerable  ceremonial, 
including  processions  and  giving  of  presents.  Com- 
pulsion was  not  usual,  but  the  girl  was  free  to  accept 
the  suitor  or  not  as  she  chose,  and  in  some  cases  was 
herself  the  suitor  or  proposer.  Polygamy  was  com- 
mon. Widows  and  widowers  were  subj  ec ted  to  a  long 
period  of  seclusion  and  purification.  As  in  other 
tribes,  twins  were  dreaded  as  uncannv,  being  believed 
to  be  the  offspring,  not  of  the  husband,  but  of  a  grizzly 
bear  and  partaking  of  the  bear  nature.  Thev  were 
never  buned  in  the  ordinary  way,  but  in  deatn  were 
laid  away  in  tree  tops  in  the  remote  forest. 
The  dead  were  usually  buried  in  a  sitting  posture 


with  best  dress,  weaix>ns,  and  smaller  personal  be- 
longings,  in  graves  lined  ^Wth  grass  ana  marked  by 
circles  of  stones.  In  some  cases  a  canoe  was  inverted 
over  the  grave.  Among  the  Lower  Lillooet  the  body 
was  sometimes  placed  sitting  upon  the  ground,  and 
covered  with  a  heap  of  stones,  or  deposited  in  a  grave 
box,  in  front  of  which  were  set  up  wooden  figures  rep- 
resenting the  deceased,  and  dressed  in  his  clothes. 
Funeral  songs  were  sung  about  the  grave.     His  head 

Eillow,  together  with  some  food,  were  burned  near  by. 
Lis  dogs  were  killed  and  their  bodies  hung  near  the 
grave.  If  he  owned  slaves,  one  or  more  were  buried 
with  him,  being  either  killed  at  the  grave  or  buried 
alive.  Children  were  made  to  jump  four  times  over 
tho  corpse  of  the  dead  parent,  in  order  that  they  might 
the  sooner  forget  their  loss.  In  Lillooet  cosmogony 
the  East  was  associated  with  light  and  life,  the  West 
with  darkness  and  death.  In  the  beginning  the  world 
was  peopled  with  beinss  near  akin  to  animals,  many 
of  wnom  were  cannibals  and  evil  magicians.  These 
were  changed  to  animals,  birds,  and  fishes  bv  super- 
natural beings,  who  became  the  gods  of  the  tribe,  cnief 
amon^  whom  was  Old  Man,  with  nis  messenger  Coyote, 
and  his  subordinate  helpers.  Sun,  Moon,  and  otners. 
The  Haven  brought  death,  daylight,  and  fire.  Tlie 
warm* 'Chinook wind''  was  the  result  of  the  marriage 
of  Beaver  and  Glacier.  Each  clan  had  its  own  tradition 
of  origin  and  there  is  a  story  of  a  whole  tribe  trans- 
formed into  deer.  The  stars  also  were  transfonned 
beings,  and  thunder  as  usual  was  a  bird.  There  were 
giants,  but  apparently  no  dwarfs,  in  their  supernatural 
world.  Sacred  places  were  numerous,  and  sacrifice  and 
propitiation  ceremonies  frequent,  including  a  special 
rite  by  which  the  hunter  asked  pardon  of  the  bear 
which  he  had  killed.  They  had  the  same  ceremonial 
feast  at  the  beginning  of  the  salmon  fishing  season 
which  Father  De  Smct  described  as  he  hau  seen  it 
tfmong  the  Kutenai  in  1S45,  as  also  a  solemn  consecra- 
tion of  the  first  wild  berries. 

The  spirit  world  was  far  in  the  West,  over  a  weaiy 
and  dusty  trail  by  which  the  soul  travelled  until  it 
crossed  alog  over  a  stream  and  reached  the  boundary 
of  the  Land  of  the  Dead,  standing  up  like  a  wall  of 
rock,  where,  after  passing  the  challenge  of  the  sen- 
tinels, it  entered,  to  find  a  pleasant  land  and  a  wel- 
come from  former  friends,  wuo  spent  their  time  d&no* 


sometimes  to  the  same  mother.  As  usual  the  shaman 
was  at  once  doctor,  prophet,  and  master  of  rites.  There 
seem  to  have  been  no  secret  societies.  Colours  had 
s>Tnbolic  meaning,  and  four  was  a  sacred  number.  Per- 
sonal names  were  significant,  and  of  four  classes:  he- 
reditary family  names,  names  derived  from  guardian 
spirits,  dream  names,  and  common  nicknames. 

The  official  report  of  the  condition  of  the  Lower 
bands  in  190S  is  repeated  almost  in  the  same  terms  for 
the  Upper : ' '  Their  ncalth  has  been  fairly  good  tiiroiigh- 
out  the  year.  The  sanitary  condition  of  their  villages 
is  good,  and  many  of  them  have  been  vaccinated  from 
time  to  time.  Their  cliicf  pursuits  are  hunting,  fish- 
ing, packing,  and  farming.  They  also  act  as  guides 
for  mininj^  and  timber  prospectors,  and  the  women 
earn  considerable  money  at  basket  making.  Their 
dwellings  are  mostlv  all  frame  structures,  and  they 
have  good  bams  and  outbuildings.  They  have  a  coii- 
siderable  number  of  horses  and  cattle,  which  are  well 
cared  for  during  wint-cr.  They  are  fairly  well  supplied 
with  farm  implements,  most  of  them  owning;  what 
they  have.  They  arc  industrious  and  law  abiding  and 
are  making  some  progress.  They  are  temperate  and 
moral." 

H.  H.  Bancroft.  Hint.  Brit.  Cdumhia  (San  Francisco,  1887) 
Canadian  Indian  Reports AOtiawci,  annually):  Dawson,  NoUt 
on  the  Shusun  People  of  Brit.  Col.  in  Proe.  and  Traiu.  Boyal  Soc 
Can.  for  J 891,  IX  (Montreal,  1892);  Hiix-TouT^  Th4Suaaumk 
of  Brit.  Col,  in  Jour,  Anthrop,  Insl.  Great  Britain  and  Jrdandf 


XXXV  (LoadoD 

CoiHcb  (Xontml.  1910):  Tn ,  . 

^M^  JtfiH,  Kat.  BitL  (New  Yoik.  lW)6)i   «ee  >bo  I: 

Jaueb  Mookkt. 


(Limana).— The  city  of 
lima,  in  the  Department  of  the  »aine  name,  ik  the 
capital  of  tbe  Repubhc  of  Peru,  South  America.  Af- 
ter tho  coaquest  of  the  Incae  in  the  sixteenth  eenturj', 
Puarra,  coaiiinced  of  the  uecciutity  of  arapital  near  the 
coast,  chose  a  9it«  about  6(M)  feet  above  the  sea  level, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  River  Rimac  (of  which  name 
Lima  is  probably  a  corruption),  and  the  first  atone  of 
the  cathedral  in  the  wide  ptaza  was  laid  by  Piiairo.  on 
18  January,  1535.  Cuzco  had  been  the  Inca  capital, 
and  in  15^  Ftay  Valvcrdc  hod  liecn  named  Bishop  of 
Ctueo.  Lima  continued  to  grow  in  importance,  and  in 
1543  was  mode  the  see  of  a  diocese  wliich  became  un 
arehdioceBe  in  1515.  Its  first  bishop  and  archbishop 
was  the  Dominican  Loayso.  He  died  in  1575  and 
was  succeeded  by  St.  Torribio  Mogrovejo,  who  died 
of  fever  oontiaoted  intheforests  where  he  was  visiting 
and  bwtixing  the  Indians,  whose  language  (Quichua; 
he  had  mastered.  In  1551  tbe  Univei^ity  of  ,Saii 
Marco*,  th«  firat  in  the  new  world,  was  founded  at 
Lima,  and  t«  this  day  it  remains  autonomous,  and 
outside  all  Government  influence.  It  is  an  important 
aeat  of  learning,  having  eight  faculties,  including 
theology.  In  lo67  the  Jesuilji  arrived  at  Lima,  began 
founding  schools  and  colleges,  and  introduced  the 
printing  press.     It  is  of  interest  that  the  first  book 

Srinted  in  the  New  World  was  a  catechism  issued 
om  the  Jesuit  press  at  Juli  on  Lake  Titicaca  in 
1577. 

Owing  to  its  commodious  harlx>ur  at  Collao,  nine 
milca  distant,  the  town  of  Lima  dcvelope<l  rapidly  aiid 
was  the  centre  of  the  Spanii<h  trade  monopoly,  which 
lasted  until  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (171^).  Ita  do- 
mestic affairs  followed  the  chtuiging  fortunes  of  the 
viceroys  of  Peru  throughout  tlie  Colonial  period 
(1542-1816).  San  Slartin  broke  the  Spanish  power  in 
1821,  and  on  28  Feb.,  1823,  Riva  Afciiero  entered  upon 
office  as  first  President  of  Peru,  and  took  over  tbe 
government  at  Lima. 

During  the  war  with  Chile,  Limn  was  aF!^ultod  and 
fell,  14  January,  1881;  its  national  library  was  turned 
into  a  barrack,  and  many  valuable  books  and  MS3. 
were  destroved  or  sold  as  waste  paper,  works  of  art 
were  carried  off  or  broken  by  the  victorious  Chileans, 
who  occupied  the  town  for  two  years  and  nine  months. 
After  the  evacuation  Lima  suffered  from  the  political 
rivalries  of  Cdceros  and  Iglesins,  and  there  wiw  civil 
discord  until  the  presidency  of  Nicolas  dc  I'li'rola 
(1895),  who  in  1898  yielded  the  office  to  Lduanio 
Romaiia,  a  Stonyhurst  scholar,  who  held  it  until  1903. 
Everything  now  (1010)  promises  peace;  political 
discussions  are  kept  within  bounds,  and  party  gov- 
ernment is  caniea  on  without  bitterness  or  undue 
friction. 

There  are  thne  ways  of  reaching  Lima  from  Eu- 
rope or  North  America;  (1)  by  soiling  to  Colon,  cross- 
ing the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  Inking  Imat  from 
Panama  to  CaUao;  (2)  via,  the  Straits  of  Magellan; 
(3)  by  going  to  the  river  port  of  louitos,  2500  miles 
up  the  Amaion  from  the  Atlantic,  wiieneu,  by  steamer 
and  isil,  the  journey  to  Lima  is  aL>out  1200  miles. 
The  trade  n-ith  Lima  and  Callao  is  largely  in  the  bands 
of  British  merchants.  The  main  *^xpons  arc  sugar, 
cotton,  olives,  wool,  and  tol>acco.  The  city  is  built 
in  parallel  and  cross  streets,  with  a  central  plaai,  of 
which  the  cathedral  occupies  one  side,  and  the  various 
government  buildings  extend  along  another.  At  va- 
rious times  it  has  been  damaged  by  earthquakes,  the 
most  serious  being  that  of  174G,  when  Callao  was 
swept  away  by  a  tidal  wave,  and  Lima  was  almost 
reduOBd  to  ruins.  The  public  buildings  are  hand- 
aoms,  and  indude  the  House  of  Congress  and  the 


llxuusition  Pork.  Spanish  arvliitfcture  predominates, 
and  a  n'alk  through  the  streets  is  like  a  clupter  in 
st«no  from  old  Siiajn.  Among  tbe  monuments  are  the 
statue  of  Columbus,  the  statue  of  Bolivar,  the  "Sec- 
ond of  Hay"  monument  (commemorating  the  defeat 
of  the  Spaniards  in  1866),  and  the  Oologiiesi  monu- 
mcjit.  The  population  is  variously  computed  at 
between  140,000  and  150,000.  The  press  is  ably 
represented  by  two  daily  papers,  the  "Comercio" 
and  the  "  Prunsa".  Education  is  free  and  obligatory 
and  the  public  exercise  of  refigion  other  than  tlie 
(.'atliolic,  while  allowed  by  courtesy,  is  not  recogniied 

The  Cttthe<lral,  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist, was  b^un  when  Pizorro  founded  Lima;  it  took 
ninety  years  to  build,  and  was  consecrated  in  1G25.  . 
It  -suffered  considprably  from  the  earthquake  of  1746, 
and  ui  the  restoration  which  followed  the  two  great 
towers  were  added.    It  is  a  handsome  structure  with 


Li>u 


and  ten  side  chapels,  one  of  which  contains 
is  of  Pizarro.  Its  artistic  treasures  are  valt^ 
able,  and  its  high  altar  is  adorned  with  a  ])ainting  by 
Murillo.  Other  churches  of  note  in  the  town  are  San 
Francisco,  Santo  Domingo.  I^  Merced,  and  Sun  Au- 
gustin.  SanPedroandSan  Pablo  formerly  Ijelongcdto 
the  Jesuits;  Satito  Domingo  was  built  by  Pizorro,  and 
contains  n  relic  of  the  True  Cross.  Tliert  arc,  more- 
over, twcli-c  conventH.  including  Sunta  Rosa,  where 
the  IxKly  of  Saint  Rose,  Lima's  patron  saint,  is  pre- 
served. In  all  tlicre  arc  sixty-six  religious  houses  or 
estiibli.shmcntfl  in  tlic  town. 

'I'lie  archdioccw  ineluiica  the  Department  of  Lima, 
having  an  area  of  13,310  sq,  mileia  and  a  population 
of  250.000,  At  the  present  time  its  sulTrugiin  i^ccs  arc 
Arc(|itipa,  Ciuco,  Puno.  IIudniic-o,Avuciichn,  Iluanu, 
Tnijillo,  and  Chacluipoyas.  Tin-  last  Hpanish  arch- 
bisliop  was  Bartholome  cle  las  Iloras,  who  was  ex- 
pelled by  San  Martin,  in  IS21.  He  retnmrd  to  Sjiain, 
where  he  died  at  the  age  of  eighty,  in  1S2,1.  Tlie  See 
of  Lima  remained  vacant  until  Jmie,  1834,  when  a 
native  archbishop  was  installed.  The  pnsii'nt  arch- 
bishop, Pedro  Manuel  Clareia  Naranjo,  was  Ixim  at 
Lima,  29  April,  1838,  and  was  appointed  19  Decem- 
ber, 1907. 


Enoch,  Fitu.  Tin  Preiiml  ami  Fnr 
90S);  \VTnoaT.Thrf}l.lan.llli,\n 
IL-Jib.  The iipniiith  I-.oiilf  (Lonrlo: 
aU  (leiOJi  QtmrrhM  Calbilica  Ul> 


^iliiatiim  (Npw  York. 

""■"-'flphia,  1908): 

mirr  PoMi]i 


ru  (III 


UMBO  256  LOSBO 

Limbo  (Late  Lat.  Iimbxi8)t  a  word  of  Teutonic  de-  to  the  penitent  thief  and  in  the  parable  of  Laiarus 

rivation,  meaning  literally  "  hem  "or  "  border  ",  as  of  a  clearly  miply^  their  condition  was  one  of  happiness, 

garment,  or  anything  joined  on  (cf .  Ital.  lembo;  Eng.  notwithstimdmg  the  postponement  of  the  higher  bliss 

limb),     (1)  In  theolo^cal  usage  the  name  is  appli^  to  which  they  looked  forward.    And  this,  substan- 

(a)  to  the  temporary  place  or  state  of  the  souls  of  the  tially,  is  all  that  Catholic  tradition  teaches  regarding 

just  who,  although  purified  from  sin,  were  excluded  the  umbus  patrum. 

from  the  beatific  vision  until  Christ's  triumphant  as-  II.  Limbub  Infaxtium. — ^The  New  Testament  con- 
oension  into  heaven  (the  Umbus  patrum) ;  or  (b)  to  the  tains  no  definite  statement  of  a  positive  kind  regarding 
permanent  place  or  state  of  those  unbaptized  children  the  eternal  lot  of  those  who  die  in  original  sin  without 
and  others  who,  dying  without  grievous  personal  being  burdened  with  grievous  person^  guilt.  But,  by 
guilt,  are  excluded  from  the  beatific  vision  on  account  insisting  on  the  ab^lute  necessity  of  bein^  ''bom 
of  original  sin  alone  (the  limbtis  infantium  or  puero^  again  of  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost"  (John,  iii,  6)  for 
rum).  (2)  In  literary  usage  the  name  is  sometimes  entry  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven  (see  Baptism,  sub- 
applied  in  a  wider  and  more  general  sense  to  any  place  title  Necessity  of  Baptism)  ^  Christ  clearly  enough  im- 
or  state  of  restraint,  confinement,  or  exclusion,  and  is  plies  that  men  are  bom  into  this  world  in  a  state  of  sin, 
practically  equivalent  to  '^  prison"  (see,  e.  g.,  Milton,  and  St.  Paul's  teaching  to  the  same  effect  is  quite 
"  Paradise  Lost ",  III,  495;  Butler, "  Hudibras  ",  part  explicit  (Rom.,  v,  12  sqq.).  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
II,  canto  i,  and  other  English  classics).  The  not  un-  clear  from  Scripture  ana  Catholic  tradition  tJbat  the 
natural  transition  from  the  theologicad  to  the  literary  means  of  regeneration  provided  for  this  life  do  not  re- 
usage  is  exemplified  in  Shakespeare,  ''  Henry  VIII  ,  main  available  after  death,  so  that  those  dying  unre- 
act  V,  sc.  3.  In  this  article  we  snail  deal  only  with  the  generate  are  eternally  excluded  from  the  supematural 
theological  meaning  and  connotation  of  the  word.  happiness  of  the  beatific  vision  (John,  ix,  4;  Luke,  xii, 
1.  Iaubxsa  Patrum. — ^Though  it  can  hardlv  be  40;  xvi,  19  sqq.;  II  Cor.,  v,  10;  see  also  Apocatas- 
olaimed,  on  the  evidence  of  extant  literature,  that  a  tasis).  The  question  therefore  arises  as  to  what,  in 
definite  and  consistent  belief  in  the  Umbus  patrum  of  the  absence  of  a  clear  positive  revelation  on  the  sub- 
Christian  tradition  was  universal  among  the  Jews,  it  ject,  we  ought  in  conformity  with  Catholic  principles 
cannot  on  the  other  hand  be  denied  that,  more  espe-  to  believe  regarding  the  eternal  lot  of  such  persons, 
oially  in  the  extra-canonical  writings  of  the  second  or  Now  it  may  confidently  be  said  that,  as  the  result  of 
first  centuries  b.  c,  some  such  belieffinds  repeated  ex-  centuries  of  speculation  on  the  subject,  we  ought  to 
pression;  and  New-Testament  references  to  the  sub-  believe  that  these  souls  enjoy  and  will  eternally  enjoy 
ject  remove  all  doubt  as  to  the  current  Jewish  belief  in  a  state  of  perfect  natural  happiness;  and  this  is  what 
the  time  of  Christ.  Whatever  name  may  be  used  in  Catholics  usually  mean  when  they  speak  of  the  limbu9 
apocryphal  Jewish  literature  to  designate  the  abode  of  infantium,  the  *^ children's  limbo  ". 
the  departed  just,  the  implication  generally  is  (1)  The  best  way  of  justifying  the  above  statement  is  to 
that  their  condition  is  one  of  happiness,  (2)  that  it  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  history  of  Catholic  opinion  on 
is  temporary ,  and  (3)  that  it  is  to  be  replaced  by  a  the  subject.  We  shall  try  to  do  so  by  selecting  the 
condition  of  final  or  permanent  bliss  when  the  Messi-  particular  and  pertinent  facts  from  the  general  history 
anic  Kingdom  is  established.  For  details  see  Charles  of  Catholic  speculation  regarding  the  Fall  and  original 
in  "  Encyclopedia  Biblica",  s.  v.  "  Eschatology '*.  sin,  but  it  is  only  right  to  observe  that  a  fairly  full 
In  the  New  Testament,  Christ  Himself  refers  by  knowledge  of  this  general  history  is  required  for  a 
various  names  and  figures  to  the  place  or  state  which  proper  appreciation  of  these  facts. 
Catholic  tradition  has  agreed  to  call  the  limbus  patrum.  (1)  Pre^Augustinian  Tradition, — ^There  is  no  evi- 
In  Matt.,  viii,  11,  it  is  spoken  of  under  the  figure  of  a  dence  to  prove  that  any  Greek  or  Latin  Father  before 
banquet  ''with  Abraham,  and  Isaac,  and  Jacob  in  the  St.  Augustine  ever  taught  that  original  sin  of  itself  in- 
kingdom  of  heaven"  (cf.  Luke,  xiii,  29;  xiv,  15),  and  volved  any  severer  penalty  after  death  than  exclu- 
in  Matt.,  xxv,  10,  under  the  figure  of  a  marriage  feast  sion  from  the  beatinc  vision,  and  this,  by  the  Greek 
to  which  the  prudent  virgins  are  admitted,  while  in  Fathers  at  least,  was  always  regarded  as  beinff  strictly 
the  parable  of  Lazarus  and  Dives  it  is  called  "  Abra-  supernatural.  Explicit  references  to  the  subject  are 
hams  bosom"  (Luke,  xvi,  22),  and  in  Christ's  words  rare,  but  for  the  Greek  Fathers  generally  the  statement 
to  the  penitent  thief  on  Calvary  the  name  parcMiisc  is  of  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  may  be  taken  as  repre- 
used  (Luke,  xxiii,  43).  St.  Paul  teaches  (Eph.,  iv,  9)  sentative:  "It  will  happen,  I  believe",  he  writes, 
tiiat  before  ascending  into  heaven  Christ  "also  de-  "...  that  those  last  mentioned  [i.  e.  infants  d^g 
descended  first  into  the  lower  parts  of  the  earth",  and  without  baptism]  will  neither  be  admitted  by  the  just 
St.  Peter  still  more  explicitly  teaches  that,  "  being  put  jud^e  to  the  gloiy  of  heaven  nor  condemned  to  suffer 
to  death  indeed,  in  the  flesh,  but  enlivened  in  the  punishment,  since,  though  unsealed  [by  baptism],  they 
spirit ",  Christ  went  and  "  preached  to  those  souls  that  are  not  wicked.  .  .  .  For  from  the  fact  that  one  does 
were  in  prison,  which  had  been  some  time  incredulous,  not  merit  pimishment  it  does  not  follow  that  he  is 
when  they  waited  for  the  patience  of  God  in  the  days  worthy  of  being  honoured,  any  more  than  it  follows 
of  Noe"  (I  Pet.,  iii,  18-20).  that  one  who  is  not  worthy  of  a  certain  honour  de- 
It  is  principally  on  the  strength  of  these  Scriptural  serves  on  that  account  to  1x5  punished  "  ("Orat.",  xl, 
texts,  harmonized  with  the  general  doctrine  of  the  23,  in  P.  G.,  XXXVI,  389).  Thus,  according  to 
Fall  and  Redemption  of  mankind,  that  Catholic  tra-  Gregory,  for  children  dying  without  baptism,  ana  ex- 
dition  has  defended  the  existence  of  the  limbus  patrum  eluded  for  want  of  the  "seal "  from  the  "  honour  "  or 
as  a  temporary  state  or  place  of  happiness  distinct  gratuitous  favour  of  seeing  God  face  to  face,  an  intcr- 
from  purgatory  (q.  v.).  As  a  result  of  the  Fall,  heaven  mediate  or  neutral  state  is  admissible,  which,  unlike 
was  clos^  against  men,  i.  e.,  actual  possession  of  the  that  of  the  personally  wicked,  is  free  from  positive 
beatific  vision  was  postponed,  even  lor  those  already  punishment.  And,  for  the  West,  Tertullian  opposes 
purified  from  sin,  until  the  Redemption  should  have  infant  baptism  on  the  ^und  that  infants  are  inno- 
been  historically  completed  by  Christ's  visible  ascen-  cent  ("De  Bapt.",  xviii,  in  P.  L.,  I,  1221);  while  St. 
sion  into  heaven.  Consequently,  the  just  who  had  Ambrose  explains  that  original  sin  is  rather  an  in- 
lived  under  the  Old  Dispensation,  and  who,  either  at  clinatTon  to  evil  than  guilt  in  the  strict  sense,  and  that 
death  or  after  a  course  of  purgatorial  discipline,  had  it  need  occasioif  no  fear  at  the  day  of  judgment  ("  In 
attained  the  perfect  holiness  required  for  entrance  into  Ps.  xlviii",  9,  in  P.  L.,  XIV,  1169);  and  the  Am- 
glory,  were  oblieed  to  await  the  coming  of  the  Incar-  brosiater  teaches  that  the  "second  death",  which 
nate  Son  of  God  and  the  full  accomplishment  of  His  means  condemnation  to  the  hell  of  torment  of  the 
visible  earthly  mission.  Meanwhile  they  were  "in  damned,  is  not  incurred  by  Adam's  sin,  but  by  our  own 
prison",  as  St.  Peter  says,  but,  as  Christ's  own  words  ("In  Rom.",  v,  12,  in  P.  L.,  XVII,  92).    Thia 


UHBO 


257 


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undoubtedly  the  general  tradition  Ixsfore  St.  Augut^ 
tine's  time. 

^2)  Teadnng  qf  Sainl  Auausline. — ^In  his  earlier 
wntmgs  St.  Augustine  himself  agrees  with  the  com- 
mon teaditimi.  This  in  ''De  libero  arbitrio"  (III,  in 
P.  L.y  XXXIIy  1304),  written  several  years  before  the 
Ptolaglan  controversy,  discussing  the  fate  of  unbap- 
tiied  infants  after  death,  he  writes:  "  It  is  superfluous 
to  inquire  about  the  merits  of  one  who  has  not  any 
merits.  For  one  need  not  hesitate  to  hold  that  hfe 
may  be  neutral  as  between  good  conduct  and  sin,  and 
that  as  between  reward  and  punishment  there  may  be 
a  neutral  sentence  of  the  judge."  But  even  before 
the  outbreak  of  the  Pelagian  controversy  St.  Augus- 
tine had  already  abandoned  the  lenient  traditional 
view,  and  in  the  course  of  the  controversy  he  himself 
0(mdemned,  and  persuaded  the  Council  of  Carthage 
(418)  to  condemn,  the  substantially  identical  Pelagian 
teaching  affirming  the  existence  .of  ''an  intermediate 
place,  or  of  any  place  anywhere  at  all  (idlus  alicubi 
locus),  in  which  children  who  pass  out  of  this  life  un- 
baptised  live  in  happiness"  (Denzinger,  102).  This 
means  that  St.  Augustine  and  the  African  Fathers 
believed  that  unbaptised  infants  share  in  the  common 
positive  misery  of  tne  damned,  and  the  very  most  that 
St.  Augustine  concedps  is  that  their  punishment  is  the 
mildest  of  all,  so  mild  indeed  that  one  may  not  say  that 
for  them  non-existence  would  be  preferable  to  exist- 
ence in  such  a  state  ("De  peccat.  mcritis",  I,  xxi,  in 
P.  L.,  XLIV.  120;  "Contra  Jul.",  V,  44,  ibid.,  809; 
etc.).  But  this  Augustinian  teaching  was  an  innova- 
tion in  its  day,  and  the  historyr  of  subsequent  Catholic 
speculation  on  this  subject  is  taken  up  chiefly  with 
tne  reaction  which  has  ended  in  a  return  to  the  pre- 
Augustinian  tradition. 

(c)  Poarr-AuGUSTiNiAN  Teachinq. — ^After  enjoying 
several  centuries  of  undisputed  supremacy,  St.  Augus- 
tine's teaching  on  original  sin  was  first  successfully 
challenged  by  St.  Anselm  (d.  1109),  who  maintained 
that  it  was  not  concupiscence,  but  the  privation  of 
orifldnal  justice,  that  constituted  the  essence  of  the  in- 
herited sin  ("  De  conceptu  virginal! "  in  P.  L.,  CLVIII, 
431-64).  On  the  special  question,  however,  of  the 
punishment  of  original  sin  after  death,  St.  Anselm  was 
at  one  with  St.  Augustine  in  holding  that  unbaptized 
children  share  in  the  positive  sufferings  of  the  damned 
(ibid.,  457-61);  and  Abelard  was  the  first  to  rebel 
against  the  severity  of  the  Augustinian  tradition  on 
this  point.  Accoixling  to  him  there  was  no  guilt 
(eulpdy,  but  only  punishment  (paina),  in  the  proper 
notion  of  original  sm;  and  although  this  doctrine  was 
rightly  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Soissons  in  1140 
(Dens.,  376),  his  teaching,  which  rejected  material 
torment  (jxina  senatts)  and  retained  only  the  pain  of 
loss  (pama  damni)  as  the  eternal  punishment  of 
original  sin  ("  Comm.  in  Rom."  in  P.  L.,  CLXXVIII, 
870),  was  not  only  not  condemned  but  was  generally 
accepted  and  improved  upon  by  the  Scholastics. 
Peter  Lombard,  the  Master  of  the  Sentences,  popular- 
ized it  ("Sent.",  II,  xxxiii,  6,  in  P.L.,  CXCII,  730), 
and  it  acquired  a  certain  degree  of  official  authority 
from  the  letter  of  Innocent  III  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Aries,  which  soon  found  its  way  into  the  "Corpus 
Juris  ".  Pope  Innocent's  teaching  is  to  the  effect  tnat 
those  dying  with  only  original  sin  on  their  souls  will 
suffer  "no  other  pain,  whether  from  material  fire  or 
from  the  worm  of  conscience,  except  the  pain  of  being 
deprived  forever  of  the  vision  of  God  "  ("  Corp.  Juris  ", 
D^sret.  1.  Ill,  tit.  xlii,  c.  iii — Majores),  It  should  be 
noted,  however,  that  this  pcena  damni  incurred  for 
origimd  sin  impHed,  with  Abelard  and  most  of  the 
eu^  Scholastics,  a  certain  degree  of  spiritual  torment, 
and  that  St.  Thomas  was  the  first  great  teacher  who 
broke  away  completely  from  the  Augustinian  tradi- 
tion on  this  subject,  and  reljdng  on  the  principle,  de- 
rived through  the  Pseudo-Dionysius  from  the  Greek 
Falhen,  that  human  nature  as  such  with  all  its  powers 
IX.— 17 


ami  rights  was  uiiaffected  by  the  Fall  {^tuod  nahuratid 
ttianent  irUegra),  umintnincil,  at  least  virtually,  what 
the  great  majority  of  later  Catholic  theologians  have 
expressly  taught,  that  the  limbus  infantium  is  a  place 
or  state  of  perfect  natural  happiness. 

No  reason  can  be  given — so  argued  the  Angelic 
Doctor — ^for  exempting  unbaptized  children  from  the 
material  tonncnts  of  hell  {pcsna  senstu)  that  does  not 
hold  good,  even  a  fortiori,  for  exempting  them  also 
from  internal  spiritual  suffering  (pcena  damni  in  the 
subjective  sense),  since  the  latter  in  reality  is  the  more 
grievous  penalty,  and  is  more  opposed  to  the  mitissima 
mena  which  St.  Augustine  was  willing  to  admit  CDe 
Malo,  y,  art.  iii).  Hence  he  expressly  denies  tnat 
they  suffer  any  "  interior  affliction ",  in  other  words 
that  they  experience  any  pain  of  loss  (nihil  omnino 
dolebunt  de  carentia  visionU  divimB — "  In  Sent.",  II,  33, 
q.  ii,  a.  2).  At  first  ("  In  Sent.",  loc.  cit.)  St.  Thomas 
held  this  absence  of  subjective  suffering  to  be  con^ 
patible  with  a  consciousness  of  objective  loss  or  priva- 
tion, the  resi gnat  ion  of  such  souls  to  the  ways  of  God's 
providence  being  so  perfect  that  a  knowlecfge  of  what 
they  had  lost  through  no  fault  of  their  own  does  not 
interfere  with  the  full  enjoyment  of  the  natural  goods 
they  possess.  Afterwards,  however,  he  adopt^  the 
much  simpler  ps>'chological  explanation  which  denies 
that  these  souls  have  any  knowledge  of  the  super- 
natural destiny  they  have  missed,  this  knowledge  being 
itself  supernatural,  and  as  such  not  included  in  what  is 
naturally  due  to  the  separated  soul  (De  Malo,  loc. 
cit.).  It  should  be  added  that  in  St.  Thomas's  view 
the  limbus  infantium  Ls  not  a  mere  negative  state  of 
immunitv  from  suffering  and  sorrow,  but  a  state  of 
positive  happiness  in  which  the  soul  is  united  to  God 
by  a  knowledge  and  love  of  Him  proportionate  to 
nature's  capacity. 

The  teaching  of  St.  Thomas  was  received  in  the 
Schools,  almost  without  opposition,  down  to  the 
Reformation  porioil.  The  very  few  theologians  who, 
^nth  Gregory  of  Rimini,  stood  out  for  the  severe  Augus- 
tinian view,  were  commonly  designated  by  the  oppro- 
brious name  of  tortores  infantium  (see  the  brief  list  in 
Noris,  "Vind.  August.",  HI,  v,  in  P.  L.,  XLVII,  651 
sqq.).  Some  writers,  like  Savonarola  (De  triumpho 
crucis.  III,  9)  and  Catharinus  (De  statu  parvulorum 
sine  bapt.  decedentium),  added  certain  details  to  the 
current  teaching — for  example  that  the  souls  of  un- 
baptized children  will  ht  united  to  glorious  bodies  at 
the  Resurrection,  and  that  the  renovated  earth  of 
which  St.  Peter  speaks  (II  Pet.,  iii,  13)  will  he  their 
happy  dwelling-place  for  eternity.  At  the  Reforma- 
tion, Protestants  generally,  but  more  especially,  the 
Calvinists,  in  reviving  Augustinian  teaching,  added  to 
its  original  harshness,  and  the  Jansenists  followed  on 
the  same  line^.  This  reacted  in  two  ways  on  Catholic 
opinion,  first  by  compelling  attention  to  the  true 
historical  situation,  which  the  Scholastics  had  under- 
stood very  imperfectly,  and  second  by  stimulating  an 
all-round  opposition  to  Augustinian  severity  regard- 
ing the  effects  of  original  sin;  and  the  immediate  re- 
sult was  to  set  up  two  Catliolic  parties,  one  of  whom 
either  rejected  St.  Thomas  to  follow  the  authority  of 
St.  Augustine  or  vainly  tried  to  rt»coiicile  the  two, 
while  the  other  remained  faithful  to  the  Greek  Fathers 
and  St.  Thomas.  The  latter  party,  after  a  fairly  pro- 
longed struggle,  lias  certainly  the  balance  of  success 
on  its  side. 

Besides  the  professed  advocates  of  Augustinianism, 
the  principal  theologians  who  belonged  to  the  first 
party  were  Bcllannine,  Petavius,  and  Bossuet,  and 
the  chief  ground  of  their  opposition  to  the  previously 
prevalent  Scholastic  view  was  that  its  acceptance 
seemed  to  compromise  the  very  principle  of  the  author- 
ity of  tradition.  As  students  of  history,  they  felt 
bound  to  admit  that,  in  excluding  unbaptized  children 
from  any  place  or  state  even  of  natural  happiness  and 
condemning  them  to  the  hre  of  hell,  St.  Avi^\sl^^5k&^^2QS^ 


1 


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258 


UMBO 


Council  of  Carthage,  aiid  later  African  Fathers,  like 
Fulgentius  ("De  fide  ad  Petrum",  27,  in  P.  L.,  LXV, 
701),  intended  to  teach  no  mere  private  opinion,  but  a 
doctrine  of  Catholic  Faith;  nor  could  they  be  satisfied 
with  what  Scholastics,  like  St.  Bonaventure  and  Duns 
Scotus,  said  in  reply  to  this  difficulty,  namely,  that  St. 
Augustine,  to  whom  the  text  of  Fulgentius  j  ust  referred 
to  was  attributed,  had  simply  been  guilty  of  exaggerar 
tion  ("respondit  Bonaventura  dicens  quod  Augus- 
tinus  excessive  loquitur  de  illis  poenis,  sicut  frequenter 
faciunt  sancti" — Scotus,  "In  Sent.",  II,  xxxiii,  2). 
Neither  could  they  accept  the  explanation  which  even 
some  modem  theologians  continue  to  repeat:  that  the 
Pelagian  doctrine  condemned  by  St.  Augustine  as  a 
heresy  (see  e.  g.,  "De  anima  et  ejus  orig.",  II,  17,  in 
P.  L.,  XLIV,  505)  consisted  in  claiming  supernatural, 
as  opposed  to  natural,  happiness  for  those  dving  in 
original  sin  (see  Bellarmine,  **  De  amiss,  gratise  ,  vi,  1; 
Petavius,  "De  Deo",  IX,  xi;  De  Rubeis,  "De  Peo- 
cat.  Orig.",  xxx,  Ixxii).  Moreover,  there  was  the 
teaching  of  the  Council  of  Florence,  tnat  "  the  souls  of 
those  dying  in  actual  mortal  sin  or  in  original  sin  alone 
go  down  at  once  (mox)  into  hell,  to  be  punished,  how- 
ever, with  widely  different  penalties"  (Denz.,  693). 

It  is  clear  that  Bellarmine  found  the  situation  em- 
barrassing, being  imwilling,  as  he  was.  to  admit  that 
St.  Thomas  and  the  Schoolmen  generally  were  in  con- 
flict with  what  St.  Augustine  and  other  Fathers  con- 
sidered to  be  defide^  and  what  the  Council  of  Florence 
seemed  to  have  taught  definitively.  Hence  he  names 
Catharinus  and  some  others  as  revivers  of  the  Pelagian 
error,  as  though  their  teaching  differed  in  substance 
from  the  general  teaching  of  the  School,  and  tries  in  a 
milder  way  to  refute  what  he  concedes  to  be  the  view 
of  St.  Thomas  (op.  cit.,vi-vii).  He  himself  adopts  a 
view  which  is  substantially  that  of  Abelard  mentioned 
above;  but  he  is  obliged  to  do  violence  to  the  text  of 
St.  Augustine  and  other  Fathers  in  his  attempt  to  ex- 
plain them  in  conformity  with  this  view,  and  to  con- 
tradict the  principle  he  elsewhere  insists  upon  that 
"  original  sin  does  not  destroy  the  natural  but  only  the 
supernatural  order"  (op.  cit.,  iv).  Petavius,  on  the 
other  hand,  did  not  try  to  explain  away  the  obvious 
meaning  of  St.  Augustine  and  his  followers,  but,  in 
conformity  with  that  teaching,  condemned  unbap- 
tized  children  to  the  sensible  pains  of  hell,  maintaining 
also  that  this  was  the  doctrine  of  the  Council  of  Flor- 
ence. Neither  of  these  theologians,  however,  suc- 
ceeded in  winning  a  large  following  or  in  turning  the 
current  of  Catholic  opinion  from  the  channel  into 
which  St.  Thomas  had  directed  it.  Besides  Natalis 
Alexander  (De  peccat.  et  virtut,  I,  i,  12) .  and  Estius  (In 
Bent.,  II,  XXXV,  7),  Bellarmine's  chief  supporter  was 
Bossuet,  who  vainly  tried  to  induce  Innocent  XII  to 
condemn  certain  propositions  which  he  extracted  from 
a  posthumous  work  of  Cardinal  Sf  rondati  and  in  which 
the  lenient  scholastic  view  is  affirmed  (see  propo- 
sitions in  Do  Rubeis,  op.  cit.,  Ixxiv).  Only  professed 
Aug^stinians,  like  Noris  (loc.  cit.),  and  Berti  (De  theol. 
discip.,  xiii,  8),  or  out-and-out  Jansenists  like  the 
Bishop  of  Pistoia,  whose  famous  diocesan  synod  fur- 
nished eiphty-five  propositions  for  condemnation  by 
Pius  VI  (1794),  supported  the  harsh  teaching  of 
Petavius.  The  twenty-sixth  of  these  propositions 
repudiated  "  as  a  Pelagian  fable  the  existence  of  the 
place  (usually  called  the  children's  limbo)  in  which  the 
30uLs  of  those  dj'iug  in  original  sin  are  punished  by  the 
pain  of  loss  without  any  pain  of  fire";  and  this,  taken 
to  mean  that  by  denying  the  pain  of  fire  one  thereby 
necessarily  postulates  a  middle  place  or  state,  in- 
volving neither  guilt  nor  penalty,  between  the  king- 
dom of  Clod  and  eternal  damnation,  is  condemned  by 
the  pope  as  being  "false  and  rash  and  as  slander 
on  the  Catholic  schools"  (Denz.,  1526).  This  con- 
denmation  was  practically  the  death-knell  of  extreme 
Auf^iLstinianism,  while  the  mitigated  Augustinianism 
of  Bellarmine  and  Bossuet  had  already  l^n  rejected 


by  the  bulk  of  Catholic  theologianB.  Suares,  fof 
example,  ignoring  Bellarmine's  protest,  continued  to 
teach  what  Catharinus  had  taught — ^that  unbaptized 
children  will  not  only  enjoy  perfect  natural  happiness, 
but  that  they  will  rise  with  immortal  bodies  at  tbe  last 
day  and  have  the  renovated  earth  for  their  happy  abode 
(De  vit.  et  penat.,  ix,  sect,  vi,  n.,  4);  and.  without 
insisting  on  such  details,  the  great  majority  oi  Catholic 
theologians  have  continued  to  maintain  the  general 
doctrine  that  the  children's  limbo  is  a  state  of  perfect 
natural  happiness,  just  the  same  as  it  would  have  been 
if  God  had  not  established  the  present  supernatural 
order.  It  is  true,  on  the  other  hand,  that  some  Catho- 
lic theologians  have  stood  out  for  some  kind  of  compro- 
mise with  Augustinianism,  on  the  ground  that  nature 
itself  was  wounded  and  weakened,  or  at  least  that  cer- 
tain natural  rights  (including  the  right  to  perfect  felic- 
ity) were  lost  in  consequence  of  the  Fall.  But  these 
have  granted  for  thp  most  part  that  the  children's 
limbo  implies  exemption,  not  only  from  the  pain  of 
sense,  but  from  any  positive  spiritual  anguish  for  the 
loss  of  the  beatific  vision;  and  not  a  few  have  been  will- 
ing to  admit  a  certain  limited  degree  of  natural  happi- 
ness in  limbo.  What  has  been  chieflv  in  dispute  is 
whether  this  happiness  is  as  perfect  and  complete  as  it 
would  have  been  in  the  hypothetical  state  of  pure  na- 
ture, and  this  is  what  the  majority  of  Catholic  theolo- 
gians have  affirmed. 

As  to  the  difficulties  against  this  view  which  pos- 
sessed such  weight  in  the  eyes  of  the  eminent  theolo- 
gians we  have  mentioned,  it  is  to  be  observed:  (1)  We 
must  not  confound  St.  Augustine's  private  authority 
with  the  infallible  authority  of  the  Catholic  Church; 
and  (2),  if  allowance  be  made  for  the  confusion  intro- 
duced into  the  Pelagian  controversy  by  the  want  of  a 
dear  and  explicit  conception  of  tne  distinction  be- 
tween the  natural  and  the  supernatural  order  one  can 
easily  understand  why  St.  Augustine  and  the  Council 
of  Carthage  were  practically  boimd  to  condenm  the 
locus  mediua  of  the  Pelagians.  St.  Augustine  himself 
was  inclined  to  deny  this  distinction  altogether,  al- 
though the  Greek  Fathers  had  already  developed  it 
pretty  fully,  and  although  some  of  the  Pelagians  had  a 
glimmering  of  it  (see  Coelestius  in  August.,  "  De  Pec- 
cat Orig.",  V,  in  P.L.,  XLIV,  388),  they  based  their 
claim  to  natural  happiness  for  unbaptized  children  on  a 
denial  of  the  Fall  and  original  sin,  and  identified  this 
state  of  happiness  with  the  "fife  eternal"  of  the  New 
Testament.  (3)  Moreover,  even  if  one  were  to  admit 
for  the  sake  of  argument  that  this  canon  of  the  Council 
of  Carthage  (the  authenticity  of  which  cannot  reason- 
abhr  be  doubted)  acquired  the  force  of  an  oecumenical 
definition,  one  ought  to  interpret  it  in  the  light  of  what 
was  undertood  to  be  at  issue  by  both  sides  in  the  con- 
troversy, and  therefore  add  to  the  simple  locus  medius 
the  qualification  which  is  added  by  Pius  VI  when,  in 
the  Constitution  "  Auctorem  Fidei ",  he  speaks  of  lo- 
cum ilium'  et  statum  medium  expertem  culpse  et  poe- 
nsB  ".  Finally,  in  regard  to  the  teaching  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Florence,  it  is  incredible  that  the  Fathers  there 
assembled  had  any  intention  of  defining  a  question  so 
remote  from  the  issue  on  which  reunion  with  the 
Greeks  depended,  and  one  which  was  recognized  at  the 
time  as  being  open  to  free  discussion  and  continued  to 
be  so  regarded  by  theologians  for  several  centuries 
afterwards.  What  the  council  evidently  intended  to 
deny  in  the  passage  alleged  was  the  the  postponement 
of  final  awards  till  the  day  of  judgment.  Those  dying 
in  original  sin  are  said  to  descend  into  hell,  but  this 
does  not  necessarily  mean  anything  more  than  that 
they  are  excluded  eternally  from  the  vision  of  God.  In 
this  sense  they  are  damned,  i.  e.,  they  have  failed  to 
reach  their  supernatural  destiny,  and  this  viewed  ob- 
jectively is  a  true  penalty.  Thus  the  Council  of  Flor- 
ence, however  literally  interpreted,  does  not  deny  the 
possibility  of  perfect  subiective  happiness  for  those 
dying  in  original  sin,  and  tnis  is  all  that  is  needed  from 


UMBOUBO 


259 


UMBOXTBO 


the  dogmatic  viewpoint  to  justify  the  prevailing 
Catholic  notion  of  the  children's  limbo,  while  from  the 
standpoint  of  reason,  as  St.  Gregroy  of  Nazianxus 
pointed  out  long  ago,  no  harsher  view  can  he  recon- 
ciled with  a  worthy  concept  of  God's  justice  and  other 
attributes. 

Hamachi.  De aninuibua  judarum  in  nnu  Abrakae  ante  Chruti 
mortem  (Rome.  1766);  Boloeni,  Siaio  dei  bamhini  mortx  aenza 
batteeimo  (Rome.  1787);  Hurter,  Theol.  dogmat.^  11th  ed..  Ill 

?nii8bruek.  1003);  Plciiptrk,  The  Svirita  m  Primm  (New 
ork,  1884);  Atsberger.  QeHck.  d.  chrudlichen  Eeehatologie 
(Fnibuis.  1896);  Pohle.  Lehrb,  d.  Dogmatik,  I.  513;  II.  200 
(Paderbom.  19Gt3'-7) ;  Turmel.  La  descente  du  Christ  aux  en/era 
CParis,  1905);  Toner,  Lot  of  Those  Dying  in  Orioinal  Sin  in 
hiah  Theol.  Quarterly  (July,  1909) ;  Braun  in  Kirchenlex,  b.  V. 
Liu^M*.    See  also  literature  under  Orioinal  Sin. 

P.  J.  TONEB. 

Umboufg,  Pol  de,  French  miniaturist.  With  his 
two  brothers,  he  flourished  at  Paris  at  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. It  is  believed  that  their  family  name  was 
Malouel,  or  Malwel,  and  that  they  were  nephews  of 
that  Jean  Malouel  who  was  employed  at  Dipu,  at  the 
Court  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  whose  "  Vie  de 
St.  Denis  '*,  in  the  Louvre,  was  painted  for  the  Char- 
treuse of  Champmol  and  was  nnished  by  Henri  de 
Bellechose.  The  surname  de  Limbourg  makes  it  ap- 
pear that  they  came  from  the  region  which  borders  on 
the  country  of  Van  Eyck  and  was  in  those  days  de- 
pendent on  the  Duchy  of  Burgundy.  But  it  is  prob- 
able that  they  came  to  Paris  at  an  early  age,  and  that 
it  is  they  who  are  meant  bv  Guillebert  de  Metz  in  his 
"Description  de  Paris",  when  he  speaks  of  the  "  trois 
fr^res  enlumineurs".  They  must,  therefore,  have 
been  already  famous  at  the  date  of  this  book  (about 
1395),  although  it  is  impossible  to  ascribe  to  them 
with  certainty  any  work  previous  to  1416.  At  the 
latter  date  they  worked  for  the  Due  de  Berry  (brother 
of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  uncle  of  Charles  VI)  on 
the  decoration  of  a  manuscript  which  is  still  extant 
and  which  forms  part  of  the  library  of  the  Musto 
Cond6.  This  famous  book  is  universally  celebrated 
under  the  name  of  the  "Tr^s  Riches  Heures"  of 
Chantilly  (sometimes  called  the  Book  of  Hours  of  the 
Due  de  Berry). 

Of  the  two  hundred  and  odd  paintings  which  adorn 
the  "Ti^  Riches  Heures"  only  the  first  half  are  due 
to  the  Limbourg  brothers;  the  rest  were  done  fifty  or 
sixty  years  later  by  a  pupil  of  Fououet  (q.  v.)  named 
Jean  Uolomb  (brother  of  Michel  Colomb,  the  sculptor 
of  the  famous  tomb  of  Nantes  and  of  the  Solesmes 
"Saints").  Even  in  the  first  half  of  the  "Heures" 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  share  contributed  by 
any  one  of  the  three  Limbourg  brothers.  Judging  by 
the  account  given  in  the  records,  Pol  must  have  been 
the  eldest,  and  head  of  the  atelier.  This  being  so,  he 
was  probably  the  originator  of  the  designs,  or  themes, 
and  nis  pupus  were  restricted  to  executing  them  after 
the  copy  set  by  him.  At  any  mte,  the  designer, 
whoever  he  may  have  been,  was  one  of  the  greatest 
artists  of  the  Renaissance.  It  is  a  moot  question 
whether  his  art  was  learned  in  Italy:  on  the  one  hand 
Italianisms  abound  in  the  "Tres  Riches  Heures" — 
it  would  be  easy  to  point  out  twenty  examples  of 
Florentine  or  Sienese  imitations;  the  buildings  in 
more  than  one  scene  strikingly  recall  the  architecture 
of  Giotto  and  the  taste  of  the  Roman  marmorari;  the 
"  Presentation  in  the  Temple  "  is  an  exact  reproduc- 
tion of  the  composition  ot  Taddeo  Gaddi;  there  is  a 
plan  of  Rome  identical  with  one  on  the  ceiling  of  a 
nail  of  the  public  palace  at  Siena.  But  such  coinci- 
dences are  not  conclusive  that  the  artist  of  the  "  Tr^s 
Riches  Heures  "  travelled  through  Italy.  Communi- 
cation between  the  two  countries  was  frequent;  Paris 
was  already  cosmopoUtan  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  what  was  called  the  ouvraige  de  Rome,  or  ouvraige 
de  Lan^Kordie  was  well  known  there.  Besides,  on 
more  than  <me  point  the  Limbourgs  were  far  in  ad- 
of  oontemporary  Italy.    From  the  time  of 


Charles  V  there  had  arisen  in  Paris  an  elegant  natu- 
ralism of  which  numerous  traces  appear  in  the  work  of 
these  three  brothers.  In  the  matter  of  drawing,  the 
''Adam  and  Eve  in  Paradise",  and  still  more  the 
study  of  an  "Astrologic  Man",  are  examples  of  the 
nude  not  to  be  paralleled  in  Italy  earlier  than  the  date 
of  the  Carmine  chapel  (1428),  nor  in  Flanders  before 
that  of  Van  Eyck's  retable  (1432).  Other  pages 
offer  studies  of  contemporary  costume  or  of  amcoals 
which  were  not  surpassed  by  Gentile  da  Fabriano, 
whose  "Adoration  of  the  Magi"  dates  from  1423. 
The  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  "  discovers  a  beauty  of 
design  and  a  purity  of  sentiment  which  perhaps  Beato 
Angelico  himself  never  equalled,  while  for  genre  and 
the  portrayal  of  contemporary  manners,  whether 
peasant  or  noble,  the  early  pages  of  the  manuscript  are 
examples  of  an  art  until  then  without  precedent  and 
as  exquisite  as  anything  produced  in  later  ages.        • 

It  had  been  usual  to  place  at  the  beginning  of  a 
Book  of  Hours  a  calendar  giving  the  principal  feasts, 
the  lunations,  ete.  A  similar  calendar  was  generally 
carved  on  the  porch  of  a  cathedral  (see  Male,  "L'Art 
religieux  en  France  au  XIII®  si^cle").  The  months 
are  represented  in  these  calendars  bv  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac  above  a  small  bas-relief  showing  the  character- 
istic occupations  of  the  several  seasons — for  August, 
e.  g.,  the  harvest;  for  September,  the  \dntage.  These 
sculptures,  of  a  classic,  almost  Greek,  style  of  art, 
naturally  did  not  admit  of  more  than  one  or  two 
figures,  with  a  landscape  rather  suggested  than  ex- 
pressed. The  calendars  of  the  Books  of  Hours  were 
still  thus  conceived  in  the  fourteenth  century.  For 
this  wholly  ideal  conception  of  things  Pol  de  Lim- 
bourg substituted  one  wholly  naturalistic.  He  made 
the  subject  over  anew  and,  retaining  only  the  poetic 
theme,  introduced  a  thousand  novel  developments,  de- 
picting, instead  of  the  abstract  conception  of  the 
seasons,  their  real,  concrete  aspecte.  Thus  it  is  that 
the  "Tr^s  Riches  Heures"  embodies  in  its  calendar 
(the  month  of  November  is  by  Jean  Colomb)  a  new 
theory  of  sesthetics  and  constitutes  the  definite  begin- 
ning of  modern  landscape  art. 

An  innovation  fraught  w^ith  such  important  conse- 
quences for  the  art  of  painting  naturally  prompts  the 
question:  Whence  did  the  idea  originate?  In  reply. 
Henri  Bouchat  suggests  this  ingenious  theory:  It  will 
be  noticed  that  each  of  these  landscapes  represents 
one  of  the  dwellings  or  chdteaux  of  the  Due  de  Berry — 
the  Louvre,  MchunR-sur-Ydvrc,  Vincennes,  ete.  Each 
of  these  landscapes  is  made  to  harmonize  with  one  of 
the  signs  of  the  zodiac — called  the  "houses"  of  the 
sun.  Hence  it  may  be  conjectured  that  the  prince 
himself  commanded  this  amhitioiLs  parallel.  So,  too, 
under  Louis  XIV,  the  tapestry  ot  "The  Months", 
woven  by  the  Gobelins  after  the  cartoons  of  Le  Brun, 
represents  the  various  chateaux  of  the  roi  soleil. 
But  whatever  the  origin  of  the  idea,  the  Limbourgs 
retain  the  merit  of  having,  in  its  execution,  given  the 
earliest  and  some  of  the  most  perfect  models  of  mod- 
em landscape  art.  The  happiness  rarely  accorded  an 
artist,  of  Imving  created  a  genre,  belongs  to  them 
more  than  to  any  others.  Moreover,  of  all  the  se- 
crets of  this  new  art — even  the  resources  of  atmosphere 
and  of  chiaroscuro — they  hadj  if  not  the  developed 
instinct,  at  least  some  presentiment.  The  poetry  of 
each  season,  its  colour,  its  gaiety  or  melancnoly,  the 
transparency  of  the  spring  air,  the  winter  torpor  of 
nature,  are  all  suggested.  The  work  of  the  Limoourg 
brothers  was  epoch-making,  a  century  later  it  was 
still  being  imitated,  and  the  Flemish  artists  of  the 
celebrated  Grimani  Breviary  in  the  Library  of  St. 
Mark  confined  themselves  to  copying  it,  wliile  they 
modernized  it  and  made  it  dull.  It  has  elsewhere 
been  said  (see  Eyck,  Hubert  and  Jan  Van)  how 
great  is  the  historical  importance  of  this  admirable 
manuscript;  but^  even  if  it  did  not  possess  in  this 
respect  a  value  impossible  to  ov^t^aXxswaXfc — «s«dl>5l 


UBEBVBO  2e 

ire  could  not  trace  in  it  the  be^iuniugH  at  all  Northern 
painting:,  from  the  MaUre  dt  la  FlfmoUe  to  Jean  Fou- 
quet— it  would  still  be,  with  ita  extraordinary  variety 
of  scenes  and  it^  perfect  style,  one  of  the  most  precious 
monumenta  of  tne  art  of  painting. 

Rehah.  Zturoura  lur  TAiU  dfi  arlt  en  Franee  ou  XIV' 
witch  (Fsria,  1843);  MANTt,  La  Pei-lun  en  Frmct  du  JX-  oit 
XVI-  aUcU  (Paris,  ■.  d.);  C'odrajoh.  Lttont  pnfutta  h 
I'HoU  du  Louvrr,  U  (IflOU:  Dr.ii nitHse,  HiHaire  dt  V AH  dam 
laFIandrr.l'ArUiitriltHaiHaiaavclt.,*:,  Lille.  1886);  !>■ 
Chauveaux  AHii  OAUdiEiir,  Lra  rnnBHi  (Tori  (B-f'mUf  pour  l« 
due  dt  Bnrv  (Poria,  1S94);  Gui[.i.eb«iit  de  Uetx.  DneripUm 
dfPariiiKnaCharlaVI,p}ih]akvdbyl,tBxtai.xmi  Lihct  and 
T18BBHAKD  in  Pant  ti  trt  MHantnt  aux  XH-  tt  XV'  liitltt: 
Dblisi^.  LfM  LiTOL  d'Heura  du  due  de  Btm,  (Psria,  l»84)i 
Dvorak,  Dot  Haiti]  dtr  Bmdtr  lun  Eurk  (VienDs.  19M):  Ddh- 
BiED.  Ltt  Hnrttde  Turin  IPario.  IBOf);  Lii  Trri  Iticha  Beura 
duducdtBernKF^™,  lOW);  Ltt  BtlUi  H runt  du due  dt  Brrrj/ 
in  Oaiitlr  dtt  Braui'Am  [19061;  Ln  DibuU  dti  I'an  Ei/ct  in 
Qiu.  da  Biaia-A.  (lOlM). 

,  Louis  Gillbt. 

Limbnrg,  Diocese  or  (LiMBirnaENsis),  in  the 
KinRdom  of  Prussia,  miffragan  of  Freiburg. 

I.  History. — This  diocese  dates  from  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  city  of  Limburg  then  be- 
longed to  the  Elector  of  Trier,  but  the  north-eastern 
part  of  the  present  ilioceae  lay  outside  of  any  diocesan 
territory,  having  been  under  Protestant  rulers  since 
the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  It  was  administered  in 
Bpiritu.il  matters  from  Trier,  through  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities  at  Coljlenz.  When  the  latter  city  fell  into 
tiie  hands  of  the  French  (1794),  the  administrator. 
Archdeacon  Joseph  Ludwig  Beck,  was  given  ecclesias- 
tical jurisdiction  overthat  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Trier 
which  lav  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  the  setit  of 
his  administration  lieing  Limburg.  When,  in  1801, 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Frencli,  the  three  rural  deaneries  of  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Trier  on  the  right  bank  still  continued  to 
exist,  but  in  1S03  passed  to  the  princes  of  Nassau- 
Weilburg,  who  allowed  the  vicariate-generai  at  Lim- 
burg to  continue,  but  diverted  various  ecclesiastical 
revenues  and,  in  the  city  of  I,.imburg,  suppresscil  the 
collegiate  chapter  which  had  existed  since  the  truth 
centurv.  In  1802  tlie  last  Archbixhon  of  Trier,  Kle- 
niens  Wenceslaus,  appointed  Beck  sole  vicar-general 
for  what  remained  of  the  archdiocese,  and  after  the 
death  of  the  archbishop  (1812)  Reck  was  conlirmed  in 
this  position  by  the  pope  (181^1).  His  ecclesiastical 
admmistration  was  earned  on  under  the  most  difficult 
circumstances,  in  spite  of  which  he  did  not  fail  to  pro- 
vide for  a  wcli-traincd  priesthood,  and  to  encourage 
learning  and  virtue  among  hisclergy.  Upon  his  death 
(3  February,  1816),  the  primate,  Dalbcrg,  in  his  ca- 
pacity as  metropolitan  and  nearest  bishop,  appointed 
Hubert  Anton  Corden,  pastor  of  Limburg,  to  be  a<l- 
ministrator  and  director  of  the  vicariate  (15  Decem- 
ber, 1816).  Pius  VII  appointed  him,  8  July,  1818, 
vicar  Apostolic  for  the  Archdiocese  of  Trier.  Prussia 
di^  not  recognize  the  new  vicariate,  and  forbade  Cor- 
den to  administ«r  the  parishes  which  were  under 
Prussian  rule.  A  separate  Diocese  of  Limburg  was  the 
only  possible  solution  of  the  difficulty.  Long  negotia- 
tions, begun  in  1S18  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  were 
carried  on  lietwoen  Rome  and  the  tkivemments  inter- 
ested, with  the  result  tliat  the  ecclesiastical  I'rovince 
of  the  Upper  Rhine  was  establislied  in  18*21,  and,  as  a 
part  ot  it,  the  Diocese  of  Limburg.  The  Bull  "Pro- 
vida  Bolers<)ue",  establishing  the  new  diocese,  was 
issued  16  AngiLsl,  IS21.  but,  on  account  of  a  dispute 
between  the  pope  and  the  Governments  concerned, 
the  bee  of  Limburg  was  not  filled  for  five  yeara.  The 
first  bishop  waa  Jacob  Brand,  parish  priest  of  Wies- 
kirchen  (b.  29  January,  1776,  at  Mespellbninn  in 
Franconia),  proposed  by  the  Government,  confirmed 
by  the  pope,  and  consecrated  21  October,  1827. 

The  new  di()Cese  consisted  of  the  fifty-seven  par- 
iahes  of  the  Ducliy  of  Nassau  that  had  formerly  been 
inder  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz  and  in  1S21  bad  been 
placed  under  the  vicar  Apostolic  Corden,  the  free 


imperial  city  of  Frankfort-on-tlie-Main,  fifty-one 
parishes  of  the  fonner  Archdiocese  of  Trier,  and 
twenty-five  pariahes  in  which  no  episcopal  jurisdiction 
had  been  exercised  since  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  In 
1828  the  diocese  was  divided  into  fifteen  deaneries. 
The  former  collegiate  and  parish  church  of  St.  George, 
at  Limburg,  which  since  the  French  Revolution  )^ 
been  in  a  dilapidated  condition,  became  the  cathedral. 
The  endowment  was,  as  Pius  VIII  himself  expressed 
it,  a  "deplorable"  one,  and  amounted  only  to  21,606 
gulden  for  both  the  bishop  and  the  entire  cathedral 
chapter.  This  endowment  was  administered  by  the 
secular  Government,  as  was  also  the  Catholic  central 
fund  (Zentrolkirehenjond')  for  the  diocese,  over  which 
the  bishop  had  no  control  whatever.  The  position 
of  the  first  bishop,  little  worthy  of  his  rank,  suffered 
from  the  ecclesiastical  laws  of  Nassau  in  which  he  had 
tooeasilyacquiesced  before  his  appointment.   In  truth 


he  was  only  ap^d  official  dependent  upon  the  nod  of 
the  Government,  put  in  charge  of  the  purely  religious 
affairs  of  the  Catholics  of  this  territory.  He  issued  a 
number  of  excellent  ordinances  during  bis  brief  term 
of  office.  Having  himself  been  a  teacher,  he  devoted 
special  and  enlignletied  care  to  the  founding  of  an 
ecclesiastical  seTninary,  which  was  opened  in  1829  in  a 
former  Franciscan  monastery  granted  for  the  purpose 
by  the  (iovemment.  He  prepared  the  way  for  a 
special  theological  seminary,  hut  did  not  live  to  see 
it  established,  dving  in  1835.  The  second  biahop, 
Johann  Wilhelm 'Bausch  (18:;o-40),  was  likewise  un- 


tral  diocesan  fund  brought  upon  him  and  the  cathe- 
dral chapter  a  sharp  rebuke. 

In  the  appointment  of  the  third  biahop,  Peter 
Joseph  Blum  (1842-84),  the  diocese  gained  a  man 
who,  aided  by  the  change<l  conditions  of  the  times, 
was  able  to  curri'  on  a  siiccejsfuj  contest  for  greater 
liberty  in  the  administration  of  his  see.  He  cared  for 
the  religious  quickening  of  his  diocese  by  the  intro- 
duction and  zealous  tostf ring  of  Keneral  confession,  of 
relipjious  brotherhoods,  and  a  Christian  press,  the  dis- 
semination of  good  books,  and  the  practice  ot  spirit- 
which  he  succeeded  in  eit«UiihIttg  afMr 


LZHBUBa  21 

aome  oppodtion  fnHD  the  Oovernmeat.  The  year  d 
the  RevolutioD,  1S48,  brought  to  the  Catholic  Chuich 
some  freedom  from  the  sygtem  of  state  guardianship 
until  tbm  in  force,  and  permitted  for  toe  first  time 
the  holding  of  popular  muaione,  which  the  bishop  in- 
troduoed  as  early  as  1850.  In  that  year,  also,  he  ol> 
tuned  poneasion  of  the  former  Francisran  monastery 
ol  Bomhofen,  a  much-frequented  pilgrimage,  and 
there  founded  a  house  of  RedcmptoristB,  in  spit^  of 
government  oppoaitiou.  The  first  house  of  the  Poor 
Ij^ndmaiiU  of  t'hrist  was  foundeii  in  1S50  at  Dern- 
bach;  it  gradually  developed  into  'J.  large  mother- 
house  with  numerous  branches.  In  1K55  followed  ttie 
house  of  the  Brothern  of  Mercy  at  Montabaur;  in  18G2. 
the  diocesan  protectory  at  Marieustatt;  in  lK50.  the 
hospital  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  dc  Paul  at  Liin- 
burg,  etc.  Gradually  the  bishop  roplaccd  the  olrl  uii- 
denominational  schools  with  Catholic  schools  which  he 
obtained  permission  to  establish.  In  1851  a  Catholic 
normal  school  was  founded  at  Montabaur;  in  1852  a 
college  for  boya  was  opened  at  Hadamar,  and  in  1872 
another  at  Montabaur.  From  1851  the  bishop  had  an 
ei^t  years'  struggle  with  the  Government  in  regari! 
to  the  filling  of  vacant  parishes;  it  ended  by  the  eti- 
tablisbment  in  principle  of  the  bishop's  right  to  inde- 
pendent administratioa  of  the  diocese,  and  to  the 
Wpointment  and  training  of  the  clergy. 

The  political  independence  of  the  Duchy  of  Nassau 
>nd  of  the  imperial  free  city  of  frankfortr^m-the- 
Hain  came  to  an  end  in  the  German  war  of  1860,  after 
which  both  were  incorporated  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Pnuaift.  New  religious  houses,  missions,  and  exer- 
dna  wen  made  possible  by  the  introduction  into  the 
new  tarritoijr  of  the  same  legal  freedom  of  action  aa 
tbe  CftUuilio  Church  then  enjoyed  in  Prussia,  These 
(uraunbte  eireiunstances  did  not  last  long.  The  Kul- 
tuAwmpf,  beginning  in  1872,  destroyed  at  Limburg 
the  greater  ptiirt  of  what  had  been  created  by  long 
yemnofwoTK.  Several  institutions  were  closed  hv  the 
expnUim  ot  the  RedemptnriHti,  Jenuits.  Poor  Mand- 
makU  of  Christ,  the  English  LodieH,  etc.,  while  the 
Old'Cft^olic  legislation  transferred  a  numl^er  of  Cath- 
olio  churches  to  this  new  sect.  By  the  SpcrrKC!«-'ti,  the 
eferiy  of  Limburg  found  tliemsclvcs  deprived  of  sal- 
aries, while  the  bishop,  after  suffering  fines  and  dis- 
traints for  filling  parishes  without  giving  to  the  Gov* 
etnment  the  newly  prcscrilied  notification,  wa^,  in 
1876,  expelled  from  office  by  the  civil  authority,  and 
^dled.  He  administered  his  diocese,  as  well  as  possi- 
ble, from  Haid,  in  Bohemia,  where  Prince  von  Lowen- 
Htem  generously  granted  him  an  asylum.  It  wa«  not 
until  1883  that  he  was  able  to  return  to  Limburg. 

The  spirit  of  Bishop  Blum  lived  in  his  successors, 
Juhann  Christian  Roos,  who,  after  a  short  episcopate 
(1885-86),  was  raised  to  tlie  archiepiscopal  S^  of 
Freiburg,  and  Karl  Klein  (ISSti-DS),  dean  of  the  cntltc- 
dral  chapter,  appointed  by  the  pope.  Dr.  Klein  had 
been  for  many  j-ears  tlie  tniste<l  vicar-general  of 
Bishop  Blum.  IJiiring  his  episcopate  the  former  Cis- 
tercian Abbey  of  Marienstatt  wai*  restored  (1888)  by 
Gstercianii  from  Mehrerau,  near  Constaocc.  The 
same  bishop  also  founded  a  "JSchola  Uregoriana"  to 
provide  music  for  tlic  cathedral,  built  a  new  seminar}-, 
and  made  lealous  efforts  to  i'e|>air  the  damage  cauisod 
by  the  Kulturkampf.  He  was  succeeded  by  Domi- 
nucus  Willi,  first  abbot  of  the  new  Marienstatt. 

IL  Statisticb, — The  Diocese  of  Limburg  includes 
the  Prussian  civil  district  of  Wiesbaden  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Hesse- Xasftau,  with  the  exception  of  that  part 
of  the  city  of  Frankforl^-on-the-Main  which  belongs  to 
the  Diocese  of  Fulda  and  four  touiis  hi  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Hesse.  There  are,  taken  altoccther,  413,000 
Catholic  inhabiUnts.  The  diocese  is  divided  into  fif- 
teen deaneries  and  the  commissariat  of  Prunkfort-on- 
the-Main  (q,  v.):  it  contains  210  parishes  and  cures  of 
souls,  29  benefices,  38  endowwl  and  4!)  non-endowed 
chi^ilaincies,  48  other  positions  in  the  itdministration 


1  LIMBTnUl 

and  the  schools,  and,  at  the  close  of  1909,  there  were 
368  teoulor  priests.  The  cathedral  chapter  consists  of 
a  dean,  5  canons,  1  honorary  canon,  and  2  cathedral 
vicars.  The  bishop  in  elected  by  the  cathedral  chapter 
from  a  number  of  candidates  who  must  be  approved 
by  the  ruler  of  Prussia;  the  members  are  appointed 
alternately  by  the  bishop  and  the  chapter  itself.  The 
institutions  of  the  diocese  are:  the  tneological  semi- 
nary at  Limburg,  with  18  students;  the  colleges  for 
boys  at  Hadamar  and  Montabaur,  each  having  about 
100  pupils;  the  St.  Joseph  school  for  hoys  at  Marien- 
hausen;  the  as^'lum  for  idiots  at  .^.ulhausen;  the 
"Schola  (.iregoriana"  and  the  diocesan  museum  at. 
Limburg.    The  monasteries  for  men  in  the  dio 


the  Cistercian  Abliey  of  Marienstatt,  originally 
founded  in  121,'),  suppressed  in  ISOit,  re-cst«bli.thed  in 
1888,  now  (1010)  numl>cring  .i2  fathera  and  I't  broth- 
ers: 3  Franciscan  monasteries  (Maricntal,  Bomhofen, 
and  Kelkheim),  with  17  fathore  ;md  20  lay  brothers; 
1  Capuchin  moniksl^ry  at  Fraiikfort-on-the-.Main,  S 
fathers  and  3  brotJiers:  the  chief  house  of  the  Mission 
Society  of  the  Pallottini  at  Limburg,  l;l  faUiers,  57 
scholastics,  and  90  lay  brothers;  the  chief  house  of  the 
BrotJiers  of  Mercy  at  Montabaur  and  5  other  monastic 
houses,  105  professed  brotheri  and  30  novices.  The 
female  orders  and  congregations  in  the  diocese  are: 
the  Conere^tion  of  St,  ^'incent  de  Paul,  I  house,  12 
sisters;  the  Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus  Christ,  1  mother- 
house  and  86  dependent  houses,  940  (.Liters;  the  Asso- 
ciation of  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence  of  Mainz,  6 
houses,  3(i  sisters;  the  Poor  i^isters  of  St,  Francis,  1 
house,  31  sisters;  the  Sisters  of  the  Christian  Schools 
of  Mercv,  3  houses,  27  sistcrH;  Ursuliiies,  3  houses,  80 
sisters;  Englisli  Ladies,  2  houses,  48  sisters;  Sisters  (rf 
Charity  of  the  Good  Shephcnl,  1  hoase,  32  Bistprs; 
Ser\-ants  of  the  Sncred  Heart  of  Jesus.  2  houses,  S 
sisters;  the  Pallottine  Nuns,  a  mother-house  at  I.im- 
burs,  (>5  sisters:  the  Benetlictinc  Nuns,  1  abbey  (St. 
Hilaegard.at  EibingerO.-iO.si.iters;  Itenedictine  Muns 
of  tlie  Perpetual  Adoration,  1  house,  20  sisters; 
Alcxian  Nuns,  1  house,  7  sisters. 

The  diocese  has  about  35  societies  for  bo;rs  and 
young  men;  18  journeymen's  unions;  about  6(1  work- 
men's unions;  10  merchants'  associations;  7  societies 
for  sen'ants:  the  Biinifiitiiwi'crein;  n  Hi«iety  tor  the 
support  of  prii>Ml4;  the  St.  Rajihael  Society;  tlic  Mw- 


LXHUUOK 

ian  Society  for  the  protectioa  of  ^rls  etc.  There  are  poeition  ol  the  place  for  trade  and  commerce,  they 
20  charitable  institutions  under  reli^oua  admlois'  settled  there  in  the  ninth  centuiy,  and  from  thia  at 
tration  (orphanages,  working-girlB'  homes,  hospitals,  their  etroDKhold  they  oppressed  the  natives  around 
etc.).  Themoet  important  church  of  the  diocese  is  the  and  plundered  the  religious  establishments  along  the 
cathedral  at  Limburg.  It  is  in  the  transition  style  be-  Sliannoji.  They  were  severely  pimishcd  in  the  end  of 
tween  Romanesque  and  Gothic,  and  was  built  in  the 
first  third  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy,  consecrated  in 
1235,  and  completely  restored  1871-78.  The  cele- 
brated treasure  of  tiie  cathedral,  containing  costly 
reliquaries  of  the  Byzantine  period,  etc.,  is  kept  in  the 
church  of  the  Franciscans.  Other  churches  of  the 
diocese  worthy  of  special  notice  are ;  the  Kaiserdom  of 
St.  BartholomewatFrankfort^on-tbo-MQtn,  formerly  a 
place  of  pilgrimage,  and  tiie  church  where  the  German 
emperors  were  crowned  (see  FKANKFoaT-ON-THE- 
Main),  the  Romanesque  church  of  the  former  monas- 
tery of  Augustinian  Canons  at  Dietkirchen  near  Lim- 
burp,  the  oldest  church  of  the  diocese  (ninth  century), 
the  (jothic  pilgrimafic  church  of  Bomhofen  (fifteenth 
century);  the  church  of  Eltville  (fourteenth  century), 
the  pilgrimage  church  of  Kiedrich  (early  fourteenth 
century),  Rudeslieim  (1301-1400),  the  pilgrimage 
^urch  of  St.  Martin  at  Lorch  (end  of  thirteenth  cen- 
tury), the  abbey  churches  of  Marienstatt  and  Ei- 
bingen,  and  the  Romanesque- Got  hie  Church  of  the 
former  Premonstratensian  monastery  of  Amstein-on- 
the-Lahn,  etc. 

BAiiL.£nlrA(reiurCi-KAicAlc/,tin6uKri(LimfaurB,18SH.  ISW): 
Ibach.  Drr  Dom  lu  Limbun  (Umburg,  1S7U) :  Luthhek.  Du 
Bav-  un<^  Kvnttdmknuiicr  att  RtviervngabnirkB  Wiabadm  (H 
vol!.,  Fnnkfort,  1002-07):  H<)bt.eh.  CfKl\'iehlt  dtt  Bii*M«n 
lAmlmTB  mit  baonrlirrr  liurktirhtnahme  auf  dm  Lrbat  unil 
Wirktada  driUm  BiKholt  Ptter  Jetrph  Blum  (LimbuiB.  19081; 
8dinnatUnn^drrDi<KiKLimbaTiillim\>\iit,]»i7\  BUpplemoi- 

Uiyvol.,iBiO).  Joseph  Lras. 

Umerlek,  Diocgbc  of  (Liugricenbis),  in  Ireland, 
includes  the  greater  part  of  tbe  County  of  Limerick 
and  a  small  portion  at  Clare,  and  has  an  area,  approxi- 
mately, of  about  500,000  acres.  It  corresponds  with 
the  ancient  territory  of  Hy  Fidheheinte.  St.  Patrick 
visited  the  district,  and  was  follo'K'ed  in  the  work  of 
converting  the  natives  by  St.  Senan,  who  lived  in  the 
sixth  century  and  who  was  at  one  time  Abbot  of 
Scattery  Inland.  In  the  same  century  lived  St.  Mun- 
cliin,  Ihciwtron  of  the  diocese,  wlio  established  a  mon- 


St.  John's  Cati 


astery  and  school  at  Munf^t.  Tliis  school  )>ecamo  so 
famous  tliat  at  one  time  it  had  ],.'iO0  students.  An 
olTKhoot  from  Mungret  wan  a  hcnnitage  at  Kill-Mua- 
cbin,  near  I.imerirk.  Thither  St.  Munchin  retired,  and 
Uiere  he  sjient  hiu  closing  years,  anil,  no  doubt,  from 
this  licnnitagc  anil  from  Mungrct  the  spiritual  needs 
of  the  surrouniliiig  district  were  supplied.  But  as  vet 
then-  wiiH  no  eitv  uf  f.imeriok,  anil  no  dioi'i«e  till  iiftfr 
the  DniK'H  came,     (juick  Hi  discern  the  a<lvantiigi-nuH 


the  tenth  century  by  Brian  Boroihme,  who  expelled 
them  from  the  city,  and  they  were  readmitted  only 
as  subjects  and  tributaries  of  the  kings  of  Thomond. 
Gradually  they  became  Christians,  though  they  still 
disliked  the  Irish,  and  liad  their  bishops  at  Limerick 
consecrated  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbuiy  and 
subject  to  him. 

It  is  said  there  was  a  Bishop  of  Limerick  about  1050, 
but  his  name  and  acts  are  unknown.  Wo  do  know, 
however,  that  there  was  a  bishop  at  Limerick  about 
1100,  a  remarkable  man,  Gillebert  liy  name.  Edu- 
cated at  Bangor,  be  hod  liccn  abbot  there,  and  then, 
having  travelled  abroad,  he  met  Anselm,  Archbishop 


and  also  Apostolic  delegate.  I'robablv  it  was  under 
Anscini's  advice  that  he  cndea\'ouroa  to  introduce 
unity  of  liturgy  in  the  Irish  Church,  instead  of  the  be- 
wildering diversity  of  Offices  and  M.is.scs  which  pre- 
vailed. He  presided  at  the  Svnod  of  Rathbreasail 
(1118),  where  tlie  number  and  limits  of  the  Irish  dio- 
ceses were  determined,  when  Limerick  itself,  freed 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  Canterbury,  was  made  subject 
to  Caahel  as  the  metropolitan  See  of  .Munstcr.  Gille- 
hert  resigned  bis  position  as  papal  delegate  in  1139  and 
in  the  following  year  died.  His  immolate  successois 
in  the  See  of  Limerick  were  all  Danes;  then  came 
Donat  O'Brien,  of  the  royal  House  of  Thomond,  Dur- 
ing his  episconate  (1I7!^1207)  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Mary  was  built,  a  cathmlral  thapler  was  set  up,  and 
Scatter)'  Island  was  united  to  Limerick.  Meantime 
the  city  of  Limerick,  altj.'rnately  ruled  by  native  and 
Anglo-Norman,  was  in  1199  taken  possession  of  by 
de  Burgh,  who  soon  ruled  with  the  power  of  an  inde- 
pendent prince.  Under  Anglo-Norman  rule  English 
influencps  pn'Vuiliif.  ami  for  two  centuriw  l^ie  bishops 
apjioiiiteil  Wire  i:ri|tlif^!i,  or  of  i:iigli>li  descent.    Dur- 


LXMOOES 


263 


UMoaxs 


ing  tliat  period  the  privileges  of  the  diocesan  chapter 
were  enlarged^  and  tne  diocese  was  divided  into  dean- 
eries. One  bishop  of  Limerick,  in  1351,  ruled  Ireland 
for  a  short  period  as  lord  deputy;  and  another  had  a 
serious  quarrel  with  the  Arcnbishop  of  Cashel,  wh6m 
he  drove  out  of  Limerick  by  force.  This  militcuit  prel- 
ate resigned  his  see  in  1400  and  was  succeeded  by  a 
very  able  man,  Cornelius  O'Dea,  a  descendant  of  one 
of  the  ancient  Dalcassian  chiefs.  His  mitre  and 
crosier,  both  beautifully  ornamented,  still  exist.  His 
successors,  like  his  predecessors,  were  of  the  Anelo- 
Irish  stock;  nor  did  anything  noteworthy  occur  dur- 
ing their  rule  until  the  Reformation,  and  then,  though 
aLimerick  priest,  William  Casey,  accepted  from  Ed- 
ward VI  the  position  of  Protestant  bishop,  both  Irish 
and  Anglo-Insh  united  in  rciecting  the  new  doctrines. 

During  the  wars  of  Elizabeth  the  diocese  suffered 
much,  nor  did  any  city  rejoice  more  sincerely  than 
Limerick  at  the  death  of  the  queen.  The  city  was 
again  prominent  in  the  wars  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tuiy.  The  nimcio  was  present  in  its  cathedral,  in 
16&,  when  a  Te  Deum  was  simg  for  the  victory  of  Ben- 
burb;  and  when  the  city  was  captured,  in  1651,  by 
Ireton,  after  a  most  heroic  defence,  one  of  those  spe- 
cially excluded  from  mercy  was  the  Catholic  bishop. 
He  manaeed,  however,  to  escape,  and  died  at  Brussels, 
in  1654.  For  nearly  twenty  years  subsequently  Limer- 
iclc  had  no  bishop;  and  then  came  the  partiiu  tolera- 
tion under  Charles  II  and  the  fleeting  triumph  under 
James  II,  followed  by  the  Jacobite  war,  which,  in  Ire- 
land, was  mainly  a  war  of  religion.  The  Treaty  of  Lim- 
erick, which  ended  the  war  and  was  supposed  to  have  se- 
cured toleration  for  the  CathoUcs,  was  soon  shamefully 
broken,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century  Limerick — city 
and  diocese — experienced  to  the  full  the  horrors  of  the 
peoal  laws.  From  1702  to  1720  there  was  no  bishop, 
out  after  that  date  the  episcopal  succession  was  regu- 
larly maintained.  Shut  out  from  every  position  of 
honour  or  emolument,  the  Catholics  were  prohibited 
from  dwelling  within  the  city,  unless  registered,  and  as 
late  as  1744  there  was  no  Catholic  church  within  the 
city  walls.  Gradually,  however,  the  old  religion  eained 
ffround.  The  Catholics,  defying  the  law,  settled  in 
Limerick  and  soon  outnumbered  the  Protestants, 
and  being  free  to  engage  in  trade,  they  amassed 
wealth  and  built  churches.  In  1805,  when  the  bishop. 
Dr.  Young,  undertook  the  building  of  a  diocesan  col- 
lege, he  h^  no  difficulty  in  getting  sufficient  funds  for 
the  purpose.  Dr.  Young  was  one  of  those  who  refused 
to  subscribe  to  the  episcopal  resolution  of  1799  favour- 
ing the  veto,  and  he  denounced  the  project  in  1808, 
when  it  was  sought  to  have  it  revived.  His  successor, 
Dr.  Tuohy,  was  equallv  vigorous  (1814)  in  condemna- 
tion of  the  letter  of  Monsignor  Quarantotti.  One  of 
Dr.  Tuohy 's  most  notable  acts  was  to  introduce  the 
Christian  Brothers  into  the  city.  He  died  in  1828,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Ryan,  who  died  in  1864.  The 
long  episcopate  of  the  latter  was  marked  by  the  erec- 
tion of  many  churches,  including  the  cathedral  of  St. 
John,  the  foundation-stone  of  which  was  laid  in  1856. 
Convents,  also,  were  multiplied,  and  where,  in  1825, 
there  was  but  one  convent  for  women  throughout  the 
whole  diocese,  at  Dr.  Ryan's  death  there  were  in 
Limerick  City  alone  five  convents,  these  including  the 
Good  Shepherd,  Presentation,  and  Mercy  orders.  And 
the  good  work  of  building  churches,  convents,  and 
schools,  was  carried  on  with  equal  energy  by  Dr. 
Ryan's  successor.  Dr.  Butler  (1864-86). 

The  present  bishop  is  Dr.  Edward  Thomas  O'Dwyer, 
bom  in  1842,  ^ucated  at  Maynooth,  ordained  priest 
in  1867,  and  consecrated  bishop  in  1886,  an  eloquent 
and  fearless  man,  always  listened  to  with  respect  on 
public  questions.  Among  eminent  persons  connected 
wit^  the  diocese  may  be  named  the  poets  Gerald 
Griffin,  Sir  Aubrey  de  Vere,  Bart.,  ana  his  son  Sir 
Aubrey  Thomas  de  Vere,  the  second  baronet.  In 
1910  the  <lior.cw  containwl  4K  pariBhos,  46  parish 


priests,  2  administrators,  60  curates,  7  professors, 
115  secular  and  54  regular  clergy,  94  district  churches, 
12  convents  with  144  religious  living  in  community, 
4  monastic  houses  with  38  religious  living  in  com- 
munity. In  1901  the  Catholic  population  of  the 
diocese  was  111,170. 

Leniuan,  History  of  Limerick  (Dublin,  1866);  Bbglet, 
History  of  the  Diocese  of  Limerick  (Dublin,  1906);  Lanigan, 
EecUstastical  History  of  Ireland  (Duolin,  1S22);  Mac<'affret, 
The  Black  Book  of  Limerick  (Dublin.  1907);  Irish  Catholic 
Directory  (1910). 

E.  A.  D* Alton. 

Limoges,  Diocese  of  (Lkmovicensis),  comprises 
the  Departments  of  Haute  Vienne  and  Crcuse  in 
France.  After  the  Concordat  of  1801,  the  See  of 
Limoges  lost  twenty-four  parishes  from  the  district 
of  Nontron  which  were  annexed  to  the  Diocese  of 
Perigueux,  and  forty -four  from  the  district  of  Con- 
folens,  transferred  to  the  Diocese  of  jVngouleme;  but 
until  1822  it  included  the  entire  ancient  Diocese  of 
Tulle,  when  the  latter  was  reorganized. 

Gregory  of  Tours  names  St.  Martial,  who  founded 
the  Church  of  Limoge:^,  as  one  of  the  seven  bishops  sent 
from  Rome  to  Gaul  in  the  middle  of  the  tliird  ccntuiy. 
An  anonymous  life  of  St.  Martial  (Vita  priraitiva),  dis- 
covered and  published  by  Abl.>d  Arbellot,  represents 
him  as  sent  to  Gaul  by  St.  Peter.  A  fjreat  dciil  of 
controversy  has  arisen  over  the  date  of  this  biography. 
The  discovery  in  the  library  at  Carlsruhe  of  a  manu- 
script copy  written  at  Reichenau  by  a  monk,  Rcgim- 
bertus,  wno  died  in  846,  indubitably  places  the  original 
before  that  date.  From  the  fact  that  it  is  in  rhyth- 
mical prose,  Mgr  Bellet  thinks  it  belongs  to  the  seventh 
century.  P6re  de  Smedt  and  Mgr  Duchesne  question 
this  conclusion  and  maintain  that  the  "Vita  primitiva" 
is  much  later  than  Gregory  of  Tours.  M.  de  Last  eyrie 
gives  800  as  the  date  of  its  origin.  In  addition  to  the 
manuscript  already  cited,  the  Abbey  of  St.  Martial  at 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  possessed  a  cir- 
cumstantial life  of  its  patron  saint,  according  to  which, 
and  to  the  cycle  of  later  legends  dcrivetl  from  it,  St. 
Martial  was  one  of  the  seventy-two  disciples  who 
witnessed  the  Passion  and  Ascension  of  Our  Lord, 
was  present  on  the  first  I'entecost  and  at  tlio  martyr- 
dom of  St.  Stephen,  after  which  he  followed  St.  Peter 
to  Antioch  and  to  Rome,  and  was  sent  to  Gaul  by  the 
Prince  of  the  Apostles,  wno  assigned  Austriclinian  and 
Alpinian  to  accompany  him.  The  three  were  wel- 
comed at  Tulle  ana  turned  away  from  Aliun.  They 
set  out  towards  Limoges,  where,  on  the  site  of  the 

E resent  cathedral,  St.  Martial  erected  a  shrine  in 
onour  of  St.  Stephen.  A  pagan  priest,  Aurelian, 
wished  to  throw  St.  Martial  into  prison,  but  was  struck 
dead,  then  brought  to  life,  baptized,  ordained,  and 
later  consecratedhLshop  by  the  saint.  Aurelian  is  the 
patron  of  the  guild  of^  butchers  in  Limoges.  Forty 
years  after  the  Ascension,  Our  Lord  appeared  to 
Martial,  and  announced  to  him  the  approach  of  death. 
The  churches  of  Limoges  celebrate  tliis  event  on  16 
June.  After  labouring  for  twenty-eight  years  as  a 
niissionary  in  Gaul,  the  saint  died  at  the  age  of  fifty- 
nine,  surrounded  by  his  converts  of  Poitou,  Berri, 
Auvergne^  and  Aguitaine. 

The  writer  of  this  "Life"  pretends  to  be  Aurelian, 
St.  Martial's  disciple  and  successor  in  the  See  of  Li- 
moges. Mgr  Duchesne  thinks  it  not  unlikely  t  liat  the 
real  authorship  of  this  *'apocryi)hal  and  lymg"  work 
should  be  attributed  to  the  chronicler  Adhemar  de 
Chabannes,  noted  for  his  fabrications;  but  ^L  de 
Lasteyrie  is  of  opinion  tliat  it  was  written  about  055, 
before  the  birth  of  Adh^mar.  Be  that  as  it  may,  this 
"Vita  Aureliana"  played  an  important  part  at  the 
beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  when  the  Al)bot 
Hugh  (1019-1025)  brought  before  several  coun- 
cils the  question  of  the  Apostolic  date  of  St. 
Martial's  mission.  Before  the  Carlo vingian  period 
there  is  no  trace  of  the  story  that  St.  Martial  yi^jA 


UMOGXS 


264 


UlCOOBS 


sent  to  Gaul  by  St.  Peter.  It  did  not  spread  until  the 
eleventh  century  and  was  revived  in  the  seventeenth 
by  the  Carmelite  Bona  venture  de  Saint- Amable,  in  his 
voluminous  "Histoire  de  St.  Martial".  Mgr  Du- 
chesne and  M.  de  Lasteyrie  assert  that  it  cannot  be 
maintained  against  the  du-ect  testimony  of  St.  Gregory 
of  Tours,  who  places  the  origin  of  the  Church  of  Li- 
moges about  the  year  250.  The  most  distinguished 
bishops  of  Limoges  are:  St.  Roricius  (d.  507),  who 
built  the  monastery  and  church  of  St.  Augustine  at 
Limoges;  St.  Roricius  II  (d.  about  553),  who  built  the 
church  of  St-Pierre-du-Qucyroix  and  the  Basilica  of  St. 
Junianus  at  Limoges;  St.  Ferrdol  (d.  597),  the  friend  of 
St.  Yrieix;  St.  Lupus,  or  Loup  (613-629);  St.  Sacer- 
dos  (Sardon),  Abbot  of  Calabrum,  afterwards  bishop; 
St.  Cessa  (740-761),  who  led  the  people  of  Limoges 
against  the  Saracens  under  Charles  Martel;  Cardinal 
Jean  du  Bellay  (1541-1545).  The  ecclesiastics  who 
served  the  crypt  of  St.  Martial  organized  themselves 
into  a  monastery  in  848,  and  built  a  church  beside  that 
of  St-Pierre-du-S6pulchre  which  overhung  the  crypt. 
This  new  church,  which  they  called  St-Sauveur,  was 
demolished  in  1021,  and  was  replaced  in  1028  by  a 
larger  edifice  in  Auver^nat  style.  Urban  II  came  in 
person  to  reconsecrate  it  in  1095.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  the  chapel  of  St.  Benedict  arose  beside  the  old 
church  of  St-Pierre-du-S^pulchre.  It  was  also  called 
the  church  of  the  Grand  Confraternity  of  St.  Mar- 
tial. The  different  organizations  which  were  grouped 
around  it,  anticipated  and  solved  many  important 
sociological  questions. 

Limoges,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  comprised  two  towns: 
one  called  the  "City",  the  other  the  "ChAteau"  or 
"  Castle  ".  The  government  of  the  "  Castle  "  belonged 
at  first  to  the  Abbots  of  St.  Martial  who  claimed  to 
have  received  it  from  Louis  the  Pious.  Later,  the 
viscounts  of  Limoges  claimed  tliis  authority,  and 
constant  friction  existed  until  the  l:)cginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  when,  owing  to  the  new  com- 
munal activity,  consuls  were  appointed,  to  whose 
authority  the  abbots  were  forceu  to  submit  (1212). 
After  two  intervals  during  which  the  English  kings 
inoposed  their  rule,  Charles  V  in  1371  united  the 
"Cfastle"  with  the  royal  demesne,  and  thus  ended  the 
political  r6le  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Martial.  Until  the 
end  of  the  old  regime,  however,  the  abbots  of  St. 
Martial  exercised  direct  jurisdiction  over  the  Combes 
quarter  of  the  city.  In  1534,  Abbot  Matthieu  Jou- 
viond,  finding  that  the  monastic  spirit  had  almost 
totally  died  out  in  the  abbey,  thought  best  to  change 
it  into  a  coUe^ate  church,  and  in  1535  the  king  and 
the  pope  gave  their  consent.  It  was  suppressed  in 
1791,  and  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  even 
the  buildings  had  disapp>eared.  In  the  thirteenth 
century^  the  Abbey  of  St.  Martial,  possessed  the 
finest  hbrary  (450  volumes)  in  France  after  that 
of  Cluny  (570  volumes).  Some  have  been  lost,  but 
200  of  them  were  bought  by  Ix)uis  XV  in  1730,  and 
to-day  are  one  of  the  most  valuable  collections  in 
the  Bibhothdque  Nationale  at  Paris.  Most  of  these 
manuscripts,  ornamented  with  beautiful  miniatures, 
were  written  in  the  al^bcy  itself.  M.  Emile  Molinier 
and  M.  Rupin  admit  a  relation  Ix^tween  these  minia- 
tures of  St.  Martial  and  the  earliest  Limoges  enamels, 
but  M.  de  Lasteyrie  disputes  this  theory.  The  Fran- 
ciscans settle<l  at  Limoges  in  1223.  According  to  the 
chronicle  of  Pierre  Coral,  rector  of  St.  Martin  of 
Limoges,  St.  Anthouv  of  Puduu  established  a  convent 
there  in  1226  and  departeil  in  the  first  months  of 
1227.  On  the  iiight  of  Holy  Thursday,  it  is  said,  he 
was  preaching  in  the  churcn  of  St.  Pierre  du  Quey- 
roix,  when  he  stopped  for  a  moment  and  remained 
silent.  At  the  same  instant  he  appeared  in  the  choir 
of  the  Franciscan  monastery  ana  read  a  lesson.  It 
was  doubtless  at  ('hilt<»aiinouf  in  the  territory  of 
Limoges  that  took  place  the  celebnited  apptirition  of 
the  Infant  Jesus  to  St.  Anthonv. 


The  diocese  specially  boaouFs  the  following:  St. 
Sylyanus,  a  native  of  Ahun,  mart}rr;  St.  Adorator, 
disciple  of  St.  Ambrose,  suffered  martyrdom  at  Lu- 
persac;  St.  Victorianus,  an  Irish  hermit:  St.  Vaast,  a 
native  of  the  diocese  who  became  Bisnop  d  Ams 
and  baptized  Clovis  (fifth-sixth  century);  St.  Pad- 
modius,  a  native  of  Britain,  died  a  hermit  at  Evmou- 
tiers;  St.  Yrieix,  d.  in  501,  chancellor  to  Tbeodebert. 
King  of  Austrasia,  and  founder  of  the  monastery  of 
Attaiium  (the  town  of  St.  Yrieix  is  named  after  him); 
St.  Etienne  de  Muret  (1046-1 126)  ^  who  together 
with  Guillaume  d'Uriel,  Bishop  of  Limoges,  founded 
the  famous  Benedictine  monastery  of  Grandmont. 
Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  following  who  were 
natives  of  Limoges:  Bernard  Guidonis  (1261-1313), 
bom  at  La  Roche  d'Abeille,  Bishop  of  Lod^ve  and 
a  celebrated  canonist;  the  Aubusson  family,  one  of 
whom,  Pierre  d' Aubusson  (1483-1503),  was  Grand 
Master  of  the  Order  of  Jerusalem,  and  one  of  the 
defenders  of  Rhodes;  Marc  Antoine  Muret.  called  the 
"Orator  of  the  Popes"  (1526-1596).  Three  popes 
came  from  the  Diocese  of  Limoges:  Pierre  Roi^, 
born  at  Maulmont,  elected  pope  in  1342  as  Clement 
VI,  died  in  1352;  Etienne  Albert,  or  d'Albret,  bom 
near  Pompadour,  elevated  to  the  papacy  in  1352  as 
Innocent  Vl,  died  in  1362;  Pierre  Roger  de  Beau- 
fort, nephew  of  Clement  VI,  also  bom  at  Maulmont. 
As  Gregory  XI  he  reined  from  1371  till  1378.  Mau- 
rice Bourdin,  Archbishop  of  Prague,  antipope  for 
a  brief  space  in  1118,  under  the  name  of  Gregory 
VIII,  also^  belonged  to  this  diocese.  St.  Peter  Ds^ 
mian  came  to  Limoges  in  1062  as  papal  legate,  to  com- 
pel the  monks  to  accept  the  supremacy  of  the  Order  of 
Cluny. 

The  Council  of  Limoges,  held  in  1031,  is  noted  not 
only  for  its  decision  with  regard  to  St.  Martial's  mis- 
sion, but  because,  at  the  instigation  of  Abbot  Odolric, 
it  proclaimed  the  "Truce  of  God"  (q- v.) and  threat- 
ened with  general  excommunication  those  feudal  lords 
who  would  not  swear  to  maintain  it.  It  was  at 
the  priory  of  Bourganeuf  in  this  diocese  that  Pierre 
d' Aubusson  receiv^  Zizin,  son  of  Mohammed  II,  after 
he  had  been  defeated  in  1483  by  his  brother.  Bajaset 
II.  The  Gothic  cathedral  of  St -Etienne,  begun  in 
1273,  was  noted  for  a  fine  rood  loft  built  in  1534;  the 
church  of  St-Pierre-du-Queyroix,  begun  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  that  of  St-Michel-des-Lions,  begun  in 
1364,  are  worthy  of  notice.  In  994,  when  the  district 
was  devastated  b}r  a  plague  (mal  des  arderUs),  the 
epidemic  ceased  immediately  after  a  procession 
ordered  by  Bishop  Hilduin,  on  the  Mont  de  la  Joie, 
which  overlooks  the  city.  The  Church  of  Limoges 
celebrates  this  event  on  12  November.  The  principal 
pilgrimages  of  the  diocese  are  those  of:  Saint  Valeric 
(hermit)  at  Saint-Vaubry  (sixth  century) ;  Our  Ladv 
of  Sauvagnac  at  St-Leger-la-Montagne  (twelfth 
century);  Notre  -  Dame -du- Pont,  near  St-Junien 
(fourteenth  century) ,  twice  visited  by  Louis  XI ;  Notre- 
Dame^'Arliguet,  at  Aixe-sur-Vienne  (end  of  the  six- 
teenth centurv);  Notre-Dame-des-Places,  at  Crosant 
(since  1664).  ' 

Before  the  Associations  Law  of  1901,  there  were 
in  the  Diocese  of  Limoges,  Jesuits,  Franciscans,  Ma- 
rists,  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  and  Sulpicians. 
The  principal  congregations  of  women  which  origi- 
natea  here  are  the  Sisters  of  the  Incarnation  founded 
in  1639,  contemplatives  and  teachers.  They  were 
restored  in  1807  at  Azerables,  and  have  houses  in 
Texas  and  Mexico.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Alexis,  nursing 
sisters,  founded  at  Limoges  in  1659.  The  Sisters  c2 
St.  Joseph,  founded  at  Dorat  in  February,  1841,  by 
Elizabetn  Dupleix,  who,  with  other  pious  women,  had 
visited  the  prisons  at  Lyons  since  1805.  The  Con- 
gregation ot  Our  Saviour  and  that  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  a  nursing  and  teaching  congregation,  founded 
at  la  Souterraine  in  1835  by  Josepliine  du  Bouq^. 
Tlie  Sist<jrs  of   the  Good  Shephenl   (called   Mane 


UBfTRA 


265 


LINABE8 


Tlifirtee  nuns)^  nuninfi;  sisters  and  teachers;  their 
mother-house  is  at  Limoges.  The  religious  orders 
maintained  in  this  diocese  at  the  close  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  19  nurseries.  1  home  for  sick  children, 
2  orphanages  for  boys,  14  for  girls,  1  for  both  sexes, 
5  work  rooms  (ouvroira),  4  reformatories,  28  hospitids, 
26  houses  to  care  for  the  sick  at  their  homes,  2 
houses  <^  retreat,  1  asylum  for  the  insane.  At  the 
end  of  the  concordat  period  the  Diocese  of  Limoges 
contained  679,584  inhabitants;  70  canonical  parishes; 
404  suocursal  parishes,  and  35  curacies  supported  by 
the  Government. 

Oonoeniinc  the  date  of  St.  Martial's  miaaion,  aee  Greoort  or 
Tours:  Arbbllot,  Elude  hialorique  9ur  Vancienne  vie  de  Saint 
Martial  (Paris,  1892).  ^vee  the  text  of  the  Vita  Primttiva; 
Grat-Birsch.  The  life  of  St.  Martial  (LoDdon,  1877)*  Vita  AU 
finiani  in  Labbb,  Nova  hibliotheca  manuacnptorum,  11,  472. 

Writers  who  place  the  missioa  in  Apoetolic  times:  Bonaten- 
TURB  DB  Saint -Amable,  Histoire  die  Saint  Martial  (3  vols., 
Parim  1676-1685);  Arbbllot,  Dieeerlation  eitr  VapoeloUit  de 
Sdni  Martial  et  eur  VarUuiuUi  dee  Eglieee  de  France  (Paris. 
1855);  Bbi:j..bt,  La  proee  ruthnUe  el  la  critique  hagiographique 
(Parb,  1899). 

Writers  belonidng  to  the  critical  school:  Duchesne.  Faetee 
ipiaeopaux,  II,  47-54  and  104-117;  de  Lastetrib,  L'^66ai/e 
air  Satnt  Martial  de  lAmoffet  (Paris,  1001):  De  Uiiedt.  Analecta 
BoOandiana^  XVI  (1807).  501 ;  XVII  (1S98).  387. 

For  the  histoiy  of  the  (%urch  of  Limoges,  see  Gallia  Chrieli' 
ana  [lumi,  II  (1720),  498-548.  inetrumenta,  161-204];  Chroniquee 
de  Siuni  Martial  die  Limogee,  ed.  Duplib-Auier  (3  vols..  Paris, 
1874);  Lbroux,  Lee  eourcee  de  Vhieloire  du  Limouein  (Lunofi:cs, 
1805) ;  Grbnibr,  La  eit^  de  Limogee,  eon  ivfque  (Limoges.  1007) ; 
Guibbrt,  Lee  fvfquee  de  Limogee  et  la  paxx  eociale  (Limoges. 
1808);  Lbclbr,  PouOU  du  Diocree  de  Limogee  (Limoges.  1887); 
DouAiSfLef  Friree  Pricheure  de  Limogee  (Toulouse.  1802);  Ar- 
bbllot, Saint'Pierre-Damien  h  Limogee  (Limoe;e8,  1893);  Ar- 
bbllot, JVoCtoe  eur  Saint  Anloine  de  Padoue  en  Limouein  (Paris* 
1805);  Db  Moussac,  Une  corporation  d'autrefoie  encore  vivante 
OHJpwyFhui:  la  corporation  dee  bourhere  de  Limogee  in  Revue  de 
Ltue,  V  (1892):  Metnxeux,  Le  clergA  du  diochee  de  Limogn; 
Veiuvre  de  riforme  morale  dee  iv^quee  d'aprie  lee  etatute  eynodaux: 
1976-1689  (Limoges,  1901);  Aulaone,  Im  riforme  cathclique  du 
XVI'^  eiMe  dane  le  dioclee  de  Limogee  (Paris,  1006);  Lecler. 
Martifre  et  eonfeeeeure  de  la  foi  du  dioctee  de  Limogee  pendant 
la  riiolvUon  francaiee  (4  von.,  Limoges.  1902-1904):  Rupin. 
Vetuvre  de  Limogee  (Paris,  1800);  Molinier,  UimatUerie 
(Paria.  1891);  Cbbvalibr,  Topobihl^  s.  v. 

Georges  Goyau. 

Umyra,  a  titular  see  of  Lycia,  was  a  small  city  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Lycia,  on  the  Lim^Tus^  and  twenty 
stadia  from  the  mouth  of  this  river.  It  is  mentioned 
by  Strabo  (XIV,  666J,  Ptolemy  (V,  3,  6),  and  several 
Latin  authors.  Notning,  however,  is  known  of  its 
histoi^  except  that  Caius  Csesar,  adopted  sonof  Augus- 
tus, died  there  (Velleiiis  Paterculiis,  II,  102).  Limyra 
is  mentioned  in  the  "  Notitia)  EpLscopatuum'*  down  to 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  as  a  suffragan  of 
Ifyra.  Six  bishops  are  known:  Diotimus,  mentioned 
by  St.  Basil  (ep.  ccxviii);  Lupicinus,  present  at  the 
douncil  of  Constantinople,  381;  Stephen,  at  Chalce- 
don  (451);  Theodore,  at  Constantinople  (553);  Leo, 
at  Nicsa  (787);  Nicephorus,  at  Constantinople  (879). 
The  ruins  of  Limyra  are  to  be  seen  three  or  four  miles 
east  of  the  villa^  of  Fineka,  in  the  sanjak  of  Adalla, 
\-ilayet  of  Koma;  they  consist  of  a  theatre,  tombs, 
sarcophagy  bas-reliefs,  Greek  and  Lycian  inscrip- 
tions, etc. 

Lbquibn,  Oriene  chrietianue^  I,  971;  T^.ake,  Asia  Minor 
(Loodon,  1803),  180;  Fbllowb,  Journal  of  an  Excursion  in 
Aeia  Minor  (London,  1859).  214;  Idem,  Acamnf  of  Difcoveriet 
m  Lucia  (London,  1852),  205  so^  Smith,  Dictionary  of  Greek 
andlHoman  Oeography,  s.  v.;  Texxer,  Asie  mineure  (Paris, 
1802).  094. 

8.  P^rrRiDf:8. 

Unacre,  Thomas,  English  phvsician  and  clergy- 
man, founder  of  the  Royal  Oollcge  of  PhysicLins, 
London,  b.  at  Canterburjr  about  1400;  d.  in  London, 
20  October,  1524.  Nothing  is  known  of  las  parents, 
but  they  seem  to  have  been  poor  and  obscure.  His 
preliminaiy  education  was  obtained  at  the  monastery 
school  of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury,  then  presided 
over  by  the  famous  William  Selling,  the  first  great  stu- 
dent of  the  ''new  learning"  in  England.  Through 
Selling^s  influence  Linacre  entered  All  Souls  College, 
Ozfora,  about  1480,  and  in  14S4  was  elected  follow. 


He  distinguished  himself  in  Greek  under  Comelio 
Vitelli.  When  Selling  was  sent  to  Rome  as  ambassa- 
dor by  Henry  VII,  Linacre  accompanied  him,  ob- 
taining an  introduction  to  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  who 
welcomed  him  into  his  own  household  as  a  fellow- 
student  of  his  sons,  of  whom  one  was  later  to  become 
Pope  Leo  X.  Here  under  Politian  in  Latin^  and 
Demetrius  Chalcondylas  in  Greek,  Linacre  obtameda 
knowledge  of  these  languages  which  made  him  one  of 
the  foremost  humanistic  scholars  in  England.  During 
ten  years  in  Italy,  Linacre  also  studied  medicine  at 
Vicenza  under  Nicholas  Leonicenus,  a  famous  physi- 
cian of  the  time,  and  received  his  degree  of  M.D.  at 
Padua.  Returned  to  England,  Linacre  became,  after 
years  of  distinguished  practice,  the  royal  physician  to 
Henry  VIII  and  the  regular  medical  attendant  of 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  Archbishop  Warham.  Primate  of 
England,  Fox^  Bishop  of  Winchester,  ana  many  of  the 
highest  nobihtv  of  the  country.  He  was  also  the 
intimate  friena  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  Erasmus,  and 
Dean  Colet.  After  some  eleven  years  of  a  life  which 
brought  him  constantly  in  contact  with  the  great 
nobles  and  the  best  scholars  of  England,  he  resigned 
his  position  as  physician  to  the  king  in  1520  to  be^me 
a  priest.  He  devoted  the  fortune  which  had  come  to 
him  from  his  medical  practice  to  the  foundation  of 
chairs  in  Greek  medicine  at  both  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge, and  to  the  establishment  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians.  This  institution  was  for  the  regulation 
of  the  practice  of  medicine,  which  had  fallen  into  d\sn^ 
pute  in  consequence  of  the  great  increase  of  irregular 
practitioners.  After  Linacre  obtained  his  charter,  no 
one  except  a  regular  physician  could  practise  in  and 
around  Ix>ndon.  The  constitution  of  the  colle^, 
drawn  up  by  Linacre,  and  still  in  force,  is  a  standing 
monument  of  his  far-seeing  judgment.  The  college  is 
an  honoured  English  institution  and  the  oldest  of  its 
kind  ia  the  world.  Linacre's  contributions  to  medi- 
cine consist  mainly  of  his  translations  of  Galen's 
works  from  Greek  into  Latin.  Erasmus  said  Lin- 
acre's  Latin  was  better  than  Galen's  Greek.  He  pub- 
lished the  "Mcthodus  Medendi",  "De  Samtate 
Tucnda  ",  "  De  Symptomatum  Differentiis  et  Causis  ", 
and  "De  Pulsuum  Usu".  Linacre  was  greatly  re- 
spected by  his  contemporaries;  Johnson,  his  biog- 
rapher, says, "  He  seems  to  have  had  no  enemies  ",  and 

his  reputation  has  lasted  to  the  present  day. 

Johnson,  Life  of  Thomae  Linacre  (London,  1835):  Murray, 
Livee  of  Britieh  Phyeiciane  (London.  1830);  The  Roll  of  the 
Ccilege  of  Phyeiciane:  Walsh,  Catholic  Chwrchmen  in  Science 
(PhiladolphJa,  1006);  Patnb,  in  DicL  NaL  Biog,  (London. 
1885),  s.  v. 

James  J.  Walbh. 

Linares  (or  Monterey  or  Nuevo  L£6n),  Arch- 
diocese OP  (db  Linares). — In  1777,  at  the  request  of 
Charles  III  of  Spain,  Pius  VII  erected  the  episcopal 
See  of  Linares  as  suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of 
Mexico.  Its  first  bishop  was  Fra  Antonio  di  Gesu, 
O.F.M.  For  reasons  of  ecclesiastical  administration 
the  see  was  raised  to  archiepiscopal  rank  by  Leo  XIII, 
23  June,  1891,  with  San  Luis  Potosi,  Saltillo,  and 
Tamaulipas,  or  Ciudad  do  Victoria,  as  suffragans. 
Monterey,  the  cathedral  town  and  residence  of  the 
archbishop,  is  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Nuevo  Le6n, 
Mexico.  It  is  situated  about  1600  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  in  1900  it  had  a  population  of  62,206,  rank- 
ing as  sixth  city  in  the  republic.  Its  streets  are  hand- 
some, well  navcd  and  clean,  and  the  suburl>s  are 
famous  for  tne  Ixjauty  of  their  gardens  wid  orchards. 
The  principal  buildings  include  the  fine  cathedral,  a 
spacious  seminar>%  schools  of  law  and  medicine,  and 
elaborate  public  schools  where  education  is  free  and 
compulsory,  as  it  is  throughout  the  republic,  though 
the  law  on  this  head  cannot  always  be  enforc^. 
Owing  to  improved  railway  facilities  the  trade  of 
Monterey  is  very  active,  as  it  lies  in  the  heart  of  a  rich 
agricultural  district,  and  the  ncighlwurhood  abounds 


LIKOOLK 


266 


LIHOOLH 


in  silver  mines  and  metalliferous  ores.  The  town  was 
founded  by  the  Spaniards  in  1581  and  long  bore  the 
name  of  Le6n.  In  September,  1846,  during  the  war 
between  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  General  Taylor 
with  6700  men  assaulted  Monterey,  which  was  de- 
fended by  General  Ampudia  and  10,000  Mexicans.  It 
capitulated  on  24  September,  and  the  battle  of  Mon- 
terey is  famous  owing  to  the  very  liberal  terms  of 
capitulation  granted  by  General  Taylor.  The  town 
of  Linares  from  which  the  archdiocese  derives  its 
ecclesiastical  name  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
River  Tigris  about  fifty  miles  from  Monterey.  The 
population  of  the  archdiocese  is  327,937,  and  mcludcs 
the  whole  of  the  State  of  Nuevo  Le6n,  an  area  of 
23,592  sq.  miles. 

The  chapter  consists  of  a  dean  and  four  canons: 
there  are  eighty  secular  priests,  and  seventy-five 
churches:  the  seminary  contains  twenty  stuaents. 
The  present  archbishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Leopold  Ruiz  y 
F16rez,  l)om  at  Amealco  in  the  Diocese  of  Queretaro, 
13  November,  1865,  appointed  to  Le6n  1  October,  1900, 
and  transferred  to  Monterey  14  September,  1907. 
lie  succeeded  Archbishop  Garcfa  Zamorano,  a  native 
of  Monterey  who  had  occupied  the  see  from  19  April, 
1900.  The  See  of  Linares  was  orieinally  in  the  hands 
of  the  Friars  Minor,  and  among  the  members  of  that 
order  who  succeeded  its  first  bishop,  Fray  Antonio  de 
Jesus,  were  Fray  R.  J.  Verger  (1782-1791);  Andrew 
Ambrose  de  Llanos  y  Valdes  (1791-1801);  Prima 
Feliciano  Marin  di  Tamaros  (1801-1817);  Jos.  Ign.  de 
Aranciva  (1817-1831) ;  Jos.  de  Jesiis  (1831-1843).  In 
the  archdiocese  there  is  1  college  with  50  students;  2 
schools  under  the  care  of  the  Brothers  of  Mary  with 
250  boys;  2  schools  (Christian  Brothers),  400pupib; 
3  academies  (Sisters  of  the  Incarnate  Wora),  250 
pupils;  2  academies  (Salesian  Sisters),  190  pupils;  1 
academy,  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  50  pupils; 
7  parochial  schools;  2  orphan  asylums;  1  hospital: 
1  nom«j  for  the  ageil.  ropulatiou  practically  fdl 
C.itliolic. 

Ann.  Pont.  Caifi.  (1910):  Gerarchia  Cattolica  (1910);  Ban- 
cHoi-T,  History  of  Mrxico,  \  (Sim  Francisco,  1885);  Howard, 
General  Taylor  (New  York,  1892) ;  Diccionario  de  Cienciaa  Ede- 

9itistica»,  8,  V.  J.  c.  Grey. 

Lincoln,  Diocese  of  (Lincolniensis),  suffragan  of 
Dubuque,  erected  2  August,  1887,  to  include  that  part 
of  the  State  of  Nebraska,  U.  S.  A.,  south  of  the  Platte 
River;  area  23,844  scpare  miles.  There  were  about 
17,000  Cathohcs  in  tue  section  of  Nebraska  out  of 
which  the  diocese  was  formed,  organized  in  27  parishes 
attended  by  28  secular  and  3  regular  priests.  Added 
to  tliese  were  38  missions  with  churches,  40  stations 
without  churches,  and  1  chapel.  The  Jesuit-s  and 
Benedictines  had  representatives  working  among  the 
clergy,  and  Benedictine  Nuns  and  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Child  took  charge  of  the  three  schools  established,  in 
which  about  290  children  were  enrolled.  The  Rev. 
Thomas  Bonacum,  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Name,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  was  appointed  the  first 
bishop,  consecrated  30  November,  1887,  and  took 
formal  possession  of  the  see  on  2 1  December  following. 
He  was  boni  near  Thurles,  County  Tipperary,  Ireland, 
29  January,  1847,  and  emigrated  in  infancv  with  his 
parents  to  the  United  States,  settling  at  St.  Louis.  He 
studied  at  St.  Vincent's  College,  Cape  Girardeau,  Mis- 
souri, and  at  the  University  of  AVtirzburg,  Bavaria, 
after  which  he  was  ordained  priest  at  St.  Louis,  18 
June,  1870.  He  attended  the  Third  Plenaiy  (Council 
of  Baltimore  as  theologian  for  Archbishop  Kendrick, 
and  wfus  named  by  the  fathers  of  that  council  as. the 
first  Bishop  of  the  Diocese  of  Belleville  which  it  was 
propose<l  to  erect  in  Southern  Illinois.  The  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Propaganda  deferred  action  on  the 
proposal  of  the  Plenary  Council,  and  in  the  meantime 
Fatlier  Bonacum  was  appointed  to  the  Bishopric  of 
Lincoln,  Nehni^ka,  by  Apostolic  letters  under  aate  of 
9  August,  1887. 


StcUiHics: — ^Religious  commuiiities  in  the  diocese— 
Men:  Lazarists,  Benedictines,  Franciscans,  Oblates  of 
Mary  Immaculate.  Women ;  Sisters  of  Charity,  Ursu- 
line  Sisters,  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Dominic,  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  School  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  Loretto,  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic, 
Sisters  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood,  Bemardine  Sisters, 
Felician  Sisters.  Priests,  77  (regulars,  11) ;  churches, 
with  resident  priests,  64;  missions  with  churches,  72; 
stations,  34;  chapels,  5;  academies  for  girls,  5;  pupils, 
400;  parish  schools,  27;  pupils,  2235;  hospitals,  3;  or- 
phanage, 1.    Catholic  population,  37,200. 

Catholic  Dtr<c/orv  (Milwaukee,  1888-1910);  Church  Progrtt*, 
and  The  Western  Watchman  (St.  Louis),  contemporary  files: 
National  Cyd.  of  Am.  Biog.  (New  York,  1904). 

Thomas  F.  Meeilax. 

Ziincoln,  Diocese  of  (Ancient. — Lincolniensis). 
This  see  was  founded  by  St.  Theodore,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  in  678,  when  he  removed  the  Lindiswaras 
of  Lincolnshire  from  the  Diocese  of  Lindisfame.  The 
original  seat  of  the  bishop  was  at  Sidnacester,  now 
Stow  (eleven  miles  north-west  of  Lincoln),  and  for  al- 
most two  hundred  years  the  episcopal  succession  was 
tJliere  maintained,  till  in  870  the  Northmen  burnt  the 
church  of  St.  Afary  at  Stow,  and  for  eiehty  years  there 
was  no  bishop.  About  the  middle  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury the  See  of  Sidnacester  was  united  to  the  Mercian 
See  of  Leicester,  and  the  bishop's  scat  was  fixed  at 
Dorchester-on-Thames.  But  this  was  situate  in  the 
extreme  comer  of  what  was  the  laigest  diocese  in  Eng- 
land, so  that  the  first  Norman  bbhop,  Reraigius  of  F^ 
camp,  decided  after  the  Council  of  1072,  which  or- 
dered all  bishops  to  fix  their  sees  in  walled  towns,  to 
build  his  cathedral  at  Lincoln,  a  city  already  ancient 
and  populous.  On  the  top  of  the  steep  hill  the  cathe- 
dral and  Norman  castle  of  Lincoln  rose  side  by  side. 
In  1075  Remigius  signed  himself  "Episcopus  Lincolni- 
ensis ",  so  that  the  transfer  took  place  at  once.  The 
diocese  then  comprised  no  fewer  tlian  ten  counties: 
Lincoln,  Northampton,  Rutland,  Leicester,  Cam- 
bridge, Huntingdon,  Bedford,  Buckine:ham,  Oxford, 
and  Hertford.  A  striking  part  of  the  Norman  church 
still  remains  in  the  three  deep  arches  of  the  west  front 
of  the  cathedral.  It  was  so  solid  an  edifice  that  dur- 
ing the  civil  wars  between  Stephen  and  Matilda  it  was 
used  as  a  fortress,  but  it  was  ultimately  captured  and 
plundered.  In  1185  the  cathedral  suffered  much 
damage  in  the  great  earthquake,  and  when  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  St.  Hugh  was  made  Bishop  of  Lincoln  he 
found  it  necessary  to  commence  buildinj^  again  from 
the  foundations.  It  was  a  momentous  decision^  as  it 
resulted  in  the  first  English  Gothic  building  and  mtro- 
duced  the  architecture  of  the  pointed  arch.  The  saint 
had  completed  the  whole  eastern  portion  of  the  church 
by  the  time  of  his  death  in  12(X).  Of  his  work  the 
transepts  alone  remain.  The  nave  was  built  during 
the  next  half  century,  when  the  great  scholar  Robert 
Grosseteste  was  bishop.  His  pontificate  was  marked 
by  many  reforms  in  the  monasteries  of  the  diocese  and 
in  the  cathedral  itself.  In  1255  St.  Hugh's  choir  was 
pulled  down  to  make  way  for  the  splendid  "Angel 
Choir  ",  which  was  designeid  to  hold  his  shrine,  and  is 
one  of  the  masterpieces  of  Gothic  architecture.  On  6 
C)ct.,  1280,  the  translation  took  place  in  the  presence 
of  King  Edward  I  and  nearly  all  the  English  hier- 
archy. During  the  fourteenth  century  the  three  tow- 
era  were  raised  to  their  present  height,  and  the  cathe- 
dral attained  its  present  form,  one  of  the  finest  and 
most  remarkable  in  England.  At  the  Reformation 
the  shrine  of  St.  Hugh  was  destroyed  (6  June,  1640). 

In  1536  the  Diocese  of  Lincoln  was  the  scene  of  the 
"Pil^mage  of  Grace  ".  an  armed  protest  against  the 
religious  changes  which  was  followed  by  numerous 
executions.  Tne  reformer.  Bishop  Holbeach,  plund- 
ered the  cathedral  during?  the  reign  of  Edward  \  I,  and 
the  restored  Catholic  bishops  under  Mary  had  litUe 


LiHDAinn  2 

time  to  repair  the  dainage.  The  line  of  bishops  of  LIP' 
coin,  which  had  includol  two  eeints,  three  cardinals, 
and  six  chancellors  (marked  below  *).  waa  brought  to  a 
worthy  close  by  Thoniaa  Watson,  wno  died  a  prisoner 
tor  the  Faith  at  Wisbech  Castle  on  27  Sept.,  1584,  be- 
ing the  last  survivor  on  Ei^lish  soil  of  the  ancient 
CathoUc  hierarchy.  The  following  is  the  complete 
list  of  bishops:  Remigius  de  Fteamp,  1067;  "Hobert 
Bloet,  1094;  •Alexander  1123;  Hobert  de  Cfaesney, 
1148;  vacancy,  1168;  'Walter  de  Coutances,  1173; 
vacancy,  1184;  St.  Hugh  of  Lincoln,  1186;  William  de 
Blois,  1201  (cons.  1203);  vacancy,  1206;  "Hugh  do 
Wells,  1209;  Robert  GroBeeteste,  1235;  Henry  de  I^x- 
inton,  1253;  Richard  de  Gmvesend  1258;  Oliver  Sut- 
ton, 1280;  John  dc  Dslderhy  {popularly  regarded  as  a 
«int),  1300;  Henry  Burghersh,  1320;  Thomas  Bek, 


lorla);  WoauswoBTH,  Nulei  on  Mtdtmal  Srrtiaivilh  InJta 
tl  Linatn  fwammim  (London,  1808);  Vehablbh  akd  Pukt, 
ZiHcnln  ia  Diocaan  Hiitoria  Sirita  (Loadon,  1880);  Ilom, 
Lincoln  Culhrdral  (Londan.  1808):  BnAoaB/LW, StaluUt  ef  Lin- 
coln Callialral  (London.  1802-7):  KsHnKICK,  Un»In.  Ihi  Co- 
Iktdni  and  Ser  (London,  1H08):  FAiiinAiHHii,  CathtdraU  a/ 
Enotand  and  Wala  (Loniion,  1D07). 

Edwin  Bdrton, 

LtndanaB  (van  Linda),  Wiluam  Bamabus,  Bishop 
of  Ruremonde  and  of  Ghent,  b.  at  Dordrecht,  in  1525; 
d.atGhent.  2  November,  1588;  he  waa  the  son  of  Da- 
masus  van  der  Lint.  He  studied  philosophy  and  the- 
ology at  Lou  vain,  and  having  during  this  time  applied 
himself  also  to  Greek  and  Hebrew,  went  to  Paris  to  pei^ 
feet  hims^lF  in  these  languages.  In  1552  he  won  the 
lieenriateat  I,nu\ain,  and  the  samp  year  was  ordained 
to  the  prieBthoo<l.    Two  years  later,  he  was  appointed 


1341;  John  Gynwell,  1347;  John  Bokyngham,  1363; 


(Cardinal),  1405;  Richard  Fleming,  1420; 
1431;  William  of  Alnwick,  1436;  Marmaduke  Lumley, 
1450;  vacancy,  1451 ;  John  Chadworth,  1452;  *ThomaH 
Rothei:hani(Scot),  1472;  'John  Russell.  1480;  William 
Smyth,  1496;ThomflsWolsey  (Cardinal),  1514;  William 
Atwater,  1614;  John Longland,  1521;  HeniyHolbeach, 
1547  (schismatic);  John  Taylor,  1552  (Bcbiamatic) ; 
John  White,  1554;  Thomas  Watson,  1557.  The 
diocese  included  the  counties  of  Lincoln,  Leicester, 
Huntingdon,  Bedford,  Buckingham,  and  part  of  Hert^ 
fordabire^  and  was  divided  in  to  sixHrchdeaconriea:  Lin- 
coln, Leicester,  Be<)for(l.  Buckinpiham.  Huntin^tdoii, 
and  Stow.  From  the  diocese  three  other  sees  have 
been  formed:  Ely,  under  Henry  I;  Oxford  and  Peter- 
borough, under  Henry  VIII — yet  the  Anglican  diocese 


is  to^y  the  largest  in  England.  The  ai 
were;  gules,  two  lions  pns.^nt  gaflant  o 
aiuTB  Our  Lady  sitting  with  her  Babe,  croi 
tre  of  the  second. 


s  of  the  _ 
:i  and  scef*- 


n,  vol.  VI.  pt.  Ill  (London.  1848);  Wm- 

KU,  CatiudnU  Churchet  af  Em/land  and  Wain  (I*indon.  18B0); 
Ldud,  SolurH  OruKMk  EpiHota,  RalU  Siria  (Loadon,  1881 ): 

W«MO*,  Mtmoriaii  of  Lincoln  (London,  ISM);  ' '^ --•'  ' 

(LoDdaQ,    1879):   —  ^i .  . 


(LondDD,  1872):  ArdMKlogia, 


Fhite.   1 
LIII  (L 


uii,  loDDj^  iD(K,  £mitu>li 
HOtofv   of  lAnfolnlhirt 


[irofessor  of  Saored  Scripture  at  the  University  of  Dil- 
b^n.  In  1S56,  he  took  the  doctor's  degree  at  Lou- 
vain,  and  was  appointed  vicar-general  to  the  Bishop  of 
Utrecht  and  dean  of  the  chapter  at  The  Hague.  Soon 
afterwards  he  became  a  royal  counsellor  and  inquisi- 
tor in  Friesland.  In  1562,  Philip  II  designated  Lmda- 
nus  for  the  newly  erected  See  of  Ruremonde,  and  the 
following  year,  on  4  April,  he  was  consecrated  in  Brus- 
aela  by  Granvelle.  He  was  not,  however,  able  to  enter 
his  diocese  until  11  May,  1569.  Throughout  tiie  Low 
Countries  the  erection  of  this  bishopric  had  caused  dis- 

fil_e»su^e,  especially  in  the  country  of  Guelders,  of  which 
uremonde  was  a  part:  where  every  act  of  the  royf^ 
authority  excited  defiance.  The  heretics,  moreover, 
were  dissatisfied  with  the  appointment  of  Lindanus, 
who  was  a  staunch  defender  of  the  Faith.  The  new 
bishop  began  at  once  to  reform  his  diocese,  assisted  in 
person  at  the  Provincial  Synods  of  Mechlin  and  of  Lou- 
vain  (1570,  1573)  and  carried  out  the  laws  and  regula- 
tions of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

In  1672,  he  was  obliged  U)  flee  for  several  months 
from  Ruremonde  to  the  South  of  the  Low  Countries; 
on  hifl  return  to  his  see,  he  defended  vigorously  the 
properties  of  the  (llhurch  against  the  civilauthorities. 
In  1573,  a  violent  conflict  broke  out  between  himself 
and  th*  Duke  of  Alba;  and  the  heretics  obliged  him  to 
flee  on  several  occasions.    In  1578,  he  journeyed  to 


LINDX 


268 


uxDXMAinr 


8 


Rome  and  to  Madrid  in  order  to  obtain  justice  against 
•the  chapter  of  Maestricht,  which  had  refused  to  execute 
the  regulations  concerning  the  episcopal  endowment, 
as  well  as  to  confer  with  the  Holy  Father  and  the  king 
upon  the  measures  necessary  for  the  safeguarding  of 
the  Faith  in  the  Low  Countries.  Returning  to  Rure- 
mondc,  with  the  help  of  Philip  II,  he  founded  the  royal 
seminary  or  college  at  Lou  vain,  for  the  education  of 
yoimg  clerics.  Lmdanus  went  to  Rome  again  in  1584 
to  treat  of  the  interests  of  his  diocese  and  of  the  state 
of  the  Church  in  the  Low  Countries  and  in  Germany, 
and  he  insisted  particularly  upon  the  urgent  necessity 
of  replying  in  a  scientific  way  to  the  Centuriators  of 
Magaeburg.  His  work  in  Ruremonde  was  now  brought 
to  a  close  by  his  elevation  to  the  See  of  Ghent,  where 
he  began  his  new  episcopal  duties  on  22  July,  1588, 
and  where  three  montiis  later,  he  passed  away. 
Among  his  nimierous  works  the  following  are  especi- 
ally worthy  of  mention:  "De  optimo  scripturas  inter- 
{>retandi  genere"  (Cologne,  1558);  **Panoplia  evange- 
ica"  (ColcjKne,  1560);  *'  Stromatum  libri  III  pro 
defensione  0:>ncilii  Tridentini  (Colore,  1575);  "Missa 
apostolica"  (Antwerp,  1589),  and  m  a  more  popular 
form,  the  dialogues,  *'Dubitantius'*  and  "  Ruwaroius  " 
(Cologne,  1562-3).  He  edited  also  the  academic  dis- 
courses of  Ruard  Tapperus  (1577-78),  aad  he  wrote 
many  works  in  Dutch  for  the  instruction  of  his  flock, 
in  oraer  to  keep  them  from  Protestantism  and  to  refute 

the  Confession  of  Antwerp  of  1566. 

Havensius,  De  eredione  novorum  in  Belgio  epiacopatuum 
CologDe,  1609);  Kuippenberg,  Historia  eccUnoMlica  ducatuM 
'Helria  (BruBscls,  1719);  Holun,  HiMoire  chnmologique  dea 
ivfques  de  Gand  (Ghent,  1772) ;  Lamy  in  Annitaire  de  Vttnivernti 
caiholique  de  Louvain  (1860),  98;  Claessens,  ibid.  (1871),  299; 
WELTEifs  in  Publicationa  de  la  SociHi  hiMortgue  et  archiologiqtu 
dana  le  duchi  de  Limbourg,  XXVII  (Maestricht.  1890),  225; 
Brom.  ibid.,  XXIX  (1892),  277;  Van  Veen,  ibid.,  XUV  (1908). 
149;  Thus  in  De  Katholiek,  CXXV  iheydea  and  Utrecht, 
1904).  435.  H.   DE  JONGH. 

Linda,  Justin  Timotheus  Balthasar,  Freihebr 
VON,  Hessian  jurist  and  statesman,  b.  in  the  village  of 
Brilon,  Westphalia,  7  Aug.,  1797;  d.  at  Bonn  during 
the  night  of  9-9  June,  1870.  His  father,  who  was  a 
barrister,  died  when  Justin  was  only  three  years  old; 
this  occurrence,  and  the  fact  that  the  widow  had  to 
support  four  children  in  war  times,  darkened  in  a  meas- 
ure the  youth  of  the  unusually  talented  boy.  After  he 
had  completed  his  gymnasium  studies  at  Amsberg 
(1816),  he  devoted  himself  with  great  zeal  and  success 
to  the  study  of  jurisprudence  at  the  universities  of 
Miinster,  Gottingen,  and  Bonn.  In  the  last-men- 
tioned he  received  the  doctorate  (1820),  and  qualified 
in  1821  as  university  tutor.  Two  years  later  he  was 
called  to  Giessen,  where,  as  extraordinary  (1823),  and 
subsequently  as  ordinary  professor  of  law  (1824-9),  he 
attracted  numbers  of  students,  and  became  distin- 
guished through  his  learned  publications.  In  1829  he 
was  called  to  Darmstadt,  as  ministerial  counsel  {Minis- 
terialrat),  and  was  later  (1832)  named  director  of  the 
Board  of  Eklucation.  The  year  1883  found  him  Chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  (jiessen.  Soon  after  (1836) 
he  was  named  pri\y  councillor,  and  1839  brought  him 
a  patent  of  nobility.  After  repeated  request*,  he  was 
permitted  to  retire  with  a  pension  in  1847.  In  1848  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Frankfort  Parliament  and  in  1850 
of  the  Parliament  of  Erfurt,  and  from  the  latter  year 
he  acted  as  Prince  Lichtenstein's  ambassador  to  the 
Carman  Diet — from  1863  he  also  represented  the  elder 
line  of  Reuss  and  Hesse-Homburg — until  its  dissolu- 
tion in  1866.  Tlie  wTeck  of  his  political  ideals,  es- 
poused by  him  with  preat  warmth,  was  not  without 
effect  upon  Linde's  mind  and  temper.  His  former  al- 
most inexhaustible  capacity  for  work  was  broken,  as 
well  as  his  wonderful  cheerfulness.  He  withdrew  al- 
most entirely  to  his  countrv  seat,  Dreys,  and  during 
a  visit  to  one  of  his  sons  at  Bonn  he  was  carried  away 
by  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  in  1870. 

In  his  younger  days  he  was,  in  politics,  friendly  to 


Prussia  (cf.  his  "  Rede  Uber  den  Geburtstag  dee  Kdnigs 
von  Preussen  ",  Soest,  1816),  and  in  religion  somewhat 
Josephinistic.  Gradually,  however,  he  developed  into 
a  strong  particulariat,  as  well  as  a  Lealous  chtunpion  of 
the  rights  and  claims  of  the  Church,  although  ne  did 
not  succeed  in  winning  the  entire  confidence  of  the 
strict  Catholic  party.  To  Linde  is  due  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Catholic  theological  faculty  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Giessen,  in  which  many  excellent  men  laboured 
— ;among  others  the  well-known  ecclesiastical  historian 
Riff  el  (q.  v.),  who  later  quarrelled  with  Linde.  For 
the  erection  of  a  church  in  the  same  place  especial 
thanks  are  due  to  him.  His  orthodoxy  is  unqu^ion- 
able.  Linde's  numerous  official  reports  have  still  to 
be  collected  from  the  archives;  most  of  his  pamphlets 
are  forgotten,  although  many  are  of  permanent  value. 
The  best  collection  of  liis  intellectual  productions  is 
given  by  Schulte  in  the ''  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biogia- 
phie",  s.  V.  "Linde"  (XVIII,  671).  The  most  mi- 
portant  and  extensive  of  these  works  are:  "  Abhand- 
Iimgen  aus  dem  C^vilprozess''  (2  vols.,  Bonn,  1823-9): 
"Lehrbuch  des  deutschen  gemeinen  Civilproxess^' 
(7th  ed.,  Bonn,  1850);  "Archiv  far  das  offentliche 
Recht  des  deutschen  Bundes''  (4  vols.,  Giessen,  1850- 

63). 

In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  in  the  text,  oooAilt 
Linde  in  Kirchenlex.f  b.  v.;  Short  notices  ai«  also  found  in  the 
encyclopedias  of  Brockbaus,  Pibrer,  etc. 

PlUB  WlTTMANN. 

• 

Lindemann,  Wilhelm,  a  (]!atholic  historian  of  Ger- 
man literature,  b.  at  Schonnebeck  near  Essen,  17 
December,  1828;  d.  at  Niederkruechten  near  Erke- 
lenz  (Rhine  Province)  20  December,  1879.  He  at- 
tendeid  the  gymnasium  at  Essen;  studied  theology  at 
Bonn  from  1848  to  1851,  and  was  ordained  in  Colore, 
2  September,  1852.  He  was  rector  of  the  municipal 
high  school  of  Heinsberg  from  1853  to  1860,  then 
parish -priest  at  Rheinbreitbach,  and  later  at  Ven- 
rath  from  1863  to  1866,  when  he  became  pastor  of 
Nieder-Kruechten,  and  so  remained  till  his  death. 
From  1870  to  1879  he  served  as  a  member  of  the  Prus- 
sian Diet  as  one  of  the  Centre  Party.  His  principal 
literary  work  is  the  "  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Litera- 
tur'\  which  first  appeared  in  1866  (eighth  edition, 
Freiburg,  1905).  This  was  the  first  exhaustive  treat- 
ise made  of  the  history  of  German  literature  from  a 
Gatholic  point  of  view,  and  was  an  effort  on  the  part 
of  the  author  to  bring  out  into  greater  prominence 
Gatholic  poets  and  thinkers  who  theretofore  had  either 
failed  of  recognition  or  had  l)een  treated  with  hostility. 
It  is  a  notable  work.  The  author  modeiled  it  on  V^il- 
mar's  widely  read  and  meritorious  "  History  of  Litera- 
ture". Connected  to  a  certain  extent,  as  authorities, 
with  his  history  of  literature,  is  the  '*  Bibliothek  deut- 
scher  Klassiker"  (1868-71)  containing  selections  from 
Goethe,  Schiller,  Lessing,  Herder,  from  WTiters  of  the 
Romantic  school  and  poets  of  later  times.  To  these  are 
to  be  added  his  *'  Blumenstrauss  von  Geistlichen  Ge- 
dichten  des  deutschen  Mittelalters"  (1874),  and  a  col- 
lection of  religious  poems  "  Fiir  die  Pilgerreise"  (1877). 
Besides  these  Lindemann  produced  two  biographical 
works,  the  one  on  Angelus  Silesius  (1876)  and  the 
other  on  Geiler  von  Ivayscrsl>erg,  from  the  French  by 
Dacheux  (1877),  both  of  wliich  appear  in  the  "  Samm- 
lung  historischer  Bildnisse  "  3rd  series,  vol.  VIII,  and 
4th  series,  vol.  II.  Lindemann  was  also  a  contribu- 
tor to  the  "Bonner  Theologischer  Literaturblatt", 
and  to  other  periodicals.  Tne  University  of  WUns- 
burg  recognized  his  literary  achievements  by  confer- 
ring on  him,  in  1872,  the  decree  of  Doctor  of  PhUos- 
ophy.  As  a  man  he  was  simple  and  unassuming, 
with  an  amiable  manner  and  a  spontaneous  flow  of 
humour,  a  genuine  son  of  the  Rhineland. 

HOlskamp,  Literarieeher  Handweieer  (1880),  80;   Genmmia 

i24     Deoemberx_1879),    eupplemfiot;     Rbusgb    in  AQgtn%. 
7eut$ehe  bK^m  XVIH,  680. 

Klehenb  LOftlbb. 


LI1IDI8FABMS 


269 


LDTDISFABMS 


Xdndiiftniet  Ancient  Diocese  (Lindihfarnen- 
tns)  and  Monastery  of. — ^The  island  of  Lindisfame 
li^  some  two  miles  off  the  Northumberland  coast, 
nine  and  one-half  miles  south-east  of  the  border-town 
of  Berwick.  Its  length  is  about  three  miles  aiid  its 
breadth  about  one  and  one-half.  At  low  water  it  is 
joined  to  the  mainland.  Twice  each  day  it  is  accessi- 
ble by  means  of  a  three-miles  track  from  Beal  across 
the  sands.  The  wet  and  plashy  road  is  indicated  by 
wooden  posts.  The  population  does  not  exceed  700. 
This  island  is  now  usually  called  Holy  Island,  a  desig- 
nation dating  back  to  the  eleventh  century.  Lindis- 
fame is  famous  as  being  the  mother-church  and  reli- 
gious capital  of  Northumbria,  for  here  St.  Aidan,  a 
Oolumban  monk-bishop  from  lona,  founded  bis  see  in 
635.  The  resemblance  of  Lindisfame  to  the  island 
whence  St.  Aidan  came  has  obtained  for  it  the  title 
of  the  lona  of  England.  Aidan's  mission  was  started 
at  the  reouest  of  King  Oswald,  who  had  been  educated 
by  the  Celtic  monk,  and  who  then  resided  on  the  main- 
land at  the  royal  fortress  of  Bamborough.  Holy  Isle 
became  the  centre  of  great  missionary  activity  ami  also 
the  episcopal  seat  of  sixteen  successive  bishops.  The 
influence  of  these  spiritual  rulers  was  considerable,  ow- 
ing in  great  measure  to  the  patronage  afforded  hy  kings 
such  as  St.  Oswald.  Not  only  did  St.  Aidan  fix  his  see 
here,  but  he  also  established  a  monastic  community, 
thus  conforming  himself,  as  Bede  says,  to  the  practice 
of  St.  Au^stine  at  Canterbury  (Hist,  eccl.,  IV,  xxvii). 
Fit)m  this  monastery  were  founded  all  the  churches 
between  Edinbui^gh  and  the  Humber,  as  well  as  several 
others  in  the  great  midland  district  and  in  the  country 
of  the  East  Angles.  Among  the  holy  and  famous  men 
educated  in  Lmdisfarne  were  St.  Ceadda  (Chad)  of 
Lichfield  and  his  brothers  Cedd,  Cynibill,  Caclin,  also 
St.  Egbert,  St.  Edilhun,  St.  Ethelwin,  St.  Os\*^y  the 
King,  and  the  foyr  bishops  of  the  Middle  Angles:  Di- 
uma,  Cellach,  Trumhere,  and  Jaruman.  Bishop  Eata 
was  one  of  the  twelve  native  Northumbrian  boys 
whom  Aidan  had  taken  to  Lindisfame  *'to  be  in- 
structed in  Christ ".  St.  Adamnan  visited  the  monas- 
tery, and  St.  Wilfrid  received  his  early  training  there. 
Ttis  original  buildings  were  probably  of  wood.    We 

rsome  notion  of  their  unpretending  character  from 
fact  that  St.  Finan,  Aidan's  successor,  found  it 
necessary  to  reconstruct  the  church  so  as  to  make  it 
more  worthy  of  the  see.  This  he  did  after  the  Irish 
fashion,  using  hewn  oak  with  a  roof  of  reeds.  A  later 
iHshop,  Eadbert,  removed  the  reeds  and  substituted 
sheets  of  lead.  This  modest  structure  was  dedicated 
by  Archbishop  Theodore  of  Canterbury  in  honour  of 
St.  Peter,  and  within  it,  on  the  right  side  of  the  altar, 
reposed  tne  body  of  St.  Aidan .  Portions  of  this  primi- 
tive cathedral  existed  in  1082,  when  they  disappeared 
to  make  room  for  a  more  elaborate  and  lasting  edifice. 
Owing  probably  to  a  desire  to  guard  against  irregulari- 
ties, such  as  had  taken  place  at  Coldingham,  entrance 
to  the  church  was  not  permitted  to  women.  For  the 
latter  a  special  church  was  provided,  called  the  Green 
Church  from  its  situation  m  a  ^reen  meadow.  This 
exclusion  of  women  was  for  a  tune  observed  at  Dur- 
ham. 

Lindisfame  owes  much  of  its  glory  to  St.  Cuthbert, 
who  ruled  its  church  for  two  years,  and  whose  incor- 
rupt body  was  there  venerated  during  two  centuries. 
In  793  tne  Danes  invaded  the  island,  pillaged  the 
church,  and  slaughtered  or  drowned  the  monks.  In 
875  they  returned,  bent  on  further  destruction,  but  the 
monks  had  fled,  bearing  with  them  St.  Cuthbert's 
shrine.  This  took  place  during  the  episcopate  of 
Bishop  Eardulf.  who  was  the  last  to  rule  the  See  of 
Lindisfame.  Tne  half-ruined  church,  however,  gave 
temporary  shelter  to  the  relics  of  St.  Cuthbert  at  the 
time  when  William  the  Conqueror  was  engaged  in  sub- 
duing Northumbria,  but  the  see  was  never  re-estab- 
Hshed  there.  It  was  fixed  for  a  time  at  Chester-le- 
Street  by  Eaniulf,  and  in  995  transferred  to  Durham. 


Here  it  remained  till  the  change  of  religion  in  the  siX'^ 
teenth  century.  The  Anglican  succession,  however, 
still  continues.  When  the  hierarchy  was  restored  to 
England  by  Pius  IX  in  1850,  this  venerable  Catholic 
bishopric  was  refounded  under  the  title  of  Hexham 
and  Newcastle. 

The  ecclesiastical  ruins  on  Holy  Island  date  from 
the  eleventh  century.  By  a  charter  of  1082  Bishop 
Carileph  bestowed  the  church  of  Lindisfame  on  the 
Beneclictines,  whom  he  had  brought  to  Durham  from 
Wearmouth  and  Jarrow;  and  for  them  he  began  the 
Norman  church  the  remains  of  which  still  exist.  His 
successor,  Bishop  Fiambard,  completed  the  work,  the 
architect  l)eing  a  monk  of  Durham  named  ^Edward. 
The  succession  of  priors  and  monks  was  always  ai>- 
I>ointed  hy  the  mother-church  of  Durham,  and  their 
yearly  accounts  were  rendered  to  the  same  parent- 
house.  From  these  statements,  still  extant,  we  gather 
that  in  its  best  days  the  priory  income  was  equal  to 
about  £1200  of  present  money.  During  the  priorate 
of  Thomas  Sparke  (1536)  the  house  was  dissolved,  and 
at  his  death,  in  1571,  the  property  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Dean  and  Chapter  of  Durham.  Since 
1613  the  site  of  the  priory  has  belonged  to  the  crown. 
The  church,  under  the  invocation  of  St.  Cuthbert,  was 
a  copy  of  Durham  cathedral  on  a  small  scale.  The 
similarity  is  especially  observable  in  the  voluted  and 
chevroned  columns  of  the  nave.  Its  length  was  150 
feet.  The  tower  was  still  standing  in  1728.  A  pil- 
grimage, consisting  of  3000  persons,  crossed  the  sands 
to  Holy  Island  in  1887 — the  twelfth  centenary  of  St. 
Cuthbert's  d^th.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  bishops 
of  Lindisfame,  with  dates  of  accession:— (1)  Aidan, 
635;  (2)  Finan,  652;  (3)  Colman,  661;  (4)  Tuda^  664. 
(For  fourteen  vears  Lindisfame  was  included  in  Diocese 
of  York  under  Chad  and  Wilfrid.)  (5)  Eata,  678;  (6) 
Cutbert,  685;  (7)  Eadbert,  688;  (8)  Eadfrid,  698;  (9) 
Ethelwold,  724;  (10)  Cynewiilf,  740;  (11)  Higbald, 
780;  (12)  Egbert,  803;  (13)  Hcathored,  821;  (14)  Ec- 
gred,  830;  (15)  Eanbert,  845;  (16)  Eardulf,  854. 

The  book  called  the  "Lindisfame  Gospels"  ("St. 
Cuthbert's  Gospels"  or  the  "Durliam  Book")  is  still 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum  Library  (Cotton  MS. 
Nero  D.  iv) .  This  volume  must  not  be  confounded  with 
a  small  copy  of  St.  John's  Gospel  found  in  St.  Cuth- 
bert's coffin  in  1104,  and  now  at  Stonyhurst.  The 
former  was  written  at  Lindisfame  by  Eadfrid  "in 
honour  of  St.  Cuthbert "  about  700.  It  consists  of  258 
leaves  of  thick  vellum,  13^  X  9|  inches,  and  contains 
the  Four  Gospels  in  the  Latin  of  St.  Jerome's  Version, 
written  in  double  columns  with  an  interlinear  Saxon 
gloss — the  earliest  form  of  the  Gospels  in  English. 
It  also  contains  St.  Jerome's  Epistle  to  Pope  Damasus, 
his  Prefaces,  the  Eusebian  Canons,  arguments  of  each 
Gospel,  ana  "  Capitula ",  or  headings  of  the  lessons. 
The  glossator,  Aldred,  states  that  the  ornamentation 
was  the  work  of  Ethelwold  (724-40),  and  that  the 
precious  metal  cover  was  made  by  Bilfrid  (Billfrith) 
the  anchorite.  It  is  written  in  a  splendid  uncial  hand, 
and  adorned  with  intricate  patterns,  consisting  of 
interlaced  ribbons,  spiral  lines,  and  geometrical  knots, 
terminating  sometimes  in  heads  of  birds  and  beasts. 
The  intervening  spaces  are  filled  with  red  dots  in  va- 
rious designs.  Before  each  Gospel  is  a  representation 
of  the  Eyangelist.  A  table  of  festivals  with  special 
lessons  seems  to  indicate  that  this  manuscript  was 
copied  from  one  used  in  a  church  at  Naples.  It  is  sur- 
mised that  the  Neapolitan  manuscript  found  its  way 
into  England  in  the  time  of  Archbishop  Theodore, 
whose  companion,  Adrian,  was  abbot  of  Nisita  near 
Naples.  (For  a  fiiller  treatment  of  the  origin  of  the 
manuscript,  see  Dom  Chapman's  "Early  History  of 
the  Violgate  Gospels  ",  where  he  gives  a  slightly  differ- 
ent view  of  the  subject.)  The  book  remained  at  Lin- 
disfame till  the  fiignt  of  the  monks,  about  878,  when 
it  was  carried  away  together  with  the  relics.  During 
the  attempted  passage  to  Ireland,  it  fell  into  the  sea^ 


LIND0RE8 


270 


UNQARD 


but  was  miraculously  rescued  after  four  days.   In  995 

it  was  brought  to  Durham,  and  afterwards  replaced 

in  Lindisfarne,  when  the  chiurch  there  was  rebuilt. 

There  it  remained  till  the  Dissolution  in  1536.    For 

the  space  of  100  years  it  was  lost  sight  of.    In  1623  it 

was  m  the  possession  of  Robert  Bowyer,  clerk  to  the 

House  of  Commons.    He  disposed  of  it  to  Sir  Robert 

Cotton,  whence  it  passed  to  the  British  Museum. 

Traces  of  its  immersion  in  the  sea  have  been  detected 

by  experts.    Its  present  precious  binding  was  a  gift  of 

Bishop  Maltby.    The  codex  was  edited  oy  Stevenson 

and  Waring  (i854-65),  and  by  Skeat  (1887). 

Bbde,  Hi9l.  Ecd.,  I,  100;  Eyre.  History  of  St.  Culhbert  (Lon- 
don, 1887);  Raise,  History  and  Antuiuttiet  of  North  Durham 
(London,  1852V,  Montalembert,  Momcs  of  the  West^  the  chap- 
ter on  Celtic  Monks  and  appendix;  Stmeon  of  Durham,  Op. 
omnia,  ed,  Arnold  in  RolU  Series  (2  vols.,  London,  1882); 
O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints,  31  August;  Butler.  Lives 
of  the  SainLt^  31  August.  For  LindUfame  Gospels,  see  RUes  of 
Durham  (Surtees  Soc,  1902),  248-  Revue  Bfnidictine,  for  Nov. 
and  Dec.,  1891;  Chapman.  Early  History  of  the  Vulgate  Gospels 
(Oxford,  1908) ;  Kenton,  Handbook  to  Textual  Criticism  of  the 
New  Testament  (London,  1901),  199;  Bibliographical  Papers  on 
Books  (London,  1895);  Robinson,  Celtic  Illuminative  Art  (Dub- 
lin, 1908);  Xtmms  and  Wtatt.  Art  of  Illuminating  (1860); 
Wbstwood.  Miniatures  and  Ornaments  (1868) — several  of  fore- 
going give  facsimiles. 

CoLUMBA  Edmonds. 

Lindores,  Benedictine  Abbet  OF,  on  the  R  iverTay, 
near  Newburgh,  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  founded  by  Da- 
vid, Earl  of  Huntingdon,  younger  brother  of  King  Wil- 
liam the  Lion,  about  1191.  Boece  (Chronicles  of  Scot- 
land) gives  1178  as  the  date,  but  his  romantic  storv  of 
the  foundation  (adopted  by  Walter  Scott  in  "The 
Talisman")  is  quite  uncorroborated  and  almost  cer- 
tainly fictitious.  The  monks  were  Tironensian  Bene- 
dictines, brought  from  Kelso;  Guido,  Prior  of  Kelso, 
was  the  first  abbot,  and  practically  completed  the  ex- 
tensive buildings.  The  church,  dedicated  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  and  St.  Andrew,  was  195  feet  long,  with 
transepts  110  feet  long.  Earl  David  richly  endowed 
the  abbey,  making  over  to  it  the  ten  parisn  churches 
which  were  in  his  gift,  as  well  as  tithes  and  other 
sources  of  revenue,  and  asking  nothing  in  return  "  save 
only  prayers  for  the  weal  of  the  soul".  The  monks, 
by  the  foundation  charter,  were  to  be  free  of  all  secu- 
lar and  military  service,  and  they  gradually  acquired 
extensive  powers  and  jurisdiction  over  the  people  liv- 
ing on  their  property.  Other  churches  were  granted 
by  the  Leslies  and  subsequent  benefactors  to  the  ab- 
bey, which  had  finally  as  many  as  twenty-two  belong- 
ing to  it.  Dowden,  in  his  introduction  to  the  Lin- 
dores chartulary,  gives  details  of  these  endowments, 
as  well  as  of  the  privileges  granted  to  the  abbey  by 
successive  popes:  these  do  not  seem  to  have  differed 
from  those  enjoyed  by  other  great  monasteries.  Ed- 
ward I  of  England,  John  de  Baliol,  David  II,  and  James 
III  were  ftmong  the  monarchs  who  visited  Lindores 
at  different  times.  David,  Duke  of  Rothesay,  who 
perished  mysteriously  at  Falkland  Palace,  not  far  off, 
was  buried  at  Lindores  in  1402.  Twenty-one  abbots 
ruled  the  monastery  from  its  foundation  to  its  suppres- 
sion. Lindores  was  the  first  of  the  great  Scottish  ab- 
beys to  suffer  violence  from  the  Protestant  mob.  being 
sacked  and  the  monks  expelled  by  the  populace  of 
Dundee  in  1543.  Knox  describes  a  similar  scene  in 
1559:  "The  abljey  of  Lindores  we  reformed:  their  al- 
tars overthrew  we;  their  idols,  vestments  of  idolatrie 
and  mass-books  we  burnt  in  their  presence,  and  com- 
manded them  to  cast  away  their  monkish  habits". 
The  last  abbot  was  the  learned  and  pious  John  Leslie, 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Ross  (d.  1596).  The  abbey  was 
created  a  temporal  lonlship  in  1600  in  favour  of  Pat- 
rick Leslie,  in  whose  family  it  remained  till  1741.  It 
now  belongs  to  the  Hays  of  Leys.  The  fragments  of 
the  buildings  which  remain  are  mostly  of  the  twelfth 
century;  they  include  the  groined  archway  of  the  prin- 
cipal entrance,  and  part  of  the  chancel  walls  and  of  the 
western  tower  of  tne  church. 

Chartulary  of  the  Abbey  of  Lindores,  ed.  Dowdkn  from  the 


Caprington  MS.,  with  intxoduction  and  appendixes  (Edinbui^K 
Scot.  Hist.  8oo..  1903).  The  volume  puSushed  by  the  AbbotS' 
ford  Club  (1841,  tnoorreotly  called  Chartulariet  of  Balmermo 
and  Lindores,  is  really  a  sixteenth-century  transcript  of  mis- 
cellaneous documents  relating  to  these  abbevs.  See  also 
Laino,  Lindores  Abbey  and  itsbitrgh  of  Newburgh  (Edinbuivh, 
1876);  Gordon,  Monattieon,  III  (Gfaseow,  1848),  639-650: 
DuoDALE,  Monasticon  Anglioanum,  VI  (London,  1830),  1150. 
Dowden,  op.  cit.  gives  some  interesting  reproductions  of  ancieb« 
seals  of  the  Chapter  and  various  Abbots  of  Lindores. 

D.  O.  Huntbr-Blaib. 

Line,  Mrs.  Anne,  English  martyr,  d.  27  Feb.,  1601. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  William  Heigham  of  Dun- 
mow,  Essex,  a  gentleman  of  means,  and  an  ardent 
Calvinist,  and  when  she  and  her  brother  announced 
their  intention  of  becoming  Catholics  both  were  dis- 
owned and  disinherited.  Anne  married  Roger  Line,  a 
convert  like  herself,  and  shortly  after  their  marriage 
he  was  apprehended  for  attending  Mass.  After  a  brief 
confinement  he  was  released  and  permitted  to  go  into 
exile  in  Flanders,  where  he  died  m  15M.  When  Fa- 
ther John  Gerard  established  a  house  of  refuge  for 
priests  in  London,  Mrs.  Line  was  placed  in  charge. 
After  Father  Gerard's  escape  from  tne  Tower  in  1G97, 
as  the  authorities  were  begmning  to  suspect  her  assist- 
ance, she  removed  to  another  house,  which  she  made  a 
rallying  point  for  neighbouring  Catholics.  On  Candle- 
mas day,  1601,  Father  Francis  Page,  S.J.  was  about  to 
celebrate  Mass  in  her  apartments,  when  priest-catch- 
ers broke  into  the  rooms.  Father  Page  quickly  un- 
vested, and  mingled  with  the  others,  but  the  altar 
prepared  for  the  ceremonv  was  all  the  evidence 
needed  for  the  arrest  of  Mrs .  Line .  She  was  tried  at  the 
Old  Bailey  26  Feb.,  1601,  and  indicted  under  the  Act 
of  27  Eliz.  for  harbouring  a  priest,  though  this  could 
not  be  proved.  The  next  day  she  was  led  to  the  gal- 
lows, and  bravely  proclaiming  her  faith,  achieved  the 
martyrdom  for  which  she  had  prayed.  Her  fate  was 
shared  by  two  priests,  Mark  Barkworth,  O.S.B.,  and 
Roger  Filcock,  S.J.,  who  were  executea  at  the  same 
time. 

Roger  Fil6ock  had  long  been  Mrs.  Line's  friend  and 
frequently  her  confessor.  Entering  the  English  Col- 
lege at  Reims  in  1588,  he  was  sent  with  others  in  1590 
to  colonize  the  seminary  of  St.  Albans  at  Valladolid. 
and,  after  completing  His  course  there,  was  ordainea 
and  sent  on  the  English  mission.  Father  Gamett 
kept  him  on  probation  for  two  years  to  try  his  mettle 
before  admitting  him  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  find- 
ing him  zealous  and  })rave,  finally  allowed  him  to  en- 
ter. He  was  just  about  to  cross  to  the  Continent  for 
his  novitiate  when  he  was  arrested  on  suspicion  of 
being  a  priest  and  executed  after  a  travesty  of  a  trial. 

Morris,  Life  of  Fr.  John  Oerard;  Challoner,  Memoirs^  I, 
396;  FoLET,  Records  S.J.  I,  405;  VII,  264;  Douay  Diaries, 
p.  219,  280;  Hist.  MSS.  Com.  Rep.  Rutland  CoU.  Belvoir  CaeOe, 
1, 370;  GiLLOW.  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath. 

Stanley  J.  Quinn. 

Linen.  See  Alb;  Altar,  sub -title  Altar- Lin- 
ens; Amice;  Corporal;  etc. 

Lingard,  John,  English  priest  and  historian;  b. 
at  Winchester,  5  February,  1771;  d.  at  Hornby,  17 
July,  1851.  He  was  the  son  of  Lincolnshire  yeomen, 
John  Lingard  and  Elizabeth  Rennell,  whom  poverty 
and  persecution  had  driven  to  mig^te  from  their 
native  Claxby,  first  to  London,  where  they  met  again 
and  married,  then,  after  a  short  return  to  their  old 
home,  to  Winchester,  where  he  was  bom.  He  in- 
herited from  a  stock  winnowed  and  strengthened  by 
the  ceaseless  oppression  of  two  centuries  the  silent, 
stubborn,  almost  sullen  longing  for  the  conversion  of 
his  native  land,  that  is  so  intimate  a  characteristic 
of  the  pre-Emancipation  Catholic. 

The  first  step  towards  realizing  this  longing  was 
taken  in  1779,  when  the  Rev.  James  Nolan,  Muner's 
predecessor  at  Winchester,  arranged  with  Bishop 
Challoner  the  first  preliminaries  for  his  reception  at 
Douai.    These  were  concluded   by  Mi)ner  himself 


ZJHaABD  2! 

three  jem  later,  and  Ling&rd  "  entered  the  doors  of 
Douai  m  the  afternoon  of  30  September,  1782  ".  His 
career  there  was  remarkably  brilliant:  only  at  one 
examination  in  the  whole  of  hia  course  did  he  fail  to 
lead  hia  class,  and  at  the  end  of  bis  course  in  philoso- 
phy he  was  retained  as  professor  of  one  of  the  lower 
humanity  schools.  Shortly  before  the  linal  catas- 
trophe whidi  the  French  Revolution  brought  upon 
the  house  he  escaped  to  England,  in  char;^  of  two 
brothers  named  Oliveira  and  of  William,  afterwards 
I.OTd,  Stourton.  For  nearlj"  a  year,  he  took  charge  of 
the  latter's  education  at  his  father's  residence,  till,  in 
Hay,  17M,  Bishop  William  Gibson  asked  him  to  aid 
in  caring  for  a  section  of  the  Douai  refugees  who  were 
ateembled,  first  at  Tudhoe,  then  at  Pontop  and  Crook 
Hall — all  places  within  a  few  miles  of  Durham.  Nom- 
inally, he  ncld  the  chair  of  philosophy:  practically,  be- 
sides the  duties  of  vice-president  to  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Eyre,  he  undertook  ia  addition  those  of  prefect  of 
studies,  procurator,  and  of  professor  of  church  history- 
It  was  in  this  last  subject  that  he  &rst  found  the  true 
bent  of  hia  genius.  The  result  was  his  "History  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Church",  a  development  of  conversa- 
tions and  informal  lectures  round  the  winter  evening 
fir«.  IlM  success  suggested  two  further  literary 
schemes:  a  history  of  the  Anglo-Xorman  Church  and 
a  school  epitome  of  the  history  of  England,  of  which 
the  former  was  finally  abandoned  about  IS14.  and  the 
latter  about  the  same  time  be^n  to  expand  into  his 
life's  work.  It  had  been  impossible  for  him  to  accom- 
plish anything  during  the  interval,  except  in  the  way 
of  gathering  materials.  The  labours  antecedent  to 
and  consequent  upon  the  removal  to  Ushaw,  in  1S08; 
the  post  of  viciwiresident  which  he  held  there;  and 
the  sole  charge  of  the  house  which  dpvolved  upon  him 
on  Byre's  d^th,  in  May,  ISIO,  effectually  deprived 
him  qf  leisure.  He  found  time,  however,  for  a  few 
controversial  worka,  the  titles  of  which  will  be  found 
at  the  end  of  this  article. 

In  181 1  the  Rev.  Joiui  Gillow  wait  appointed  Presi- 
dent of  Ushaw,  and  Linaird,  refusing  the  correspond- 
ing position  at  Maynooui,  which  was  olTercd  him  by 
Bishop  Moylan,  retired  in  September  to  Hornby,  a 
country  mission  about  eight  miles  from  Lancaster. 
Various  controversial  publications  (one  of  which, 
"A  Review  of  (Certain  Anli-Catholic  Publications", 
Mkraed  him  the  formal  thanks  of  the  Board  of  Catho- 
lics of  Great  Britain)  were  the  first  fruits  of  his  leisure 
here.  The  "  HiBtoY"i  however,  still  in  the  form  of  an 
abridgement  for  schools,  formed  bis  principal  occu- 
pation. By  the  end  of  1815  he  had  buried  Henry 
VII  and  was  returning  to  reviw."  But  the  revision 
proved  a  rewriting,  and  the  work  began  to  exceed  the 
bounds  of  a  school-book.  Two  years  more  were  de- 
voted to  the  examination  and  comparison  of  original 
authorities,  for  Lingard's  new  method  of  history? — 
practically  unlieard  of  till  then— insisted  on  tracing 
every  statement  back  to  its  ori^nal  author.  He 
journeyed  to  Rome  in  the  spring  of  1817,  partly  to 
consult  authorities  in  the  Vatican  archives,  partly  as 
the  confidential  agent  of  Bishop  Poynt«r;  and  in 
this  capacity  he  successfully  concluded  negotiations 
for  the  reconstitution  and  reopening  of  the  English 
Ctflege  at  Rome.  This  wus  by  no  means  the  first 
or  the  last  of  similar  delicate  commissions  with  which 
he  was  entrusted.  Throughout  his  life  he  was  in 
the  confidence  of  the  English  bishops;  he  exhorted, 
he  restrained,  he  advised,  he  was  their  authority  on 
procedure,  he  drafted  their  letters  to  Rome;  indeed, 
the  moHt  notable  fact  in  his  career,  next  to  his  power 
'  of  writing  bistof)',  was  the  part  which  he  took  in 
making  it,  in  Cl^oUc  England  during  the  first  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century. 

In  the  winter  after  bis  return  from  Rome  he  wua 
ready  to  think  of  publication,  and  tiie  first  three 
volumes,  extendiug  to  the  ileath  of  Henry  VII,  were 
finally  purchased  by  Mawniun  of  London  for  1000 


n  UNQABD 

guineas.  These  were  published  in  May,  1819,  and 
met  irith  speedy  and  surprising  success  not  only 
among  English  Catholics,  but  among  scholars  of  every 
nationality  and  belief.  A  fourth  volume  was  called 
for  as  soon  as  it  could  be  prepared,  and  a  second 
edition  of  all  four  was  founa  necessary  before  three  . 
years  were  out.  A  growing  enthusiasm  greeted  each 
successive  volume  till  the  work  wus  brought  to  what 
proved  its  ultimate  conclusion — the  revolution  of 
1688 — by  the  eighth  volume,  which  ajipearcil  tn  IS:10. 
Meanwhile,  a  third  edition  had  appcare<i  in  England; 
two  translations  had  been  published  in  France  (one 
with  a  continuation  to  the  nineteenth  century,  re- 
vised and  corrected  by  Lingard  himself);  another  had 
appeared  in  German,  and  yet  another,  in  Italian,  was 
printed  by  the  Propaganda  Press.  Honours  from 
every  part  of  Eu- 
rope confirmed  the 
general  appreci- 
ation of  the  His- 
tory". Lingard's 
triple  doctorate 
from  Pius  VII  in 
1821 ,  his  associate- 
ship  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Litera- 
ture, and  many 
other  similar  hon- 
ours were  finallv 
crowned,  in  IS.'IO, 
bv  a  grant  from 
the  Privy  Purse 
of  £aOO  and  hk 
election  aa  a  cor- 
rei<ponding  mem- 
ber of  the  French 
Academy.  It  had 
also  been  gener- 
ally, if  not  universally,  believed — till  Cardinal 
Wiseman  first  traversed  the  tradition  nearly  forty 

Crs  later,  in  his  "Last  Four  Popes" — that 
XH.  in  a  eoniiistory  of  2  OctoI>er,  1826,  had 
created  Lingard  cardinalin  pclto,  deferringthe  promul- 
gation of  the  honour  till  the  completion  of  the  "His- 
tory" should  leave  him  free  to  come  to  Rome.  A 
somewhat  heated  controversy  between  Tii'mey  and 
Wiseman  foilowe<l  the  publicarion  of  the  "La->1  Four 
Popes",  and  for  a  matter  in  wliich  cerluinfy  is  now, 
as  then,  almost  impossible,  Ticrney  seems  to  have 
had  the  better  of  the  argument.  Perhaps  Lingnnl'B 
own  opinion  is  more  likely  to  be  right  than  any  ol  her, 
and,  though  he  affected  to  despise  the  nimour  in  the 
autumn  of  1826,  we  find  him  before  the  end  of  the 
year  asking  and  receiving  advice  on  the  ndvi^-^ibilitv  of 
allowing  the  offer  to  be  made.  Towonls  (he  enil  of 
his  life  he  seems  to  have  had  no  hesitation  at  all  utiout 
the  question.     "Ho  maile  me  cardinal",  is  hie  un- 

?ualined  assertion  to  a  friend  in  a  letter  of  22  Au^nist, 
B50. 

Of  course  the  "  History"  was  criticized,  but  the  very 
sources  of  the  criticism  showed  how  successfully  Lin- 
gard had  attained  his  ideal  of  unbiased  accuracy. 
Slilner  attacked  the  tono  of  the  work  in  "The  Ortho- 
dox Joum.il ",  but  the  disagreement  was  rather  one  of 
method  than  of  anything  else;  Milner  woulil  have 
converted  England  by  the  heavy  bombardment  of 
hard-hitting  controverHy;  Lingard  realized  that  hia 
only  chance  of  reaching  the  audience  he  desired  lay  in 
a  sober,  unimpassioned  statement  of  incontrovertible 
fact.  Dr.  John  Allen,  then  Muster  of  Dulwich  School, 
reached  the  other  pole  of  criticism,  and  accused  htm 
of  prejudiced  distortion  and  supjireiwion  of  tacts  in 
his  account  of  the  Ma!<sacre  of  St  Bartholomew.  It 
wa«thponlvatlaekof  which  Lingard  ever  took  formal 
notice,  ami  the  publication  of  Siilvi:ini'«  secret  dis- 
patches a  few  years  later  sciiree|j-  addeil  anything  to 
the  weight  of  his  tr ' — '  "^'' — '■ — •■ — "      ' — '""^ 


a  triumphant "  Vindicatio 


UNOI 


272 


LI1IU8 


his  essential  accuracy  on  any  leading  point  has  seldom, 
if  ever,  been  called  in  question;  and  the  mass  of 
historical  material  that  has  flooded  our  libraries  since 
his  death  has  left  unshaken  not  only  his  statements 
of  facts,  but  even  their  conjectural  restorations,  which 
at  times,  prophet  wise,  he  allowed  himself  to  make. 
Hence  his  work  has  lost  little  of  its  value,  and,  sixty 
years  after  its  author's  last  revision,  still  holds  its 
place  as  the  standard  authority  on  many  of  the 
periods  of  which  it  treats. 

The  twenty  years  of  life  that  still  remained  to  him, 
he  spent  in  revision  of  his  two  principal  works:  "The 
Anglo-Saxon  Church",  which  was  practically  re- 
written in  1846,  and  the  "History'",  of  which  every 
succeeding  edition  (five  were  published  in  his  lifetime) 
bore  evidence  of  liis  unfailing  zeal  for  impartial  ac- 
curacy; in  the  composition  of  many  smaller  works 
and  essays,  some  of  which,  Uke  his  "  New  Translation 
of  the  Four  Gospels",  have  scarcely  met  with  the 
recognition  that  their  scholarship  and  literary  merits 
deserve;  and  in  untiring  vigilance  for  the  interests  of 
the  Church  in  England.  His  researches  at  home  and 
abroad  had  brought  him  into  touch  with  friends  in 
every  part  of  Western  Europe,  and  only  his  extraor- 
dinary energy  and  vitahty  could  have  coped  with 
the  ensuingcorrespondence,  which  would  have  crushed 
most  other  men.  He  suffered  too  from  a  complica- 
tion of  nialadies  that  forbade  him  to  travel  more  than 
a  few  miles  from  home,  yet,  even  in  his  isolation  at 
Hornby,  he  was  to  the  end  a  centre  of  spiritual  and 
intellectual  activity,  a  living  force  which  still  em- 
ployed its  every  energy  for  the  one  ambition  it  had 
always  held — the  advancement  of  Catholic,  the  con- 
version of  Protestant,  En^and.  In  1849  he  said  fare- 
well to  his  books  and  to  their  readers  in  his  pathetic 
preface  to  the  fifth  edition  of  the  "  History  ",  and  two 
years  later  he  died.  He  had  always  preserved  an 
active  interest  in  the  college  at  Ushaw,  in  whose  be- 
ginnings he  had  played  so  prominent  a  part.  His 
solid  prudence  was  always  at  its  service;  the  profits 
of  his  writings  were  devoted  to  aiding  its  resources; 
he  even  once  found  himself,  by  the  death  of  his  co- 
trustees, its  sole  owner.  In  its  cemetery  cloister,  there- 
fore, by  his  own  wish,  he  was  buried,  by  the  side  of 
its  bishops  and  presidents,  and  Usliaw  still  remains 
the  shrine  of  his  tody  and  of  his  memory. 

His  published  works  include:  "Antiquities  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church"  (Newcastle,  1806  and  1810; 
London,  1846);  "Letters  on  Catholic  Loyalty"  (New- 
castle, 1807) ;  "  Remarks  on  a  Charge  ...  by  Shute, 
Bishop  of  Durham"  (London,  1807);  "Vindication 
of  the '  Remarks ' "  (Newcastle,  1807) ;  "  General  Vin- 
dication of  the  *  Remarks ' :  Replies  to  Le  Mesurier,  and 
Faber;   and  Observations  on  .  .  .  Method  of  inter- 

freting  the  Apocalypse"  (Newcastle,  1808;  Dublin, 
808);  "Remarks  on  .  .  the  Grounds  on  which  the 
Church  of  England  separated  from  Rome,  recon- 
sidered by  Shute,  Bishop  of  Durham"  (London,  1809) 
(these  last  four  tracts  have  been  collected  and  repub- 
lished several  times);  "Introduction  to  Talbot's 
Protestant  Apology  for  the  Catholic  Church"  (Dublin, 
1809);  "Preface  to  Ward's  Errata  to  the  Protestant 
Bible"  (Dublin,  1810, 1841);  "Documents  to  ascertain 
Sentiments  of  British  Catholics  in  former  Ages,  re- 
specting the  Power  of  the  Popes"  (London,  1812); 
Review  of  Certain  Anti-Catholic  Publications" 
(London,  1813);  "Examination  of  Certain  Opinions 
advanced  by  Dr.  Burgess,  Bishop  of  St.  David's" 
(Manchester,  1813);  "Strictures  on  Dr.  Marsh's  Com- 
parative View  of  the  Churches  of  England  and  Rome" 
^London,  1815);  "  Observ- ations  on  the  Laws  .  . 
in  Foreign  States  relative  to  their  Roman  Catholic 
Subjects"  (London,  1817,  1851);  "History  of  Eng- 
land to  the  Accession  of  William  and  Marv  "  (London, 
1819-30;  2nd  e<i.,  1823-30;  3rd  eil.,  182,'V-30;  4th  ed., 
1837-39:  5th  ed.,  1849-51;  0th  ed.,  1854-55;  7th  ed., 
1883);      Charters  granted  .  .  to   the  Burgesses  of 


Rreston"  (Preston,  1821);  "  Supplementum  ad  Bre 
viarium  et  Missale  Romanum,  adjectis  officiis  Sanc- 
torum AngliflB"  (London,  1^3);  "Vindication  of 
certain  Passages  m  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Volumes 
of  the  History  of  England  "  (London,  1826, 4  editions; 
1827);  "Cdlectionof  Tracts"  (London,  1826);  "Re- 
marks on  the  '  St.  Cuthbert '  of  the  Rev.  James  Raine  " 
(Newcastle,  1828);  "Manual  of  Prayers  for  Sundays 
and  Holidays"  (Lancaster,  1833);  "New  Version  of 
the  Four  Gospels"  (London,  1836,  1846,  1851);  "The 
Widow  Woolfrey  versus  the  Vicar  of  Cansbrooke" 
JLondon,  1839);  "Is  the  Bible  the  only  Rule?" 
^Lancaster,  1839,  1887);  "Catechetical  Instructions" 
.London,  1840) ;  "  Did  the  Church  of  England  Reform 
Herself?  "  (DubUn  Review,  VIII,  1840) ; "  The  Ancient 
Church  of  England  and  the  Liturgy  of  the  Anglican 
Church"  (Dub.  Rev.,  XI,  1841);  'Journal  on  a  Tour 
to  Rome  and  Naples  in  1817"  (Ushaw  Magaaine, 

XVII,  1907). 

GiLLOW.  Biol.  Did.  Eng.  Cath.,  s.  v.;  Turnbt,  Memoir  (Lon- 
don, 1855) ;  Reply  to  WxBeman  (London,  1858):  Wiseman.  Recol' 
loctiont  of  the  Last  Fottr  Popes  (London,  I860);  Idem,  Reply  to 
Tiemey  (London,  1858) :  Bonnet,  The  Making  of  LinganTs  His- 
torp  (Ushaw  Mag.,  XIX,  1909);  Bbaot,  Annals  of  the  English 
Hierarchy,  111  (Rome.  1877):  Butler,  Records  ana  RecolUctions 
of  Uthaxc  (Prtaion,  1889);  C.  Butler,  Historical  Memoirs,  IV 
(London,  1822);  Hughes,  John  Lingard  (Lancaster,  1907); 
HuaENBETR.  Life  of  Milncr  (Dublin.  1862):  Laino,  Ushaw 
Centenary  Memorial  (Newcastle,  1895);  Dublin  Review,  XII, 
295;  Orthodox  Journal,  VII,  228,  266,  302.  etc.;  Tablet,  XII, 
466,  473.  484;  Ushaw  Mag.,  XI,  196;  XVI,  1-29;  Historical 
Collections,  MSS.  and  Correspondence  preserved  al  Ushaw  College. 

Edwin  Bonnet. 

Linoe,  a  titular  see  of  Bithynia  Secunda,  known 
only  from  the '  *  Notitise  Episcopatuum  "  which  mention 
it  as  late  as  the  twelfth  and  tnirteenth  centuries  as  a 
suffragan  of  Nicsea.  The  Emjseror  Justinian  must  have 
raised  it  to  the  rank  of  a  city.  It  is  probably  the 
modem  town  of  Biledjik,  a  station  on  the  H&idar-rasha 
railway  to  Konia,  with  10,000  inhabitants,  7000  of 
whom  are  Mussulmans,  and  30(X)  Armenians,  600  of 
the  latter  bcin^  Catholics.  It  is  an  important  centre 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  silk-worm.  Lequien  (Oriens 
christianus,  I,  657)  mentions  four  bishops  of  Linoe: 
Anastasius,  who  attended  the  Ooimcil  of  Constanti- 
nople (692);  Leo,  at  Nicaea  (787),  Basil  and  Qml,  the 
one  a  partisan  of  St.  Ignatius,  Uie  other  of  Photius, 

at  Constantinople  (879). 

Ramsay,  Asia  Minor  (London,  1890),  15,  183. 

S.  FiTTBIDtB. 

Linus,  Saint,  Pope  (about  a.  d.  64  or  67-76  or  79). 
All  the  ancient  records  of  the  Roman  bishops  which 
have  been  handed  down  to  us  by  St.  Ireneeus,  Julius 
Africanus,  St.  Hippolytus,  Eusebius,  also  the  Liberian 
catalogue  of  354,  place  the  name  of  Linus  directly 
after  fliat  of  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles,  St.  Peter. 
These  records  are  traced  back  to  a  list  of  the  Roman 
bishops  which  existed  in  the  time  of  Tope  Eleutherus 
(about  174-189),  when  Irenseus  wrote  his  book  "  Ad- 
versus  haereses".  As  opposed  to  this  testimony,  we 
cannot  accept  as  more  reliable  TertulUan's  assertion, 
which  unquestionably  places  St.  Clement  (De  pra&- 
scriptione,  xxxii)  after  the  Apostle  Peter,  as  was  also 
done  later  by  other  Latin  scholars  (Jerome,  "De  vir. 
ill. " ,  X v) .  The  Roman  list  in  Ireneeus  has  undoubtedly 
greater  claims  to  historical  authority.  Tliis  author 
claims  that  Pope  Linus  is  the  Linus  mentioned  by  St. 
Paul  in  his  II  Tim.,  iv,  21.  The  passage  by  Irenssufl 
(Adv.  hsreses,  III,  iii,  3)  reads:  "Alter  the  Holy 
Apostles  (Peter  and  Paul)  had  founded  and  set  the 
Church  in  order  (in  Rome)  they  gave  over  the  exer- 
cise of  the  episcopal  office  to  Linus.  The  same  Linus 
is  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  in  his  Epistle  to  Timothy.  * 
His  successor  was  Anacletus".  We  cannot  be  posi- 
tive whether  this  identification  of  the  pope  as  being  the 
Linus  mentioned  in  II  Tim.,  iv,  21,  goes  back  to  an 
ancient  and  reliable  source,  or  originated  later  on  ao- 
coiuit  of  the  similarity  of  the  name. 

Linus's  term  of  office,  according  to  the  papal  lists 


273 


LDfZ 


handed  down  to  us,  lasted  only  twelve  years.  The 
Liberian  Catalogue  shows  that  it  lasted  twelve  j^ears, 
four  months,  and  twelve  days.  The  dates  given  m  this 
catalogue,  a.  d.  56  until  a.  d.  67.  are  incorrect.  Per- 
haps it  was  on  account  of  these  dates  that  the  writers 
of  the  foiurth  century  save  their  opinion  that  Linus 
had  held  the  position  of  head  of  the  Roman  commu- 
nity during  the  life  of  the  A])ostIe;  e.  g.,  Ruiinus  in  the 
preface  to  his  translation  of  the  p8eu<io-Clementine 
"Recognitiones".  But  this  hypothesis  has  no  his- 
torical foundation .  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  accord- 
ing to  the  accounts  of  Iren^eus  concerning  the  Roman 
Church  in  the  second  century,  Linus  was  chosen  to  be 
head  of  the  community  of  Christians  in  Rome,  after 
the  death  of  the  Apostle.  For  this  reason  his  pontifi- 
cate dates  from  the  year  of  the  death  of  the  Apostles 
Peter  and  Paul,  which,  however,  is  not  known  for 
certain.  The  "  Lilxjr  Pontificalis  "  asserts  that  Linus's 
home  was  in  Tuscany,  and  that  his  father's  name  was 
Herculanus;  but  we  cannot  discover  the  origin  of  this 
assertion.  According  to  the  same  work  on  the  popes, 
Linus  is  supposed  to  have  issued  a  decree  *'  in  conform- 
ity with  tne  ordinance  of  St.  Peter**,  that  women 
should  have  their  heads  covered  in  church.  Without 
doubt  this  decree  is  apocryphal,  and  copied  by  the 
author  of  the  *'Lil)er  Pontificalis"  from  the  first 
Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Corinthians  (xi,  5)  and  arbi- 
trarily attributed  to  the  first  successor  of  the  Apostle 
in  Rome.  The  statement  made  in  the  same  source, 
that  Linus  suffered  martyrdom,  cannot  be  proved  and 
is  improbable.  For  between  Nero  and  Domitian  there 
is  no  mention  of  any  persecution  of  the  Roman  Church ; 
and  Irenieus  (1.  c,  III,  iv,  3)  from  among  the  early 
Roman  bishops  designates  only  Telesphorus  as  a  glor- 
ious martyr. 

Finally  this  book  asserts  that  Linus  after  his  death, 
was  buried  in  the  Vatican  beside  St.  Peter.  We  do  not 
know  whether  the  author  had  any  decisive  reason  for 
this  assertion.  As  St.  Peter  was  certainly  buried  at 
the  foot  of  the  Vatican  Hill,  it  is  quite  possi})le  that 
the  earliest  bishops  of  the  Roman  Church  also  were 
interred  there.  There  was  nothine  in  the  litureical 
tradition  of  the  fourth-century  Roman  Church  to 
prove  this,  because  it  was  only  at  the  end  of  the  second 
century  that  any  special  feast  of  martyrs  was  insti- 
tuted, and  consequently  Linus  docs  not  appear  in  the 
fourth-eentury  lists  of  the  feasts  of  the  Roman  saints. 
Aocofxling  to  Torrigio  (*'Le  sacre  grotte  Vaticane**, 
Viterbo,  1618,  53)  when  the  present  confession  was 
constructed  in  St.  Peter's  (1615),  sarcophagi  were 
found,  and  among  them  was  one  which  bore  the 
word  Linus.  The  explanation  given  b^  Severano  of 
this  discovery  (*'  Memorie  dellc  sette  chiesc  di  Roma**, 
Rome,  1630,  120)  is  that  probably  these  sarcophagi 
contained  the  remains  of  the  first  Roman  bishops,  and 
that  the  one  bearing  that  inscription  was  Linus's  bur- 
ial place.  This  assertion  was  repeated  later  on  by 
different  writers.  But  from  a  MS.  of  Torrigio's  we  see 
that  on  the  sarcophagus  in  question  there  were  other 
letters  beside  the  word  Linus,  so  that  they  rather  be- 
longed to  some  other  name  (such  as  Aquuinus,  Anul- 
linus).  The  place  of  the  discovery  of  the  tomb  is  a 
proof  that  it  could  not  be  the  tomb  of  Linus.  (Dc 
Rossi,  "  Inscriptiones  christianss  urbis  Romse*',  II, 
236-7).  The  feast  of  St.  Linus  is  now  celebrated  on 
23  September.  This  is  also  the  date  given  in  the  *'  Li- 
ber Pontificalis  ".  An  epistle  on  the  martyrdom  of  the 
Apostles  St.  Peter  and  Paul  was  at  a  later  period  at- 
tributed to  St.  Linus,  and  supjx).se(lly  was  sent  by 
him  to  the  Eastern  Churches.  It  is  apocryphal  and 
of  later  date  than  the  histor\'  of  the  martyrdom  of  the 
two  Apostka,  bv  some  attri^juted  to  Marcellus,  which 
is  also  apocryphal  ("Acta  Apo»tolorum  apocrypha**, 
ed.  Lipeius  and  Bonnet,  1,  od.  Leipzig.  189i,  XIV 
sqq..  I  sqq.). 

uLaBTWOOiT,Th€ApotiolieFather»,l;  St.  Clement  of  Rome,  I 
(London,  1800),  301  Mq.;  IIarnack.  Grtchirhte  tier  AUrhriat- 
tkkm  LUtraiut,  11:    Die  Chronolooxr  I  (Leipiig.   1807).  70; 

IX.— 18 


Ada  SS.  September.  VI.  539  tqq.,  Liber  PorUifieali$,  ed. 
DucBBSNB,  I.  121:  cf.  Introductton,  box;  db  Smedt,  Du* 
aerUUionea  aelectw  in  primam  cetatem  hiat.  eccl.t  1, 300  sqq. 

J.  P.  KlKSCH. 

Lini,  Diocese  of  (Linciknsis),  suffragan  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Vienna. 

L  History. — In  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  greater 
part  of  the  territory'  of  the  present  Diocese  of  Linz  was 
subji*ct  to  the  bishops  of  Lauriacum  (I-,orch);  at  a 
later  date  it  formed  port  of  the  great  Diocese  of  Pas- 
sau,  which  extended  from  the  Isar  to  the  Ijcitha.  The 
Prince-Bishop  of  Passau  personally  administered  the 
upper  part  or  Upper  Austria,  while  an  auxiliary 
bisliop,  having  his  residence  at  Vienna  and  called  the 
Officitd,  administered  for  him  the  eastern  part  or 
Lower  Austria.  To  do  away  with  the  political  influ- 
ence in  his  territories  of  the  bishops  of  Passau,  who 
were  also  princes  of  the  Empire,  Joseph  II  decided  to 
found  two  new  dioceses.  These  were  Linz  and  St. 
Polten,  which  in  a  certain  measure  were  to  renew  the 
old  lauriacum,  and  the  emperor  only  awaited  the 
death  of  Cardinal  Firmian,  then  Bishop  of  Passau,  to 
carry  out  his  plans.  The  cardinal's  eyes  were 
scarcely  closed  (d.  13  March,  1 7S,3) ,  Ijcfore  the  emperor 
on  16  March  seized  all  the  lanilcd  property  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Passau  hi  his  territoritjs.  On  the  same  day  he 
appointed  the  former  Official  for  Passuu  at  Vienna, 
Count  von  Herberstein,  first  Bishop  of  Linz.  It  was 
the  intention  of  the  emperor  tliat  the  new  bishop 
should  at  once  assume  his  office.  Against  these  acts 
of  the  emperor  the  cathedral  cha]>ter  of  Passau  sent, 
first,  an  appeal  to  the  emperor  himself,  which  natu- 
rallv  was  rejected;  then  an  appeal  to  the  Imperial  Diet 
at  i{atislx)n,  from  which  body,  however,  nelp  could 
scarcely  be  expected.  Assistance  offerea  by  Prussia 
was  refused  by  Cardinal  Firmian*s  successor.  Bishop 
Auerspcrg,  an  adherent  of  Josephinism.  The  Bishop 
of  Passau  and  the  majority  of  his  cathedral  ciiapter 
finallv  yielded  in  order  to  save  the  secular  property  of 
the  diocese.  By  an  agreement  of  4  July,  1784,  the 
confiscation  of  all  the  properties  and  rights  belonging 
to  the  Diocese  of  Passau  in  Austria  was  annulled,  and 
the  tithes  and  revenues  were  restored  to  it.  In  return 
Pas.««au  gave  up  its  diocesan  rights  and  authority  in 
Austria,  including  the  provostsnip  of  Ardaeger,  and 
bound  it,self  to  pay  400,000  gulden  (SiM)(),000)— after- 
wanls  reduced  by  the  emperor  to  one-half — toward 
the  equipment  of  the  new  diocese.  There  was  nothing 
left  for  Pope  Pius  VI  to  do  but  to  give  his  consent,  even 
tliough  unwillingly,  to  the  emperor's  despotic  act. 
The  papal  sanction  of  the  agrec^ment  Iwtween  V^ienna 
and  rassau  was  issued  on  8  November,  1784,  and  on 
28  January,  1785,  appeared  the  Bull  of  Erection, 
*'  Roman  us  Pontifex  ". 

The  first  bishop  (1785-8),  Ernest  Johann  Nepomuk, 
Imperial  Count  von  Herberstein, formerly  titular  Bishop 
of  Eucarpia,  had  been  the  Official  of  the  Prince-Bishop 
of  Passau  and  Vicar-General  of  Lower  Austria.  The 
appointment  was  confirmed  by  the  pope  on  14  Feb- 
ruary', 1785,  and  the  bishop  was  enthrone<l  on  1  May 
1785.  By  order  of  the  emperor  the  cathedral  chapter 
was  to  consist  of  a  vicar-general,  a  provost,  a  dean,  a 
CHstoSf  and  thirteen  simple  eccler^iastics;  the  mcmlwrs 
were  appointed  by  the  emp<Tor,  before  the  approval 
of  the  pope  was  recr'ived.  The  Hull  of  Erection  as- 
signed the  ancient  parish  church  of  Linz  as  the  ca- 
thedral, but  the  former  church  of  the  Jesuits  was, 
without  notification  to  the  Papal  Sec  of  the  substitu- 
tion, at  once  chosen  in  its  place;  it  was  not  until  1841 
that  the  change  was  sanct  ioned  by  a  Bull.  In  1789  the 
endowment  of  the  diocese  was  fixeil  at  12.000  gulden 
(S4,8(K)),  to  which  were  added  the  revenues  from  the 
proiKjrtv  of  several  sui)pressed  monasteries.  The 
territorial  limits  of  the  tliocese  correspontlcd  to  thase 
of  the  crownlan<l  of  Upper  Austria  with  the  addition 
of  several  parishes  of  Salzburg,  to  tli«'  srparatiow  ol 
which  the  Archbishop)  o^  ^o\i\>\\i^^^N^iV\s  ^^^pcctwcWa. 


LIHZ  2 

1786.    At  the  time  of  Us  found&tion,  the  dioceee  in- 
cluded 20  deaneries  with  404  pariBbca. 

The  new  diocese,  like  the  whole  of  Austria  at  that 
time,  suffered  much  from  the  iiunicroiis,  often  precipi- 
tate and  reckless,  ordinances  of  tlie  governmeut 
officials,  who  interfered  in  almost  all  domains  of 
Church  hfe  and  often  subjected  i>ishop,  clerg>',  and 
laity  to  petty  n'giilations.  As  early  iw  17Sj  the  Vien- 
nese ecclesiastical  order  of  services  whs  niailc  obliga- 
tory, "in  accordance  with  which  all  musical  litanies, 
novenas,  octaves,  the  ancient  touchiDK  devDtionti,  also 
processions,  vespers,  and  similar  ceremonies,  were 
done  away  with."  Numerous  churches  ami  chapels 
were  closed  and  put  to  secular  uses;  the  greater  part 
of  the  old  religious  foundations  and  monast^'ries  were 
suppresse<l  as  early  rm  17K1.  In  all  these  iniiovutiona 
the  Hi.shop  of  Linz  and  hLs  chapter  aided  and  sup- 


1794.  Another  permanent  service  of  the  bishop  was 
the  founding  of  a  seminary  for  priests;  for  this  he 
bought  in  1804  a  house  out  of  his  own  means,  and 
made  the  institution  lieir  to  all  his  property.  The 
thinl  Bishop  of  Linz,  i^i^smund  von  Holicnwart 
<lK09-25),  had  been  a  cathedral  canon  of  Gurk  and 
Vicar-tieneral  of  KlaRenfurt..  lie  was  appointed  Ijy 
the  emperor  on  10  January,  ISOD,  liut  the  appoint- 
ment did  not  receive  papal  approliution  until  I>ecenv- 
bcr,  1814,  on  account  of  the  imprisonment  of  the  pope. 
The  bishop  took  energetic  measures  against  the  ^-wion- 
ary  followers  of  PdHchI  and  Boos,  who  wer«  then 
numerous  in  Upper  Austria.  His  successor  was  the 
Benolictine  Gregor  Thomas  Ziegler  (1S27-52),  foi^ 
merly  Bishop  <^  Tarnov.  Although  the  Church 
throughout  .\ustria  at  this  date  was  still  dependent 
to  a  very  greiit  degn^e  on  the  guveniment  it        "    ' 


ported  the  government  much  too  willingly, 
in  secular  matters  did  the  bishop  ask  for  tut 
of  the  provincial  government  at  Liiw,  he  ;dso  sought 
to  obtain  the  approbation  of  the  civil  authorities  for 
the  statutes  of  hischaptiT,  as  well  as  for  tlte  episcopal 
and  consistorial  seals.  Nevertheless  there  cuuld  be  no 
durable  peace  with  the  bureaucratic  civil  authorities, 
and  HerWrstein  was  rcimiteilly  obligeit  to  complain 
to  the  emperor  of  the  tutelage  in  which  the  Church 
was  kept,  but  the  conu>laints  bore  little  fruit. 

The  next  bishop,  Joseph  Anton  Gali  (1788-1S07), 
had  been  of  great  serx'ice  to  the  Austrian  school  system 
as  cathedral  xcholatiicus  and  chief  supervisor  of  the 
nonnal  schools.  He  was  sn  adherent  of  Josephinism, 
and  permitted  the  chancellor  of  the  consistory,  Cleorge 
Rechliereer,  a  layman  and  Josephinist,  to  exercise 
great  influence  over  the  ecclesiastical  administration 
of  his  diocese.  Ecclesiastical  conditions  lecame  more 
satiiffactflry  during  his  episcopate,  but  much  of  the 
credit  for  this  is  due  to  Emjerors  Leopold  11  and 
Francis  II  who  repeale<l  mauy  over-hasty  reforms  of 
Joseph  II.  Tlic  general  scrniiiarics  introduced  in 
1783  were  set  aside,  and  tlw-  training  of  the  clergj-  was 
again  made  the  care  of  the  l>ishops.  Bishop  Gall, 
tneretore,  exerted  himself  for  years  to  establish  a 
Iheologicid  institute  for  liis  ilim-ose;   it  nas  opened  in 


tical  mntlem,  the  bishop  knew  how  t< 
strengthen  tlie  ecclesiastical  spirit  in  his  clergy  and 
people.  Of  great  importance  was  the  introtluction  of 
the  Jesuits  and  their  settlement  on  the  Freinberg  neal 
l.iuK,  which  was  accomplished  by  means  of  tlie  vigor- 
ous and  generous  aid  of  Archduke  Maximilian  of  Este, 
ami  the  foundatiim  of  numerous  other  religious  estab- 
lishments (Franciscans,  f<alesiuns,  Sisters  of  Mercy 

The  Revolution  of  1S4S  not  only  increased  political 
liberty,  but  also  gave  to  the  Church  greater  independ- 
ence in  its  own  province,  and  the  bishop  at  once 
made  use  of  the  regained  freeiloni  to  revive  popular 
missions,  which  had  been  discontinued  since  the 
reign  of  Slaria  Tliercsa.  In  1850  at  his  histance 
a  ten  days'  mission  was  held  by  the  Re<lemptor- 
ists,  at  which  the  numlier  of  communicants  wat 
reckoned  at  .W.DOO.  In  the  same  year  the  diocesan 
theological  iii.ititute  w!n  placed  entirely  under  epis- 
copal superviiion.  ami  an  exaniiniilion  of  candidates 
tor  the  pnsiiinn  of  parish  priests  was  established;  in 
Octolior  for  the  first  time  pxaminntions  were  held 
by  prosynmlal  examiners.  The  session  of  the  Third 
(iumi an"  Catholic  Congre-w,  held  at.  Lini  in  1850,  also 
strengtlicrii'd  I  he  Church  in  Ihe  di<)eesp.  A  great  de- 
vclopiiifiil  of  n-liuiiMM  lift'  in  tli-  diow-*'  resulted  from 


Lurz  2 

tbe  rastored  liberties  at  the  Church.  Much  tA  the 
credit  for  thia  growth  is  due  to  the  vigorous  and  un- 
wearied labours  of  the  fifth  bishop,  the  great  Franz- 
Josef  Rudigier  (1853-K-l).  His  deep  rehgious  faith 
and  his  pre-eminently  ('alhulic  principles,  as  wcU  as 
his  unyieiiiinK  will,  nimic  him  for  many  yearn  the  in- 
tellectual leader  of  the  Austritm  Catholics  in  their 
struggle  with  Liberalism.  .Austrian  Liberalism,  un- 
tagoiiistic  to  tiie  Church,  controlled  for  decades  the 
destinies  of  the  country.  The  bishop  was  the  zealuus 
friend  and  promoter  of  evcr^  expression  of  religious 
life:  Christian  schools,  religious  associations,  the 
biulding  of  churches,  the  Catbulic  press,  tlie  founding 
of  houses  of  the  religious  orders  and  congregations, 
which  greatly  increased  during  hi.i  episcopat«.  Ever 
memorable  is  the  manly  stand  ho  took  on  lx<half  of 
the  Concordat  of  1855.  Thia  Concorilat  was  bitterly 
Mttagonized  and  much  calumniated  by  the  Lilierals, 
and  was  annulled  by  the  guvernnieiit  in  1S6»  and 
1870  without  consultation  with  the  Holy  See. 

Equally  memorable  is  his  struggle  against  what  arc 
called  the  "  Interoonfessional"  laws  of  25  May,  1W8, 
which  were  hostile  to  tbe  Church,  and  to  the  marriage 
and  school  laws.  The  bishop's  opposition  to  these 
ordinances  led  to  judicial  proceedings  against  him  and 
to  a  tine,  which  was,  however,  at  once  remitted  by  the 
emperor.  His  defence  of  the  rights  of  tlie  Church  in 
renid  to  the  Christian  schools  hnti  fur  result  that  the 
Liberal  parliamentary  majority  in  ISGt)  confiscated 
tbe  lands  forming  the  endowment  of  the  diocese,  and 
withheld  them  until  the  downfall  of  Lil>eralism  in 


which  he  prepar««l  the  way  by  founding 
■OBOciation  for  building  the  calbmlral.  Hit 
Enut  Maria  Midler,  hod  only  a  idtiirt.  epiKcnpatc  (1883 
-8).  In  the  next  bisiiop,  Franz  Maria  DojipttllMUcr 
(1889-1908),  the  diocese  reccivi-d  a  tnily  apostolic 
head,  whose  influence  extended  far  Iwyinid  his  own 
sphere  of  work.  He  wan  a  vii^orous  patron  and  pro- 
moter of  every  Catliolic  interest  in  .Austria.  As  a 
true  modem  bishop  he  gave  sjieciol  encouragement  to 
Catholic  associations  and  the  Catholic  press,  which, 
even  during  his  enrliest  years  on  the  mission,  he  had 
done  much  to  encourage,  establishing  personally  a 
'newspaper.  He  foundetl  at  Urfahr  a  msgiiificent 
seminary  for  boyii,  the  Petrinum,  as  a  fine  training- 
ground  for  the  future  clergy.  The  completion  of  the 
cathedral  (consecrated  May,  1905)  wHsalmidue  to  his 


'5  LIKZ 

and  teachers,  8  prefects,  363  pupils),  and  3  prepara- 
tory semin&riea  for  boys. 

The  male  orders  in  the  diocese  are:  2  monasteries  of 
Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine  at  St.  Florian  and 
Reichersbcrg,  with  Xin  191U)  IIJ  fathers,  12  clerics,  0 
lay  brothers,  and  a  theological  Kchooi  of  tbe  order  at 
St.  Florian;  1  monastery  of  Fnemoiistratcnsian  Can- 
ons at  Schlagl,  42  fathers,  3  clerics,  I  brother;  2  Bene- 
dictine aliljeys  at  KremsmUtistcr  and  Lambach,  112 
fathers,  10  clerics,  12  brothers;  2  Cistercian  abbeys, 
Schlicrbach  and  Wiihering,  60  fathers,  10  clerics,  1 
lay  brother;  7  Franciscan  monasteries,  33  fathers,  31 
brothers;  4  Capuchin  monasteries,  33  fathcru,  20 
brothers;  I  monastery  of  the  Discolced  Carmelites,  10 
fathers,  4  clerics,  8  brothers;  1  nionastcry  of  the 
Brothers  of  Mercy,  1  father,  19  brothers;  3  houses  of 
the  Jesuits,  45  fathers.  14  lirolhers;  2  houses  of  the 


B^  j.^'J!' * 

pil 

.  -  ■"■-%■ 

fiip* 

^ 

of  the  monasteries  in  Austria  by  Joseph  U.     He 
bom  24  July,  1S5D;  appointed  bishop  17  March,  1909; 
coosecratcd  1  May,  1900. 

JI.  Statistics. — The  Diocese  of  Lin*  includes  the 
Duchy  of  Upper  Au-stria  and  some  townships  in  Lower 
Austria.  The  Duchy  of  Upper  Austria  has  an  an>a  of 
nearly  4625  square  miles;  the  population  is  840,900. 
According  to  the  census  of  1900,  it  possessed  810.246 
inhabitants,  of  whom  7!H).270  were  Calholics,  H4.:{73 
Pnttestants,  1280  Jews.  The  Diocese  of  Linz  is  divided 
into  34  dcanerie.t.  and.  at  tlic  beginning  of  1910,  in- 
cluded 419  parishes,  1  Bxpuxitur.  48  w.-ncfices,  718 
secular  priests,  479  regulars,  5fil  Catholic  schools,  and 
813,511  souls  (20,506  non-Cut  hoi  icsj  of  pure  Uemuui 
descent.  The  bisliop  is  appointed  by  the  cmi>eror, 
lie  cathedral  chapter  consists  of  a  mitred  provost, 
who  is  appointed  by  the  pope,  a  dean,  a  tchMiiAieua, 
five  canons  (one  appointed  by  the  bishop,  ttie  Others 

5{  the  emperor),  and  six  honorary  canons.  'I'he  ec- 
esiastical  schools  and  institutions  for  training  anil 
eilucation  in  the  diocese  are:  the  scininarj-  for  pricals 
in  connexion  with  the  diocesan  thtnlogicol  school  (7 
professors,  84  students),  the  aforestid  episcopal  semi- 
nary for  boys  (Collf^ium  Pi'lrinurnl,  e<iniieeti'd  with 
the  episcopal  private  gyniiuu-iuin  h(  I'rfahr  on  tlie 
bank  of  tbe  Pauubeand  opjiosili.'  Linz  (IKprofessura 


(ThcNewGikthcdmb 

Redemptorists,  14  fathers,  16  brothers;  2  houses  of  the 
Congregation  of  Haiy  (Brothers  of  Mary),  5  fathers, 
SO  brothers;  1  mission-house  of  tlie  Ciblatcs  of  St. 
Francis  de  Sales.  5  fathers,  2  clerics.  3  brothers;  1 
house  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Saviour  (Salva- 
loria.n'i),  5  fathers,  20  brothers;  1  institute  of  the 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools.  4  bmlhera.  Total, 
479  priests.  41  clerics,  205  brot  hi.'rs.  The  female  orders 
and  congregations  have  numerous  houses  in  the  dio- 
ces«';_the  memljers  devote  themselves  mainly  1o  the 
training  and  education  of  girls  in  boarding-schools, 
day  schools,  orphan  asylums,  etc.,  and  also  to  nursing 
the  sick:  Ursulmes,  58  Bisters;Sistcrs  of  St.  Elizabeth, 
46  sinters;  Discalced  Carmelites,  39  sisters  in  2  houses; 
Salesi:in  Nuns,  38  sisters;  Redemptorists.  41  sisters: 
I^diesof  Charity  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  5;);  Sisters  o( 
Cliariiy  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  2!i7  iu  17  houses;  Sis- 
ters of  Mercy  of  St.  Cliarlcs  Borromeo,  111  in  44 
houses;  SUters  of  the  Holv  Cross,  637  in  70  hoiisea; 
ScbiKil  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  377  in 
3U  institutes;  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame.  24  in  3 
honses;  Sisters  of  the  Thirtl  Onier  of  Mount  t'nrmel. 
1.'>3  in  20  insi  iLutes;  Obktes  of  St.  Fmncls  dc  Salos.  25 
listers;  Sisti>ra  of  tlie  Congregation  of  Christian  Char- 
ity. IS  sisters.    Total.  ISO  houses  wiih  191 7  sisters. 

Religious  Ufe  is  ingeneral  in  a  flourishing  condition; 
there  are  numerous  religious  associations  and  brother- 
hoods. The  Piiisvereiu,  wiib  its  headquarters  at  Line, 
has  for  its  Bpeci:il  iibjecl  tlic  encouragi-ment  of  the 
Uatholic  press.    The  most  important  church,  iti  IW 


LIPARI 


276 


LIPPE 


diocese  is  the  new  Gothic  cathedral  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  built  from  the  plans  of  the  Cologne 
architect,  Vincenz  Statz.  It  was  begun  in  1862  and 
consecrated  in  1905;  the  tower,  443  feet  high,  was 
finished  in  1902.  The  old  cathedral,  originally  the 
church  of  the  Jesuits,  was  built  in  the  Barocco  style 
between  1669  and  1682.  There  are  several  old  col- 
legiate churches  (St.  Florian,  Kremsmiinster,  Mond- 
see,  Lambach,  Garsten,  Reichersberg,  Wilheringetc.), 
originally  built  in  the  Romanesciue  period  and  nearly 
all  rebuilt  in  the  seventeenth  ana  eignteenth  centuries 
in  the  Barocco  style.  The  most  important  churche^s 
in  the  Barocco  stvle  of  architecture  are  the  collegiate 
churches  of  St.  f^lorian  (1636-1745),  and  of  Baum- 
cartenberg  (rebuilt  1684-1718).  The  most  important 
building  of  the  Gothic  period  are  the  parish  church  at 
Ste>T  (begun  in  1443),  with  a  tower  263  feet  high,  and 
the  church  of  the  hospital  at  Braunau  on  tne  Inn 
(1439-92),  with  a  tower  300  feet  high.  A  work  of 
sculpture  celebrated  in  the  history  of  art  is  the  hi^h 
altar  at  St.  Wolfgang  carved  by  Michael  Pacher  m 
1481. 

PiLLWEiN,  Gesch.,  Gfoar.  u.  StaiUtik  des  Erzhenogtums  Oetter- 
reich  ob  der  Enns  (5  vols.,  Linz,  1827-39);  Urkundenbuch  dea 
Landes  ob  der  Enna  (9  vols.,  Linz,  1852-1906);  Hittmair, 
Ouch,   des   Bistums   Lira   (Linz,    18i85);    Die   Oestcrreich-Un- 

Sirische  Monarchic  in  Wort  und  Bild,  \1:  Oberosterreich  und 
ahburg  (Vienna,  1889);  Kolb.  Marianiaches  Oberosterrrich 
(Linz,  1889);  Hittmaih,  Der  joaephipiache  Kloeterslurm  im 
Lande  ib  der  Enna  (Freiburg,  1907);  Pachinger,  Dcia  Linzer 
Bistum  (linz,  1907);  Rettenbacher,  Daa  biaclUifiiche  Priea- 
teraeminar  der  Difictae  Linz  (linz,  1907);  Archiv  fiir  Geach.  dea 


Bialuma  Linz  (Linz,  1904 — ),  supplement  to  the  diocesan  news- 
paper; SchenuUiamua  der  Geiatltchkeit  der  Didceae  Linz  fur  1910 
(Luiz,  1910). 

Joseph  Lins. 
Lipari.    See  Messina,  Diocese  of. 

Lippe,  one  of  the  Confederate  States  of  the  German 
Empire.  The  occasioiial  use  of  the  designation ' *  Lippe 
Detmold^'  so  called  after  the  chief  town,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Schaumberg  Lippe,  is  legally  inaccurate. 
It  comprises  469  sq.  miles  and  consists  of  a  larser  divi- 
sion lymg  between  the  Prussian  Provinces  of .  Westphar 
lia  and  Hanover,  including  the  ancient  Countships  of 
Lippe,  Schwatonbcrg,  and  Sternberg  and,  in  addition, 
of  tne  three  exclaves  of  Grevenhagen,  Lipperode,  and 
Cappel,  lying  in  Prussian  territory.  The  principalitv 
origmated  as  an  immediate  suzerainty  of  the  twelfth 
century,  belonging  to  the  lords  of  Lippe  who,  in  1529, 
were  coimts  of  the  empire.  In  1807,  by  taking  part  in 
the  Rhenish  Confederation  the  country  achieved  inde- 

gendence  and  at  the  same  time  became  a  principality, 
ince  1815  it  had  belonged  to  the  German  Confedera- 
tion. In  the  German  War  of  1866  Lippe  sided  with 
Prussia  and  became  a  part  of  the  North  German  Con- 
federation, and  in  1871  of  the  German  Empire.  A 
contest  for  the  throne  which  had  lasted  for  years  was 
finally  settled  in  1905,  since  when  Leopold  IV  (b.  1871) 
has  bJeen  reigning  prince.  In  the  census  of  1  Decem- 
ber, 1905,  the  returns  showed  145,577  inhabitants,  of 
whom  5,481  were  CathoUcs;  139,127  Protestants;  229 
other  Christians;  735  Jews,  and  five  members  of  other 
religions.  The  Catholics  increased  from  2.4%  to 
3.8%  of  the  population  between  1871  and  1905. 

From  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the  greater  part 
of  the  country  has  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Pader- 
bom,  smaller  portions  to  Muiden  and  Cologne.  The 
Reformation  obtained  its  first  foothold  in  Lemgo,  at 
that  time  the  most  important  town  in  the  principality. 
The  ruler,  Simon  V,  in  vain  endeavoured  to  suppress 
the  new  doctrines.  His  son  and  successor,  Bernard 
VIII  (1536-63),  a  minor,  was  educated  a  Lutheran. 
He  forced  a  Lutheran  ritual  upon  the  country  in  1538. 
Simon  VI  (1563-1613)  confirmed  the  reformed  doc- 
trines (Calvinism)  in  1605,  which  ever  since  then  have 
prevailed  in  the  countrj'.  Only  the  city  of  Lemgo  re- 
mained Lutheran,  in  spite  of  a  struggle  carried  on  for 
ten  years  with  great  oitteniess  l>etween  the  princes 
and  the  city.     During  the  last  decade  of  the  nine- 


teenth century,  however,  the  number  of  Calvinists, 
even  in  Lemgo,  has  exceeded  that  of  the  Lutherans. 
After  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  in  1555  by  which  reli- 
gious matters  were  settled,  the  establishment  of  the 
Reformation  in  Lippe  was  substantially  accomplished. 
In  spite  of  the  axiom  ''cujus  regio,  ejus  religio",  and 
of  much  persecution  and  many  struggles,  there  re- 
mained a  small  number  of  Catholics  in  Lippe  all 
through  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries, 
notably  a  convent  at  Falkenhagen  established  in  1228 
and  belonging  first  to  the  Cistercians,-  then  to  the  Wil- 
liamites,  and  since  1432  to  the  Knights  of  the  Ooss. 
It  was  confiscated  in  1596,  though  its  possessions  fell 
to  the  Paderlx)m  Jesuits  and  only  after  the  Papal  sup- 
pression of  the  order,  to  the  reigning  house.  W  ith  the 
assistance  of  the  Jesuits,  particularly  Father  Tonne- 
mann,  the  confessor  of  Charles  IV,  the  reigning  count 
in  1720  obtained  the  rank  of  prince,  but  he  did  not  as- 
sume this  title  because  the  exchequer  could  not  defray 
the  dues,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that,  through  Fa- 
ther Tonnemann's  exertions,  they  were  reduced  from 
20,000  to  5773  gulden.  The  letters  patent  granting 
the  princely  title  were  not  redeemed  until  1789. 

A  Catholic  community  grew  up  in  Lemgo  in  the 
eighteenth  centur}^  Here  in  1774  the  Catholics  were 
^iven  the  right  to  practise  their  religion  privately,  and 
m  1786  openly,  though  mider  many  restrictioitt. 
After  1672,  when  the  Catholics  of  the  neighbouring 
Countship  of  Ravensburg,  which  had  belonged  since 
1609  to  Brandenburg-Prussia,  received  their  ridit  to 
public  worship,  the  Franciscans  from  Bielef ela  took 
charge  of  the  Catholics  in  Lippe,  though  able  to  per- 
form religious  duties  only  in  secret.  NominalK^  the 
Catholics  (as  w^ell  as  Lutherans)  were  allowed  free 
practice  of  their  religion  and  given  full  political  and 
civil  rights,  through  their  country's  participatioii  in 
the  Rhenish  (1807)  and  the  German  (1815)  Confedeia- 
tions.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  situation  remained  un- 
changed. The  control  of  livings  exercised  by  the  Gsl- 
vinists  continued  in  force.  In  1821  the  F^pal  Bull 
**  De  salute  animarum'',  made  over  to  the  See  of  Fsd- 
erbom  the  Lippian  parishes  of  Cappel,  Lipperode,  and 
Lippstadt,  which  had  pre viously  oelonged  to  Cologne 
without  producing  any  ensuing  agreement  with  the 
State.  As  a  result  of  this  Bull,  the  Bishop  of  Fader- 
bom  continued  as  he  had  formerly  done,  in  spite  of 
numerous  protests  from  the  Government,  to  interest 
himself  in  all  the  Catholics  of  the  coimtry,  whose  num- 
ber had  greatly  increased  through  immigration. 

In  the  sovereign  edict  of  9  March,  1854,  owing  in  no 
small  degree  to  the  fairmindedness  of  the  first  cabinet 
minister,  Laurenz  Hannibal  Fischer,  the  Catholic 
Church  was  placed  on  an  equality  with  the  state  Cal- 
vinist  religion.  The  Lutherans  obtained  the  same 
status  on  15  March,  1854.  The  diocesan  rights  of  the 
bishops  of  Paderbom  were  recognized.  The  bishop  pre- 
sented the  livings,  though  the  sovereign  could  reject  an 
unacceptable  candidate.  The  parish  priest  was  obliged 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  prince  and  hisdy- 
nastv.  In  mixe<l  marriages  the  religion  in  which  the 
children  were  to  be  educated  was  settled  l>y  agreement 
between  the  parents.  Should  nothing  be  aiscussed 
or  decided  in  the  marriage  settlements,  the  children 
without  regard  to  sex  must  be  brought  up  in  the  fa- 
ther's faith.  In  order  to  elucidate  this  measure  be- 
yond doubt,  the  State  passed  the  ordinance  of  7  Octo- 
ber, 1857,  which  decreed  that  ant-e-nuptial  agreements 
or  promises  were,  from  a  legal  standpoint,  null  and 
void.  The  mixed  marriages  liave  resulted  in  a  larger 
numljer  of  Protestant  than  of  Catholic  children.  In 
other  respects  the  legislation  concerning  marriage  cor- 
responds throughout  to  that  in  the  civil  code  of  the 
German  Empire.  With  regard  to  sepulture,  the 
Catholics  are  free  to  use  the  general  cemeteries  or  to 
open  special  ones  fr)r  themselves.  If  Catholics  have 
obtained  right  of  sepulture  in  a  non-Catholic  ceme- 
tery, the  use  of  the  liturgy  of  their  Church  is  permitted 


UPPI  2 

'  they  have  not  thia  right  notice  must  be  given  to 
vongelivul  ministers,  uiiil  permiasion  oBtained. 
,e  five  parishes  of  Detmuld,  with  the  subordinate 
les  of  Horn,  Cappei  (founded  in  784  by  Cliarle- 
e),  Fallcenhageii,  Lemfco,  and  Schwalenbcrg, 
added  in  ISSS,  the  three  parishes  of  La^e,  Lippe- 
and  Satiuden.  The  entire  cifcht  wi're  unitetl  in 
to  the  deanerj-  of  Dirtmold,  presided  over  by  ten 

er  and  above  itii  obUxutioiis  to  the  parish  of  Falk- 
Kn,  which  ore  bowRil  on  rivil  pkinis,  tJie  Ktate 
300  iiuirk!>  udditionat  salary'  from  the  treiLsun'  of 
onfiscat^l  mniiu>'(erie.s  and  institutionR  to  the 
ilic  rector  ut  I#nign  onlv.  Catholic  church  prop- 
B  fMiilati'il  by  till.'  civil  code  of  the  (lermaii  £m- 
Hul  the  Lipirian  common  law.  The  only  reli- 
conununity  m  that  of  St.  EUiabeth's  Institute  in 
old,  a  combined  sewing  school  and  protecton' 
ictcd  by  tlie  Bisters  of  Charity-  of  St.  Vincent  de 
(from  Paderbom).  Concerning  orders  and  con- 
tions  therp  in  no  provision  made  by  the  Ktst*'. 


7  LIPPX 

caMone,  or  marriage  chest  at  Coaa  Torrigiani,  repTO 
seating  the  history  of  Esther.  He  wiis  only  twenty 
years  old  when  he  painted  the  picture  of  the  "  Vision 
of  St.  Bernard",  preserved  at  the  Badia  of  Florence, 
which  ia  periiapa  the  moat  charming  of  all  Florentine 
altarpieces  (1480).  Itisanexmiiaitenpng  of  youth  and 
love.  The  chaste  oeauty  of  the  Virgin,  her  hands  of 
lilylike  purity,  the  tenderly  impassioned  countenance 
of  the  saint,  the  very  realistit'  and  maulv  portrait  of 
the  donor  (Frunccsco  del  Puglicse),  the  vast  and 
strange  landscape  where  the  apparition  takes  place — 
all  form  an  absolutely  novel  narmoiiy  in  Florentine 
paintuig,  and  one  wnicb  Ijconardo  da  \'inci  in  his 
"  Virgin  of  the  Rocks"  did  little  more  than  embellish, 
without  allowing  the  beholder  to  lose  sight  of  the 

Having  become  famous  through  this  picture,  the 
young  master  was  couimissionea  to  complete  in  the 
Carmelite  churth  the  famous  frescoes  of  the  Brancacci 
rhapel,  before  which  the  genius  of  his  father  had  awok- 
and  which  ha<l  been  iiiteiruptcd  for  n 


irer,  article  13  of  the  edict  of  18.S1  provides  that 
lee  of  doubt  concerning  the  application  of  the 
lict  or  iinv  conflieta  over  the  Iwunds  of  episcopal 
rity,  shalf  be  determined  by  tho  definitions  of  the 
an  Conatitutiou  of  31  Jiiiiuanr,  1850.  The 
lie  schools  are  private,  but  the  fttatp  furnishes 
:  the  salaries  and  pensions  of  tho  teachers.  Tho 
I  of  the  eight  Catholic  school  districts  are  exempt 
payment  of  school  assessments  (I.<aw  of  :)0  De- 
T,  1904).  Two  free  Catholic  schools  (Falken- 
and  Grevenhogen)  enjoy  the  priviit^es  of  public 
ly  schools.  That  of  Cappel  is  a  public  school, 
led  by  memhora  of  ditterent  Churches,  yet 
tic  in  character  as  long  sa  the  majority  of  the  in- 
inte  of  the  school  district  «re  flitholies. 

CMAHV.  Brilraar  tur  0na*irUe  4rt  fSnlmlum'  TAppt 
imai  ItFtmoUI.  IM7-19(UJ:  Si'iiwanold.  Dnt  Furilm- 
■ppe,  d<u  Ijiad  tuut  HiW  Bimlmrr  ([>nlupihl.  ISMI): 
1,  GrtrAicW'  rfn-  nnn/'/rirf«r*'T.  i'mnH«tnnn-,Wi-™i.i» 
in,  18)t0>.  A14  ■ni(.,  Sl!T  Kin.',  (iRuuEKR.  Otichiehtt  dtr 
idun  PJarrtirn  in  Lipnc  (Puili.riwrn,  IMH.'ii:  Fhkwkh, 
mH  kalAolueht  Klr--ht  in  dm  dtulirhn  SunJ.'»taal«i.  t 


att  1906),  1-SS3. 


SacII 


pl,  FiUPPiN'o,  Italian  painter,  son  of  Filippo 
(see  next  article),  b,  at  Prato,  in  14,58;  d.  at 
ice,   18  April,   1515.     H[^^  father,   leaving  him 

Jhon  at  the  age  of  ten,  confided  him  to  the 
F«  Diamante,  his  best  pupil  and  his  friend, 
laced  the  boy^  in  Botticelli's  studio.  The  eai^ 
'orka  of  Pilippino  now  extant  are  the  panels  of  a 


fifty  years.  On  the  two  pilasters  of  the  entrance  lie 
paint«d  the  "  Visit  of  St.  Paul  to  St.  Peter  in  Prison"- 
and  the  "Deliverance  of  St.  Peter";  on  the  left  wall 
the  "Resurrection  of  the  Emperor's  Son"  (one  group 
of  which  composition  had  already  been  sketched  by 
MasBccio);  finally,  on  Uie  riebt  wall,  "Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul  before  the  Proconsul  and  the  "Crucifixion  of 
1st.  Peter".  With  marvellous  sunpleiiess  the  young 
artist  adapted  himself  to  the  istylo  of  this  grandiose 
cycle,  and  composed  in  the  sanut  tone  a  contumation 
not  unworthy  of  the  begitiuiiig.  and  in  hanuoiiy  with 
the  grave  and  classic  senius  of  Mosaccio.  But  he 
sought  this  harmonv  only  in  the  general  outlines,  and 
(like  his  father,  in  the  "  Death  of  St.  Stephen")  he  in- 
trmtuee<t  into  scenes  from  the  Acts  of^ the  Apostles 
0  gallery  of  contemporary  costumes  and  portraits. 
AmimK  these  portraits  Vasari  mentions  Soderini,  P. 
niiiccianlini  (father  of  the  historian),  Francesco  del 
Puglicsc.  the  poet  Luigi  Puici,  Soiidro  Botticelli,  An- 
tonio Pollaijuolo,  and,  hi^tly.  the  author  himself. 
The  young  master  was  of  a  nervous,  mobile,  im- 

Sressionable  temperament,  susceptible  to  every  in- 
ttcnce,  as  n'ell  as  inarvelloualv  gilted  and  an  artist  to 
hia  finger  tins;  his  face  showed  lively  intelligence;  his 
genius  was  nospitalile  to  all  types  of  beauty,  however 
(jiverae,  welcoming  all  with  n  stranKe,  youthful  ardour. 
Still,  his  Inter  work  never  c<iuallcd  the  liappy  grace  of 
his  earliest  efforts.  His  picture  painted  in  1-1S5  for 
the  altar  of  tlie  Signory,  the  "  Virgin  between.  8»ji. 


LlPPl  Z 

John  the  Baptist,  Victor,  Bernard,  andZ&nobi"  (Uf- 
fiii) ,  shows  an  exaltation  of  tone  and  a  metallic  dryness 
beyond  the  most  glaring  and  the  aharpcat  of  Botti- 
ccUi's  works.  Shortly  afterwards  Fiiippino  went  to 
Rome  to  paint,"  at  the  Minerva,  the  frescoes  of  the 
"Life  ofSt.  Thomas  Aquinas"  (1487-931.  Thu  work 
is  very  powerful,  and  enough  has  not  been  said  of 
Raphael's  indebtedness  to  it  for  his  first  ideas  for  the 
"School  of  Athens"  and  the"Dispufa".  These  fres- 
coes mark  an  important  period  in  the  artist's  develop- 
ment. At  Rome  the  antique  inspired  him,  not  as  an 
historian,  a  humanist,  or  a  scholar,  but  as  a  painter 
and  a  poet  who  discovered  in  it  new  elements  of  de- 
light. The  antique  appeared  to  hirn  as  an  inexhausti- 
ble source  of  the  picturesque'  the  rich  ornamentation 
ivith  its  foliage,  garlands,  nia.sks,  trophies,  was  like  a 
ven  enriched  it  still  more 


orphan  at  the  age  of  two  hi-  was  cared  for  by  an  aunt 
who  being  too  poor  to  rear  him  placed  him  at  the  age 
of  eight  in  the  neighbouring  Carmclit*  convent,  wheri 
■■- educated.    At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  r  "  '"    ' 


Carmelite  church  those  frescoes  of  the  Brancacci 
chape!  (l-12;j-28),  which  brought  about  a  revolution  in 
the  Florentine  school.  This  event  decided  Lippi's 
vocation.  Perhaps  he  even  worked  in  the  Brancacci 
chapel  under  the  direction  of  the  two  mastera  but 
nothing  remains  of  the  cameo  frescoes  which  he  exe- 
cuted in  the  cloister. 

A  life  of  adventure  was  about  to  begin  tor  the  young 


a  his  hands,     lie  < 


"  to  see  the  strange  fancies  which  he  has  expressed  in 
his  painting.  He  was  always  introducing  vases,  foot- 
gear, temple-ornaments,  head-dresses,  strange  trap- 
pings, annour,  trophies,  seimitara,  swords,  togas, 
cloaks,  and  an  array  of  things  BO  various  and  so  beauti- 
ful that  we  owe  him  tonJay  a  great  and  eternal  obliga- 
tion for  all  the  beauty  and  ornamentation  that  be  thus 
added  to  our  art." 

To  these  antique  influences  were  soon  added  those 
of  German  engraving,  so  widespread  at  that  time. 
The  trace  of  them  is  visible  in  the  "  Adoration  of  the 
Magi"  (Uffiii),  painted  in  1495  for  the  Convent  of 
Scopeto.  This  is  an  astonl.'iliing  picture,  full  of  con- 
fusion and  oddities,  eccentric,  disjointed  in  composi- 
tion, and  crowded  with  admirable  trifles  and  acces- 
sories. Of  all  Filippino's  works  it  is  perhaps  the  most 
hybrid  and  composite.  At  Prato,  however,  he  aoms- 
times  recovered  momentarily  a  pure  inspiration  as  in 
the  "Virgin  with"  Four  Saints",  a  fresco  in  a  niche  at 
the  market  comer  (149S);  it  is  one  of  his  simplest  and 
most  delightful  figures,  llis  last  important  work  was 
the  decoration  of  the  Strozzi  chapel  at  Sta.  Haria 
Novella,  completed  in  154)2,  which  shows  on  the  ceiling 
figures  of  patriarchs,  and  on  both  walls  episodes  from 
the  lives  of  St.  John  and  St.  Philip.  Nowhere  else  is 
the  strange,  theatrical  character  of  his  imagination  so 
strongly  shown  as  in  this  composition,  in  which  there 
is,  nevertheless,  much  of  grace,  movement,  and  lyri- 
cism. In  the  scene  "St.  I'liiiip  forcing  an  exorcized 
demon  to  enter  the  idol  of  Mars  ",  the  Apostle  uses  so 
Commanding  a  gesture  that  Raphael  has  reproduced 
it  in  his  "  Preaching  of  St.  Paul  .  Here  the  brilliant 
and  fantastic  architecture  sugsesta  some  dream  city  or 
magic  temple.  Its  glitter  and  profusion  of  ornament, 
its  waving  lines  and  undulating  surfaces,  foreshadow 
the  stvle  of  Reniiui  and  IJorromini;  and  yet  some  of 
tlie  patriarchs,  suth  as  the  Adam  and  Jacob,  possess 
an  ascetic  and  meditative  grandeur  which  foresnadow 
the  Prophets  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  while  some  of  the 
female  figures  ore  the  closest  approach  to  the  "St. 
Anne  and  the  Virgin"  of  Leonardo. 

Fiiippino  had  no  pupib  of  distinction.  It  cannot 
even  be  said  that  he  founded  a  tradition;  he  himself 
was  too  much  dominated  bv  the  influence  of  others. 
But  of  the  generation  immediately  preceding  the  great 
works  of  Michelangelo  and  Leonanio,  of  that  restless 
and  subtile,  complex  and  nervous  generation  of  Botti- 
celli and  Cosimo  Roselli,  he  is  perhaps  the  most  varied, 
the  most  gifted,  and  the  most  lovable. 

Vabahi,  ed.  MiLAKEai.  Viie.  It.  Ill  (norence.  187SI ;  Csowe 
AND  Cavalcabelu;,  Hitl.  0/  Painiing  in  Ilatv  (London. 
l8«4-a6);  ROMOB,  Italinucht Fortchunem.  II  (Leinnie.  — h 
Ml'NTI,  Hi*,  dtVarlxtal\tnpmiinialaRniaitKtnct(Ps.Ta.—): 
GooNCHENB.rHBcd'Or  (Paris.  1891);  Vi.ntio,  Arthi<r<o  HoHeo 
drttarU  (Florance,  1S88);  Laiekestm.  La  Ptmlvre  ilalimnt 
(Puia).  LOCIB  GlLLbT. 


Llppl,  Fnjppo,  Italian  painter,  b.  at   Florence  .    . . . 

ftbout  1406;  d.  at  Spoleto,  9  October,  1469.    Left  an     forgery.    Callistus  III 


Carmelite.  Vasari's  account  of  a  journey  to  Ancona, 
during  which,  in  the  cour^  of  a  sea-trip,  he  was  seiiea 
by  Barbary  pirates  and  held  captive  for  two  years,  is 
assuredly  nothing  but  a  romance.  It  is  not  likely  that 
he  was  at  Padua  in  1434;  on  the  contrary  everything 

{roves  that  at  that  date  he  was  not  absent  from 
lorence,  where  he  had  already  acquired  a  great 
reputation.  Cosmo  de'  Medici  commanded  him  to 
paint  for  his  private  oratory  the  charming  "Madonna" 
of  the  Uffiii,  and  for  his  wife's  the  "Nativity"  of  the 
Acadfimie  des  Beaux-Arts.  In  1438  he  painted  the 
retable  of  San  Spirito,  now  at  the  Louvre,  and  the 
"Coronation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin",  ordered  by 
Charles  Marsuppini,  and  preserved  at  Rome  in  thie 
Lateran  Museum.  In  1441  he  painted  a  variation  of 
the  same  subject  at  the  Academy  of  Florence  for  tlie 
religious  of  S.  Ambroeio,  receiving  1200  livrea  for  it. 
Lastly,  in  1447  he  painted  for  the  Chapel  of  the  Si- 
CTioi^  the  wonderful  "Vision  ot  St.  Bernard"  now  in 
the  National  Gallery.  Inthemidstofall  these  labours 
the  fiainter  could  not  have  taken  long  journeys.  The 
great  artist  lived  in  the  continual  embarrassments 
caused  by  his  deplorable  morals.  Never  was  anyone 
less  fitted  for  religious  life.  Mis  portraits  show  us  a 
flat-nosedindividual  with  a  jesting,  but  vicious  lookinK, 
thick-lipped,  sensual  face.  To  compel  him  to  work 
Cosmo  de'  Medici  was  forced  to  lock  him  up.  and  even 
then  the  painter  escaped  by  a  rope  made  of  his  sheets. 
His  escapades  threw  bim  into  financial  difficulties 
from  which  he  did  not  hesitate  to  extricate  himself  by 


i  obliged  to  deprive  thia 


•POHAXO  279  LZPPOHAHO 

cttiy  monk,  "who  perpetrated  maay  ncfuioua    atlitude  uf  itutinct  and  spontaneity,  and  ie  not  at  oil 


tbe  result  of  a  system  or  a  tlieory.  It  is  e,  great  ple- 
bcEan  force,  tumuituoufi  antl  unconaciouK,  let  loose 
tliroiif>b  art  and  life.  Nothiiif;  equals  the  ingenuity 
and  tlie  sort  of  innocence  of  bis  lovo  of  nature.  This 
monk  withont  rale  or  cloister  possesses  literally  the 
senses  of  a  primiiif.  He  adores  everything,  the  com- 
Bagrant  than  elsewhere.  It  is  significant  and  moneitt  herb  and  tho  least  Rover.  Certain  of  his 
a  ^ainly  what  were  the  ideas  of  the  Renaissance  pictures,  such  as  the  "Nativity",  in  the  Louvre,  con- 
Lippi  was  not  punished  for  his  bad  conduct,  tain  an  amount  of  documents  and  a  collection  of 
rorgcniua  then  constituted  a  soil  of  privilege  and  studies,  birds,  lizards,  sheep,  plants,  stones,  still'life, 
Tsnt  of  impunity.   Talent  placed  its  possessor  be-     which  equal  the  cont«nts  of  ten  albums  of  a  Japanese 


<a",  of  a  benefice.     In  1462  the  Carmelite  ii 
«t«d  by  the  commons  of  Prato  to  paint  the  choir 
!  cathedral. 

length,  despite  his  evil  reputation,  Lippi  suc- 
>d  in  having  bimself  appointed  chaplain  of  a  con- 
of  Augustinians.     Here  his  misbehaviq 


f  of  the  trater"  (Letter  of  J.  dc  Medici,  27  May, 

I,  but  Pope  Pius  II  thought  he  could  do  no  better 

to  release  him  from  his  vows  and  permit  him  t^ 

f.     A  son,   Filippino  I.ippi.   had  already  been 

to  lUm.    He  afterwards  had  a  daughter  (1465). 

«  midst  of  these  intrigues  and  .disorders  Filippo 

aued  to  paint  his 

eat  works.     From 

period,  indeed, 

^-64)  date,  beside 

■1  pictures  of  the 

I    Museum,    his 

I  at  the  cathedral, 

I  txB  perhaps  the 

woric  of  the  sec- 

nneistion  of  the 

maoce,  before  the 

fttions  of  the  Sis- 

chapel    and    the 

wa  of  Ghirlandajo 

A  Maria  Novella. 

theme  of  these 

Xja  borrowed 
lives  of  St. 
Baptist  and  St. 
len.  The  two  most 
nted  scenes  rep- 
t  the  "Feast  of 
d  with  the  dance 
dome",  and  the 
thof8t.8te[rfien' 


dour  of  a  child,  as  well  as  the  eyes  of  a  naturalist  and 
a  miniaturist.  Hence  the  extreme  poetry  of  his  early 
pictures.  The  "Nativity",  in  Berlin,  Is  a  eylvartrum 
unequalled  in  art.  Xo  one  lias  ever  done  more  to 
bring  art  closer  to  life  and  to  make  it  the  complete 
mirror  of  reality,  which  accoiuit.i  for  the  good  humour 
and  novel  familiarity 
of  his  touch.  One  can- 
nut  Ih*  astonished  at  the 
enthusiasm  aroused  by 
his  fervent  works.  His 
art  is  like  a  window 
looking  out  upon  a 
fliiner  garden  and  ex- 
hibiting all  its  beauties. 
1-ilippo  afterwards 
lost  .tomcthing  of  this 
clianning  freshness.  A 
mure  scholarly  gener- 
ation, the  school  of 
Castagno  and  Ucccllo, 
began  to  appear.  He 
borrowed  from  it  his 
pas.ston  for  rigorous 
form  and  for  extreme 
linear  definition.  By 
dint  of  pursuing  the 
true  he  arrived  at  cru- 
dity, sometimes  at 
griiimccand  caricature. 


bAve  remained  classics.     In  his  "  Salome"  the  vulgar  than  certain  of  Filippo'a  angels,  the  mudels  of 

er  has  in  fact  created  the  leading  type  which  which  were  taken  from  uinong  the  rabble  of  Morcncc. 

nothing  to  the  chastely  observed  formula)  of  Iliacolour t)egan  todecomiNiscand  tookonahardand 
receding  age,  and  which  in  its  voluptuous  grace,  metallic  reflection.  ISirtthiswasonlyacrisis.  AtPrato 
lelicate  and  rare  arabesques  of  its  draperies,  and 8po)eto,thoiiich  under tiicinfluenccof pedantic theo- 
the  alfectfd  arrangement  of  the  coils  of  the  rieshcrccoveredhimNelfiliutripencdandtrausformcd. 
dress,  became  the  favourite  type  of  Botti-  He  regained  even  in  the  lalmur  and  exigencies  of 
I  "Judith"  and  "Daughters  of  Jetbro".  His  fresco,  the  decorative  sense  and  the  great  laws  of 
,tb  of  St.  Stephen"  on  the  other  hand  shows  us  a  composition  imparled  by  his  first  masters.  Masarcio 
liGcent  architectural  study,  which  reproduces  the  and  Masoiino.  His  naturalism  tempered  bv  artistic 
les  of  tbe  nave  of  S,  Lorenzo,  oae  ol  the  earliest  feeling  inspired  him  with  the  most  beautiful  master- 
pies  of  great  monumental  composition  and  pieces;  and  as  his  early  and  descriptive  paintings  were 
itie  symmetry  in  a  portrait  scene,  such  as  those  to  l>c  the  inspiration  of  Benozzo  Oozzoli,  so  the  author 
1  were  latertoform  the  ^lory  of  Ghirlandajo.  of  the  fre«:ocs  of  Prato  and  Spolcto  was  to  inspire 
is  was  the  period  at  which  Filijipo's  talent  grew  Uhirlandajo  and  Botticelli.  It  will  be  readily  under- 
jroadened  and  seemed  t«  reach  its  even  perfec-  stood  that  his  contemporaries  did  not  rigorously  con- 
His  last  works,  the  "  Death  and  the  Coronation  demn  the  errors  of  the  poor  Carmelite,  since  he  was 
!  Blessed  Virgin  ,  at  the  cathedral  of  Spoleto  arc  alivays  so  great  a  painl«r  and  was  in  the  end  so  per- 
ils noblest  and  most  strongly  conceived.  Ho  did  feet  an  artist. 
&ve  time  to  complete  them.  His  pupils,  espe- 
'  his  friend  Fra  Diamante,  finishnl  the  remainder 
'work  (an  Annunciation  anda  Nativity)  after  his 
I.  He  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  "f  Spoleto, 
ohabitants  of  the  city  having  refused  to  allow 
nee  to  remove  tbe  ashes  oiso  great  a  man. 
uo  de'  Medici  erected  his  tomb  at  his  own  ex- 
1  Angelo  Poliziano  composed  his  epitaph. 


VuABi.  cd.   MiLAKEBi.  II   (FlorMio*.   18781:    Cbowe 
Cavalcahkllk,  .Slorin  .Mia  Pill         '     -  '      "^ 
y.VI;  Mdsti,  HiJtoirrcirCHrfj 

Fitippo  Lippi  nrt  coto  dflla  ftitl 

MitANESi  u  VAH  (30  D«.,  IS; . . 

DEL»OHs,  Fra  Filippo  Lippi  (Bfrlin,  1909), 


in  Ilalia  (Flor_.._. .  ____,,. 

rioni:  drill'  pillurr  £  Fra 
t  di  Praia  (Pratn,  1835); 
'— ■■'  '—     1878);   Mm- 


Lot'IB   GlLLRT. 


, n r [.— r—        Lippomano,  Luigi  or  Aloibius  Lii-o-manus,  cardi- 

tbe  evolution  of  the  Renaissance  Fra  Filippo  nal,  hagiograpber,  1>.  in  1500;  d.  15  August.  1359.    Of 

d  ft  part  of  the  utmost  importance.    This  man  a  noble  Venetian  familv,  he  devoted  himself  from  his 

ry  passions  is  one  of  the  great  workmen  of  art.  youth  to  the  study  of  the  classical  languages  and  later 

the  incarnation  of  the  invincible  naturalness  of  to  the  pursuit  of  the  sacred  sciences.     Distinguished 

period     Hia  power  springs  exactly  from  this  forhisplety  and  integrity  of  character,  he  waHo-TOGic^ 


LIPSAHOTHKOA.  2 

the  first  in  Rome  to  join  the  "  OruWrio  delJa  C&riti" 
founded  by  St.  Cajetan  of  Ticnc.  and  composed  of 
dutinguishcd  men,  who  in  the  Roman  Curiai  were 
the  leaven  of  Chuich  reform,  and  afterwards  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Council  of  Trent.  He  waa 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Methone  (1538),  and 
appointed  coadjutor  to  his  uncle  Pietro  Lippomano, 
Bishop  of  Bergamo,  who  was  also  active  in  Catholic 
reform.  When  Pietro  was  transferred  to  Verona 
(1544),  Luigi  accompanied  him  and  succeeded  him  in 
that  see  in  1548,  whence  he  waa  transferred  to  Ber- 
gamo in  1558.  In  1542  Paul  Iff  sent  him  as  nuncio 
to  Portugal  to  announce  the  convocation  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  where  he  arrived  in  1547  and  was  com- 
missioned to  present  to  the  pope  the  reasons  for  trans- 
ferrin the  council  to  Bologna.  In  1548  he  was  sent 
with  Bertano  and  Pighi  to  Germany.  From  1651  be 
waa  one  of  the  presidents  of 
the  council  until  its  suspension 
(25  April,  1552);  during  that 
period  the  dogmatic  decri?es  on 
the  Eucharist,  penance,  and 
extreme  unction  were  pub- 
lished, OS  well  as  several  de- 
crees on  reform.  In  1556  Paul 
IV  sent  him  as  nuncio  to  Po- 
land, where,  on  account  of  hia 
lively  opposition  to  the  pre- 
tensions of  the  Protestant  no- 
bility, his  life  was  fre<|ueutly 
threatened.  After  hia  return 
to  Rome  he  remained  in  the 
Curia  until  his  death.  Amid 
his  numerous  of&cial  duties,  he 
did  not  neglect  his  studies, 
which,  however,  he  directed 
towards  spiritual  edifieatic)n. 
Thus  he  wrote  "Catena?  in 
Geneain"  (Paris,  1546),  "In 
Exodum"  (Paris.  1550)— both 
works  republished  at  Rome  in 
1557;  " ConRrmazione  e  sta- 
bitimento  di  tutti  ti  dop^ni 
cattolici .  .  .  contro  i  novatori'' 
(Venice,  1553).  His  chief  work 
was  "  Sanctorum  priscorum 
patrum  \it(e"  (8  vols.,  Venice, 
1551-60;  2  vols.,  Louvam. 
1564),  for  which  lir  cngagc<l 
the  services  of  many  learned 
men,  and  himself,  on  his 
travels,  searched  libraries  and  archives.  This  collec- 
tion gave  a  great  impulse  to  scientific 
and  opened  the  way  for  Suriiis  and  the  BolE 

FosCMUKI.  Ddla  iBtleralura  Hnifa  (Venice.  1854);  Uohelu, 
JloJiuucra.  IV(^nded.),4D7-U:  iiinKSKnln  Kirchenltx..  a.  v.; 
Diaria  Cant.  TVi'd..  I-II  (Freiburg.  1901-4),  pauim. 

U.   Benigni. 
Lipsanotheca,  a  term  sometimes    used  aynony- 


Lipsius,  Justus  (Josse  Lips),  philologian  ami 
humanist  of  the  Netherlands,  b.  at  Overyssche,  13 
Oct.,  1547;d. at Louvain, 23 March,  1606.  Descended 
from  an  illustrious  family,  he  studied  first  at  Ath,  and 
afterwards  at  the  Jesuit  College,  Cologne.  He  wished 
to  enter  the  Society  of  Jesus  on  20  Sept.,  1562,  and 
become  a  novice.  But  this  displeased  his  fatlier,  who 
recalled  him  and  sent  him  to  study  law  and  literature 
at  Louvain.  In  this  university  Pierre  Nannius  (Nan- 
ninck)  had  established  in  the  Collegium  Trilingue  a 
fine  seminary  of  philology-,  which  was  at  the  time  di- 
rectetl  by  Valerius  (Cormeille  Woutcrs).  There  Lip- 
■iuB  found  comiMinions  such  as  Loujs  Carrion,  Jean 
Douaa,  Martin  Delrio,  Andrf!  Schott.     He  ardently 


0  UPSXQS 

took  up  the  emendation  and  critical  examination  of 
Latin  texts,  especially  of  Cicero,  Propertiua,  and  Varru, 
and.  as  earl^  aB.1566,  had  collect«d  three  books  of 
"Varis  Lectiones",  which  were  published  in  15G0  at 
Antwerp,  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Gr&nvelle.  The  latter, 
who  was  in  Home,  made  bim  his  Latin  sceretaiy 
(1560-70).  Lipsius  returned  to  Louvain,  but  left  it 
aeainln  1571,  alarmedby  the  government  of  the  Duke 
of  Alba.  He  made  a  more  or  less  prolonged  stay  at 
Li^ge,  Dole,  Vienna,  and  Jena.  In  the  last  city  he  be- 
came a  Lutheran,  and,  all  through  tjie  constant 
changes  of  confessions  of  faith  and  religious  ten- 
dencies, he  was  careful  to  be  constantly  with  the  mas- 
ters of  the  moment.  On  a  visit  to  Cologne  he  met  a 
widow,  a  native  of  Louvain,  and  marriedher  although 
she  was  older  than  he  (1573).  She  refused  to  accom- 
pany him  to  Jena  and  he  resided  his  profeaaorship 
there  in  February,  1674.  Set- 
tled at  Clologne  he  supervised 
the  publication  of  his  "Taci- 
tus ''  (Antwerp,  1574).  He 
was  the  first  scholar  to  diffo- 
entiat«  the  "Annals"  from  the 
"Histoid",  and  although  he 
did  not  have  access  to  the  prin- 
cipal manuscripts  —  the  two 
Hedicean  MSS . — he  introduced 
in  bis  text  over  450  emenda- 
tions, which  have  been  ac- 
cepted by  all  subsequent  edi- 
tors. It  was  ordy  much  later, 
for  his  fourth  edition  (1605), 
that  he  became  acquainted 
with  these  manuscripts  through 
thePichenaeclition(1600).  He 
also  deserves  commendation 
forhis  use  of  inscriptions  in  the 
explanation  of  texts.  At  the 
same  time  appeared  "  Antiqun 
lectiones"  (Antwerp.  1575), 
miscellaneous  criticisms  de- 
voted mainly  to  Plautus,  to 
the  fragmentary  works  of 
archaic   authors,    or  to    Pro- 

Lipsius  was  lecturing  at 
Louvain  during  the  following 
years  (1576-77),  but  the  vic- 
tory of  Don  John  of  Austria 
forced  him  to  go  over  to  Lev- 
den  where  he  taught  in  the 
newly  founded  university  (1578-91).  During  this 
period  he  publi^ed  collections  of  his  letters,  new 
conjectures,  antiquarian  dissertations,  and  two  new 
editions  of  Tacitus  with  an  historical  commen- 
tary. Apart  from  the  philological  works,  he  composed 
treatises  on  politics  and  etlucs;  of  these  the  treatise 
on  constancy  (De  Constantia,  Antwerp,  15S4)  is 
the  best  known,  and  has  had  thirty-two  editions, 
without  includin ,  the  translations.  However,  Leydni 
waa  not  favourable  to  his  health,  and  he  and  hia  wife 
regretted  their  native  town.  He  liad  already  made  an 
attempt  to  get  away  in  15S6.  The  States  and  the  city 
did  their  utmost  to  detain  him.  In  1590  Dirk  Coom- 
Iiert  pubhcly  called  upon  him  to  take  sides  irt  the  re- 
ligious controversies.  Lipsius  ane^i-ered  evasively  and 
tried  to  dissemble.  Finally,  he  left  the  city  and  be- 
came recr-'-iled  with  Catholicism  in  the  Jesuit  Chapel 
at  Maim  (April,  1591).  He  went  to  Spain  in  search  of 
health,  and  during  a  sojourn  at  Li^e  he  prepar«d  new 
worka,  drew  from  a  pealter  of  the  nmtn  century 
Frankish  bIosscs  of  great  interest,  and  was  finally  for- 
given for  his  stay  in  an  heretical  country  rebellious  to 
the  KinK  of  Spain.  From  that  time  began  a  new  per- 
iod in  Lipsius  s  life.    Coldly  received  at  first  by  tt~  ~ 


LISBON 


281 


LISBON 


Latm  at  the  Collegium  Trilingue  of  Louvain  (1503). 
thea  hiatoriographir  to  the  King  of  Spain  (1505),  and 
later  honorary  member  of  the  State  Coimcil  (1605). 
To  ffive  a  proof  of  his  piety,  he  wrote  the  "  De  Cruce" 
(1593),  in  which  confusion  between  patibtdum  and 
ertix  often  make  the  conclusions  debatable. 

Lipsius  contemplated  writing  a  general  treatise  on 
Roman  antiquities  (Fax  histonca),  and,  as  a  result  of 
his  studies,  produced  treatises  on  the  army  (''De  militia 
romana  ",  Antwerp,  1595),  and  on  the  defence  and  at- 
tack of  fortified  towns  ("Poliorccticon",  Antwerp,  1596), 
a  kind  of  statistical  work  on  tlic  Roman  Empire  ("A(l- 
miranda,"  1598),  short  dissertations  upon  libraries, 
upon  Vesta,  and  the  Vestals  (1602).  However,  everj- 
now  and  then,  his  relie:ious  wanderings  wore  recalloii 
to  the  public  mind.  He  succeeded  in  producing  the 
iinpression  that  one  of  his  former  discourses  of  Jena, 
"lie  duplici  concordia'',  published  at  Zurich  in  1599, 
was  not  his.  He  himself  called  forth  the  sneers  and 
and  the  refutations  of  the  Protestants  by  describing 
the  veneration  and  the  miracles  of  Our  Lady  of  Hal 
(1604) ,  and  of  Our  Lady  of  Mont aigu  ( 1 605) .  His  co- 
religionists greatly  respected  and  triLstcd  him.  In 
15^  Archduke  Albert  and  his  wife  Isabella,  having 
come  on  a  visit  to  l/ouvain,  expressed  the  wish  to  have 
him  prepare  a  I^atin  oration,  which  he  did  within  two 
hours.  He  chose  as  a  subject  the  greatness  of  a  prince, 
from  a  passage  of  Seneca  (De  Clementia,  I,  iii).  Many 
imaginary  accoimts  have  been  given  of  this  speech. 
Lipsius  (ud  not  broach  the  subject  of  clemency,  and 
still  less  did  he  interrupt  one  of  his  lectures  to  luring  it 
up  before  the  princes.  The  discourse  was  published 
in  1600,  with  Pliny's  panegyric  of  Trajan  and  a  com- 
mentary on  this  work.  But  Lipsius's  most  im]X)rtant 
works  of  this  period  were  on  Seneca  and  Stoicism.  He 
wished  to  explain  in  detail  the  Stoic  philosonhy,  for 
which  he  professed  the  greatest  admiration,  objecting 
only  to  its  toleration  of  suicide.  He  had  time  only  for 
a  general  outline  of  the  system  and  of  its  place  in  an- 
cient philosophy  ("Manuductionisad  stoicam  philo- 
sophiun  libri  III",  1604),  and  an  analysis  of  the  theol- 
04^,  the  physics,  and  the  cosmology  of  the  Stoics 
(nPhysiolo^sB  stoicorum  libri  III",  1604);  he  had  not 
time  to  w^rite  the  ethics.  Nevertheless  these  two 
works  are  even  to-day  the  most  complete  treatise  ever 
written  on  Stoicism  as  a  whole.  Tne  "Seneca"  was 
published  in  1605,  with  a  dedication  to  Pope  Paul  V. 
Unfortunately,  Lipsius  was  misled  by  a  poor  manu- 
script which  he  oelieved  excellent,  and  the  com- 
mentary concema  the  Epistles  to  Lucilius  only.  His 
last  work  was  a  description  and  history  of  I^uvain 
(1605). 

Before  his  death  he  gave  solemn  expression  to  his 
faith.  His  manuscripts  have  lxH?n  in  the  I^eydcn  li- 
brary since  1722.  There  liave  bctm  four  editions  of  his 
complete  works  (Lyons,  1613;  Antwerp,  1614;  Ant- 
werp, 1637,  a  vciy  nne  one;  Wesel,  1675).  In  religion, 
for  a  lonff  time,  Lipsius  held  alooif  from  both  parties. 
His  "PoRtica"  (1589)  were  considerwl  too  severe  in 
Holland  and  too  tolerant  at  Rome.  He  escaped  being 
placed  on  the  Index  only  by  accepting  torture  as  a 
k|^timate  last  resort  to  bring  back  heretics  (1593). 
He  believed,  however,  in  sorcerers,  in  charms  and 
spells,  and  in  the  commerce  of  witches  with  devils, 
from  which  children  were  l)orn  (Phys.  stoic,  p.  61). 
His  philological  work  is  brilliant,  but  at  times  supcr- 
ficiaL  He  knew  little  Greek,  but  was  well  acquainted 
with  Roman  antiquity.  His  '* Tacitus"  is  a  master- 
piece of  discernment  and  erudition.  His  I>atin  style  is 
peculiar.  He  chose  to  imitate  the  style  of  Tacitus  and 
Apuleius,  which  caused  him  to  })e  criticised  by  Henr>' 
Estienne  (1595).  Notwithstanding  some  imperfec- 
tions, he  is,  with  Joseph  Scaliger,  Casaubon,  and  Sau- 
maise,  one  of  the  most  eminent  representatives  of 
classical  philology  between  1550  and  1650. 

RoKiuiCH  in  Bitlioor,   nationnU-  puNife  par  VAcadAniie  dr 
fi«J|9igtt«,  XII  (Bruiwel^,  1802.>,  LM»;  van  i>kr  Hakoen,  fiibliogr. 


NoMffUM  In  BUM.  btiffica  (Ghent,  1886-6):  autobiography  of 
lipsiufl  in  Epittolarvm  eenturia  mUceUCt  111,  87;  Halm  mABg, 
de^iUehe  Bioifr-*  XVIII,  741:  Nxsabd,  Le  iriumvirat  litUrairt  au 
XV I*  ttikcUt  J.  Lipte,  J,  Scaliger^  et  Caaattbon  (Paris,  1852); 
Urucbb,  Gesch,  der  kloM.  AUrrtunuvpisscfuchaft  in  Muixeb, 
Handbucht  I  (2nd  ed.,  Munich,  ISOl),  62:  Sandys,  A  history  of 
classical  acholarship,  II  (Cambridge,  1908),  301. 

Paul  Lejay. 

Lisbon,  Patriarchate  OF  ^Lisbonensis),  includes 
the  districts  of  Lisbon  and  Santarein.  The  area  of  the 
district  of  Lisbon  is  3065  sq.  miles;  pop.  709,509 
(1900).  Area  of  Santarem  2,555  sq.  miles;  pop.  283,- 
154. 

Lisbon  is  said  to  owe  its  origin  to  Ulysses,  and  hence 
its  oldest  name  Ulissypo  or  Olissipo,  which  l:)ecame  on 
Phoenician  lips  Alisubbo,  meaning  the  "  friendly  bay". 
Its  charm  was  acknowledged  by  the  Romans  in  the 
name  they  gave  it,  Feliciias  Julm;  and  when  the  Moors 
came  they  changed  it  back  to  Al  Aschbuna,  a  variant 
of  the  PhcEinician  title.  From  Alisubbo  and  Al  Asch- 
buna we  have  the  later  name  Lissalx)na,  whence  the 
modem  Portuguese  Lisboa  and  the  English  Lis1)on. 
It  lies  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tagus,  12  miles  from 
the  open  sea,  clustered  around  seven  hills  that  rise 
above  one  another,  ending  in  the  Serra  of  Cintra. 

The  town  was  taken  by  the  Moors  in  716  and  re- 
mained in  their  possession  until  1145,  when  Affonso 
Henriques  with  tne  assistance  of  an  anny  of  Crusaders, 
English,  Normans  and  Flemings  bound  for  the  Holy 
Land,  drove  out  the  invaders,  and  removed  the  capital 
of  the  country  from  Coimbra  to  Lisbon.  An  English 
monk  named  Gin>ert  who  was  with  the  expedition  was 
chosen  Bishop  of  Lisbon  at  this  time.  On  two  occa- 
sions the  city  sufFcrcd  from  disastrous  earth<iuakes;  in 
1531  more  than  1500  houses  were  destroyed,  besides 
many  churches  and  palaces.  On  1  Noveniber,  1755,  a 
second  disastrous  earthquake  shook  the  city  and  more 
than  30,000  of  the  inhaoitants  i>erished.  To  add  to 
the  misery,  a  fire  broke  out  which  lasted  four  da^-s. 
Car\'alho,  Marquis  of  Pombal,  at  that  tinie  Minister  of 
War,  took  charge  of  the  panic-stricken  city,  and  hav- 
ing extinguished  the  flames,  drew  up  plans  for  the  re- 
building of  Lisbon.  A  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 
King  Jos6  with  a  medallion  of  Pombal,  was  erected  in 
the  new  Pracja  do  Commcrcio  to  commemorate  the  re- 
building. Except  in  this  new  cjuarter,  around  the 
Pra^a  do  Commcrcio,  the  streets  of  Lisbon  are  irregu- 
lar and  steep,  but  there  is  an  elaborate  electric  trolley 
system  connecting  all  parts  of  the  town,  and  the  as- 
cenmres  or  giant  lifts  help  to  overcome  the  diflicultiesof 
higli  and  low  levels.  Tnere  are  fountains  everywhere 
and  the  streets  are  lined  by  trees,  of  which  the  olaia  or 

i'  udas-tree  is  the  most  common.  The  oldest  portion  of 
jisbon  is  along  the  steep  slopes  of  the  Castello  de  8. 
Jorge,  which  had  Ijcen  the  st  ronghold  of  the  Moors.  In 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Cathedral  or  Se,  Roman  re- 
mains have  l)een  found  including  the  ruins  of  a  Roman 
Theatre.  The  S^  or  Cathedral  of  Santa  Maria  is  the 
oldest  church  in  Lisbon;  it  dates  back  to  the  year  300. 
It  served  as  a  mosque  for  the  Moors  during  their  occu- 
pation of  the  city,  and  the  facade  with  its  towers  ami 
massive  portico  was  rebuilt  during  the  fourteenth 
centur^^     It  has  lx?en  restorerl  many  times. 

Outside  what  were  the  old  walls  of  Lisbon  stands 
the  church  of  S.  Vincente  da  Fora  (St.  Vincent's  with- 
out) with  a  monaster^'  attached,  which  is  now  the 
residence  of  the  Patriarch  of  Lisbon.  The  church  con- 
tains the  mortuary  chapel  of  the  Kings  of  the  House 
of  Braganza,  and  the  great  constable  Nuno.  Alvara 
Periera  lies  buried  here.  St.  Vincent  is  the  patron 
saint  of  Lisbon;  he  was  martyred  for  the  Faith  under 
Diocletian.  Acconling  to  the  legend,  his  brnly  was 
attached  to  a  millstone  and  flung  into  the  sea  (330), 
but  was  miraculouslv  discovered  on  the  sands  at  Val- 
encia by  some  Christians  of  that  place.  In  the  eighth 
oenturj''  the  Moors  took  Valencia,  and  the  inhabitants 
fled  by  sea,  taking  the  n'li(»s  of  St.  Vincent  with  them. 
They  were  driven  ashon'  on  1  lie  c»iast  of  Aliturvo  vvX^^ 


LISBON 


282 


LISBON 


cape  now  known  as  Cape  St.  Vincent,  and  there  they 
remained  until  D.  Alfonso  Henriques  had  expelled  the 
Moors  from  Lisbon,  when  they  were  brought  from 
Cape  Saint  Vincent  and  deposited  in  the  cathedral  he 
had  just  built.  At  this  same  time  Alfonso  began  the 
building  of  the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Alcobaca,  in 
fulfilment  of  a  vow  he  had  made  to  build  a  monastery 
for  St.  Bernard's  monks,  if  he  were  successful  in  his 
war  against  the  Moors.  The  Castello  of  S.  Jorqe  was 
built  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  strengthened  by 
the  Moors,  who  held  out  there  against  the  assault  of 
Alfonso  Henriques.  It  had  three  towers,  known  as 
Ulysses^  Albarram,  and  Managem,  but  every  trace  of 
them  disappeared  in  the  earthquake  of  1755.  It  was 
the  royal  residence  until  the  Spanish  kings  of  Portugal 
chose  the  famous  Paco  do  Terriero  which  was  ruined 
in  1755.  Don  Joflo  I  made  St.  George  its  patron 
saint;  he  had  married  an  English  princess^  Philippa, 
daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt.  The  procession  on  the 
feast  of  Corpus  Christi  from  the  Castello  to  the  church 
of  S.  Domingo  was  a  brilliant  one  in  former  years.  St. 
George,  lance  in  hand  and  on  horseback  in  heavy  ar- 
mour, was  personated  by  one  of  the  faithful  and  his 
standard  was  borne  before  him  by  another  rider.  King 
and  court  all  took  part  in  this  procession,  the  patri- 
arch carrying  the  sacred  Host. 

The  Modern  City. — ^The  church  of  St.  Roque  looks 
onto  a  square  of  its  own  name;  it  contains  the  chapel 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  built  in  Rome  from  designs  oy 
the  architect  Vaneteli.  Its  costly  marbles  and  mo- 
saic reproductions  of  paintings  by  Guido  Reni,  Ra- 
phael, and  Michelangelo  took  ten  years  to  complete. 
Close  by  is  the  Casa  de  Unisencordia^  a  hospital  and  an 
orphanage.  Near  at  hand  is  the  Graca  church  and 
convent  (now  a  barracks)  facing  the  city.  The  church 
contains  a  remarkable  crucifix  known  as  Nosser  Senhor 
dos  Passos  da  Graca.  The  church  of  the  Carmo,  a 
beautiful  relic  of  Portuguese  Gothic,  is  now  a  museum. 
Belem,  a  suburb  of  Lisbon,  contains  the  church  and 
monastery  of  Santa  Maria,  known  locally  as  the  Jero- 
nymos.  The  old  name  of  Belem  was  Restello,  and  it 
was  from  here  that  Vasco  da  Gama  set  out  to  discover 
a  sea  route  to  India.  A  chapel  had  been  built  on  the 
spot  by  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,  and  to  it  king 
and  court  went  in  procession,  8  July.  1497.  On  that 
same  day  Vasco  da  Gama  embarked;  he  returned  in 
September,  1499,  having  rounded  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  To  immortalize  the  event  King  Manuel  built  a 
monastery  near  Prince  Henry's  chapel,  changed  the 
name  of  the  locality  from  Restello  to  Belem  or  Beth- 
lehem, and  gave  the  new  building  to  the  monks  of  St. 
Jerome;  hence  the  name  Jeron^inos.  The  first  stone 
was  laid  in  1500.  The  building  is  of  white  stone  from 
the  quarries  of  Estramadura,  and  the  foundations 
were  laid  on  piles  of  pine  wood.  The  style  of  architec- 
ture is  pure  Manuelme  (a  mixture  of  Gothic,  Renais- 
sance, and  Moorish)  and  the  doorway  is  exuberantly 
decorated .  The  church  is  fast  becoming  a  mausoleum 
of  celebrated  men.  It  contains  the  tombs  of  Vasco 
da  Gama,  of  Camoes,  the  great  poet,  and  of  Almeida 
Garrett,  the  chief  Portuguese  poet  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  the  chapter  house  of  the  monaster^'  is  the 
tomb  of  Alexundro  Herculano,  greatest  of  Portuguese 
historians.  The  columned  arches  of  the  cloisters  are 
decorated  with  the  twisted  cable  moulding  so  common 
in  Manueline  buildings.  High  above  Belem  stands  the 
Ajuda  Palace,  built  early  in  the  nineteenth  centur>'  to 
replace  the  royal  palace  which  had  been  destroyed  by 
the  earthquake  of  1755.  It  is  a  conspicuous  edifice 
and  is  one  of  the  first  seen  on  entering  the  port  of  Lis- 
bon. The  actual  residence  of  the  royal  family  is  the 
Palace  of  the  Necessidades.  Since  18.'i4  the  Cort«8,  a 
generic  designation  for  the  Constitutional  Chambers  of 
peers  and  deputies,  occupies  the  monastery  of  San 
Bento.  The  actual  number  of  deputies  is  148,  elected 
by  the  people,  whereas  the  chamber  of  peers  consists 
01  nominated  memlxjrs  appointed  by  the  crown,  and 


none  of  them  under  40  years  of  age.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  monuments  connected  with  the  city  is  the 
Aqueducto  das  Aguas  Livras  (built  in  1713),  whidi 
reaches  a  distance  of  ten  miles  to  Chellos. 

Near  the  Estrella  Gardens  is  a  Protestant  cemetery 
containing  the  tomb  of  Henry  Fielding,  the  En^ish 
novelist,  who  died  in  Lisbon  in  1754.  Thispart  of  the 
city  also  contains  the  Basilica  of  the  SS.  CorScao  de 
Jesus  with  its  commanding  cupola  of  white  marble. 
The  old  Franciscan  convent  has  been  turned  into  a 
museum  of  fine  arts;  and  a  portion  of  the  building 
contains  the  National  Library  of  Lisbon,  where  are 
stored  about  300,000  volumes,  besides  many  rare 
nianuscripts.  The  first  book  printed  by  Guttenberg 
is  shown  there,  and  a  Bible  from  the  same  press.  It 
also  contains  books  from  the  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land's library  brought  to  Lisbon  when  the  nuns  of 
Sion  were  dnven  out  of  England  during  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  largest  church  in  Lisbon  is  S.  Domingo  in 
the  Pra^a  do  Rocio.  It  was  dedicated  in  1241 ,  and  has 
undergone  many  changes.  The  kings  of  Portugal  are 
usually  married  there,  and  it  was  the  former  church  <^ 
the  Inquisition.  In  1761  it  witnessed  the  auto  dafi  of 
Father  Malagrida  the  Jesuit,  who  was  falsely  accused 
of  complicity  in  a  plot  against  Pombal's  Ufe. 

Except  around  the  Pra^a  do  Commercio,  nearly  all 
the  important  buildings  of  Lisbon  are  or  have  been 
churches  and  monasteries.  Since  their  suppression, 
28  May,  1834,  the  monasteries  have  been  mamly  used 
as  barracks.  The  Catholic  Faith  is  the  State  religion, 
but  all  other  forms  of  worship  are  tolerated,  and  in 
government  circles  the  feeling  is  anti-clerical  if  not 
anti-religious.  The  press  is  represented  by  two  able 
journals,  the  "Diario  dos  Noticias"  and  "0  Seculo". 
The  population  of  Lisbon  in  1900  was  computed  at 
357,000.  The  present  King  of  Portugal  is  Manuel 
II,  bom  15  November,  1889,  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  on  the  assassination  of  his  father  and  elder 
brother  1  February,  1908.  The  reigning  dynasty 
belongs  to  the  House  of  Braganza-Coburg:  John  IV  of 
Braganza  having  expelled  the  Spaniards  from  Lisbon 
in  1640,  and  Maria  II  of  Braganza,  having  married 
Fernando,  Prince  of  Coburg-Gotha,  in  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century. 

The  Avenida  da  Libertade  is  one  of  the  new  boule- 
vards. It  begins  at  the  Praga  do  Restoradores,  which 
commemorates  Portugal's  Independence  Day,  1  Dec, 
1640,  when  the  Duke  of  Braganza  freed  the  land  from 
Spanish  domination.  The  avenue  is  lined  with  trees 
and  subtropical  plants  and  is  divided  by  flower-beds 
and  rockeries  into  tliree  arteries  to  facilitate  trafiBc. 
Twenty  years  ago  all  this  district  did  not  exist,  and 
as  in  the  newer  quarters  in  Rome,  there  has  been  some 
overbuilding.  Behind  the  Avenida  lie  the  Botanical 
Gardens  with  their  leafy  lanes  and  wealth  of  tropical 
vegetation.  The  Praga  do  Principe  Real,  a  few  min- 
utes* walk  from  the  gardens,  stanas  on  the  site  of  the 
S^  Patriarchal,  built  by  JoSo  V  (170G-1750),  as  the 
cathedral  of  Western  Lisbon,  and  destroyed  by  fire 
during  the  great  earthquake.  The  port  of  Lisbon,  one 
of  the  safest  and  most  commodious  roadsteads  in  the 
world,  is  annually  entered  and  cleared  by  an  average 
of  60()0  vessels  sailing  under  every  flag.  The  chief 
manufactures  of  the  neighbourhood  are  potterj',  wool- 
lens, glass,  preserved  food,  and  fish.  The  wine  trade  of 
Lisbon  is  also  important.  Besides  the  public  build- 
ings referred  to,  tne  Academia  Real,  theEscola  Poly- 
technica  (S'^O  pupils) ,  and  the  Escola  Medico-Cirur- 
gica  (224  pupils),  as  well  as  the  observatory,  deserve 
mention.  Lisbon  has  also  a  military  school  (339  stu- 
dents), a  school  of  fine  arts  (69  students),  and  a  Coi> 
servatorio  (503  students).  Lisbon  was  occupied  by 
the  French  in  1807,  but  the  English  took  it  m  1808 
and  made  it  a  centre  of  operations  against  Napoleon 
during  the  Peninsular  War. 

Ecclesiastical  History. — ^The  See  of  Lisbon  dates 
from  early  Cliristian  t  iiiies,  and  tradition  hasen8hrine<l 


Lisnuz 


283 


U8BC0BI 


the  names  of  its  bishops  as  far  back  as  the  sub-Apos- 
toUc  epoch.  It  seems  certain  that  a  St.  Potamius^  who 
took  part  in  the  Council  of  Rimini  (<^6),  was  Bishop 
of  Lisbon.  Other  bishops  are  mentioned  up  to  the 
vear  716  when  Lisbon  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Moors  and  the  see  remained  vacant  till  1147.  Before 
the  Moorish  conquest  the  diocese  was  suffragan  of 
B^rida;  the  liberation  under  Alfonso  I  took  place  in 
1147,  and  in  1199  Lisbon  was  made  suffragan  of 
Compostela.  At  the  request  of  King  John  I,  Pope 
Boniface  DC,  by  Bull  dated  10  November,  1394,  erected 
Lisbon  into  an  archdiocese  and  gave  it  as  suffra- 
gans, Coimbra,  Leiria,  Guarda,  Evora,  and  Silves  (in 
1396,  however,  Evora  was  detached  by  the  same  pope) 
and  the  first  archbishop  was  John  Anes.  Among  nis 
more  famous  successors  were  Roderiguez  da  Cunha 
(1636)  and  Cardinal  Luiz  da  Souza  (1676).  As  Portu- 
^1  grew  in  political  importance  and  colonial  posses- 
sions, the  jurisdiction  of  the  Metropolitan  of  Lisbon 
expanded,  and  we  leani  from  Stadel,  "Compend. 
Geogr.  Eccles."  (1712)  that  Coimbra,  Ixiiria,  Forta- 
legre,  Elvas,  Funchal,  Angra,  Congo,  St.  James  of 
Cape  Verde,  San  Thom6,  and  Baia  of  All  Saints  were 
suffragans  of  Lisbon.  As  a  reward  for  assistance 
against  the  Turks,  Clement  XI  in  1708  raised  the 
CSapel  of  the  Royal  Palace  to  Collegiate  rank  and 
associated  with  it  three  parishes  in  the  dioceses  of  Bra- 
^nza  and  Lamego.  Later  in  that  same  year,  yield- 
mg  to  the  request  of  John  V,  he  issued  the  Bull  "  In 
Supremo  Apostolatus  Solio"  (22  Oct.,  1716),  known 
as  the  Golden  Bull,  because  the  seal  or  bulla  was 
affixed  with  gold  instead  of  lead,  giving  the  collegiate 
chapel  cathedral  rank,  with  met ropolitical  rights,  and 
conterring  on  its  titular  the  rank  of  patriarch.  The 
town  of  Lisbon  was  ecclesiastically  divided  into  East- 
cm  and  Western  Lisbon.  The  former  Archbishop  of 
Lisbon  retained  jurisdiction  over  Extern  Lisbon,  and 
had  as  suffragans  Guarda,  Portalegre,  St.  James  of 
Cape  Verde,  San  Thomd,  and  San  Salvator  in  Congo. 
Western  Lisbon  and  metropolitical  rights  over  Leiria, 
Lamego,  Funchal,  and  Angra,  together  with  elaborate 
privileges  and  honours  were  granted  to  the  new  patri- 
arch and  his  successors.  It  was  further  agreed  be- 
tween pope  and  king  that  the  Patriarch  of  Lisbon 
should  De  made  a  cardinal  at  the  first  consistory  fol- 
lowing his  appointment.  The  first  Patriarch  of  Lis- 
bon was  a  saintly  man,  Thomas  d'Almeyda,  formerly 
Bishop  of  Porto,  and  he  was  raised  to  the  cardinalate 
20  Dec,  1737.  There  thus  existed  side  by  side  in  the 
city  of  Lisbon  two  metropolitical  churches.  To  ob- 
viate the  inconvenience  of  this  arrangement  Benedict 
XIV  (13  Dec,  1740)  united  East  and  West  Lisbon 
into  one  single  archdiocese  under  Patriarch  d'Al- 
meyda, who  ruled  the  see  until  1754.  The  double 
chapter  however  remained  until  1843,  when  the  old 
cathedral  chapter  was  dissolved  by  Gregory  XVI.  It 
was  during  tne  patriarehate  of  Canlinal  d'Almeyda 
(1746)  that  the  famous  chapel  of  Saint  John  the  Bap- 
tist, now  in  the  church  of  Sao  Roque,  was  built  m 
Rome  at  the  expense  of  King  John  V,  and  conse- 
crated by  Pope  Benedict  XIV. 

At  what  oate  the  patriarchs  of  Lisbon  began  to 
quarter  the  tiara  with  three  crowns,  though  without 
uie  keys,  on  their  coat  of  arms  is  uncertain  and  there 
are  no  documents  referring  to  the  grant  of  such  a 
privilege.  By  Apostolic  letters  dated  30  Sept.,  1881 
the  metropohtan  of  Lisbon  claims  as  suffragans  the 
Dioceses  of  Angola,  St.  James  of  Cape  Verde,  San 
Thom^,  Egitan,  Portalegre,  Angra,  Fimchiil.  The 
archdiocese  comprises  the  civil  districts  of  Lisbon  and 
Santarem,  and  has  a  Catholic  population  of  728,739. 
The  estimated  number  of  Protestants  and  Jews  is 
5000.  The  total  number  of  parishes  is  341 ,  of  priests 
662,  and  of  churches  and  chapels  1555.    The  present 

Sitriarch  is  Antonio  Mendes  Bello,  who  was  oom  at 
onvea  in  tho  IMocese  of  Guarda  in  June,  1842,  ap- 
pcnnted  Archbishop  of  Mitylene24  March,  ISS*!,  trans- 


lated to  Faro  13  Nov.,  1884,  and  appointed  patriarch 
of  Lisbon,  10  Dec,  1907,  in  succession  to  Cardinal 
NetOj  who  resigned.  The  patriarch  is  assisted  by  an 
auxiliary  bishop,  Mgr.  Jqs6  Alves  de  Mattos,  titular 
Archbishop  of  Mitylene.  Cardinal  Neto,  the  ex- 
patriarch,  was  bom  at  La^os  in  the  Diocese  of  Faro,  8 
Feb.,  1841;  was  ordained  m  1863;  joined  the  Order  of 
Friars  Minor  in  1875;  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Angola 
and  Congo  in  1879;  became  Patriarch  oi  Lisbon  in 
1883;  was  named  Cardinal  of  the  Title  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles,  24  March,  1884,  and  at  present  ranks  as 
senior  cardinal  priest.  He  resigned  his  patriarchate  in 
November,  1907,  and  retired  to  a  convent  of  his  own 
order  in  Lisbon.  In  16?4  a  college  for  English  stu- 
dents desiring  to  study  for  the  priesthood  and  for  mis- 
sion work  in  England,  was  founded  in  Lisbon  by  Pietro 
Catinho,  a  member  of  an  illustrious  family.  It  is 
known  as  SS.  Peter  and  Paul's  and  has  the  same  ri^ts 
and  privileges  as  the  English  College,  Rome.  It  axd- 
iered  severely  from  the  earthquake  of  1755,  but  con- 
tinues its  work  to  this  day,  and  is  now  governed  by 
Monsignor  Hilton,  who  was  bom  in  1825;  educated  at 
Lisbon;  ordained  1850;  served  some  time  on  the  mis- 
sion in  the  Diocese  of  Shrewsbiuy,  England ;  made  a 
domestic  prelate  in  1881;  and  returned  to  Lisbon  as 
president  in  1883.  A  college  for  Irish  students  was 
founded  by  royal  charter  in  1593;  it  escaped  all  injury 
from  the  earthquake,  but  was  closed  during  the  civil 
wars  in  Portugal  in  the  nineteenth  century  and  has 
never  been  reopened.  A  convent  of  Irish  Dominican 
monks  and  another  of  Irish  Dominican  nuns  exist  in 
Iiisbon  to  this  day. 

Santarem. — ^The  ancient  Scalabis,  the  Prcesidium 
Julium  of  the  Romans,  and  capital  of  the  district  of 
Santarem  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tagus  about  46 
miles  from  Lisbon.  The  population  in  1901  was  9400. 
It  does  a  large  trade  in  wine  and  oil,  and  is  the  vege- 
table garden  of  Lisbon.  In  the  sixteenth  century  it 
was  of  more  importance  than  nowadays,  and  its  popu- 
lation stood  at  21,000.  A  long  narrow  bridge  spans 
the  Tagus,  and  on  a  rock  in  the  river  stands  the  castle 
of  Almourel,  a  building  in  Gothic  architecture.  Ro- 
man relics  unearthed  in  the  vicinity  incline  archaeol- 
ogists to  the  opinion  that  the  noted  Nabantia  of  the 
Romans  and  Goths  stood  there.  The  Franciscan 
convent  is  now  a  barracks,  and  the  convent  of  Santa 
Iria  or  Irene  is  in  ruins.  Saint  Irene  (whence  the 
name  of  the  town  Santarem)  is  said  to  have  been 
the  niece  of  the  prior  of  the  Benedictine  monastery 
when  the  Goths  ruled  that  portion  of  Portugal. 

Inchbold,  LiMwn  and  Cintra  (New  York,  1908) ;  Stephens, 
Portugal  (London,  1903);  Adam,  La  patrie  portuguaise  (Paris, 
1896);  Crawford,  Portugal  Old  and  New  (London,  1880); 
Anniuiire  Pontificale  (1910);  Gerarchia  (1910). 

J.  C.  Grey. 

Lisieux.    See  Bayeux,  Diocese  of. 

Lismore  (Ireland).  See  Waterford,  Diocese  of. 

Lismore,  Diocese  of  (Lismorensis),  extends  over 
a  territory  of  21,()00  square  miles  in  the  north-east  of 
New  South  Wales  (Australia).  It  comprises  a  portion 
of  the  Eastern  Coast  district,  from  Point  Danger  on 
the  Queensland  border  to  the  north  of  Mount  Lindsay, 
and  from  the  western  base  of  the  latter  to  a  point  ten 
miles  south  of  Mount  Seaview,  thence  to  a  point  ten 
miles  south  of  Port  Macquaric.  The  diocese  is  wa^ 
tered  by  the  Macleay,  the  Clarence,  the  Richmond, 
and  other  rapid  rivers  that  rise  in  the  New  England 
and  Macpherson  ranges,  and  contains  a  good  deal  of 
rich  pastoral,  agricultural,  and  dair>'ing  land.  Among 
its  chief  products  are  sugar  and  maize.  In  1837  the 
waters  of  the  Clarence  were  first  cleft  by  white  men's 
keels — two  sailing  vessels,  one  of  which  made  a  be- 
ginning of  the  pastoral  settlement  of  the  district  by 
landing  the  first  cattle  that  ever  browsed  upon  the 
banks  of  tliat  fine  river.  The  first  Catholic  family 
(tlie  llawthomes)  arrive* I  in  Grafton,  ou  the  Cl'A.^vijaRfc^ 


USMOBI 


284 


LX8M0BE 


in  1841.  Their  first  two  children  were  taken  to 
Sydney  (450  miles  by  sea)  to  be  baptized.  In  1859 
Grafton  (then  with  a  population  of  about  1800)  was 
incorporated  as  a  borough.  There  was  no  resident 
priest  in  any  part  of  the  present  diocese  till  1862, 
and  the  ruggea  and  sparsely  populated  North  Coast 
(as  it  is  called)  was  visited  occasionally  from  Sydney, 
Ipswich  (Queensland),  and  annually  from  Armidale, 
from  March,  1854,  till  1862. 

The  first  church  on  the  North  Coast  was  opened  at 
South  Grafton  ou  23  September,  1857,  at  a  cost  of 
£100.  Archbishop  Folding  paid  his  first  visit  to  these 
outl>dng  parts  of  his  see  in  1860,  and  two  years  later 
the  first  resident  priest  (Rev.  Timothy  McCarthy) 
took  up  his  quarters  in  the  principal  town,  Grafton, 
his  parochial  charge  extending — till  Tenterfield  re- 
ceived a  resident  priest  in  1866--from  Coff's  Harbour 
to  the  Tweed  Heads,  and  from  Tenterfield  to  Ballina. 
In  1869  the  territory  of  the  present  See  of  Lismore 
was  included  in  the  newly  formed  Diocese  of  Armidale. 
The  pioneer  religious  of  the  Lismore  diocese  (the 
Sisters  of  Mercy)  reached  Grafton  in  1884.  By 
Brief  of  10  May,  1887,  Grafton  was  erected  into  an 
episcopal  see,  and  the  Right  Revr  Jeremiah  Joseph 
I)oyle,  then  in  charge  of  Lismore,  was  shortly 
afterwards  (28  August,  1887)  consecrated  its  first 
bishop  in  St.  Mary's  cathedral,  Sydney.  He  chose 
Lismore  as  his  residence  (later  on,  the  name  of  the 
diocese  was  changed  to  Lismore) .  In  1878  there  were 
only  three  Catholic  families  and  a  scanty  population 
in  Lismore,  but,  owing  to  the  richness  of  its  soil,  the 
district  has  since  then  progressed  at  a  rapid  rate. 
The  foundation  stone  of  tne  new  cathedral  was  laid  on 
Rosary  Sunday,  1892,  and  the  edifice  was  completed 
in  19(fe.  Bishop  Doyle  died  suddenly,  4  June,  1909. 
Rev.  John  Carroll,  of  Moss  Vale,  Australia,  bom  at 
Piltown.  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  1866,  and  ordained  at 
The  College,  Carlow,  1890,  was  consecrated  bishop 
4  April,  1910.  There  were  in  the  Diocese  of  Lismore, 
at  the  close  of  1909, 19  parochial  districts,  51  churches, 
20  secular  priests,  104  nuns,  6  boarding  schools,  and  6 
superior  day  schools  for  girls,  11  primary  parochial 
scnools,  1907  children  receiving  Catholic  education, 
and  about  19,500  Cathohcs  in  a  total  white  popula- 
tion of  some  80,000. 

MoRAN,  Hilary  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  AuHralatia  (Sydnov. 
8.  d.);  Sj/dney  Freeman's  Journal  i,&\e9);  Australasian  Catholic 
Directory,  HenBY  W.  CleaRY. 

Lismore,  School  op. — As  the  School  of  Armagh  in 
the  North  of  Ireland,  and  that  of  Clonmacnoise  in  the 
centre,  so  the  School  of  Lismore  was  the  most  celc- 
brate<l  in  the  South  of  Ireland.  It  was  founded  in  the 
year  635  by  St.  Carthach  the  Younger,  in  a  most 

Eicturesque  site,  steeply  rising  from  the  southern 
ank  of  the  Blackwater.  Its  founder  had  spent  nearly 
forty  years  of  his  monastic  life  in  the  monjistery  of 
Rahan  on  the  southern  borders  of  ancient  Meatn,  in 
what  is  now  King's  County.  He  dearly  loved  that 
monastery  which  he  had  founded,  and  which  he  fondly 
hope<i  would  be  the  place  of  his  resurrection ;  but  the 
men  of  Meath — clerics  and  chieftains — grew  jealous  of 
the  great  monastery  founded  in  their  territory  by  a 
stranger  from  Munstcr,  and  they  persuaded  Prince 
Blathmac,  son  of  Aedh  Slaine,  of  the  southern  Hy 
Niall,  to  expel  the  venerable  old  man  from  the  monas- 
tic home  wnich  he  loved  so  well.  The  eviction  is  de- 
scribed by  the  Irish  annalists  as  most  unjust  and  cruel, 
yet,  under  God's  guidance,  it  led  to  the  foundation  of 
Lismore  on  the  beautiful  margin  of  what  was  then 
called  Avonmore,  "  the  great  river",  a  site  granted  to 
St.  Carthach  by  the  prince  of  the  Desii  of  Waterford. 
Lismore  was  founded  in  635;  and  the  founder  survived 
only  two  years,  for  he  died  in  637,  but  Providence 
blesse*!  his  work,  and  his  monaster^'  grew  to  be  the 
greatest  centre  of  learning  and  piety  in  all  the  South 
of  Erin.    The  "Rule  of  St.  CartliacH"  is  the  most  mut- 


able literary  monument  which  the  founder  left  behind 
him.  It  is  fortunateljr  still  extant  in  the  ancient 
Gaelic  verse  in  which  it  was  written.  It  consists  of 
135  four-lined  stanzas,  which  have  been  translated  b> 
O'Curry — ^who  has  no  doubt  of  its  authenticity — and 
is  beyond  doubt  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  im- 
portant documents  of  the  early  Irish  Church. 

But  Lismore  produced  a  still  more  famous  saint  and 
scholar,  the  great  St.  Cathaldus  of  Tarentum.  His 
Irish  name  was  Cathal,  and  it  appears  he  was  bom  at 
a  place  called  Rathan,  not  far  from  Lismore.  Our 
Irish  annals  t«ll  us  nothing  of  St.  Cathaldus,  because 
he  went  abroad  early  in  life,  but  the  brothers  Morini 
of  his  adopted  home  give  us  many  particulars.  They 
tell  us  he  was  a  native  of  Hibemia — bom  at  Rathan 
in  Momonia — that  he  studied  at  Lismore,  and  became 
bishop  of  his  native  territory  of  Rathan,  but  that 
afterwards,  inspired  by  the  love  of  missionary  enter- 
prise, he  made  his  way  to  Jerusalem,  and  on  his  return 
was,  with  his  companions,  wrecked  at  Tarentum — ^the 
"beautiful  Tarentum" — at  the  heel  of  Italy.  Its 
pleasure-loving  inhabitants,  forgetting  the  Goa)el 
preached  to  them  by  St.  Peter  and  St.  Mark,  had  be- 
come practically  pagans  when  Cathaldus  and  his  com- 
panions were  cast  upon  their  shores.  Seeing  the  city 
given  up  to  vice  and  sensuality,  the  Irish  prelate 
preached  with  great  fervour,  and  wrought  many  mira- 
cles, so  that  the  Tarentines  gave  up  their  sinful  ways, 
and  from  that  day  to  this  have  recognized  the  Irish 
Cathaldus  as  their  patron  saint,  and  greatlv  venerate 
his  tomb,  which  was  found  intact  in  the  old  cathedral 
as  far  back  as  the  year  1 140,  with  his  name  "  Cathal- 
dus Rachan"  inscribed  upon  a  cross  therein.  An- 
other distinguished  scholar  of  Lismore,  and  probably 
its  second  abbot,  was  St.  Cuanna,  most  likely  the  hatf- 
brother  and  successor  of  the  founder.  He  was  bom  at 
Kilcoonagh,  or  Killcooney,  a  parish  near  Headford  in 
the  County  Galway  which  takes  its  name  from  him. 
No  doubt  he  went  to  Lismore  on  account  of  his  close 
connexion  with  St.  Carthach,  and  for  the  same  reason 
was  chosen  to  succeed  him  in  the  school  of  Lismore. 
Colgan  thought  that  the  ancient  but  now  lost  "  Book 
of  Cuanach",  cited  in  the  "  Annals  of  Lister",  but  not 
later  than  a.  d.  628,  was  the  work  of  this  St.  Cuanna  of 
Kilcooney  and  Lismore.  It  is  also  said  that  Aldfrid, 
King  of  Northumbria,  spent  some  time  at  the  school 
of  Lismore,  for  he  visited  most  of  the  famous  schools 
of  Erin  towards  the  close  of  the  seventh  century, 
and  at  that  time  Lismore  was  one  of  the  most  cde- 
brat«d.  It  was  a  place  of  pilgrimage  also,  and  many 
Irish  princes  gave  up  the  sceptre  and  returned  to  Lis- 
more to  end  their  lives  in  prayer  and  penance.  There, 
too,  by  his  own  desire,  was  interred  St.  Celsus  of 
Armagh,  who  died  at  Ardpatrick,  but  directed  that  he 
should  be  buried  in  Lismore — but  we  have  sought  in 
vain  for  any  trace  of  liis  monument. 

Two  interesting  memorials  of  Lismore  are  fortu- 
nately still  preserved.  The  first  is  the  crosier  of  Lis- 
more, fomicl  accidentally  in  Lismore  Castle  in  the  year 
1814.  The  inscription  tells  us  that  it  was  made  for 
Niall  Mac  Mic  Aeducan,  Bishop  of  Lismore,  1090- 
1 1 13,  by  Neclan  the  artist .  This  refers  to  the  making 
of  the  case  or  slirine,  which  enclosed  an  old  oak  stick, 
the  original  crosier  of  the  founder.  Most  of  the  orna- 
ments are  richly  gilt,  interspersed  with  others  of  silver 
and  niello^  and  bosses  of  coloured  enamels.  The 
second  is  the  "Book  of  Lismore"  found  in  the  castle 
at  the  same  time  with  the  crosier,  enclosed  in  a  wooden 
box  in  a  built-up  doorway.  The  castle  was  built  so 
long  ago  as  1185  by  Prince  John.  Afterwards  the 
bishops  of  Lismore  came  to  live  there,  and  no  doubt 
both  crosier  and  book  belonged  to  the  bishops  and 
were  hidden  for  security  in  troublesome  times.  The 
Book  of  Lismore  contains  a  very  valuable  series  of  the 
lives  of  our  Irish  saints,  written  in  the  finest  medieval 
Irish.  It  was  in  1890  admirably  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Dr.  Whitley  Stokes, 


fruk  Uvit  in  &ikinaii«i  ME.;  O'Hanujn.  Licit  of  Iht  IruA 
SaintK  HEA1.T.  Iniand'i  A«Hrnl  Sriuiolt  and  .Sr^lon  [5th  ed., 
Dublin,  1908):  LirtM  of  At  Irinh  Saintt  from  Ou  Book  of  Li- 
llian. idiWd  by  Weitlit  Stoku  (Oifonl,  ISSO);  O'Cdsbt, 
Lactarti  on  Iht  MB.  MaUriatt  of  Ancitnt  Hiilory  of  Inland 
(DubHn.  1874).  John  Healt. 

Liiter,  aliaa  Butlbb,  Tbouas,  Jesuit  KTiter,  b.  in 
Lkncashire,  about  1550;  d.  in  England,  probably 
shortly  before  162S;  was  the  son  of  Christopher  Lis- 
ter of  Midhope,  Yorks.  He  entered  Douai  College, 
1576.  Having  occaaion  to  return  to  Eoglaod,  he  was 
seised  and  imprisoned.  He,  however,  obtained  hie 
release,  and  in  1579  was  received  into  the  English 
College,  Rome,  liiere,  three  years  later,  he  joined 
the  Society  of  Jeaua  in  P'ebruary,  15S2-3.  He  gradu- 
ated in  Divinity  at  Pont-^Mousson  in  1592.  la  1596 
he  went  on  the  English 
but  was  amsted  m  11 
endured  a  long  incart 
Just  at  this  period  difGcultiea 
had  broken  outamong  the  Eng- 
lish clergy,  owing  to  the  re- 
fusal of  certain  amongst  them 


Dr.  George  Blackwell.  Lister 
was  consulted  by  one  of  the 
priests  as  to  the  conduct  of 
those  who  had  refused  obedi- 
ence. While  a  man  both  of 
piety  and  abihty,  he  was 
tortunatelylacl  '      '    '    ' 

3  repljf 
a  smai!  treatise  entitled,  "Ad- 
versus  factioBOS  in  ecclesia", 
in  which  their  conduct  was  vigor- 
ously censured.  They  are  de- 
clared to  have  ips-i  Jaclii  fallen 
intoschisni.and  to  liavi^  incurred 
excommunication  and  irregu- 
larity. It  is  doubtful  whether 
this  tractate  was  publi.ihdl;  but 
itwaswidelycirciilated  in  manu- 
script, and  aroused  the  decpc^^t 
resentment.  It  certainly  nerved 
not  a  little  to  fan  the  l1anii>H 
of  the  UDhappy  dispute.  To 
the  request  of  the  clergy  that 
he  would  prohibit  it,  Blackwell 
replied  curtly  (April,  15)17): 
"  Your  request  is  that  we  should 
call  in  thetreatise  againnt  your 
schism;  and  this  is  unreasonable, 
because  the  medicino  ought  not  pban 
to  be  removed  before  the  »ore  be 
thoroughly  cured.  If  it  ^ieve  you,  I  am  not  grieved 
thereat.''  His  conduct  in  regard  to  Lister's  trai^ 
formed  the  firat  of  the  sii  grounds  on  which  was  based 
the  "Appeal  of  the  thirty-three  clergymen",  against 
Ida  administration.  The  appellants  obtained  a  fa- 
vouiable  hearing  at  Rome.  Lister's  tract  was  sup- 
»nd  Bla('" 

to  have  resided  continiiou-sly  in  England.  Mix  death 
probably  occurred  shortly  before  1628.     The  tri'atise 

Adveisus  factiosos"  is  incorporated  in  Christopher 
Bagshaw's  (q.  v.)  "Relatio  compendiosa  turl>arum"; 
a  portion  of  it  is  printed  in  Iaw's  work  cited  below. 

VaBa.eA-Tltaxtt,  Chunh  Hiitory  of  Englmd.ltl  (London. 
IBM),  ooniiimq.]  GiLLow.  Bf6I.  Dtrt.  Entf.  Cntt..  9,  v.;  Law, 
HiMotical  Skilch  of  Conflieli  brlimn  Jauila  and  Srculari  in  Mt 
nuH  of  BlitaMhJloadon.  1880),  opp«iiib[  D;  MoHBia.  Thi 
TimMit  of  OUT  CalhoUe  Forrfalhrri.  retalrd  by  lArmnrlvtii.  1 


Usit,  Frank,  admitt«dly  the  greatest  pianist  in  the 
■.ni>»l«  oif  music,  and  a  composer  whose  status  in  musi- 
Ml  lit«nture  still  fonos  a  debatable  question,  b,  at 


6  LUST 

Raiding,  Hungary,  22  OcIoUt,  ISl  1 :  .1.  at  Bayreuth, 
Germany,  31  July,  188(i.  His  musical  precocity  was 
early  recogniied  oy  his  parents,  and  his  hrst  teacher 
was  his  father,  Adam  Liszt,  a  musical  amateur  of  rare 
culture.  His  first  public  appearance  at  Oedenburg  at 
the  age  of  nine  was  of  so  startling  a  character,  that  ' 
several  Hungarian  magnates  who  were  present  at  onoe 
assumed  the  financial  reaponsihillties  of  his  further 
musical  education.  Taken  to  Vienna  by  his  father, 
who  devoted  himself  e.\c!uaiveiy  to  the  development  of 
hin  talented  child,  he  studied  the  piano  for  six  years 
with  Ciemy,  and  theory  and  composition  with  Salieri 
and  Handhartinger.  His  first  public  appearance  in 
Vienna  (1  Jan.,  1S2.3)  proved  a  noteworthy  event  in 
the  annals  of  music.  From  Beethoven,  who  was 
present,  down  to  the  merest  dilettante,  everyone  forth- 
with acknowledged  his  great 
genius.  His  entry  to  the  Paris 
Conservatory,  where  his  father 
wished  him  to  continue  his 
studies,  anil  which  at  the  time 
was  under  Cberubini,  proved 
unsuccessful  on  account  erf'  his 
not  beiilg  a  native  of  France. 
His  studies,  however,  under 
Reicha  and  Paer.  were  of  a 
character  that  made  the  youth- 
ful prodigy  one  of  the  conspicu- 
ous figures  of  the  French  capi- 
tal. His  one  act  opera,  "Don 
Kanchc",  as  well  as  his  piano 
compositions,  achie^'ed  a  flatter- 
ing succe&i.  Hi^  brilliant  con- 
cert tours  in  Switzerland  and 
England  enhanced  an  already 
esluiilished  reputation.  His 
father's.lcath  (1S27)  madeLisrt 
and  his  mother  dependent  on  hia 
own  [)en<onal  exertions,  but  the 
temporary  hardship  d  isappeared 
when  he  liegan  his  literarj-  and 
teaching  career.     His  charming 

ffi^sonBlity,  conversational  bril- 
ncy,  and  transcendent  musi- 
cal ability  opened  the  world  of 
fasliion.  wealtli,  and  intellect  to 
him.  His  Catholic  sturdlneas 
was  temporarily  shaken  by  the 
"  Nouveau  Christian  isme  "  <rf 
Saint^Simon,  to  which,  how- 
ever, he  never  formally  or  even 
tacitly  subscribed,  and  by  the 
socialistic  aberrations  of  Chev- 
LiHtr  alier    and     Pdreire.     The    un- 

healthy atmosphere  of  his 
associations  with  Alphonsc  de  Lamartinc,  Victor 
Hugo,  Heinrich  Heme,  George  Sand,  and  their  coterie, 
could  not  fail  to  weaken  his  religious  moorings. 
Fortunately  the  contravening  influence  of  Laraen- 
nais  averted  what  mi^t  have  ended  in  spiritual  ship- 
wreck. His  intimacy  with  Meycrlieer  and  his  friend- 
ship with  Chopin,  whose  bioRrapher  he  subsequently 
liceame,keptalivc  and  fostered  his  interest  in  his  art. 

The  result  of  this  environment  led  to  the  unfortu- 
nate alliance  (1S3+-44)  with  the  Countess  d'Agoult 
(Daniel  St«m),  The  fruit  of  it  was  three  children — a 
son  who  died  early,  Blanilina,  who  became  the  wife  of 
Emile01livier,Ministerof  Justice  to  Napoleon  III,  and 
Cosima.  first  the  wife  of  Hans  von  Billow,  then  of 
Richard  Wagner,  and  now  the  owner  of  Villa  WaJm- 
fried,  Bayreuth.  The  rupture  of  this  liaison  signal- 
isHl  the  Ireginning  of  his  dazzling  career  as  a  virtuoso, 
scaling  higher  altitudes  as  years  progressed,  until  his 
Reputation,  like  that  of  Paganim  on  the  violin,  was 
that  of  a  pianbt  without  peer  or  rival.  His  concert 
tours  throughout  Europe  evoked  an  unparalleled 
enthusiasm.    Kings  and  national  assemblies  beatovred 


UTANT                               286  LXTANT 

titles  of  nobility  and  decorations  on  bim ;  universities  my  youth,  i*d  well  as  witb  the  development  that  my 
honoured  him  with  academic  degrees;  cities  vied  with  work  of  musical  composition  has  taken  during  the  last 
one  another  in  granting  him  their  freedom;  audiences  four  years"  (La  Mara,  "  Letters  of  Franz  Liszt",  New 
were  thrilled  as  if  by  an  hypnotic  influence;  public  York,  1894,  II,  100).  His  career  of  twenty-one  yeara 
demonstrations,  torchlight  processions,  poetic  greet-  as  an  abbd  was  most  exemplary  and  edifying.  Func- 
ings  met  him  in  all  directions  and  made  him  the  ob-  tilious  as  he  was  in  the  penormance  of  his  ecclesiasti- 
ject  of  a  hero-worship,  that  has  seldom,  if  ever,  fallen  to  cal  duties,  his  interest  in  art  continued  unabated.  His 
the  lot  of  any  other  artist.  In  all  these  intoxicating  piano  pupils  followed  him  on  his  casual  wanderings; 
triumphs,  he  never  lost  his  mental  equipoise.  His  contemporaneous  art  was  not  neglected,  but  above  all 
remunerative  concerts  allowed  him  means  to  make  the  old  ecclesiastical  masters  and  the  new  movement 
generous  provision  for  his  mother  and  children.  His  for  the  restoration  of  liturgical  music,  represented  by 
purse  was  open,  his  services  at  the  disposal  of  every  the  Cudlienverein,  found  a  devoted,  enthusiastic,  and 
i^peal  of  philanthropy.  No  aspiring  talent  ever  in-  generous  supporter  in  him.  His  own  larger  ecclesi- 
voked  his  encouragement,  no  deserving  charity  ever  astical  compositions,  though  no  doubt  unwittin^y 
appealed  to  his  aid,  in  vain.  The  princely  contribu-  deviating  from  strict  liturgical  rec^uirements,  are  nev- 
tion  to  the  sufferers  of  the  Danube  inundation  at  ertheless  imbued  with  deep,  religious  sentiment.  It 
Pesth  (1837),  and  the  completion  of  the  Beethoven  was  while  attending  the  marriage  of  his  granddaugh- 
monument  at  Bonn  (1845),  are  but  two  striking  ter,  and  coincidentally  the '' Parsifal"  performances  at 
examples.  Having  reached  the  pinnacle  of  success  Bayreuth,  that,  after'receiving  the  rites  of  the  Church, 
and  fame  as  a  pianist,  he  now  concluded  to  abandon  he  succumbed  to  an  acute  attack  of  pneumonia  at  th^ 
the  career  of  a  virtuoso,  to  devote  his  time  and  energy  home  of  a  friend,  near  Wagner's  Villa  Wahnfried.  His 
to  creative  work  and  the  public  fostering  of  higher  wish,  expressed  in  a  letter  (La  Mara,  I,  439)  breath- 
musical  ideals.  ing  the  most  loyal  devotion  to  the  Church  and  humble 
His  twelve  years  at  Weimar  (1849-61),  where  he  as-  gratitude  to  God,  to  be  buried  without  pomp  or  dis- 
sumed  the  proffered  position  of  court  conductor,  were  play,  where  he  died,  was  carried  out  by  mtening  him 
years  of  devoted,  unselfish,  and  intensive  activity,  m  the  Bayreuth  cemetery. 
His  indefatigable  supervision  of  the  court  concerts  and  Schiluno,  Fram  Liszt.  Sein  Leben  u.  Werke  (Stuttgart, 

operatic  performances  brought  them  to  a  perfection  V£S''t  ???^  ^^"^iiHf^  (London.  1887);  Beaufort.  The 

rt   1         ATi  ^^^^iV^       •      •  1  X            «^  »  i^»  ^^^^'vmw**  Abb6  lAsxt  (LondoQ,  1886):    MtLLER,  Franz  Lxazt  (Erlancen. 

that  made  the  small  provmcial  town  of  Weimar  syn-  1886);  Raman,  Fram  Liszt,  A  rtisl  and  Man  (2  vols.,  London, 

onymous  with  the  highest  achievements  in  tonal  art.  1882),  only  reaches  1840;  Nohl,  Life  ofLutzt  (Chicago.  1888); 

His  gratuitous  guidance  and  encouragement  of  talented  Jj^  ^^^'  Mutikalisfe  Studienkopfe  Of  ipaiic.  1888).    For  a 

,°       I 'x-       *    .                  .,    •^'^r  "6^"«^»*vv»  v»u.ui^  thematic  catalogue  of  compositions  and  for  his  literary  works, 

and  ambitious  piano  pupils  raised  the  standard  of  aee  Grove,  Dirt.  o/AffmcandA/ti«trian« (New York.  1908),  s. v.; 

pianoforte  playing  to  a  height  never  before  attained,  'or  criticism  of  Liszt  as  a  pianist.  Grove,  loc.  dt.;  von  Lens, 

and  Createda  specific  school  of  most  brilliant  virtuosos.  Die  prosaen  Piano  ViHuosm  (BcrUn.  1872),  1-19;   Fay,  Music 

»uv<x.m^»A^v.»  h~^     ^o*.«vrv»v.»      v»> v  .^a  .tu«»uv  T  u  vu^A^vfo.  gf^y  ^^  Qfrmany  (C!hica«;o.  1881),  205-2/2.     For  cntical  re- 

Durmg  tms  penod  he  also  gave  the  world  a  senes  of  view  and  appraisement  of  his  compositions:  Grove,  Mendel, 

notable  piano  compositions,  and  even  moi^  notable  Mueikaliechea  Convereationalexikon,  VI  (Berlin,  1876),  354-7; 

choral  and  orchestral  works,  that  have  made  their  ^4?*^*  ^^Vt  ^'^^^}i  ^«^7'«7»«^"»{T.  (f«jP»i«,'  l*g»>-    ^o^" 

j     ^  wv,**™****   wTvin^,   v»»«w  A«»T^  uxavt^    vu^^  ^^1^  ^j^  j^  Maba,  Letters  of  Fram  Ltazt  (2  vols..  New  York, 

rounds  through  the  musical  world.     As  he  was  the  1894);  Hueffer,  Correspondence  of  Wagner  and  Liezt  (1841- 

originator  of  the  "piano  recital",  so  now  he  became  1861)  (2  vob.,  New  York,  1889). 

the  creator  of  a  new  orchestral  form,  the  "symphonic  H.  G.  Ganss. 
poem",  which,  as  a  tvpe  of  programme  music,  has 

found  a  universal  adoption.     While  directing  the  Utany  (Lat.  litania,  Utdniay  from  Gr.  Xir^,  prayer 

destinies  of  the  Weimar  musical  world,  he  not  only  be-  or  supplication),  a  well-known  and  much  aopreciated 

came  a  daring  pioneer  in  placing  on  its  concert  plat-  form  of  responsive  petition,   used  in   public  litur- 

form  and  operatic  stage  the  neglected  masterpieces  gical  services,  and  in  private  devotions,  for  common 

of  classical  art,  but  tried  the  more  venturesome  necessities  of  the  CJhurch,  or  in  calamities — ^to  im- 

experiment  of  introducing  the  most  meritorious  works  plore  God's  aid  or  to  appease  His  just  wrath.    This 

of  contemporary  composers.    Wagner  forms  a  con-  form  of  prayer  finds  its  model  m  Psalm  cxxxv: 

spicuous  example  of  his  courageous  propaganda.    His  "Praise  the  Lord,  for  he  is  eood:  for   his  mercy  en- 

(Uiampionship  of  the  great  dramatic  composer  in  con-  dureth  for  ever.    Praise  ye  the  God  of  gods  .  .  .  the 

versation  and  writing  and  by  the  production  of   his  Lord  of  lords  .  .  .  Who  alone  doth  ereat  wonders 

operas,  not  to  allude  to  financial  support  (and  all  this  .  .  .  Who  made  the  heavens",  etc.,  with  the  conclud- 

in  the  face  of  vehement  protest  and  demonstrative  ing  words  in  eatjh  verse,  "for  his  mercy  endureth  for 

antipathy),  did  more  to  advance  that  master's  theories  ever."    Similar  is  the  canticle  of  praise  by  the  youths 

and  compositions  and  to  give  him  a  status  in  the  world  in  the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.,  iii,  57-87),  with  the  re- 

of  art  than  all  other  agencies.  sponse,  'Upraise  and  exalt  him  above  all  for  ever." 

It  was  an  act  of  the  same  progressive  intrepidity.  In  the  Mass  of  the  Oriental  Church  we  find  several 

meeting  with  public  manifestations  of  protest  at  the  litanies  in  use  even  at  the  present  day.    Towards  the 

S3rf ormance  of  an  opera  of  one  of  his  pupils  ("  The  end  of  the  Mass  of  the  catechumens  the  deacon  asks 

arber  of  Bagdad"  by  Peter  Cornelius),  tnat  caused  all  to  pray;  he  formulates  the  petitions,  and  all  an- 

him  to  resign  his  position  as  court  conductor.    After  swer  "Kyrie  Eleison".   When  the  catechumens  have 

his  resignation  (1861)  he  lived  in  turn  at  Rome,  Buda-  departed,  the  deacon  asks  the  prayers:  for  the  peace 

pest,  and  Weimar.    Religion  which,  in  spite  of  his  and  welfare  of  the  world,  for  the  Holy,  Catholic,  and 

earlier    associations,    was    only    temporarily    over-  Aix)stolic  Church,  for  the  bishops  and  priests,  for  the 

shadowed,  had  for  several  years  been  again  playing  an  sick,  for  those  who  have  gone  astray,  etc.,  to  each  of 

active  part  in  his  life.     As  early  as  1856  or  1858  he  be-  which  petitions  the  faithful  answer  "  Kyrie  Eleison", 

came  a  Franciscan  tertiary.    The  failure  of  the  Prin-  or  " Grant  us,  O  Lord",  or  "  We  beseech  Thee."    The 

cess  Caroline  von  Sayn- Wittgenstein,  a  most  estimable  litany  is  concluded  by  the  words,  "  Save  us,  restore  us 

lady  whose  influence  over  him  was  most  potent  for  again,  O  Lord,  by  Thy  mercy."    The  last  petitions  in 

good,  to  secure  a  dispensation  to  marry  nim,  only  our  Litany  of  the  Saints,  with  the  resix)nse8  ''Deliver 

brought  his  religious  designs  to  a  more  definite  point,  us,  O  Lord"  and  "  We  beseech  Thee  hear  us",  show  a 

He  received  minor  orders  from  Cardinal  Hohenlohe  in  great  resemblance  to  the  Mass  Litany  of  the  Greek 

his  private  chapel  at  the  Vatican  on  25  April,  1866.  Church.     In  the  Ambrosian  or  Milanese  Rite  two  lit- 

This  he  did,  "  convinced  that  this  act  would  strengthen  anies  are  recited  on  the  Sundays  of  Lent  instead  of  the 

n»«»  in  the  right  road",  and  therefore  he  "  accomplished  "  Gloria  in  excelsis  ".    In  the  Stowe  Missal  a  litany  is 

JL  without  effort,  in  all  simplicity  and  uprightness  of  inserted  l^etween  the  Epistle  and  Gospel  (Duchesne, 

intention",  and  as  agreeing  "with  the  antecedents  of  "Christian  Worship",  London,  1904,  190).    The  Ro- 


UTAHT 


287 


UTANT 


znaii  Missal  has  retained  the  prayers  for  all  classes  of 
people  in  the  Mass  of  the  Presanctified  on  Good  Fri- 
day, a  full  litanv  on  Hol^  Saturday,  and  the  triple 
repetition  of  "Kyrie  Eleison",  "Christe  Eleison", 
"Kyrie  Eleison",  in  every  Mass.    The  frequent  repe- 
tition of  the  "Kyrie"  was  probably  the  onginal  form 
of  the  Litany,  and  was  in  use  in  Asia  and  in  Kome  at  a 
veiy  early  date.   The  Council  of  Vaison  in  529  passed 
the  decree :  "  Let  that  beautiful  custom  of  all  the  prov- 
inces of  the  East  and  of  Italy  be  kept  up,  viz.,  that  of 
BJnyng  with  great  effect  and  compunction  the  '  Kyrie 
Eleison'  at  Mass,  Matins,  and  Vespers,  because  so 
sweet  and  pleasing  a  chant,  even  though  continued  day 
and  night  without  interruption,  could  never  produce 
disgust  or  weariness  ".   The  number  of  repetitions  de^ 
pended  upon  the  celebrant.  This  litany  is  prescribed 
m  the  Roman  Breviary  at  the  "Preces  Fenales*'  and 
in  the  Monastic  Breviary  for  every  "Hora"  (Rule  of 
St.  Benedict,  ix,  17).  The  continuous  repetition  of  the 
"  Kyrie  "  is  used  to-day  at  the  consecration  of  a  church, 
while  the  relics  to  be  placed  in  the  altar  are  carried  in 
procession  around  the  church.    Because  the  **  Kyrie  " 
and  other  petitions  were  said  once  or  of tcner,  litanies 
were  called  plancej  temcBj  quince y  sepienop. 
When  peace  was  granted  to  the  (Jhurch  after  three 
.  centuries  of  bloody  persecution,  public  devotions  l^e- 
came  common  and  processions  were  frequently  held, 
with  preference  for  aays  which  the  heathens  had  held 
sacred.    These  processions  were  called  litanies,  and  in 
them  pictures  and  other  religious  emblems  were  car- 
ried,   in  Rome,  pope  and  people  would  go  in  proces- 
sion each  day,  especially  in  Lent,  to  a  different  church, 
to  celebrate  the  Sacred  Mysteries.    Thus  originated 
the  Roman  "  Stations '\  and  what  was  called  the 
"Litania  Major",  or  "Romana**.    It  was  held  on  25 
April,  on  which  day  the  heathens  had  celebrated  the 
festival  of  RobigaliOf  the  principal  feature  of  which 
was  a  procession.   The  Christian  litany  wh  ich  replaced 
it  set  out  from  the  church  of  S.  Ix)fenzo  in  Lucina, 
held  a  station  at  S.  Valentino  Outside  the  Walls,  and 
then  at  the  Milvian  Bridge.    From  thence,  instead  of 
proceeding  on  the  Claudian  Wav,  as  the  heathens  had 
aone,  it  turned  to  the  left  towards  the  Vatican,  stopped 
at  a  cross,  of  which  the  site  is  not  given,  and  again  in 
the  paradise  or  atrium  of  St.  Peter^,  and  fuially  in  the 
basilica  itself,  where  the  station  was  held  (Duchesne, 
288).    In  590,  when  a  pestilence  caused  by  an  over- 
flow of  the  Tiber  was  ravaging  Rome,  Gregory  the 
Great  commanded  a  litany  which  is  called  "Septi- 
formis'*;  on  the  preceding  day  he  exhorted  the  people 
to  fervent  prayer,  and  arranged  the  order  to  lie  ob- 
served in  the  procession,  viz.  that  the  clergy  from  S. 
Giovanni  Battista,  the  men  from  S.  Marcello,  the 
monks  from  8S.  Giovanni  e  Paolo,  the  unmarried 
women  from  SS.  Cosma  e  Damiano,  the  married 
women  from  San  Stefano,  the  widows  from  S.  Vitale, 
the  poor  and  the  children  from  S.  CoK^ilia,  were  all  to 
meet  at  S.  Maria  Maggiore.    The  "Litonia  Minor '\ 
or  "Gallicana",  on  theRogation  Days  before  Ascen- 
sion, was  introduced  (477)  by  St.  Mamertua,  Bishop  of 
Vienne,  on  account  of  the  earthquakes  and  other  car 
lamities  then  prevalent.    It  was  prescribed  for  the 
whole  of  Franldsh  Gaul,  in  511,  by  the  Council  of  Or- 
leans (can.  xxvii).    For  Rome  it  was  ordered  by  Leo 
III,  in  799.    In  the  Ambrosian  Rite  this  Htany  was 
celebrated  on  Monday,  Tuesdav,  and  Wednesday  after 
Ascension.    In  Spain  we  find  a  similar  litany  from 
Thursday  to  Saturday  after  Whitsuntide,  another 
from  the  first  to  third  of  November,  ordered  by  the 
Coimcil  of  Gerunda  in  517,  and  still  another  for  De- 
cember, commanded  by  the  synod  of  Toledo  in  638. 
In  England  the  Litany  of  Rogation  Days  (Gang- 
Days)  was  known  in  the  earliest  periods.    In  Germany 
it  was  ordered  by  a  Synod  of  Mainz  in  813.    Owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  Mass  Litany  became  popular  through 
its  use  in  processions,  numberless  varieties  were  soon 
made,  espedally  in  the  Middle  Ages.    Litanies  ap- 


peared in  honour  of  God  the  Father,  of  God  the  Son,  of 
God  the  Holy  Ghost,  of  the  Precious  Blood,  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  of  each 
of  the  saints  honoured  in  different  countries,  for  the 
souls  in  Purgatory,  etc.  In  1 60 1  Baronius  wrote  tha4. 
about  eighty  forms  were  in  circulation.  To  prevent 
abuse,  Pope  Clement  VIII,  by  decree  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion of  6  Sept.,  1601,  forbade  the  publication  of  any 
litany,  except  that  of  the  saints  as  found  in  the  litur- 
gical books  and  that  of  Loreto.  To-day  the  litanies 
approved  for  pul>lic  recitation  are:  of  All  Saints,  of 
Loreto,  of  the  Holy  Name,  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and 
of  St.  Joseph. 

Bishop  in  Journal  of  Theological  Studies  (1906),  133;  Rih 
mische  Quartabiehrift  (1904),  13;  Punkes  in  Kirchenlex.,  8.  v, 
Litanei;  Thill  in  I*astor  Bonus  (1891),  217  sqq.:  Kellner, 
Hcortologie  (Freiburg,  1906),  143  aqq.;  Krieo  in  jKraus,  Real' 
Encyk.,  8.  v.  Litanex;  Binterim,  Denkwardigkeiten,  IV,  I,  572 
sqq.;  Revue  B/nedidine.  Ill,  \\\\  V,  152;  Serarius,  Liton«u- 
tid  Mu  de  iilaniis  libeUi  duo  (Cologne,  1609). 

Francis  Mehshman. 

Litany  of  Loreto. — Despite  the  fact  that,  from 
the  seventeenth  century  onwards,  the  Litany  of  Lo- 
reto has  been  the  subject  of  endless  panegyrics  and 
ascetical  writings,  there  is  a  ^reat  lack  of  documentarv 
evidence  concerning  its  origm,  the  growth  and  devel- 
opment of  the  litany  into  the  forms  imder  which  we 
know  it,  and  as  it  was  for  the  first  time  definitely  ap- 
proved bv  the  Church  in  the  year  1587.  Some  writers 
declare  that  they  know  nothing  of  its  origin  and  his- 
tory; others,  on  the  contrary,  trace  it  back  to  the 
translation  of  the  Holy  House  (1294) ;  others,  to  Pope 
Sergius  I  (687);  others,  again,  to  St.  Gregory  tne 
Great  or  to  the  fifth  centur>';  while  others  go  as  far 
back  as  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Church,  and  even 
Apostohc  times.  Historical  criticism,  however,  proves 
it  to  be  of  more  recent  origin,  and  show3  that  it  was 
composed  during  the  early  years  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury or  the  closmg  years  of  the  fifteenth.  The  most 
ancient  printed  copy  hitherto  discovered  is  that  of 
Dillingen  in  Germany,  dating  from  1558;  it  is  fairly 
certain  that  this  is  a  copy  of  an  earlier  Italian  one.  but 
so  far,  in  spite  of  much  careful  research,  the  oldest 
Italian  copy  that  the  writer  has  been  able  to  discover 
dates  from  1576. 

In  form,  the  Litany  of  Loreto  is  composed  on  a  fixed 
plan  common  to  several  Marian  litanies  already  in  ex- 
istence during  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
which  in  turn  are  connected  with  a  notable  series  of 
Marian  litanies  that  began  to  appear  in  the  twelfth 
century  and  became  numerous  in  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth.  The  Loreto  text  had,  however,  the  good 
fortune  to  be  adopted  in  the  famous  shrine,  and  in  this 
way  to  become  known,  more  than  any  other,  to  the 
many  pilgrims  who  flocked  there  during  the  sixteenth 
centur^'.  The  text  was  brought  home  to  the  various 
countnes  of  Christendom,  and  finally  it  received  for  all 
time  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  sanction. 

Appendea  is  a  brief  r<5sum^  of  the  work  published  by 
the  present  WTiter  on  this  subject,  the  references  being 
to  tne  revised  and  enlarged  French  edition  of  19(X), 
supplemented  by  any  new  matter  brought  to  light 
since  that  time. 

Sauren  claims  that  the  first  and  oldest  Marian  litany 
is  a  pious  laus  to  the  Virgin  in  the  "  Leabhar  Breac  *'  a 
fourteenth-cent urv'  MS.,  now  in  the  library  of  the 
Roval  Irish  Academy,  and  written  "in  the  purest 
style  of  Gaedhlic",  according  to  0'Curr>',  who  ex- 
plained its  various  parts.  This  laus  of  fiftv-nine 
eulogies  on  the  Virgin  occurs  on  fol.  121,  and  O  Curry 
calls  it  a  lHanin,  attributing  it  at  the  latest  to  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighth  century.  But  it  has  not  at  all 
the  fo.rm  of  a  litany,  being  rather  a  sequence  of  fer- 
vent praises,  like  so  many  that  occur  in  the  writings 
of  the  Fathers,  especially  after  the  fourth  century. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  Dr.  Sicking  has  shown  that  the  en- 
tire laus  of  the  '*  Leabhar  Breac"  is  copied  alxnj:^^ 


LITAHT  288  UTAHY 

wonl  for  word  from  the  first  aud  third  of  the  "Ser-  and  of  gradually  shortening  the  text,  it  was  not  long 

mones  Dubii'*  of  St.  Ildcphonsus.  until  the  idea  occurred  of  employing  them  for  public 

The  earliest  genuine  text  of  a  Marian  litany  thus  far  devotion,  especiidly  in  cases  of  epidemic,  as  had  been 

known  is  in  a  twelfth-century  codex  in  the  Mainz  the  practice  of  the  Church  with  thie  litanies  of  the 

Library^  with  the  title  ''Letania  de  domina  nostra  Saints,  which  were  sung  in  penitential  processions  and 

Dei  genitrice  virgine  Maria:  oratio  valde  bona:  cotti-  during  public  calamities.     Hence  it  must  be  empha- 

die  pro  quacumque  tribulatione  recitanda  est".    It  is  sized  that  the  earliest  certain  mention  we  have  of  a 

fairly  long,  and  was  published  in  part  by  Mone,  and  in  pubUc  recital  of  Marian  Litanies  is  actually  related  to 

its  entirety  by  the  present  writer.    It  opens  with  the  A  time  of  pestilence,  particularly  in  the  fifteenth  oen- 

usual  '^  Kyrie  Eleisou" ;  then  follow  the  mvocations  of  tury.  An  incunabulum  of  the  Casanatensian  Librarv  in 

the  Trinity,  but  w^ith  amplifications,  e.  g.  **  Pater  de  Rome,  which  contains  the  Venice  litanies  referrea  to 

celis  deus,  qui  elegisti  Mariam  semper  virginem,  mise-  above,  introduces  them  with  the  following  words: 

rere  nobis";  these  are  followed  by  invocations  of  the  "Oraciones  devote  contra  imminentes  tribulaciones 

Virgin  Mary  in  a  long  series  of  praises,  of  which  a  brief  et  contra  pestem".    At  Venice,  in  fact,  these  same 

selection  will  be  enough:  ''Sancta  Maria,  stirps  patri-  litanies  were  finally  adopted  for  Uturgical  use  in  pro- 

archarum,  vaticinium  prophetarum,  solatium  aposto-  cessions  for  plague  and  mortality  and  asking  for  rain 

lonim,  rosa  martirum,  predicatio  confessorum,  lilium  or  for  fair  weather.     Probably  they  began  to  be 

virginum,  ora  pro  nobis  benedictum  ventris  tui  fruc-  sung  in  this  connexion  during  the  calamities  of  the 

tum";  " Sancta  Maria,  spes  humilium^  refugium  pau-  fifteenth  century;    but  in  the  following  century  we 

perum,  portus  naufragantium,  mediema  infirmorum,  find  them  prescribed,  as  being  an  ancient  custom,  in 

ora  pro  nobis  benedictum  ventris  tui  fructum",  etc.  the  ceremonials  of  St.  Mark's,  and  they  were  hence- 

This  goes  on  for  more  than  fifty  times,  always  repeat-  forth  retained  until  after  the  fall  of  the  republic,  i.  e. 

ing  the  invocation  "Sancta  Maria",  but  varying  the  until  1820. 

laudatory  titles  given.    Then,  after  the  manner  of  the        In  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  we  meet 

litanies  of  the  saints,  a  series  of  petitions  occur,  e.  g.:  another  type  of  litany  which  was  to  be  pubhcly  chanted 

"  Per  mundissimum  virgineum  partum  tuum  ab  omni  tempore  pestis  sive  epydimie.    The  invocations  are 

immundicia  mentis  et  corporis  liberet  nos  benedictus  very  simple  and  all  begm,  not  with  the  words  "Sancta 

ventris  tui  fructus";  and  farther  on,  "Ut  ecclesiam  Maria",    but  with  "Sancta  mater",   e.  g.:    Sancta 

suam  sanctam  pacificarc,  custodire,  adunare  et  regere  mater  Creatoris;  Sancta  mater  Salvatoris;  Sancta  ma- 

dignetur  benedictus  ventris  tui  fructus,  ora  mater  ter  munditie;  Sancta  mater  auxilii;  Sancta  mater  con- 

virgo  Maria."    The  litany  concludes  with  the  "Ag-  solationis:  Sancta  mater  intemerata;  Sancta  mater  in- 

nus",  also  amplified,  "  Agne  dei,  filius  matris  virginis  violata;  Sancta  mater  virginum,  etc.    At  the  end. 

Marie  qui  toUis  peccata  mundi,  parce  nobis  Domine",  however,  are  a  few  short  petitions  such  as  those  found 

etc.  in  the  litanies  of  the  saints. 

Lengthy  and  involved  litanies  of  this  type  do  not  Before  going  further,  it  may  be  well  to  say  a  few 
seem  to  have  won  popularity,  though  it  is  possible  to  words  on  the  composition  of  the  litanies  we  have  been 
find  other  examples  of  a  like  kind.  However,  during  considering.  With  regard  to  their  content^  which  con- 
the  two  centuries  that  followed,  many  Marian  litanies  sists  mainly  of  praises  of  the  Blessed  Virgm,  it  would 
were  composed.  Their  form  remains  uncertain  and  seem  to  have  been  taken  not  so  much  from  the  Scrip- 
hesitating,  but  the  tendency  is  always  towards  brevity  tures  and  the  Fathers,  at  least  directly,  21s  from  popu- 
and  simplicity.  To  each  invocation  of  "  Sancta  lar  medieval  Latin  poetry.  To  be  convinced  of  tnis, 
Maria"  it  becomes  customary  to  add  only  one  praise,  it  suffices  to  glance  through  the  Daniel  and  Mone 
and  these  praises  show  in  general  a  better  choice  or  a  collections,  and  especially  through  the  ''  Analecta 
better  arrangement.  The  petitions  are  often  omitted  H>Tnnica  medii  »vi  of  Dreves-Blume.  In  the  earlier 
or  are  changed  into  ejaculations  in  honour  of  the  and  longer  litanies  whole  rhythmic  strophes  are  to  be 
Blessed  Virgin.  found,  ^en  bodily  from  such  poetry,  and  emploved 

A  Utany  of  this  new  form  is  that  of  a  codex  in  the  as  praises  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.     With  regard  to  their 

Library  of  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  dating  from  the  end  of  form,  it  is  certain  that  those  who  first  composed  the 

the  tmrteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  Marian  litanies  aimed  at  imitating  the  litanies  of  the 

century.    It  is  found,  though  with  occasional  vari-  Saints  which  had  been  in  use  in  the  Church  since  the 

ants,  in  many  manuscripts,  a  sure  sign  that  this  text  eighth  century.    During  the  Middle  Ages,  as  is  well 

was  especially  well  known  and  favourably  received.  known,itwascustomarytorcpeatover  and  over  single 

It  omits  the  petitions,  and  consists  of  seventy-five  invocations  in  the  litanies  of  the  saints,  and  thus  we 

praises  joined  to  the  usual  invocation,  '^Sancta  Maria",  find  that  the  basic  principle  of  the  Marian  litanies  ia 

Here  is  a  short  specimen,  showing  the  praises  to  be  met  this  constant  repetition  of  the  invocation.  ''Sancta 

with  most  frequently  also  in  other  litanies  of  that  or  of  Maria,  ora  pro  nobis."    And  in  order  that  this  repeti- 

later  times:  "  Holy  Manr ,  Mother  and  Spouse  of  Christ,  tion  might  not  prove  monotonous  in  the  Middle  Ages 

pray  for  me  [other  MSS.  have  "pray  for  us" — the  recourse  was  had  to  an  expedient  since  then  univer- 

"pray"  is  always  repeated];  Holy  Mary^  Mother  in-  sally  used,  not  only  in  private  devotions  but  even  in 

violate;  Holy  ^iary,  Temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  Holy  liturgical  prayer,  that  ot  amplifying  by  means  of  what 

Mary,  Queen  of  Heaven;  Holy  Mary,  Mistress  of  the  are  called  tropes  or farcUura,  They  had  a  model  in  the 

Angels;  Holy  Mary,  Stair  of  Heaven;    Holy  Mary,  Kyrie  of  the  Mass,  e.  g.  "Kyrie,  ?ons  bonitatis,  pater 

Gate  of  Paradise;  Iloly  Mar\',  Mother  of  True  Coun-  ingenite,  a  quo  bona  cuncta  procedunt,  eleison.       It 

eel;  Holy  Mar>',  (late  of  Celestial  Life;  Holy  Mary,  was  an  easy  matter  to  improvise  between  the  "Sancta 

Our  Advocate;  Holy  Mary,  brightest  Star  of  Heaven;  Maria"  and  the  "Ora  pro  nobis",  repeated  over  BnA 

Holy  Mary,  Fountain  of  True  Wisdom;  Holy  Mary,  over,  a  series  of  tropes  consisting  of  different  praises, 

unfading  Rose;  Holy  Mary,  Beauty  of  Angels;  Holy  with  an  occasional  added  petition,  imitated  however 

Mar}',  Flower  of  Patriarchs;  Holy  Mary,  Desire  of  broadly  from  the  Utanies  of  the  saints.    Thus  the 

Prophets;  Holy  Mary,  Treasure  of  Apostles;  Holy  Marian  litany  was  evolved. 

Maiy,  Praise  of  Martyrs;  Holy  Maiy ,  Glorification  of        Gradually  the  praises  became  simpler;  at  times  the 

Priests;  Holy  Mary,  Inmiaculate  Virgin;  Holy  Mary,  petitions  were  omitted,  and,  from  tne  second  half  of 

Splendour  of  Virgins  and  Example  of  Chastity",  etc.  the  fifteenth  century,  the  repetition  of  the  "Sancta 

The  first  Marian  litanies  must  have  been  composed  Maria"  began  to  l>e  avoided,  so  that  the  praises  alone 

to  foster  private  devotion,  as  it  is  not  at  all  prooable  remained,  with  the  accompaniment  "Ora pro  nobis", 

that  they  were  written  for  use  in  public,  by  reason  of  This  made  up  the  new  group  of  litanies  which  we  must 

their  drawn-out  and  heavy  style.    But  once  the  now  consider.    The  connecting  link  between  the 

custom  grew  up  of  reciting  Marian  litanies  privately,  litanies  we  have  disouased  and  this  new  group  may 


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289 


UTANT 


Have  been  a  litany  found  in  a  manuscript  of  prayers, 
copied  in  1524  by  Fra  Giovanni  da  Faleroiia.  It  con- 
sists of  fifty-seven  praises,  and  the  "Sancta  Maria"  is 
repeated,  but  only  at  intervals  of  six  or  seven  praises, 
perhaps  because  the  shape  or  size  of  the  parchment 
was  so  small  that  it  held  only  six  or  seven  lines  to  the 
page»  and  the  oop3ast  contented  himself  with  writing 
the  "Sancta  Maria"  once  at  the  head  of  each  page. 
But,  because  of  its  archaic  form,  this  litany  must 
be  eoDsiderably  anterior  to  1524,  and  may  have 
been  copied  from  some  fifteenth-centurv  MS.  The 
praises  are  chosen  in  part  from  previous  fitanies,  and 
m  part  they  are  original.  Moreover,  their  arrange- 
ment is  better  and  more  varied.  The  first  place  is 
given  to  praises  bestowed  on  the  name  of  "Mater"; 
then  come  those  expressing  the  Blessed  Virgin's  ten- 
der love  for  mankind;  then  the  titles  given  her  in  the 
creeds;  then  those  beginning  with  "Regina",  which 
are  identical  with  those  we  now  have  in  the  Litany  of 
Loreto.  Two  new  titles  are  introduced:  "Causa 
nostne  UetitisB"  and  "Vas  spirituale",  which  are  not 
found  in  earlier  litanies.  Noteworthy  also  are  three 
invocations,  "Advocata  christianorum",  "Refugium 
desperatorum",  ''Auxilium  peccatonim",  which 
passed  by  an  easy  change  into  the  "  Ref ugium  pecca- 
tonim" and  "  Aoxilium  christianorum"  of  the  Litany 
of  Loreto.  In  a  word,  if  we  omit  the  petitions  of  this 
older  form,  and  its  reiteration  of  the  "Sancta  Maria", 
we  have  a  litany  which  in  the  choice  and  arrangement 
of  praises  comes  very  close  to  the  Litany  of  Loreto. 

Now  there  are  many  similar  examples  in  which  the 
litany  consists  of  praises  alone  without  the  re]3ctition 
of  the  "  Sancta  Mairia",  and  in  which  arrangement  and 
form  come  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  Litany  of  Lo- 
reto. Such  are:  (1)  a  litany  in  a  manuscript  of  the 
Biblioteca  Angelica  in  Rome  (formerly.  No.  392;  sec- 
ond half  of  the  fifteenth  century;  fol.  123).  Except 
for  light  variants,  it  is  identical  with  one  printed  at 
Venice  in  1561,  and  another  printed  at  Capri  in  1503; 
(2)  a  litany  found  in  a  manuscript  missal  of  the  six- 
teenth century;  (3)  a  litany  printed  at  Venice  in  two 
different  editions  of  the  ''Officium  B.  Virginis"  in 
1513  and  1545;  (4)  a  litany  found  in  a  codex  of  the 
'^Gompagnia  della  Concezione  di  Maria  SS."  of  Fiorcn- 
suola  a'Arda  (Piacenza),  founded  in  1511 ;  (5)  a  litany 
found  in  a  codex  of  the  priory  of  Sts.  Philip  and  James, 
Apostles,  at  Montegranaro,  m  which  the  baptisms  dur- 
ing the  years  1548-58  are  recorded.  This  litany  is  the 
shortest  ^  all  and  the  closest  in  similarity  to  that  of 
Loreto. 

This  form  of  litanv  was  widely  circulated,  both  in 
script  and  in  print,  during  the  sixteenth  century.  A 
comparison  ot  the  texts  will  show  that  they  contain 
the  praises  in  the  Loreto  Litany,  with  two  exceptions: 
the  "Virgo  prudentissima"  of  the  Loreto  Litany  is 
found  as  *' Virgo  prudens",  and  the  "  Auxilium  chris- 
tianorum", though  it  appears  in  no  text  before  this 
time,  is,  as  remarked  above,  an  easy  variant  of  the 
litany  of  1524.  So  far  no  MS.  of  the  Loreto  Litany  has 
been  discovered,  but  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  it  is 
nothing  more  than  a  happy  arrangement  of  a  text  be- 
longing to  the  last  group.  And,  moreover,  it  may  be 
laid  down  as  probable  that  the  Loreto  text  became 
customary  in  tne  Holy  House  towards  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  at  a  time  when  in  other  places  sim- 
ilar litanies  were  being  adapted  for  pul:)Iic  use  to  ob- 
tain deliverance  from  some  calamity.  It  is  only  in 
1531, 1547,  and  1554,  that  the  documents  afford  indi- 
cations of  litanies  being  sung  in  that  sanctuary,  though 
ibe  text  is  not  given. 

The  earliest  printed  copy  of  the  Litany  of  I^orcto 
80  far  known  is  that  of  Dillingen,  which  is  undated, 
and  seems  to  belong  to  the  end  of  1557  or  the  begin- 

nof  1558.    As  Dr.  Paulus,  following  up  a  discovery 
)  by  Gass,  has  observed,  it  was  probably  pul>- 
Hshed  and  circulated  in  Germany  by  Blessed  Canisius. 
It  is  entitled:  "Letania  Loretana.     Ordnung  der 
-     DL— 10 


Letaney  von  unser  lieben  Frawen  wie  sie  zu  Ix>reto 
alle  Samstaff  gehalten"  (Order  of  the  Litany  of  Our 
Lady  as  said  every  Saturday  at  Loreto).  The  text  is 
just  the  same  as  w^e  have  it  to-day,  except  that  it  has 
"Mater  piissima"  and  "Mater  mirabilis",  where  we 
have  "Alater  purissima''  and  "Mater  admirabilis''. 
Further,  the  invocations  "Mater  creatoris"  and  "Ma- 
ter salvatoris"  are  wanting,  though  this  must  be  due 
to  some  oversight  of  the  editor,  since  they  are  found  in 
ever>'  manuscript  of  this  group;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
"Auxilium  chnstianorum "  is  introduced  though  it 
does  not  occur  in  the  other  texts.  We  find  this  title  in 
a  Litany  of  Loreto  printed  in  1 558.  As  already  shown 
in  the  writer's  book  on  this  subject.  Pope  Pius  V  could 
not  have  introduced  the  invocation  "Auxilium  chris- 
tianorum" in  1571  after  the  Battle  of  Lepanto,  as 
stated  in  the  sixth  lesson  of  the  Roman  Breviary  for 
the  feast  of  S.  Maria  Auxiliatrix  (24  May) ;  and  to  this 
conclusion  the  Dillingen  text  adds  indisputable  evi- 
dence. • 

The  Litany  of  Loreto  had  taken  root  at  Loreto,  and 
was  being  spread  throughout  the  world,  when  it  ran 

frave  risk  of  being  lost  forever.  St.  Pius  V  by  Motu 
•roprio  of  20  March,  1571,  pu'  lished  5  April,  had 
prohibited  all  existing  offices  of  the  B.  V.  Alary, 
disapproving  in  general  all  the  prayers  therein,  and 
substituting  a  new  **Officium  B.  Virginis''  with- 
out those  prayers  and  consequently  without  any 
litany.  It  would  seem  that  this  action  on  the  part 
of  the  pope  led  the  clergy  of  Loreto  to  fear  that 
the  text  of  their  litany  was  likewise  prohibited.  At 
all  events,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  old  time  custom 
of  singing  the  litany  every  Saturday  in  honour  of  the 
BlesS(^  Virgin,  a  new  text  was  drawn  up  containing 
praises  drawn  directly  from  the  Scriptures,  and  usu- 
ally applied  to  the  fil.  Vii^gin  in  the  Liturgy  of  the 
Churcn.  This  new  litany  was  set  to  music  by  the 
choirmaster  of  the  Basilica  of  Loreto,  Costanzo  Porta, 
and  printed  at  Venice  in  1575.  It  is  the  earliest  set- 
ting to  music  of  a  Marian  litany  that  we  know  of.  In 
the  following  year  (1576)  these  Scriptural  litanies 
were  printed  in  two  different  handbooks  for  the  use  of 
pilgrims.  In  both  they  Iwar  the  title:  "Litaniae  dei- 
parss  Virginis  ex  Sacra  Script ura  depromptaj  quie  in 
alma  Domo  laurctana  omnibus  diebus  Sahhathi,  Vig- 
iliarum  et  Festorum  decantari  solent".  But  in  the 
second  handbook,  the  work  of  Bemardine  Cirillo, 
archpriest  of  Loreto,  the  old  text  of  the  litxiny  is  also 
printed,  though  with  the  plainer  title,  "Alice  LitanisB 
Beatse  Marise  Virgiuis",  a  clear  sign  that  it  was  not 
quite  fc^otten. 

On  5  Feb.,  1578,  the  archdeacon  of  Loreto,  Giulio 
Candiotti,  sent  to  Pope  Gregory  XIII  the  "Laudi  o 
Icttanie  modeme  della  s°^  Verginc,  cavate  dalla  sacra 
Scrittura"  (New  praises  or  litanies  of  the  most  holy 
Virgin,  drawn  from  Sacred  Scripture),  with  Porta? 
masic  and  the  text  apart,  expressing  the  wish  tliat 
Ilis  Holiness  would  cause  it  to  Ixj  sung  in  St.  Peter's 
and  in  other  churches  as  was  the  custom  at  Loreto 
The  pope's  reply  is  not  known,  but  we  have  the  opin- 
ion of  the  theologian  to  whom  the  matter  was  referred, 
in  which  the  composition  of  the  new  litany  is  praised, 
but  which  does  not  judge  it  opportune  to  introduce  it 
into  Rome  or  into  church  use  on  the  authority  of  the 
pope,  all  the  more  l)eoause  Pius  V  "in  reforming 
the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  completely 
abolished,  among  other  things,  some  proper  litanies 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  which  existed  in  the  old  [office], 
and  which  (if  I  remember  rightly)  were  somewhat 
similar  to  these  ".  The  judgment  concludes  that  the 
litany  might  be  sung  at  Loreto  as  a  devotion  proper 
to  that  shrine,  and  if  others  wanted  to  adopt  it  they 
might  do  so  by  way  of  private  devotion. 

This  attempt  having  failed,  the  Scriptural  litany 
straightway  began  to  lase  favour,  and  the  Loreto  text 
was  once  more  resumed.  In  another  manual  for  ^U 
grims,  published  by  Angelita  in  that  same  year  1578^ 


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290 


UTANY 


the  Scriptural  litanv  is  omitted,  and  the  old  Loreto 
text  appears  with  tho  title:  "Letanie  che  si  cantano 
nella  Santa  Casa  di  Loreto  o^i  Sabbato  et  feste  delle 
Madonna''.  In  a  new  edition  (1580)  of  Angelita's 
book,  the  Scriptural  litany  is  restored  but  relegated  to 
a  secondary  position^  though  included  under  the  title 
**  Altre  letanie  che  si  cantano '\  etc.  From  this  it  is 
clear  that  for  a  time  both  litanies  were  in  use  at 
Loreto.  But  in  subsequent  editions  of  Angelita's 
manual,  and  in  other  manuals  of  devotion,  the  Scrip- 
tural litany  is  printed  with  the  bare  title  "Litamse 
ex  S.  Scriptura  depromptffi",  until  the  seventeenth 
century  wnen  it  disappears  altogether.  Meanwhile, 
thanks  to  Angelita's  manuals,  the  Loreto  text  was 
introduced  elsewhere,  and  even  reached  Rome,  when 
Sixtus  V.  who  had  entertained  a  singular  devotion  for 
Loreto,  by  the  Bull  "Reddituri"  of  11  July,  1587, 

faVe  formal  approval  to  it,  as  to  the  litany  of  the  Holy 
^ame  of  Jesus,  and  recommended  preachers  every- 
where to  propagate  its  use  among  the  faithful. 

On  the  stren^h  hf  this  impulse  given  to  the  Litany 
of  Loreto,  certain  ascetical  writers  oegan  to  publish  a 

rftt  number  of  litanies  in  honour  of  the  Saviour,  the 
Virgin,  and  the  saints,  often  ill-advised  and  con- 
taining expressions  theologically  incorrect,  so  that 
Pope  Clement  VIII  had  promulgated  (6  Sept.,  1601)  a 
severe  decree  of  the  Holy  Oflfice,  which,  while  up- 
holding the  litanies  contamed  in  the  litur^cal  books 
as  well  as  the  Litany  of  Loreto,  prohibited  the  publica- 
tion of  new  litanies,  or  use  of  those  already  published 
in  public  worship,  without  the  approbation  oi  the  Con- 
gregation of  Rites. 

At  Rome  the  Litany  of  Loreto  was  introduced  into 
the  Basilica  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore  by  Cardinal  Fran- 
cesco Toledo  in  1597;  and  Paul  V,  in  1613,  ordered  it 
to  be  sung  in  that  church,  morning  and  evening,  on 
Saturdays  and  on  vigils  and  feasts  of  the  Madonna. 
As  a  result  of  this  example  the  Loreto  Litany  began 
to  be  used,  and  is  still  lai^ely  used,  in  all  the  churches 
of  Rome.  The  Dominicans,  at  their  general  chapter 
held  at  Bologna  in  1615,  ordered  it  to  be  recited  in  all 
the  convents  of  their  order  after  the  Office  on  Satur- 
days at  the  end  of  the  customary  "Salve  Regina". 
Before  this  they  had  caused  the  invocation  ''Regina 
sacratissimi  rosarii''  to  be  inserted  in  the  litany,  and  it 
appears  in  print  for  the  first  time  in  a  Dominican 
Breviary  dated  1614,  as  has  been  pointed  out  by 
Father  Walsh,  O.P.,  in  "The  Tablet'\  24  Oct.,  1908. 
Although  by  decree  of  1631,  and  by  Bull  of  Alexander 
VII  (1664),  it  was  strictly  forbidden  to  make  any 
additions  to  the  litanies,  another  decree  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  Rites,  dated  1675,  permitted  the  Confrater- 
nity of  the  Rosarjr  to  add  the  invocation  "Regina 
sacratissimi  rosarii",  and  this  was  prescribed  for  the 
whole  Church  by  Leo  XIII  (24  Dec.,  1883).  By  de- 
cree of  22  April,  1903,  the  same  pope  added  the  invoca- 
tion "Mater  boni  consilii",  which,  under  the  form  of 
"Mater  veri  consilii*',  was  contained  in  the  Marian 
litany  used  for  centuries  in  S.  Mark's,  Venice,  as  indi- 
cated above.  In  1766  Clement  XIII  granted  Spain 
the  privilege  o{  adding  after  "  Mater  intemerata'  the 
invocation  "Mater  immaculata",  which  is  still  cus- 
tomary in  Spain,  notwithstanding  the  addition  of 
"Regina  sine  labe  oriRinali  concepta".  This  last  in- 
vocation was  originalfy  granted  oy  Pius  IX  to  the 
Bishop  of  Mechlin  in  1946,  and,  after  the  definition  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception  (1854),  the  congregation 
by  various  rescripts  authorized  many  dioceses  to  make 
a  like  addition,  so  that  in  a  short  time  it  became  the 
universal  practice.  For  these  various  decrees  of  the 
Congregation  of  Rites,  see  Sauren,  27-29:  71-78. 

De  SAim.  L«  Litanie  lauretane  in  Civitth  Cfattoliea  (Dec., 
:996-April.  1897):  ibid.  (Nov.,  18Q9).  456-62;  ibid,  (Dcm;.. 
1899),  637-38;  published  in  book  form:  Db  Santi,  Le  Litanie 
laurelane  (Borne.  1897);  French  tr.  Boudinhon.  Les  Litanie* 
de  la  Saints.  Vurgr  (Paris,  1900);  Germ.  tr.  NOrpbl,  Die  laure- 
imniaehe  Litanei  (Paderbom.  1900);  Vooel,  De  eccleeiit  Re- 
eanat.  et  Lauret.,  1  (Recanati,  1859),  315-30;  Sauren,  Die 
taunUmieche  IManei  (Kempten,  1895);  Sxckxnq,  Twm  liianien 


dn-  n.  Maagd  in  De  KaihoUck  (Leyden.  1900),  329-36;  QaSB. 
Daa  A  Uer  der  lauretaniechen  Litanei  in  Straeeburifer  DideemnMaU 
(1901),  264-68;  Paulds,  Die  Einfahrung  der  lauretaniaehen 
Litanei  in  Deutachland  dureh  den  aeiwen  Caniaitu  in  Zeiiseh.  far 
kath.  theol.  (1902),  571-83;  Waubh,  Reffina  SaeraHaeimi  RoaarH 
in  The  Tablet  (24  Oct.,  1908),  656;  De  Santi,  Per  la  Horia  ddU 
Litanie  lauretane  in  CtviUii  CaUolica  (Nov.,  1909),  302-13. 

Angelo  De  Santi. 

Litany  of  the  Holy  Name,  an  old  and  popular 

form  of  prayer  in  honour  of  the  Name  of  Jesus.  The 
author  is  not  known.  Probably  Binterim  (DenkwQr- 
digkeiten,  IV,  I,  597)  is  correct  in  ascribing  it  to  the 
celebrated  preachers  of  the  Holy  Name,  Saints  Ber- 
nardine  of  Siena  and  John  Capistran,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  At  the  request  of  the  Car- 
melites, Pope  Sixtus  V  (1686-90)  granted  an  indul- 
gence of  300  days  for  its  recitation  (Samson,  "Die 
Allerheiligen  Litanei",  Paderbom,  1894, 14).  Thou^ 
this  was  an  implied  recognition  of  the  litany,  reouests 
made  in  1640, 1642,  and  1662,  for  formal  approval  were 
rejected.  In  1862  Pius  IX  approved  one  of  the  for- 
mularies in  use,  and  attached  an  indulgence  of  300 
days  for  the  faithful  of  the  dioceses  whose  bishops  had 
made  special  application.  Leo  XIII  (16  Jan.,  1886) 
extended  the  privilege  to  the  entire  world  (Beringer, 
"  Die  Ablasse'S  Paderbom,  1900, 142). 

This  litany  is  arranged  on  the  plan  of  the  Litanv  of 
Loreto,  and  begins  with  the  invocation  of  the  Holy 
Trinity.  The  first  part  enumerates  a  list  of  praises 
referring  to  Jesus  as  (jod  and  as  man.  Rememoering 
the  blessing  bestowed  on  Peter's  confession  (MatUi., 
xvi,  16),  we  call  Jesus,  "Son  of  the  Living  God". 
"  Splendour  of  the  Father '  *^  and  "  Brightness  of  Eternal 
Light"  (the  true  light,  which  cnlighteneth  every  man 
that  Cometh  into  this  world — John,  i,  9).  He  is  the 
"King  of  Glory"  (Ps.  xxiii,  10),  the  '^Sun  of  Justice, 
rising  for  them  that  fear  the  name  of  the  Lord  "  C^d., 
iv,  2).  But,  lest  this  splendour  and  glory  maice  us 
fear,  we  turn  to  Jesus  in  His  humanity^  and  appeal  to 
him  as  "Son  of  the  Virgin  Mary",  and,  as  such,  "ami- 
able" and  "admirable";  and,  though  annihilating 
Himself  in  taking  the  form  of  a  servant  (Phil.,  ii,  7), 
He  is  still  the  "  mighty  God",  "  Father  of  the  world  to 
come",  "Angel  of  the  great  counsel"  (Is.,  ix,  6). 
Again,  though  "most  powerful",  he  has  become  for  us 
"most  patient"  (led  as  a  sheep  to  the  slaughter — 
Acts,  viii,  32),  "most  obedient"  (even  to  the  death  of 
the  cross — Phil.,  ii,  8)^  "meek  and  humble  of  hesart" 
(Matth.,  xi,  29).  He  is  the  "Lover  of  chastity"  and 
"Lover  of  us",  blessing  the  clean  of  heart  (Matth.,  v, 
8),  and  proving  His  love  for  us  by  giving  His  life  to 
procure  that  peace  which  the  angels  announced  (Luke, 
li,  14)  and  hfe  everlasting,  whence  He  is  "God  of 
peace"  and  "  Author  of  life".  During  His  sojourn  on 
earth  He  was,  and  is  to-day,  "  Model  of  virtues"  and 
"  zealous  for  souls",  "  our  God  "  and  "  our  refuge" ;  He 
is  "  Father  of  the  poor"  and  "  Treasure  of  the  faithful", 
the  "  Good  Shepherd"  Who  lays  down  His  life  for  His 
sheep  (John,  x,  11) ;  He  is  the  *^Tme  Light",  "  Eternal 
Wisdom".  "Infinite  Goodness",  "our  Way  and  our 
Life"  (John,  xiv,  6);  He  is  the  "Joy  of  Angeb"  and 
"King  of  Patriarchs".  Through  Him  all  nave  ob- 
tained the  knowledge  and  strength  to  accomplish 
God's  designs,  for  He  is  "Master  of  Apostles",  "Tea- 
cher of  Evangelist*",  "Strength  of  Martyrs",  "Light 
of  Confessors",  "  Punty  of  Virgins",  and  "Crown  of  all 
Saints".  After  again  calling  for  mercy  and  the  grant- 
ing of  our  prayers,  we,  in  the  second  part  of  the  litany, 
beg  Jesus  to  deliver  us  from  all  evil  tnat  would  keep  us 
from  the  attainment  of  our  last  end,  from  sin  and 
the  wrath  of  God,  the  snares  of  the  devil  and  the  spirit 
of  uncleanness,  from  eternal  death  and  the  ne^^eet  of 
His  inspirations.  We  adjure  Him  by  the  mystery  of 
His  holy  Incarnation,  His  nativity  and  infancy,  Hia 
most  Divine  life  and  labours.  His  agony  and  Paanoii. 
His  Cross  and  dereliction.  His  languor.  His  Death  ana 
burial,  His  Resurrection  and  Ascension,  His  loyt  and 
Glory.    (Where  sanctioned  by  the  biibop,  toe  Invo- 


UTANT 


291 


UTAHY 


cation  "Through  Thine  institution  of  the  most  holy 
Eucharist"  maybe  added  atter  *'  Through  Thine  Ascen- 
sion"—S.  R.  C,  8  Feb.,  1905).  The  litany  closes  with 
the  triple  invocation  of  the  Lamb  of  God,  the  petition, 
''Jesus  hear  us",  "Jesus  graciously  hear  us",  and  two 
prayers. 

Sea  under  Litant;  also  Theol  prakt,  QuariaUchrift  (1893), 
gZ;  (1902),  300.  621.  FRANCIS  MeRSHMAN. 

Utmy  of  the  Saints,  the  model  of  all  other  litanies, 
of  great  antiquity.  It  was  used  in  the  "  Litania  Septi- 
formis"  of  St.  Gregonr  the  Great,  and  in  the  procession 
of  St.  Blamertus.  in  the  Eastern  Churcn,  litanies 
with  the  invocation  of  saints  were  employed  in  the 
days  of  St.  Basil  (d.  379)  and  of  St.  Gregory  Thauma- 
turgus  (d.  about  270)  (Basil,  Ep.  Ixiii;  Socrates,  VI, 
viii;  Sosomen.  VIII,  vii).  It  is  not  known  when  or 
by  whom  the  litany  was  composed,  but  the  order  in 
wnich  the  Apostles  are  given,  corresponding  with  that 
ol  the  Canon  of  the  Mass,  proves  its  antiquity  (Walafr. 
Strabo,  "De  Reb.  Eccl.",  xxiii). 

The  litany  begins  with  the  call  for  mercy  upon  God 
the  Father,  God  the  Son,  and  God  the  Holy  Ghost,  in 
tiie  "Kyrie  eleison",  "Christe  eleison",  "Kyrie  elei- 
son".  Then,  considering  Christ  as  our  Saviour  and 
Mediator,  we  ask  Him  to  hear  us.  In  order  to  render 
more  secure  the  hearing  of  our  prayers,  we  again  ask 
each  <rf  the  Persons  of  tfie  Holy  Trinity  for  mercy,  and, 
adding  those  titles  which  give  us  a  claim  to  Their  con- 
fflderation,  we  call  upon  the  First  Person:  God,  the 
Father  of  Heaven,  to  whom  we  owe  existence  and  life; 
the  Second:  Redeemer  of  the  world,  to  Whom  we  owe 
our  salvation;  the  Third:  Holy  Gnost,  to  whom  we 
owe  our  sanctification;  and  then  on  the  Holy  Trinity, 
one  God.  To  render  God  propitious,  we,  aware  of  our 
own  imworthiness,  ask  the  intercession  of  those  who 
have  become  His  special  friends,  through  a  holy  life, 
the  saints  in  lasting  communion  with  Him.  Foremost 
among  these  stands  Mary,  the  chosen  daughter  of  the 
Father,  the  undefiled  mother  of  the  Son,  tiie  stainless 
bride  of  the  Holy  Ghost — ^we  call  upon  her  with  the 
triple  invocation:  Holy  Mary,  Mother  of  God,  Virgin 
ol  virgins.  We  then  mvoke  the  blessed  spirits  who 
remained  firm  in  their  allegiance  to  the  Almighty 
during  the  rebellion  of  Lucifer  and  his  adherents: 
IfichMl,  prince  of  the  heavenly  host;  Gabriel,  "forti- 
tude of  God",  the  messenger  of  the  Incarnation; 
Raphael,  "medicine  of  God",  the  trusted  companion 
of  Tobias;  and  the  other  angels,  archangels,  and  orders 
of  blessed  "ministering  spirits,  sent  to  minister  for 
them,  who  shall  receive  the  inheritance  of  salvation" 
(Heb.,  i,  14).  Next  in  our  confidence  is  he  of  whom 
Christ  says  "There  hath  not  risen  among  them  that 
are  bom  of  women  a  greater  than  John  the  Baptist" 
(Matt.,  xi,  11),  the  precursor  of  the  Lord,  the  last  of 
tiie  Prophets  cm  the  Old  Law  and  the  first  of  the  New. 

Next  in  order  come  St.  Joseph,  the  foster-father  of 
the  Incarnate  Word ;  and  all  the  Patriarchs  and  Proph- 
ets who  saved  their  souls  in  the  hope  of  Him  who 
was  the  expected  of  the  nations.  Then  follow  the 
saints:  Peter,  prince  of  the  Apostles,  vice-gerent  of 
Christ;  Paid,  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles;  Andrew, 
who  first  heeded  the  csXL  of  the  Master;  James  the 
Greater  and  John  the  Evangelist,  the  beloved  disciple, 
who,  with  St.  Peter,  were  most  favoured  by  Christ; 
Thomas,  called  Didymus,  who  received  from  Christ 
signal  proofs  of  His  Resurrection;  James  the  Less, 
first  Bishop  of  Jerusalem;  Philip;  Bartholomew; 
Matthew,  once  (»lled  Levi,  the  toll-gatherer,  who 
wrote  the  First  Gospel;  Simon  the  Zealot;  Jude; 
Thaddeus;  Matthias,  who  was  chosen  to  fill  the  place 
of  Judas  Iseariot;  Barnabas,  called  to  the  Apostolate 
l^  the  B[olv  Ghost  (Acts,  xiii,  2) ;  Luke,  the  physician, 
writer  of  toe  Third  Gospel  and  the  Acts;  Mark,  the 
Evangelist,  disciple  of  St.  Peter;  all  the  Apostles  and 
Evangelists;  the  holy  disciples  of  the  Lord;  the  Holy 
InnooeQtSi  tiie  infant  martyr-flowers,  "Who,  slain  at 


the  command  of  Herod,  confessed  the  name  of  the 
Lord  not  by  speaking  but  by  dying"  (Rom.  Brev.).  The 
glorious  martyrs  are  then  invoked:  Stephen  the  Dea- 
con, protomartyr,  stoned  at  Jerusalem  whilst  praying 
for  his  executioners  (Acts,  vii,  58);  Laurence,  the 
Roman  archdeacon;  Vincent,  the  deacon  of  Sara- 
gossa  in  Spain;  Fabian,  the  pope,  and  Sebastian,  the 
soldier;  John  and  Paul,  brothers  at  the  Court  of  Con- 
stantia,  daughter  of  Constantine;  Cosmas  and  Da- 
mian,  renowned  physicians  of  iEgea  in  Cilicia;  Ger- 
vasius  and  Proteus,  brothers  at  Milan;  after  which 
follows  a  collective  impetration  of  all  the  holy  martyrs. 
The  litany  now  asks  the  prayers  of  St.  Sylvester,  the 
pope  who  saw  the  triumph  of  the  Crucified  over  pagan- 
ism; of  the  Doctors  of  the  Church;  Sts.  Gregory  the 
Great,  pope;  Ambrose  of  Milan;  Augustine  of  Hippo, 
in  Africa;  and  Jerome,  representing  Dalmatia  and  the 
Holy  Land;  of  the  renowned  Bishops  Martin  of 
Tours;  Nicholas  of  Myra;  of  all  the  holv  bishops  and 
confessors;  of  all  the  holy  teachers;  of  the  founders  of 
religious  orders:  Anthony,  father  of  the  anchorites  of 
the  desert ;  Benedict,  patriarch  of  the  Western  monks ; 
Bernard;  Dominic;  Francis;  of  all  holy  priests  and 
levites;  of  monks  and  hermits.  We  then  invoke 
Mary  Magdalen^  the  model  of  Christian  penance  and 
of  a  contemplative  life,  of  whom  Christ  said :  "  Where- 
soever this  gospel  shall  be  preached  in  the  whole  world 
that  also  which  she  hath  done,  shall  be  told  for  a 
memory  of  her"  (Matt.,  xx\a,  13);  the  virgins  and 
martyrs:  Agatha,  Lucy,  Agnes,  Ctecilia,  Catherine,  and 
Anastasia  the  Younger;  and  in  conclusion  all  the  holy 
virgins  and  widows;  all  the  holy'men  and  women. 

The  second  part  of  the  litany  benns  with  another 
cry  of  "  Be  merciful  to  us,  spare  us  OLord;  Be  merciful 
to  us,  graciously  hear  us  O  Lord".  We  then  enu- 
merate the  ills  from  which  we  hope  to  be  delivered: 
From  all  evils;  from  sin;  the  wrath  of  Grod;  sudden 
and  unprovided  death;  the  snares  of  the  devil;  anger, 
hatred,  and  all  ill  will;  the  spirit  of  fornication;  light- 
ning and  tempest;  the  scourge  of  earthquake;  plague, 
famine,  and  war;  from  everlasting  death.  To  make 
our  prayers  more  effective,  we  present  to  CJhrist  all 
that  He'  did  for  us  through  the  mystery  of  the  Incar- 
nation, through  His  coming,  nativity,  baptism  and 
holy  fasting,  cross  and  passion,  death  and  burial, 
holy  resurrection,  admirable  ascension,  the  coming 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Comforter,  and  we  conclude  by 
the  petition,  "In  the  day  of  judgment,  O  Lord,  de- 
liver us." 

In  the  third  part  we  humbly  acknowledge  our  un- 
wortliiness: "  We,  sinners,  beseech  Thee,  hear  us",  and 
add  the  list  of  favours  that  we  wish  to  obtain:  that  the 
Ix)rd  spare  us;  pardon  us;  and  bring  us  to  true  pen- 
ance; tliat  He  govern  and  preserve  His  holy  Church; 
preserve  our  Apostolic  prelate,  and  all  orders  of  the 
Church,  in  holy  religion;  humble  the  enemies  of  the 
Church;  give  peace  and  true  concord  to  Christian  kings 
and  princes;  peace  and  unity  to  Christian  nations; 
strengthen  and  preserve  us  in  His  holy  service;  raise 
our  minds  to  heavenly  desires;  reward  with  eternal 
good  all  our  benefactors;  deliver  us,  our  brethren, 
kinsfolk,  and  benefactors,  from  eternal  damnation; 
give  and  preserve  the  fruits  of  the  earth;  and  grant 
eternal  rest  to  the  faithful  departed.  We  ask  all  this 
in  calling  upon  the  Son  of  Giod,  thrice  invoking  the 
Lamb  of  God  who  takes  away  the  sins  of  the  world. 
We  repeat  the  '* Kyrie",  as  in  the  beginning,  and  add 
the  prayer  taught  bv  Christ  Himself,  the  Our  Father. 
Then  follow  psalm  fxix,  *'0  God,  come  to  my  assist- 
ance", etc.,  and  a  number  of  verses,  responses,  and 
pravers,  renewing  the  former  petitions.  We  conclude 
with  an  earnest  request  to  be  heard,  and  all  appeal  for 
the  faithful  departed. 

Three  forms  of  the  Litany  of  the  Saints  are  at 
present  in  liturgical  use.  The  form  given  above  is 
prescribed  by  the  Roman  Ritual  at  the  laying  of  the 
comer-stone  of  a  new  church,  at  the  bleaaijag^^x  twsssite- 


LITERATURE 


292 


UTHUAHU 


ciliatioQ  of  the  same  or  of  a  cemetery,  in  the  rito  of 
blessing  the  people  and  fields  in  virtue  of  a  special 
papal  indult,  for  the  major  and  minor  Rogation  D^s, 
m  the  procession  and  prayers  to  obtain  rain  or  fine 
weather,  to  avert  storms  and  tempests,  in  time  of 
famine  or  war,  to  escape  mortality  or  in  time  of  pesti- 
lence, in  any  tribulation,  during  the  translation  of 
relics,  in  solemn  exorcisms  of  the  possessed,  and  at  the 
Forty  Hours*  Devotion.  The  Roman  Pontifical,  be- 
sides the  occasions  given  in  the  Ritual,  orders  its  reci- 
tation in  the  conferring  of  major  orders,  in  the  conse- 
cration of  a  bishop,  benediction  of  an  abbot  or  abbess, 
consecration  of  vu*gins,  coronation  of  a  kin^  or  queen, 
consecration  of  a  church,  expulsion  and  readmission  of 
public  penitenta  on  Maunay  Thursday,  and  in  the 
^'Ordo  ad  Synodum". 

Another  form  is  given  in  the  Roman  Missal  for 
Holy  Saturday  and  the  Vigil  of  Pentecost.  It  is  an 
abbreviation  of  the  other.  Each  verse  and  response 
must  be  duplicated  in  this  litany  and  in  that  chanted 
on  Rogation  Days  (S.  R.  C,  3993,  ad  4). 

A  third  form  is  in  the  "Commendatio"  of  the  Ro- 
man Ritual,  in  which  the  invocations  and  supplications 
are  specially  chosen  to  benefit  the  departing  soul 
about  to  appear  before  its  Maker  (Holzhey,  "Thekla- 
Akten",  1905,  93).  This  and  the  preceding  form  may 
not  be  used  on  other  occasions  (S.  R.  C,  2709,  ad  1). 

Formerly  it  was  customary  to  invoke  onlv  classes 
of  saints,  then  individual  names  were  added,  and  in 
many  places  local  saints  were  added  (Rock,  "The 
Church  of  Our  Fathers",  London,  1903,  182;  "Maii- 
uale  Lincopense",  Paderbom,  1904,  71).  To  obtain 
uniformity,  changes  and  additions  to  the  approved 
were  forbidden  (S.  R.  C,  2093,  3236,  3313). 

Romiaehe  QuartaUchrift  (1903),  333;  Bykoukai.  in  Buch- 
BERQCR,  Kirchliehes  Handler.,  a.  v.  Litanei;  Punkeh  in 
Kirchenlex.,  a.  v.  Litanei;  Samson,  Die  AUerheiligen  Litanei 
(Paderfoom,  1894);  Pastor  Bonus,  III,  278. 

pRANas  Mershman. 

Literatuze,  Classical.  See  Latin  Literature 
IN  THE  Church. 

Uthuania  (Ger.  Lilauen)^  an  ancient  grand-duchy 
united  with  Poland  in  the  fourteenth  centunr. 

The  Lithuanians  belong  to  the  Indo-Germanic 
family,  of  which  they  form  with  the  Letts  and  the 
extinct  Borussians  (Old  Prussians)  the  Balto-Slavonic 
group.  Within  the  Russian  Empire  they  dwell 
principallv  in  the  governmental  districts  of  Kovno, 
Urodno,  Tchernigoff,  and,  in  smaller  numbers,  in 
some  few  districts  of  Russian  Poland  (total  in  1897: 
1,658,542,  or,  including  the  Letts,  3,094,469).  In 
Germany  they  are  found  in  the  northern  part  of  East 
Prussia  and  in  West  Prussia  (total  about  110,000). 
Concerning  their  early  history,  even  to-day  little  re- 
liable information  is  available.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury of  our  era,  we  find  them  divided  into  various 
clans  and  taking  part  in  the  wars  between  the  princes 
of  Polozk,  Novgorod,  Tchernigoff,  etc.,  now  as  allies 
of  the  princes  and  again  as  enemies.  From  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century  they  were  engaged  in  constant  war- 
fare with  the  Order  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Sword,  who 
were  extending  their  conquests  along  the  coast  of  the 
Baltic  into  Livonia.  The  Lithuanians  were  divided 
politically  into  numerous  principalities,  mostly  heredi- 
tary, and  to  a  great  extent  independent  of  one  an- 
other. 

The  credit  of  having  united  them  l)elongs  to 
Prince  Mendog  (or  Mind  owe),  who,  towards  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  succeeded  in  com- 
pelling the  lesser  princes  to  recognize  his  supremacy. 
With  a  view  .to  strengthening  his  position  against  ex- 
ternal enemies,  especially  the  Teutonic  OiSer,  Min- 
dowe  and  his  wife  sought  baptism  in  1250  or  1251, 
and  received  from  Innocent  TV  the  royal  crown,  with 
which  he  was  crowiied  bv  the  Bishop  of  Kulm,  in 
1252  a253)  in  presence  of  the  Master  of  the  Teu- 
tonio  Order.    As  Mindowe  desired  a  special  diocese 


for  his  territories,  one  Christian,  a  memoer  of  tbo 
Teutonic  Order,  was  by  order  of  the  pope  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  Lithuania  by  Archbishop  Albert  of 
Riga.  Notwithstanding  Albert's  efforts  to  secure 
this  new  diocese  as  suffragan  of  his  see,  it  was  made 
directly  dependent  on  Rome.  Of  Christian's  activity 
in  Lithuania  little  is  known.  At  this  period,  however, 
Christianity  acquired  no  firm  footing  in  Lithuania 
proper;  it  was  embraced  only  by  Mindowe  and  his 
immediate  friends^  and  bjr  them  purely  for  political 
reasons,  and  it  was  also  with  an  eye  to  political  inter- 
est that  they  reverted  to  paganism  about  1262.  As 
Christian  was  coadjutor  Bishop  of  Mainz  as  early  as 
1259,  he  cannot  have  long  occupied  the  See  of  Lithu- 
ania; his  successor,  John,  also  a  member  (A  the  Teu- 
tonic Order,  also  appears  as  coadjutor  Bishop  of 
Constance.  The  murder  of  Mindowe  by  his  nephew 
Traniate  was  followed  by  great  political  confusion 
and  a  complete  relapse  into  paganism.  In  the  Rus- 
sian territories,  however,  which  were  then  and  later 
known  as  Lithuanian,  Christianity  was  retained  under 
the  Greek  Orthodox  form,  these  regions  having  been 
evangelized  from  Byzantium. 

The  first  step  towards  the  restoration  of  Lithuanian 
power  was  taken  by  Gedymin  (arehduke  from  1316), 
when  he  introduced  German  colonists  into  his  terri- 
tories, and  founded  numerous  cities  and  towns,  grant- 
ing them  the  privileges  customary  in  Germany.  TTie 
most  important  of  these  cities  was  Wilna,  afterwards 
the  capital  of  Lithuania.  Gedvmin  succeeded  in 
extending  his  kingdom  to  the  east  oy  successful  battles 
with  the  Tatars,  who  had  then  made  themselves 
masters  of  Russia.  From  1336  he  was  involved  in 
war  with  the  Teutonic  Order,  and  was  slain  while 
besieging  Welona,  one  of  their  fortresses,  in  1340  or 
1341.  Two  of  his  sons,  Olgerd  and  Keistut,  success- 
fully defended  the  independence  of  their  kingdom 
against  the  order,  while  pushing  their  conquests  fur- 
ther into  Russia.  Vigorous  champions  of  paganism, 
they  opposed  the  entrance  of  Christianity  within 
their  frontiers,  although  Gedymin,  while  himself  re- 
maining a  heathen,  had  granted  entire  freedom  to  U^ 
Christian  religion.  Thus,  the  Franciscan  and  Domini- 
can monasteries  founded  at  Wilna  under  Gedymin 
were  suppressed  by  his  sons.  Olgerd  (d.  1377)  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  JageUo,  who  made  overtures  to 
the  Teutonic  Order  and  concluded  a  secret  treaty 
with  it.  JageUo,  however,  awakened  the  suspicions 
of  his  uncle,  Keistut,  who  took  up  arms,  surprised 
him  at  Wilna,  and  made  him  prisoner  for  a  time.  In 
the  ensuing  civil  war,  Keistut  allowed  himself  to  be 
enticed  into  Jagello's  camp  under  pledge  of  personal 
safety,  but  on  his  arrival  there  he  was  at  once  seized, 
thrown  into  prison,  and  eventually  put  to  death 
(1382). 

In  1384,  upon  the  death  of  Louis  I  of  Hungary  and 
Poland,  the  Polish  nobles,  having  crowned  his  daugh- 
ter Hedwig,  decided  that  as  the  new  queen  was  but 
fifteen  years  old,  she  must  be  provided  with  a  consort 
capable  of  protecting  her  dominions.  Their  choice 
fell  upon  JageUo  of  Lithuania,  whose  hostility  to  the 
Teutonic  Order  made  him  their  natural  aUy.  More- 
over, the  Catholic  Church  in  Poland  saw  in  this  union 
the  promise  of  glorious  missiona^  activity  in  a  land 
stiU  for  the  most  part  pagan.  'The  Franciscan  pro- 
vincial, Kmita,  wno  enjoved  JageUo's  confidence, 
was  one  of  the  foremost  aclvojcates  of  union  between 
the  kingdoms.  JageUo,  after  formaUy  suing  for  the 
(lueen's  hand,  promised  to  embrace  the  CatliQl^r 
laith,  with  his  brothers  and  all  his  subjects,  to  unitf 
his  Lithuanian  and  Russian  lands  forever  with  thr 
Polish  Crown,  to  recover  at  his  own  expense  the  te^ 
ritory  taken  from  Poland,  and  to  pay  Duke  WilUaa 
of  Austria,  who  had  been  promised  Hedwig's  hand, 
an  indemnity  of  200,000  gulden.  Hedwig  at  lecigth 
consented  to  the  match.  JageUo  was  Mptixed  or 
15  Feb.,  1386,  taking  the  name  of  Wladislaw,  and  m 


LITTA                                293  UTTA 

4  Bfiaxt)h  he  ^raa  married  to  Hedwig  and  crowned  King  Only  the  war  against  the  Teutonic  Order,  in  14999 
Consort  and  Regent  of  Poland.  brought  the  two  peoples  together  Once  more.  Eiren 
Ab  the  result  of  this  union  between  Lithuania  and  after  the  death  ot  Alexander,  in  1501,  there  still  re- 
Poland,  a  mighty  Christian  kingdom  arose  in  Eastern  mained  a  powerful  party  in  favour  of  independence: 
Europe.  Lithuania  itself,  three  times  as  large  as  these  found  support  m  Russia,  which,  from  tne  time  oi 
Pdand,  but  far  below  it  in  culture,  ceased  to  be  inde-  Ivan  III  (1462-1505),  had  been  growing  in  power.  The 
pendent,  but  it  was  now  for  the  first  time  brought  threatened  separation,  however,  and  the  daily  increas- 
mto  immediate  contact  with  Western  civilization,  ing  evidence  that  Russia  was  to  be  the  chief  rival  of 
In  1387  Jagello  returned  to  his  home,  accompanied  by  Poland  in  Eastern  Europe,  led  to  a  reaction  among  the 
missionaries.  He  won  the  good  will  of  tne  nobles  Poles.  Thev  recognizcxi  the  ui*gent  necessity  of  ex 
{hayara)  for  Christianity  by  granting  them,  on  20  changing  a  deceptive  union  for  a  genuine  unity  of  the 
February,  the  same  liberties  as  were  tnen  enjoved  by  whole  Polish  Einpire.  Four  previous  diets  having 
the  Catholic  nobles  in  Poland.  A  see  was  established  vainly  sought  a  solution  of  the  problem,  that  assem- 
at  Wilna,  and  Vasylo,  a  Polish  Franciscan,  appointed  bled  at  Liiblin  in  1569  at  last  affected  the  Union  of 
its  first  bishop.  The  Russian  portions  of  Lithuania  Lublin.  The  union  was  proclaimed  in  July  of  the 
(Kiev,  Tchemigoff,  etc.)  remained  Greek  Orthodox,  same  year,  and  confirmed  on  oath  by  both  parties. 
but  the  Samoghitians  continued  for  some  time  longer  Henceforth,  Poles  and  Lithuanians  formed  one  king- 
to  be  pagans.  To  strengthen  the  internal  union  dom,  with  one  king  elected  in  common,  with  a  com- 
between  the  peoples,  Polish  law  was  conc(H:led  only  mon  diet,  a  common  mint,  etc.;  of  its  earlier  indcpen- 
to  the  Catholic  Lithuanians  in  the  Constitution  (U  dencc,  Lithuania  retained  its  own  administration,  its 
1387y  and  marriage  with  the  Greek  Orthodox  was  own  finances,  and  its  own  army.  Thereafter,  Lithu- 
forbidden.  At  first  the  relation  l>ctwe(m  Lithuania  ania  i^ared  the  fate  of  Poland,  although  in  1648  one 
and  Poland  was  simply  a  personal  union.  Jagello  section  of  the  Lithuanians  of  Little  Russia — ^the  Uk- 
retained  for  himself  the  princely  dignitv^  but  ap-  raine — separated  from  Poland  and,  in  1C54,  made 

gointed  a  governor  for  Lithuania — first  his  brother  their  submission  to  the  Tsar  of  Russia.    The  various 

kirgello  and  then,  from  1392  to  1430,  his  cousin  partitions  of  Poland  resulted  in  the  larger  portion  of 

Witold.    His  endeavour  to  maintain  this  relation  of  Lithuania  being  ceded  to  Russia,  the  smaller  to  Prufl- 

independencc  towards  the  Polish  Crown  was  rendered  sia. 

abortive  by  his  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Tatars  in  (Sec  also  Greek  Catholics  in  America;  Greek 

1399,  which  compelled  him  to  enter  into  closer  rela-  Church;  Easterx  Churches.) 

tions  with  the  Poles.     In  1401  the  political  union  of  I'^o'*  a  complete  biblicwraphy  of  Lithuania  conault  Beltra- 

the  kingdoms  took  place;  Lithuania  was  to  be  inde-  J|^i^^r™A'^«frpSA'a'^1'ior!^-ll^lt^'£,U21! 

pendent  as  long  as  Witold  lived,  but  W^as  then  to  be  Oesch.  von  LUauen  ala  rinm  eigenen  GroMfarstentum  bis  zum 

annexed  to  the  Crown  of  Poland:  Witold  and  the  J^^/e  /ft5d  CHaUe.  1785);  Narbut, p«Anc«r^ 

Kovona  *./>olr  fhn  oafh  nf  n11omnnr«f»    «n«^1   fV»<»  PrilUli  Lilhuaman  People  (Vilna,   1835)    (Polish);    Theiner,    VeUrQ 

bOVara  took  tne  oatn  Ol   allegiance,  and   the  i'OllSh  Monum,  PoUmia  et  Lithuania  hist,  Ulw^rantia  (3  vols..  Rome, 

noblhty  promised  to  support  the  Lithuanians,  and,  1860-6.0;  Antonwitsch,  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Grand  Duchy 

after  Jagello's  death,  to   elect  no  king  without  first  of  Lithuania  (Kiev,  1878)   (Russian);  BATiNBCHicow.FrAtte 

j»^..<»«u;n(»  4liA*Yi  RuMia  and  Lithuania  (St.  Petenbuix.  1890)  (Russian) ;  BrCck- 

OOnsuiUng  tnem.                                        ...,,„..  ner  AnoVnt  LtV/* uama  (Waraaw,  1904)  (Polish);  ToronArm. 

Besides  their  common  warfare  against  the  TeutOmC  Die  Li'aurr  unter  drm  Konio  Mindowe  hi*  zum  Jahre  1263  (Fii- 

Order,  the  fusion  of  the  two  peoples  was  furthered  by  *>ou»K.  iws);  Lelkwel,  //t^  rfe  fa  LtjAuanic  (Paris,  1861); 

«lia  AooomKlv  i\f  T^ retf\A\e\  f\r\  ♦Vio  Knir  in  ^±^'X   «f  itrKi'oVt  AUaem.  Ittauuche  Rundschau  (Tilsit,  1900 — ).     See  also  works 

tbe  Assembly  of  norodlO  on  tne  aug.  m  14 1  .j,  at  ^v  hich  ^^  Polaml,  wpecinUy  Roepli.l  and  Caro,  Gcech.  Polma  (5  vols., 

the  earlier  union  was  renewed,  and  a  large  numl)er  Hjunbure  and  Ootha.  1840-88)  (reaching  to  1506);Schiemann, 

of  the  Ldthuanian  boyars  were  admitted  into  the  Polish  ?«f«''?,a<f'  {>>'««<'  "•  ^^^J'^^pj'^  ''J*  '^-  '^J^T^-  Q;  ^'P^VoS^f^ 

noWBtv.  receiving  identical  privileges.    Furthermore  iK.l^HS^^sC^l""  <^''<'"'  »"<*  '''-  ^°*-  ^»««>-  - 

both  the  Polish  and  the  Lithuanian  nobility  received  Joseph  IjINS. 

from  the  kin^  the  right  of  convoking  assemblies  and 

parliaments  in  the  interests  of  the  kingdom  with  the  Litta,anoblo  Milanese  family  which  gave  two  dis- 

permission  of  the  prince.     For  the  Lithuanians^  whose  tinguishcd  cardinals  to  the  Church. 

government  had  previously  been  absolute,  this  right  L  Ali-xjnso  Litta,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  b.  in  1608; 

meant  a  constitution — even  though  oligarcliical — by  (L  at  Rome,  22  Aug.,  1679.    Aft^r  filling  other  im- 

means  of  which  they  could  readily  make  their  influ-  portant  positions,  he  was  appointed  governor  of  the 

ence  felt  in  the  affairs  of  the  nation.  .  But  the  di\'ision  Marches  by  Innocent  X,  was  made  Archbishop  of 

between  Catholics  and  Greek  Orthodox  in  the  Little  Milan  in  1652,  and  received  the  pui-plo  in  1640.    He 

Russian  districts  still  continued.    To  heal  this,  Witold  died  shortly  after  the  conclave  whSch  elected  Innocent 

laboured  for  ecclesiastical  union  between  the  two  sec-  XL    He  was  a  learned  and  charitable  man  and  de- 

tions  of  the  people.     In  1415  he  summoned  an  Ortho-  fended  with  courage  the  ecclesiastical  immunities 

dox  synod  at  Nowohorodok,  which  declar'.'d  the  Lithu-  against  the  officers  of  the  King  of  Spain.    His  works 

anian  Orthodox  Church,  \i'ith  its  Metropolitan  of  Kiev,  are   enumerated   by   Argelati   in   tne   "Bibliotheca 

independent  of  the  Patriarch  of  Moscow.     In  1 41 8  he  Scriptonim  Mediolanensium''  TMilan,  1745);  his  life 

sent  Greggory  Camblak  (or  Cemiwlak),  Metropolitan  of  was  written  by  M.  Bardocchi  (bologna,  1691). 

Kiev,  with  eighteen  suffragan  bishops,  to  the  Council  XL  Lorenzo  Litta,  b.  at  Milan,  25  Feb.,  1756;  d.  at 

of  Constance  to  conclude  a  union  with  Rome,  and  to  Monte  FLavio,  1  May,  1820.    A  distinguished  llU&a^ 

secure,  in  return  for  their  recognition  of  papal  suprem-  teur,  he  plaved  a  prominent  part  in  contemporary 

acy,  the  retention  of  the  Slavic  Liturgy  and  Rite,  ecclesiastical  history.    As  a  youth  he  was  sent  oy  his 

The  mission  failed,  however,  nor  were  the  negotiations  parents  to  the  Clementine  College  in  Rome,  where  he 

at  the  Council  of  Florence  in  1439  more  successful.    It  made  rapid  progress  in  letters  and  law.     Not  long 

was,  indeed,  only  about  150  years  later,  at  the  S^nod  of  after  the  completion  of  his  studies  he  was  made  pro- 

Brest-Ldtovsk  (1595-96),  that  the  union  of  the  Little  thonotiry  Apostolic  bv  Pius  VI.    In  1793  he  was  con- 

Ruaaian,  or  Ruthenian,  Church  with  Rome  was  ac-  secrated  titular  Archbishop  of  Thebes,  and  sent  as 

oomplished  (see  Union  op  Brest).  nuncio  to  Poland,  where  he  arrived  in  March,  1794, 

ReUgiouB  divisions  and  the  establishment  of  Polish  shortly  before  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution     Not- 

garrisons  in  Lithuania,  created  a  state  of  feeling  which,  withstanding  the  diflSculty  of  his  own  position,  he  used 

after  Witold's  death,  manifested  itself  in  repeated  re-  his  influence  with  Kosciuszko  on  Ix^half  of  the  Church 

bellions.     The  union  was  formally  dissolved  when,  on  a^id  churchmen,  and  siivwl  the  life  of  Monsignor 

the  death  of  Casimir  IV,  in  1492,  ♦he  Lithuanians  chose  Skarzewski,  Bishop  of  Chelm,  already  condemned  to 

his  fourth  son,  Alexander,  as  their  grand-duke,  and  death,  thoug}i  he  was  not  so  successful  with  regard  to 

the  Poles  dected  his  third  son,  John  Albert,  their  king,  the  Bishop  of  Wilna  and  Livonia.   In  the  negot iat ion« 


LZnUB 


294 


XJTTLI 


for  the  third  partition  of  Poland,  he  used  his  utmost 
endeavours  to  have  the  three  States  guarantee  ^e 
preservation  of  the  Church  oi^eanization  and  prop- 
erty— guarantees  which  were  disgracefully  violated 
by  Catherine  U.  On  the  latter's  death  litta  was  sent 
on  an  extraordinaiy  mission  to  Moscow  for  the  cor- 
onation of  Paul  I,  whence  he  was  transferred  as  am- 
bassador of  Pius  VI  to  St.  Petersburg,  to  settle,  ac- 
cording to  Paul's  wish,  the  affairs  of  the  Latin  and  the 
Uniat  Kuthenian  church.  He  secured  the  erection,  or 
rather  restoration,  of  six  dioceses  of  the  Latin  Rite 
and  three  of  the  Ruthenian  (Polotsk,  Lutsk,  and  Brest) . 
The  restoration  of  the  See  of  Kiev  was  prevented  by 
the  Holy  Synod.  Church  property  was  only  partly 
restored,  though  the  Government  was  obliged  to  es- 
tablish suitable  allowances  for  the  clergy.  Litta  also 
induced  the  nietropolitans  of  Gnesen  (Posnania),  and 
Lemberg  (Galicia)  to  renounce  their  jurisdiction  over 
the  dioceses  of  the  Latin  Rite  in  Russian  territory, 
these  being  transferred  to  the  new  metropolis  of  Mo- 
hileff.  Through  his  efforts  also  the  Basiliaii  Order  was 
restored.    In  April,  1789,  he  had  to  leave  Russia. 

On  the  death  of  Pius  VI  he  went  to  Venice  to  assist 
at  the  conclave.  When  he  returned  to  Rome  he  was 
ffiven  an  office  in  the  papal  treasury  which  enabled 
him  to  eradicate  many  abuses  and  introduce  a  better 
administration.  In  1801  he  was  created  cardinal 
and  was  made  Prefect  of  the  Congr^ation  of  the 
Index  and,  later,  of  Studies.  In  1809  he  was  ex- 
pelled from  Rome  with  Pius  VII  and  sent  to  Saint- 
Quentin  on  the  Seine.  During  this  exile  he  translated 
^e  Iliad,  and  wrote  a  series  of  letters  containing  a 
brilliant  refutation  of  the  four  GalUcan  Articles  of 
1682,  then  the  subject  of  much  discussion.  Some  of 
these  letters  were  addressed  to  Napoleon  himself, 
and  were  later  published  anonymously.  Returning  to 
Rome  with  Pius  VII,  Litta  was  made  Prefect  of  Prop- 
aganda, which,  imder  his  administration,  soon  re- 
covered its  former  status.  In  1814  he  became  subur- 
bicarian  Bishop  of  Sabina,  and  in  1818  Cardinal  Vicar 
of  Rome.  He  is  buried  at  Rome  in  SS.  Giovanni  e 
Paolo. 

A  biooraphy  was  published  by  Babuldx  (Florence.  1828); 
see  abo  Litta,  Famiglie  celebn  italiane, 

U.  Beniqni. 

Little  Brothers  of  Mary«  See  Mart»  LnrLB 
Brothers  of. 

Little  Office  of  Our  Lady,  a  liturgical  devotion 
to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  in  imitation  of.  and  in  addition 
to,  the  Divine  Office.  It  is  first  heard  of  in  the  middle 
of  the  eighth  century  at  Monte  Cassino.  According  to 
Cardinal  Bona,  who  quotes  from  a  MS.  of  Peter  the 
Deacon  (twelfth  century),  there  was,  in  addition  to 
the  Divine  Office,  another  "  which  it  is  customarv  to 

gerform  in  honour  of  the  Holy  Mother  of  God,  which 
achary  the  Pope  [d.  752]  commanded  under  strict 
precept  to  the  Cassinese  Monastery."  This  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  some  form  of  the  Office  of  Our 
Lady  was  already  extant  and,  indeed,  we  hear  of  an 
Office  in  her  honour  composed  by  St.  Ildephonsus, 
who  lived  about  the  end  of  the  seventh  century.  The 
Eastern  Church,  too,  possesses  an  Office  of  the  B.  V. 
M.,  attributed  to  St.  John  Damascene  (c.  730).  But 
though  various  Offices  in  honour  of  Our  Lady  were  in 
existence  earlier,  it  is  probable  that  the  Little  Office, 
as  a  part  of  the  liturgy,  did  not  come  into  general  use 
before  the  tenth  century;  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that 
its  diffusion  is  largely  due  to  the  marked  devotion  to 
the  Blessed  Virgin  which  is  characteristic  of  the 
Church  in  England  under  the  guidance  of  St.  Dun- 
Stan  and  St.  Ethelwold.  Certainly,  during  the  tenth 
century,  an  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  men- 
tioned at  Au^burg,  at  Verdun,  and  at  Einsiedeln; 
while  already  in  the  following  century  there  were  at 
least  two  versions  of  her  "Hours"  extant  in  England. 
In  the  eleventh  century  we  learn  from  St.  Peter  Da- 


mian  that  it  waa  already  commonly  recited  amongst 
the  secular  clergy  of  Italy  and  France,  and  it  was 
through  his  influence  that  the  practice  of  reciting  it  in 
choir,  in  addition  to  the  Great  Office,  was  introduced 
into  several  Italian  monasteries.  At  Cluny  the  Office 
of  the  B.  V.  M.  was  not  introduced  till  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century,  and  then  only  as  a  devotion  for  the 
sick  monks.  In  the  twelfth  century  came  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Orders  of  Clteaux  and  Prdmonti^.  of 
which  the  latter  onlv  retained  the  Little  Office  in  aadi- 
tion  to  the  Divine  Office.  Tlie  Austin  Canons  also  re- 
tained it,  and,  perhaps  through  their  influence,  in  the 
coiu-se  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  it  de- 
veloped from  a  private  devotion  into  part  of  the  dailv 
duty  of  the  secular  clergy  as  well.  By  the  fourteenth 
century  the  recital  of  the  Little  Office  had  come  to  be 
an  almost  universal  practice  and  was  regarded  as 
obligatory  on  all  the  clergy.  This  obligation  re- 
mained until  St.  Pius  V  removed  it  by  the  Bull  ^  Quod 
a  nobis"  of  156S.  At  the  present  time,  however,  it  is 
recited  on  certain  days  by  several  of  the  older  oraers, 
and  it  serves,  instcaa  of  the  Greater  Office,  as  the 
liturgical  prayer  of  lay  brothers  and  lay  sisters  in  some 
of  the  contemphitive  orders,  and  of  the  members  of 
most  of  the  congregations  of  women  engaged  in  active 
work. 

Down  to  the  Reformation  it  formed  a  large  part  of 
the  "Primer  or  Lay-folk's  Prayer-laook",  and  was 
customarily  recited  by  the  devout  laity,  by  whom  the 
practice  was  continued  for  long  afterwards  among  the 
persecuted  Catholics.  To-day  it  is  recited  daily  by 
Dominican,  Carmelite,  Augustinian,  and  by  large  num- 
bers of  the  Franciscan,  Tertiaries,  as  well  as  by  many 
pious  lay-folk  who  desire  to  take  part  in  the  liturgical 
prayer  of  the  Church.  It  is  worth  noting  that  the 
form  of  the  Little  Office  of  Our  Lady  has  varied  con- 
siderably at  different  periods  and  in  different  places. 
The  earlier  versions  varied  very  considerably^  chiefly 
as  regards  the  hymns  and  antiphons  used:  m  Elng- 
land  m  medieval  times  the  main  differences  seem 
to  have  been  between  the  Sarum  and  York  Uses. 
Since  the  time  of  St.  Pius  V,  that  most  conmionly 
recited  has  been  the  version  of  the  reformed  Breviary 
of  Umt  pope.  In  this  version,  which  suffers  some- 
what from  the  classicism  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
are  to  be  found  the  seven  "Hours",  as  in  the  Greater 
Office.  At  Matins,  after  the  versicles  follow  the 
invitatory  "Ave  Maria,  gratia  plena,  Dominus 
tecum"  with  the  "Venite";  then  the  hymn  "Quern 
terra,  pontus,  sidera";  then  three  groups  of  psalms, 
each  with  their  antiphons,  of  which  one  group  ie 
said  on  Sundays.  Mondays,  and  Thursda^rs,  the 
second  on  Tuesdays  and  Fridays,  the  tnird  on 
Wednesdays  and  Saturdays.  Next  follow  three  les- 
sons with  responsories  and  (except  in  Lent  and  Ad- 
vent) the  "Te  Deum".  At  Lauds,  there  are  the 
eight  psalms  of  the  Divine  Office  for  Sunda3rs,  sung 
to  five  antiphons.  Then  the  Little  Chapter,  and 
the  hymn  "  O  Gloriosa  Virginum".  Next  a  versicle 
and  the  canticle  "Benedictus"  with  its  antiphon. 
Lastly,  the  prayer  and  commemoration  of  the  saints. 
In  each  of  tne  four  Little  Hours  the  hymn  "  Memento 
rerum  conditor"  immediately  follows  the  versicles; 
then  three  psalms  are  recited,  under  one  of  the 
antiphons  of  Lauds;  then  are  said  the  Little  Chap- 
ter, versicles,  and  a  prayer.  At  Vespers,  after  tne 
versicles  and  five  psalms  with  their  antiphons,  follow 
the  Little  Chapter,  the  hymn  "Ave  Maris  stella",  a 
short  versicle,  and  the  canticle  "Magnificat"  with  its 
antiphon;  then  the  prayers  as  at  Lauds.  Compline 
begins  with  special  versicles,  then  follow  three  psisdms 
without  antiphons,  then  the  hymn  "  Memento  rerum 
conditor"j  a  Little  Chapter,  a  versicle,  the  cantide 
"Nunc  Dunittis",  versicles,  a  prayer,  and  the  Bene- 
diction. After  the  hours  are  recited  the  "Pater 
Noster"  and  the  proper  antiphon  of  Our  Lady  for  the 
season.    This  last,  tne  antiphons  of  the  psalms  and 


UTTUB 


295 


UTTBi 


oanticles  and  the  Little  Chapters  are  the  only  parts  of 
the  office  that  vary  with  the  seasons.  Pope  Leo  XIII 
granted  (17  Nov.,  1887),  to  those  who  recite  the  whole 
Office  of  Our  Lady^  an  indulgence  dail^  of  seven  years 
and  seven  quarantmes,  and  a  plenary  indulgence  once 
a  month:  to  those  who  recite  Matins  and  Lauds  only, 
a  daily  indulgence  of  three  hundred  days:  and  (S  Dec, 
1897)  to  those  who  recite  Vespers  and  Compline  only, 
and  for  each  Hour,  an  indulgence  of  fifty  days. 

BATirroL,  HUtoire  du  br&viairc  remain  (Paris,  1893):  Bau- 
MKti,  Ge9chicMe  des  Brevierx  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1895);  Bishop, 
On  tke  Origin  of  the  Primer  in  Littlehalkr,  The  Prymer  or  lay 
folk'a  prayer  book,  II  (Early  English  Text  Society,  Loadon, 
1897):  Dewicx,  Facaimilea  of  Honx  de  Beata  Maria  Virmne 
from.  jBnqliah  MSS.  of  the  Eleventh  Century  (Henry  Bradshaw 
Dociety,  London,  1902) ;  Hoskins,  Hora  BealcB  Maria  Virginis, 
or  Sarum  and  York  Primera  .  .  .  and  Primers  of  the  Reformed 
Roman  Uae  (London,  1901);  Taunton,  The  Little  Office  of  Our 
Lady  (London,  1903). 

Leslie  A.  St.  L.  Toke. 

Little  Bock|  Diocese  op  (Petriculana). — The 
State  of  Arkansas  and  the  Indian  Territory,  parts  of 
the  Louisiana  Purchase,  were  formed,  1843,  into  the 
Diocese  of  Little  Rock.  In  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries  there  was  no  significant  church  work 
done  in  Arkansas.  The  white  population  in  1785  was 
196  and  in  1799  only  368.  Bishop  Duhourg  (1820) 
visited  the  Osage  Indians  and,  after  him,  Father  Croix. 
Under  Bishop  Rosati,  the  Lazarists,  from  their  semi- 
nary at  the  Barrens,  Missouri,  did  praiseworthy  mis- 
cdonary  work  (1824-30)  among  the  Indians  and 
scattered  whites.  The  most  noted  secular  priest  of 
these  times  was  Rev.  Richard  Bole,  who  estabh'shed 
St.  Mary's  Mission,  five  miles  below  the  present  Pine 
Bluff,  and  brought  there,  1838,  from  St.  Genevidve, 
Missouri,  five  sisters  of  Loretto,  who  opened  the  first 
Catholic  school  in  Arkansas.  Rev.  Andrew  Byrne, 
pastor  of  St.  James's  Church,  New  York  City,  was 
consecrated  the  first  bishop,  10  March,  1844. 

Bishop  Byrne,  bom  in  Navan,  Ireland,  5  Dec.,  1802, 
and  ordained  by  Bishop  England  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  11  Nov.,  1827,  brought  from  New  York  to 
Arkansas  Fathers  Corry  of  Albany  and  Donohoe  of 
Troy,  New  York.  All  the  priests  of  the  earlier  dajrs 
had  gone.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  was 
not  more  than  1000.  Bisnop  Byrne  secured  from 
Naas,  Ireland,  thirteen  Sisters  of  "Mercy,  who  estab- 
lished, 1850,  St.  Mary's  Academy  at  Little  Rock,  and, 
1851,  St.  Ann's  Academy  at  Fort  Smith.  An  impos- 
ing frame  cathedral  was  erected  in  Little  Rock,  and 
modest  structures  were  built  in  sevcnil  parts  of  the 
State.  During  the  Civil  War,  1861-05,  cliurch  work 
was  paralyzed.  Bishop  Byrne  died  on  10  June,  1862. 
The  diocese  remained  sede  vacante,  with  Very  Rev.  P. 
O'Reilly,  V.G.,  as  administrator  until  3  Feb.,  1867, 
when  Rev.  Edward  Fitzgerald,  pastor  of  St.  Patrick's 
Church,  Columbus,  Ohio,  became  bishop.  Bishop  Fitz- 
gerald, preconized  on  22  June,  1866,  and  consecrated  on 
3  Feb.,  1867.  was  bom  in  1833,  at  Limerick,  Ireland. 
He  entered  tne  Lazarist  Seminary  at  the  Barrens,  Mis- 
souri, in  1850,  and  was  sul>sequently  a  student  at 
Mount  St.  Blary's,  Cincinnati,  and  Mount  St.  Mary's, 
Ilnmiitsburg,  where  he  was  ordained  in  1857  hy 
Archbishop  Purcell.  Bishop  Fitzgerald  found  in  his 
diocese  four  parishes,  five  priests,  and  a  Catholic 
popidaticm  of  1600.  He  began  work  to  secure  Cath- 
olic immigration  for  the  State,  sisters  for  schools 
and  jmests  for  missions.  Benedictine  monks  from 
St.  Bieinrad,  Indiana,  came  in  1876  to  Logan  County 
and  soon  flotirishing  German  settlements  arose.  The 
floly  ^  Ghost  Fathers  of  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania, 
eBtaDlished  in  1879  successful  German  colonies  near 
Mcnrrilton.  A  Polish  settlement  was  made  at  Marche 
in  1880,  and  Italians  came  later  to  Sunnyside,  Tonti- 
town,  New  Gascony,  and  Barton.  Bishop  Fitzgerald 
dedicated,  27  May,  1894,  the  first  church  in  Arkansas 
for  coloured  people,  at  Pine  Bluff,  where  there  had 
been  established  an  excellent  industrial  school,  now 


in  care  of  the  Colored  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family. 
Monsignor  John  B.  Morris,  V.G.,  of  Nashville,  Tennes- 
see, was  consecrated  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Little  Rock. 
11  June,  1906,' and  on  the  death  of  Bishop  Fitzgerald 
assumed  full  control. 

Bishop  Fitzgerald  died  in  1907.  when  there  were 
in  the  diocese:  41  churches  witn  resident  priests; 
32  missions  with  churches;  26  secular  priests,  and  34 
religious;  272  sisters;  a  Catholic  popluation  of  20,000, 
and  good  financial  conditions.  Tne  Indian  Territory, 
since  it  was  created  a  vicariate  in  1801,  ceased  to  be 
part  of  the  Diocese  of  Little  Rock.  Bishop  Morris,  who 
assumed  control  of  the  diocese,  1907,  was  bom  at  Hen- 
derson ville,  Tennessee,  29  June,  1866.  His  theological 
studies  were  made  at  the  American  College,  Rome, 
and  he  was  ordained  priest  on  11  June,  1892,  in  the 
Basilica  of  St.  John  Lateran,  by  Cardinal  Parocchi. 
After  several  years'  rectorship  of  the  cathedral,  Nash- 
ville, Bishop  Byrne  appointed  him,  1901,  vicar- 
general,  and  in  1905  Pius  X  elevated  him  to  the  rank 
of  domestic  prelate.  In  the  three  years  of  his  incum- 
bency Bishop  Morris  has  opened  Little  Rock  College 
(1908)  at  a  cost  of  $50,000,  and  St.  Joseph's  orphan 
asylum  on  a  tract  of  720  acres,  completed  at  a  cost  of 
$150,000.  The  first  diocesan  synod  was  held  on  16 
Feb.,  1909,  at  Little  Rock,  and  the  firs^ normal  school 
of  instruction  for  Catholic  teachers  was  inaugurated 
at  Little  Rock,  11  June,  1909. 

Gatarre.  French  Domination  (New  Oileans,  1845);  Ideu, 
Spanish  Domination  (New  Orleuis,  1845);  Idem,  American 
Domination  (New  Orleans,  1845);  Pope,  A  Tour  of  the  United 


dciphia,  1821);  Pope,  Early  Days  in  Arkansas  (Little  Rock, 
1895);  Washburn,  Reminiscences  of  the  Indians  (Richmond, 
1860) ;  Parkman,  works;  Bancroft,  History  of  the  United  States 
(Boston,  1879);  Reynolds,  Alakcrsof  Arkansas  History  (New 
York  and  Boston.  1905);  Hemrtead„  School  History  of  Ar- 
kansas  (New  Orleans.  1889);  Suinn.  ScJiool  History  of  Ar- 
kansas  (Richmond,  IQOO) ;  Rozier,  History  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  (St.  Louis,  1800);  Jewell,  History  of  the  Methodut 
Church  in  Arkansas  (Little  Rock,  1898);  Publications  of  the 
Arkansas  Historical  Association,  I,  II  (Little  Rock.  1008) ;  Hal- 
liburton, History  of  Arkansas  County ^  Arkansas  (Dewitt,1909); 
Shea,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  (New  York,  1892). 

J.  M.  LUCET. 

Littr^i  pAUii-MAXiMiLiEN-EBnLE,  French  lexicog- 
rapher and  philosopher;  b.  at  Paris,  1  February, 
1801;  d.  there,  2  June,  1881.  He  studied  at  the  Ly- 
c^e  Louis-le-Grand,  Paris,  and  after  graduating  with 
honours,  he  became  secretary  to  Count  Dam.  He 
then  studied  medicine  and  he  was  about  to  obtain  his 
degree,  when  his  fatlier  died  and  he  was  compelled  to 
abandon  his  studies  to  make  a  living  for  his  mother,  by 
teaching  Greek  and  Latin  for  a  time.  Although  he 
could  not  ])e  a  physician,  he  was  interested  in  medical 
studies  throughout  his  life.  His  first  publications  deal 
with  medical  subjects:  *'  Le  cholera  oriental"  (Paris, 
1832),  "Les  grandes  6pid6mies",  an  article  published 
in  the  "  Revne  des  Deux  Mondes"  (Paris,  183G),  "  Les 
opuvTes  d'histoire  naturelle  de  Goethe  "  (1838).  He 
founded  with  Dezeimeris  a  medical  magazine,  "  L'Ex- 
perience"  (1837),  and  translated  the  "Natural  His- 
tory" of  Pliny  the  Elder  (Paris,  1848),  the  "Hand- 
book of  Physiology"  by  Miiller  (Paris,  1851),  and 
issued  a  revised  edition  of  Pierre  N'vsten's  "Diction- 
naire  de  M4decine  et  do  Chirurgie"  (Paris,  1854). 
From  1839  to  lvS(51,  he  published  a  translation  of  the 
works  of  Hippocrates.  On  acc^imt  of  his  researches 
in  the  scientihc  field,  he  was  elected  to  the  Acad6mie 
des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres  in  1839.  While 
pursuing  his  scientific  studies,  he  was  greatly  inter- 
ested in  politics.  In  1831,  having  been  introduced  to 
Armand  Carrel,  he  had  l)ecome  a  regular  contributor  to 
tlie  newspaper  "Le  National"  and  retained  tliat  posi- 
tion up  to  the  Revolution  of  184S.  Realizing  that  the 
political  movement  was  no  longer  in  accordance  with 
tiis  own  ideas,  he  severed  his  connexions  with  "Le 
National"  and  devoted  his  entire  time  tQ  l\\s«AiVi^\s»» 


LTTUBQIOU. 


UTUBOIOAL 


It  was  towards  1S40  that  he  was  initiated  into  the 
Fositivist  philosophy  and  got  acquainted  with  Augusts 
Comte,  of  whom  ^e  scion  oecame  an  independent  f ol- 


"L' Application  de  la  philoaophie  positiv< 
veniemettt  Jes  socifiMa"  (Paris,  1849),  "Conserva- 
tion, Revolution  et  poaitiviame"  (Paris,  1852),  "Pa- 
roles de  philosop hie  positive"  (Paris,  1859),  "Augustc 
Oomteet  laphilosophie  positive"  (1803),  "Fragments 
de  philosopnie  positive  et  de  sociologie  contempor- 
aine"  (ISTti).  In  ims,  he  was  a  candidate  for  the 
French  Academy, 
but  owing  to  tlie 
Strong  opposition 
of  Mgr  Dupan- 
loup,  Bishop  of 
Orleans,  who  de- 
nounced liis  works 
as  immoral  and 
impious,  he  was 
rejected,  Uewas 
afterwards  ad- 
mitted to  the 
Academy,inl87l, 
and  Ri^op  Du- 
panloup  sent  bia 
resignation,       to- 


which,  he  thought, 
"was  a  disgrace 
to  ttie  illuBtrious 
company". 

Besides  his  nu- 
and    the 


asked  to  be  baptiied  and  he  died  i 
Church. 

du.V  (Paris,  1863);  C/lho,  LiUri  et  le Fontivitme  IFaiia.  ISSi)] 
PuTxua  AHO  Rehui.  Ditamrt  dt  riptptian  6  raradfmie  fraf 

Sue  (Parii,  1882);    Saiht-Hiuiu,  SBUvmiri  perimntU  lur 
Itr^m  Iji  C'lrany/ue  mfdiadc  (im^):  KnxtUB,  DaiCttriilni- 
iind  die  VertnUr  dtr  neucnn  NalmvittmcAa/l  (Ficibuit 


19(M). 


Locie  N.  DsLAUAsaE. 


LituT^cftl  Booka.^lTnder  this  name  we  under- 
stand all  the  books,  published  by  the  authority  of  anjr 
church,  that  contain  the  text  and  directiona  for  her 
official  (liturgical)  services.  It  is  now  the  book  that 
forms  the  standard  by  which  one  has  to  judge  whether 
a  certain  service  or  prayer  or  ceremony  is  official  and 
liturgical  or  not.  Those  things  are  liturgical,  and  those 
only,  that  ore  contained  in  one  of  the  liturgical  books. 
It  is  also  obvious  that  any  church  or  religion  or  aect 
is  responsible  for  the  things  contained  in  its  liturgical 
books  in  (luite  another  sense  than  for  the  contents  of 
some  private  book  of  devotion,  which  she  at  moat  only 
allows  and  tolerates.  The  only  just  way  of  judging  (rf 
the  services,  the  tone,  and  the  elhoe  of  a  religious  body, 
is  to  consult  its  liturgical  books.  Sects  that  have  no 
such  official  books  are  from  that  very  fact  exposed  to 
all  manner  of  vazaries  in  their  devotion,  just  as  the 
absence  of  an  official  creed  leads  to     " 


PADL-GumB  IdTTBA 

merous  contributions  to 

publicatioa  of  his  works,  Littr£  founded,  in  IS6T, 
a  new  magazine,  "La  revue  de  philosophic  posi- 
tive". All  this  work  would  have  absorbed  the 
entire  energy  of  another  man;  but  this  is  only  a  part 
of  the  tremendous  production  of  LittrS.  While  he 
was  busily  engaged  in  all  these  philosophical  and 
acicntific  works,  this  indefatigable  worker,  in  1839, 
became  a  member  of  the  committee  entrusted  with  the 
duty  of  continuing  the  "Hiatoire  litMraire  de  la 
France",  a  vast  undertaking  begun  in  the  eighteenth 
century  by  the  Benedictine  monks  of  the  Saint-Maur 
CongreRation,  and  taken  up  by  tJie  French  Institute, 
after  the  Itevolution.  Attracted  by  that  subject,  be 
published  a  series  of  articlea  od  history  and  literature, 
on  comparative  philology  and  study  of  languages, 
which  were  afterwards  gathered  under  the  title  of 
"Hiatoire  de  la  langue  francaise",  "Litt^ratuie  et 
bistoire"  (Paris,  1878),  "Etudes  et  glanures"  (Paris, 
1880).  One  of  his  most  interesting  contributions  to 
philolon'  isatranslatioQof  Booklof  thelliad,  inverse 
and  in  the  French  language  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
But  by  far  the  most  important  of  all  his  works,  which 
will  moke  bis  name  live  forever,  is  the  "  Dictionaairc 


In  1871,  Littre  was  elected  to  the  Assembliie  Na- 
tionale  by  the  Department  of  Seine  and  was  made  a 
senator  for  hfe  in  1S74.  His  fame  was  then  exploited 
by  the  Radicals  who  wentsofarasto  induce  him  to  Ix; 
initiated  a  Freemason.  Much  to  their  surprise,  he  pro- 
nounced, on  the  occasion  of  his  initiation,  a  vcr^'  con- 
servative speech  which  disappointed  the  enemies  of 
the  Church.  In  fact,  he  had  never  Ijeen  an  implacable 
opponent  to  Catholicism.  In  1878  he  declined  the 
dedication  of  a  certain  book  because  of  bitter  attacks 


short  account  is  given  of  those  of  the  other  rites. 

I.  The  Fihot  Traces  of  LiTtmoiCAt  Books.— Our 
present  convenient  compendiums — the  Missal,  Bre- 
viary, and  so  on — were  formed  only  at  the  end  of  a  long 
evolution.  In  the  first  period  (lasting  perhaps  tifl 
about  the  fourth  century)  there  were  no  books  except 
the  Bible,  from  which  leasons  were  read  and  p^hnB 
were  sung.  Nothing  was  written,  because  nothing  waa 
fixed  (see  Litobgy).  Even  after  certain  forms  hM  be- 
come so  stereotyped  as  to  make  already  what  we 
should  call  a  more  or  less  fixed  liturgy,  it  does  not 
seem  that  there  was  at  first  any  idea  t&t  they  should 
be  written  down.  Habit  and  memory  made  the  cele- 
brant repeat  more  or  lesa  the  same  forma  each  Sunday* 
the  people  answered  his  prayers  with  the  accustomed 
acclamatioos  and  responses — all  without  books. 

It  has  been  much  discussed  at  what  period  we  h&ve 
evidence  of  written  liturgies.  Renaudot  ("Litup- 
giarura  Orientalium  CoUectio",  2nd  ed.,  Frankfurt, 
1847,  I,  pp.  ix  and  xi)  thought  that  no  booka  were 
written  even  by  the  fourth  century.  He  ai^uoa  this 
from  a  passage  in  St.  Basil  (d.  379),  who  distinguishes 
between  the  written  teaching  of  the  Apostles  (in  the 
Bible)  and  the  unwritten  tradition,  and  quotes  litur- 
gical functions  as  belonging  to  this:  "Who",  be  asks, 
"of  the  saints  has  written  down  for  us  the  words  of 
the  Sacred  Invocation  in  the  consecration  of  the  bread 
and  chalice?"  (De  Spir.  Sancto,  c.  xxvii,  in  P.  G., 
XXXII,  187).  Another  argimient  is  that  no  mention 
is  made  of  liturgical  books  in  the  acts  of  martyn  (who 

the  B       , , 

Donatiata  in  the  fourth  century.    Daniel   ("Codex 


the  fourth  century.  Probst  ("Die  iilteetenrt 
Sakramcntarien  und  Ordiiies",  MOoater,  1892,  pp. 
1-19)  tries  to  estabUsh  that  there  were  lituigicaJ  booka 
back  to  the  time  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers.  The  argu- 
ment from  St.  Basil  may  W  dismissed  at  once.  He  is 
only  explaining  the  well-known  distinetion  between 
the  two  sources  of  revelation.  Scripture  and  tradition. 
Tradition  is  distinct  from  Scripture:  it  may  include 
""lie.    By"8ainte" 


other  written  l>ooks,  but  a 


UTUBGIOAL 


297 


LnUBGIOAL 


he  means  0D]3r  the  writers  of  Scripture,  and  therefore 
hiB  statement  is  that  the  Eucharistic  Invocation  is  not 
in  the  Bible.  As  for  the  Donatists,  there  is,  on  the 
contrary,  evidence  that  both  they  and  the  Catholics 
had  litureical  books  at  that  time.  Optatus  of  Mileve, 
writing  about  the  year  370  against  them,  says:  "You 
have  no  doubt  cleaned  the  palls"  (linen  cloths  used  in 
Mass), "  tell  me  what  vou  have  done  with  the  books?" 
("De  schism.  Donat.  ,  V,  Vienna  edition,  1893,  p. 
153.)  What  were  these  books?  Both  palls  and  books 
had  been  taken  from  the  Catholics,  both  were  used  in 
the  liturgy  (ibid.).  The  books  were  not  the  Bible, 
because  ine  Donatists  thoueht  them  polluted  (ibid.). 
So  there  were  other  liturgicsu  books  besides  the  Bible. 
Auf^ustine  too  reproaches  the  Donatists  with  being  in 
Bchism  with  the  verv  churches  whose  names  they  read 
iu  the  "  holy  books '  (epp.  lii  and  liii) .  So  also  a  synod 
at  Hippo  in  Africa  (in  393)  forbids  anyone  to  write 
down  tne  prayers  of  other  Churches  and  use  them, 
until  he  Ims  shown  his  copy  to  the  more  learned 
brethren  (can.  xxv;  Hcfele-Leclercq,  "Histoire  dcs 
Conciles",  II,  Paris,  1908,  p.  88;  cf.  Probst,  op.  cit., 
ia-14). 

Hiat  some  prajrers  were  occasionally  written  down 
from  the  first  age  is  evident.  Prayers  are  quoted  in  the 
Apostolic  Fathers  ("  Didache",  ix,  x;  Clement,  **  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians",  lix,  3 — Ixi.  See  Liturgy). 
This  does  not,  however,  prove  the  existence  of  liturgi- 
cal books.  Probst  thinks  that  the  exact  quotations 
made  by  the  Fathers  as  far  back  as  the  second  century 
prove  that  the  liturgy  was  alreadv  written  do^-n. 
Such  quotations,  he  says,  could  only  be  made  from 
written  books  (op.  cit.,  15-17).  This  argument  does 
not  seem  very  convincing.  We  know  that  formula), 
especially  liturgical  formmse,  can  become  very  definite 
and  well-known  before  they  arc  put  in  a  book.  A  more 
solid  reason  for  the  existence  of  a  written  liturgy  at 
any  rate  by  the  fourth  century  is  the  comparison  of 
the  liturrf  of  the  eighth  book  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers 
with  the  Bysantine  Kite  of  St.  Basil.  Proclus  (d.  446) 
says  that  basil  (d.  379)  modified  and  shortened  the 
liturgy  because  it  was  too  long  for  the  people.  There 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  what  he  says  (sec  Constanti- 
nople, The  Rite  of).  The  liturgy  shortened  by  Basil 
was  that  of  Antioch,  of  which  we  have  the  oldest  spec- 
imen in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions.  A  comparison 
of  this  fespecially  the  Thank^iving-prajs^cr)  with  that 
of  St.  Basil  (Brightman,  "Eastern  Liturgies",  pp. 
14-18  and  321-3)  shows  in  effect  that  Basil  is  much 
shorter.  It  does  not  seem  likely  that,  after  Basil's 
necessary  shortening,  anyone  should  have  taken  the 
trouble  to  write  out  the  discarded  long  form.  There- 
fore, the  litiiigy  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  was 
written  before  St.  Basil's  reform,  although  it  is  in- 
corporated into  a  work  not  finally  compiled  till  the 
early  fifth  century  (Funk,  *'  Die  apostolischen  Konsti- 
tutionen",  Rottenburg,  1891,  p.  ',i6G;  Probst,  op.  cit., 
12-13). 

Our  conclusion  then  is  that  at  any  rate  by  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourth  century  there  were  written  liturgies, 
and  therefore  liturgical  lx)oks  of  some  kind,  however 
incomplete.  How  long  before  that  anything  was 
written  down  we  cannot  say.  We  conceive  portions 
of  the  rite  written  out  as  occasion  required.  Evidently 
one  of  the  first  things  to  be  written  was  the  diptychs 
containing  the  lists  of  persons  and  churches  for  whom 

f)rayers  were  to  be  said.  These  diptychs  were  used 
ituigic^lv — the  deacon  read  them — in  all  rites  down 
to  the  Micidle  Ages.  Augustine's  argument  against  the 
Donatists  refers  to  the  diptychs  (epp.  lii  and  liii 
above).  The  diptychs  were  two  tablets  folded  like  a 
book  {Sit  and  rrvx'6)]  on  one  side  the  names  of  the 
living,  on  the  other  those  of  the  dead  were  written. 
They  have  now  disappeared  and  the  names  are  said 
from  memory.  But  tne  Byzantine  Rite  still  contains 
the  rubrics:  "The  deacon  remembers  the  diptychs  of 
the  departed";  **  He  remembers  the  diptychs  of  the  liv- 


ing" (Brightman,  op.  cit.,  388-9).  No  doubt  the  next 
thmg  to  be  written  out  was  the  collection  of  prayers 
said  by  the  celebrant  (Sacramentaries  and  Euchologia), 
then  indications  for  the  readers  (Comites,  CapituJaria, 
Synaxaria)  and  the  various  books  for  the  singers 
(Antiphonaries,  books  of  Troparia),  and  finally  the 
rubrical  directions  (Ordines,  Typika). 

II.    HlSTOUY  OP  THE  ROMAN  LiTUROICAL  BoOKS. 

So  far  the  development  went  on  in  parallel  lines  in 
East  and  West.  When  we  come  to  the  actual  books 
we  must  distinguish  between  the  various  rites,  which 
have  different  groups  and  arrangements.  In  the 
Roman  Rite  the  first  complete  books  we  know  are  the 
Sacramentaries  (Sacramentaria),  A  Sacramentary  is 
not  the  same  thing  as  a  Missal.  It  contains  more  on 
the  one  side,  less  on  the  other.  It  is  the  book  for  the 
celebrant.  It  contains  all  and  only  the  prayers  that 
he  says.  At  the  time  that  these  books  were  written  it 
was  not  vet  the  custom  for  the  celebrant  also  to  re- 
peat at  tne  altar  whatever  is  sung  by  the  ministers  or 
choir.  Thus  Sacramentaries  contain  none  of  those 
parts  of  the  Mass,  no  Lessons,  no  Introits,  Graduals, 
Offertories  and  so  on,  but  only  the  Collects,  Prefaces, 
Canon,  all  that  is  strictly  the  celebrant's  part.  On  the 
other  hand  they  provide  for  his  use  at  otner  occasions 
besides  Muss.  As  the  celebrant  is  normally  supposed 
to  be  a  bishop,  the  Sacramentary  supplies  him  with 
the  prayers  he  wants  at  ordinations,  at  the  consecra- 
tion of  a  church  and  altar  and  many  exorcisms,  bless- 
ings, and  consecrations  that  are  now  inserted  in  the 
Pontifical  and  Ritual.  That  is  the  order  of  a  com- 
plete Sacramentary.  Many  of  those  now  extant  are 
more  or  less  fragmentary. 

The  name  Sacramentarium  is  equivalent  to  the  other 
form  also  used  (for  instance,  in  the  Gelasian  book), 
Liber  Sacramentorum.  The  form  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  word  Ilymnartum.  for  a  book  of  hymns.  Gen- 
nadius  of  Marseilles  (fifth  cent.)  uses  both.  He  says 
of  Paulinus  of  Nola:  "Fecit  et  sacramentarium  et 
hymnariiun"  (De  viris  illustribus,  xlviii).  The  word 
sacramentum  or  sacramenta  in  this  case  means  the 
Mass.  Sacramenta  celebrare  or  facere  is  a  common 
term  for  saying  Mass.  So  St.  Augustine  (d.  430)  re- 
marks that  we  say  "Sursum  corda"  "in  sacramentis 
fidelium",  that  is  at  Mass  (De  Dono  Persev.,  xiii,  33), 
and  two  schismatics  of  the  fifth  century  complain  to 
the  Emperors  Gratian  and  Thcodosius  that  Pope 
Damasus  (366-84)  will  not  let  them  say  Mass;  but 
they  do  so  all  the  same,  because  "  salutis  nastne  sacra- 
menta facienda  sunt"  (Faust inus  and  Marccliinus, 
"Lib.  prec.  ad  Imp."  in  P.  L.,  XIII,  98;  cf.  Probst, 
"  Die  altesten  rom.  Sakram.",  20-1).  A  number  ot 
Sacramentaries  of  the  Roman  Rite  are  still  extant, 
either  complete  or  in  part.  Of  these  the  most  impor- 
tant are  the  three  known  by  the  names  I^eonine,  Gela- 
sian, and  Gregorian.  Their  date,  authorship,  place, 
and  original  purpose  have  l>een  much  discussed.  What 
follows  is  a  compilation  of  the  views  of  recognized 
scholars. 

The  so-called  "Sacramentarium  Leonianum"  is  the 
oldest.  Only  one  manuscript  of  it  is  known,  written 
in  the  seventh  century.  This  manuscript  was  found 
in  the  library  of  the  cathedral  chapter  of  Verona,  was 
published  by  Joseph  Bianchini  in  1735  in  the  fourth 
volume  of  nis  edition  of  Anastasius  Bibliothecarius, 
and  was  by  him  attributed  arbitrarily  to  St.  Leo  I  (440 
-61).  On  the  strength  of  this  attribution  the  book 
was  included  by  the  Ballerini  in  their  edition  of  Leo 
(Venice,  1753-7),  and  still  bears  the  name  Leonine. 
It  was  reprinted  by  Muratori  in  his  "  Liturgia  Romana 
vetus"  (Venice,  174S).  Now  the  best  edition  is  that 
of  C.  L.  Feltoe  (Cambridge,  1896).  The  Leonine 
Sacramentary  represents  a  pure  Roman  use  with  no 
Gallican  elements.  But  it  is  not  a  book  compiled  for 
use  at  the  altar.  The  hopeless  confusion  of  its  parts 
shows  this.  It  is  a  fragment,  containing  no  Canon 
nor  Ordinary  of  the  Mass,  bxit  ^  ^siVtfsi^vaii.  ^\^x<3^Kt^ 


UTUBGICAL 


298 


UTURGiaAL 


(Collects,  Secrets,  Prefaces,  Postcommunions,  and 
Orationes  super  populum),  of  various  Masses  with 
ordination  forms,  arranged  according  to  the  civil  year. 
It  begins  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  Mass  for  April,  and 
ends  with  a  blessing  for  the  font  **  In  ieiunio  mensis 
dedmi"  (i.  e.  the  winter  Ember-days) .  In  each  month 
sroups  of  Masses  are  given,  often  very  large  groups, 
^r  each  feajst  and  occasion.  Thus,  for  instance,  in 
June  we  find  twenty-eight  Masses  for  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul,  one  ^ter  another,  each  headed:  "Item  alia" 
(Feltoe's  ed.,  pp.  36-50);  there  are  fourteen  for  St. 
Lawrence,  twenty-three  for  the  anniversary  of  a 
bishop's  consecration  (123-39),  and  so  on.  Evidently 
the  writer  has  compiled  as  manv  alternative  Masses 
for  each  occasion  as  he  could  find.  In  many  cases  he 
shows  great  carelessness.  He  inserts  Masses  in  the 
wrong  place.  Many  of  his  Masses  in  natali  episco^ 
porum  have  nothing  at  all  to  do  with  that  anniversary, 
and  are  really  Masses  for  Sundays  after  Pentecost;  m 
the  middle  of  a  Mass  of  St.  Cornelius  and  St.  Cyprian  he 
has  put  the  preface  of  a  Mass  of  St.  Euphemia  (p.  104), 
a  Mass  for  the  new  civil  year  is  inserted  among  tnose  for 
martvrs  (XX  item  aliafp.  9) ;  Masses  for  St.  Stephen's 
day  (26  Dec.)  with  evident  allusions  to  Christmas  are 
put  in  August  (pp.  86-9),  obviously  through  a  con- 
tusion with  the  feast  of  the  finding  of  his  relics  (3 
Aug.).  Many  other  examples  of  the  same  confusion 
are  quoted  bv  Buchwald  (''Das sogen.  Sacramentarium 
Leonianum  .  Vienna,  1908).  That  the  collection  is 
Roman  is  obvious.  It  is  full  of  local  allusions  to 
Rome.  For  instance,  one  of  the  collects  to  be  said  by 
a  bishop  on  the  anniversary  of  his  consecration  could 
only  be  used  by  the  pope  of  Rome:  "Lord  God  .  .  . 
who,  although  Thou  dost  not  cease  to  enrich  with 
many  gifts  Thy  Church  spread  throughout  the  world, 
nevertheless  dost  look  more  favourably  upon  the  see 
of  Thy  blessed  Apostle  Peter,  as  Thou  hast  desired 
that  it  should  be  most  exalted,  etc."  (p.  127).  The 
Preface  for  St.  John  and  St.  Paul  remembers  that 
they  are  buried  within  "the  boundaries  of  this  city" 
(p.  34) ;  the  Masses  of  the  Patrons  of  Rome,  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  continually^  allude  to  the  city  (so  the 
preface  in  the  twenty-third  Mass:  "who,  foreseeing 
that  our  city  would  labour  under  so  many  troubles, 
didst  place  in  it  the  chief  members  of  the  power  of  the 
Apostles",  p.  47),  and  so  on  continually  (cf.  Probst, 
op.  cit.,  48-53,  etc.). 

Mgr  Duchesne  (Originesdu  Culte  Chretien,  129-37) 
thinks  that  the  Leonine  book  is  a  private  collection  of 
prayers  copied  without  much  intelligence  from  the  offi- 
cial books  at  Rome  about  the  year  538.  He  arrives  at 
this  date  especially  through  an  allusion' in  the  Secret 
of  a  Mass  placed  in  June  (but  really  an  Easter  Mass), 
which  refers  to  a  recent  deliverance  from  enemies 
(Feltoe,  p.  73).  This  allusion  he  understands  to  refer 
to  the  raising  of  the  siege  of  Rome  by  Vitiges  and  his 
Goths  at  Easter-time,  538  (see  his  other  arguments, 
pp.  131-2).  Muratori  considered  that  the  book  was 
composed  under  Felix  III  (483-92;  "Liturgia  rom. 
vetus",  diss.  xx\'^ii).  Probst  answers  Duchesne's 
arguments  (Die  altesten  r6m.  Sakram.,  pp.  56-61) ;  he 
attributes  the  allusion  in  the  Secret  to  Alaric's  in- 
vasion in  402,  and  thinks  that  the  compilation  was 
made  between  366  and  461 .  The  latest  theory  is  that 
of  Buchwald  (Das  sogen.  Sacram.  Leon.,  62-7),  who 
suggests  that  the  book  is  a  compilation  of  Roman 
Masses  made  in  the  sixth  or  seventh  century  for  use  in 
Gaul,  so  that  the  composers  of  Roman  books  who  were 
at  that  time  introducing  the  Roman  Rite  into  Gaul  (see 
Liturgy)  might  have  a  source  from  which  to  draw 
their  material.  He  suggests  Gregory  of  Tours  (d. 
694)  as  possibly  the  compiler. 

The  "Gelasian  Sacramentary"  exists  in  several 
manuscripts.  It  is  a  Roman  book  more  or  less  Galli- 
canized;  the  various  manuscripts  represent  different 
stages  of  this  Gallican  influence.  The  oldest  fonn 
extant  is  a  book  written  in  the  seventh  or  early  eighth 


century  for  use  in  the  abbev  of  St.  Denis  at  Paris. 
This  is  now  in  the  Vatican  library  (MS.  Regins  316). 
It  was  first  published  by  Tommasi  in  his  ''Codices 
Sacramentorum  nongentis  annis  vetustiores"  (Rome, 
168()),  then  by  Muratori  in  "  Liturgia  romana  vetus*'. 
I.  Other  versions  of  the  same  book  are  the  Codices  of 
St.  Gall  and  of  Rheinau,  both  of  the  eighth  century, 
edited  by  Gerbert  in  his  "  Monumenta  veteris  liturgw 
alemmanicffi,"  I  (St.  Blaise,  1777).  These  three  (col- 
lated with  others)  form  the  basis  of  the  standard 
edition  of  H.  A.  Wilson  (Oxfoixl,  1894).  The  book 
does  not  in  any  old  manuscript  bear  the  name  of  Gelar 
sius;  it  is  called  simply  ''Liber  Sacramentorum 
Romana)  ecclesise".  It  .is  much  more  complete  Uian 
the  Leonine  Sacramentary.  It  consists  of  three  books, 
each  marked  with  a  not  very  accurate  title.  Book  I 
(The  Book  of  Sacraments  in  the  order  of  the  year's 
cvcle)  contains  Masses  for  feasts  and  Sundays  from 
Cfhristmas  Eve  to  the  octave  of  Pentecost  (there  are  as 
yet  no  special  Masses  for  the  season  after  Pentecost), 
together  with  the  ordinations,  prayers  for  all  the  rites 
of  the  catechumenate,  blessing  of  the  font  at  Blaster 
Eve,  of  the  oil,  dedication  of  churches,  and  reception 
of  nuns  (Wilson,  ed.,  pp.  1-160).  Book  II  (Prayers 
for  the  Feasts  of  Saints)  contains  the  Proper  of  Saints 
throughout  the  year,  the  Common  of  Samts,  and  the 
Advent  Masses  (ibid.,  161-223).  Book  III  (Prayers 
and  the  Canon  for  Sundays)  contains  a  great  num- 
ber of  Masses  marked  simply  "For  Sunday"  (i.e. 
any  Sunday),  the  Canon  of  tne  Mass,  what  we  should 
cafi  votive  Masses  (e.  g.  for  travellers,  in  time  of 
trouble,  for  kings,  and  so  on),  Masses  for  the  Dead, 
pome  blessings  (of  holy  water,  fruits,  trees  and  so  on), 
and  various  prayers  for  special  occasions  (224-315). 
An  old  tradition  (Walafrid  Strabo,  ninth  century, 
"De  rebus  eccl.",  XX;  John  the  Deacon,  "Vita  S. 
Gregorii'*  II,  xvii,  etc.)  ascribes  what  is  evidently  this 
book  to  rope  Gelasius  I  [492-6.  Gennadius  (lie  vir. 
illust.,  xcvi)  says  he  composed  a  book  of  Sacraments]. 
Duchesne  (op.  cit.,  121-5)  thinks  it  represents  tbe 
Roman  service-books  of  the  seventh  or  eighth  century 
(between  the  years  628  and  731).  It  was,  however, 
composed  in  the  Prankish  kingdom.  All  the  local 
Roman  allusions  (for  instance,  the  Roman  Stations) 
have  been  omitted;  on  Good  Friday  the  prayers 
read:  "Let  us  pray  for  our  most  Christian  Elinperor 
[the  compiler  has  added]  or  king"  (p.  76),  and  again: 
"  look  down  mercifully  on  the  Roman,  or  the  Prankish^ 
Empire"  (ibid.).  There  are  also  Gallican  additions 
(Duchesne,  125-8).  Dom  BSumer  ('Ueber  das  sogen. 
Sacram.  Gelas."  in  "  Histor.  JahrbuchderGdrresgesell- 
schaft",  1893,  pp.  241-301)  and  Mr.  Bishop  ("The 
earliest  Roman  Massbook"  in  "  Dublin  Review",  1894, 

Ep.  245-78)  maintain  that  it  is  much  earlier  than 
►uchcsne  thinks,  and  ascribe  it  to  the  sixth  century, 
at  which  time  the  Roman  Rite  entered  Gaul  (see  Lit- 
urgy) .  Buchwald  (Das  sogen.  Sacr.  Leon.,  ibid.,  p.  66) 
agrees  with  Duchesne  in  dating  this  Sacramentar\'  at 
the  seventh  or  eighth  century,  and  thinks  that  its 
compiler  used  the  Leonine  collection. 

We  know  most  about  the  third  of  these  books,  the 
so-called  "Gregorian  Sacramentary".  Charlema^e, 
anxious  to  introduce  the  Roman  Rite  into  his  kmg- 
dom,  wrote  to  Pope  Adrian  I  between  the  years  781 
and  791  asking  him  to  send  him  the  service-book  of 
the  Roman  Church.  The  book  sent  by  the  pope  is  the 
nucleus  of  the  Greeorian  Sacramentaiy.  It  was  then 
copied  a  great  number  of  times,  so  that  there  are  many 
versions  of  it,  all  containing  additions  made  by  the 
various  Bcribe»9.  These  are  described  by  Probst  (Die 
ftltesten  Sakr.,  pp.  303-13).  The  first  edition  is  that 
of  Pamelius  in  his  "Rituale  SS.  Patrum  Latinorum", 
II  (O)lo^e,  1571).  The  standard  edition  is  Muratori, 
"Liturgia  romana  vetus",  II.  This  is  based  on  two 
manuscripts,  both  written  before  800,  now  in  the  Vat- 
ican Library  (Cod.  Ottobonianus  andCod.yaticftnus). 
Migne  (P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  25-602)  reprints  the  editioo 


unmoioAL 


299 


LITUBOiaU. 


of  Nicholas  Menard  (P&ris,  1642).  Probst  maintains 
that  this  is  rather  to  be  considered  a  Gelasian  book, 
reformed  according  to  the  Gregorian  (Die  &ltes.  Sakr., 
pp.  165-0).  In  any  case  the  elements  are  here  com- 
pfetely  fused.  The  original  book  sent  by  Adrian  to 
Charlemagne  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  addi- 
tions. The  first  who  began  to  supplement  Adrian's 
book  from  other  sources  (Pamelius  sa3r8  it  was  a  cer- 
tain Prankish  Abbot  named  Grimold)  was  a  conscien- 
tious person  and  carefully  noted  where  his  additions 
b^in.  At  the  end  of  the  original  book  he  adds  a 
note,  a  frefatiuncula  beginning  with  the  word  Huo- 
usque:  S6  far  (Hucusaue)  uie  preceding  book  of 
Sacraments  is  certainly  tnat  edited  by  the  noly  Pope 
Gregory."  Then  come  (in  Pamelius's  edition)  two 
supplements,  one  (according  to  Pamelius)  by  Abbot 
Gnmold  and  the  other  by  Alcuin.  The  supplements 
vary  considerably  in  the  codices.  Eventually  their 
matter  became  incorporated  in  the  original  book.  But 
in  ^e  earlier  versions  we  may  take  the  first  p>art,  down 
to  the  prefatiunculaf  as  being  the  book  sent  by  Ad- 
rian. How  far  it  is  that  of  Gregory  I  is  another  Ques- 
tion. This  book  then  has  three  parts:  (1)  The  Ordi- 
narv  of  the  Mass ;  (2)  the  Propers  for  the  year  beginning 
with  Christmas  Eve.  They  follow  the  ecclesiastical 
year;  the  feasts  of  saints  (days  of  the  month  in  the 
civil  year)  are  incorporated  in  their  approximate 
places  in  this.  The  Roman  Stations  are  noted.  There 
are  still  no  Masses  for  the  Simdays  after  Epiphany 
and  Pentecost;  (3)  the  prayers  for  ordinations.  There 
are  no  votive  Biases  or  requiems.  For  these  reasons 
Mgr  Duchesne  considers  that  the  **  Sacramentary ''  is 
the  "pope's  book",  that  is  the  book  used  by  the  pope 
himself  tor  the  public  papal  services  (Origines  du  Culte 
Chretien,  p.  117).  Is  its  attribution  to  St.  Gregory  I 
(690-604)  correct?  That  Gregory  did  much  to  reform 
ihe  lituigy  is  certain.  A  constant  tradition  ascribes 
such  a  work  to  him,  as  to  Gelasius.  John  the  Deacon 
(ei^th  century)  in  his  life  of  Grc^ry  expresses  this 
tradition: "  He  collected  the  Sacramentary  of  Gelasius 
in  one  book"  (we  have  seen  that  the  two  sets  of 
Propers  in  the  Gelasianum  are  fused  together  in  the 
Gregorianum),  ''leaving  out  much''  (this  too  is  veri- 
fied by  comparing  the  books;  numbers  of  Gelasian 
Prefaces  ana  ritual  elaborations  are  omitted  in  the 
Gregorian  book),  "changing  little,  adding  some- 
thing "  (II,  xvii) .  Pope  Adrian  himself,  in  sending  the 
book  to  Charlemagne,  says  that  it  is  composed  "by 
our  holy  predecessor,  the  divinely  speaking  Pope 
Gregory"  (letter  in  Jafif6,  "Cod.  Carol.",  p.  274). 
That  the  essential  foundation  of  this  "  Sacramentar\'^ " 
goes  back  to  St.  Gregory,  indeed  to  long  before  his 
time,  is  certain.  Nor  need  we  doubt  tlmt  he  made 
such  changes  as  are  claimed  for  him  by  his  biographer, 
and  that  Uiese  changes  stand  in  this  book.  But  it  is 
not  his  work  untouched.  It  has  additions  made  since 
his  time,  for  instance  his  own  feast  (12  March,  in 
Migne's  edition,  P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  61)  and  other 
feasts  not  kept  at  Rome  before  the  seventh  century 
(Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  118).  Evidently  then  the  book 
sent  by  Pope  Adrian  has  gone  through  the  inevitable 
development;  succeeding  centiu*ies  since  Gregory  have 
added  to  it.  It  represents  the  Roman  Rite  of  the  time 
when  it  was  sent — the  eighth  century.  For  this  rea- 
son Duchesne  prefers  to  ciQl  it  the  "Sacramentary"  of 
Adrian  (op.  cit.,  p.  119).  We  have  said  that,  when  it 
arrived  in  the  Prankish  kingdom,  it  began  to  receive 
suppleanents.  It  must  be  remembered  of  course  that 
the  writers  who  copied  it  had  not  in  view  the  future 
needs  o^  students.  The  books  they  made  were  in- 
tended for  practical  use  at  the  altar.  So  they  added  at 
the  end  of  Adrian's  "Sacramentary"  whatever  other 
ICasses  and  prayers  were  wanted  by  the  churches  for 
which  they  wrote.  These  supplements  are  taken 
partly  from  the  (jelasian  book,  partly  from  Gallican 
sources.  We  have  also  noted  that  the  additions  were 
at  first  carefully  distinguished  from  the  original  book. 


eventuallv  incorporated  in  it.  Dom  Bfiumer  sees  in 
these  additions  a  compromise  made  in  carrying  out 
Charlemagne's  orders  that  only  the  book  he  had  re- 
ceived from  Rome  should  be  used  (see  Litxtrgies; 
and  B&umer,  "Ueber  das  sogen.  Sacram.  Gelasi- 
animi",  295-301).  He  also  thinks  that  the  first 
additions  and  the  prefatiuncula  were  made  by  Alcuin 
(d.  804).  Between  the  ninth  and  eleventh  centuries 
the  book  so  composed  returned  to  Rome,  took  the  place 
of  the  original  pure  Roman  Rite,  and  so  became  the 
foundation  of  oiu*  present  Roman  Missal.  Besides 
these  three  most  important  Sacramentaries  there  are 
other  fragments,  the  "  Missale  Francorum,"  written  in 
the  seventh  or  eighth  centur>',  the  "  Ravenna  Roll " 
of  doubtful  date  (sixth  to  eleventh  century?),  ete. 
(see  Duchesne,  "Origines",  pp.  128-9, 137-8). 

At  the  same  time  as  the  Sacramentaries,  books  for 
the  readers  and  choir  were  being  arranged.  GraduiJly 
the  "Comes"  or  "Liber  Comicus"  that  indicated  the 
texts  of  the  Bible  to  be  read  developed  into  the  "  Evan- 

felarium"  and  "Lectionarium"  (see  Gospel  in  thb 
iiTCRGT  and  Lessons  in  the  Liturgy).  The  hom- 
ilies of  Fathers  to  be  read  were  collected  in  "Homil- 
aria",  the  Acts  of  the  martyrs,  read  on  their  feasts,  in 
"Martyrologia".  The  book  of  psalms  was  written 
separately  for  singing,  then  arranged  in  order,  as  the 
psalms  were  sung  through  the  week,  in  the  "Psal- 
terium  "  that  now  forms  the  first  part  of  our  Breviary. 
The  parts  of  the  Mass  sim^  by  the  choir  (Introit, 
Gradual,  Offertory,  Commimion)  were  arranged  in  the 
"  Liber  Antiphonarius"  (or  Gradualis),  the  Antiphons 
and  Responsories  in  the  Office  formed  the  'uJber 
Responsaiis",  or  "Antiphonarius  Officii",  as  distinct 
from  the  "Antiphonarius  Missse".  Two  early  collec- 
tions of  this  kind,  ascribed  to  St.  Gregory  I,  are  in 
P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  641-724,  and  725-850.  The  same 
tradition  that  attributes  to  him  the  Sacramentary  at- 
taches his  name  to  these  (e.  g.,  John  the  Deacon, 
"Vita  S.  Gregorii",  II,  vi).  Throughout  the  early 
Middle  Ages  such  collections  were  copied  with  local 
modifications  all  over  Western  Europe.  Hymns  (in  our 
sense)  were  introduced  into  the  Roman  Rite  about  the 
fifth  or  sixth  century.  Those  of  the  Mass  were  written 
in  the  Gradual,  those  of  the  Divine  Office  at  first  in  the 
Psalter  or  Antiphonarj'.  But  there  were  also  separate 
collections  of  hymns,  called  "  Hymnaria",  and  "  Libri 
Seouentiales  "  (or  troponarii) ,  containing  the  se(]^uences 
ana  additions  (farcing)  to  the  Kvrie  and  Gloria,  ete. 
Other  services,  the  Sacraments  (Baptism,  Confirma- 
tion, Penance,  Marriage,  Extreme  Unction),  the  Visi- 
tation of  the  Sick,  the  Burial  Service,  all  manner  of 
blessings,  were  written  in  a  very  loose  collection  of 
little  lx)oks  called  by  such  names  as  "Liber  Agen- 
dorum",  "Agenda",  "Manuale",  "Benedictioruue", 
"Pastorale",  "Sacerdotale",  "Rituale",  the  prede- 
cessors of  our  Ritual.  As  examples  of  such  books  we 
may  quote  the  "  Manuale  Curatorum"  for  the  Diocese 
of  Roeskilde  in  Denmark  (ed.  by  J.  Freisen,  Pader- 
bom,  1898)  and  the  "Liber  Agendorum"  of  Schlcs- 
wig  (ed.  J.  Freising,  Paderbom,  1898).  Their  num- 
ber and  variety  is  enormous. 

Finally  there  remained  the  rubrics,  the  directions 
not  about  what  to  say  but  what  to  do.  This  matter 
would  be  one  of  the  latest  to  be  written  down.  Long 
after  the  more  or  less  complicated  prayers  had  to  be 
written  and  read,  tradition  would  still  be  a  sufficient 
guide  for  the  actions.  The  books  of  prayers  (Sacra- 
mentaries, Antiphonaries^  ete.)  contained  a  few  words 
of  direction  for  the  most  important  and  salient  things 
to  be  done — elementary  rubrics.  For  instance  the  Gre- 
eorian  "  Sacrament ar>' "  tells  priests  (as  distinct  from 
bishops)  not  to  say  the  Gloria  except  on  Easter  Day; 
the  celebrant  chants  the  preface  excelsa  voce^  and  so  on 
(P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  25).  In  time,  however,  the  growing 
elaborateness  of  the  papal  functions,  the  more  com- 
plicated ceremonial  of  the  Roman  Court,  made  it  neces- 
sary to  draw  up  rules  of  what  custom  and  ^va^^sfiO^ 


UTUBOICAL 


300 


UTUROIOAL 


demanded.  These  rules  are  contained  in  the  "Ordines* * 
— precursors  of  our  "  Caerimoniale  Episcoporum '*. 
Mabillon  published  sixteen  of  the  Ordines  in  his  '*  Mu- 
sseum  Itaiicum*',  II  (Paris,  1689).  These  are  repro- 
duced in  P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  937-1372.  They  are  of 
different  dates,  from  about  the  eighth  to  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  first  of  them  ("Ordo  Romanus  primus", 
edited  apart  by  E.  G.  C.  Atchley  with  excellent  notes, 
London,  1905),  which  is  the  most  important,  was 

?robably  drawn  up  about  the  year  770  in  the  reign  of 
*ope  Stephen  III  (768-72),  but  is  founded  on  a  sim- 
ilar "  Orclo  "  of  the  time  of  Gregory  I  (590-604).  The 
"  Ordines  "  contain  no  prayers,  except  that,  where  nec- 
essary, the  first  words  are  given  to  indicate  what  is 
meant.  They  supplement  the  Sacramentary  and 
choir-books  with  careful  directions  about  the  ritual. 
Since  Mabillon  other  "  Ordines  '*  have  been  found  and 
edited.  A  famous  and  important  one,  found  in  a 
manuscript  of  the  church  of  St.  Amand  at  Puelle,  is 
published  by  Duchesne  in  the  Appendix  of  his  "Ori- 
gines  du  Cmte  Chretien"  (pp.  440-63).  It  was  comr 
posed  about  the  eighth  or  ninth  century. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  these  books  were  rear- 
ranged for  greater  convenience,  and  develop)ed  event- 
ufiJly  into  the  books  we  know.  The  custom  of  Low 
Mass  changed  the  Sacramentary  into  a  Missal.  At 
Low  Mass  the  celebrant  had  to  supplement  personally 
what  was  normally  chanted  by  the  deacon  and  sub- 
deacon  or  sung  by  the  choir.  This  then  reacted  upon 
High  Mass,  so  that  here  too  the  celebrant  began  to  say 
himself  in  a  low  voice  what  was  sung  by  some  one  else. 
For  this  purpose  he  needed  texts  that  were  not  in  the 
old  Sacramentary.  That  book  was  therefore  enlarged 
by  the  addition  of  Lessons  (Epistle  and  Gospel,  ete.) 
and  the  chants  of  the  choir  (introit,  Gradual,  etc.). 
So  it  becomes  a  MisscUe  plenarium^  containing  all  the 
text  of  the  Mass.  Isolated  cases  of  such  Miss^  occur 
as  early  as  the  sixth  century.  By  about  the  twelfth 
century  they  have  completely  replaced  the  old  Sacra- 
mentaries.  But  Lectionaries  ana  Graduals  (with  the 
music)  are  still  written  for  the  readers  and  choir. 

In  the  same  way,  but  rather  later,  compilations  are 
made  of  the  various  books  used  for  saying  the  Divine 
Office.  Here  too  the  same  motive  was  at  work.  The 
Office  was  meant  to  be  sung  in  choir.  But  there  were 
isolated  priests,  small  country  churches  without  a 
choir,  that  could  not  afford  the  library  of  books  re- 
quired for  saying  it.  For  their  convenience  com- 
pendiums  were  made  since  the  eleventh  century. 
Gregory  VII  (1073-85)  issued  a  compendium  of  this 
kind  that  became  very  popular. 

First  we  hear  of  Lihri  noctumales  or  matutinales, 
containing  all  the  lessons  and  responses  for  Matins. 
To  these  are  added  later  the  antiphons  and  psalms, 
then  the  collects  and  all  that  is  wanted  for  the  other 
canonical  hours  too.  At  the  same  time  epitomes  are 
made  for  people  who  recite  the  Office  without  the 
chant.  In  these  the  Psalter  is  often  left  out;  the 
clergy  are  supposed  to  know  it  by  heart.  The  anti- 
phons, versicles,  responsories,  even  the  lessons  are  in- 
dicated only  by  their  first  words.  The  whole  is  really 
a  kind  of  concise  index  to  the  Office,  but  sufficient  for 
people  who  said  it  day  after  day  and  almost  knew  it  by 
neart.  Such  little  books  are  called  by  various  names 
— "Epitomata",  '*Portiforia",  and  then  especially 
"  Breviaria  divini  officii"  (Abbreviations  of  the  Divine 
Office).  They  were  used  mostly  by  priests  on  jour- 
neys. In  the  twelfth  century  the  catalogue  of  the 
library  of  Durham  Cathedral  includes  "a  little  travel- 
ling breviarj'"  (breviarium  parvum  Uinerarium),  In 
1241  Gregory  IX  says  in  a  Bull  for  the  Franciscan 
order:  "You  have  (the  Divine  Office)  in  your  Brevi- 
aries" (see  Batiffol, "  Histoire  du  Br6viaire",  chap,  iv, 
especially  pp.  1 92-202) .  The  parts  of  these  Breviaries 
were  fillea  up  eventually  so  as  to  leave  nothing  to 
memory,  but  the  convenient  arrangement  and  the 
name  have  been  kept.    It  is  curious  that  the  word 


Breviar>%  which  originally  meant  only  a  Iiandy  epit- 
ome for  use  on  journeys  and  such  occasions,  has  come 
to  be  the  usual  name  for  the  Divine  Office  itself.  A 
priest  "says  his  breviary"  that  is,  recites  the  canoni- 
cal hours. 

The  development  of  the  other  books  took  place  in 
much  the  same  way.  The  Missals  now  contained  only 
the  Mass  and  a  few  morning  services  intimately  con- 
nected with  it.  Daily  Mass  was  the  custom  Tor  eveiy 
priest;  there  was  no  object  in  including  all  the  rit^ 
used  only  by  a  bishop  in  each  Missal.  So  these  rites 
apart  formed  the  Pontifical.  The  other  non-Eucha- 
nstic  elements  of  the  old  Sacramentary  combined  with 
the  ^'Libri  Agendarum''  to  form  our  Ritual.  The 
Ck)imcLl  of  Trent  (1545-03)  considered  the  question  of 
uniformity  in  the  liturgical  books  and  appointed  a 
commission  to  examine  the  question.  But  tJbe  conmiis- 
sion  found  the  work  of  unifymg  so  many  and  so  varied 
books  impossible  at  the  time,  and  so  left  it  to  be  done 
gradually  by  the  popes.  The  Miss^  and  Breviary 
were  reformed  very  soon  (see  next  paragraph),  the 
other  books  later.  The  latest  work  was  we  produc- 
tion of  the  ''Caerimoniale  Episcoporum''.  John  Bur- 
chard,  Master  of  Ceremonies  to  Sixtus  IV  (1471-84), 
combined  the  old  **  Ordines  Romani "  into  an  Ordo  «er- 
vandus  per  sacerdotem  tn  celebrcUione  missas  (Rome, 
1502),  and  arranged  the  rubrics  of  the  Pontifical 
Other  editions  of  the  rubrics  were  made  at  intervals, 
tiUClement  VIII  (1592-1605)  issued  the  "  Casrimonialc 
Episcoporum"  (in  1600).  All  the  books  have  been 
constantly  revised  and  re-edited  with  additions  down 
to  our  own  time. 

III.  The  Present  Roman  Liturgical  Books. — 
The  official  books  of  the  Roman  Rite  are  seyen — the 
Missal,  Pontifical,  Breviary,  Ritual,  Cserimoniale 
Episcoporum,  Mcmoriale  Rituum,  and  Martyrology. 
These  contain  all  and  only  the  liturgical  services  of 
this  rite.  Several  repeat  matter  also  found  in  others. 
Other  l>ooks,  containing  extracts  from  them,  share 
their  official  character  inasmuch  as  the  texts  conform 
to  that  of  the  original  book.  Such  secondarj^  liturgi- 
cal books  are  the  Ijcctionary  and  Gradual  (with  musi- 
cal notes)  taken  from  the  Missal,  the  Day  Hours 
(Hone  diumae)  of  the  Breviary,  the  Vesperal,  Antiph- 
onary  and  other  choir-books  (with  notes),  also  ex- 
tracted from  thcBreviaiy,  various  Benedictionals  and 
Ordines  taken  from  the  Ritual  or  Pontifical. 

(a)  The  Roman  Missal  (Missale  Romanum),  as  we 
now  have  it,  was  published  by  Pope  Pius  V  by  the 
Bull  '*Quo  primum"  of  14  July,  1570  (see  Liturgies 
and  Roman  Rite).  A  commission,  opened  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  under  Pius  IV  (1559-65),  consisting 
of  Cardinal  Beniardine  Scotti,  Thomas  Gcddwell, 
Bishop  of  St.  Asaph  (one  of  the  last  two  English 
bishops  of  the  old  Catholic  line),  Giulio  Poggi.  and 
others,  had  then  finished  its  task  of  rc\'ising  the  book. 
Clement  VIII  (1592-1605)  formed  a  new  commission 
(Baron ius,  BelLarmine,  and  others)  to  restore  the  text 
which  printers  had  again  corrupted,  and  especially  to 
substitute  the  new  Vulgate  (1590)  texts  for  those  of 
the  Itala  in  the  Missal:  he  published  his  revision  by 
the  Bull  ''Cum  Sanctissimum"  on  7  July,  1604.  Ui^ 
ban  VIII  (1623-44)  again  appointed  a  commission  to 
revise  chieflv  the  rubrics,  and  issued  a  new  edition  on  2 
September,  1634  (Bull  "Si  quid  est").  Leo  XUI 
(1878-1903)  again  made  a  revision  in  1884.  These 
names  stand  for  the  chief  revisions;  they  are  ihoee 
named  on  the  title-page  of  our  I^Iissai  (Misj^e  Ro- 
manum ex  decreto  SS.  Concilii  Tridentini  restitutum 
S.  Pii  V  Pont.  Max.  iussu  editum,  dementis  VIII,  Ur- 
bani  VIII  et  Leonis  XIII  auctoritate  recognitum).  Bui 
the  continual  addition  of  Masses  for  new  feasts  goes 
on.  There  are  few  popes  since  Pius  V  who  have  mot 
authorized  some  additions,  made  by  the  Sacred  Con* 
gregation  of  Rites,  to  the  Missal  or  its  various  supple- 
ments. The  reigning  pope,  Pius  X,  has  issuea  the 
chants  of  the  Vatican  edition  in  the  GraduaL    As  far 


UTUAGICAL  301  UTUaOICUL 

these  affect  the  Missal  they  have  again  produced  Sanciorum),  that  is,  general  Masses  for  Apostke, 

new  editions  of  it.    Moreover  a  commission  now  Martyrs  and  so  on,  that  are  very  commonly  used  for 

aittinj;  is  considering  a  further  revision  of  the  text.    It  saints  of  each  class,  often  with  proper  Collect,  Secret, 

is  believed  that  when  the  commission  for  restoring  the  and  Posteommimion.    Most  saints'  days  give  the 

text  of  the  Vulgate  has  completed  its  work,  that  text  rubric:  "All  of  the  Common  of  a  Confessor  Pontiff 

will  be  issued  in  the  lessons  of  the  Missal,  thus  making  (or  whatever  it  m&y  be)  except  the  following  prayers", 

again  a  new  revision.    But,  in  spite  of  all  these  modi-  A  collection  of  votive  Masses  of  various  kinds  follows, 

fications,  our  Missal  is  still  that  of  Pius  V.    Indeed  its  ending  with  the  Mass  for  a  wedding  (Pro  Sponso  et 

text  goes  back  to  long  before  his  time  to  the  Gallican-  Sponso),  then  thirtv-fivc  sets  of  prayers  (Oraiionea 

ixed  Gregorian  "Sacramentary'^  of  the  ninth  to  eleventh  diuersce)  that  may  be  used  on  certain  occasions  in 

century,  and,  in  its  essential  characteristics,  behind  Mass,  according  to  the  rubrics.    The  four  Masses  for 

that  to  the  Gelasian  book  of  the  sixth  century,  and  so  the  dead  come  next,  then  twelve  seU  of  prayers  for 

back  into  the  mist  that  hangs  over  the  formation  of  the  the  dead.    Then  the  rite  of  blessing  holy  water  and 

Roman  Rite  in  the  first  centuries.  the  Aspcrges  ceremony.     Eleven  forms  of  blessings 

Tlje  Missal  begms  with  the  Bulls  of  Pius  V,  Clement  (Sacramentals)  used  by  priests,  blessings  of  vestments, 
VIII,  and  Urban  VIII.  Then  come  the  approbation  altar-linen,  and  the  tal>ernacle  or  ciborium  (used  by 
of  the  bishop  in  whose  diocese  it  is  printed  and  a  few  of  bishops  and  by  priest-s  having  a  special  faculty),  and 
the  most  import&nt  decisions  of  the  Sacred  Congre^a-  the  prayers  (Collect,  Secret,  Ilanc  Igitur,  Postcom- 
tion  of  Rites.  A  long  explanation  of  the  Gregorian  mumon)  said  at  ordination  Masses  end  the  old  part  of 
Calendar  foUows,  containing  much  astronomical  in-  the  Missal.  There  follow,  however,  the  ever-growing 
formation.  This  is  headed:  *'De  anno  et  eius  parti-  supplements.  Of  these  first  come  a  collecticn  of 
bus".  The  two  Paschal  tables  follow  (Julian  and  votive  Masses  appointed  by  Pius  IX  for  each  day  of 
Gregorian),  a  table  of  movable  feasts  for  a  number  of  the  week,  then  spfccial  Masses  allowed  for  certain  dio- 
f uture  years  and  the  Roman  Calendar  of  feasts.  Then  cescs  (MUsoe  aliquibus  in  locis  celebranda) ,  now  form- 
come  three  sets  of  rubrics,  first  ''Rubrics  gcnerales  ing  a  second  Proper  of  Saints  nearly  as  long  as  the  old 
Blissfe",  containing  the  more  general  rules  in  twenty  one;  and  finally  with  the  Missal  is  bound  up  another 
paragraphs  (these  were  made  by  Burchard,  revised  by  supplement  (paged  with  asterisks,  I . ,  etc.)  for  what- 
thecommiasionsofPiusV,ClementVIII,IJrbanyiII);  ever  country  or  province  or  religious  order  uses  it. 
then  the  *'  Ritus  servandus  in  celebratione  misss  ",  The  Missal  contains  all  the  music  used  by  the  celebrant 
in  thirteen  paragraphs  or  chapters.  Tliis  latter  at  the  altar  (except  the  obvious  chants  of  Dominus 
gives  exact  directions  for  High  or  Low  Mass,  whether  vobiscum.  Collects,  etc.,  that  are  given  once  for  all  in 
celebrated  by  a  bishop  or  priest.  Third  come  the  the  "CierimpnialeEpiscoporum'')  in  its  place.  The 
directions  al>out  what  to  do  in  case  of  various  acci-  new  (Vatican)  edition  gives  the  various  new  chants  at 
dents  or  defects,  headed '  *  De  def  ectibus  in  celcbrat  ione  the  end. 

misssB  occurrentibus*',  in  ten  chapters.    A  private        The  Lectionary  {Leclionarium  Romanum)  contains 

preparation  and  thanksgiving  for  Mass  follow  ''to  be  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  from  the  Missal,  the  Gradual 

made  at  the  opportunity  of  the  priest".    The  prayers  (Graduule  R^tnanum),  all  the  choir's  part  (the  Proper, 

said  while  vestmg  come  at  the  end  of  the  preparation.  Inlroit,  etc.,  and  the  common,  Kyrie,  etc.)  with  mu- 

Lastl^,  figures  show  the  way  to  incense  the  altar  and  sic.    Religious  orders  that  have  a  special  rite  (Do- 

oblation.    Shorter  and  special  rubrics  for  various  minicans,  Carmelites,  Carthusians)  nave  of  course 

occasions  are  inserted  (in  red)  in  the  text.  their  special  Missals,  arranged  in  the  same  way. 

Then  follows  the  text  of  the  Missal.  The  first  part  (b)  The  Pontifical  {Pontificate  Romanum)  is  the 
contuns  the  "Proper  of  the  time"  (Propriumteviporis)  bishop's-book.  It  was  issued  by  Benedict  XIV  (1740- 
from  the  first  Sunday  of  Advent  to  the  last  after  Pente-  58)  on  25  March,  1752,  and  revised  by  Leo  XIII  in 
cost.  The  Proper  of  each  Mass  is  given  in  order  of  the  1888.  It  has  tliree  parts  and  an  appendix.  Part  I 
ecclesiastical  year,  that  is  the  Masses  of  each  Sunday  contains  the  rites  of  Confirmation,  tnc  tonsure,  the 
and  other  day  (vigils,  ember-days,  ferise  in  Lent)  that  seven  ordinations,  the  blessing  of  abbots,  abbesses, 
has  a  proper  Mass.  Only  Cliristmas  and  its  cvcle  of  nuns,  coronation  of  kings  and  queens,  and  blessing  of 
feasts  (to  the  octave  of  the  Epiphany),  although  fixed  a  knight  (milca).  Part  II  contains  the  services  for 
to  days  of  the  civil  year  (25  Dec.,  etc.).  come  in  this  laying  foundation-stones,  consecrating  churches,  al- 
part.  Certain  rites,  not  Eucharistic,  but  connected  tars,  chalices,  many  episcopal  blessings  (of  vest- 
closely  with  the  Mass,  are  in  their  place  in  the  Missal,  ments,  vessels,  crosses,  statues,  bells,  weapons,  and 
such  as  the  blessing  of  ashes,  canoles,  and  palms,  all  fiags),  the  seven  penitential  psalms,  and  the  litany. 
the  morning  services  of  Holy  Week  (except  the  Ves-  Pa^  III  contains  the  publication  of  movable  feasts  on 

Ssrs  of  Thursday  and  FridayJ.     After  the  service  of  the  Epiphany,  the  expulsion  of  public  penitents  on 

oly  Saturday  the  whole  Ordinary  of  the  Mass  with  Ash  Wednesday  and  their  reconciliation  on  Maundy 

the  Canon  is  inserted.    This  is  the  (almost)  unchang-  Thursday,  the  order  of  s^oiods,  degradations  from 

ing  framework  into  which  the  various  Propers  are  each  order,  excommunication  and  absolution  from  it, 

fitted.     Its  place  in  the  book  has  varie<l  considerably  of  the  Journeys  of  prelates  (prayers  to  be  said  then), 

at  different  times.     It  is  now  put  here,  not  so  much  for  visitation  of  parisncs,  solemn  reception  of  bishops, 

mystic  or  symbolic  reasons,  as  because  it  is  a  conveni-  Ic^tes,  emperors,  kings,  and  such  people  down  to  a 

ent  place,  aoout  the  middle  where  a  book  lies  open  best  "  Princess  of  great  power  ",  the  old  episcopal  scrutiny, 

(see  Canon  of  the  Mass).    The  eleven  proper  Pref-  a  ceremony  for  the  first  shaving  of  a  clerk  s  beard,  and 

aces,  and  all  changes  that  can  occur  in  the  Canon  (ex-  a  little  rite  for  making  or  dcgrsuling  a  singer  (pmlmista 

cept  the  modifications  on  Maundy  Thursday),  are  or  cantor)'   The  appendix  of  the  Pontifical  contains 

mnted  here  in  the  Ordinary'.    Then  follows  Easter  the  various  rites  of  oaptism  by  a  bishop,  the  ordini^ 

bay  and  the  rest  of  the  year  in  order.    The  second  tions  without  music,  marrioec  performed  by  a  bishop, 

port  of  the  Missal  contains  the  Proper  of  Saints  (Pro-  the  pontifical  absolution  and  blessing  after  the  sermon 

prium  missarum  de  sanctU),  that  is,  the  feasts  that  at  High  Mass,  the  ''Apostolic  Benediction",  and  a 

occur  on  days  of  the  civil  year.     It  begins  with  the  blessing  of  Holy  Water  to  reconcile  a  church  after  it 

Vigil  of  St.  Andrew  (29  Nov.),  as  occurring  at  about  has  been  execrated  (polluted).     A  supplement  adds 

the  beginning  of  Advent,  and  continues  (leaving  out  the  consecration  of  a  church  with    manv    altars, 

CSuristmas  and  it^s  cycle)  regularly  through  the  months  of  an  altar  alone,  and  of  a  portable  altar — all  without 

to  the  feaats  of  bi,  Silvester  and  St.  Peter  of  Alexan-  the  cliant.    A  uuml^er  of  extracts  from  the  Pontifical 

dria  (26  Nov.).  are  made,  the  ordination  rites,  consecration  of  a 

The  third  part  is  always  paged  anew  in  brackets,  church,  and  so  on.   These  are  not  specially  authorized; 

\J]g  etc.    It  contains  the  Common  Masses  (Commiuie  they  are  authentic  if  they  conform  to  the  original 


LZTUBGICAL 


302 


LXTUBGIOAL 


The  revision  of  the  plain  song  has  not  yet  touched  the 
Pontifical.  When  it  does,  tms  will  necessitate  a  new 
edition. 

(c)  The  Breviaiy  {Bremoriutn  Romanum)  contains 
all  the  Divine  Office  without  chant.  It  has  been  re- 
vised by  the  same  popes  (Pius  V,  Clement  VIII.  Ur- 
ban Vlll,  Leo  XIIl)  as  the  Missal.  It  begins  with  the 
Bulls,  the  chapter  about  the  calendar,  the  paschal 
tables,  tables  of  movable  feasts,  calendar,  like  the 
Missal.     Then  follow  the  general   rubrics  (RubrioB 

?^enerale8  breviarii)  in  thirty-six  chapters,  giving 
ull  directions  for  the  recital  of  the  office,  occurrence 
of  feasts,  and  so  on.  Further  tables  of  occurrences, 
pravers  to  be  said  before  and  after  the  office,  and  a 
table  of  absolutions  and  blessings  end  the  introduc- 
tory matter.  The  actual  text  begins  with  the  psalter, 
that  is  the  psalms  arranged  for  the  week,  with  their 
normal  antiphons  and  hymns.  First  come  Matins 
and  Lauds  for  Sunday;  then  Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  and 
None,  then  Matins  and  Lauds  for  each  weekday.  Af- 
ter Lauds  for  Saturday  follow  Vespers  for  each  day, 
then  Compline.  This  ends  the  Psalteriimi.  The  offices 
for  each  aay  follow,  arranged  exactl^r  as  in  the  Missal 
(Proper  of  the  season,  Proper  of  saints.  Common  of 
saints,  votive  Offices  and  Offices  for  the  dead,  the 
supplement  for  certain  places,  and  a  local  supple- 
ment). After  the  Office  for  the  dead  some  extra- 
neous matter  is  inserted,  namely  the  Gradual  psalms, 
litany,  prayers  for  the  dying,  blessing  for  the  dying, 
grace  at  meals,  and  prayers  for  clerics  on  a  journey. 
At  the  end  of  the  whole  book  come  the  prayers  before 
and  after  Mass  and  two  private  litanies  (of  the  Holy 
Name  and  of  the  Blessed  Virgin). 

As  the  Breviary,  in  spite  of  its  name,  is  now  a  very 
laige  and  cumbersome  oook,  it  is  generally  issued  in 
four  parts  (Winter,  Spring,  Summer,  Autumn).  This 
involves  a  good  deal  of  repetition;  the  whole  Psalter 
occurs  in  each  part,  and  all  feasts  that  may  overlap 
into  the  next  part  have  to  be  printed  twice.  The  first 
volume  only  (Winter,  which  begins  with  Advent) 
contains  the  general  rubrics.  It  is  now  also  usual  to 
reprint  the  psalms  that  occur  in  the  Common  of  saints 
instead  of  merely  referring  back  to  the  Psalter.  Many 
other  parts  are  also  reprinted  in  several  places.  On  the 
number  and  judicious  arrangement  of  these  reprints 
depends  the  convenience  of  any  particular  edition  of 
the  Breviary.  Already  in  the  Miadle  Ages  the  count- 
less manuscripts  of  the  Breviary  are  fond  of  promising 
the  purchaser  that  he  will  find  all  the  offices  complete 
without  references  ("omnia  exscripta  sine  recursu", 
"tout  le  long  sans  recquerir")*  a  statement  that  the 
writer,  after  examining  a  great  number  of  them,  has 
never  once  found  true.  The  chief  book  excerpted  from 
the  Breviary  is  the  "Day  Hours"  (HorcB  diumce  breviarii 
romani),  containing  everything  except  Matins,  which 
with  its  lessons  forms  the  main  bulk  of  the  book.  For 
singing  in  choir  various  books  with  music  exist,  repre- 
senting still  more  or  less  the  state  of  thines  before 
Breviaries  were  invented.  The  complete  *'  Liber  Anti- 
phonarius"  contains  all  the  antiphons,  hymns,  and 
responses  throughout  the  Office.  From  this  again 
various  excerpts  are  made.  For  the  offices  most  com- 
monly sung  m  chtirches  we  have  the  Vesperal  (Fes- 
P^o^  Romanum)  f  containing  Vespers  and  Compline. 
The  monastic  orders  (Benedictines,  Cistercians,  Car- 
thusians, etc.),  the  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Pre- 
monstratensians,  and  several  local  dioceses  still  have 
their  own  Breviaries.  For  the  various  attempts  at  re- 
placing our  Breviary  by  a  radically  reformea  one  (es- 
pecially that  of  Cardinal  Quifi6nez  in  1535)  see  the 
article  Breviart  and  the  histories  of  B&umer  and 
BatifToL 

(d)  The  Ritual  (Riiuale  Romanum)  contains  all  the 
services  a  priest  needs  besides  those  of  the  Missal  and 
Brevianr.  This  book  especially  was  the  least  uniform 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  Almost  every  diocese  had  its  own 
Ritual,  or  Agenda.    Paul  V  issued  in  1614  a  book 


meant  to  be  used  everywhere;  Benedict  XIV  revised  it 
in  1752.  The  Roman  Ritual  contains  ten  titles  (tUuli) 
and  an  appendix  nearly  as  big  again  as  all  the  rest. 
Title  I  gives  general  directions  for  administering  Sac- 
raments; II  gives  all  the  forms  for  baptism;  Hi  for 
penance;  IV  for  the  Holy  Eucharist,  V  for  extreme 
unction  and  the  care  of  the  sick:  VI  relates  to  fu- 
nerals and  gives  the  Office  for  the  aead  from  the  Bre- 
viary; VII  relates  to  matrimony;  VIII  contains  a  laiKe 
collection  of  blessi^^s  for  vanous  objects;  IX  defus 
with  processions;  A  with  exorcisms  and  forms  for 
filling  up  in  the  books  of  the  parish  (the  books  of  bap- 
tism, confirmation,  marriage,  the  state  of  souls,  and 
the  dead).  The  appendix  (paged  anew  with  aster- 
isks) gives  additional  directions  for  the  sacraments, 
some  decrees  and  prayers  and  a  lai^  collection  of 
blessings,  first  "unreserved",  thenJbhose  to  be  used 
only  by  priests  who  have  a  special  faculty,  those  re- 
served to  certain  religious  orders,  and  many  "newest 
blessings".  There  is  still  a  great  want  of  uniformity 
in  the  use  of  this  book.  M^y  countries,  provinces, 
and  dioceses  have  their  own  lutual  or  "  Ordo  admin- 
istrandi  Sacramenta",  etc. 

(e)  The  Ceremonial  of  Bishops  (Ccerimoniale  Ejm- 
coporum)  in  spite  of  its  title  contains  much  mattef 
needed  by  other  people  than  bishops.  It  is  entirely  a 
book  of  rubrical  directions,  succeeding  the  old  **  Ordines 
Romani ".  Much  of  it  is  already  contained  in  the  ru- 
brics of  the  Missal,  Pontifical,  ancl  Ritual.  It  was  first 
issued  by  Clement  VIII  in  1600,  then  revised  by  Inno- 
cent X  (1650),  Benedict  XIV  at  various  dates  (finally 
1752),  and  Leo  XIII  (1882).  It  has  three  books.  The 
first  contains  general  directions  for  episcopal  func- 
tions, and  for  the  bishop's  attendants  miaster  of  cere- 
monies, sacristan,  canons,  and  so  on).  Then  come  full 
directions  for  everything  connected  with  Mass.  the 
altar,  vestments,  ceremonies,  etc. ;  finally  the  oraer  of 
a  synod.  Book  II  is  all  about  the  Divine  Office,  its 
chanting  in  choir  and  all  the  ritual  belonging  to  it,  as 
well  as  certain  special  functions  (the  blessing  of  can- 
dles, ashes,  palms,  the  Holy  Week  services,  proces- 
sions, etc.).  Book  III  is  alx)ut  various  extra-uturgi- 
cal  functions,  visits  of  bishops  to  governors  of  prov- 
inces, solemn  receptions  and  so  on,  finally  conduct  for 
cardinals.  The  book  continually  gives  directions^  not 
only  for  bishops  but  for  priests,  too,  at  these  fimctions. 
It  is  also  here  that  one  finds  some  of  the  most  ordinary 
chants  used  bv  any  celebrant  (e.  g.,  the  Dominus  vo- 
biscum.  Collects,  I,  27;  Confiteor,  II,  39).  The  "  C«re- 
moniale  Episcoporum"  is  thus  the  official  and  indis- 
pensable supplement  to  the  rubrics  of  the  Missal, 
Breviary,  Ritual,  and  Pontifical. 

(f)  The  Memorial  of  Rites  (Memoriale  Riluum)  or 
Little  Ritual  {Rituale  parvum)  is  the  latest  of  these 
official  books.  It  gives  directions  for  certain  rites 
(the  blessing  of  canSes,  ashes,  palms,  the  Holy  Week 
services)  in  small  churches  where  there  are  no  minis- 
ters (deacon  and  subdeacon).  The  Missal  always  sup- 
poses the  presence  of  deacon  and  subdeacon  at  these 
lunctions;  so  there  was  doubt  and  confusion  about 
them  when  carried  out  by  a  single  priest.  Benedict 
XIII  (1724-30)  published  this  book  m  1725  to  remove 
the  confusion  in  the  smaller  parish  churches  of  Rome. 
Pius  VII  (1800-23)  extended  it  to  all  small  churches 
of  the  Roman  Rite  in  1821 .  It  is  therefore  the  official 
norm  for  all  such  services  without  ordained  ministers. 

(g)  The  Martyrology  (Martyr ologium  Romanum)  is 
an  enlarged  calendar  giving  the  names  and  very  short 
accounts  of  all  saints  (not  only  martyrs)  commemo- 
rated in  various  places  each  day.  The  earliest  known 
martyrologies  go  back  to  the  fourth  century.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  there  were,  as  usual,  many  versions  of  the 
book.  Our  present  Roman  Martyrology  was  arranged 
in  1584  by  Cardinal  Baronius  under  Grgsory  Xul, 
and  revised  four  times,  in  1628,  1675,  16S),  and  (by 
Benedict  XIV)  1748.    It  is  read  m  choir  at  Prime. 

IV.  LiTtJBGiCAL  Books  of  Other  Rites. — Of  these 


UTUBGiaU. 


303 


unmaioAL 


little  need  be  said  here.  1>b^  are  described  in  the 
articles  on  the  various  rites.  The  other  two  surviving 
rites  in  the  West  Tof  Milan  and  the  Mozarabic  Rit^ 
have  gone  through  the  same  development  as  the 
Roman — from  Sacramentariesi  Lcctionaries,  Psalters, 
and  Antiohonaries  to  Missals,  Pontificals,  and  Bre- 
viaries. Only  of  course  their  books  contain  their  own 
prayers  and  ritual.  The  latest  editions  of  the  Milanese 
^Ambrosian)  Missal,  Breviary,  Ritual  etc.,  are  pub- 
bshed  by  Giacomo  Agnelli  at  the  Archicpiscopal  Press 
(Hpografia  arcivesamle)  at  MUan.  The  classical  edi- 
tion of  the  Mozarabic  books  is  that  made  by  order  of 
Cardinal  Ximcnes  (Archbishop  of  Toledo,  1495-1517). 
The  Missal  (Missale  mistum  [for  mixtum]  secundum 
regulam  beati  Isidori  dictum  Mozarabcs)  was  printed 
at  Toledo  in  1500  (reprmted  in  P.  L.,  LXXX\0, 
the  Breviary  {BreviaHum  Gothicum)  reprinted  (with 
Romanizing  additions)  at  Toledo  in  1502  (P.  L., 
LXXX\^).  None  of  the  Eastern  Churches  has  yet 
made  such  compendiums  of  its  books  as  our  Missal 
and  Breviary.  All  their  books  are  still  in  the  state 
in  which  ours  were  in  the  days  of  Sacramentarics, 
Antiphonaries,  and  so  on.  One  reason  for  this  is  that 
in  the  East  our  reduplications  are  imkno\\^.  There 
Uie  priest  does  not  also  say  at  the  altar  the  parts  sung 
by  tne  readers  and  choir.  Nor  has  there  been  any  de- 
velopment (except  a  rudimentary  beginning,  chiefly 
among^  the  Uniats)  of  private  recitation  of  the  OflSce. 
So  their  books  are  only  wanted  for  the  choir;  the  var- 
ious readers  and  singers  use  different  volumes  of  what 
in  some  rites  is  quite  a  lai^ge  library. 
The  Byzantine  Books  are  the  Typikon,  a  kind  of  per- 

gjtual  calendar  with  directions  tor  all  8er\'ices,  the 
uchologion,  containing  all  the  priest  wants  for  the 
Holy  Liturgy  and  other  sacraments  and  rites  (almost 
exactly  the  old  Latin  Sacramentary).  The  Triodion, 
Pentekostarion,  Oktoechos,  and  Horologion  contain 
the  choir's  part  of  the  Litur©r  and  Office  throughout 
the  year.  The  Menaia  and  Menologion  contain  the 
saints'  offices;  the  Psalterion  explains  itself.  The 
Apostolos  and  Evangelion  contain  the  liturgical  les- 
soas  (these  books  are  described  in  Constantinople, 
The  Rite  of).  There  are  many  editions.  In  Greek 
the  Orthodox  books  are  published  at  the  Phoenix 
Press  (formerly  at  Venice,  now  Patras),  the  LTniat 
books  bv  the  Roman  Propaganda.  Each  national 
Church  nas  further  its  own  editions  in  its  liturgical 
language.  The  books  of  other  Eastern  Churches  cor- 
respond more  or  less  to  these,  but  in  most  cases  they 
are  more  confused,  less  known,  sometimes  not  even 
yet  edited.  In  the  very  vague  state  of  most  of  their 
books  one  can  only  say  in  general  that  these  churches 
have  an  indefinite  collection,  each  service  having  its 
own  book.  These  are  then  collected  and  arranged  in 
all  kinds  of  groups  and  compendiums  by  various  edi- 
tors. The  Uniat  compendiums  have  a  natural  tend- 
ency to  imitate  the  arrangement  of  the  Roman  books. 
The  most  obvious  cases  of  liturgical  books  are  alwavs 
the  Lectionaries,  then  the  Book  of  Liturgies.  The 
others  are  mostly  in  a  very  vague  state. 

The  Nestorian  Books  (all  in  Syriac)  are  the  Liturgy 
(containing  their  three  liturgies),  the  Gospel  {Euanfje- 
lion),  Apostle  (Shlicha)  and  Lessons  {Kariane),  the 
"Turgama  "  (Interpretation),  containing  hymns  sung 
by  deacons  at  the  liturgy  (our  Graduals  and  So- 
auenoes),  the  David  (Dawtdha  =  Psalter),  "Khu- 
ahra  "  (=  "  cycle  '*,  containing  antiphons,  responsories. 
hymns,  and  collects  for  all  Sundays), "Kash  Kol 
(= "  Collection  of  all " ;  the  same  chants  for  week-days) , 
"Kdhamu-Wathar''  (="Before  and  after";  certain 
prayers,  psalms,  and  collects  most  often  used,  from  the 
other  books)/'  Gezza''  ("  Treasury  "  scr^'ices  for  feast- 
da^),  Abtt-Hallm  (the  name  of"  tne  compiler,  con- 
taming  collects  for  the  end  of  the  Noctums  on 
Sundays),  "Batitha  d'Ninwaie"  (="  Prayer  of  the 
Ninevites",  a  collection  of  hymns  ascrited  to  St. 
Ephraem,  iised  m  Lent) .  The  baptism  Office  ("  Taksa 


d'Amadha '')  is  generally  bound  up  with  the  Liturgii 
The  "Taksa  d'Siamldha''  has  the  ordination  services. 
The  "  Taksa  d'Husaia ' '  contains  the  office  for  Penanoe, 
the  '*  Kthawa  d'Burrakha"  is  the  marriage  service, 
the  "  Kahneita",  the  burial  of  clergy,  the  "  Annldha 
that  of  laymen.  Lastly  the  "  Khamis  "  and  "  Warda" 
are  further  collections  of  hymns  (see  Badger, "  The  Nes- 
torians  and  their  Rituals".  London,  1852,  II,  16-25). 
Naturally  not  every  church  possesses  this  varied  col- 
lection 01  books.  The  most  necessary  ones  are  printed 
by  the  Anglican  missionaries  at  Urmi  for  the  heretics. 
Tiie  Uniat  (Chaldean)  books  are  printed,  some  at  Pro- 
paganda, some  by  the  Dominicans  at  Mosul  ("  Missale 
chaldaicum",  1845;  "Manuale  Sacerdotum",  1858; 
"Breviarium  chaldaicum",  1865) .  A  Chaldean  "  Brev- 
viary"  was  published  in  three  volumes  at  Paris  in 
1886-7,  edited  by  Pdre  Bedgan,  a  missionary  of  the 
Congregation  des  Missions.  The  Malabar  schismatics 
uae  the  Nestorian  books,  the  Uniats  have  books  re- 
vised (much  romanized)  by  the  Synod  of  Diamper 
(1599;  it  ordered  all  their  old  books  to  be  burned). 
The  Uniat  Malabar ''  Missal "  was  published  at  Rome 
in  1774,  the  "  Ordo  rituum  et  lectionum  "  in  1775. 

The  Coptic  Books  (in  Coptic  with  Arabic  rubrics,  and 
generally  with  the  text  transliterated  in  Arabic  char- 
acters too)  are  the  Euchologion  (Kitfib  al-Khulagi 
almuqaddas},  very  often  (but  quite  wrongly)  called 
Missal.  This  corresponds  to  the  Byzantine  Eucholo- 
gion. Then  the  Lectionary  called  "Katamftrus"(= *«'»'* 
pJpot),  the  "Synaksar".  containing  legends  of  saints, 
the  "Deacon's  Manual  ,  an  Antiphonary  (called  Di- 
fndrt) ,  the  Psalter^  Theotokia  (containing  offices  of  the 
B.V.M.),  Doxologia,  collections  of  hymns  for  the  choir 
and  a  number  of  smaller  books  for  the  various  other 
offices.  These  books  were  first  grouped  and  arranged 
for  the  Uniats  by  Raphael  Tuki,  and  printed  at  Rome 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  Their  arrangement  is  ob- 
viously an  imitation  of  that  of  the  Latin  service-books 
("Missale  coptice  et  arabice",  1736;  "Diumum  alex- 
andrinum  copto-arabicum",  1750;  "Pontificale  et 
Euchologium^',  1761,  1762;  "Rituale  coptice  et  ara- 
bice ",  1 763 ;  "  Theotokia  ",  1764) .  Lord  Cyril  II,  the 
present  Uniat  Coptic  patriarch,  nas  published  a  "mis- 
sal", "ritual",  and  "Holy  Week  book"  (Cairo,  1898- 
1902).  The  Monophysite  Copts  have  a  very  sump- 
tuously printed  set  of  their  books,  edited  by  Gladios 
Labib,  m  course  of  publication  at  Cairo  ("Kata- 
marus",  1900-2;  "Euchologion",  1904;  "Funeral 
Ser\'ice^',  1905). 

The  Ethiopic  service-books  are  (except  the  Liturgy) 
t he  least  known  of  any.  Hardly  anythmg  of  them  has 
been  published,  and  no  one  seems  yet  to  have  made  a 
systematic  investigation  of  liturgical  manuscripts  in 
Abyssinia.  Since  the  Ethiopic  Rite  is  derived  from 
the  Coptic,  one  may  conjecture  that  their  books  corre- 
spond more  or  less  to  the  Coptic  books.  One  may  also 
no  doubt  conjecture  that  tneir  books  are  still  in  the 
primitive  state  of  (more  or  less)  a  special  book  for 
each  service.  One  has  not  heard  of  any  collections  or 
compendiums.  Peter  the  Ethiopian  (Petnis  Ethyops) 
published  the  Liturgy  with  the  baptism  service  and 
some  blessings  at  the  end  of  his  edition  of  the  Ethiopic 
New  Testament  (Tasfa  Sion,  Rome,  1548).  Various 
students  have  published  fragments  of  the  Rite  in  Eu- 
rope (cf.  Chaine,  "Grammaire  6thiopienne",  Beirut, 
1907;  bibliography,  p.  269),  but  these  can  hardly  be 
called  service-books. 

The  Jacobite  (and  Uniat)  Syrian  Rite  has  never  been 
published  as  a  whole.  A  fragment  of  the  liturgy  was 
published  in  Syriac  and  Latin  at  Antwerp  (1572)  by 
Fabricius  Boderianus  (D.  Severi  alexandrini  .  .  .  de 
ritibus  baptismi  et  sacne  Synaxis).  The  Uniats  have 
an  Euchologion  (Syriac  and  Karshuni),  published  at 
Rome^  in  1843  (Missale  Sj'riacum),  and  a  "Book  of 
cla-ks  used  in  the  ecclesiastical  ministries  "  (Liber  min- 
iflterii,  Svriac  onh',  Beirut,  1888).  The  Divine  Office, 
collected  like  a  Breviary,  was  ^uhUabs^  %!^  ^<;3is^>s^ 


UTUBGIOAL 


304 


Lxnmatttiii 


seven  volumes  (18S&-96),  the  ferial  office  alone  at 
Rome  in  1853,  and  at  Sharfl  in  the  Lebanon  (1808).  A 
Ritual—-"  Book  of  Ceremony  "—for  the  Syrian  Uijiats 
is  issued  by  the  Jesuits  at  Beirut. 

The  Maronites  have  an  abundance  of  liturgical 
books  for  their  romanized  Syrian  Rite.  The  Maron- 
ite  Synod  at  Deir  al-Luweize  (1736)  committed  a  uni- 
form preparation  of  all  their  books  to  the  patriarch 
(Part  II,  Sess.  I,  xiii,  etc.)  These  books  are  all  re- 
ferred to  in  Roman  terms  (Missal,  Ritual^  Pontifical, 
etc.).  The  Missal  (in  this  case  the  name  is  not  incor- 
rect) was  published  at  Rome  in  1592  and  1710,  since 
then  repeatedly,  in  whole  or  in  part,  at  Beirut.  Little 
books  containing  the  Ordinary  of  the  Litiu-gy  with  the 
Anaphora  commonly  used  are  issued  by  many  Catholic 
booksellers  at  Beirut.  The  "Book  of  the  Minister" 
(containing  the  deacon's  and  other  ministers'  parts  of 
the  Liturgy)  was  published  at  Rome  in  1596  and  at 
Beirut  in  1888.  The  "Ferial  Office",  called  Pard. 
"Burden"  or  "Duty"  (the  only  one  Commonly  used 
by  the  clergy),  was  issued  at  Rome  in  1890,  at  Beirut 
in  1900.  Tne  whole  Divine  Office  began  to  be  pub- 
lished at  Rome  in  1006,  but  only  two  volumes  of  the 
cummer  part  appeared.  A  Ritual  with  various  addi- 
tional prayers  was  issued  at  Rome  in  1839.  All  Mar- 
onite  books  are  in  S>Tiac  and  Karshuni. 

The  Armenian  Liturgical  Books  ai-e  quite  definitely 
drawn  up,  arranged,  and  authorized.  They  are  the 
only  other  set  among  Eastern  Churches  whose  arrange- 
ment can  be  compared  to  those  of  the  Byzantines. 
There  are  eight  official  Armenian  service-books:  (1) 
the  Directory,  or  Calendar,  corresponding  to  the  Bv- 
aantine  Typikon,  (2)  the  Manual  of  Mysteries  of  the 
Sacred  Oblation  (=  an  Euchologion),  (3)  the  Book  of 
Ordinations,  often  bound  up  with  the  former,  (4)  the 
Lectionary,  (5)  the  Hymn-book  (containing  the  vari- 
able hymns  of  the  Litur^),  (6)  the  Book  of  Hours 
(contaming  the  Divine  Office  and,  generally,  the  dea- 
con's i)art  of  the  Liturgy),  (7)  the  Book  of  Canticles 
(^containing  the  hymns  of  the  Office),  (8)  the  Mashdoiz^ 
or  Ritual  (containing  the  rites  of  the  sacraments). 
The  books  of  both  Gregorian  and  Uniat  Armenians 
have  been  published  a  great  number  of  times;  the 
latest  Gregorian  editions  are  those  of  Constantinople 
and  Jerusalem,  the  Uniat  ones  have  been  issued  at 
Rome,  Vienna,  and  especially  Venice  (at  S.  Lazaro). 
There  are  many  extracts  from  them,  especially  from 
the  Liturgy. 

In  conclusion  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  Eastern  and 
the  older  Western  liturgical  books  consider  rather  the 
person  who  uses  them  than  the  service  at  which  they 
are  used.  The  same  person  has  the  same  book,  what- 
ever the  function  may  l^e.  On  the  other  hand  the 
later  Western  books  are  so  arranged  that  all  the  ser- 
vice (whoever  may  be  saying  it)  is  put  together  in  one 
book;  our  books  are  arranged  by  services,  not  accord- 
ing to  their  users.  This  is  the  result  of  our  modem 
Western  prhiciple  that  every  one  (or  at  any  rate  the 
chief  person,  the  celebrant)  says  everything,  even  if  it 
is  at  tne  same  time  said  by  some  one  else. 

DucHEHNK,  Origineadu  cuUe  chrctien  (2ud  ed.,  Paris,  1898); 
Probst,  Die  iiUe«len  rbmischen  Sacramentarien  und  Ordinet 
(Mimster,  1802);  Idem,  Die  abendlundiache  Messe  vom  5.  tis 
Mum  8.  JahrhundeH  (3kIi;nstor,  1896);  Cabrol,  Inlroduction  aux 
Etudes  lituroi<iuea  (Paris,  1907);  Baumer,  Geach.  dea  Breviers 
(FroibuiVj  1895) ;  Batiftol,  Hist,  du  Br^viaire  rotnain  (Parifl, 
1895):  Wealk,  Bibliographia  lituroica.  Catalogus  mis»iliuin 
ritus  lalini  (Ixmdon.  1886);  EBSKR.Quellen  u.  Forachungen  zur 
Geach.  u.  Kunatfle^ch.  dea  Miaaale  Romanum  (Freiburp,  1896). 
The  mcKlem  Roman  liturgical  books  are  published  in  many 
editions  by  all  the  well-known  Catholic  firms  (Deacl<'«,  Pustct, 
Dessain,  .Mame.  etc.).  The  "typical"  editions  of  the  new  books 
with  the  Vatican  chant  are  issued  by  the  Vatican  Frees.  For 
the  other  ritee  see,  besides  the  editions  quoted  in  the  text,  the 
Introduction  o(  BHioHTiAAN,  Eastern  Liturgies  (Oxford,  1896). 
Other  works  arc  quoted  in  the  text. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 


I' 


Liturgical  Ohant.— Taking  these  words  in  •  their 
ordinary  acceptation,  it  is  easy  to  settle  the  meaning 
of  "  liturgical  chant ".   Just  as  we  say  liturgical  altar, 


liturgical  vestment,  liturgical  chalice,  etc.^  to  indicate 
that  these  various  objects  correspond  m  material, 
shape^  and  consecration  with  the  requirements  of  the 
liturgical  uses  to  which  they  are  put^  so  also  a  chant, 
if  its  style,  composition,  and  execution  prove  it  suit- 
able for  liturgical  use,  may  properly  be  called  liturgi* 
cal  chant.  Ever}rthing  receives  its  specification  from 
the  purpose  it  is  to  serve,  and  from  its  own  gteatet-  or 
less  aptitude  to  servo  that  purpose;  n^VeHtjil^ss;  it.  is 
necessary  to  pulque  a  fltt^i*  &ilal)r^is  in  bMer  to  dis- 
cover the  many  possible  ways  m  which  the  words 
"  liturgical  chant  may  be  applied.  In  the  strict  sense 
the  word  "chant"  means  a  melody  executed  by  the 
human  voice  only,  whether  in  the  form  of  plain  or  har- 
monized singing.  In  a  wider  sense  the  word  us  taken 
to  mean  such  singing  even  wh^ti  lU^b&pkm^  oy  in- 
struments, provided  the  portion  of  honour  is  always 
i^iained  by  the  vocal  part.  In  the  widest  though  in- 
correct sense,  the  wora  "chant"  is  also  applied  to  the 
instrumental  music  itself,  inasmuch  as  its  cadences 
imitate  the  inflexions  of  the  human  voice,  that  first 
and  most  perfect  of  instruments,  the  work  of  God  Him- 
self. And  thus,  after  the  introduction  of  the  organ 
into  churches,  when  it  began  to  alternate  with  the 
sacred  singers,  we  find  medieval  writers  deliberately 
using  the  phrase  "cantant  organa"  or  even  "cantare 
inorganis    . 

Now,  seeing  that  the  Church  allows  in  its  liturgical 
service  not  only  the  human  voice,  but  an  accotnpani* 
ment  thereof  by  the  organ  or  other  InstHitnents,  and 
even  or^an  and  instruments  without  the  hum&tl 
voice,  it  follows  that  in  the  sense,  in  whicl]i  ^^e  h^  gbihg 
to  use  it,  liturgical  chant  m^ans  liturgical  thuSiCibi*^  to 
employ  the  more  Usual  phitisej  sacred  tnUdic.  tonse- 
quently  Wt  tnay  Consider  sacred  music  as  embody- 
ing four  distinct,  but  subordinate  elements:  (1)  plain 
chant,  (2)  harmonized  chant,  (3)  one  or  other  of  these 
accompanied  by  organ  and  instruments,  (4)  organ  and 
instruments  alone.  Wherein  these  elements  are  sub- 
ordinate one  to  another  we  have  to  determine  from  the 
greater  or  less  aptitude  of  each  for  liturgical  purposes, 
and  from  the  greater  or  less  appropriateness  of  the 
adjective  "liturgical"  when  applied  to  them.  We 
shall  start  with  some  general  observations,  and  by 
elimination  attain  the  end  we  have  in  view. 

^1)  Sacred  music  is  music  in  the  service  of  worship. 
Tins  is  a  generic  and  basic  definition  of  all  such  musfo, 
and  it  is  both  obvious  and  straightforward.  When  the 
worship  of  the  true  God  is  in  question,  man  ought  to 
endeavour  to  offer  him  of  his  very  best,  and  in  the  way 
it  will  be  the  least  unworthy  of' the  Divinity.  From 
this  root-idea  there  spring  forth  two  qualities  which 
sacred  music  should  have,  and  which  are  laid  down 
in  the  papal  "  Motu  Proprio,"  22  November,  1903. 
namely — that  sacred  music  ought  to  be  true  art,  ana 
at  the  same  time  holy  art.  Consequently  we  caimot 
uphold  as  sacred  music  and  suited  for  liturgical  use, 
any  music  lacking  the  note  of  art,  by  reason  of  its 
povertv  of  conception,  or  of  its  breaking  all  the  laws  of 
nsusica)  composition,  or  any  music,  no  matter  how 
artistic  it  may  be,  which  is  given  over  to  profane  uses, 
such  as  dances,  theatres,  and  similar  objects,  aiming 
albeit  ever  so  honestly  at  causing  amusement  ("  Motu 
Proprio,"  II,  5) .  Sucn  compositions,  even  though  the 
work  of  the  greatest  masters  and  beautiful  in  them- 
selves, even  though  they  excel  in  charm  the  sacred 
music  of  tradition,  must  always  remain  unworthy  of 
the  temple,  and  as  such  are  to  be  got  rid  of  as  contrary 
to  the  basic  principle,  which  every  reasonable  man 
must  be  guided  by,  that  the  means  must  be  suited  to 
the  end  aimed  at. 

(2)  Going  a  step  farther  in  our  argument  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  we  are  not  here  dealing  with  wor- 
ship of  God  in  general,  but  with  His  worsJiip  as  prac- 
tised in  the  True  Church  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Catnolic 
Church.  So  that  for  us  sacred  music  primarUy  means 
music  in  the  service  of  Catholic  worship.    Tnis  wor- 


Lnmu»icAL 


305 


LrruBaxoAL 


^p  has  buflt  itself  up  and  has  deliberately  held  itself 
aloof  from  every  other  form  of  worship;  it  has  its  own 
sacrifice  its  own  altar,  its  own  ntes^  and  is  directed  in 
all  things  bv  the  sovereign  authonty  of  the  Church. 
Hence  it  follows  that  no  music,  no  matter  how  much  it 
be  employed  in  other  worships  that  are  not  Catholic. 
tioL  (M  ttiat  ajCddtlnt,  eVer  be  looked  on  by  us  as  sacred 
flzid  liturgical.    We  iaeet  at  times  witn  indlvlduali 
Who  remind  us  of  the  music  of  the  Hebrews,  and  quote 
"  Fmlae  him  tdth  sound  of  trumpet:  praise  him  with 
pealteiy  and  nill^i    Praise  him  with  timbrel  and 
choir:  praise  him  with  striiigs  and  organs.    Praise 
biin  dnnigh  sounding  cymbals:  praise  him  on  cymbals 
ex  joy:"  and  who  seek  by  so  domg  to  justify  all  sorts 
of  ioyousness  in  church  (chants,  instrumental  music 
aila  d^ex^inA  noises),  even  going  so  far  as  to  plead 
"omnia  spiritiis  laudet  Dominum"  as  though  that 
verse  should  excuse  all  ilild  everything  their  individual 
-'spirit"  suggested,  no  matter  how  tiovel  and  unusual. 
If  such  a  criterion  were  to  be  admitted,  there  &te  many 
other  elements  of  Hebrew  worship  we  should  have  to 
accept,  but  which  the  Church  rejected  long  ago  as  un- 
suited  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  New  Testament  and  to  the 
spirit  of  the  New  Law  (cf.  St.  Thomas,  II-II,  Q.  xci,  a. 
2|  ad  4^^°^) .    The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  music  used 
in  Protestant  worship.    No  matter  how  serious  and 
solemn,  even  though  it  belongs  to  the  style  of  music  the 
Church  recognises  as  sacred  and  liturgical,  it  ought 
never  be  used  as  a  pattern  or  model,  at  lea;jt  exclu- 
sively for  the  sacred  music  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
The  warm  and  solemn  dignity  of  Catholic  worship  has 
tidthiilg  id  common  with  the  pallid  friizidity  of  Protes- 
tant services.    Hence  our  choice  ought  to  be  always 
Abd  solely  guided  by  the  specific  nature  of  Catholic  wor- 
ship, and  by  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  Fathers,  the 
councils,  the  con^gatlons,  and  the  pope,  and  which 
have  been  epitomized  in  that  admirable  code  of  sacrerl 
music,  the    M otu  Proprio  "  of  Pius  X. 

(3)  Finally,  the  phrase  "Catholic  worship"  must 
here  be  ti^en  in  its  fonnal  quality  of  public  worship, 
the  worship  of  a  society  or  social  organism,  imposed  by 
Divine  Law  and  subject  to  one  supreme  authority 
which,  by  Divinely  acquired  right,  regulates  it,  guards 
it,  and  through  lawfully  appointed  ministers  exercises 
it  to  the  honour  of  God  and  the  w^elfare  of  the  com- 
munity.   This  is  what  is  known  as  "  liturgical  wor- 
ship", so  styled  from  the  liturgy  of  the  Church.    The 
Uturgy  has  been  aptly  defined  as  "  that  worship  which 
the  Catholic  Church,  through  its  legitimate  ministers 
acting  in  accordance  with  well-established  rules,  pul> 
licly  exercises  in  rendering  due  homage  to  God". 
From  this  it  is  clear  that  the  acts  and  prayers  p(>r- 
Jormed  by  the  faithful  to  satisfy  their  private  devotion 
do  not  form  part  of  liturgical  worship,  even  when  per- 
formed by  the  faithful  in  a  body,  whether  in  public  or 
in  a  place  of  public  worship,  and  whether  conducted 
by  a  priest  or  otherwise.    Such  devotions  not  being 
omoiaJly  legislated  for,  do  not  form  part  of  the  public 
worship  of  the  Church  as  a  social  organ  ism .  Any  one  can 
see  the  diiTerenoe  between  a  body  of  the  faithful  going 
in  procession  to  visit  a  famous  shrine  of  the  Madonna. 
and  the  Uturgical  processions  of  the  Rogation  Days  ana 
of  Corpus  Christ:.    Such  popular  functions  are  not 
only  tolerated,  but  blessed  and  fostered  by  the  Church 
authorities,  as  of  immense  spiritual  benefit  to  the  faith- 
ful, even  though  not  sanctioned  as  liturgical,  and  are 
generally  known  as  extra-liturgical  functions.    The 
principu  are  the  Devotion  of  the  Rosary,  the  Stations 
of  the  Cross,  the  Three  Hours  Agony,  the  Hour  of 
the  Desolata,  the  Hour  of  the  Blcssecf  Sacrament,  the 
Month  of  Mary,  the  novenas  in  preparation  for  the 
more  solemn  feasts,  and  the  like.     Wliat  has  been 
said  goes  to  prove  that  sacred  music  may  fitly  be  de- 
scribed as  music  in  the  service  of  the  liturgy,  and  that 
saCTed  music  and  liturgical  music  are  one  and  the  same 
thing.     Pius  X  has  a<imiral:)ly  stated  the  relation  be- 
tween the  liturgy  of  the  C'hurch  and  the  music  it  em- 
IX.— 20 


ploys:  "  It  serves  to  increase  the  decor  et  splendor  of  the 
ecclesiastical  ceremonies  '*,  not  as  something  accidental 
that  may  or  may  not  be  present,  such  as  the  decora^ 
tions  of  the  building,  the  display  of  lights,  the  numbei 
of  ministers,  but  "as  an  integrant  part  of  the  solemn 
liturgy ",  so  much  so  that  these  liturgical  functions 
cannot  take  place  if  the  chant  l^e  lacking.  Further, 
"  since  the  main  office  of  sacred  music  is  to  clothe  with 
fitting  melody  the  liturgical  text  propounded  for  the 
understanding  at  the  people,  so  its  chief  aim  is  to  give 
greater  weight  to  the  text,  so  that  thereby  the  faithful 
may  be  more  easily  moved  to  devotion,  and  dispose 
themselves  better  to  receive  the  fruits  of  grace  wiiich 
flow  from  the  celebration  of  the  sacred  mysteries " 
("Motu  Proprio,"  1,1). 

From  this  teaching  it  follows:  (a)  That  no  music  can 
rightly  Ixj  considered  as  liturgical,  which  is  not  de- 
manded by  the  liturgical  function^  or  which  is  not  an  in- 
tegrant part  thereof,  but  which  is  only  admitt-ed  as  a 
discretionary  addition  to  fill  in,  if  we  may  use  theex* 
pression,  the  silent  inter\'als  of  the  liturgy  where  no 
appointed  text  is  prescribed  to  be  sung,  t  Jnder  this 
head  would  come  the  motets  which  the  "  Motu  Proprio'' 
(III,  8)  permits  to  be  sung  after  the  Offertory  and  the 
Benedictus.  •  Now,  seeing  tliat  those  chants  are  exe- 
cuted during  the  solemn  liturigy,  it  follows  that  they 
ought  to  possess  all  the  qualities  of  sacred  music  so  as 
to  be  in  keeping  with  the  rest  of  the  sacred  function^ 
(b)  Among  the  various  elements  admitted  in  sacred 
music,  the  most  strictly  liturgical  is  that  which  more 
directly  than  any  other  unites  itself  with  the  sacred 
text  and  seems  more  indispensable  than  any  <7ther# 
The  playing  of  the  organ  by  way  of  prelude  or  during 
intervals  can  only  he  called  liturgical  in  a  ver>'  wide 
sense,  since  it  is  by  no  means  necessary,  nor  docs  it 
form  an  integrant  part  of  the  liturgy,  nor  does  it 
accompany  any  chanted  t-ext.     But  a  chant  accom- 

Eanied  by  organ  and  instruments  may  very  properly 
e  known  as  liturgical.  Organ  and  instnunertts  aro 
permitted,  however,  only  to  support  the  chant,  and 
can  never  by  themselves  be  considered  as  an  integrattt 
part  of  the  liturgical  act.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  theif 
introduction  is  comparatively  recent,  and  they  are  still 
excluded  from  papal  functions.  Vocal  music  gener- 
ally is  the  most,  correct  style  of  liturgical  music,  since 
it  alone  has  always  Iwen  recognized  as  the  proper 
music  of  the  Church;  it  alone  enters  into  direct  touch 
with  the  meaning  of  the  liturgical  text,  clothes  that 
text  with  melody,  and  exi)ounas  it  to  the  understand- 
ing of  the  people.  Now,  since  vocal  music  may  be 
either  renderca  plain  or  polyphonic,  tnie  Uturgical 
music,  music  altogether  indispensable  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  solemnliturgy ,  is  the  plain  chant,  and  there- 
fore, in  the  Catholic  Church,  the  Gregorian  chant* 
Lastly,  since  Gregorian  is  the  solemn  chant  pro- 
scribed for  the  cclel.)niut  and  his  assistants,  so  that  it 
is  never  lawful  to  substitute  for  it  a  mclodv  different  in 
composition  from  those  laid  down  in  the  liturgical 
books  of  the  Church,  it  follows  that  Gregorian  is  the 
sole  chant,  the  chant  par  excellence  of  the  Roman 
Church,  as  laid  down  in  the  "Motu  Proprio"  (II.  'A)^ 
It  contains  in  the  highest  dcgrcK>  the  finalities  Pope 
Pius  has  enumerated  as  characteristic  of  sacred  mu- 
sic: true  art;  holiness;  universality;  hence  he  has  pro- 
posed Gregorian  chant  as  the  supreme  type  of  sacred 
music,  justifying  the  following  general  law:  The  more 
a  comix)sition  resembles  Gregorian  in  tone,  inspira- 
tion, and  the  impression  it  leaves,  the  nearer  it  comes 
t^>  l)eing  sacred  and  liturgical ;  the  more?  it  differs  from 
it,  the  less  worthy  is  it  to  be  employed  in  the  church. 
Since  Gregorian  is  the  liturgical  chant  par  excellence 
of  the  Roman  Church,  it  is  erjuiilly  true  that  the  chant 
handed  down  by  tradition  in  other  Ciiurches  is  en- 
titled to  l)e  considered  as  truly  liturgical;  for  instance, 
the  Ambrosian  chant  in  the  Ainbrosian  Church,  the 
Mozarabic  in  the  Mozarabic  Church,  and  the  Greek  in 
the  Greek  Church. 


LZTUBGICAL 


306 


ZJTVROT 


To  round  off  the  line  of  thought  we  have  been  pur- 
suing, a  few  more  observations  are  called  for.  (a) 
The  music  which  accompanies  non-litiu*gical  firno- 
tions  of  Catholic  worship  is  usually  and  accuratelv 
styled  extra-liturgical  music.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
legislation  affecting  the  liturgy  does  not  ipso  facto  ap- 
ply equally  to  legitimate  extra-litur^ical  functions. 
And  consequently  the  more  or  less  rigid jprohibition 
of  certain  things  during  the  solemn  offices  of  the 
Qiurch  does  not  necessarily  ban  such  things  from  de- 
votions such  as  the  Way  of  the  Cross,  the  Month  of 
Mary,  etc.  To  take  an  example,  singing  in  the  ver- 
nacular is  prohibited  as  part  of  liturgical  functions. 
As  has  been  pointed  out,  music  in  liturgical  functions 
is  an  integrant  and  not  a  purely  ornamental  part 
thereof,  whereas  in  extra-liturgical  functions  *it  is  al- 
together secondarv  and  accidental,  never  exacted  by 
the  ceremony,  and  its  main  purpose  is  to  entertain  the 
faithful  devoutly  in  Church  or  to  furnish  them  a 
pleasing  spiritual  relaxation  after  the  prolonged  ten- 
sion of  a  sermon,  or  whatever  pravers  they  have  been 
reciting  together.  Hence  the  style  of  extrarliturgical 
music  IS  susceptible  of  greater  freedom,  though  within 
such  limits  as  are  demanded  by  respect  Tot  God's 
house,  and  the  holiness  of  the  prayer  it  accompanies. 
As  a  sort  of  general  rule  it  may  be  laid  down  that,  since 
extra-liturgical  ceremonies  ought  to  partake  as  much 
as  possible  of  the  externals,  as  well  as  of  the  interior 
spirit  of  litui^ical  ones,  avoiding  whatsoever  is  con- 
tr^try  to  the  holiness,  solemnity,  and  nobility  of  the 
act  of  worship  as  intended  by  the  Church,  so  true 
extra^liturgical  music  ought  absolutely  to  exclude 
whatsoever  is  profane  and  theatrical,  assuming  as  far 
as  possible  the  character,  without  the  extreme  se- 
venty of  liturgical  music. 

(b)  Whatever  music  is  not  suitable  for  liturgical 
or  extra-liturgical  functions  ought  to  be  banished 
from  the  churches.  But  such  music  is  not  for  that 
reason  to  I  e  called  profane.  There  is  a  distinction  to 
be  drawn.  There  is  a  style  of  music  that  belong  to 
the  theatre  and  the  dance,  and  that  aims  at  giving 
pleasure  and  delij^ht  to  the  senses.  This  is  profane 
music  as  distinct  fix>m  sacred  music.  But  there  is  an- 
other style  of  music,  grave,  and  serious,  though  not 
sacred  because  not  used  in  worship,  yet  partaking  of 
some  of  the  qualities  of  sacred  music,  and  drawing  its 
ideas  and  inspiration  from  things  that  have  to  do  with 
rel^ion  and  worship.  Such  is  the  music  of  what  are 
known  as  sacred  oratorios,  and  other  compositions  of  a 
religious  character,  in  which  the  words  are  taken  from 
the  Bible  or  at  times  from  the  liturgy  itself.  To  this 
class  belong  the  mighty  ''Masses''  of  Bach,  Havdn, 
Beethoven,  and  other  classical  authors,  Verdi's  Re- 
quiem", Rossini's  "Stabat  Mater",  etc.,  all  of  them 
works  of  the  highest  musical  merit,  but  whicn,  because 
of  their  outward  vehicle  and  extraordinary  length,  can 
never  be  received  within  the  Church.  They  are  suited, 
like  the  oratorios,  to  recreate  religiously  and  artistic- 
ally audiences  at  great  musical  concerts.  By  way  of 
special  distinction,  music  of  this  nature  is  usually  des- 
ignated religious  music. 

De  Santi,  La  musicd  a  serviqio  dd  euUo  in  CiviUh  Caitolioa 
(September,  1888),  652-671;  Iokm,  La  Munea  a  aervigio  dd 
euUo  CatioliooAhid.  (October,  1888).  169-183;  I  dem.  La  mtMtca 
a  Bervigio  deUa  liturgia,  ibid.  (December.  1888),  670-688; 
Obvaert.  Let  OrigineB  du  Chant  Liturgique  de  VEglise  Latine 
(Ghent,  1800);  Gastou^,  Les  origints  du  Chant  Romain  (Paris, 
1907) ;  Wtatt,  SL  Oregory  and  the  Gregorian  Music  (London, 
1904). 

Anoelo  de  Santi. 

Litargical  Oolours.    See  Colours,  Liturgical. 

Liturgy. — ^The  various  CHiristian  liturgies  are  de- 
scribed each  under  its  own  name.  (See  Alexandrine 
Liturgy;  Ambrosian  Liturgy;  Antiochene  Lit- 
urgy; Celtic  Rite;  Clementine  Liturgy,  treated  in 
Clement  I;  CJonstantinople,  Rite  op;  Galucan 
Rite;  Jerusalem,  Liturgy  of;  Mozarabic  Rite; 
Sarum  Rite;  Syrian  Rite;  Syro- Jacobite  Liturgy.) 


In  this  article  they  are  considered  onlv  from  the  point 
of  view  of  their  relation  to  one  another  in  the  most 
general  sense,  and  an  account  is  given  of  what  is  known 
about  the  growth  of  a  fixed  lituigy  as  such  in  the  early 
Church. 

I.  Definition. — ^Lituiigy  (X«Tov/>7fa)  is  a  Greek  com- 
posite word  meaning  originiJly  a  public  duty,  a  service 
to  the  state  undertoken  bv  a  citizen.  Its  elements 
are  Xeirof  (from  Xe(6f  =.  XaM,  people)  meaninji;  public, 
and  ipyta  (obsolete  in  the  present  stem,  used  in  future 
Ip^*,  etc.),  to  do.  From  this  we  have  \wrovpy^,  "a 
man  who  performs  a  public  duty",  "a  public  ser- 
vant", often  used  as  equivalent  to  the  Roman  lietor; 
then  lUiTovpyha,  "to  do  such  a  duty",  \eiro6f>yif/taf  its 
performance,  and  \eirovpyta,  the  public  dut^  itself. 
At  Athens  the  Xetrovpyla  was  the  public  service  per- 
formed by  the  wealthier  citizens  at  their  own  expense, 
such  as  the  office  of  gymnasiarch,  who  superintended 
the  gymnasium,  that  of  choreauSf  who  paid  the  singers 
of  a  chorus  in  the  theatre,  that  of  the  hesti€Uor,  who 
gave  a  banquet  to  his  tribe,  of  the  trierarchuSf  who  pro- 
vided a  warship  for  the  state.  The  meaning  of  the 
word  liturgy  is  then  extended  to  cover  any  general  ser- 
vice of  a  public  kind.  In  the  Septua^t  it  (and 
the  verb  \eiTovpy4ta)  is  used  for  the  pubhc  service  of 
the  temple  (e.  g.,  Ex.,  xxxviii,  27;  xxxix,  12,  etc.). 
Thence  it  comes  to  have  a  religious  sense  as  the  func- 
tion of  the  priests,  the  ritual  service  of  the  temple  (e. 
g.,  Joel,  i,  9;  ii,  17,  etc.).  In  the  New  Testament  this 
religious  meaning  has  become  definitely  established. 
In  Luke,  i,  23,  Zachary  goes  home  when  "the  days  of 
his  liturgy"  (eU  ijfUpai  rfjt  \eiTovpytas  a^oO)  are  over. 
In  Heb.,  viii,  6,  the  high  priest  of  the  New  Law  "has 
obtained  a  better  liturgy  ",  that  is  a  better  kind  of  pub- 
lic religious  service  than  that  of  the  Temple. 

So  in  Christian  use  hturgy  meant  the  public  official 
service  of  the  Clitirch,  that  corresponded  to  the  official 
service  of  the  Temple  in  the  Old  Law.  We  must  now 
distinguish  two  senses  in  which  the  word  was  and  is 
still  commonly  used.  These  two  senses  often  lead  to 
confusion.  On  the  one  hand,  liturgy  often  means  the 
whole  complex  of  official  services,  all  the  rites,  cere- 
monies, prayers,  and  sacraments  of  the  Church,  as  op- 
posed to  private  devotions.  In  this  sense  we  speak  of 
the  arrangement  of  all  these  services  in  certain  set 
forms  (including  the  canonical  hours,  administration 
of  sacraments,  etc.),  used  officially  by  any  local  church, 
as  the  liturgy  of  such  a  church — ^the  Liturgy  of  Anti- 
och,  the  Roman  Liturgy,  and  so  on.  So  liturgy  means 
rite;  we  speak  indifferently  of  the  Byzantine  Rite  or 
the  Byzantine  Liturgy.  In  the  same  sense  we  distin- 
guish the  official  services  from  others  by  calling  them 
fiturgical;  those  services  are  liturgical  which  are  con- 
tained in  any  of  the  official  books  (see  Liturgical 
Books)  of  a  nte.  In  the  Roman  CJhurch,  for  instance, 
Compline  is  a  liturgical  service,  the  Rosary  is  not.  Hie 
other  sense  of  the  word  litur^,  now  the  common  one 
in  all  Eastern  (lurches,  restricts  it  to  the  chief  official 
service  only — the  Sacrifice  of  the  Holy  Eucharist, 
which  in  our  rite  we  call  the  Mass.  This  is  now  prac- 
tically the  only  sense  in  which  \etrovpyta  is  used  in 
Greek,  or  in  its  derived  forms  (e.  g.,  Arabic  alr-litur^ 
giah)  by  any  Eastern  Christian.  When  a  C^reek 
speaks  of  the  "Holy  Liturgy"  he  means  only  the  Eu- 
cnaristic  Service.  For  the  sake  of  clearness  it  is  per- 
haps better  for  us  too  to  keep  the  word  to  this  sense,  at 
any  rate  in  speaking  of  Eastern  ecclesiastical  matters: 
for  instance,  not  to  speak  of  the  Byzantine  canonical 
hours  as  lituracal  services.  Even  in  Western  Rites 
the  word  "oflacial"  or  "canonical"  will  do  as  well  as 
"liturgical"  in  the  general  sense,  so  that  we  too  may 
use  Liturgy  only  for  the  Holy  Eucharist.  It  should  be 
noted  also  that,  whereas  we  may  speak  of  our  Mass 
quite  correctly  as  the  Liturgy,  we  should  never  use  the 
word  Mass  for  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  in  any  Eastern 
rite.  Mass  (niisaa)  is  the  name  for  that  service  in  the 
Latin  Rites  on!  v.   It  has  never  been  used  either  in  Lat« 


LITX7RG7 


307 


LZTUBGT 


in  or  Greek  for  any  Sastem  rite.  Their  word,  corres- 
ponding exactly  to  our  "Masa,  is  Liturgy.  The  Byzantine 
liturgy  is  the  service  that  corresponds  to  our  Roman 
SCass;  to  call  it  the  Byzantine  (or,  worse  still,  the 
Greek)  Mass  is  as  wrong  as  naming  any  other  of  their 
services  after  ours,  as  calling  their  Hesperinos  Vespers, 
or  their  Orthraa  Lauds.  When  people  go  even  as  far  as 
calling  their  books  and  vestments  after  ours,  saying 
Missai  when  they  mean  Euchologion,  alb  when  they 
mean  sticharion,  the  confusion  becomes  hopeless. 

II.  Thb  Origin  op  the  Liturgy. — At  the  outset  of 
this  discussion  we  are  confronted  by  three  of  the  most 
difficult  questions  of  Christian  archaeology,  namely: 
From  what  date  was  there  a  fixed  and  regulated  serv- 
ice such  as  we  can  describe  as  a  formal  Liturgy?  How 
Car  was  this  service  uniform  in  various  Churches? 
How  far  are  we  able  to  reconstruct  its  forms  and 
arrangement? 

With  regard  to  the  first  question  it  must  be  said 
that  an  Apostolic  Liturgy  in  the  sense  of  an  arrange- 
ment of  prayers  and  ceremonies,  like  our  present  ritual 
of  the  Mass,  did  not  exist.  For  some  time  the  Eucha- 
ristic  Service  was  in  many  details  fluid  and  variable. 
It  was  not  all  written  down  and  read  from  fixed  forms, 
but  in  part  composed  by  the  officiating  bishop.  As 
for  ceremonies,  at  first  they  were  not  elaborated  as 
now.  All  ceremonial  evolves  gradually  out  of  certain 
obvious  actions  done  at  first  with  no  idea  of  ritual,  but 
simply  because  they  had  to  be  done  for  convenience. 
The  bread  and  wine  were  brought  to  the  altar  when 
they  were  wanted,  the  lessons  were  read  from  a  place 
where  they  could  best  be  heard,  Ixands  were  washed 
because  they  were  soiled.  Out  of  these  obvious  ac- 
tions ceremony  developed,  iust  as  our  vestments  de- 
veloped out  of  the  dress  of  the  first  Christians.  It 
follows  then  of  course  that,  when  there  was  no  fixed 
Liturgy  at  all,  there  could  be  no  question  of  absolute 
uniformity  among  the  different  Churches. 

And  yet  the  whole  scries  of  actions  and  prayers  did 
not  depend  solelv  on  the  improvisation  of  the  celebrat- 
ing bishop.  Wnereas  at  one  time  scholars  were  in- 
clined to  conceive  the  services  of  the  first  Ciiristians  as 
vague  and  undefined,  recent  research  shows  us  a  very 
Btnking  uniformity  in  certain  salient  elements  of  the 
aervioe  at  a  very  early  date.  The  tendency  among 
students  now  is  to  admit  something  very  like  a  regu- 
lated Liturgy,  apparently  to  a  great  extent  uniform  in 
the  chief  cities,  hack  even  to  tne  first  or  early  second 
oentuiy.  In  the  first  place  the  fundamental  outline 
of  ihe  rite  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  was  given  by  the 
account  of  the  Last  Supper.  What  our  Lord  had  done 
then,  that  same  thing  He  told  His  followers  to  do  in 
memory  of  Him.  It  would  not  have  been  a  Eucharist 
at  all  if  the  celebrant  had  not  at  least  done  as  our  Lord 
did  the  night  before  He  died.  So  we  have  everywhere 
from  the  very  beginning  at  least  this  uniform  nucleus 
<rf  a  liturgy:  bread  and  wine  are  brought  to  the  cele- 
brant in  vessels  (a  plate  and  a  cup) ;  he  puts  them  on  a 
table — ^the  altar;  standing  before  it  m  the  natural 
attitude  of  prayer  he  takes  them  in  his  hands,  gives 
thsuniks,  as  our  Lord  had  done,  says  again  the  words  of 
institution,  breaks  the  Bread  and  gives  the  consecrated 
Bread  and  Wine  to  the  people  in  communion.  The 
absence  of  the  words  of  institution  in  the  Xestorian 
Rite  is  no  argument  against  the  universality  of  this 
order.  It  is  a  rite  that  developed  quite  late;  the 
parent  liturgy  has  the  words. 

But  we  find  much  more  than  this  essential  nucleus 
in  use  in  every  Church  from  the  first  centurv.  The 
Eucharist  was  always  celebrated  at  the  end  oi  a  serv- 
ice of  lessons,  psalms,  prayers,  and  preacliing,  which 
was  itself  merely  a  continuation  of  the  service  of  the 
eyiULgogae,  So  we  have  everywhere  this  double 
function;  first  a  synagogue  service  Christianized,  in 
which  the  holy  books  were  read,  psalms  were  sung, 
prayers  said  by  the  bishop  in  the  name  of  all  (t)ie 
people  answering  "Amen     in  Hebrew,  as  had  tlicir 


Jewish  forefathers),  and  homilies,  explanations  of  what 
had  been  read,  were  made  by  the  oishop  or  priests, 
just  as  they  had  been  made  in  the  synagogues  by  the 
learned  men  and  elders  (e.  g.,  Luke,  iv,  16-27).  This 
is  what  was  known  afterwanls  as  the  Litur^  of  the 
Catechumens.  Then  followed  the  Eucharist,  at  which 
only  the  baptized  were  present.  Two  other  elements 
of  the  service  in  the  earhcst  time  soon  disappeared. 
One  was  the  Love-feast  (agape)  that  came  just  before"* 
the  Eucharist;  the  other  was  the  sviritual  exercises ,  in 
which  people  were  moved  by  tne  Holy  Ghost  to 
prophesy,  speak  in  divers  tongues,  heal  the  sick  by 
prayer,  and  so  on .  This  function — to  which  I  Cor.,  xi  v, 
1-14,  and  the  Didache,  x,  7,  etc.,  refer — obviously 
opened  the  way  to  disorders;  from  the  second  century 
it  gradually  disappears.  The  Eucharistic  Agape 
seems  to  have  disappeared  at  about  the  same  time. 
The  other  two  functions  remained  joined,  and  still 
exist  in  the  liturgies  of  all  rites.  In  them  the  service 
crystallized  into  more  or  less  set  forms  from  the  be- 
ginning. In  the  first  half  the  alternation  of  lessons, 
psalms,  collects,  and  homilies  leaves  little  room  for 
variety.  For  obvious  reasons  a  lesson  from  a  Gospel 
was  read  last,  in  the  place  of  honour  as  the  fulfilment 
of  all  the  others;  it  was  preceded  by  other  readings 
whose  number,  order,  and  arrangement  varied  con- 
siderably (see  Lessons  in  the  Liturgy).  A  chant 
of  some  kind  would  very  soon  accompany  the  entrance 
of  the  clerg3'  and  the  beginning  of  the  service.  We  also 
hear  very  soon  of  litanies  of  intercession  said  by  one 
person  to  each  clause  of  which  the  people  answer  with 
some  snort  formula  (see  Antiochene  Liturgy;  Alex- 
andrine Liturgy;  Kyrie  Eleison).  The  place  and 
number  of  the  homilies  would  also  vary  for  a  long  time. 
It  is  in  the  second  part  of  the  service,  the  Eucharist  it- 
self, that  we  find  a  very  striking  crystallization  of  the 
forms,  and  a  uniformity  even  in  the  first  or  second  cen- 
tury that  goes  far  beyond  the  mere  nucleus  described 
above. 

Already  in  the  New  Testament — apart  from  the 
account  of  the  Last  Supper — ^there  are  some  indexes 
that  point  to  liturgical  forms.  There  were  already  read- 
ings from  the  Sacred  Books  (I  Tim.,  iv,  13;  I  Thess., 
V,  27;  Col.,  iv,  16),  there  were  sermons  (Act.,  xx,  7), 
psalms  and  hymns  (I  Cor.,  xiv,  26;  Col.,  iii,  16;  Eph.,  v, 
19).  I  Tim.,  ii,  1-3,  implies  public  liturgical  prayers 
for  all  classes  of  people.  People  lifted  up  their  hands 
at  prayers  (I  Tim.,  li,  8),  men  with  uncovered  heads 
(I  Cor.,  xi,  4),  women  covered  (ibid.,  5).  There  was  a 
loss  of  peace  (I  Cor.,  xvi,  20;  II  Cor.,  xiii,  12;  I  Thess., 
V  26).  There  was  an  offertory  of  goods  for  the  poor 
(Kom.,  XV,  26;  II  Cor.,  ix,  13)  called  by  the  special 
name  "  communion"  {Koiwvia).  The  people  answered 
"Amen"  after  prayers  (I  Cor.,  xiv,  16).  The  word 
Eucharist  has  already  a  technical  meaning  (ibid.). 
The  famous  passage,  I  Cor.,  xi,  2Q-9,  gives  us  the  out- 
line of  the  breaking  of  bread  and  thanksgiving  (Eucha- 
rist) that  followed  the  earlier  part  of  the  service. 
Heb.,  xiii,  10  (cf.  I  Cor.,  x,  16-21),  shows  that  to  the 
first  Christians  the  table  of  the  Eucnarist  was  an  altar. 
After  the  consecration  prayers  followed  (Acts,  ii,  42). 
St.  Paul  "breaks  bread"  (=  the  consecration),  then 
communicates,  then  preaches  (Acts,  xx,  1 1).  Acts,  ii, 
42,  gives  us  an  idea  of  the  liturgical  Synaxis  in  order: 
They  "persevere  in  the  teaching  of  the  Apostles" 
(this  implies  the  readings  and  homilies),  "communi- 
cate in  tne  breaking  of  bread"  (consecration  and  com- 
munion) and  "  in  praj'ers".  So  we  have  already  in  the 
New  Testament  all  the  essential  elements  that  we  find 
later  in  the  organized  liturgies:  lessons,  psalms, 
hvmns,  sermons,  prayers,  consecration,  communion. 
(For  all  this  see  F.  Probst:  "Liturgie  der  drei  ersten 
christl.  Jahrhunderte",  Tubingen,  1870,  c.  i;  and  the 
texts  collected  in  Cabrol  and  Ixjclereq;  "Monumenta 
ecclcsia;  liturgica",  I,  Paris,  1900,  pp.  1-51.)  It  has 
Nh'ii  fhouj^ht  that  there  are  arc  in  tne  New  Testament 
even  actual  fornuila>  useil  in  the  liturgy.    The  Ativww 


LITURGY 


308 


LITUBQY 


is  certainly  one.  St.  Paul's  insistence  on  the  form 
"  For  ever  and  ever,  Amen"  (c/i  rods  alQvas  tQp  al'Jbvtov 
ifi^p. — Rom.,  xvi,  27;  Gal.,  i,  5;  I  Tim.,  i,  17;  cf. 
Heb.,  xiii,  21;  I  Pet.,  i,  11;  v,  11;  Apoc.,  i,  6,  etc.) 
seems  to  argue  that  it  is  a  liturgical  form  well  known 
to  the  Christians  whom  he  addresses,  as  it  was  to  the 
Jews.  There  are  other  short  hymns  (Rom.,  xiii,  1 1-2; 
Eph.,  V,  14;  I  Tim.,  iii,  16;  II  Tim.,  ii,  11-3),  which 
may  well  be  hturgical  formulae. 

In  the  Apostolic  Fathers  the  picture  of  the  early 
Christian  Liturgy  becomes  clearer;  we  have  in  them  a 
definite  and  to  some  extent  homogeneous  ritual.  But 
this  must  be  understood.  There  was  certainly  no  set 
form  of  prayers  and  ceremonies  such  as  we  see  in  our 
present  Missals  and  Euchologia;  still  less  was  anything 
written  down  and  read  from  a  book.  The  celebrating 
bishop  spoke  freely,  liis  prayers  being  to  some  extent 
improvised.  And  yet  this  improvising  was  bound  by 
certain  rules.  In  the  first  place,  no  one  who  speaks 
continually  on  the  same  subjects  says  new  things  each 
time.    Mo<lem    sermons    and    modem    extempore 

Erayers  show  how  easily  a  speaker  falls  into  set  forms, 
ow  constantly  he  repeats  what  come  to  be,  at  least 
for  him,  fixed  formulaj.  Moreover,  the  dialogue  form 
of  prayer  that  we  find  in  use  in  the  earliest  monuments 
necessarily  supposes  some  consta,nt  arrangement.  The 
people  answer  and  echo  what  the  celebrant  and  the 
deacons  say  with  suitable  exclamations.  They  could 
not  do  so  unless  they  heard  more  or  less  the  same 
prayers  each  time.  They  heard  from  the  altar  such 
phrases  as:  "The  Lord  be  with  you",  or  "Lift  up 
your  hearts",  and  it  was  because  they  recognized  these 
forms,  had  heard  them  often  before,  that  they  could 
answer  at  once  in  the  way  expected. 

We  find  too  very  early  that  certain  general  themes 
are  constant.  For  insta nee  our  Lord  had  given  thanks 
just  before  Ho  spoke  the  words  of  institution.  So 
it  was  understood  that  every  celebrant  began  the 
prayer  of  consecration — the  Eucharistic  prayer — by 
thanking  God  for  His  various  mercies.  So  we  find 
always  what  we  still  have  in  our  modem  prefaces — a 
prayer  thanking  God  for  certain  favours  and  graces, 
that  are  named,  just  where  that  preface  comes, 
shortly  before  the  consecration  (Justin, "  Apol.,"  I,  xiii, 
Ixv).  An  intercession  for  all  kinds  of  j>eople  also 
occurs  very  early,  as  we  see  from  references  to  it  (e.  g., 
Justin,  "Apol.,"  I,  xiv,  Ixv).  In  this  prayer  the 
various  classes  of  people  would  naturally  be  named 
in  more  or  less  the  same  order.  A  profession  of  faith 
would  almost  inevitably  open  that  part  of  the  ser\'ice 
in  which  only  the  faithful  were  allowed  to  take  part 
(Justin,  ''Apol.",  I,  xiii,  Ixi).  It  could  not  have  been 
long  before  the  archtype  of  all  Christian  prayer — the 
Our  Father — was  said  publicly  in  the  Liturgy.  The 
moments  at  which  these  various  prayers  were  said 
would  very  soon  become  fixed.  The  people  expected 
them  at  certain  points,  there  was  no  reason  for  chang- 
ing their  order,  on  the  contrary  to  do  so  would  dis- 
turb the  faithful.  One  knows  too  how  strong  con- 
servative instinct  is  in  any  religion,  especially  in  one 
that,  like  Christianity,  has  always  looked  back  with 
unliounded  reverence  to  the  golden  age  of  the  first 
Fathers.  So  we  must  conceive  the  Liturgy  of  the 
first  two  centuries  as  made  up  of  somewhat  free 
improvisations  on  fixed  themes  in  a  definite  order; 
and  we  realize  too  how  naturally  under  these  cir- 
cumstances the  very  words  used  would  be  repeated — 
at  first  no  doubt  only  the  salient  clauses — till  they 
became  fixed  forms.  The  ritual,  certainly  of  the  sim- 
plest kind,  would  become  stereotyped  even  more 
easily.  The  things  that  had  to  Ix?  done,  the  bringing 
up  of  the  bread  and  wine,  the  collection  of  alms  and 
80  on,  even  more  than  the  prayers,  would  l^e  done  al- 
ways at  the  same  point.  A  change  here  would  be 
even  more  disturbing  than  a  change  in  the  onier  of 
the  prayers. 
A  last  consideration  to  be  noted  is  the  tendency 


of  new  Churches  to  imitate  the  customs  of  the  oldet" 
ones.  Each  new  Christian  community  was  formed 
by  joining  itself  to  the  bond  already  formed.  The 
new  converts  received  their  first  missionaries,  their 
faith  and  ideas  from  a  mother  Church.  These  mis- 
sionaries would  naturally  celebrate  the  rites  as  they 
had  seen  them  done,  or  as  they  had  done  them  them- 
selves in  the  mother  Church.  And  their  converts 
would  imitate  them,  carry  on  the  same  tradition.  In- 
tercourse between  the  local  Churches  would  furthei 
accentuate  this  uniformity  among  people  who  were 
very  keenly  conscious  of  forming  one  body  with  one 
Faith,  one  Baptism,  and  one  Eucharist.  It  is  not 
then  surprising  that  the  allusions  to  the  Liturgy  in 
the  first  Fathers  of  various  countries,  when  compared 
show  us  a  homogeneous  rite  at  any  rate  in  its  main 
outlines,  a  constant  type  of  ser\'ice,  though  it  was 
subject  to  certain  local  modifications.  It  would  not 
be  surprising  if  from  this  common  early  Liturgy  one 
uniform  type  had  evolved  for  the  wnole  Catholic 
world.  We  know  that  that  is  not  the  case.  The 
more  or  less  fluid  ritual  of  the  first  two  centuries  crys- 
tallized into  different  liturgies  in  East  and  West; 
difference  of  language,  the  insistence  on  one  point  in 
one  place,  the  greater  importance  given  to  another 
feature  elsewhere,  brought  about  our  various  rites. 
But  there  is  an  obvious  unity  underlying  all  the  old 
rites  that  goes  back  to  the  earliest  age.  The  medieval 
idea  that  all  are  derived  from  one  parent  rite  is  not  so 
absunl,  if  we  remember  that  the  parent  was  not 
a  written  or  stereot3T>ed  Liturgy,  but  rather  a  gencsrai 
type  of  service. 

III.  The  Liturgy  in  the  First  Three  Centu- 
ries.— For  the  first  period  we  have  of  course  no  com- 
plete description.  We  must  reconstruct  whiit  we 
can  from  the  allusions  to  the  Holy  Eucharist  in  the 
Apostolic  Fathers  and  apologists.  Justin  Mart3T 
alone  gives  us  a  fairly  complete  outline  of  the  rite  that 
he  knew.  The  Eucharist  described  in  the  "Teaching 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles'*  (most  authorities  now  put 
the  date  of  this  work  at  the  end  of  the  first  century) 
in  some  ways  lies  apart  from  the  general  development. 
We  have  here  still  the  free  "prophesying"  (x,  7),  the 
Eucharist  is  still  joined  to  the  Agape  (x,  1),  the  refer- 
ence to  the  actual  consecration  is  vague.  The  like- 
ness between  the  prayers  of  thanksgiving  (ix-x)  and 
the  Jewish  forms  for  blessing  bread  and  wine  on  the 
Sabbath  (given  in  the  "Berakoth"  treatise  of  the 
Tahnud;  cf.  Sabatier,  "La  Didache",  Paris,  1885.  p. 
99)  points  obviously  to  derivation  from  them.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  rite  here  described  is  not  our 
Eucharist  at  all;  others  (Paul  Drews)  think  that  it  is 
a  private  Eucharist  distinct  from  the  official  public 
rite.  On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  clear  from  the 
whole  account  in  chapters  ix  and  x  that  we  have  here 
a  real  Eucharist,  and  the  existence  of  private  cele- 
brations remains  to  be  proved.  The  most  natural 
explanation  is  certainlv  tnat  of  a  Eucharist  of  a  very 
archaic  nature,  not  fully  described.  At  any' rate  we 
have  these  liturgical  points  from  the  book.  The  "  Our 
Father"  is  a  recognized  formula:  it  is  to  be  said 
three  times  every  day  (viii.  2-3).  The  Liturgy  is  a 
eucharist  and  a  sacrifice  to  be  celebrated  by  breaking 
bread  and  giving  thanks  on  the  "Lord's  Day"  by 
people  who  have  confessed  their  sins  (xiv,  1).  Only 
the  oaptized  are  admitted  to  it  (ix,  5).  The  wine  is 
mentioned  first,  then  the  broken  bread;  each  has  a 
formula  of  giving  thanks  to  God  for  His  revelation  in 
Christ  with  the  conclusion:  "To  thee  be  glory  for 
ever"  (ix,  1,  4).  There  follows  a  thanksgiving  for 
various  benefits;  the  creation  and  our  sanctification 
by  Christ  are  named  (x,  1-4) ;  then  comes  a  prayer  for 
tfie  Church  ending  with  the  form:  "Maranatha. 
Amen";  in  it  occurs  the  form:  " Hosanna  to  the  God 
of  David"  (x,  5-6). 

The  First  Epistle  of  Clement  to  tlie  Corinthians 
(written  probably  between  90  and  lOOj  contains  an 


ZJTUROT 


309 


LITUBQT 


abuiulaaoc  of  liturgical  matter,  much  more  tliau  is 
apparent  at  the  first  glance.  That  the  long  prayer 
in  chapters  lix-lxi  is  a  magnificent  example  of  the 
kind  of  prayers  said  in  the  liturgy  of  the  first  century 
has  always  been  admitted  (e.  g..  Duchesne,  "Ori- 
gines  du  Culte",  49-51);  that  the  letter,  especially  in 
this  part,  is  fuU  of  liturgical  forms  is  also  evident. 
The  writer  quotes  the  Sanctus  (Holy,  holy,  holy  Lord 
of  Sabaoth;  all  creation  is  full  of  his  gior\')  from  Is., 
vi,  3,  and  adds  that  '*  we  assembled  in  unity  cry  (this) 
as  with  one  mouth"  (xxxiv.  7).  The  end  of  the  long 
praver  is  a  doxology  invoking  Cluist  and  finishing 
with  the  form:  "now  and  for  generations  of  genera- 
tions and  for  ag»  of  ages.  Amen"  (Ixi,  3).  This 
too  is  certainly  a  liturgical  formula.  There  are  many 
others.  But  we  can  find  more  in  I  Clem,  than  merely 
a  promiscuous  selection  of  formulae.  A  comparison 
of  the  text  with  the  first  known  I^iturgy  actually 
written  down,  that  of  the  ''  Eighth  Book  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions "  (written  long  afterguards,  in  the 
fifth  century  in  Syria)  reveals  a  most  startling  likeness. 
Not  only  do  the  same  ideas  occur  in  the  same  onler, 
but  there  are  whole  passages — ^just  those  that  in  I 
Clem,  have  most  the  appearance  of  liturgical  f  ormuke 
— that  recur  word  for  word  in  the  "Apast.  Const." 

In  the  "Apost.  Const."  the  Eucharist ic  prayer  be- 
gins, as  in  all  liturgies,  with  the  dialogue:  "Lift  up 
your  hearts  ",  etc.  Then,  beginning : '  'It  is  truly  meet 
and  jast ",  comes  a  long  thanksgi  ving  for  various  bene- 
fits corresponding  to  what  we  call  the  preface.  Here 
occurs  a  detailed  description  of  the  nrst  l)enefit  we 
owe  to  God — ^the  creation.  The  various  things 
created — ^the  heavens  and  earth,  sun,  moon  and  stars, 
fire  and  sea,  and  so  on,  are  enumerated  at  length 
("Apost.  Const.",  VIII,  xii,  6-27).  The  prayer  ends 
with  the  Sanctus.  I  Clem.,  xx,  contains  a  prayer 
echoing  the  same  ideas  exactl\%  in  which  the  ver>'  same 
words  constantly  occur.  The  order  in  which  the 
creatures  are  mentioned  is  the  same.  Again  "  Apost. 
Const.",  VIII,  xii,  27,  introduces  the  Sanctus  in  the 
same  way  as  I  Clem.,  xxxiv,  5-6,  where  the  author 
actually  says  he  is  quoting  the  Liturgy.    This  same 

Preface  in  Apost.  Const."  (loc.  cit.),  remembering  the 
'atriarchs  of  the  Old  Law,  names  Abel,  Cain,  Both, 
Henoch,  Noe,  Salmon,  Lot,  Abraham,  Mclchisedech, 
Isaac,  Jacob,  Moses,  Josue.  The  parallel  passage  in 
I  Clem,  (ix-xii)  names  Enoch,  Noe,  Lot,  Salmon, 
Abraham,  Rahab,  Josue:  we  may  iiot«  at  once  two 
other  parallels  to  this  list  containing  again  almost  the 
same  fist  of  names — ^Heb,,  xi,  4-31,  and  Justin, "  Dia- 
logue", xix,  cxi,  cxxxi,  cxxxxaii.  The  long  prayer 
in  I  Clem,  (lix-lxi)  is  full  of  ideas  and  actual  phrases 
that  come  again  in  ''  Apost.  Const.",  VIII.  Compare 
for  instance  I  Clem.,  lix,  2—4,  with  **  Apost.  Const.", 
VIII,  x,  22-xi,  5  (which  is  part  of  the  celebrant's  prayer 
during  the  litany  of  the  faithful :  Brightman,  ''Eastern 
Lituisies",  p.  12),  and  xiii,  10  (prayer  during  the  litany 
iha,%  follows  the  great  intercession.  Brightman,  p. 
24).  Other  no  less  striking  parallels  may  be  seen  in 
DiewB,  "  Untersuchungen  Uoer  die  sogen.  clement. 
Lituigie,"  14-43.  It  is  not  only  with  the  Liturgy  of 
"  Apost.  Const."  that  I  Clem,  has  these  extraordinary 
resemblances.  I  Clem.,  lix,  4,  echoes  exactly  the 
clauses  of  the  celebrant's  prayer  during  the  int«r- 
cessioQ  in  the  Alexandrine  I^te  (Greek  St.  Mark. 
Briffhtman,  131).  These  parallel  passages  cannot 
all  be  mere  coincidences  (Lightfoot  realized  this,  but 
suggests  no  explanation.  ''The  Apostolic  Fathers", 
London,  1890,  I,  II,  p.  71). 

The  question  then  occurs:  What  is  the  relation  be- 
tween I  Clement  and — in  the  first  place — the  Liturgy 
of  "  Apost.  Const."  ?  The  suggestion  that  first  presents 
itself  is  that  the  later  document  ("Apost.  Const.")  is 
quotinff  the  earlier  one  (I  Clem.).  This  is  Hamack's 
view  ("Gesch.  der  altchristl.  Litteratur",  I,  Leipzig, 
1893,  pp.  42-43),  but  it  is  exceedingly  unlikely.  In 
that  case  the  quotations  would  be  more  exact,  the 


order  of  I  C'leiii.  would  Ijc  kept ;  the  prayers  in  tbe 
Liturgy  have  no  appearance  of  being  quotations  or  con- 
sc'ioiLs  coniiH)sitions  of  fragments  from  earlier  books; 
nor,  if  the  * 'Apost.  Con.st."  were  (luoting  I  Cloro., 
would  there  be  reduplications  such  as  we  have  seen 
alx)ve  (VIII,  xi,  22-xi,  5,  and  xiii,  10).  Years  ago 
Ferdinand  Probst  spent  a  great  part  of  his  life  in  try- 
ing to  prove  that  the  Liturgy  of  the  "  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions "  was  the  universal  primitive  Liturgy  of  the 
whole  Church.  To  this  enueavour  he  applied  an 
enormous  amount  of  erudition.  In  his  "Liturgie  der 
drei  ersten  christlichen  Jahrhundertc*' (Tubingen, 
1870)  and  again  in  his  "Liturgie  des  vierten  Jahrhun- 
derts  und  deren  Reform"  (Munster,  1893),  he  ex- 
amined a  vast  number  of  texts  of  Fathers,  always  with 
a  view  to  find  in  them  allusions  to  the  Litui^gy  in 
question.  But  he  overdid  his  identifications  hope- 
lessly. He  sees  an  allusion  in  ever}'  text  that 
vaguely  refers  to  a  subject  named  in  the  Liturgy. 
Also  his  books  are  very  involved  and  difficult  to  study. 
So  Probst's  theory  fell  almost  entirely  into  discredit. 
His  ubiquitous  I-.iturg}''  was  rememl^red  only  as  the 
monomania  of  a  very  learned  man;  the  rite  of  the 
"  Eighth  Book  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  "  was  put 
in  what  seemed  to  be  its  right  place,  merely  as  an 
early  form  of  the  Antiochene  Ijturgy  (so  Duchesne, 
*'Origines  du  Culte",  55-6).  Ijately,  however,  there 
has  come  again  to  the  fore  what  may  be  dcscril^ed  as 
a  modified  form  of  Probst's  theory.  Ferdinand  Kat- 
tenbusch  ("Das  apostolische  Svmbol",  Tubingen, 
1900,  II,  347,  etc.)  thought  that  after  all  there  might 
be  some  foundation  for  Probst's  idea.  Paul  Drews 
(Untersuchuu^en  tiber  die  sogen.  clementinische 
T^iturgie,  Tubingen,  1906)  proposes  and  defends  at 
lengtli  what  may  well  be  the  germ  of  tnith  in  Probst, 
namely  that  there  was  a  certain  uniformity  of  type 
in  the  earliest  Liturgy  in  the  sense  described  above, 
not  a  uniformity  of  detail,  but  one  of  general  outline, 
of  the  ideas  expressed  in  the  various  parts  of  the  ser- 
vice, with  a  strong  tendency  to  uniformity  in  certain 
salient  expressions  that  recurred  constantly  and  be- 
came insensibly  liturgical  formulae.  This  type  of 
liturgy  (rather  than  a  fixed  rite)  may  be  traceil  back 
even  to  the  first  centurv.  It  is  seen  in  Clement  of 
Rome,  Justin,  et<?.;  perhaps  there  are  traces  of  it  even 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hel)rews.  And  of  this  type  we 
still  have  a  specimen  in  the  ''Apostolic  Constitutions  ". 
It  is  not  that  that  rite  exactly  as  it  is  in  the  "  Constitu- 
tions" was  used  by  Clement  and  Justin.  Rather  the 
"  Constitutions  "  give  us  a  much  later  (fifth  century) 
form  of  the  old  Liturgy  written  down  at  last  in  Syria 
after  it  bad  existed  for  centuries  in  a  more  fluid  state 
as  an  oral  tradition.  Thus,  Clement,  writing  to  the 
Corinthians  (that  the  letter  was  actually  composed 
by  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  as  Dionysius  of  Corinth  savs 
in  the  second  century,  is  now  generally  admitted.  Cf . 
Bardenhewer,  "Gesch.  der  altkirchl.  Litt-eratur", 
Freiburg,  1902,  101-2),  uses  the  language  to  which  he 
was  accustomed  in  the  Liturgy;  the  letter  is  full  of 
liturgical  ideas  and  reminiscences.  They  are  found 
again  in  the  later  crystallization  of  the  same  rite  in 
the  "Apostolic  Constitutions".  So  that  book  gives 
us  the  best  representation  of  the  Liturgy  as  used  in 
Rome  in  the  first  two  centuries. 

This  is  confirmed  bv  the  next  witness,  Justin 
Martyr.  Justin  (d.  ar)out  104).  in  his  famous  account 
of  the  Liturg}',  descril^es  it  as  he  saw  it  at  Rome 
(Bardenhewer,  op.  cit.,  206).  The  often  quoted 
passage  is  (I  Apologj*)'  LXV.  1.  "We  load  liim  who 
nelieves  and  is  joinecl  to  us,  after  we  have  thus  bap- 
tized him,  to  those  who  are  called  the  brethren,  where 
they  gather  together  to  say  prayers  in  common  for 
ourselves,  and  for  him  who  has  been  enlightened, 
and  for  all  who  are  everywhere.  ...  2.  We  greet 
each  other  with  a  kiss  when  the  prayers  are  finished. 
3.  Then  bread  and  a  cup  of  water  and  wine  are  brought 
to  the  president  of  the  brQthi^Tv.,  ^\A\\RV"Si.xvcv^i^'«* 


LITUROT 


310 


UTUBQT 


ceivcd  them  sends  up  praise  and  glor>'  to  the  Father 
of  all  through  the  name  of  his  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  makes  a  long  thanks^ving  that  we  have  been 
made  worthy  of  these  thmgs  oy  him;  when  these 
prayers  and  thanksgivings  are  ended  all  the  people 
present  cry  'Amen'.  ...  5.  And  when  the  presi- 
dent has  given  thanks  (e^opurrijtroi^of,  already  a 
technical  name  for  the  Eucharist)  and  all  the  people 
have  answered,  those  whom  we  call  deacons  give  the 
bread  and  wine  and  water  for  which  the  'thanks- 
giving' (Eucharist)  has  been  made  to  be  tasted  by 
those  who  are  present,  and  they  carry  them  to  those 
that  are  absent.  LXVI.  This  food  is  called  by  us 
the  Eucharist"  (the  well-known  passage  about  the 
Real  Presence  follows,  with  the  quotation  of  the 
words  of  Institution).  LXVII.  3  "  On  the  day  which 
is  called  that  of  the  Sun  a  reunion  is  made  of  all  those 
who  dwell  in  the  cities  and  fields;  and  the  conmien- 
tarics  of  the  Apostles  and  writings  of  the  prophets  are 
read  as  long  as  time  allows.  4.  Then,  when  the  reader 
has  done,  the  president  admonishes  us  in  a  speech 
and  excites  us  to  copy  these  glorious  things.  5.  Then 
we  all  rise  and  say  prayers  and,  as  we  have  said  above, 
when  we  have  done  praying  bread  is  brought  up  and 
wine  and  water;  ana  the  president  sends  up  prayers 
with  thanksgiving  for  the  men,  and  the  people  ac- 
claim, saying  'Amen',  and  a  share  of  the  Eucharist 
is  given  to  each  and  is  sent  to  those  absent  by  the 
deacons." 

This  is  by  far  the  most  complete  account  of  the 
Eucharistic  Service  we  have  from  the  first  three  cen- 
turies. It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  what  is  describod 
in  chapter  Ixvii  precedes  the  rite  of  Ixv.  In  Ixvii 
Justin  begins  his  account  of  the  Liturgy  and  repeats 
in  its  place  what  he  had  already  said  above. 

Putting  it  all  together  we  have  this  scheme  of  the 
service: 

1.  Lessons  (Ixvii,  3). 

2.  Sermon  by  the  bishop  (Ixvii,  4). 

3.  Prayers  for  all  people  (Ixvii,  5;  Ixv,  1). 

4.  Kiss  of  peace  (Ixv,  2). 

5.  Offertory  of  bread  and  wine  and  water  brought 

up  by  the  deacons  (Ixvii,  5;  Ixv,  3). 

6.  Thanksgiving-prayer  by  the  bishop   (Ixvii,  5; 

bcv,  3). 

7.  Consecration  by  the  words  of  institution  (? 

bcv,  5;  Ixvi,  2-3). 

8.  Intercession  for  the  people  (Ixvii,  5;  Ixv,  3). 

9.  The  people  end  this  prayer  with  Amen  (Ixvii,  5; 

bcv,  3). 

10.  Communion  (Ixvii,  5;  Ixv,  6). 
This  is  exactly  the  order  of  the  Liturgy  in  the  "  Apos- 
tohc Constitutions"  (Brightman, "  Eastern  Liturgies", 
3-4,  9-12,  13,  14-21,  21-3,  25).  Moreover,  as  in  the 
case  of  I  Clement,  there  are  manv  passages  and  phrases 
in  Justin  that  suggest  parallel  ones  in  the  Apost. 
Const." — not  so  much  in  Justin's  account  of  the  Litui^gy 
(though  here  too  Drews  sees  such  parallels,  op.  cit., 
68-9)  as  in  other  works  in  which  Justin,  like  Clement, 
may  be  supposed  to  be  echoing  well-known  liturgical 
phrases.  Drews  prints  many  such  passages  side  by  side 
with  the  corresponding  ones  of  the  "  Apost.  Const.", 
from  which  comparison  he  concludes  that  Justin 
knows  a  dismissal  of  the  catechumens  (cf.  "I  ApoL", 
xlix,  5;  xiv,  1 ;  xxv,  2,  with  "Apost.  Const.",  VIII,  vi,  8; 
X,  2)  and  of  the  Energumens  (Dial.,xxx;  cf.  "Apost. 
Const.",  VIII,  vii,  2)  corresponding  to  that  in  the  Lit- 
urgv  in  question.  From  "  I  Apol. ' ,  Ixv,  1 ;  xvii,  3 ;  xiv, 
3;  deduces  a  prayer  for  all  kinds  of  men  (made  by  the 
conmiunity)  of  the  tj'pe  of  that  praver  in  "Apost. 
Const.",  VIII,  X.  "  I  Apol.",  xiii,  1-3,  Ixv,  3;  v,  2, and 
Dial.,  xli,  Ixx,  cxvii,  give  us  the  elements  of  a  preface 
exactly  on  the  lines  of  that  in  "  Apost.  Obnst.'',  VIII, 
xii,  6-27  (see  these  texts  in  parallel  columns  in  Drews, 
•*op.  cit.",  59-91). 

We  have,  then,  in  Clement  and  Justin  the  picture 
of  a  Liturgy  at  least  remarkably  like  that  of  the  "Apos- 


tolic Constitutions  ".  Drews  adds  as  sinking  paralleifl 
from  Hippolytus  (d.  235),  "Contra  Noetum",  etc. 
(op.  cit.,  95-107)  and  Novatian  (third  cent.)  "De 
Trlnitate"  (ibid.,  107-22),  both  Romans,  and  thinks 
th^t  this  same  type  of  lituiYy  continues  in  the  known 
Roman  Rite  (122-66).  That  the  Liturgy  of  the 
"  Apostolic  Constitutions  "  as  it  stands  is  Antiochene, 
and  is  closely  connected  with  the  Rite  of  Jerusalem, 
is  certain.  It  would  seem,  then,  that  it  represents  one 
form  of  a  vaguer  type  of  rite  that  was  in  its  main 
outline  imiform  in  the  first  three  centuries.  Tlie 
other  references  to  the  Liturgy  in  the  first  age  (Igna- 
tius of  Antioch,  d.  about  107,  "Eph.",  xiii,  xx, 
" Phil. ",  iv, "  Rom.",  vii, " Smym.",  vii,  viii;  Iremeus, 
d.  202,  "Adv.  haer.",  IV,  xvii,  xviii:  V,  ii,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  d.  about  215,  "Psed.' ,  I,  vi;  ll,  ii,  in 
P.G.,  VIII,  301,  410;  Origen,d.  254," Contra  Cels.", 
VIII,  xxxiii,  "Hom.  xix  in  Lev.",  xviii,  13;  "In 
Matt.",  xi,  14;  "In  loh.",  xiii,  30)  repeat  the  same 
ideas  that  we  have  seen  in  Clement  and  Justin,  but 
add  little  to  the  picture  presented  by  tJiem  (see  Cabrol 
and  Leclercq,  "Mon.  Eccles.  Liturg.",  I,  passim). 

IV.  The  Parent  Rites,  from  the  Fourth  Cen- 
tury.— From  about  the  fourth  centuir  our  knowledge 
of  the  Liturgy  increases  enormously.  We  are  no 
longer  dependent  on  casual  references  to  it:  we  have 
definite  ntes  fully  developed.  The  more  or  less  imi- 
form  type  of  Liturgy  used  everywhere  before  crystal- 
lized into  four  parent  rites  from  which  all  others  arc 
derived.  The  four  are  the  old  Liturgies  of  Antioch, 
Alexandria,  Rome,  and  Gaul.  Each  is  described  in  a 
special  article.  It  will  be  enough  here  to  trace  an 
outline  of  their  general  evolution. 

The  development  of  these  liturgies  is  very  like  what 
happens  in  tne  case  of  languages.  From  a  general 
imiformity  a  number  of  local  rites  arise  with  charac- 
teristic differences.  Then  one  of  these  local  rites, 
because  of  the  importance  of  the  place  that  uses  it, 
spreads,  is  copied  oy  the  cities  around,  drives  out  its 
rivals,  and  becomes  at  last  the  one  rite  used  through- 
out a  more  or  less  extended  area.  We  have  then  a 
movement  from  vague  uniformity  to  diversity  and 
then  a  return  to  exact  imiformity.  Except  for  tie 
GalHcan  Rite  the  reason  of  the  final  survival  of  these 
liturgies  is  evident.  Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch 
are  the  old  patriarchal  cities.  As  the  other  bishops 
accepted  the  jurisdiction  of  these  three  patriarchs,  so 
did  they  imitate  their  services.  The  Liturgy,  as  it 
crystallized  in  these  centres,  became  the  type  for  the 
other  Churches  of  their  patriarchates.  Only  Gaul  and 
north-west  Europe  generally,  though  part  of  the 
Roman  Patriarchate,  Kept  its  own  rite  till  the  seventh 
and  eight  centuries. 

Alexandria  and  Antioch  are  the  startins-points  of 
the  two  original  Eastern  rites.  The  earliest  form  of  the 
Antiochene  Rite  is  that  of  the  "Apostohc  Constitu- 
tions "  written  down  in  the  earlv  fiftn  century.  From 
what  we  have  said  it  seems  tliat  this  rite  has  best 
preserved  the  type  of  the  primitive  use.  From  it  is 
derived  the  Rite  of  Jerusalem  (till  the  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon,  451,  Jerusalem  was  in  the  Antiochene  Patri- 
archate), which  then  retiuned  te  Antioch  and  became 
that  of  the  patriarchate  (see  Antiochene  Ltturgt 
and  Jerusalem,  Liturgy  of).  We  have  this  liturgy 
(called  after  St.  James)  in  Greek  (Bright man,  "  East- 
em  Liturgies",  31-68)  and  in  Syriac  (ibid.,  69-110). 
The  Alexandrine  Rite  differs  chiefly  in  the  place  of 
the  great  intercession  (see  Alexandrine  Liturgy). 
This  too  exists  in  Greek  (Brightman,  113-43)  and 
the  language  of  the  country,  in  this  case  Coptic  (ibid., 
144-88).  In  both  cases  the  original  form  was  cer- 
tainly Greek,  but  in  both  the  present  Greek  forms 
have  been  considerably  influenced  by  the  later  Rite 
of  Constantinople.  A  reconstruction  of  the  original 
Greek  is  possible  by  removing  the  Byzantine  additions 
and  changes,  and  comparing  the  Greek  and  8)rriao 
or  Coptic  forms.    Both  these  liturgies  have  giv^i^ 


LirmtoT 


311 


UTUBGT 


rifle  to  numerous  derived  forms.  The  Roman  Rite 
is  thought  by  Duchesne  to  be  connected  with  Alexan- 
dria, the  Gallican  with  Antioch  (Ormnes  du  Culte,  p. 
54).  But,  from  what  has  been  said,  it  seems  more 
correct  to  connect  the  Roman  Rite  with  that  of  An- 
tioch. Besides  its  derivation  from  the  •type  repre- 
sented by  the  Litux^  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
^ere  are  reasons  for  supposing  a  further  influence 
of  the  Liturgy  of  St.  James  at  Rome  (see  Canon  of 
THE  Mabb,  and  Drews,  "Zur  Entstehungsgesch.  des 
Kanons  in  der  rOmischen  Messe",  TQbingen,  1902). 
The  Gallican  Rite  is  certainly  S3rrian  in  its  origin. 
There  are  also  very  striking  parallels  between  Antioch 
and  Alexandria,  m  spite  of  their  different  arrange- 
ments. It  may  well  oe,  then,  that  all  four  rites  are 
to  be  considered  #8  modifications  of  that  most  an- 
cient use,  best  preserved  at  Antioch;  so  we  should 
reduce  Duchesne's  two  sources  to  one,  and  restore  to 
a  great  extent  Probst's  theory  of  one  original  rite — 
that  of  the  "Apostolic  Constitutions". 

In  any  case  the  old  Roman  Rite  is  not  exactly  that 
now  used.  Our  Roman  Missal  has  received  consider- 
able additions  from  Gallican  sources.  The  original 
rite  was  simpler,  more  austere,  had  practically  no 
ritual  beyond  the  most  necessary  actions  (see  Bishop, 
" The  Genius  of  the  Roman  Rite"  in"'  Essays  on  Cere- 
monial", edited  by  Vernon  Staley,  London,  1904,  pp. 
283-307).  It  may  be  said  that  our  present  Roman 
lituiigy  contains  all  the  old  nucleus,  has  lost  nothing, 
but  has  additional  Gallican  elements.  The  original  rite 
may  be  in  part  deduced  from  references  to  it  as  early 
as  the  fiftn  century  ("  Letters  of  Gelasius  I "  in 
Thiel,  "Epistolse  Rom.  Pontificum",  I,  cdlxxxvi, 
"Innocent  I  to  Decennius  of  Eugubiiun",  written  in 
416,  in  P.  L.,  XX,  651;  Pseudo-Ambrose,  *'Dc  Sacn^ 
mentis",  IV,  5,  etc.);  it  is  represented  by  the  Leonine 
and  Gelasian  "Sacramentaries",  and  by  the  old  part  of 
the  Gregorian  book  (see  Liturqical  Books).  The 
Roman  Rite  was  used  throughout  Central  and  South- 
em  Italy.  The  African  use  was  a  variant  of  that  of 
Rome  ^see  Cabrol,  "  Dictionnaire  d'arch^ologie  chr^ 
tienne  ,  s.  v.  Afrique,  Liturgie  postnic^nne).  In  the 
West,  however,  the  principle  that  rite  should  follow 
patriarchate  did  not  obtain  till  about  the  eighth  cen- 
tury. The  pope  was  Patriarch  of  all  Western  (Latin) 
Europe,  yet  the  greater  part  of  the  West  did  not  use 
the  Roman  Rite.  The  North  of  Italy  whose  centre 
was  Milan,  Gaul,  Germanjr,  Spain,  Britain,  and  Ire- 
land had  their  own  Lituigies.  These  Liturgies  are  all 
modifications  of  a  common  type;  thcv  may  all  be 
classed  together  as  formis  of  what  is  known  as  the 
Gallican  Rite.  Where  did  that  rite  come  from?  It 
is  obviously  Eastern  in  its  origin:  its  whole  construc- 
tion has  the  most  remarkable  conformity  to  the  An- 
tiochene  type,  a  conformity  extending  in  many  parts 
to  the  actual  text  (compare  the  Milanese  litany  of 
intercession  quoted  by  Duchesne,  "Origines  du 
Culte".  p.  189,  with  the  corresponding  litany  in  the 
Antiocnene  Liturgy*  Brightman,  pp.  44-5).  It  used 
to  be  said  that  the  Gallican  Rite  came  from  Ephesus, 
broujdit  by  the  founders  of  the  Church  of  Lyons,  and 
f  romXiVons  spread  throughout  North- Western  Europe. 
This  weory  cannot  be  maintained.  It  was  not 
brought  to  the  West  till  its  parent  rite  was  fully 
developed,  had  alreeuly  evolvca  a  complicated  cere- 
monial, such  as  is  inconceivable  at  the  time  when  the 
Church  of  Lyons  was  founded  (second  century).  It 
must  have  been  imported  about  the  fourth  century,  at 
which  time  Lyons  had  lost  all  importance.  Mgr 
Duchesne  therefore  suggests  Milan  as  the  centre  from 
which  it  radiated,  and  the  Cappadocian  Bishop  of 
IGlan,  Auxentius  (355-74),  as  the  man  who  introduced 
this  Eastern  Rite  to  the  West  (Origines  du  Culte, 
86-^).  In  spreading  over  Western  Europe  the  rite 
naturally  was  modined  in  various  Churches.  When 
we  speak  of  the  Gallican  Rite  we  mean  a  type  of 
9Hiti^  rather  than  a  stereotyped  service. 


The  Milanese  Rite  still  exists,  though  in  the  course 
of  time  it  has  become  considerably  romanized.  For 
Gaul  we  have  the  description  in  two  letters  of  St. 
Germanus  of  Paris  (d.  576),  used  by  Duchesne  "Gri- 
gines  du  Culte",  ch.  vii:  La  Messe  Gallicane.  Original 
text  in  P.  L.,  LXXIIL  Spain  kept  the  Gallican  Rite 
longest;  the  Mozarabic  Liturgy  still  used  at  Toledo 
and  Salamanca  represents  the  Spanish  use.  The  Brit- 
ish and  Irish  Liturgies,  of  which  not  much  is  known, 
were  apparently  Gallican  too  (see  F.  E.  Warren,  "The 
Liturgy  and  Ritual  of  the  Celtic  Church",  Oxford, 
1881;  Bfiumer,  "Das  Stowe  Missale"  in  the  "Inns- 
bruck Zeitschrift  fUr  kath.  theol.",  1892;  and  Bannis- 
ter, "Journal  of  Theoloeical  Studies",  Oct.,  1903). 
From  Lindisf  ome  the  Gallican  Use  spread  among  the 
Northern  English  converted  by  Irisn  monks  in  the 
sixth  and  seventh  centuries. 

V.  The  Dkrived  Litubgies. — ^From  these  four 
types — of  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Rome,  and  the  so- 
called  Gallican  Rite — aU  liturgies  still  used  are  de- 
rived. This  does  not  mean  that  the  actual  liturgies 
we  still  have  under  those  names  are  the  parents;  once 
more  we  must  conceive  the  sources  as  vaguer,  they  are 
rather  types  subject  always  to  local  mocuhcation,  but 
represented  to  us  now  in  one  form,  such  as.  for  in- 
stance, the  Greek  St.  James  or  the  Greek  St.  Mark 
Litur^.  The  Antiochene  type,  apparentlv  the  most 
archaic,  has  been  also  the  most  prolific  of  daughter 
liturgies.  Antioch  first  absorbed  the  Rite  of  Jerusa- 
lem (St.  James),  itself  derived  from  the  primitive 
Antiochene  use  shown  in  the  ''Apostolic  Constitutions" 
(see  Jerusalem,  Liturgt  of).  In  this  form  it  was 
used  throughout  the  patriarchate  till  about  the  thir- 
teenth century  (see  Antiochene  Liturgy).  A  local 
modification  was  the  Use  of  Cappadocia.  About  the 
fourth  century  the  great  Byzantme  Rite  was  derived 
from  this  (see  CJonstantinople,  Rite  op).  The  Ar- 
menian Rite  is  derived  from  an  early  stage  of  that  of 
Byzantium.  The  Nestorian  Rite  is  also  Antiochene 
in  its  origin,  whether  derived  directly  from  Antioch,  or 
Edessa,  or  from  Byzantium  at  an  early  stage.  The 
Liturgy  of  Malabar  is  Nestorian.  The  Maronite  Use  is 
that  of  Antioch  considerably  romanized.  The  other 
Eastern  parent  rite,  of  Alexandria,  produced  the 
numerous  Coptic  Liturgies  and  those  of  the  daughter 
Church  of  Abyssinia. 

In  the  West  the  later  history  of  the  Liturgy  is  that 
of  the  gradual  supplanting  of  the  Gallican  by  the 
Roman,  which,  however,  became  considerably  gal- 
licanized  in  the  process.  Since  about  the  sixth  oenr 
tury  conformity  ^ith  Rome  becomes  an  ideal  in 
most  Western  Churches.  The  old  Roman  use  is  repre- 
sented by  the  "  Gelasian  Sacramentary  ".  This  book 
came  to  Gaul  in  the  sixth  century,  possibly  by  way 
of  Aries  and  through  the  influence  of  St.  CsBsarius 
of  Aries  (d.  542-cf.  B&umer,  "Ueber  das  sogen. 
Sacram.  Gelas."  in  the  "  Ilistor.  Jahrbuch  der  GSrres- 
Gesellschaft",  1893,241-301).  It  then  spread  throu^- 
out  Gaul  and  received  Gallican  modifications.  In  some 
parts  it  completely  supplanted  the  old  Gallican  books. 
Charles  the  Great  (768-814)  was  anxious  for  uniform- 
ity throughout  his  kingdom  in  the  Roman  use  only. 
He  therefore  procured  from  Pope  Adrian  I  (772-795)  a 
copy  of  the  "Roman  Sacramentary ' ' .  The  book  sent 
by  the  pope  was  a  later  form  of  the  Roman  Rite  (the 
"  Sacramentarium  Gregorianum' ' ) .  Charles  imposed 
this  book  on  all  the  clergy  of  his  kingdom.  But  it  was 
not  easy  to  carry  out  his  orders.  The  people  were 
attached  to  their  own  customs.  So  someone  (possi- 
bly Alcuin — cf.  B&umer,  loc.  cit.)  added  to  Adrian's 
book  a  supplement  containing  selections  from  both 
the  older  Grelasian  book  and  the  original  Gallican 
sources.  This  composition  became  then  the  service- 
book  of  the  Prankish  Kingdom  and  eventually,  as  we 
shall  see,  the  Liturgy  of  the  whole  Roman  Churoh. 

In  Spain  Bishop  Profuturus  of  Braga  wrote  in  538 
to  Pope  Vigilius  (537-55)  asking  his  advice  about 


trnmot  312  utu&ot 

certain  liturgical  matters.  The  pope's  answer  (in  arrived  atthepresentstate  of  things.  Itremainatosay 
Jaff^,  "  Regest.  Rom.  Pont.'\  no.  907)  shows  the  first  a  word  about  the  various  medieval  uses  the  nature  of 
influence  of  the  Roman  Rite  in  Spain.  In  561  the  which  has  often  been  misunderstood.  Everyone  has 
national  Synod  of  Braga  imposed  Vigiiius's  ritual  on  heard  of  the  old  English  uses— Sarum^  Ebor,  etc.  Peo- 
all  the  kingdom  of  the  Suevi.  From  this  time  we  have  pie  have  sometimes  tried  to  set  them  up  in  opposition 
the  "  mixwi"  Rite  (Roman  and  Gallican)  of  Spain,  to  what  they  call  the  "  modem  "  Roman  Rite,  as  wit- 
Later,  when  the  Visigoths  had  conquered  the  suevi  nesses  that  m  some  way  E^land  was  not  ''Roman" 
(577-5S4),  the  Church  of  Toledo  rejected  the  Roman  before  the  Reformation.  Tnis  idea  shows  an  aston- 
elements  and  insisted  on  uniformity  in  the  pure  Galli-  ishing  ignorance  of  the  rites  in  c^^uestion.  These  medi- 
can  Rite.  Nevertheless  Roman  additions  were  made  eval  uses  are  in  no  sense  really  mdependent  rites.  To 
later;  eventually  all  Spain  accepted  the  Roman  Rite  compare  them  with  the  Gallican  or  Eastern  Liturgies  is 
(in  the  eleventh  century)  except  the  one  comer,  at  absurd.  They  are  simply  cases  of  what  was  common 
Toledo  and  Salamanca,  where  tne  mixed  (Mozarabic)  all  over  Eurone  in  the  later  Middle  Ages,  namely  slig)it 
Rite  is  still  used.  The  great  Church  of  Milan,  appar-  (often  very  slight)  local  modifications  of  the  parent 
ently  the  starting-point  of  the  whole  Gallican  Use,  was  Rite  of  Rome.  As  there  were  Sarum  and  Ebor,  so 
able  to  resist  the  influence  of  the  Roman  Liturgy,  there  were  Paris,  Rouen,  Lyons.  (Jologne,  Trier  Rites. 
But  here  too,  in  later  centuries  the  local  rite  became  All  t^ese  are  simply  Roman,  with  a  few  local  peculiari- 
considerably  romanizcd  (St.  Charles  Borromeo,  d.  ties.  They  had  their  own  saints'  di^,  a  trining  vari- 
15S4),  so  tmit  the  present  Milanese  (Ambrosian)  use  is  ety  in  the  Calendar,  some  extra  Epistles,  Gospels, 
only  a  shadow  of  tne  old  Gallican  Liturgy.  In  Britain  sequences,  prefaces,  certain  local  (^nerally  more  exu- 
St.  Augustine  of  Canterbury  (597-605)  naturally  berant)  details  of  ritual.  In  such  msienificant  details 
brought  with  him  the  Roman  Liturgy.  It  received  a  as  the  sequence  of  liturgical  colours  ttiere  was  diver- 
new  impetus  from  St.  Theodore  of  Canterbury  when  sity  in  almost  every  diocese.  No  doubt,  some  rites  (as 
he  came  from  Rome  (668),  and  gradually  drove  out  the  the  Dominican  use,  that  of  Lyons,  etc.)  have  rather 
GallicanUseof  Lindisfame.  more  Gallican  additions  than  our  normal  Roman 

The  English  Church  was  very  definitely  Roman  in  Liturgy.  But  the  essence  of  all  these  late  rites,  all  the 
its  Liturgy.  There  was  even  a  great  enthusiasm  for  parts  that  really  matter  (the  arrangement.  Canon  of 
the  rite  of  the  mother  Church.  So  Alcuin  writes  to  the  Mass^and  so  on)  are  simply  Roman.  Indeed  they 
Eanbald  of  York  in  796:  "  Let  your  clergy  not  fail  to  do  not  differ  from  the  parent  rite  enoueh  to  be  called 
study  the  Roman  order;  so  that,  imitating  the  Head  derived  propcdy.  Here  again  the  parallel  case  of  lan- 
of  the  Churches  of  Christ,  they  may  receive  the  bless-  gua^es  will  make  the  situation  clear.  There  are  really 
ing  of  Peter,  prince  of  the  Apostles,  whom  our  Lord  derived  languages  that  are  no  longer  the  same  Ian- 
Jesus  Christ  made  the  chief  of  his  flock";  and  again:  gua^  as  their  source.  Italian  is  derived  from  Latin, 
"Have  you  not  plenty  of  books  written  according  to  and  Italian  is  not  Latin.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
the  Roman  use?''  (quoted  in  Cabrol,  '' L'Angleterre  dialectic  modifications  that  do  not  go  far  enough  to 
terre  chr^tienne  avant  les  Normans",  Paris,  1909,  p.  make  a  derived  language.  No  one  would  describe  the 
297).  Before  the  Conquest  the  Roman  service-books  modem  Roman  dialect  as  a  language  derived  from 
in  England  received  a  few  Gallican  additions  from  Italian;  it  is  simply  Italian,  with  a  few  slight  local 
the  old  rite  of  the  country  (op.  cit.,  297-298).  modifications.     In  the  same  way,  there  are  really  new 

So  we  see  that  at  the  latest  by  the  tenth  or  eleventh  litur]^ies  derived  from  the  old  ones.  The  Byzantine 
century  the  Roman  Rite  has  driven  out  the  Gallican.  Rite  is  derived  from  that  of  Antioch  and  is  a  different 
except  in  two  sees  (Milan  and  Toledo),  and  is  used  rite.  But  Samm,  Paris,  Trier,  etc.  are  simply  the 
alone  throughout  the  West,  thus  at  last  verifying  here  Roman  Rite,  with  a  few  local  modifications, 
too  the  principle  that  rite  follows  patriarchate.  But  Hence  the  justification  of  the  abolition  of  neariy  all 
in  the  long  and  gradual  supplanting  of  the  Gallican  these  local  varieties  in  the  sixteenth  century.  How- 
Rite  the  Roman  was  itself  ancctcd  by  its  rival,  so  that  ever  jealous  one  may  be  for  the  really  independent 
when  at  last  it  emerges  as  sole  possessor  it  is  no  longer  liturgies,  however  much  one  would  regret  to  see  the 
the  old  pure  Roman  Rite,  but  has  become  the  galli-  abolition  of  the  venerable  old  rites  that  share  ihe  edle- 
canized  Roman  Use  that  we  now  follow.  These  giance  of  Christendom  (an  abolition  by  the  way  tiiat  is 
Gallican  additions  are  all  of  the  nature  of  ceremonial  not  in  the  least  likely  ever  to  take  place),  at  an^  rate 
ornament,  symbolic  practices,  ritual  adornment.  Our  these  medieval  developments  have  no  special  claim  to 
blessings  of  candles,  ashes,  palms,  much  of  the  ritual  of  our  sympathy.  They  were  only  exuberant  inflations  of 
Holy  Week,  sequences,  and  so  on  are  Gallican  additions,  the  more  austere  ritual  that  had  better  not  have  been 
The  original  Uoinan  Rite  was  very  plain,  simple,  touched.  Churches  that  use  the  Roman  Rite  had  bet- 
practical.  Mr.  Edmund  Bishop  says  that  its  charac-  ter  use  it  in  a  pure  form;  where  the  same  rite  exists  at 
teristics  were  "essentially  solxjmess  and  sense"  ("The  least  there  uniformity  is  a  reasonable  ideal.  To  con- 
Genius  of  the  Roman  Rite",  p.  807;  see  the  whole  ceive  these  late  developments  as  old  compared  with 
essay).  Once  these  additions  were  accepted  at  Rome  the  original  Roman  Liturgy  that  has  now  again  taken 
they  oecame  part  of  the  (new)  Roman  Rite  and  were  their  place,  is  absurd.  It  was  the  novelties  that  Pius 
used  as  part  of  that  rite  everywhere.  V  abolished ;  his  reform  was  a  return  to  antiquity.    In 

When  was  the  older  simpler  use  so  enriched?    We  1570  Pius  V  published  his  revis^  and  restored  Roman 

have  two  extreme  dates.    The  additions  were  not  Missal  that  was  to  be  the  only  form  for  all  Churches 

made  in  the  eighth  century  when  Pope  Adrian  sent  his  that  use  the  Ronmn  Rite.    The  restoration  of  this 

"Gregorian   Sacramentary"    to   Charlemagne.    The  Missal  was  on  the  whole  imdoubtedly  successful;  it 

original   part  of  that  book    (in  Muratori's  edition;  wa.s  all  in  the  direction  of  edminating  the  later  infla- 

"Liturgia  romana  vetus",  II,  Venice,  1748)  contains  tions,  farced  Kyries  and  Glorias,  exul^rant  sequences, 

still  the  old  Roman  Mass.    They  were  made  by  the  and  ceremonial  that  was  sometimes  almost  grotesoue. 

eleventh  centurj',  as  is  shown  by  the  "  Missale  Ro-  In  imposing  it  the  pope  made  an  exception  for  otner 

manum  liateranense"  of  that  time,  edited  by  Azevedo  uses  that  had  been  m  possession  for  at  least  two  cen- 

(Rome,  1752).    Dom  Suitbert  Baumer  suggests  that  turies.    This  privil^  was  not   used    consktently. 

the  additions  made  to  Adrian's  book  (by  Alcuin)  in  Manylocalusesthat  had  a  prescription  of  at  least  that 

the  Prankish  Kingdom  came  back  to  Rome  (after  they  time  gave  way  to  the  authentic  Roman  lUte;  but  it 

had  become  mixed  up  with  the  original  book)  imder  saved  the  Missals  of  some  Churches  (Lyons,  for  in- 

the  influence  of  the  successors  of  Charlemagne,  and  stance)  and  of  some  religious  orders  (the  DominicanSy 

there  supplanted  the  older  pure  form  (Ueber  das  sogen.  Carmelites,  Carthusians).    What  is  much  more  im- 

Sacr.  Gelas.,  ibid.).  portant  is  that  the  pope's  exception  saved  the  two 

VI.  Later  Medieval  LiruRGiES. — ^We  have  now  remnants  of  a  really  independent  Rite  at  Milan  and 


UUTP&AIID 


313 


UUTP&AND 


Toledo.  lAter,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  there  was 
again  a  movement  in  favour  of  uniformity  that  abol- 
ished a  number  of  surviving  local  customs  in  France 
and  Germany,  Ihough  these  affected  the  Breviarjr 
more  than  the  Missal.  Wc  are  now  witnessing  a  simi- 
lar movement  for  uniformity  in  plainsong  (the  Vati- 
can edition).  The  Monastic  Rite  (used  by  the  Bene- 
dictines and  Cistercians)  is  also  Roman  in  its  orif^in. 
The  differences  between  it  and  the  normal  Roman  Rite 
affect  chiefly  the  Divine  Office. 

7.  Table  of  Litxtrgies. — We  are  now  able  to  draw 
up  a  table  of  all  the  real  liturgies  used  throughout  the 
Cnristian  world.  The  various  Protestant  Prayer- 
books,  Agend^i  Communionnservices.  and  so  on,  have 
of  course  no  place  in  this  scheme,  because  they  all 
break  away  altogether  from  the  continuit^r  of  liturgi- 
cal development;  they  are  merely  compilations  of  ran- 
dom selections  from  any  of  the  old  rites  imbedded  in 
new  structures  made  by  various  Reformers. 
In  the  First  Three  Centuries: — 

A  fluid  rite  founded  on  the  account  of  the  Last  Sup- 
per, combined  with  a  Christianized  synagogue  service 
showing,  however^  a  certain  uniformity  ot  type  and 
gradually  crystallizing  into  set  form8.  Of  this  type 
we  have  |>ernaps  a  specimen  in  the  I.ituigy  of  the  sec- 
ond and  eighth  books  of  the  "Apostolic  Constitutions". 
Since  the  Fourth  Century: — 

The  original  indetermined  rite  forms  into  the  four 
mat  liturg^ies  from  which  all  others  are    derived 
These  liturgies  are: 
I.  Antioch. 

1.  Pure  in  the  "Apostolic  Constitutions"  (in  Greek). 

2.  Modified  at  Jerusalem  in  the  Liturgy  of  St.  James.. 

a.  The  Greek  St.  James^  used  once  a  year  by  the 

Orthodox  at  Zacynthus  and  Jerusalem. 

b.  The  Syriac  St.  James,  used  by  the  Jacobites 

and  Syrian  Uniats. 

c.  The  Maronite  Rite,  used  in  Syriac. 

3.  The  Chaldean  Rite,  used  by  Nestorians  and  Chal- 

dean Uniats  (in  Syriac). 

a.  The   Malabar   Rite,   used    by   Uniats   and 

Schismatics  in  India  (in  Synac). 

4.  The  Byzantine  Rite,  used  py  the  Orthodox  and 

Byzantine  Uniats  in  various  languages. 

5.  The  Armenian  Rite,  used  by  Gregorians  and 

Uniats  (in  Armenian). 
n.  Alexandria. 

1.  a.  The  Greek  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark,  no  longer  used. 

b.  The  Coptic  Liturgies,  used  by  Uniat  and 

schismatical  Copts. 

2.  The  Ethiopic  Liturgies,  used  by  the  Church  of 

Abyssinia. 
ni.  Rome. 

1.  The  original  Roman  Rite,  not  now  used. 

2.  The  African  Rite,  no  longer  used. 

3.  The  Roman  Rite  with  Gallican  additions  used 

(in  Latin)  by  nearly  all  the  Latin  Church. 

4.  Various  later  modifications  of  this  rite  uscii  in  the 

Middle  Ages,  now  (with  a  few  exceptions) 
abolished. 
IV.  The  Gallican  Rfte. 

1.  Used  once  all  over  North-Westem  Europe  and  in 

Spain  (in  Latin). 

2.  The  Ambrosian  Rite  at  Milan. 

3.  The  Mozarabic  Rite,  used  at  Toledo  and  Sala- 

manca. 

Cabrol  and  Lkclercq,  Monumenta  Ecchsia  Liturgica,  I, 
Rdiquim  LUwrgiem  vttuMianma  (Paris,  1900-2);  Bhigiitman, 
hUwrgie*  EaUem  and  Wedem,  1.  Eastern  Lituroiea  COxford. 
1890) J  DAKiEZi*  Codex  lAtwrgieu^  Ecclence  vniveraa  (4  vols., 
Leipsag,  1847-63);  Rauschkn,  Florilegtum  Patrifaicum,  VII. 
Montinunta  eueharidiea  d  liturgica  vftiutissima  (Bonn,  1909); 
Funk.  Patrea  ApoaMiei  (2  \-ols.,  Tiibingen,  1901),  and  Didai^ 
eaiia  H  ConsUtutioneg  ApoBlolorum  (Paderbom,  1905),  the  quo- 
tatiotm  in  this  article  are  made  from  these  editions:  Probst, 
lAturgie  der  drei  eralen  ckriMl,  Jahrh.  (Tubingen,  1870);  Idem, 
L«fvrv<«  det  vierien  Jahr.  u.  deren  Reform  (MCnnter,  1893); 
Drewb,  Unierauehungen  tibrr  die  M>genannte  cUrmcntin.  Litunjie 
(TitbiuoeD.  1906);  DucnEHNu:,  Oriuinea  <lu  Culte  chrH.  (Pafw. 
1898;;  Kaubchen,  EucharidU  una  Buis-mkramcnt  in  dm  crs' 


ten  aeeha  Jahrh.  der  Kirche  (Freibuiig,  1908);  Cabrol,  Tjen  On- 

J  lines  litwrgigues  (Paria,  19()6);  Idem,  Jntroduction  aux  Etudca 
iturgiauea  (Paris,  1907).  For  further  bibliography  see  articlcA 
on  each  iitunpr.  For  liturgical  langu.igcs,  a-.t  well  as  liturgtcnl 
Bcionce,  treating  of  the  regulation,  history,  and  dogmatic  value 
of  the  Liturgy,  eee  Rites.  AdiuaN  FoRTESCUE. 

Liutprand  of  Oremona  (or  Luidprako),  bishop 
and  historian,  b.  at  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century: 
d.  after  970.  Liutprand  belonged  to  a  distinguished 
Lombard  family  in  Northern  Ituly  and  at  an  earlv  ago 
went  to  the  Court  of  Pavia,  during  the  reign  of  Iving 
Hugo  of  Aries  (926-45),  whose  favour  he  won  by  his 
wonderful  voice.  He  received  a  sound  education  at 
the  court  school,  and  became  a  cleric;  later  he  was 
deacon  of  the  cathedral  of  Pavia.  At  lirst  Liutprand 
stood  in  high  favour  with  Berenger  II  of  Ivrea  and  his 
consort,  Willa.  Berenger  made  him  chancellor,  and 
in  949  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantino VII  Porphyrogenitus.  As  both  Liutpraud's 
father  and  stepfather  had  l)een  sent  as  ambassadors  to 
the  Byzantine  capital,  and  had  formed  many  friend- 
ships there,  he  seemed  well  fitted  for  a  mission  of  that 
kind.  He  took  this  opportunity  to  learn  Greek,  and 
made  himself  familiar  with  the  history,  organization, 
and  life  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  as  his  writings  prove. 
Shortly  after  his  return  he  (luarrelled  with  Berenger, 
and  then  went  to  the  Court  of  Otto  I  of  Germany. 
Otto  joyfullv  took  Liutprand  into  his  service,  as 
a  most  useful  agent  in  carrying  out  his  plans  regard- 
ing Italy.  In  950  Liutprand  met  Bishop  Kecemund 
of  Elvira  (Spain)  at  the  German  Court,  and  was 
asked  by  him  to  write  a  history  of  his  time.  In 
058  he  began  this  work  at  Frankfort,  and  though 
often  interrupted  by  public  business  was  occupied 
with  it  until  962.  Wnen  Otto  Ix^camo  King  of  Lom- 
bardy  (961)  he  made  Liutprand  Bishop  of  Cremona, 
as  a  rewani  for  his  services.  After  Otto  had  received 
the  imperial  crown  at  Rome  (2  P'cbruary,  962)  Liut- 
prand was  often  entrusted  with  important  commis- 
sions, e.  g.,  in  963  when  he  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  John  All  at  the  beginning  of  the  quarrel  between 
the  pope  and  the  emperor,  owing  to  the  former's 
alliance  with  Berenger's  son  Adelbert.  Liutprand 
also  took  part  in  the  assembly  of  bishops  at  Home,  6 
Novem])er,  963,  "which  deposed  John  XII  (rj.  v.). 
Liutprand  describes  from  his  point  of  view  these 
events  of  960-(>4,  and  sides  entirely  with  the  emperor, 
condemning  the  Komans  very  liarshly.  After  the 
death  of  the  anti-pope,  Leo  VIII  (965),  Liutprand 
again  went  to  Rome  with  Bishop  Otgar  of  Si)ever,  as 
the  emperor's  envoy,  to  conduct  the  election  of  a  new 
pope,  on  which  occasion  John  XIII  was  chosen.  The 
Bishop  of  Cremona  undertook  another  mission  to 
Constantinople  by  order  of  the  emperor  in  the  summer 
of  968  to  ask  the  Byzantine  Emperor  to  Ix^stow  his 
daughter  in  marriage  on  Otto's  son,  later  Otto  II. 

In  the  autumn  of  969  Liutprand  carried  letters 
to  a  sj'nod  at  Milan,  from  the  emperor  and  the 
Roman  synod  in  May  of  that  year.  Tlie  last  aiithcn* 
tic  information  we  have  about  him  is  in  April,  970;  he 
appears  to  have  been  pn^sent  in  Cremona,  15  April,  970 
(Illst.  patriae  monumental.  XXI,  36).  A  later  account 
of  the  transfer  of  the  relics  of  St.  Hinicrius  (Mon. 
Germ.  Hist.:  Script.,  Ill,  266)  makes  him  take  part  in 
an  embassy  to  Constantinople  in  971  for  the  imix?rial 
princess,  Theophano,  bride  of  Otto  II,  and  says  that 
lie  died  during  the  journey.  This  is  not  ver>'  credible. 
Liutprand  wrote  three  historical  works  on  the  occa- 
sions already  mentioned:  (1)  **  AntapKjdosis  sive  Res 
per  Europam  gestas'*,  embracing  from  S87  till  950, 
dealing  cnicflv  with  It^ilian  historv  (ed.  Pertz,  in 
"Mon.  Genn.' Hii>t. :  Script.".  Ill,  *264-339;  P.  L., 
CXXXVI,  787-898).  (2)  "Historia  Ottonis  sive 
Lil)er  de  rebus  gestis  Ottonis  imp.  an.  96(V-964" 
(ed.  Pertz,  op.  cit..  340-46;  P.  L.,  CXXXVI.  897- 
910;  Watterich.  "Vita3  Roman.  Pont.*',  1.  49-6.3), 
an  account  of  the  journey  of  (!>tto  I  to  Italy,  the 


LXTXaPOOL  31 

imperial  coronatioD,  and  tbe  depo«itioQ  of  John 
Xn.  (3)  "Relatio  de  lemUone  Constantiiiopolitana 
ad  Nicephorum  Fhocam  ,  the  account  of  bia  misEion 
in  968  {ed.  Pert*,  op.  cit.,  347-63;  P.  L.,  loc.  cit., 

909-38).  nisworkswereeditoibyDanimler,  "Liut- 
prandi  opera  omnia"  (Hanover,  1877).  Liutprand's 
writings  are  a.  very  important  historical  source  for 
the  teath  century,  but  it  is  necessary  to  eift  his  nar- 
rativea  cautiously;  he  ia  ever  »  Htning  partisaa  and  is 
freqiictitiy  unfair  tov;it'  ■      ■    i 

I  (Btrlin,  1004).  ■174-Wl:    K.  .  .  ■-,  ;■  .   .-.  r.jKis  Liud- 

pralnir  (Iterlin,  1842);  U'.w-:  .>,-  .■  ,  ■■  M  ,  .  t  \<.  Litulprand 
urn  Cnmma  inxf  «iW  Ouri/r™  in  Di  disosr.  (/"nlmnMAurwm 
nr  miUltrm  GrtchieMe,  I  (Leipiic,  ISilJ;  i>t'MMi£B  in  Bi^. 
ZbHAtHI,  XXVI,  Z73-8I1  KWnHum.flrfraw  mr  Tgnkraik 
UiulDnMdlvonCrcndiwIii  Ntim  Arcki*  On.  f.  OU.  d.Onicli., 
^irClBSS).  W-Sai  Hj^ttucb,  Uibtr  Lludorand  vm  Crtmona 
(Leabea.  ISSB);  Bauahi,  £<  ertmaclit  itaJiatu  dt!  media  mo 
liiOaa.  188*>,  112-129;  CfiLIKI  B*IJ>Eac7Hr,  Liudpranda  w»- 
COM  d>  Crnnnna  {Cinm.  ISSUI;  Hoyjl-ti.  fintuato  dil  penrirro 
lolino  K-pra  la  cinll,ilalirmaddmtdi«  mi  {iViUii.  1800);  Furr- 
BABT,  Bibliolheca  liiaL  mrdii  sn*.  I,  742-743 ;  Mamh,  7/ii(Drno/ 
lAi/'rifKainfuifarivMidclb^^H,  IV  (LoadoD.  lUOO). 

J.  P,  IviRBCH. 


of  Mercy  at  Idverpool:  and  of  the  Holy  Child  Jeens  at 
PreetoQ  and  Blackpool.   The  great  training  oolle^  of 

the  Bisters  of  Notre  Dame  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Lirer- 


under  the  Irish  Christian  Brothers,  and  St.  Francis 
Xavier's  College  imder  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  who  have 
also  a  Catholic  College  in  Preston,  whilst  in  St.  Helen's 
there  is  a  Catholic  Grammar  School  under  the  aecutsr 
clergy  and  lay  masters.  St.  Pet«r's  College,  Freah- 
fieloT trains  boys  in  the  humanities,  before  tiiey  enter 
the  Foreign  Missionan  College  eetabliahed  by  the  late 
Cardinal  Vaughan  at  Mill  HiU,  London.  The  ecclMJ- 
aaticol  students  for  the  dioceae  make  their  preparatory 
studies  at  St.  Edward's  CoUece,  Liverpool  (estabtished 


IJTsrpool  (Liverpolium),  DiorESE  of  (Livxrpou- 
tana),  one  of  the  tiurteon  dioceses  into  which  Pius 
IX  divided  Catholic  England,  28  September,  1850, 
when  he  re-established  tbe  Catholic  hierarchy.  In 
addition  to  the  Isle  of  Man  it  contains  all  North  Lanca* 
shire  (Amounderneas  ajid  Lonsdale  Hundreds),  and 
the  weatem  portion  of  South  Lancashire  (Weat  Derby 
and  Leyland  Hundreds),  whilst  the  eastern  portion  of 
South  Lancashire  (Salford  and  Blackburn  Hundreds), 
constitutea  tbe  Diocese  of  Salford.  The  dioceae  at 
present  (1910)  has  a  Catholic  population  of  366,611 
souls.  There  are  1S4  public  churches  and  chapela 
and  172  public  elementary  schools  containing  74,100 
children  and  1720  teachers.  There  are  458  priests, 
332  secular  and  126  regulars  including  59  Jesuits,  36 
Benedictines,  10  Redcmptorists,  7  Passionists,  7 
members  of  St.  Joaeph's  Society  for  Foreign  Missions, 
4  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghoat,  and  3  Oblat«a  of  Mary 
Immaculate.  There  are  also  the  Irish  Christian 
Brothers  and  the  Brothers  of  Charity  and  in  some  70 
convents  there  are  1000  nuns  belonging  to  the  various 
orders  or  congregations  of  tlie  Sisters  of  Mercy, 
Faithful  Companions  of  Jesus,  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame, 
Good  Shepherd  Sistera,  Sisters  of  Charity,  Little  Sis- 
ters of  tjie  Poor,  Sisters  of  Nocarcth,  Carmelites,  eto. 
In  various  institutions  provision  ia  made  for  the  blind, 
the  aged  poor,  unemployed  servants,  penitents  and 
fallen  women,  whilst  for  boys  and  girls  there  are  or- 
phanages, homes  and  refuges,  poor-taw  achoola,  in- 
dustrial and  reformatory  schools,  etc.  The  following 
table  contains  statistics  of  the  principal  towns  of  the 


■1= 

^a 

2 

1 

1 

■is 

11 

t- 

«& 

h 

& 

"£ 

o 

C 

Uwrpoo 

760,000 

143,000 

140 

39 

29 

PraOon 

117.000 

34,000 

2a 

7 

et.  Helt-n'i 

24,000 

Wi*«i 

saiooo 

Waniflitoa 

73.000 

Boolli' 

14 

Blukpwt 

B^,ooo 

5.000 

6 

48.000 

2,000 

3 

7,000 

4'l!(XI0 

Chorlry 

71000 

7 

Edvcalian. — Elcmentarv  education  is  provided  in 
172  Catholic  schools  attended  by  74,000  children. 
Higher  education  for  girls  is  given  in  the  convents  of 
the  Slaters  of  Notre  Dame  in  Liverpool,  St.  Helen's. 
Birkdale,  and  Wiean ;  of  the  Faithful  Companions  of 
Jesus  in  Livcrpod  and  Preston;  of  the  Siaters  erf  the 


Hutory  since  18^.— From  1688  to  1840  Lancashire 
was  subject  to  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Northern 
District  of  England.  In  1S40  the  Northern  District 
was  divided  into  three  districts:  tbe  Northern  District 

f Northumberland,  Cumt>crtand,  Westmoreland,  and 
)urham,  now  the  Diocese  of  Hexham  and  Newcastle), 
the  Yorkshire  District,  now  the  Dioceses  of  Middles- 
brough and  Leeds,  and  tbe  Lancashire  District  contain- 
ing with  all  Lancaster,  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  C3ieshire. 
The  first  Ticar  Apostolic  of  thenew  Lancashire  Diatrict 
waa  Bishop  George  Hilary  Brown  (b.  13  Jan.,  1786), 
who  after  being  for  twenty-one  years  rector  of  St. 
Peter's,  Lancaster,  was  consecrated  on  24  Auguat, 
'  1840,  at  Liverpool,  by  Bishop  John  Brie^,  with  the 
title  of  Bishop  of  Bugia  in  partibut,  whicDin  1842  was 
changed  to  Bishop  of  Tloa  in  parlibut.  In  1S43  Dr. 
James  Sharpies  was  consecrated  coadjutor,  but  died  in 
August,  1850.  The  following  month  the  Lancashire 
District  was  broken  into  three  parts,  Cheshire  became 

Crt  of  Shrewsbury  Diocese,  South-eastern  Lancashire 
came  the  Salford  Diocese,  and  the  rest  of  Lancaahire 
with  the  Tale  of  Man  became  the  Liverpool  Diocese,  of 
which  Bishop  Brown  remained  bishop.  In  1853  he 
obtained  another  coadjutor.  Canon  Alexander  Gosa, 
of  St,  Edward's  College  (b.  5  July,  1814,  atOrmskirk), 
who  was  consecrated  by  Cardinal  Wiseman  aa  Bishop 
of  Gerra.  Bishop  Brown  died,  25  Januan*,  1856,  and 
waa  succeeded  by  Bitthop  Gobs,  who  rulea  as  ordinary 
for  seventeen  years  and  died,  3  October,  1872.  After 
an  interval  of  five  months  Canon  Beniard  O'Reilly  (b. 
10  January,  1824,  at  BallybejC,  County_  Meath,  Ire- 
land), was  consecrated  by  Cardmai  Manning  19  March, 
1873.  During  his  long  episcopacy  of  twenty -one 
years  he  opened  some  twenty-two  churchea  in  Liver- 
pool city  and  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  but  his 
special  work  was  the  dioceean  seminary  of  St.  Joaeph, 
at  Upholland,  of  which  the  foundation  stone  was  laia 
on  tbe  feast  of  the  Pfflronage  of  St.  Joseph,  18  April, 
1880,  the  college  being  ready  to  receive  the  students 
on  22  Septera!>er,  1883.  Two  years  hiter,  on  Trinity 
eve,  30  May,  1886,  the  first  body  of  students  were 
raisied  to  the  priesthood  within  its  walls.  It«  second 
rector,Mgr  Jonn  Bi  Is  borrow,  was  taken  from  it  in  1892 
to  become  Bishop  of  Salford.  Bishop  O'Reilly  died 
on  9  April,  1894,  and  was  buriedin  the  seminary. 

Canon  'Thomaa  Whiteside  (b.  at  Lancaster  on  17 
April,  1857;  ordained  priest  in  Rome,  30  May,  1885), 
who  was  the  third  president  of  the  seminary,  waa,  at 
the  age  of  thirty-seven  years,  consecrated  fourth  Bidiop 
ofLiverpool  by  Cardinal  Vaughan.  Tbcinoreaseinthe 
number  of  clergy  since  bis  accession  baa  made  possible 
more  thorough  pastoral  work.  During  Uie  years  1S90 
to  1905,  the  numlKr  approaching  Eaater  Communion 
increased  from  146,000  to  186,000;  those  attending 
Sunday  school  from  138,000  to  180,000.  some  16,000 
non-Catbolica  were  received  into  tie  Church,  whilst 
about  two  million  communions  are  received  in  tbe 
course  of  the  year  by  about  250,000,  who  have  made 


LZVIAS 


315 


LLANDAFF 


their  first  oommtmion.  A  very  laii^  proportion  of  the 
Catholics  of  the  diooese,  especially  in  the  towns,  are  of 
Irish  lurth  or  descent,  though  in  the  country  parts  and 
in  North  Lancashire  many  old  Lancashire  Catholic 
families  remain  which  during  the  ages  that  have 
dapeedfrom  the  Reformation  have  never  lost  the  faith. 

Originally  Lancashire  belonged  to  the  Kingdom  of 
Korthumbria  and  the  Diocese  of  York,  but  in  642 
Southern  Lancashire  became  part  of  Mercia  and  of 
the  Diocese  of  Lichfield.  Henry  VIII,  in  1542,  made 
Chester,  including  South  Lancashire,  into  a  se{)arate 
diocese  (see  Chester).  In  Queen  Elizabeth's  time  it 
18  the  Protestant  Bishop  of  Chester  who  complains 
that  there  is  a  confederacy  of  Lancashire  Papists,  and 
that  "from  Warrington  all  along  the  sea-coast  of 
Lancashire,  the  gentlemen  were  of  that  faction  and 
with<hraw  themselves  from  religion''  (i.  e.,  from  at- 
tending the  Protestant  service).  For  tliis  crime  fifty 
Lancawire  Catholic  gentlemen  were  arrested  in  one 
night,  and  in  1587  six  hundred  Catholic  recui>ants  were 
prosecuted.  A  yearly  fine  of  £260  was  the  penalty 
paid  in  some  cases  for  twenty  years  for  refuisiug  to  at- 
tend the  Protestant  service,  and  aft<)r  death  refusal  of 
Christian  burial.  At  Rossall,  in  North  Lancashire, 
was  bom  Cardinal  Allen,  the  founder  of  the  Seminary 
of  Douai,  which  in  five  years  sent  a  hundred  priests  to 
face  the  martyr's  death  in  England.  Amongst  the 
Lancashire  mart3rrs  were  the  Yen.  George  Hay  dock, 
b.  1556  at  Cottam  Hall,  Preston,  and  martvred  in  1589 
at  the  age  of  28  at  Ty borne;  Yen.  John  l*hulis,  b.  at 
Upholland,  near  Wigan,  and  martvred  at  Lancaster  in 
1616,  Yen.  Edmund  Arrowsmith,  b.  at  Hay  dock,  near 
St.  Helens  in  1585,  and  in  1628,  at  the  a^e  of  43, 
martyred  at  Lancaster.  His  *' holy  hand"  is  still  de- 
vout^ kept  in  the  church  of  Ashton-in-Makerfield. 

In  addition  to  the  manliness  of  the  Lancashire  char- 
acter and  the  example  of  sacrifice  given  by  the  Lan- 
cashire gentnr,  the  Gerards,  Blundells,  ^lolyneuxes, 
Andertons,  CfUftons,  Scarisbricks,  Gillows,  the  close 
connexion  which  Lancashire  has  always  had  with  Ire- 
land has  done  much  for  this  preservation  of  the  faith. 
TxHces  of  this  coimexion  are  seen  in  the  old  St.  Pat- 
rick's Cross  of  Liverpool  which  was  supposed  to  mark 
the  spot  where  St.  Patrick  preached  before  sailing  to 
Ireland,  and  in  the  prc-Reformation  chalice  still  pre- 
aerved  at  Femyhalgh,  near  Preston,  which  bears  the 
date  of  1529  and  an  inscription  testifying  that  it  was 
given  by  "Dosius  Maguire,  Chieftain  of  Fermanagh". 
Again  the  Irish  famine  of  1847  filled  the  Lancashire 
towns  with  Irish  exiles  so  tliat  hardly  one  can  be 
found  without  its  church  of  St.  Patrick  to  mark  their 
devotion  to  him  who  brought  them  their  Catholic  Faith. 

Tks  Catholic  Directory.  1850-1910;  Liverpool  Catholic  Annual. 
188O-1910:  Hughes,  Liverpool  Quaranf  Ore  Guide,  1895-1910; 
HuoHKS,  Ctttholic  Guide  to  Liverpool,  100.');  Liverpool  Catholic 
Tiwuta  and  Catholic  Firetnde;  Gibson,  Cavalier  s  Note-book; 
Tnuuaeliona  of  the  Hittoric  Society  of  lAincaehire  and  Cheshire; 
Cheetham  Society. — Norrie  Papem  and  Chauntrica  of  Ijancasltire; 
Haydodk  Papers:  Burkr.  HxtAory  of  Catholic  Liverpool,  1910; 
Blundbll,  Croeby  Reeorde;  Challoner,  Afiiunonaru  PrieM»: 
Camm*  Enalieh  Martyrs;  Crosby  Records. — Harkxrke  Burial 
RegiMer;  Fishwick,  History  of  Lancashire;  Picton,  Memorials 
of  Liverpooi  and  Liverpool  Municipal  Records;  Camdkn,  Bri- 
tannia; Lbland,  Itinerary;  Mdir,  History  oj  Liverpool,  1907; 
BAiifBSf  Commerce  and  Town  of  Liverpool;  Brooke,  Liverpool 
aa  n  Waa;  Dixon  Soorr,  Liverpool;  Qillow,  Bibl.  Diet.  ting. 
Caih,t  fKUvtm.  JaMEH  Hughes. 

XiviaSf  a  titular  see  in  Palestina  Prixna,  suffragan 
of  Ceaarea.  It  is  twice  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
(Num.,  xxxii,  36;  Jos.,  xiii,  27)  under  the  name  of 
Betharan.  About  80  b.  c.  Alexander  Jannaoiis  cap> 
tured  it  from  the  King  of  the  Arabs  (Joiscphus,  ''Ant. 
Jud.",  XIV.  i,  4);  it  was  then  called  Betharamphtha. 
Somewhat  later  Herod  Antipas,  Tctrarch  of  (ialilce, 
fortified  it  with  strong  walls  and  called  it  Livias  after 
the  wife  of  Augustus;  Josephus  calls  it  Julias  also, 
because  he  always  speaks  of  the  wife  of  Augustus  as 
Julia  r  Ant.",  XVni,  ii,  1;  "Bel.  Jud.",  IT,  ix,  1). 
Nero  gave  it  with  its  fourteen  vilkigus  t^  AKrii)pa  the 
■Younger  (Josephus, "  Ant.  Jud.",  XX,  viii,  1),  and  tU© 


Roman  general  Placidus  captured  it  several  yean 
later  (Josephus,  "Bel.  Jud.",  IV,  vii,  6).  From  the  time 
of  Eusebius  and  St.  Jerome  the  natives  always  called 
it  Bethramtha.  Lequien  (Oriens Christ.,  Ill,  655)  men- 
tions three  bishops:  Letoius,  who  was  at  Ephesus  in 
431;  Pancratius,  at  Chalcedon  in  451:  Zacharias,  at 
Jerusalem  in  536.  To-day  Livias  is  kno\%ii  as  Tell- 
er-Rameh,  a  hill  rising  in  the  plain  beyond  Jordan, 

about  twelve  miles  from  Jericho. 

Reland,  PaloBstina,  1  OJtrecht,  1714),  496;  Heidbt  in 
VioouBoux,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  a.  v.  Betharan, 

S.  VAILHf . 

Livonia.    See  Mohileff,  Diocese  of. 

Llancarvan,  Glamorganshire,  Wales,  was  a  college 
and  monasterj'  founded  apparently  about  the  midcfle 
of  the  fifth  century.  Most  Welsh  writers  assign  it  to 
the  period  of  St.  Germanus's  visit  to  Britain  in  a.  d.  447, 
statme  further  that  the  first  principal  was  St.  Dubric, 
or  Dul>ricius,  on  whose  elevation  to  the  episcopate 
St.  Cadoc,  or  Cattwg,  succeeded.  On  the  other  hand 
the  Life  of  St.  Germanus,  WTitten  by  Constantius,  a 
priest  of  Lyons,  alx>ut  fifty  years  after  the  death  of  the 
saint,  says  nothing  at  all  of  any  school  founded  by  him 
or  under  his  auspices,  in  Britain,  nor  is  mention  made 
of  his  presence  in  Wales.  The  other  tradition,  sup- 
ported uy  the  ancient  lives  of  St.  Gadoc,  assigns  the 
foundation  of  Llancarvan  to  that  saint,  which  would 
place  it  about  a  century  later  than  the  former  date.  As, 
nowevcr,  these  lives  confound  two,  or  possibly  three, 
saints  of  the  same  name,  nothing  really  certain  can  be 
gathered  from  them.  In  the  **  Liber  Landavensis" 
the  Abbot  of  Llancarvan  appears  not  infrequently  as  a 
witness  to  various  grants,  out  none  of  these  is  earlier 
than  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century.  The  Abbot 
of  Llancarvan  assisted  at  a  council  held  at  LlandafT  in 
560,  which  passed  sentence  of  excommunication  upon 
Meurig,  King  of  Glamorgan. 

Cresst,  Church  Historjf  of  Brittany,  or  England  (Rouen,  1068), 


davmsis,ed.  Rees  (Ix>n(ioQ,  1840);  Rkes,  Essay  on  the  Welsh 
Saints  (London,  18.'i6),  176;  Lives  of  the  Cambro- British  SainU, 
(h1.  Reeh  (Ix>ndon,  1853),  395;  Williams,  Biog.  Diet.  ofErriin' 
ent  Welshmen  (I>on(ion,  1852),  69;  Nkdelec.  Cambria  Sacra 
(London.  1879),  376-116.  G.  RoGER  HUDLESTON. 

Llandaff,  Ancient  Diocese  of  (Landavensis). 
— ^The  origins  of  this  see  are  to  be  foimd  in  the 
sixth  century  monastic  movement  initiated  by  St. 
Dubricius,  who  presided  over  the  monastery  of  Mo- 
chros.  The  saint  made  his  disciple,  St.  Teilo,  abbot  of 
the  daughter  monastery  of  Llandaff,  which  after  the 
retirement  of  Dubricius  to  Bardsey  came  to  be  the 
chief  monastery.  The  abbots  of  Llandaff  were  in 
episcopal  orders  and  SS.  Teilo  and  Dubricius  are  re- 
ferred to  as  archbishops.  The  territory  in  which 
Llandaff  was  situated  belonged  to  the  kinc:s  or  chiefs 
of  Morganwg  or  Gwent,  who  presented  gifts  of  lands 
to  the  Church  of  Llandaff.  The  early  title  ''arch- 
bishop "  implied  only  rule  oyer  other  monasteries,  and 
as  the  episcopate  became  diocesan  it  gave  way  to  the 
usual  style  of  bis^hop.  The  successors  of  St.  Teilo 
long  maintained  absolute  independence  within  their 
own  territories,  and  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the 
Church  of  Llandaff  were  extensive.  The  early  history 
of  the  see,  the  chief  authority  for  which  is  the  "Boot 
of  Llandaff"  (Llyfr  Teilo ^  leilo's  book),  is  very  ob- 
scure, and  the  oraer  of  the  bishops  uncertain,  when 
St.  Au^stine  began  the  conversion  of  the  Saxons  in 
597  he  invited  the  British  bishops  io  co-operate,  but 
they  refused  and  there  was  no  communication  be- 
tween the  Celtic  clergy  and  the  Roman  missionaries. 
Unfortunately  this  resulted  in  long  enmitv  between 
the  Churches  in  Wales  and  in  England.  It  was  not 
till  768  that  the  Welsh  clergy  adopted  the  Roman  use 
of  Easter.  From  this  time  Welsn  bishops  and  kings 
went  on  frequent  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  and  reUtv^v^ 


LLANTH0N7  316  LOAISA 

with  the  Saxon  episcopate  became  more  friendly.   Af-  of  the  priory  was  a^.  follows.    About  the  year  1 100  a 

ter  the  Conquest  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  exer-  retainer  of  the  Baron  of  Herefordshire,  named  Wil- 

cised  their  jurisdiction  over  Wales,  and  St.  Ansclm  liam,  whilst  hunting  in  the  neighbourhood,  discovered 

placed  Bishop  Herwald  of  Llandaff  imder  interdict.  I^e  ruins  of  a  chapel  and  cell,  supposed  to  have  been 

Herwald's  successor  Urban  was  consecrated  at  Can-  once  occupied  by  St.  David,  and  he  thereupon  decided 

terbury,  after  taking  an  oath  of  canonical  obedience  to  to  quit  the  world  and  become  a  hermit  there  himself, 

thearchbishopyandfrom  that  time  Llandaff  became  a  He  was  afterwards  joined  by.Emisius,  chaplain  to 

suffiagan  of  Canterbury.    A  standing  difficulty  was  Queen  Maud,  wife  of  Henry  1.     The  fame  of  the  two 

the  admixture  of  race  and  language  due  to  the  En-  anchorites  reached  the  ears  of  William's  former  lord, 

glish  settlements,  also  to  the  iniorance  and  inconti-  Hugh  de  Lacy,  who  in  1107  founded  and  endowed  a 

nence  of  the  Welsh  clergy,  who  nad  ceased  to  observe  monastery  for  them,  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Baptist, 

celibacy  and  gave  scandal  to  the  Normans  and  En-  The  rule  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine  was 

glish .    A  reform  was  gradually  effected,  chiefly  by  the  adopted.    In  course  of  time  the  severity  of  the  climate, 

establishment  of  new  monasteries.    The  Benedictines  the  poverty  of  the  soil  and  thejpersecution  of  the  Welish 

had  houses  at  Chepstow,   Abergavenny,   Goldcliff,  natives  combined  to  make  life  there  impossible.    In 

Bassalcg,  Usk,  Llangyran,  Ewenny,  and  Cardiff;  the  1134  the  entire  conununity,  nimibering  about  forty, 

Cistercians,  at  Neath,  Tintem,  Margam,  Grace  Pieu,  abandoned  the  monastery  and  took  refuge  in  the 

Caerlcon,  and  Llantamam;  Cluniacs  at  Alalpas:  Pre-  palace  of  Robert,  Bishop  of  Hereford.    After  two  yeare 

monstmtensians  at  St.  Kynemark;  Dominicans,  Fran-  a  new  monastery  was  ouilt  for  them  near  Gloucester 

ciscans,  and  Carmelites  were  settled  in  Cardiff.  by  Milo,  Earl  of  Hereford,  which  was  called  Uanthony 

The  cathedral,  begun  in  1120,  was  enlarged  at  the  Secunda.    Only  a  few  canons  lived  from  time  to  time 

close  of  the  twelfth  century.  It  was  regarded  as  a  fine  in  the  original  monastery,  and   both  houses  were 

specimen  of  Early  English  architecture,  but  after  the  governed  by  one  prior,  who  resided  at  Gloucester. 
Reformation  was  allowed  to  fall  into  a  ruinous  state,        The  buildings  at  Llanthony  fell  gradually  into  de- 

from  which  it  was  restored  during  the  nineteenth  cen-  cay  and  passed  into  private  hands  at  the  dissolution 

tuiy.    In  the  following  list  of  bishops  of  Llandaff,  the  in  1539.     In  1807  the  property  was  bought  by  Walter 

order  and  dates  of  all  before  the  tenth  century  are  un-  Savage  Landor.    It  still  belong  to  his  descendants, 

known.    St.  Dubricius  (Dyfrig)  is  sometimes  given  as  the  habitable  portion  of  it  having  been  added  to  ana 

the  first  bishop,  but  more  correctly  the  episcopal  sue-  converted  into  an  inn.     The  church  is  in  ruins,  but 

cession  begins  with  St.  Teilo,  who  was  succeeded  by  the  western  towers,  part  of  the  central  one,  and  some 

Oudoceus.     After  him  came  Ubilwynus,  Aidanus,  of  the  nave  piers  and  arches  are  standing. 

Elgistil,    Lunapeius,   Comegem,   Argwistil,    Gurvan,  ^Tanner,  Notitia  Moruuiiea   (U>ndon,   1744);    Dugdalk, 

Guodloin,  Edilbinus,  Grccielus,  all  of  doubtful  au-  ^^ISJ^fLSnXSaWT?.^  *         ^*  Robots,  lion- 

thenticity.    More  historical  are  Berthguin.  Trychan,  *         '  q^  Cyprian  Ai^ton. 

Elvog,  Catguaret,  Edilbiu,  Grecielis,  Cerennir,  Nobis, 

and  Nud.  Cimeilliauc,  Libiau,  Marchluid,  Pater,  Gul-  Lloyd,  John,  Venerable,  Welsh  priest  and  martyr, 
frit,  Gucaun  (consecrated  in  982),  Bledri  (983),  Joseph  executed  at  Cardiff,  22  July,  1679.  He  took  the 
(1022),  Herw-ald  (1056).  Urban  (Worgan)  (1107),  missionary  oath  at  Valladolid,  16  October,  1649,  and 
vacancy  (1134),  Uchtiyd  (1140),  Nicholas  ap  Gwr-  was  arrested  at  Mr.  TurbervUle's  house  at  Penllyne, 
^ant  (1148),  vacancy  (1183),  William  Saltmarsh  Glamorganshire,  20  November,  1678,  and  thrown  into 
1186)  J  Henry  of  Abereavennv  (1193),  William  of  Cardiff  gaol.  There  he  was  joined  by  Father  Philip 
joldcliff  (1219),  Elias  de  Radnor  (1230),  vacancy  Evans,  S.J.  This  venerable  martyr  was  bom  in  Mon- 
fl240),  William  de  Burgh  (1245),  John  de  la  Ware  mouthshire,  1645,  was  educated  at  St-Omer,  joined 
(1254),  William  de  Radnor  (1257),  William  de  Braose  the  Society  of  Jesus,  7  Sept.,  1665,  and  was  ordained 
(1266).  vacancy  (1287).  Jonn  of  Monmouth  (1296),  at  Lidge  and  sent  on  the  mission  in  1675.  He  was 
John  de  Eglesclif  (1323),  John  Pascal  (1347),  Roger  arrest^  at  Mr.  Christopher  Turberville's  house  at  Sker, 
Cradock  (1361),  Thomas  Ruchook  (1383),  William  Glamorganshire,  4  December,  1678.  Both  priests 
Bottlesham  ( 1 386) ,  Edmund  Bromfield  ( 1 389) ,  Tide-  were  brought  to  the  bar  on  Monday,  5  May  (not  3  May) , 
man  de  Winchcomb  (1393),  Andrew  Barrett  (1395),  1679,  and  charged  with  being  priests  and  cominginto 
John  Burghill  (1396),  Thomas  Peverell  (1398)^  John  the.  principality  contrary  to  9ie  provisions  of  27  Klis., 
de  la  Zouche  (1408),  John  Wells  (1425),  Nicholas  c.  2.  The  chief  witness  agiinst  Father  Evans  was  an 
Ashby  (1441),  John  Hunden  (1458),  John  Smith  apostate  named  Mayne  Trott.  He  was  deformed, 
(1476),  John  Marshall  (1478),  John  Ingleby  (1496),  and  had  been  a  dwarf  at  the  Spanish  and  British 
Miles  Sallcy  (1500),  George  de  Athcqua  (1517),  Rob-  Courts,  but  was  at  this  time  in  the  service  of  John 
ert  Holgate  (1537),  Anthony  Kitcnin  (1545),  who  Arnold  of  Abergavenny,  an  indefatigable  priest- 
alone  of  the  English  episcopate  fell  into  schism  under  hunter,  who  had  offered  £200  for  Father  Evans's 
Eliza Ixjth  and  died  in  1503.  The  ancient  diocese  com-  arrest.  Both  were  found  gLiilty  and  put  to  death. 
prised  the  Counties  of  Glamorgan  and  Monmouth  ex-        Matthews.  Cardiff  Records  Oilardiff,  1898-1905),  II,  17&-8, 

cept  a  few  parishes  in  each.    It  contained  but  one  lYil^^tn'  nii^X*  ^nLP^  ^I'JJSI^piS^J^Y^;^' 

*^i_  1  /T 1      A   iT\      mt.     11*     A-         rj.1         xu  LooPER  m  Dxet.  Plat.  tiioQr.,  s.  v.  hvans,  fhtltp;   StauntoRi 

archdeaconry  (Llandaff).    The  dedication  of  the  cathe-  Menoioov  (London.  1887).  351;  Chaljx)ner.  Memaira,U. 

dral  was  to  SS.  Peter,  Andrew,  Dubricius,  Teilo,  and  John  B.  Wainewriqht. 

Oudoceus,  and  the  arms  of  the  see  were  sable,  two 

crosiers  in  saltire,  or  and  argent,  in  a  chief  azure  three        Loaisa,  GARciA  de,  cardinal  and  Archbishop  of  Se- 

mitres  with  labels  of  the  second.  ville,  b.  in  Talavera,  Spain,  c.  1479;  d.  at  Madrid,  21 

t-^?*  »*•  ^  Survey  of  the  Cathedral  Church  of  Uandaff  (London,  April,  1546.    His  parents  were  nobles;  at  a  very  early 

171»);  Rees.  Liber  Landavenata  (Llandovery,  1840);  Ddgdale,  ^^  t  *   ««*«««^  4l,«rk^«, ;«:««„  -,^«,™*  «4.  a   i  zL 

Monasticon  Anolieanum,\l,  pt.  Hi  (London.  1846  ;  Winkle;  Jgc  he  entered  the  Dommican  convent  at  Salamanca. 

Cathedral  Churches  of  England  and   Wales  (London.    1800);  Its  severe  discipline,   however,  affected  his  dehcate 

Evans.  The  Text  of  tje  Book  of  LUin  Day  (Oxford,  1893);  constitution  and  he  was  transferred  to  the  convent  of 

Newell,  Z/(aruia/f  in  Diocesan  Hxsiorxeii Series  iljonaoi\AQQ2)\  «,    t>„,,i  :«  ■d^.-x^i;*!  „,k»»»  u«  «,«-  .^...r.^.^^  :«.  i^ioc 

Digest  of  theparvih  registers  unthin  the  Diocese  of  Uandnff  (Car-  St.  Paul  m  Pefiafiel  where  he  waS  professed  m  1495. 

diff,  1905);  Fairbairns.  Cathedrals  of  England  and  Wales  (Lon-  On  the  completion  of  his  Studies  m  Alcal^,  and  later 

^/J^'j-S^L^x***  ""^  '^  ^^""^^"^  of  I'londnff,  ed.  by  Bradnby  ^t  St.  Gregory's  College,  Valladohd,  he  taught  philoe- 

(Cardiff.  1908).  Edwin  Burton.  ^p^y  and  theology.    About  the  ^me  tiie  he  was 

Llanthony  Priory,  a  monastery  of  August inian  appointed  regent  of  studies  and  for  two  terms  filled 

Canons,  situated  amongst  the  Black  Mountains  of  the  office  of  rector  in  St.  Gregory's  College.    In  1518 

South  Wales,  nine  miles  north-east  of  Abergavenny,  he  represented  his  province  at  the  general  chapter 

St .  David  is  said  to  have  live(l  some  time  here  as  a  her-  held  at  Rome  where  his  accomplishznents.  Ids  soimd 

init,  hut  the  tradition  lacks  confirmation.    The  origin  judgment,  and   piety  secured  for  him  by  unaoi- 


LOAMBA 


317 


LOAVKS 


moufl  vote  the  generalship  of  the  order  in  succession 
to  Cardinal  Cajetan.  After  visiting  the  Dominican 
houses  in  Sicily  and  other  countries  he  returned  to 
Spain.  Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  King 
Charles  V  who,  recognizing  in  him  a  man  of  more  than 
ordinary  ability,  chose  him  for  his  confessor  and  later, 
with  papal  sanction,  offered  him  the  See  of  Osma,  for 
whicn  he  was  consecrated  in  1524.  Subsequently  he 
held  several  offices  of  considerable  political  impor- 
tance. In  1530  Clement  VII  created  him  cardinal  and 
transferred  him  to  the  See  of  Siguenza.  The  following 
year  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Seville^  and  Commis- 
sary-General of  the  Inquisition.  G.  Haine  found,  in 
the  royal  library  at  bimancas,  Garcfa's  letters  to 
Charles  V  written  in  the  years  1530-32.  They  con- 
tain information  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the 
history  of  the  Reformation  as  well  as  for  the  religious 
and  political  history  of  Spain  during  that  period. 
Tbey  manifest,  moreover,  the  accomplishments  of  the 
authoi^  the  honour  in  which  he  was  neld  and  the  un- 
Umited  confidence  the  emperor  placed  in  him.    His 

writings  are  limited  to  a  few  pastoral  letters. 

Qcimr  and  Echabd,  Scriptores  Ortlinia  Pradicatorum^  II, 
89;  ToDRON,  Huloire  dea  hommea  illuatres  de  I'ordre  de  <S. 
Dominique,  IV*  03. 

Joseph  Schroeder. 
Loandft.    See  Angola,  Diocese  of. 

Xiomngo,  Vicariate  Apostouc  of  (Lower  French 
Congo). — Formerly  included  in  the  great  Kingdom  of 
Conffo,  Loango  became  independent  towards  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  at  which  time  it  extended 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Kwilou  to  that  of  the  River 
Congo.  By  the  treaties  of  1885  all  this  country,  over 
which  Portugal  had  till  then  exercised  a  somewhat 
uncertain  sway,  became  part  of  French  Congo,  except 
the  enclave  of  Cabinda  which  still  remained  under 
Portuguese  control.  The  transference  of  civil  domin- 
ion ^fected  the  ecclesiastical  distribution  of  the  terri- 
toi^.  By  decree  of  24  Nov.,  1886,  the  Vicariate  Apos- 
tolic of  Irench  Conffo,  or  Lower  Congo,  more  properly 
LoangOy  was  detachea  from  that  of  Gaboon;  and  in 
1800,  as  a  result  of  further  division,  the  Vicariate  of 
Upper  French  Con^o.  or  Ubangi,  was  erected.  The 
tluee  vicariates  whicn  make  up  French  Congo — Ga- 
boon, Loango,  Ubangi — embrace  an  area,  approxi- 
mately, of  one  million  square  miles.  The  official  re- 
turns (1908)  for  French  Congo  and  its  dependencies 
are  given  in  the  ''Annuaire  Pontifical  Catholique" 
(1909),  342,  note. 

Hie  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Loango  lies  to  the  south 
of  that  of  Gaboon;  on  the  west,  it  is  bounded  by  the 
Atlantic;  on  the  south,  by  the  Massabi  river,  Cabinda, 
and  Belgian  Congo;  to  the  east  is  the  Vicariate  of 
Ubangi,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Dj  u^  as  far  as 
the  upper  reaches  of  that  river,  and  thence  onward  by 
a  line  clrawn  to  meet  the  head  waters  of  the  Alima. 
The  natives  are  known  by  the  generic  appellation  of 
Ftots,  i.  e.  "Blacks'',  and  belong  to  the  groat  Bantu 
family.  Of  the  numerous  dialects  the  most  important 
is  the  Kivili.  Amongst  those  who  have  contributed 
to  the  knowledge  of  uie  language  are  Mgr  Carrie,  the 
first  Apostolic  vicar,  and  Mgr  Derouet,  now  in  charge. 
The  revival  of  missionary  enterprise  followed  a  grie- 
vous lapse  on  the  part  of  the  tribes  from  a  relatively 
high  degree  of  culture;  fetichism,  in  its  grossest  forms, 
was  everywhere  rampant.  The  work  ofChristianiza- 
tion  has  been  attended  with  serious  difficulties,  but  in 
one  year  (1901)  more  than  one  thousand  conversions 
were  registeredf  to  the  mission  of  Loango  alone.  The 
vicariate,  entrusted  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  numbers  about  1,500,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
more  than  5,000  are  Catholics  and  3000  catechumens. 
Hiere  are  24  European  missionaries,  1  native  Driest, 
46  catechists,  15  brothers,  and  11  sisters.  Of  the 
minion  stations— 8  resident al,  62  secondary' — Loango. 
at  the  head  of  the  Niari-Kwilou  portage  route,  ana 
ftarting-point  of  the  "route  des  cara vanes''  to  Bra- 


zavillc.  is  the  most  important.  Its  fitness  for  serving 
as  chief  French  port  and  railway  depot  of  the  territory 
has  received  serious  attention  of  late.  In  this  place 
(now  a  mere  group  of  factories),  which  is  the  residence 
of  the  vicar,  the  fathers  have  their  own  printing  estab- 
lishment. The  seminary  and  house  of  novices  are  at 
Mayumba,  where  P.  Ignace  Stoffcl  founded  the  mission 
in  1888.  There  are  established  in  the  vicariate  6 
parochial  schools,  with  750  boys;  6  orphanages,  with 
650  inmates,  and  1  religious  institute  of  men,  with  6 
houses. 

The  present  vicar  Apostolic  is  Mgr  Jean  Derouet,  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Iloly  Ghost  and  of  the  Immac- 
ulate Heart  of  Mary,  titular  Bisliop  of  Camachus.  He 
was  bom  at  Saint-Denis-de-Villenette,  Diocese  of 
S<Sez,  Department  of  Orne,  France,  31  Jan.,  1866. 
Ordained  in  1891,  he  went  as  missionary  to  the  Congo, 
and  in  1904  was  named  pro- Vicar  Apostolic  of  Loango. 
He  w^as  chosen  bishop  on  19  Deceml)er,  1900;  conse- 
crated 3  Feb.,  1907,  in  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  at 
Paris;  preconized  on  18  April  of  the  same  year;  and 
appointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Lower  French  Congo. 

Ann,  Pont.  Cath.  (1910):  AfMWonM  Catholica  (Rome,  1907); 
PioLET,  I^n  Miasions,  V  (Paris,  1902),  ix,  265-271;  Geranhta 
Cattolica  (1910);  Reinhold  in  Buchberqbr,  Kirchlichea  Hand- 
lex.,  3.  V.  Kongo  (2);  db  BimiUNE,  Lea  Miaaiona  Catholiqwn 
(TAfrique  (Lille,  18S0);  Guiral,  Le  Congo  Franeaia  (Paris, 
1889);  Renooard,  L'Oueat-Africain  et  lea  Miaa.  Cath.:  Congo 
el  Oubanghi  (Paris,  1904).  See  also  Ix)rin,  Lea  progria  r^centa 
du  Congo  Fran^rautin  Revuedca  Deux  Mondea  (Aug.,  1907);  Idem 
in  Revue  Economique  Internal.  (Aug.,  1909). 

P.  J.  MacAuley. 

Loaves  of  Proposition, Heb.  D^DH  nrh,  "bread  of 
the  faces",  i.  e.  "  bread  of  the  presence  [of  Yahweh]" 
(Ex.,  XXXV,  13;  xxxix,  35,  etc.),  also  called  cnp  Dfl^, 
"holy  bread"  (I  Kings,  xxi,  6),  n31j;on  Orh,  "bread 
of  piles  "  (I  Par.,  ix,  32 ;  xxiii,  29) ,  l^nn  Dnf), "  continual 
bread"  (Num.,  iv,  7),  or  simply  Dn^,  "bread"  (Ileb. 
Version,  Ex.,  xl,  23).  In  the  Greek  text  we  have 
various  renderings,  the  most  frecjuent  being  Aproi  r^i 
Tpo6(<r€(as^  "loaves  of  the  setting  forth"  (Ex.,  xxxv, 
13;  xxxix,  35,  etc.)  which  the  Latin  Vulgate  also 
adopts  in  its  uniform  translation  panes  proposUionis, 
whence  the  English  expression  "loaves  of  proposi- 
tion ",  as  found  in  the  Douay  and  Reims  versions  (Ex., 
xxxv,  13,  etc.;  Matt.,  xii,  4;  Mark,  ii,  26;  Luke, 
vi,  4).  The  Protestant  versions  have  ''shewbread" 
(cf.  Schaubrot  of  German  versions),  with  the  marginal 
"  presence-bread  ". 

In  the  account  of  David's  flight  from  Saul,  as  found 
in  I  Kings,  xxi,  6,  we  are  told  that  David  went  to  Nobe, 
to  the  high  priest  Achimelech,  whom  he  asked  for  a 
few  loaves  of  bread  for  himself  and  for  his  companions. 
IIa\ing  been  assured  that  the  men  were  legally  clean, 
the  high  priest  gave  them  "hallowed  bread:  for  there 
was  no  bread  there,  but  only  the  loaves  of  proposition, 
which  had  been  taken  away  from  the  face  of  the  Lord, 
that  hot  loaves  might  be  setup".  The  loaves  ot 
bread  spoken  of  here  formed  the  most  important 
sacrificial  offering  prescril)ed  by  the  Mosaic  Law. 
They  were  prepared  from  the  finest  flour,  passed 
through  seven  sieves,  two-tenths  of  an  ephod  (about 
four-fifths  of  a  peck)  in  each,  and  without  leaven  (Lev., 
xxiv,  5;  Josepnus,  "Antiq.",  Ill,  vi,  6;  x,  7).  Ac- 
conling  to  Jewish  tradition  they  were  prepared  in  a 
special  room  by  the  priests  who  were  appointed  every 
week.  In  I  Par.,  ix,  32,  we  read  that  some  of  the 
sons  of  Caath  (Kohathites)  were  in  charge  of  preparing 
and  baking  the  loaves.  The  Bible  gives  us  no  data 
as  to  the  form  or  shape  of  the  individual  loaves,  but, 
according  to  the  Mishna  (Men.,  xi,  4;  Yad,  Tamid,  v, 
9),  they  were  ten  fingers  in  length,  five  in  breadth,  and 
with  rims  or  upturned  edges  of  seven  fingers  in  length. 
Twelve  of  these  loaves  were  arranged  in  two  piles,  of 
six  loaves  each,  and  while  still  hot  placed  on  the 
"table  of  proposition"  (Num.,  iv,  7)  or  "most  clean 
table"  (Lev.,  xxiv,  6)  made  of  setim-wood  and  over- 
laid with  gold.    Tbft  d\TCk&i\^Qii^  ^\  >(XiRi \ak\^^^\«k\:^^ 


LOBBIS  31 

cubits  (three  tcet)  long,  one  oubit  broad  and  one  and 
a  half  cubit  high  (Ex.,  xxv,  23.  Cf.  Ill  Kings,  vii,  48; 
I  Par.,  xxviii,  16;  11  Par,,  iv,  If);  xiii,  11).  The  table 
with  the  IcMives  of  bread  waa  then  placed  in  the  taber- 
nacle or  temple  before  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  there 
to  remain  "  always"  in  the  presence  of  the  Lord  (Ex., 
XXV,  30;  Num.,  iv,  7),  According  to  the  Talmud, 
the  loaves  were  not  allowed  to  touch  one  another, 
and,  to  prevent  contact,  hollow  golden  tubes,  twenty- 
eight  ia  number,  were  placed  between  them,  which 
thus  permitted  the  air  to  circulate  freely  between 
the  loaves.  Together  with  the  loaves  of  proposition, 
between  the  two  piles  or,  according  to  otners,  above 
them,  were  two  vessels  of  gold  filled  with  frankia- 
cense  and,  according  to  the  Septuagint,  salt  also  (Lev., 
xxiv,  7;  Siphra,  263,  1).  The  twelve  loaves  were  to 
be  renewed  every  Sabbath;  fresh,  hot  loaves  taking 
the  place  of  the  stale  loaves,  which  belonged  "to 
Aaron  and  his  hods,  that  they  may  eat  them  in  the 
holy  place"  (Lev.,  xxiv,  S,  9.  Cf.  I  Par.,  xxiii,  29; 
Matt.,  xii,  4,  etc.).  According  to  the  Talmud  four 
priests  removed  the  old  loaves  together  with  the  in- 
cense every  Sabbath,  and  four  other  priests  brought 
in  fresh  loaves  ■with  new  incense.  The  old  loaves 
were  divided  among  the  incoming  and  outgoing 
priests,  and  were  to  be  consumed  by  them  within 
the  sacred  precincts  of  the  sanctuary.  The  old  in- 
cense was  burnt.  The  expense  of  preparing  the  loaves 
was  borne  by  the  temple  treasury  (I  Par.,  ix,  26  and 
32).  Symbolically,  the  twelve  loaves  represented 
the  higher  life  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  Bread 
was  the  ordinary  symbol  of  life,  and  the  hallowed 
bread  aigniiied  a  superior  life  because  it  waa  ever  in 
the  presence  of  Yotiwch  and  destined  for  those  spe- 
cially consecrated  to  His  service.  The  incense  was  a 
symbol  of  the  praise  due  to  Yahweh. 

EDEnsnEiu,  TS.  Tmple  and  }i„  Smirrt  (Ltmdon,  1874), 
152-57;  KBHNSDTin  Hastinos. />»«.  o/tAe  HiWr,  «.  v.  .S*™- 
JTttuJ.'  IiUlTSE  ia  Vioouitocx,  Did.  dc  la  Bibli,  IV,  1957; 
Geftcht  in  Ji\ciah  Encj/cJopfdia,  s.  v.  Shtirbrtad, 

Francis  X.  E.  Albeht. 

Lobbes,  Besedictise  Abbey  oi^  Hainault,  Bel- 
gium, founded  about  650,  by  St.  Landclin,  a  con- 
verted brigand,  80  that  the  place  where  his  criincs  had 
been  committed  might  benefit  by  his  conversion.  As 
the  number  of  monks  inct«ased  rapidly  the  saintly 
founder,  desiring  to  consecrate  his  lire  to  austerities 
rather  than  to  discharge  the  duties  of  abbot,  resigned 
his  post.  He  waa  succeeded  by  St.  Ursmer,  who 
gave  most  of  his  energies  to  preaching  Christianity 
among  the  atill  pagan  Belgians,  Jlore  fortunate  than 
most  monasteries,  Lobbespreserved  its  ancient  annals, 
so  that  its  history  is  known  in  comparatively  minute 
detail.  The  "Annales  Laubicenses",  printed  in 
Pertj.  "Mon.  Germ,  Hist.;  Scriptorea",  should  be  con- 
sulted. The  fame  of  St.  Ursmer,  his  successor  St. 
Ermin,  and  other  holy  men  soon  drew  numbers  of  dis- 
ciples, and  Lobbes  became  the  most  important  mon- 
astery of  the  period  in  Belgium,  the  abbatial  school 
rising  to  special  fame  under  Anson,  the  sixth  abbot. 
About  864  Hubert,  brother-in-law  of  Lothafr  II,  be- 
came abbot,  and,  by  his  dissolute  life  brought  the 
monastery  into  a  state  of  decadence,  both  temporal 
and  spiritual,  from  which  it  did  not  recover  until  the 
accession  of  Francon.  By  him  the  Abbacy  of  Lobbes 
was  united  to  the  Bishopric  of  I.i^ge,  which  he  already 
held,  and  this  arrangement  continued  until  960,  when 
the  monastery  regained  ita  freedom.  The  reigns  of 
Abbota  Folcuin  (96.T-990)  and  Heriger  (990-1007)  were 
marked  by  rapid  advance,  the  scnool  especially  at- 
taining a  great  reputation. 

From  this  peri«l,  although  the  general  observance 
seems  on  the  whole  to  have  continued  good,  the  fame 
of  the  abbey  gradually  declined  until  the  fifteenth 
century,  when  the  great  monastic  revival,  originating 
in  the  congregation  of  Bursfeld,  brought  fresh  life  into 
it.    In  1569  Lobbes  and  several  other  abbeys,  the 


most  important  being  that  of  St.  Vasst  or  Vedast  at 
Arras,  were  combined  to  form  the  "Benedictine  Gal- 
lon of  Exempt  Monasteries  of  Flanders  ",  some- 
called  the  ■'Congregation  of  St.  Vaast".  In 
1793  the  last  abbot,  Vulgise  de  Vignron,  was  elected. 
Thirteen  months  later  both  abbot  and  community 
were  driven  from  the  monastery  by  French  troops, 
and  the  law  of  2  September,  1796,  decreed  their  final 
expulsion.  The  monks,  who  numbered  forty-three 
at  that  date,  were  received  into  various  monasteries 
in  Germany  and  elsewhere;  and  the  conventual  build- 
ings were  subsequently  defltroyed,  with  the  e^cpptlon 
of  the  farm  and  certain  other  portions  that  have  been 
incorporated  in  the  raiiwav  station. 

AnnaiaLatdiiairueiinFsHTZ.iff^.Oerm.  HiH.:SeTipl. .I-IV, 
XXI:  flmx  ChnMiam  lanbiaum  in  M^rkXE.  TANuurvi  Set. 
Anted..  Ill  (Fans.  1717).  I40S-I431:  EpvUeia  Lobientium 
mimacliorum  in  i,'AciitBT,  SpKil-vium.  VI  (Furis.  IBM),  588- 
AOI:  U«Bi:.i»K.  Annaltt  Bmtd.  (Pu».  IS—),  11.  V;  OaUia 
CMiliana.  Ill  (Paris,  1735).  79-80:  BebuIibb.  JTmhuIw* 
Belac.  I  (Bnigcs,  1900-67).  179-238:  LuEDira,  McnuanmMt 
drfaTKiennt^bbaufdrSI.PitrTedeLoNiallioia.lS^:  Tos, 
Lobbei,  Km  obbaj/trtHmchapiirii  (2  mb.,Jjoa'irmo.l8aS):  Bn- 
ukKK.NoHctswrabbavxIt  Leb'-eiiB  Rmu  BinMiftiiu.V.aCa. 
370.392, 

G.  Roger  Hudlebtom. 

Lobara,  Ann  (tetter  known  as  Venbrablb  Ann  of 
Jesus),  Carmelite  nun,  companion  of  St.  Teresa;  b. 
at  Medina  del  Campo  (Old  CastUe),  25  November, 
1645;  d.  at  Brussels,  4  March,_  1621.  The  daughter  of 
Diego  de  Lobera  of  Plasencia,  and  of  Francisca  de 
Torres  of  Biscay,  Ann  was  a  deaf-mute  until  her 
seventh  year,  I-cf  t  an  orphan,  she  went  to  live  with  her 
father's  relatives.  Havmg  made  a  vow  of  virginity 
while  in  the  world,  she  took  the  habit  in  St.  Teresa  s 
convent  at  Avila.  in  1570.  While  still  a  novice  St. 
Teresa  called  her  to  Salamanca  and  placed  her  over 
the  other  novices.  Ann  made  her  profession  on  22 
Octoljer,  1571,  and  accompanied  St.  Teresa  in  1575  to 
the  foundation  of  Beas,  of  which  she  became  the  firat 

Krioress,  Later  she  was  sent  by  the  saint  to  establish 
nr  new  convent  at  Granada.  One  of  the  greatest 
difEcuIUes  consisted  in  a  misunderstanding  between 
St.  Teresaand  Ann,  which  drew  from  the  former  sharp 
reprimands,  in  a  letter  dated  30  May,  1 582.  With  Uie 
help  of  St.  John  of  the  Cross,  Ann  made  a  foundation  at 
Madrid  (1586),  of  which  she  became  prioress.  She 
also  oolleeted  St.  Teresa's  writings  for  publication. 
While  at  Madrid  Ann  came  into  conflict  with  her 
superior,  Nicholas  a  Jesu-Maria  (Doria),  who,  by 
rendering  the  rules  stringent  and  rigid  in  the  extreme, 
and  bv  concentrating  ail  authority  in  the  hands  of  a 
committee  of  permanent  officials  (eonsuUa),  sought  to 
guard  the  nuns  against  any  relaxation.  It  was  an 
open  secret  that  the  constitutions  of  the  nuns,  di&wn 
up  by  St.  Teresa  with  the  assistance  of  Jerome  Gratian 
(q.  v.),  and  approved  by  a  eliapter  in  1581,  were  to  be 
brought  into  line  with  the  new  principles  of  adminis- 
tration. Ann  of  Jesus,  determined  to  preserve  intact 
St.  Teresa's  work,  appealed  (with  the  knowledge  of 
Doria)  to  the  Holy  Sec  for  an  Apostohc  confirmation, 


been  acting  over  the  head  of  their  superiors,  Philip  II 
twice  forbade  the  meeting  of  a  chapter  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  Brief,  and  the  nuns,  ana  their  advisers  and 
supporters,  Luis  de  Lefin  and  Dominic  Bafiei,  fell  into 
di^raee.  Furthermore,  for  over  a  year  no  friar  was 
allowed  to  hear  the  nuns'  confessions.  At  last  Philip 
having  heard  the  story  from  the  nuns'  point  of  view 
commanded  the  consiilUi  to  reaume  their  government, 
and  petitioned  the  Holv  See  for  an  approbation  of  the 
constitutions.  Accordingly  Gr^ory  XIV  by  a  Brief 
of  25  April,  1591,  revoking  the  Acts  of  bis  predeceaor, 
took  a  middle  course  between  an  uncontutional  eon- 
firmation  of  the  constitutions  and  an  approbation  of 
tbe  principles  of  the  eonauffa.  These  coiuititutions  ara 


still  in  foree 


Dree  in  a  large  number  ot  Carmelite  convents, 
resumed  the  government  of  the  nuns,  hut  hit 


LOOOXJM 


319 


LOOHMER 


first  act  was  to  punish  Ann  of  Josus  severely  for  liaving 
appealed  to  the  Holy  See;  for  three  years  she  was  de- 
prived of  daily  communion,  of  all  intercourse  with  the 
other  nuns,  and  of  active  and  i)assive  voice.    At  the 
expiration  of  this  penance  she  went  to  Salamanca, 
where  she  became  prioress  from  1596  to  1599.    Mean- 
whfle  a  movement  had  been  set  on  foot  to  introduce 
the  Teresian  nuns  into  France.    Blessed  Mary  of  the 
Incamation,  warned  bv  St.  Teresa  and  assisted  by  de 
Br^tiffny  and  de  B^ruUe  (q.  v.),  brought  a  few  nuns, 
moet^  trained  by  St.  Teresa  herself,  with  Ann  of 
Jesus  a€  their  heads,  from  Avila  to  Paris,  where  they 
established  the  convent  of  the  Incarnation,  16  October, 
1604.    Such  was  the  number  of  postulants  that  Ann 
was  able  to  make  a  further  foundation  at  Pontoise,  15 
January,  1605,  and  a  third  one  on  21  September  at 
Dijon,  where  she  took  up  her  abode;  otner  founda- 
tioDS  followed.    Nevertheless  difficulties  arose  be- 
tween her  and  the  superiors  in  France,  who  were 
anxious  to  authorise  certain  deviations  from  the  strict 
rule  of  St.  Teresa;  the  situation  had  become  strained 
and  painful,  when  Mother  Ann  was  called  to  Brussels 
by  the  Infanta  Isabella  and  the  Archduke  Albert,  who 
were  anxious  to  establish  a  convent  of  Carmelite  nuns. 
She  arrived  there  on  22  January,  1607,  and  besides  the 
Brussels  house  she  made  foundations  at  Louvain  (4 
November),  and  Mons  (7  February,  1608) ;  and  helped 
to  establish  those  at  Antwerp,  and  at  Krakow  in  Poland. 
She,  moreover,  obtained  leave  from  the  pope  for  the 
Discalced  Friars  to  establish  themselves  m  Flanders. 
The  Spanish  Carmelites  having  decided  not  to  spread 
outside  the  Peninsula  declined  the  offer,  but  the 
Italian  congregation  sent  Thomas  a  Jesu  with  some 
companions,  wno  arrived  at  Brussels,  on  20  August, 
1610.    On  18  September,  Ann  of  Jesus  and  her  nuns, 
in  the  presence  of  the  nuncio,  rendered  their  obedience 
to  the  superior  of  the  Itah'an  congregation.    She  re- 
mained prioress  at  Brussels  to  the  end  of  her  life. 
Numerous  miracles  having  followed  upon  her  death, 
the  process  of  canonisation  was  introduced  early  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  in  1878  she  was  declared 
Venerable. 

KANRiQUVt  Vida  de  la  V,  Mtidre  Ana  de  Jesue  (Bruasels, 
1032);  Bbrtbou>b-Iona.cb  db  Stb.  Anne*  Vie  de  la  Mire  Anne 
dtJinu  (HechUn,  1876) . 

B.  Zimmerman. 

Loeeum  (Lucca,  Locken,  Lockween,  Ltke, 
Ltcxo),  Cistercian  abbey  in  the  Diocese  of  Minden, 
formeriy  in  Brunswick  but  now  included  in  Hanover, 
was  founded  by  Count  Wilbrand  von  Hallermund  in 
1163.  The  first  monks  under  Abbot  Eccardus  came 
from  Vbllrenrode  in  Thuringia,  through  which  house 
the  foundation  belongs  to  the  Morimond  line  of  descent 
from  Clteauz.  An  ancient  writer  describes  Loccum  as 
being  "in  loco  horroris  et  vastse  solitudinis  et  prse- 
donum  et  latronum  commorationis";  and  adds  that, 
after  sufferini^  much  from  want  and  from  the  barbar- 
ity of  their  neif;hbourB,  the  monks  in  time  brought  the 
land  into  cultivation,  and  the  people  to  the  fear  of 
God.  The  history  of  the  abbey  presents  nothing  to 
call  for  special  notice.^  It  filled  its  place  in  the  life  of 
the  Church  in  Brunswick  until  the  tide  of  Lutheranism 
swept  the  Catholic  religion  from  the  country.  The 
chief  interest  of  Loccum  lies  in  its  buildings,  which  still 
exist  in  an  almost  perfect  state,  being  now  a  Protestant 
seminary  of  higher  studies.  The  group,  which  is  con- 
sidered inferior  in  beauty  to  Mambronn  and  Beben- 
hausen  alone  amongst  German  abbevs,  consists  of  a 
cruciform  church  alwut  218  feet  long  by  1 10  feet  wide, 
built  between  1240  and  1277,  and  restored  with  great 
care  about  sixty  years  ago;  a  quadrangular  cloister  of 
remarkable  beauty;  the  ancient  refectory,  now  used 
as  a  library;  the  chapter-house,  sacristy,  dormitory, 
and  lay-brotiiera'  wizig  (domus  conversorum),  all  practi- 
eaOy  m  their  ori^inarstate.  fiy  ac  odd  survival  the 
^.^.     .   ,^.    -  igpy^  ^  ^jjg  Yiesd  of  the  present  estab- 


lishment, and  the  abbatiul  mitre,  crosier,  et<?.,  are  pre- 
served, and  apparently  still  used  on  occasion. 


461:  Ahrens,  Zur  dUesten  Oewhirhte  dee  Kloetere  Loccum  hi 
Archiv.  d.  hist.  Ver.  /Qr  Nieder-Sachacn  (1872),  1;  Wittb, 
Kloeter  Loccum  in  Die  Katol.  Welt  (1904) ;  Bbunnkr,  Zietef 
gieneerbuch  (WOnbuig,  1881),  32. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Lochleyen  (from  leamhan,  an  elm-tree),  a  lake  in 
Kinross-shire,  Scotland,  an  island  of  which,  known  as 
St.  Serf's  Island  (eighty  acres  in  extent),  was  the  seat 
of  a  religious  community  for  seven  hundred  years. 
Brude,  King  of  the  Picts,  is  recorded  to  have  given  the 
island  to  the  Culdees  about  840^  perhaps  in  the  life- 
time of  St.  Serf  (or  Servanus)  himself,  and  the  grant 
was  confirmed  by  subsequent  kings  and  by  several 
bishops  of  St.  Andrews.  In  the  tenth  century  the 
Culdee  community  made  over  their  island  to  the 
bishop,  on  condition  of  their  being  provided  by  him 
with  food  and  clothing.  The  Culdees  continued  to 
serve  the  monastery  until  the  reign  of  David  I,  who 
about  1145  granted  Lochleven  to  the  Canons  Regular 
of  St.  Andrews,  whom  he  had  founded  there  in  the 
previous  year.  Bishop  Robert  of  St.  Andrews,  him- 
self a  member  of  the  order,  took  possession  of  the  is- 
land, subjected  the  surviving  Culdees  to  the  canons, 
and  added  their  possessions  to  the  endowments  of  the 
priory  at  St.  Andrews.  An  interesting  list  of  the 
books  belonging  to  the  Culdees  at  the  time  of  their 
incorporation  with  St.  Andrews  is  preserved  in  the  St. 
Andrews  Register.  From  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century  until  the  Reformation,  Lochleven  continued 
to  be  a  cell  dependent  on  St.  Andrews.  The  most 
noted  of  the  pnors  was  Andrew  Wyntoun,  one  <rf  the 
fathers  of  Scottish  history,  who  probably  wrote  his 
"Orygynale  C^onykil  of  Scotland"  on  the  island. 
Patrick  Graham,  first  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  died 
and  was  buried  there  in  1478.  The  property  passed 
at  the  Dissolution  to  the  Earl  of  Morton.  A  few  frag- 
ments of  the  chapel  remain,  and  have  been  used  in 
recent  times  as  a  shelter  for  cattle. 

Mack  AT.  Fife  and  Kinroaa  (Edinburgh.  1896),  12,  82;  Chai/- 
MER8.  Caledonia  (Paialey.  1887-90),  I.  409  etc.;  II,  748;  VII, 
108,  142;  Lyon,  Hiat.  of  St.  Andretca,  I  (Edinbui^h,  1843),  44; 
Gordon,  AfonoA/tcon  (London.  1875),  90-9;  Ordnance Gaxetteer, 
Scotland,  IV  (London,  1874),  320,  321. 

D.  O.  Hunter-Blair. 

Lochner,  Stephan,  painter,  b.  at  Meersburg,  on 
the  Lake  of  0)nstance,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  at 
Cologne,  1452.  He  came  to  Cologne  about  1430  from 
Meersburg.  His  style  of  painting  resembles  more  that 
of  "  Master  Wilhelm"  of  the  fourteenth  century,  than 
that  of  the  unknown  painters  who  followed  him,  who, 
though  they  lived  at  Cologne,  betray  a  certain  Dutch 
influence.  He  seems  to  have  brought  with  him  from 
his  home  in  Upper  Germany,  the  more  viWd  realism 
of  Moser  and  Witz.  His  principal  work  was  destined 
for  the  altar  in  the  town  hall,  but  was  removed  in  1810 
to  the  choir  chapel  of  the  cathedral.  This  is  the  bril- 
liant triptych  wnich,  in  the  centre  piece,  shows  in  al- 
most life-size  figures  the  worshipping  of  the  Ma^,  and 
the  side  panels  of  which  represent  St.  Ursula  with  her 
companions,  and  Gereon  with  his  warriors.  In  the 
middle,  seated  on  a  throne,  appears  the  Madonna  with 
the  Child,  humble  and  yet  majestic,  clad  in  the  tradi- 
tional ideal  garments.  The  miraculous  star  shines 
al)ove,  and  angels  appear  overhead.  On  each  side  one 
of  the  kings  prays  and  tenders  his  offering,  while  tlie 
third  stands  beside  the  throne.  To  the  right  and  the 
left  their  followers  crowd  into  view.  A  wealth  of  tone 
and  colour  transfigures  the  scene.  The  figures,  save 
the  Virgin,  are  all  clad  in  the  costumes  of  the  time; 
their  bearing  is  free  and  bold,  and  each  individual  in 
the  group  stands  out  in  marked  relief.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  the  warriors  of  Gereon  on  the  right  lateral 
panel.    Their  leader  is  seen,  virile  and  resolute,  ad- 


LOCI 


320 


LOOI 


vancing  with  the  flag;  his  costume  is  richlv  embroid- 
ered, and  his  armour  bears  a  large  cross.  His  follow- 
ers are  similarly  clad  and  bear  battle-axe^.  On  the 
left  side  are  the  women,  of  delicate  mould  and  some^ 
what  less  pronounced  individuality;  a  pope  and  a 
bishop  appear  among  them,  both  of  whom  play  a  part 
in  the  legend  of  St.  Ursula.  The  sumptuous  garments 
of  the  maidens  are  trimmed  with  royal  ermine,  and 
their  long  flowing  sleeves  hang  down  at  their  sides. 
The  slender  arms  and  tapering  lingers  of  the  Madonna, 
as  well  as  the  somewhat  awkward  movements  of  some 
of  the  other  figures,  remind  us  of  an  earlier  period;  but 
there  is  a  keen  sense  of  nature  and  an  earnest  aim  at 
reality  in  the  treatment  of  the  costumes  as  well  as  in 
the  expression  of  the  faces,  which  are  flnishcd  and  life- 
like. 

The  Annunciation,  done  in  more  subdued  tones,  is 
represented  at  the  outer  end.  Great  care  is  shown  in 
the  handling  of  the  room,  with  its  wall-hangings  and 
its  compartment  ceilings,  the  desk,  chair,  and  lily. 
The  whole  work  reminds  one  of  Van  Eyck's  altar 
painting  at  Ghent;  the  artist  has  achieved  at  Cologne  a 
magnificent  monument  to  the  patron  saint  of  the  city. 
Similar  in  technic  Ls  the  "  Virgin  among  the  Rose- 
bushes" (Maria  am  Rosenhag)  in  the  Cologne  museum. 
Tliis  is  an  enchanting  picture  of  the  Blessed  Mother 
with  the  Child,  surrounded  by  angels  who  discourse 
celestial  music.  Indeed  one  might  view  it  as  a  scene 
in  heaven,  a  glimpse  of  wliich  is  vouchsafed  mortals  by 
the  two  angels  who  part  the  mystic  veil.  God  the 
Father  appears  alx)ve,  His  hand  raised  in  benediction, 
while  over  them  hovers  the  Dove,  symbol  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Tlie  **  Madonna  of  the  Violets"  is  ascribed  to 
an  earlier  period  of  Lochiier,  and  is  in  the  archiepisco- 
pal  museum.  This  charming  work  is  done  in  the  style 
of  "Muster  Wilhelm".  The  youthful  Mother  stands 
there,  more  than  life-size,  with  the  Infant  Jesus  on  her 
arm;  her  left  hand  holds  a  bunch  of  violets;  above  are 
seen  the  Heavenly  Father,  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  an  an- 
gel; Mother  and  Child  look  dowTi  upon  a  woman  in 
prayer,  who  represents  the  donor  of  the  painting.  The 
**Last  Judgment",  which  hangs  in  the  museiun  of 
Cologne,  seems  at  first  glance  to  be  in  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent style.  Certain  experts  have  contended  against 
Master  Stephan's  authorship  of  this  work,  because  of 
the  realistic  fonns  of  the  damned,  and  the  distorted 
faces  of  the  demons.  Other  critics  have  assumed  that 
his  pupils  contributed  the  lost  souls,  and  have  recog- 
nized m  the  remainder  of  the  work  the  hand  of  Loch- 
ner  himself.  Another  painting,  which  is  more  likely 
to  have  emanated  from  his  brush,  is  of  "  The  Presentar 
tion  of  Jesus  in  the  Temple  ",  with  saints  portrayed  on 
the  side  panels;  it  is  the  famous  central  picture  at 
Dannstaxit,  so  much  admired  by  visitors.  Tne  youths 
standing  Ix'fore  Simeon,  and  the  maidens  grouped  be- 
hind Anna,  make  an  array  of  figures  full  of  grace  and 
charm. 

ScHEiBLF.n  AND  Aldenhovkn,  Gesch.  der  Kolner  MalerachuU 
nAiheck,  1S94);  Meklo,  Firmenich-Ri(;hartz.  and  Keussen, 
Kolnische  KunMlcr  in  alter  urid  neuer  Zeit  (DUascldorf.  1895). 

G.   GlKTMANN. 

Loci  Theologiciy  or  hci  communes ,  are  the  common 
topics  of  discussion  in  theology.  As  theology  is  the 
science  which  places  in  the  light  of  reason  the  truths 
revealed  by  God,  its  topics  are,  strictly  speaking,  co- 
extensive with  the  whole  content  of  revelation.  Usage, 
however,  and  circumstance  have  restricted  the  loci  to 
narrower  l)ut  ill-defined  limits.  Melanchthon,  the 
theologian  of  Lutheran  Germany,  published  in  1521 
"Hypotyposes  theologicie  seu  loci  communes",  a 
presentation  of  the  chief  Christian  doctrines  drawn 
from  the  Bil)le  as  the  only  rule  of  faith.  His  avowed 
intention  was  to  improve  on  similar  works  by  John 
Damascene  and  Peter  Ix)mbard.  Leaving  aside  undis- 
pute<l  dogmas  which  do  not  bear  directly  on  the  salva- 
tion of  man,  he  expounds  with  scanty  commentary,  or 
none  at  all,  the  state  of  fallen  man,  free-will,  ein, 


the  law  of  God,  the  law  of  man,  the  Gospel,  the  power 
of  the  Law  and  the  power  of  the  Gospel,  grace,  justifi- 
cation, faith,  hope,  and  charity,  the  difference  between 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,  the  abolition  of  the  Law 
through  the  Gospel,  the  sacraments  of  Baptism,  Pen- 
ance, and  the  Eucharist,  authority,  and  scandal. 
Melanchthon's  "Loci"  became  the  textbook  for  Lu- 
theran theology'  and  the  author  has  rightly  been  styled 
the  prccceptor  6ermantoB,  Like  Peter  Lombard,  he  had 
his'imitators  and  conmientators,  who  formed  a  goodlv 
bodv  of  Protestant  Schoolmen.  The  greatest  work 
of  this  kind  is  "Loci  communes  theologici",  by  John 
Gerard,  professor  at  Jena,  published  in  nine  volumes 
(1610-1622);  it  is  the  greatest  and  also  the  last.  After 
Gerard  the  loci  theology  gives  place  to  systematic 
theology;  the  unconnectecT exposition  of  "topics"  in 
the  light  of  the  Bible  gradually  disappears.  €^  the 
Catholic  side  Melanchthon's  "  Loci"  were  countered  bv 
the ' '  Enchiridion  locorum  communium"  of  Johann  Eck 
(q.  v.),  which  between  1525  and  1576  ran  through 
fort\'-five  editions.  It  was  dedicated  to  Henry  Vfil 
of  England.  The  topics  which  Eck  expounds  and  de- 
fends against  the  Reformers  are:  the  Churcii  ajid  her 
authoritv,  the  councils,  the  primacy  of  the  Apoetolic 
See,  Holy  Scripture,  faith  and  works,  confirmation, 
ordination,  confession,  conmiunion  under  both  kinds, 
matrimony,  extreme  unction,  human  laws,  feasts, 
fasts,  the  worship  of  saints  and  their  images,  tne  Mass, 
vows,  clerical  celibacy,  cardinals  and  legates,  excom- 
munication, wars  against  the  Turks,  inununities  and 
temporalities  of  the  Church,  indulgences,  pursatory, 
annates,  the  burning  of  heretics,  discussion  with  here- 
tics, and  infant  baptism.  Other  Catholic  writers  fol- 
lowed on  the  track  of  the  Ingolstadt  professor;  e.  g. 
Franciscus  Orantes  (d.  1584),  Konrad  Kluig  (d.  1566;, 
Joseph  V.  Zambaldi  (d.  1722),  and  Cardinal  Bellar- 
mine  (q.  v.),  whose  " Disputationes  de  controversiis 
fidei"  (1581-92)  are  still  the  chief  arsenal  and  strong- 
hold of  Catholic  controversy.  But,  whilst  Protestants 
concentrated  their  best  theological  effort  on  the  locij 
Catholics  soon  retiuned  to  the  systematic  methods  of 
the  older  Summce, 

Cano  (d.  1560)  applied  the  term  loci  iheoHogiei  to 
a  treatise  on  the  f unciamental  principles  or  sources  of 
theological  science.  On  the  threshold  of  every  science 
there  stands  a  complex  of  preliminary  principles,  pos- 
tulates, and  questions,  which  must  be  elucidated  bcaore 
progress  is  possible.  Some  are  conmion  to  all  sciences, 
some  are  peculiar  to  each.  Before  Cano  the  questions 
preliminary  to  theology  had  never  been  treated  as  a 
science  apart,  general  dialectics  being  deemed  a  suffi- 
cient introduction.  Cano  observes  tiiat  the  "Queen 
of  sciences"  draws  its  arguments  and  proofs  <micfly 
from  authority,  and  only  calls  in  reason  as  the  han<i- 
maid  of  faith.  Accorciingly  he  sets  up  ten  loci — 
sources  of  theology — without,  however,  pretending  to 
limit  them  to  that  number.  They  are:  the  authority 
of  Holy  Scripture,  of  Catholic  tradition,  of  general 
councils,  of  the  Roman  Church,  of  the  FatherSy  of  the 
Schoolmen;  natural  reason,  the  authority  of  philoso- 

Ehers  and  doctors  in  civil  law,  and  tiie  authority  of 
istor>\  The  first  seven  are  the  proper  places  in 
which  theology  moves,  the  last  three  are  uaerul  auxili- 
aries. Mclchior  Cano's  work  save  a  new  turn  to 
theological  teaching.  Much  that  before  his  time 
had  l)een  taken  for  granted,  or,  at  best,  only  loosely 
investigated,  became  the  favourite  theme  of  the 
schools.  The  foundations  of  theology,  which  had 
lain  eml)edded  in  the  Christian  mind,  weie  laid  bare, 
examined,  strengthened,  and  rendered  safe  both  for 
the  believer  inside  the  Church  and  against  the  foe 
without.  The  scientific  method  which  takes  nothing 
for  granted,  but  investigates  and  probes  to  the  very 
root  every  item  of  knowledge,  is  not  a  thing  of  yester- 
day, much  less  a  child  of  anti-Catholic  tendencies: 
Bishop  Mclchior  Cano  introduced  it  as  the  beet  wea- 
pon ot  offence  and  defence  in  religious  warfaie.    The 


MADONNA  WITH  THE  VIOLET 


toou  3: 

"Loci  theologici"  wai  fint  publuihed  in  1563,  three 
years  After  the  author'8death,bv  the  Grand  Inquisitor 
V»ldes.  Twenty-six  editions  followed  the  first :  eight 
in  Spain,  nine  in  Italy,  seven  in  Germany,  and  two  in 
Franco.  Numerous  writers  during  the  followins  cen- 
turies produced  works  on  the  same  lines:  Scraphinius 
Ractiua  (Raiii)  {d.  1613),  Petnis  de  Lorca  (d.  IB06), 
Dominicus  a  S.  Trinitnte  (d.  16S7),  Ch.  du  Plessis 
d'A^entrfe  (d.  1740),  FrancLicus  Kmni,  and  many 
more.  Gradually  the  subject-matter  of  the  loci  en- 
tered the  body  of  theology  imdcr  the  title  of  "Prole- 
gomena", general  dogmatics,  fundamental  theolofn', 
or  apologetics.  In  "A  Manual  of  Catholic  TheoloRy  , 
by  Wilhplm  and  Seanncll  (I,ondon,  l!(fMJ).  the  hria.re 
treated  in  the  first  liook  under  the  foUowintjhfadinKs: 
the  sources  of  theoloEical  knowledge;  Divine  revela- 
tion; transmission  of  revelation;  the  Apostolic  de- 
posit of  revelation;  ecclesiastical  tnuiitions;  the  rule 
of  faith;  faith;  faith  and  undomtandinR. 

Tbe  necessity  of  meeting  attacks  on  the  Faith  at  the 
precise  point  on  which  they  are  directed  has,  of  recent 
years,  led  to  a  modiliration  in  apoloeetic  methods. 
Existing  textbooks  draw  their  proofs  from  Scripture, 
tradition  and,  when  possible,  from  reason.  The  au* 
thority  of  these  loci,  or  sources,  having  Ixwn  previ- 
ously proved,  the  demonstration  ia  considered  com- 
plete. But  since  evolutionLim  has  taken  hold  of  the 
modem  mind  and  filled  it  with  a  never-sotisifieJ  desire 
to  know  the  origin  and  the  zrowth  of  all  Ihinji;!!  in  the 
Kalms  of  nature  and  of  mind,  the  liici  thcmaelves  have 
been  submitted  to  fierce  criticism  liy  men  who  will  1« 
convinced  by  nothing  but  fact^  and  cxperimrntn. 
They  proceed  by  the  positive,  or  liiatoricul.  method 
which  eliminates  all  supernatural  factors,  and  retains 
only  the  bare  facts  linked  together  in  an  unbroken 
chain  of  causes  and  effects.  The  Bible  to  them  is  no 
longer  the  Word  of  God,  but  a  mere  collection  of  docu- 
menta  of  various  merit;  the  Church  in  an  institution  of 
bumar)  origin.  It  must  be  eonfcssral  that  the  histori- 
cal method  is  fraught  with  danger  even  U>  those  who 
use  it  in  defence  of  the  Church.  Tlio  ilangcr  is  real 
but.BO  ia  the  necessity  of  facing  it,  for  it  in  usclp$.s  to 
argue  from  authority  with  men  who  acknowledge 
no  auUiority.  What  is  wanted  is  that  the  Catho- 
lic apoloeist  keep  a  steady  eye  on  the  landmarks  lixe<l 
by  tneCnurch,and  dci-iate neither  to  the  right  nor  to 
the  left.  With  that  precaution,  the  historical  methoil 
is  likely  to  become  an  abundant  source  of  light  an<l 
understanding  on  points  of  doctrine  and  discipline 
hitherto  viewed  out  of  their  historical  frame  and  in  a 
borrowed  light.  Thus  the  discovery  of  the  Didache 
{q.  v.)  has  been  a  revelation  which'  has  upset  many 
fond  calculations,  and  the  excavations  in  Palestine. 
AssiTia,  Egypt,  and  other  places,  where  they  liear  on 
Bible  history,  have  done  more  good  tlian  harm  to  the 
traditional  views.  The  French  are  at  the  present  doy 
the  pioneers  of  the  historical  treatment  of  doema;  one 
need  only  point  to  the  splendid  series  of  "Studies  in  the 
History  of  Dc^mas  "  published  by  Ijecoffre  in  Paris. 

Wekheii,  Gtteh.  d.  ajietoQ.  u.  juArm.  !,Urralvr  (Rntinhon. 
1880):  Ga».  Gfich.  d.  prof.  Daamalik  <18S4):  Hkppk.  Dim- 
wiatik  d.  dtiUKim  FmaUnlumtu  ((.olhu,  1K5TJ:  Skniiti' (n 
JCtrctoilei..  ■.  v.:  HtHTKH,  XomntlaUir;  tee  abo  bibliunniphy 
nndcr  AraLoasncB  and  TaeoLOOT. 

J.   WiLHELU. 


1  LOOXHAKT  , 

Davcnant'fl  version  of  "The  Tempeat",  produced 
7  November,  1667.  His  "Melothesia"  (ItiiSj  was  a 
good  theoretical  treatise.  Of  greater  interest  is  the 
"Macbeth"  music,  composed  in  1672,  but  it  ia  almost 
certain  that  the  well-known  score  was  really  the  work 
of  Henry  Purcell.  The  ascription  of  it  to  Locke  was 
based  on  an  error  due  to  Dr.  Boyce.  but  it  must  be 
noted  that  Purcell'a  music — the  so-called  "  Locke's  " — 
ivalof"Macl)Cth"  in  1GS9.  Locke 


mpoi 


ed    the 


for  Shad- 
well's  "  Psvche  " 
in  167.1,  anil  sev- 
eral anthems  and 
Latin  hymns. 
From  1672  to  1674 
he  was    engaged 


Thomas  ^Imon, 
who  advocated 
the  writing  of  all 
music  on  one  clef. 

still  upheld,  while 

phlets  are  for- 
gotten. He  was 
"  De|iutv  Master 
of  the  King's  Mu- 
sick"  for  the 


Lock»,  MATTtiEW,  composer;  b.  at  Exeter,  in  1629; 
d.  August,  1677.  HewasacborisUTof  ExeterCathe- 
dral  from  1638  to  1641.  His  first  effort  was  as  part- 
composer  of  music  for  Shirley's  masiiue  "Cupicf  and 
Death"  (26  May,  1653).  In  1654,  he  iWame  a  Catho- 
lic, and,  in  1656.  furnished  some  of  the  music  for  I>ave- 
nant's  opera  ""The  Siege  of  Rhodes",  In  addition  to 
aome  minor  orchestral  works  he  scored  the  proeessional 
march  for  the  coronation  of  Charles  II,  in  April,  1001. 
and  was  appointed  composer  to  the  king  b  private 
band  at  a  aala^  of  forty  pounds  a  year.  He  com- 
posed incidental  instrumental  music  for  Drvden's  and 
IX.— 21 


376-77,  but  hia  salary  at  Court  v 

lid  that  on  24  July,  lli76,  he  asaign 

throe  years'  and  three  quarters'  Balar>-  due  to  him — 
to  one  of  his  creditors.  He  was  buried  in  the  Savoy, 
in  which  parish  he  spent  his  last 

Hubs  in  Ghovb,  /)id.  of  Maiii^  o 

lOOfl):   I.  v.;    Matthhw,  Hmdimk  n.  __  _ ,, 

don.  18081;    Waliek,  HiHoni  'if  Munc  in  England  (Oxtord. 
10O7);  DK  LinjNTAiMi;,  The  King't  Munkk  (Loudon,  IMOB). 
W.   H.   (.iHATTAN-1'I.OOD. 

Lockhart,  William,  son  of  tlie  Rev.  Alexander 
Lockhart  of  Waringhiim,  Surrev;  b.  22  Aug.,  1S20;  d. 
at  St.  Etlieldre<iii'.s  IVion-.  Elv  Place,  Holhorn,  Lon- 
don, 15  May.  1X02.  IIeVii«  ii  eousin  of  .1.  (J.  Lock- 
hart,  the  well-known  biogm[>her  of  Sir  A\'ultcr  Scott. 
After  sturlying  first  ut  Beilford  Grammar  School  and, 
afterwanla  under  various  tutors,  be  entereil  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  in  IKIS.  Ho  there  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  t^lward  Douglas,  afterwanis  hiMil  <)t 
the  RedemptoriHtJi  at  Rome,  Father  Ignatius  Grant, 
the  well-known  JcNuit,  and  John  Ruskin.  Like  so 
many  others  whose  early  life  has  been  poxsed  in  a 
purely  I*roteHtanl  :ilmo«phere,  Locklwrt  had  hitlierto 
taken  it  for  granted  that  Protestant iom  represented 
the  religion  of  the  ApOHtles.  and  that  to  the  title 
ChriKHan  Catholics  could,  properly  Ki>eaking,  lay  no 
claim.  The  rending  of  Iroude's  "Kemains"  nnd 
Fnber's  "Foreign  ('hurches"  showed  him  how  mi»- 
taken  this  q>inion  was.  To  set  his  iloubts  nt  rest,  he 
visited  Manning  at  I.jivingtnn.  but  felt  aouwed  in  the 
archdeacon's  presence  that  he  di<l  not  dare  to  enter 
into  o  controversy.  SiilM«'i[ueullv.  Miinninc  urged 
Lockhart  to  accept  Newman's  kind  invitation  to  stay 
with  him  at  Litllenxire  anrl  prepare  for  (,\nglican) 
ordination.  After  griduating  Bachelor  of  .-\r(s  in 
1842,  he  rejoined  Newman  at  Litllcniore.  and  was  as- 
signal  the  task  of  translating  a  portion  of  Fleury's 
"History  of  the  Church",  and  of  writing  a  life  of  St. 
Gilbert  of  Setiipringham  for  the  OxfonI  Series  (see  N  ew- 
HAN,  JoKN'  Hendv).  In  lliia  retirement  hia  weak- 
ened  faith  in  the  Anglicjin  Church  was  rudely  xhaken 
by  the  perusal  of  Milner's  "  End  of  Religious  Contro- 
versy" given  him  by  Grant,  who  liad  Iwcome  n  ('nth- 
olicin  1S41.  Lockhart  now  realized  for  the  first  time 
what  (Tatholie  doctrine  was,  and  he  saw  all  his  doubta 
confirmed  in  the  irresolution  of  Newman,  at  thiji  tima 


LOCKWOOD 


322 


LODX 


vainly  seeking  his  Via  Media  between  Catholicism  ami 
Anglicanism.  After  a  few  weeks'  hesitation,  he  de- 
clared to  Newman  that  he  could  not  go  on  for  An- 
glican ordination  doubting  its  validity  as  he  did. 
Newman  sent  him  to  W.  G.  Ward,  who  persuaded  him 
to  return  to  Littlemore  for  three  years. 

About  a  year  later,  however,  his  meeting  with 
Father  Gentfli  of  the  newly-founded  Order  of  Charity, 
at  Ward's  rooms,  brougnt  matters  to  a  crisis.  In 
August,  1843,  he  visited  Father  Gentili  at  Loughbor- 
ou^,  intending  to  stay  only  a  few  hours,  but  his  visit 
resulted  in  a  three  days'  retreat  and  his  reception  into 
the  Church.  On  29  August  he  was  received  into  the 
Rosminian  Institute;  he  made  his  simple  vows  on  7 
April,  1844,  and  his  solenm  profession  8  Sept.,  1845. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  Tractarians  to  become  a  Cath- 
olic, and  his  conversion  greatly  afTected  Newman,  w^ho 
shortly  afterwards  preached  at  Littlemore  his  last 
sermon  as  an  Anglican,  "The  Parting  of  Friends". 
All  communication  between  Lockhart  and  his  mother 
ceased  at  first,  by  Maiining's  orders,  but  mother  and 
son  were  soon  reconciled,  and  in  July,  1846,  Mrs. 
Lockhart  followed  her  son  into  the  Catholic  Church. 
In  November,  1844,  he  was  included  in  the  new  com- 
munity at  Calvary  House,  RatcLffe — the  first  Ros- 
minian foundation  in  En^nd.  He  was  ordained 
subdeacon  at  Oscott  on  19  December,  1845,  and  dea- 
con on  5  June,  1846,  and  on  19  Dec.  of  the  same  year 
was  raised  to  the  priesthood  at  Ratcliffe  Colle^. 
After  some  months  devoted  to  the  preaching  of  mis- 
sions, Lockhart  was  entrusted  with  the  pastoral 
charf^  of  Shepshed,  on  5  June,  1847.  He  w^as  still 
occasionally  employed  for  mission  work,  and  in  1850 
was  definitely  appointed  for  this  duty.  After  some 
years'  successful  preaching  in  various  part^  of  England 
and  Ireland,  he  was  compelled,  owing  to  ill-health,  to 
spend  the  winter  of  1853  at  Rome.     On  his  return 

t'oumey  he  paid  a  memorable  visit  to  the  celebrated 
talian  philosopher,  Abbate  Rosmini,  at  Stresa.  In 
1854  he  was  deputed  to  select  a  suitable  place  in  Lon- 
don for  the  establishment  of  a  house  and  church  of  his 
order.  At  the  suggestion  of  Manning,  he  chose  Kings- 
land,  and  imtil  1875  had  to  bear  the  burden  of  anxiety 
in  connexion  with  this  foundation.     In  Dec,  1873,  he 

Purchased  at  his  own  expense  St.  Etheldreda's  out  of 
hanccry,  and  thus  restored  one  of  London's  oldest 
churches  (thirteenth  century)  to  Catholic  worship. 
Removing  to  St.  Etheldreda's  in  1879,  when  the  work 
of  repair  was  completed,  he  established  himself  there 
until  his  death,  altnough  he  continued  for  many  years 
to  give  missions  and  retreats.  After  1881  he  spent 
the  winters  in  Rome  as  procurator  general  of  the  con- 
gregation, and  was  there  frec^uently  called  upon  to 
give  a  series  of  sermons  in  English.  His  death,  of  syn- 
cope, occurred  very  unexpect<?dly. 

lie  was  perhaps  best  known  as  the  foremost  En- 
glish disciple  of  llosmini,  founder  of  the  Institute  of 
Charity.  Several  volumes  of  that  philosopher's  works 
were  translated  either  by  him  or  under  his  supervision, 
and  in  1886  he  wrote  the  second  volume  of  the  "Life 
of  Antonio  Rosmini-Serbati ",  of  which  the  first  vol- 
ume had  ^x^en  written  by  G.  S.  MacW^alter  in  1883. 
He  was  an  able  polemic  and  was  closely  connected 
with  two  well-known  Catholic  periodicals,  "  Catholic 
Opiliion  ",'which  he  founded  and  conducted  until  it  was 
merged  in  "The  Tablet",  and  "The  Lamp",  to  which 
he  was  for  twenty  years  the  principal  contributor. 
Besides  his  numerous  contributions  to  these  papers  he 
wrote:  "The  Old  Religion"  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1870); 
"Review  of  Dr.  Pusev's  Eirenicon"  (2nd  ed.,  London, 
1866) ,  reprinted  from* "  The  Weekly  Register  " ;  "  Com- 
munion of  Saints"  (London,  1868);  "Cardinal  New- 
man. Reminiscences  of  fifty  years  since  by  one  of  his 
oldest  living  Disciples"  (London,  1891).  For  some 
years  before  his  death  he  had  been  engaged  on  a  seo- 
ond  volume  to  form  a  sequel  to  "The  Old  Religion", 
the  best-known  of  his  polemical  works. 


Hirst.  Biography  of  Father  LockhaH  (RatcUfFe  OoUefe,  1808); 
Weekly  Reaitter,  LXXXV.  657-58.  091;  Cath.  New  i2\  May, 
1892) ;  CaOi.  Tinier  (20  and  27  May.  1892) ;  The  TimeB  (LoDdon. 
18  May,  1892);  Tht  ilMcmnim  (London,  21  May.  1892);  Tki 
Tablet  (21  May,  1892);  Gillow,  BibL  Did.  EngTCath,,  s.  ▼. 

Thomas  Kennedy. 

Lockwood,  John,  Venerable,  priest  and  martyr, 
b.  about  1555;  d.  at  York,  13  April,  1642.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Christopher  Lockwood,  of  Sowerby, 
Yorkshire,  by  Clare,  eldest  daughter  of  Christopher 
Lascelles,  of  Sowerby  and  Brackenborough  Caistle. 
Yorkshire.  With  the  second  son,  Francis,  he  arrivea 
at  Reims  on  4  November.  1579,  and  was  at  once  sent  to 
Douai  to  study  philosopny.  Francis  was  ordained  in 
1587,  but  John  entered  the  English  College,  Rome,  on  4 
October,  1595,  was  ordained  priest  on  26  January,  1597, 
and  sent  on  the  mission,  20  April.  1598.  After  suflfer- 
ing  imprisonment  he  was  banisned  in  1610,  but  re- 
turned, and  was  again  taken  and  condenmed  to  death, 
but  reprieved.  He  was  finally  captured  at  Wood 
End,  Gatenbv,  the  residence  of  Bridget  Gatenby,  and 

executed  witn  Edmund  Catherick. 

GiLLOw,  BM.  Diet.  Eno.  Cath.,  b.  v.;  Challokkr,  Memoind 
Missionary  Priests,  II.  No.  188;  Knox,  Diaries  of  the  BngUsk 
College,  Douay  (London.  1878),  157;  Fostbr.  ViaiiaUon  of  rM- 
«Air«  (London,  privately  printed.  1875).  61,  549;  Catholic  Record 
Society's  Publications  (London,  privately  printed.  1905.  etc.), 
V.  384. 

John  B.  Wainewbight. 

Loddve.    See  Montpellier,  Diocese  of. 

Lodi,  Diocese  of  (Laudensis),  sufifra^^an  of  Milan. 
Lodi,  the  capital  of  a  district  in  the  Province  of  Milan, 
and  situatou  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Adda,  is  an  im- 
portant commercial  centre  for  silk,  wool,  majolica 
ware,  and  works  in  cement.  Noteworthy  amonjz  the 
sacred  edifices  is  the  Lombard  cathediral,  buut  in 
1158  by  the  Cremonese  Tito  Musio  de  Gata.  The 
interior  was  restored  in  the  sixteenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries.  The  high  altar  belongs  to  the  Seioenio, 
There  is  also  a  subterranean  crypt.  The  pictures  are 
bv  Campi  (the  choir) ,  CaUsto,  Procaccini.  etc.  A  not- 
able monument  is  that  of  the  Pontani,  husband  and 
\^ife.  The  cathedral  treasure  possesses  valuable 
miniature  codices,  a  large  silver  ostensorium  of  the 
QuaUrocentOj  and  ornaments  of  the  same  period.  The 
church  of  the  Incoronata,  a  gem  of  Renaissance  archi- 
tecture, was  built  by  the  city  on  the  plans  of  Giovanni 
Batto^.  Other  beautiful  churches  are:  S.  Francesco 
(Gothic  facade),  S.  Bassiano,  and  the  Abbey  of  Cer- 
reto  with  an  octagonal  tower.  Among  the  secular 
buildines  are  the  bishop's  residence,  the  great  hospi* 
tal,  ana  the  castle,  erected  by  Bamabo  Viscontiy  ani 
converted  into  a  barrack  by  Joseph  II. 

About  four  miles  distant  is  Lodi  Vecchia,  the  an* 
cient  Laus  Pompeia,  at  first  a  city  of  the  Gauls,  and 
later  colonized  by  the  father  of  Pompey.  In  the  Middle 
A^es  its  inhabitants  were  in  frequent  conflict  with  the 
Milanese,  bv  whom  it  was  destroyed  (in  1025  under 
the  Archbishop  Ariberto  d'Antimiano;  again  in  1111; 
also  in  1158  for  its  hostility  towards  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa).  The  Marchioness  Adelaide  of  Turin  cap- 
tured and  burned  the  city  to  avenge  herself  on  Henir 
IV.  In  1 160  Barbarossa  built  the  modem  city,  which 
always  remained  faithful  to  him.  Under  Frederick 
II,  however,  Lodi  joined  the  second  Lombard  League. 
It  was  then  absorbed  in  the  Duchy  of  Milan.  In  1454 
the  peace  between  Milan,  Venice,  and  Florence  was 
confirmed  at  Lodi.  The  city  is  noted  for  the  brilliant 
cavalry  operations  of  1796,  when  Napoleon  took  the 
bridge  over  the  Adda,  ooposed  by  the  Austrians  under 
Beaulieu.  Under  Diocletian,  according  to  the  local 
legend,  4000  Christians  with  their  bishop,  whose  name 
is  unknown,  were  burned  alive  in  their  church.^  St. 
Bassianus.  the  patron  of  the  city,  was  certainlv  bishop 
in  378.  Other  bishops  were:  Titianus  (474),  whose 
relics  were  discovered  in  1640;  St.  Venantianus,  a  oon- 
temporarv  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great;  Olderico  (1024): 
Alberico  di  Merlino  (1160);    S.  Alberto  Quadrelli 


LOOXA 


323 


LOOIA 


(1168);  Blessed  Leone  Palatini  (1318),  peacemaker 
between  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines;  raolo  Cada- 
mosto  (1354),  legate  of  Urban  VI  in  Hungary;  Car- 
dinal Gerardo  di  Landriana  (1410),  who  discovered 
the  "De  Oratore"  of  Cicero:  Cardinal  Lodovico 
Simoiietta  (1537),  who  presided  at  the  Council  of 
Trent;  Antonio  Scarampi  (1568),  founder  of  the 
seminary  and  friend  of  St.  Charles  Borromco;  Carlo 
Amlnrogio  Meuabarba  (1725),  Apostolic  visitor  for 
China  and  the  Indies;  Gian  Antonio  della  Beretta 
(1758),  who  suffered  exile  for  his  opposition  to  the 
oath  of  the  (Cisalpine  Constitution.  The  diocese  has 
102  parishes,  with  200,000  souls:  4  religious  houses  of 
men,  and  37  of  women;  4  schools  for  boys,  and  23  for 

girls. 

OkPFBLUDm^  L«  Chie»6  ff Italia,  XXI  (Venice);  Hiatoria 
rentm  Laudennumt  ed.  Pebtb  in  Man.  Germ,  Hist.:  Script.t 
Vni;  ViGNATi,  Codiee  diplonuUico  laudense  (2  vols.,  Milan* 
lS83-«0);  Arehivio di Lodi  (1905), XXIV.      U.  Benigni. 

• 

Logia  Jetii,  or  "  Sayings  of  Jesus  ",  found  partly  in 
the  Inspired  Books  of  the  New  Testament,  partly 
in  uninspired  writings.  The ''  Sayings ' '  transmitted  in 
works  not  inspired  are  also  called  Agrapha  (q.  v.),  i.  e. 
''not  written"  (under  inspiration).  The  present 
article  is  confined  to  the  canonical  Logia  Jesu.  Even 
this  title  comprises  a  larger  area  than  is  technically 
covered  by  the  term  Sailings  of  Jesus,  StrictI  v  speak- 
ing, all  tlie  words  of  Cnrist  contained  in  the  Inspired 
Books  of  the  New  Testament  are  canonical  Logia  Jesu, 
while  the  technical  expression  comprises  only  the 
"Sayings  of  Jesus"  of  which  Papias  speaks  in  a  pas- 
aage  preserved  by  Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  III,  xxxix, 
16). 

The  question  concerning  the  Logia  Jesu,  taken  in 
this  restricted  meaning,  has  become  important  on 
account  of  its  connexion  with  the  so-called  "  Synoptic 
Problem".  Lessing  (Neue  Hypothesen  tiber  die 
EvangeUsten,  ed.  Lachmann,  XI,  §  53)  considered  the 
"  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews  "  as  the  source  of  the  three  Sy- 
noptic Gospeb  canonically  received.  Eichhom  (Ein- 
leitung  in  das  Neue  Testament,  1804-)  admitted  a 
primitive  gospel,  containing  the  forty-two  sections 
common  to  the  Synoptics,  as  their  source;  composed 
by  the  Apostles  shortl^r  after  Pentecost,  in  Aramaic, 
and  later  on  translated  into  Greek,  it  gave  a  summary 
of  Christ's  ministry,  and  served  as  a  guide  to  the  early 
Evangelists  in  their  preaching.  Blcek  and  de  Wette, 
in  th^  "Introductions",  substituted  for  Eichhom's 
**  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews  "  a  gospel  composed  in  Galilee 
which  was  the  source  of  Matthew  ana  Luke;  in  our 
Second  Gospel  we  have,  then,  a  compendium  of  the 
First  and  the  Third  Gospel.  A  host  of  other  writers 
endeavoured  to  solve  the  Synoptic  Problem  by  the 
theory  of  mutual  dependence  of  tnc  first  three  Gospels; 
others  again^  by  a  recourse  to  unwritten  traditions. 
It  was  at  this  luncture  that  Schleiermacher  (''  Ueber 
die  Zeugniase  des  Papias  von  unscren  beiden  ersten 
EvangeBen"  in  "Studien  und  Kritiken",  1832,  iv) 
tried  to  show  that  the  texts  of  Papias  concerning 
Ifatthew  and  Mark  do  not  refer  to  our  First  and 
Second  Gospels,  but  to  a  primitive  Matthew  and  a 
primitive  Mark.  Shortly  afterwards,  Credner  (Ein- 
leitung,  1836)  found  in  tne  primitive  Mark  the  source 
of  all  ue  historical  matter  contained  in  the  Synoptics, 
and  in  the  primitive  Matthew  the  source  of  the  dis- 
ooiueee  in  the  First  and  Third  Gospels.  Wcisse 
r Evangelisohe  Geschichte  ",  18.38;  "  Die  Evangelien- 
nage",  1856)  agrees  with  Cre<iner,  but  substitutes  our 
emoniqJ  Mark  tor  Credner's  proto-Mark. 

Credner's  hypothesis  was  followed  with  slight  modi* 
ficationsbyReuss  ("Geschichte  der  heil.  Schrift  N.T.", 
Srd  ed..  1860),  Holtsmann  ("  Die  synoptischen  Evan- 
gel]ea",1863),Weixsftcker(^'Unter8uchungenaberdie 
evang.  Gesch.'',  1864),  Beyschlag  (''Die  apostolLsche 
Spnichflammlung"  in  ^'Studien  und  Kritiken",  1881, 
hn,  de  Preasensd  ("  J^sus-Christ,  son  temps",  etc.,  7tn 
ea.,  1884)^  and  ouien,  all  of  whom  accepted  the  Logia 


and  the  proto-Mark  as  the  sources  of  the  S^nioptics. 
The  Logia  and  our  Mark  have  been  considered  as  the 
sources  of  the  first  three  Gospels,  though  with  various 
explanations,  by  such  scholars  as  G.  Meyer  (''  La  ques- 
tion synoptique ",  1878),  Sabatier  (in  Encycl.  des 
sciences  religieuses,  XI,  781  sq.),  Keim  (Geschichte 
Jesu,  I,  72,  77),  Wendt  (Die  I-ichre  Jesu,  1),  Nosgen 
(cf .  Stud.  u.  Krit.,  1870-80),  Grau  (Entwicklungsge- 
sdiichte  des  N.  T.  Schrifttnums,  1871),  Lipsius  (cf. 
Peine,  "  Jahrb.  f.  prot.  Theol.",  1885),  and  B.  Weiss 
("Jahrb.  f.  deutsch.  Theol.",  1864;  "Das  Markus- 
evang.  u.  seine  synopt.  Parallelen",  1872;  "Das  Matt- 
hausevang.",  1876;  "  Einl.  in  das  N.  T.",  1886). 

As  to  the  contents  of  the  Logia,  the  work  must  have 
contained  most  matter  common  to  Matthew  and  Luke, 
excluding  that  which  these  Gospels  share  with  Mark. 
This  material  amounts  to  about  one-sixth  of  the  text 
of  the  Third  Gospel,  and  two-elevenths  of  the  text  of 
the  First  Gospel.  In  these  portions,  the  First  and  the 
Third  Evangelists  depend  neither  on  Mark  nor  on 
each  other;  they  must  have  followed  the  Logia,  a 
document  now  denoted  by  "  Q".  When  Eusebius  (loc. 
cit.)  copied  the  words  of  Papias  that  "  Matthew  com- 
posed tlie  Logia  in  Hebrew  [Aramaic],  and  each  one 
mterpreted  them  as  he  was  able  ",  he  probably  under- 
stood them  as  referring  to  our  First  Uospel.  But  the 
critics  insist  that  Papias  must  have  understood  his 
w^ords  as  denoting  a  collection  of  the  "Sayings  of 
Jesus",  or  the  Logia  (Q).  This  hypothetical  docu- 
ment Q  has  been  much  w^ritten  about  and  investigated 
by  Weiss,  Iloltzmann,  Wendt,  Wemle,  Wellhausen, 
and  recently  by  Ilamack  ("  New  Testament  Studies  ", 
II:  "The Sayings  of  Jesus",  etc.;  tr.  Wilkinson,  New 
York  and  London,  1908),  and  Bacon  ("The  Beginning 
of  Gospel  Story",  New  Haven,  1909).  A  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  Logia  is  attempted  in  Resch's  "  Die  Logia 
Jesu  nach  dem  griechischen  und  hebr&ischen  Text  wie- 
derhergest<^llt",  1898  (cf.  also  his  "Aussercanonische 
Parallcltexte  z\x  den  Evangelien"  in  "Texte  und 
Untersuchungcn",  X,  i-v,  1893-90),  and  in  Hamack's 
work  already  quoted. 

A  numljer  of  questions  has  been  raised  in  this  in- 
vestigation, but  no  altogether  satisfactory  answer  has 
been  forthcoming.  Is  it  possible  to  settle  the  text  of 
the  il  source  of  the  First  and  Third  Gospels,  seeing  that 
one  Gospel  may  have  been  corrected  from  the  other? 
Did  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  use  the  same  transla- 
tion or  recension  of  Q?  Did  either  Evangelist  pay 
attention  to  the  Aramaic  original?  In  which  of  the 
two  Gospels  is  Q  best  reproduced  both  in  regard  to 
extent  and  arrangement?  How  much  of  the  materisd 
peculiar  to  either  the  First  or  the  Third  Gospel  has 
keen  taken  from  Q?  Again,  was  the  original  form  of 
Q  a  gospel,  or  was  it  a  collection  of  real  Logia?  These 
are  some  of  the  fimdamental  questions  which  the 
critics  must  answer.  Then  come  the  further  Questions 
as  to  the  authorship  of  the  Logia;  the  time  and  place  of 
their  origin,  their  relation  to  St.  Paul,  their  influence 
on  St.  Mark,  the  cause,  manner,  and  time  of  their 
disappearance,  and  other  similar  prol^lems.  The  an- 
swer to  manv,  if  not  to  all,  of  these  questions  is  thus 
far  not  satisfactory. 

The  student  of  the  Eusebian  record  of  the  words  of 
Papias  will  have  his  doubts  as  to  the  sense  of  XA7ta 
advocated  by  the  critics.  (1)  In  several  other  ancient 
writers  the  word  has  not  the  narrow  meaning  of  mere 
"sayings":  Rom.,  iii,  2,  applies  it  to  the  whole  Old 
Testament;  Heb.,  v,  12,  to  tlie  whole  body  of  Christ's 
doctrine;  Flavius  Josephus  makes  it  equivalent  to  tA 
Icpd  ypdftnara  (Bel.  Jud.,  VI,  v,  4);  St.  Irenseus  uses  rd 
TiAyia  toO  Kvplov  of  the  Gospels;  other  instances  of  a 
wider  meaning  of  X^Yta  have  been  collected  by  Funk 
(Patres  Apostol.,  II,  280),  and  Schanz  (Matthfius,  27- 
31).  (2)  The  \iyta  of  Papias  at  least  may  refer  to  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  Eu8e])ius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill, 
xxxix,  16)  understands  the  words  in  this  sense.  The 
context  of  Papias,  too,  suggests  this  interpretation; 


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324 


LOOIO 


for,  speaking  of  St.  Mark,  Papias  says  that  the  Evange- 
list recorded  "  what  had  been  said  and  done  by  Christ", 
and  what  he  had  heard  from  Peter,  and  not  "as  if  he 
were  composing  an  orderly  account  of  the  X67U1 ",  so 
that  the  X67to  are  equivalent  to  the  recorded  "  words 
and  deeds  "  of  Christ.  Again,  the  title  of  Papias's  work 
is  Aoylay  KvpiaKutw  'E^ifyiya-ti,  thou^  the  writer  does 
not  confine  himself  to  the  explanation  of  the  "say- 
ings "  of  the  Lord.  (3)  The  X67ta  of  Papias  must  refer 
to  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew:  (a)  No  writing  of  St. 
Matthew  except  his  Gospel  was  generally  known  in  the 
second  century;  (b)  there  is  no  record  of  a  work  of  the 
Evan^list  that  contained  the  Lord's  words  only;  (c) 
even  Eusebius  found  no  trace  of  the  'K6yia  m/pioicd, 
though  he  diligently  collected  all  that  had  been  writ^ 
ten  about  Christ  by  the  Apostles  and  the  disciples;  (d) 
all  antiquity  could  not  have  remained  ignorant  of  a 
work  of  such  importance,  if  it  had  existed;  (e)  the 
First  Gospel  contains  so  many  discourses  of  the  Lord 
that  it  might  well  be  called  \6yia  KvpiaKd  (cf .  Hilgen- 
feld,  "EinL",  456;  Lightfoot  in  "Contemp.  Review", 
Aug.,  1867,  405  sqq.;  Aug.,  1875,  399  sqq.,  410  sq.). 
The  Logia,  or  the  document  Q  of  the  critics,  rests 
therefore  on  no  historical  authority,  but  only  on 

critical  induction. 

See  literature  under  Agrapua;  also  the  works  quoted  in  this 
article.  A.  J.  Maas. 

Logic  is  the  science  and  art  which  so  directs  the 
mind  in  the  process  of  reasoning  and  subsidiary  pro- 
cesses as  to  enable  it  to  attain  clearness,  consistency, 
and  validity  in  those  processes.  The  aim  of  logic  is  to 
secure  clearness  in  the  definition  and  arriingement  of 
our  ideas  and  other  mental  images,  consistency  in  our 
judgments,  and  validity  in  our  processes  of  inference. 

I.  The  Name. — ^The  Greek  word  XA70J,  meaning 
**  reason",  is  the  origin  of  the  term  logic — \oyiK'^  (j^x^t 
vpayfrnrela,  or  ixurr'^fifjf  understood),  as  the  name 
of  a  science  or  art,  first  occurs  in  the  writings  of  the 
Stoics  (see  Stoic  Philosophy).  Aristotle,  the  foim- 
der  of  the  science,  designates  it  as  "analytic  ",  and  the 
Epicureans  (see  Epicureanism)  use  the  term  canonic. 
From  the  time  of  Cicero,  however,  the  word  logic  is 
used  almost  without  exception  to  designate  this 
science.  The  names  dialectic  and  analytic  are  also 
used. 

II.  The  Definition. — ^It  is  a  curious  fact  that,  al- 
though logic  is  the  science  which  treats  of  definition, 
logicians  are  not  agreed  as  to  how  logic  it«elf  should  be 
defined.  There  are,  in  all,  about  two  hundred  differ- 
ent definitions  of  logic.  It  would,  of  course,  be  im- 
possible to  enumerate  even  the  principal  definitions 
here.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  and  discuss  a 
few  typical  ones. 

A.  The  Port  Royal  Lopic  ("L*  Art  de  penser",  pub- 
lished 1662)  defines  logic  as  **ihe  art  of  using  reason 
well  in  the  acquisition  of  the  knowledge  of  things,  both 
for  one's  own  instruction  and  that  of  others  *'.  More 
briefly, "  Logic  is  the  art  of  reasoning  ".  The  latter  is 
Amauld's  definition.  Definitions  of  this  type  are  con- 
sidered too  narrow,  both  because  they  define  logic  in 
terms  of  art,  not  leaving  room  for  its  claim  to  be  con- 
sidered a  science,  and  because,  by  the  use  of  the  term 
reasoning^  they  restrict  the  scope  of  logic  to  one  class 
of  mental  processes. 

B.  He^el  (see  Heqelianism)  goes  to  the  other  ex- 
treme when  he  defines  logic  as  "  the  science  of  the  pure 
idea  ".  By  idea  he  understands  all  reality,  so  that  for 
him  logic  includes  the  science  of  subjective  reality 
Gogic  of  mental  concepts)  and  the  science  of  objective 
reality  Oo^c  of  being,  metaphysics).  In  like  manner 
the  definitions  which  fail  to  distinguish  between  logic 
and  psychology,  defining  logic  as  the  science  of  men- 
tal processes  ,  or  "the  science  of  the  operations  of  the 
mind  ",  are  too  wide.  Definitions  which  characterize 
logic  as  "  the  science  of  sciences  ", "  the  art  of  arts  ",  are 
0SO  too  wide :  they  set  up  too  large  a  claim  for  logic. 


C.  8U  Thotnas,  in  his  commentary  on  Aristotle's 
logical  tr^itises  ("  In  Post.  Anal.",  lect.  i,  Leonine  ed., 
I,  138),  says:  "Ars  qusedam  necessaria  est,  qu»  sit 
directiva  ipsius  actus  rationis,  per  quam  scilicet  homo 
in  ipso  actu  rationis  ordinate  faciliter  et  sine  errore 
procedat.  Et  hsec  ars  est  logica,  id  est  rationaliB 
scientia."  Combining  those  two  sentences,  we  m&j 
render  St.  Thomas's  definition  as  follows:  "Logic  is 
the  science  and  art  which  directs  the  act  of  the  reason, 
by  which  a  man  in  the  exercise  of  his  reason  is  enabled 
to  proceed  without  error,  confusion,  or  unnecessaiy 
difficulty  ".  Taking  reason in  its  broadest  sense,  so  as 
to  include  all  the  operations  of  the  mind  which  are 
strictly  cognitive,  namely,  the  formation  of  mental 
images,  judgment,  and  ratiocination,  we  may  expand 
St.  Thomas  definition  and  define  logic  as  *'  t£te  science 
and  art  which  so  directs  the  mind  in  the  process  of 
reasoning  and  subsidiary  processes  as  to  enable  it  to 
attain  clearness  (or  order),  consistency,  and  validity 
in  those  processes".  Logic  is  essentially  directive. 
Therein  it  differs  from  psychology,  which  is  essentially 
speculative,  or  theoretical,  and  which  concerns  itself 
only  in  an  incidental  and  secondary  manner  with  the 
direction  of  mental  processes.  Logic  deals  with  pro- 
cesses  of  the  mind.  Therein  it  differs  from  metaphy- 
sics, which  has  for  its  field  of  inquiry  and  specula- 
tion the  whole  universe  of  being  (see  MirrAPHTSics). 
Logic  deals  with  mental  processes  in  relation  to  truth 
or,  more  particularly,  in  relation  to  the  attainment 
and  exposition  of  truth  by  processes  which  aim  at 
being  valid,  clear,  orderly,  and  consistent.  Therein  it 
differs  from  ethics,  which  treats  of  human  actions, 
external  deeds  as  well  as  thoughts,  in  relation  to  man's 
final  destiny.  Validity,  clearness,  consistency,  and 
order  are  logical  qualities  of  thought;  goodness  and 
evil  are  ethical  qualities.  Finally,  logic  is  not  to  be 
confoimded  with  rhetoric.  Rhetoric,  in  the  old  meanr 
ing  of  the  word,  was  the  art  of  persuasion;  it  used  all 
the  devices,  such  as  emotional  appeal,  verbal  arrange- 
ment, etc.,  in  order  to  bring  about  a  state  of  mind 
which  had  reference  to  action  primarily,  and  to  con- 
viction only  in  a  secondary  sense.  Logic  is  the  science 
and  art  of  conviction ;  it  uses  only  arguments,  discard- 
ing emotional  appeal  and  employing  merely  words  as 
the  symbols  of  thoughts. 

The  question  whether  logic  is  a  science  or  an  art  is 
now  generally  decided  by  asserting  that  it  is  both.  It 
is  a  science,  in  so  far  as  it  not  merely  formulates  rules 
for  ri^ht  thinking,  but  deduces  those  rules  from  general 
principles  which  are  based  on  the  nature  of  mind  and 
of  truth.  It  is  an  art,  in  so  far  as  it  is  directly  and  im- 
mediately related  to  performance,  namely,  to  the  acts 
of  the  mind.  As  the  fine  arts  direct  the  painter  or  the 
sculptor  in  tlie  actions  by  which  he  aims  at  produc- 
ing a  beautiful  picture  or  a  beautiful  statue,  so  logic 
directs  the  thinker  in  the  actions  by  which  he  aims  at 
attaining  truth,  or  expoimding  truth  which  he  has 
attained. 

III.  Division  op  Logic. — The  traditional  mode  of 
dividing  logic,  into  "  formal "  and  **  material  "^  is  main- 
tained in  many  modem  treatises  on  the  subject.  In 
formal  logic  the  processes  of  thought  are  studied  inde- 
pendently of,  or  without  consideration  of,  their  con- 
tent. In  material  logic  the  chief  question  is  the  truth 
of  the  content  of  mental  processes.  An  example  from 
arithmetic  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  function  of  for- 
mal logic.  When  we  add  two  and  two,  and  pronounce 
the  result  to  be  four,  we  are  dealing  with  a  process  of 
addition  in  its  formal  aspect,  without  paying  attention 
to  the  content.  The  process  is  valid  whatever  the 
content  may  be,  whether  the  "two  and  two"  refer  to 
books,  horses,  trees,  or  circles.  This  is  precisely  how 
we  study  judgments  and  arguments  in  logic.  From 
the  judgment  "All  A  is  B"  we  infer  "Therefore  some 
B  is  A";  and  the  process  is  valid  whether  the  original 
proposition  be  "All  circles  are  round"  or  " All  umis 
are  carnivorous  "•    In  material  logic,  on  the  oontrwy, 


Loaio 


325 


LOGIO 


inquire  into  the  content  of  the  judgments  or 
premltoB  and  endeavour  to  determine  whether  they 
are  truc^or  false.  Material  logic  was  styled  by  the  old 
writers  ''major  logic'^  "critical  logic",  or  simply 
"criticism".  In  recent  times  the  word  epistemoiowj 
(science  of  knowledge),  meaning  an  inquiry  into  tne 
value  of  knowledge,  has  come  into  general  use,  and 
designates  that  portion  of  philosophy  which  inquires 
into  tiie  objective  value  of  our  concepts,  the  import 
and  value  of  judgments  and  reasoning,  the  criteria  of 
truth,  the  nature  of  evidence,  certitude,  etc.  When- 
ever this  new  term  i^  adopted  there  is  a  tendency  to 
restrict  the  term  logic  to  mean  merely  formal  logic. 
Formal  logic  studies  concepts,  and  other  mental  images, 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  clearness  and  order  among 
those  contents  of  the  mind.  It  studies  judgments  for 
the  purpose  of  showing  when  and  how  they  are  con- 
sistent or  inconsistent,  that  is,  when  one  may  be  in- 
ferred from  another  (conversion),  and  when  they  are 
opposed  (opposition) .  It  studies  the  two  kinds  of  rea- 
soning, deductive  and  inductive,  so  as  to  direct  the 
nund  to  use  these  processes  validly.  Finally,  it  studies 
sophisms  (or  fallacies)  and  method  for  the  purix)sc  of 
showing  what  errors  are  to  be  avoided,  and  what 
arrangement  is  to  be  followed  in  a  complex  series  of 
reasoning  processes.  But,  while  it  is  true  in  general  that 
in  aU  these  tasks  formal  logic  preserves  its  purely  for- 
mal character,  and  docs  not  inquire  into  the  content  of 
thought,  nevertheless,  in  dealing  with  inductive 
reasoning  and  in  laying  down  the  rules  for  definition 
and  division,  formal  logic  does  take  accoimt  of  the 
matter  of  thought.  For  this  reason,  it  seems  desirable 
to  abandon  the  old  distinction  between  formal  and 
material,  to  designate  as  logic  what  was  formerly  called 
formal  logic,  and  to  reserve  the  term  epistcmology 
for  that  portion  of  philosophy  which,  while  inquiring 
into  the  value  of  human  knowledge  in  general,  covers 
the  ground  which  was  the  domain  of  material  logic. 

There  remain  certain  kinds  of  logic  which  are  not 
included  under  the  heskdafontial  and  material.  Trans- 
cendental logic  (Kant)  is  the  in(}uiry  into  human 
knowledge  for  the  purpose  of  determining  wliat  ele- 
ments or  factors  in  human  thought  are  a  priori,  that  is, 
independent  of  experience.  Symbolic  logic  (Lam- 
b^,  Boole)  is  an  application  of  mathematical  methods 
to  the  processes  of  thought.  It  uses  certain  conven- 
tional symbols  to  represent  terms,  projjositions,  and 
the  relations  among  them,  and  then,  without  any 
further  reference  to  the  laws  of  thought,  applies  the 
rules  and  methods  of  the  mathematical  calculus  (Venn, 
"Symbolic  Logic",  London,  1881).  Applied  logic,  in 
the  narrower  sense,  is  synonymous  with  material  logic ; 
in  the  wider  sense,  it  means  logic  applied  to  the  study 
of  the  natural  sciences,  logic  applied  to  education, 
logic  applied  to  the  study  of  law,  etc.  Natural  logic 
is  that  native  power  of  the  mind  by  which  most  persons 
are  competent  to  jud^e  correctly  and  reason  validly 
about  the  affairs  and  mterests  of  everyday  life;  it  fs 
osntrasted  with  scientific  logic,  which  is  logic  as  a 
science  and  cultivated  art. 

IV.  HiSTORT  OP  Logic. — ^The  history  of  logic  pos- 
a  more  than  ordinary  interest,  because,  on  the 


one  hand,  every  change  in  the  point  of  view  of  the 
metaphysician  and  the  psychologist  tended  to  produce 
a  corresponding  change  in  logical' theory  and  practice, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  changes  in  logical  method 
and  procedure  tended  to  affect  the  conclusions  as  well 
as  the  method  of  the  philosopher.  Notwithstanding 
th^  tendencies  towards  variation,  the  science  of  logic 
has  undergone  very  few  ra<lical  changes  from  the  be- 
ginning of  its  history. 

A.  The  Nyaya, — A  system  of  philosophy  which  was 
studied  in  India  in  the  fifth  century  b.  c,  though  it  is, 
perhaps,  of  much  older  date,  takes  its  name  from  the 
word  nyaya,  meaning  logical  argument,  or  syllogism. 
This  philosophy,  like  all  tlie  Indian  Hystems.  f)usied  it- 
self with  the  problem  of  the  deliverance  of  the-  soul 


from  bondage,  and  its  solution  was  that  the  soul  is  to 
be  freed  from  the  trammels  of  matter  by  means  of 
systematic  reasoning.  This  view  of  the  question  1^ 
naturally  to  an  analysis  of  the  methods  of  thinking, 
and  to  the  construction  of  a  type  of  reasoning  whicn 
bears  a  remote  resemblance  to  the  s\'lIogism.  The 
nyaya,  or  Indian  syllogism,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
consists  of  five  propositions.  If,  for  instance,  one 
wishes  to  prove  that  the  hill  is  on  fire,  one  begins  with 
the  assertion:  "Tlie  hill  is  on  fire."  Next,  the  reason 
is  given:  "For  it  smokes."  Then  comes  an  instance, 
"Like  the  kitchen  fire";  which  is  followed  by  the 
application,  * '  So  also  the  hill  smokes."  Finally  comes 
the  conclusion,  "Therefore  it  is  on  fire."  fietween 
this  and  the  clear-cut  Aristotelean  s>^lIogism,  with  its 
major  and  minor  premises  and  conclusion,  there  is  all 
the  difference  that  exists  between  the  Oriental  and  the 
Greek  mode  of  thinking.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
say  that  there  is  no  historical  evidence  that  Aristotle 
was  in  any  way  influenced  in  his  logic  by  Gotama,  the 
reputed  author  of  the  nyaya, 

B.  Pre-AHstotelean  Logic  in  Greece. — ^The  first 
pliilosophers  of  Greece  devoted  attention  exclusively  to 
the  problem  of  the  origin  of  the  imiverse  (see  Ionian 
School  of  Philosophy).  The  Eleatics,  especially 
Zeno  of  Elea,  the  Sophists,  and  the  Megarians  devel- 
oped the  art  of  argumentation  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection.  Zeno  was  especially  remarkable  in  this 
respect,  and  is  sometimes  styled  the  Founder  of  Dialec- 
tic. None  of  these,  however,  formulated  laws  or  rules 
of  reasoning.  The  same  is  true  of  Socrates  and  Plato, 
although  the  former  laid  great  stress  on  definition  ana 
induction,  and  the  latter  exalted  dialectic,  or  dis- 
cussion, into  an  important  instrument  of  philosophical 
knowledge. 

C.  Aristotle,  the  Founder  of  Logic. — In  the  six  trea- 
tises which  he  devoted  to  the  subject,  Aristotle  ex- 
amined and  analysed  the  thinking  processes  for  the 
purpose  of  formulating  the  laws  of  thought.  These 
treatises  are  (1)  "The  Categories",  (2)  "Interpreta- 
tion", (3) "  Prior  Analytics",  (1) "  Posterior  Analytics", 
(5)  "  Topics",  and  (G)  "  Sophisms".  These  were  after- 
wards given  the  title  of  "  Organon",  or  "  Instrument  of 
Knowledge";  this  designation,  however,  did  not  come 
into  common  use  until  the  iifteenth  century.  The 
first  four  treatises  contain,  with  occasional  excursions 
into  the  domain  of  grammar  and  metaphysics,  the 
science  of  formal  logic  essentially  the  same  as  it  is 
taught  at  the  present  day.  The  "Topics"  and  the 
"Sophisms"  contain  the  applications  of  logic  to  argu- 
mentation and  the  refutation  of  fallacies.  In  con- 
fonnity  with  the  fundamental  principle  of  his  theory 
of  knowledge,  namely,  that  all  our  knowledge  comes 
from  experience,  Aristotle  recognizes  the  importance 
of  inductive  reasoning,  that  is  to  say,  reosonmg  from 
particular  instances  to  general  principles.  If  he  and 
nis  followers  did  not  develop  more  fully  this  portion  of 
logic,  it  was  not  l>ecause  they  did  not  recognize  its 
importance  in  principle.  His  claim  to  the  title  of 
Founder  of  Logic  has  never  been  seriously  disputed; 
tlie  most  that  his  opponents  in  the  modem  era  could 
do  was  to  set  up  rival  systems  in  which  induction  was 
to  supplant  syllogistic  reasoning.  One  of  the  devices 
of  the  opponents  of  scholasticism  is  to  identify  the 
Schoolmen  and  Aristotle  with  the  advocacy  of  an  ex- 
clusively deductive  logic. 

D.  Post-Aristotelean  Logicians  Among  the  Greeks. — 
Among  the  immediate  disciples  of  Aristotle,  Theo- 
phrastus  and  Eudemus  devoted  special  attention  to 
logic.  To  the  former  is  sometimes  attributed  the  in- 
vention of  the  hypothetical  syllogism,  although  the 
same  claim  is  sometimes  made  for  the  Stoics.  The 
latter,  to  whom,  probably,  we  owe  the  name  logic, 
recognized  this  science  vls  one  of  the  constitutive  parts 
of  philosophy.  They  included  in  it  dialectic  and 
rhetoric,  or  the  science  of  argumentation  and  the 
science  of  persuasion.    They  busied  themselves  also 


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with  the  question  of  the  criterion  of  truth,  which  is 
still  an  important  problem  in  major  logic,  or.  as  it  is 
now  called,  epistemology.  Undoubtedly,  tney  im- 
proved on  Aristotle's  logic  in  many  points  of  detail; 
but  to  what  extent,  and  in  what  respect,  is  a  matter  of 
oonjectme,  owing  to  the  loss  of  the  voluminous  Stoic 
treatises  on  logic.  Their  rivals,  the  Epicmeans  (see 
Epicureanism)  professed  a  contempt  for  logic — or 
"canonic",  as  they  styled  it.  They  maintedned  that 
it  is  an  adjunct  of  physics,  and  that  a  knowledge  of 
physical  phenomena  acquired  through  the  senses  is  the 
only  knowledge  that  is  of  value  in  the  pursuit  of  happi- 
ness. After  the  Stoics  and  the  Epicureans  came  tne 
commentators.  These  may,  for  convenience,  be 
divided  into  the  Greeks  and  the  Latins.  The  Greeks, 
from  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias,  in  the  second,  to  St. 
John  of  Damascus  in  the  eighth  century  of  our  era, 
flourished  at  Athens,  at  Alexandria,  and  in  Asia  Minor. 
With  Photius,  in  the  ninth  century,  the  scene  is  shifted 
to  Constantinople.  To  the  first  period  belong  Alexan- 
der of  Aphroaisias,  known  as  "the  Commentator", 
Themistius,  David  the  Armenian,  Philoponus,  Simpli- 
cius.  and  Porphyrv,  author  of  the  Isagoge  (Eurayuyiff) , 
or  "Introduction  to  the  logic  of  Aristotle.  In  this 
work  the  author,  by  his  explicit  enumeration  of  the 
five  prcdicables  and  his  comment  thereon,  flung  a 
challenge  to  the  medieval  logicians,  which  they  took 
up  in  the  famous  controversy  concerning  universals 
^ee  Universals).  To  the  second  period  belong 
Photius,  Michael  Psellus  the  younger  (eleventh  cen- 
tuir),  Isicephorus  Blemmydes.  George  Pachymeres, 
and  Leo  Magentinus  (thirteenth  century).  All  these 
did  little  more  than  abridge,  explain,  and  defend  the 
text  of  the  Aristotelean  works  on  logic.  An  exception 
should,  perhaps,  be  made  in  favour  of  the  physician 
Galen  (second  century),  who  is  said  to  have  introduced 
the  fourth  syllogistic  figure,  and  who  wrote  a  special 
work,  "  On  Fallacies  of  Diction". 

E.  Lalin  Commentators, — ^Among  the  Latin  com- 
mentators on  Aristotle  we  find  almost  in  every  case 
more  originahty  and  more  inchnation  to  add  to  the 
science  of  logic  than  we  do  in  the  case  of  the  Greeks. 
After  the  taking  of  Athens  by  Sulla  (84  b.  c.)  the  works 
of  Aristotle  were  carried  to  Rome,  where  they  were 
arranged  and  edit^Ml  by  Andronicus  of  Rhodes  (see 
Aristotle).  The  first  logical  treatise  in  Latin  is 
Cicero's  abridgment  of  the  "Topics".  Then  came  a 
long  period  of  inactivity.  About  a.  d.  160,  Apuleius 
wrote  a  short  account  of  the  "Interpretation".  In 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  Marius  Victorinus 
translated  Porphyry's  "  Isagoge".  To  the  time  of  St. 
Augustine  belong  the  treatises  ^'Categoria?  Decem" 
and  "  Principia  Dialectica".  Both  were  attributed  to 
St.  Augustine,  though  the  first  is  certainlv  spurious,  and 
the  second  of  doubtful  authenticity,  rf hey  were  very 
often  transcribed  in  the  early  Middle  Ages,  and  the 
logical  treatises  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  make 
very  free  use  of  their  contents.  The  most  popular, 
however,  of  all  the  Latin  works  on  logic  was  the 
curious  medley  of  prose  and  verse  "De  Nuptiis  Mer- 
curii  et  Philologiaj'  by  Marcianus  Capella  (about  a.  d. 
475).  In  it  dialectic  is  treated  as  one  of  the  seven 
liberal  arts  (see  Arts,  The  Seven  Liberal),  and  that 
portion  of  the  work  was  the  text  in  all  the  early  medie- 
val schools  of  logic.  Another  writer  on  logic  who 
exerted  a  widespread  influence  during  the  first  period 
of  Scholasticism  was  Boethius  (470-524),  who  wrote 
two  commentaries  on  the  "  Isagoge"  of  Porphyry,  two 
on  Aristotle's  "  Interpretation",  and  one  on  the  "  Cate- 
«>ries' ' .  Besides,  he  wrote  the  original  treatises, "  On 
Categorical  Syllogisms",  "On  Division",  and  "On 
Topical  Differences",  and  translated  several  portions 
of  Aristotle's  logical  works.  In  fact,  it  was  princi- 
pally through  his  translations  that  the  early  Scholastic 
writers,  who  as  a  rule,  were  entirely  ignorant  of 
Greek,  had  access  to  Aristotle's  writings.  Cassiodorus, 
a  contemporary  of  Boethius,  wrote  a  treatise, "  On  the 


Seven  Liberal  Arts",  in  which,  in  the  portion  devoted 
to  dialectic,  he  gave  a  summary  and  analvsis  of  the 
Aristotelean  ana  Porphyrian  writings  on  logic.  Isi- 
dore of  Seville  (died  636),  Venerable  Bede  (673-735), 
and  Alcuin  (736-804),  the  forerunners  of  the  Scholas- 
tics, were  content  with  abridging  in  their  logical  works 
the  writings  of  Boethius  and  Cassiodorus. 

F.  The  Scholastics. — ^The  first  masters  of  the  schools 
in  the  age  of  Charlemagne  and  the  century  immedi- 
ately following  were  not  acquainted  at  first  hand  with 
Aristotle's  works.  They  used  the  works  and  transla- 
tions of  Boethius,  the  pseudo-Augustinian  treatises 
mentioned  above,  and  the  work  by  Marcianus  Capella. 
Little  by  little  tneir  interest  became  centred  on  the 
metaphysical  and  psychological  problems  suggested 
in  those  treatises,  especially  on  the  problem  of  univer- 
sals and  the  conflict  between  ReaUsm  and  Nominalism. 
As  a  consequence  of  this  shifting  of  the  centre  of  inter- 
est, very  little  was  done  towards  perfecting  the  technic 
of  logic,  and  there  is  a  very  noticeable  dearth  of 
original  work  during  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries. 
John  Scotus  Eriugena,  Eric  and  Remi  of  Auxerre,  and 
the  teachers  at  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland  confined  their 
activity  to  glossing  and  commenting  on  the  traditional 
texts,  especially  Pseudo-Augustine  and  Marcianus 
Capella.  In  the  case  of  the  St.  Gall  teachers  we  have 
however,  by  way  of  exception,  a  work  on  logic  (pub- 
lished by  Piper,  "  Die  Schriften  Notkers",  I,  Freiburg, 
1895),  which  bears  evident  traces  of  the  influence  of 
Eriugena,  and  a  collection  of  mnemonic  verses  con- 
taining the  nineteen  valid  syllogisms  (published  from 
ninth-century  MS.  in  the  "Philosophical  Review", 
Sept.,  1907,  XVI,  5). 

Roscelin  (about  1050-1100),  by  his  outspoken  pro- 
fession of  Nominalism,  concentrated  the  attention  of 
his  contemporaries  and  immediate  successors  on  the 
problem  of  universals.  In  the  disciission  of  that 
problem  the  art  of  dialectical  disputation  was  devel- 
oped, and  a  taste  for  argumentation  was  fostered,  but 
none  of  the  dialecticians  of  the  twelfth  century,  with 
the  exception  of  Abelard,  contributed  to  the  advance- 
ment of  the  science  of  logic.  This  Abelard  did  in 
several  ways.  In  his  work  to  which  Cousin  gave  the 
title  "Dialectica",  and  in  his  commentaries,  he  strove 
to  widen  the  scope  and  enhance  the  utility  of  logic  as  a 
science.  Not  only  is  it  the  science  of  disputation,  but 
also  the  science  of  discovery,  by  means  of  which  the 
arguments  supplied  by  a  study  of  nature  are  examined. 
The  principal  application  of  logic,  however,  is  in  the 
discussion  of  rehgious  truth.  Here  Abelard,  citing 
the  authority  of  St.  Augustine,  contends  that  the 
methods  of  dialectic  are  applicable  to  the  discussion  of 
all  truth,  revealed  as  well  as  rational;  they  are  appli- 
cable even  to  the  mysteries  of  faith.  In -principle  he 
was  right,  although  in  practice  he  went  further  than 
the  example  of  St.  Augustine  would  warrant  him  in 
going.  His  subsequent  condemnation  had  for  its 
ground,  not  the  use  of  dialectic  in  theology,  but  the 
excessive  use  of  dialectic  to  the  point  of  rationalism. 
Abelard,  it  should  be  noted,  was  acquainted  only  with 
those  treatises  of  Aristotle  which  had  been  translated 
bv  Boethius,  and  which  constituted  the  logica  vetus. 
ilis  contemporary,  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^e  (q.  v.),  added 
to  the  old  logic  a  work  entitled  "Liber  Sex  Princi- 
piorum",  a  treatise  on  the  last  six  of  the  Aristotelean 
Categories.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury the  remainder  of  the  Aristotelean  "Organon" 
became  known,  so  that  the  logic  of  the  schools, 
thenceforth  known  as  logica  nova,  now  contained:  (1) 
Aristotle's  "Categories"  and  "Interpretation"  and 
Porphyry's  "  Isagoge"  (contents  of  the  logica  vetus) ;  (2) 
Aristotle's  "Analvtics",  "Topics",  and  "Sophisms"; 
(3)  Gilbert's  "Liber  Sex  Pnncipiorum".  This  was 
the  text  in  the  schools  when  St.  Thomas  began  to 
teach,  and  it  continued  to  be  used  until  superseded  by 
the  logica  modemay  which  embodied  the  contributions 
of  Petrus  Hispanus.    The  first  writer  of  importance 


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who  reveals  an  acquaintance  with  the  Aristotelean 
"Organon"  in  its  entirety  is  John  of  Salisbury  (died 
1182),  a  disciple  of  Abelard,  who  explains  and  defends 
the  legitimate  use  of  dialectic  in  his  work  "  Metalogi- 
cus". 

The  definite  triumph  of  Aristotelean  logic  in  the 
schools  of  the  thirteenth  century  was  influenced  by 
the  introduction  into  Christian  Europe  of  the  com- 
plete works  of  Aristotle  in  Greek.  The  occasioti  of 
this  was  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  crusaders 
in  1204.  The  Crusades  had  also  the  effect  of  bringing 
Christian  Europe  into  closer  contact  with  the  Arabian 
scholars  who,  ever  since  the  ninth  century,  had  culti- 
vated Aristotelean  logic  as  well  as  the  neo-Platonic 
interpretation  of  Aristotle's  metaphysics.  It  was  the 
Arabians  who  distinguished  logica  docens  and  logica 
tUens,  The  former  is  logic  as  a  theoretical  science; 
the  latter  is  lo^c  as  an  applied  art,  practical  logic. 
To  them  also  is  attributed  the  distinction  between 
first  intentions  and  second  intentions.  The  Arabians, 
however,  did  not  exert  a  determining  influence  on  the 
development  of  Scholastic  logic;  they  contributed  to 
that  development  only  in  an  external  manner,  by 
helping  to  make  Aristotelean  literature  accessible  to 
Chnstian  thinkers.  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  his 
teacher.  Blessed  Albertus  Ma^us  (Albert  the  Great), 
did  signal  service  to  Scholastic  logic,  not  so  much  by 
adding  to  its  technical  rules  as  by  defining  its  scope 
and  determining  the  limits  of  its  legitimate  applica- 
tions to  theology.  They  both  composed  commen- 
taries on  Aristotle's  logical  works  and,  besides,  wrote 
independent  logical  treatises.  The  work,  however, 
whicn  bears  the  name  "Summa  Totius  Logicffi",  and 
is  found  among  the  "  Opuscula"  of  St.  Thomas,  is  now 
judged  to  be  from  the  pen  of  a  disciple  of  his,  Herv6  of 
Nedellac  (Hervaeus  Natalis).  John  Duns  Scotus  was 
also  a  commentator  on  Aristotle's  logic.  His  most 
important  original  treatises  on  logic  are  "  De  Univer- 
sahbus",  in  which  he  goes  over  the  ground  covered  by 
Porphyry  in  the  "  Isa^oge",  and  "  Grammatica  Specu- 
lativa".  The  latter  is  an  interesting  contribution  to 
critical  logic. 

The  tecnnic  of  logic  received  special  attention  from 
Petrus  Hispanus  (Pope  John  XXI,  died  1277),  author 
of  the  * '  SummulaB  Logicales' ' .  This  is  the  first  medie- 
val work  to  cover  the  whole  eround  of  Aristotelean 
logic  in  an  original  way.  All  its  predecessors  were 
merely  summaries  or  abridgments  of  Aristotle's  works. 
In  it  occur  the  mnemonic  Tines,  "  Barbara,  Celarent", 
ete.,  and  nearly  all  the  devices  of  a  similar  kind  which 
are  now  used  in  the  study  of  logic.  They  are  the  first 
of  the  kind  in  the  history  of  logic,  the  lines  in  the 
ninth-century  MS.  mentioned  above  being  verses  to 
aid  the  memory,  without  the  use  of  arbitrary  signs, 
such  as  the  designation  of  types  of  propositions  by 
means  of  vowels.  And  the  credit  of  havingintroduced 
them  is  now  almost  unanimously  given  to  Petrus  him- 
self. The  theory  that  he  borrowed  them  from  a  Greek 
work  by  Psellus  (see  above)  is  discredited  by  an 
examination  of  the  MSS.,  which  shows  that  the  Greek 
verses  are  of  later  date  than  those  in  the  "  Summul®". 
In  fact,  it  was  the  Bvzantine  writer  who  copied  the 
Parisian  teacher,  and  not,  as  Prantl  contended,  the 
Latin  who  borrowed  from  the  Greek.  William  of 
Occam  (1280-1349)  improved  on  the  arrangement 
and  method  of  the  "  Summul®"  in  his  "  Summa  Totius 
Logicae".  He  also  made  important  contributions  to 
the  doctrine  of  supposition  of  terms.  He  did  not, 
however,  agree  witn  St.  Thomas  and  Bl.  Albert  the 
Great  in  their  definition  of  the  scope  and  application  of 
logic.  His  own  conception  of  the  purpose  of  lo^ic  was 
simSciently  serious  and  dignified.  It  was  his  followers, 
the  Occamists  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, who,  by  their  abuse  of  dialectical  methods, 
brought  Scholastic  logic  into  disrepute.  One  of  the 
most  original  of  all  the  Scholastic  logicians  was  Ray- 
mond Lully  (1234-1315).    In  his  "  Dialegtica"  he  ex- 


pounds clearly  and  concisely  the  logic  of  Aristotle,  to* 

f  ether  with  the  additions  made  to  that  science  by 
'etrus  Hispanus.  In  his  "  Ars  Ma^na",  however,  he 
discards  all  the  rules  and  prescriptions  of  the  formal 
science,  and  undertakes  oy  means  of  his  "logical 
machine"  to  demonstrate  in  a  perfectly  mechanical 
way  all  truth,  supernatural  as  well  as  natural. 

Scholastic  logic,  as  may  be  seen  from  this  sketeh. 
did  not  modify  the  logic  of  Aristotle  in  any  essential 
manner.  Nevertheless,  the  logic  of  the  Schools  is  an 
improvement  on  Aristotelean  logic.  The  School- 
men made  clear  many  points  which  were  obscure 
in  Aristotle's  works:  for  example,  they  determined 
more  accurately  than  he  did  the  nature  of  logic  and  its 
place  in  the  plan  of  sciences.  This  was  brought  about 
naturally  by  the  exigencies  of  theological  controversy. 
Moreover,  the  Schoounen  did  much  to  fix  the  technical 
meanings  of  terms  in  the  modem  languages,  and. 
though  the  scientific  spirit  of  the  ages  that  followea 
spumed  the  methods  of  the  Scholastic  logicians,  its 
own  work  was  very  much  facilitated  by  the  efforts  of 
the  Scholastics  to  distinguish  the  significations  of 
words,  and  trace  the  relationship  of  language  to 
thought.  Finally,  to  the  Schoolmen  logic  owes  the 
various  memory-aiding  contrivances  bv  the  aid  of 
which  the  task  of  teaching  or  learning  the  technicali- 
ties of  the  science  is  greatly  facilitated. 

G.  Modem  Logic. — ^The  fifteenth  century  witnessed 
the  first  serious  attempts  to  revolt  against  the  Aris- 
totelean logic  of  the  Schools.  Humanists  like  Ludo- 
vicus  Vico  and  Laurentius  Valla  made  the  methods  of 
the  Scholastic  logicians  the  object  of  their  merciless 
attack  on  medievalism.  Of  more  importance  in  tiie 
history  of  logic  is  the  attempt  of  Ramus  (Pierre  de  La 
Ram6e,  1515-72)  to  supplant  the  traditional  logic  by 
a  new  method  which  he  expounded  in  his  works  Aris- 
totelicse  Animadversiones  and  "Scholae  Dialecticae". 
Ramus  was  imitated  in  Ireland  by  George  Downame 
(or  Downham),  Bishop  of  Deny,  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  in  the  same  century  he  had  a  most  dis- 
tinfuiaied  follower  in  England  in  the  person  of  John 
Milton,  who,  in  1672,  published  "  Artis  Logicse  Plenior 
Institutio  ad  Petri  Rami  Methodum  CSoncinnata". 
Ramus 's  innovations,  however,  were  far  from  receiving 
universal  approval,  even  amonjg  Protestants.  Me- 
lanchthon's  *^  Erotemata  Dialectica",  which  was  sub- 
stantially Aristotelean,  was  extensively  used  in  the 
ProtestaJit  schools,  and  exerted  a  wider  mfluence  than 
Rjunus's  "Animadversiones".  Francis  Bacon  (1561- 
1626)  inaugurated  a  still  more  formidable  onslaught. 
Profiting  by  the  hints  thrown  out  by  his  countryman 
and  namesake,  Roger  Bacon  (1214-1294),  he  attacked 
the  Aristotelean  method,  contending  that  it  was  utterly 
barren  of  results  in  science,  that  it  was,  in  fact,  essen- 
ti^y  unscientific,  and  needed  not  so  much  to  be  re- 
formed as  to  be  entirely  supplanted  by  a  new  method. 
This  he  attempted  to  do  m  his  "Novum  Or^anum", 
which  was  to  introduce  a  new  logic,  an  inductive  logic, 
to  take  the  place  of  the  deductive  logic  of  Aristotle  and 
the  Schoolmen.  It  is  now  recognized  even  by  the 
partisans  of  Bacon  that  he  erred  in  two  respects.  He 
eired  in  describing  Aristotle's  logic  as  exclusively  de- 
ductive, and  he  erred  in  claiming  for  the  inductive 
method  the  ability  to  direct  the  mind  in  scientific 
discovery  and  practical  invention.  Bacon  did  not 
succeed  in  overthrowing  the  authority  of  Aristotle. 
Neither  did  Descartes  (1596-1649),  who  was  as  desir- 
ous to  make  logic  serve  the  purposes  of  the  mathemar 
tician  as  Bacon  was  to  make  it  serve  the  cause  of 
scientific  discovery.  The  Port  Royal  Logic  ('  'L'  Art  de 
penser",  1662),  written  by  Descartes's  disciples,  is 
essentially  Aristotelean.  So,  though  in  a  less  degree, 
are  the  logical  treatises  of  Hobbes  (1588-1679)  and 
Gassendi  (1592-1655),  both  of  whom  underwent  the 
influence  of  Bacon's  ideas.  In  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.  Father  BufiSer,  Le  Clero  (Clericus), 
Wolff,  and  Lambert  strove  to  modify  the  Aristotelean 


LOOOS  328,  LOOOfl 

logic  in  the  direction  of  empiriciam,  BenBism,  or  Leib-  his  people",  vliile  rationalism  on  the  other  side  set  m 
nizian  inoatisin.  In  the  treatises  which  they  vrote  bounds  to  the  use  of  lo^c,  going  eo  far  as  to  place  it  tin 
on  logic  there  is  nothiog  that  one  might  consider  of  a  plane  with  Divine  faith.  Out  of  this  conflict  issued 
primary  importance.  toe  Scholasticism  of  the  thirteenth  century,  which 
Kant  and  the  other  Gorman  Transcendentalism  of  gave  due  credit  to  the  mystic  contention  in  so  far  as 
the  nineteenth  century  took  a  more  equitable  view  that  contention  was  sound,  and  at  the  same  time 
of  Aristotle's  services  to  the  science  of  logic.  As  a  acknowledged  freely  tbe  claims  of  rationalism  within 
rule,  they  recognized  the  value  of  what  he  hod  accom-  the  limits  of  orthodoxy  and  of  reason.  St.  Thomas 
pliBh^and,insteadof tryingtoundohiswork, theyat-  and  hia  contemporaries  looked  upon  logic  as  an  in- 
tempted  U)  supplement  it.  It  is  a  question,  however,  strument  for  the  discovery  and  exposition  of  natuia] 
whether  they  did  not  do  as  much  hium  to  logic  in  one  truth.  They  considered,  moreover,  that  it  is  the 
way  as  Bacon  and  Descartes  did  in  another.  By  with-  instrument  by  which  the  theologian  is  enabled  to  ex- 
drawing  from  the  domain  of  logic  what  is  empirical,  pound,  systematise,  and  defend  revealed  truth.  This 
and  confining  the  science  to  an  examination  of  "  the  view  of  the  theological  use  of  logic  is  the  basis  for  the 
necessary  laws  of  thought",  the  Transcendentalists  charge  of  intcUcctualism  which  Modernist  philoso- 
gave  occasion  to  Mill  and  other  Assoc  in  tionists  to  phers  imbued  with  Kantism  have  made  aj^amst  the 
accuselogicot  being  unreal,  and  out  of  touch  with  the  Scholastics.  Modernism  asserts  that  the  logical  nexus 
ni>eds  of  an  ago  which  was,  above  ail  things,  an  age  of  is  "the  weakest  link"  between  the  mind  and  spiritual 
Lpirical  science.  Most  of  the  recent  German  litera-  truth.  So  that  the  contest  waged  in  the  twelfth 
re  on  logic  is  characterized  by  the  amount  of  atten-  century  is  renewed  in  slightly  different  terms  in  our 
in  which  it  pays  either  to  historical  inquiries,  or  to  own  day,  the  application  of  logic  to  theology  being 
inquiries  into  the  value  of  knowledge,  or  to  investiga-  now,  as  then,  the  principal  point  in  dispute. 
tion  of  the  philosophical  foundations  of  the  laws  of  In  every  Hystem  of  logic  there  is  an  underlying 
logic.  It  has  added  verv  little  to  the  technical  por-  philosophical  theorj-,  though  this  is  not  always  formu- 
tion  of  the  science.  In  England,  the  most  important  lated  in  explicit  terms.  It  is  impossible  to  explain 
event  in  the  history  of  logic  in  the  nineteenth  century  and  demonstrate  the  laws  of  thought  without  falling 
was  the  publication,  in  1843,  of  John  Stuart  Mill  s  back  on  some  theoiy  of  the  nature  of  mind.  For  this 
"System  of  Logic".  Alill  renewed  all  the  claims  put  reason  CathoEc  philosophers  and  educators,  as  well  as 
forward  by  Uacon,  and  with  some  menaure  of  sue-  those  who  by  Iheir  position  in  the  Church  are  respon- 
cess.  At  least,  he  brought  about  a  change  in  the  siblcfor  the  purityofdoctrinein  Catholic  institutions. 
method  of  leachuig  logic  at  the  great  English  seats  of  have  recognized  that  there  is  in  logic  the  Catholic  ana 
leaniing.  Carrj'ing  Locke's  empiricism  to  its  ultimate  the  non-Cathohc  point  of  view.  Our  obiection  to  a 
conclusion,  andadopting  the  association  theory  of  the  gooddealof  recent  logical  literature  is  not  nased  on  an 
human  mind,  he  rejected  all  necessary  truth,  dis-  unfavourable  estimate  of  its  scientific  quality;  what 
carded  the  syllogism  as  not  only  useless  but  fallacious,  we  object  to  is  the  sensism,  subjectivism,  agnosticism, 
and  maintained  that  all  reasoning  is  from  particulars  or  other  philosophical  doctrine,  which  underlies  the 
to  particulars.  He  did  not  make  many  converts  to  logical  theories  of  the  author.  Works  on  logic  written 
these  views,  but  he  succeeded  in  giving  inductive  by  Catholics  generally  adhere  very  closely  to  the 
logic  a  place  in  every  textbook  on  Icwic  published  traditional  Anstotelean  logic  of  the  schools.  Yet, 
since  his  time.  Not  so  successful  was  the  attempt  of  that  is  not  the  reason  why  they  are  approved.  They 
r  William  Hamilton  to  establish  a  new  liwic  (the  are  apprtvcd  because  they  arc  free  from  false  philo- 
lew  analytic"),  on  the  princifile  that  the  predicate  as  sophical  assumptions.   In  many  non-Cathohc  workson 


well  as  the  subject  of  a  proposition  should  be  (juanti-  logic  the  underlying  philosophy  is  not  only  erroneous, 

fied.     Nor,  indeed,  was  ne  quite  original  in  this:  the  bjt  BubvLra:\e  tf  thp  nhile  t>ody  of  natural  sptntuaj 

idea  had  been  put  forward  in  the  seventeenth  ccnturj-  tn  ih  iihi  I    thi   Cath  1      Church  guards  as  carefully 
by   the   Catholic   philosopher   Caramuel    {1606-*25.  \ 


Recent  logical  literature  in  English  has  striven  above 
all   tilings    to   attain   clearness,    intelligibility,    and 


of  Induin  Philn-ajhv  (Lon  I 


^raeticalutility inits expositionofthelawsof thought,  tor  Arutotoliao l«io    Latmtna  etc    _. 

(henever  it  indulges  in  speculalion  as  to  the  nature  totu:   Wartt  I  (SBrBn   jSl-l8T0)     inuiBUtions  o!  the  Of- 

of  m.„l1  ™».,,  it  ij,  o(  com«,  colorad  by  the  fT  »',.5^"£™™' iSS -"§;»"'(£=-»; 

various  philosoplues  of  the  time.  TiiE.-iDEi.KNBOiia,  Loruchi  Unlertadiwietrt   p  vols..  L«pii(. 

Indeed,  the  history  of  logicisinterestingand  profit-  IS60};   St-Htuihe,  La  looirpu  iTAriaoii:  (Parin.  1838).    For 

able  chieav  because  it  shows  how  the  philosophical  f^iT"??^  '^.  i^^iSif  Tsai-  ™rthe"L^e  Slufat 

theories  influence  the  method  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Roma,  1882—1;  Pethos  Hibpanub.  Summula  Logiraitt  eSi 

logician.     The  empiricism  and  sensism  of  the  English  Frr-joniPorMirnraEiponWoiif  (Venire.  15B01. 

kSooI, <le,ce»linB from Hobta ll,jou|jh Locte, Hum.,  ^^^  J-^ S.i"!^"^,™' ,S,  SSS- «^ 

andtheAssociationistfi,  could  lead  m  logic  to  no  Other  (London,  1808);  TinmiiB.i^i™  in  toineCWfahington,  1910). 

condition  than  that  to  which  it  does  lead  m  Mil!  S  Inolltbo  Latin  Icitbooksof  pJiilosoptiyllie  traditjoQalkiBicti 

^i,oti.„ of .;„ .»itogi.„jm<i of  f  o.o=™jT i™th.  s'VdSoS.T^va^s.'iw z's-i^sssa 

On  the  other  hand,  Descartes  s  exaltation  ol  deduction  h  (Freiburg.  lOOB) .  and  in  Frenth,  Mebcieb.  tomjucr  (Lmivaia. 

and  Leibniz's  adoption  of  the  mathematical  method  1902).     (21  Non^C^lholic:    Hn-t,  Suilrm   of  uiie  JlaadaB, 

lav.  their  origin  io  U»t.doclrin.  of  innotijn  whi.h  i,  iiJ^^SSSffl™  lioW.iS&S^i'SJSi 

the  opposite  of  empiricism.     Again,  the  domination  jon.  1870);  BAni,  iwic.  Indt-dint  and  DaliKlirr  (Now  York, 

of  industrialism,  and  the  insistence  for  recognition  on  1883);  Hyslop,  Eltmenu  of  Looje  {Neit  Voris,  1802);  Mnmi, 

the  part  of  the  social  economist,  have  had  in  our  own  ^^i^ ^Jl^'t^  ^^'^^%\^}^^^^ 

day  the  effect  of  pushing  logic  more  and  more  towards  ^j  ^ogic  (New  VWk.  I894)V  Wiltom,  '  Mtmml  o}  Loiic  a 

the  position  of  a  purveyor  of  rules  for  scientific  dis-  vols., London,  1904). 

covery  and  practical  invention.     The  materialism  of  '^J'  "f^J^l'f  ■^™'^^i'"Jl."f^i."'  ''!ll^^w"J5 

li    \  -^ ,  ^    i(*f<.i              *        *i_         i_^j  _jji.UA  wealth  of  detail  la  rBAJITL.  UeKh.  der  Logde  im  Aomdlande  i4 

the  last  half  of  the  mneleenth  centmy  demanded  that  mi,.,  Leipiig,  1855— ;aBooniJe<l.,  LMptig,  1885).  The  useful- 
logic  prove  its  utility  in  a  practical  way.  Hence  the  nera  of  the  wnrk  ia,  bawover.  very  mucb  impaired  by  ibr  au- 
premE,.oc.  mon  to  induction.  But,  of. II  tlecri^.  S^JSS'SSlfi'"  TbTtSib'S."!;":.!  S 
through  which  logic  has  passed,  the  most  interesting  is  year  leooT 

that  which  is  known  as  the  "Storm  and  Stress  of  Wiluam Turner. 
Scholasticism",  in  which  mysticism  on  the  one  side 

rejecteddiaIecticas"thedevii'sart",andmaintainBd  LogOK.  Th»  fOr.  A*t»«;  Lat.  Verfcum — Word). — 

Uutt  "  God  did  not  choose  logic  as  a  meaps  of  sfiving  The  word  Logot  u  the  term  by  which  Christian  thenf-  ^ 


X0008 


329 


LOGOS 


ogy  in  the  Oreek  language  designates  the  Word  of  God, 
or  Second  Person  of  the  Ble^d  Trinitv.  Before  St. 
John  had  consecrated  this  term  by  adopting  it,  the 
Greeks  and  the  Jews  had  used  it  to  express  religious 
eoncept'ons  which,  under  divers  titles,  have  exercised 
a  certain  influence  on  Christian  theology,  and  of  which 
it  is  necessary  to  say  something. 

I.  Tbe  Logos  in  Hellenism. — ^It  is  in  Heraclitus 
that  the  theory  of  the  Lo^os  appears  for  the  first  time, 
and  it  is  doubtless  for  this  reason  that,  first  among  the 
Greek  philosophers,  Heraclitus  was  regarded  by  St. 
Justin  (Apol.  I,  46)  as  a  Christian  before  Christ.  For 
him  the  Logos,  which  he  seems  to  identify  with  fire,  is 
that  univenal  principle  which  animates  and  rules  the 
world.  This  conception  could  onlv  find  place  in  a  ma- 
terialistic monism.  The  philosophers  of  the  fifth  and 
fourth  centuries  before  Cnrist  were  dualists,  and  con- 
ceived of  God  as  transcendent,  so  that  neither  in  Plato 
(whatever  may  have  been  said  on  the  subject)  nor  in 
Aristotle  do  we  find  the  theory  of  the  Logos. 

It  reappears  in  the  writings  of  the  Stoics,  and  it  is 
especially  by  them  that  this  theory  is  developed.  God, 
according  to  them,  "  did  not  make  the  world  as  an  ar- 
tisan does  lus  work,  but  it  is  by  wholly  penetrating  all 
matter  that  He  is  the  demiurge  of  the  universe'' 
(Galen,  "De  oual.  incorp."  in  Fr.  Stoic",  ed.  von 
Amim,  11, 6) ;  He  penetrates  the  world  '*  as  honey  does 
the  honeycomb"  (Tertullian,  *'Adv.  Hermogenem", 
44);  this  God  so  intimately  mingled  with  the  world  is 
fire  or  ignited  air;  inasmuch  as  He  is  the  principle  con- 
trolling the  universe.  He  is  called  Logos;  and  inasmuch 
as  He  IS  the  g^erm  from  which  all  else  develops,  He  is 
called  the  seminal  Logos  (AAyos  aTrtpfiarucdt) .  This  Logos 
is  at  the  same  time  a  force  and  a  law,  an  irresistiole 
force  ^diich  bears  aJong  the  entire  world  and  all  creat- 
ures to  a  common  end,  an  inevitable  and  holy  law 
from  which  nothing  can  withdraw  itself,  and  which 
every  reasonable  man  should  follow  willingly  (Clean- 
thus,  "  Hymn  to  Zeus"  in  "  Fr.  Stoic",  I,  527-cf.  537). 
Conformably  to  their  exeeetical  habits,  the  Stoics 
made  of  the  different  gods  personifications  of  the 
Logos,  e.  g.  of  Zeus  and  aoove  all  of  Hermes. 

At  Alexandria,  Hermes  was  identified  with  Thoth, 
the  god  of  Hermopolis,  known  later  as  the  great  Her- 
mes, "Hermes  Tnsmegistus",  and  represented  as  the 
revealer  of  all  letters  and  all  religion.  Simultane- 
ously, the  Logos  theory  conformed  to  the  current  Neo- 
platonistic  dualism  in  Alexandria:  the  Logos  is  not  con- 
caved of  as  natiu^  or  immanent  necessity,  hut  as  an 
intermediary  agent  by  which  the  transcendent  God 
governs  the  world.  This  conception  appears  in  Plu- 
tarch, especially  in  his  "  Isis  and  Osiris  " ;  from  an  early 
date  in  tne  &rst  centiuy  of  the  Christian  era,  it  influ- 
enced profoundly  the  Jewish  philosopher  Philo. 

II.  THE  Word  in  Judaism. — Quite  frequently  the 
Old  Testament  represents  the  creative  act  as  the  word 
of  (3od  (Gen.,  i,  3;Ts.  xxxii,  9;  Ecclus.,  xlii,  15) ;.  some- 
times it  seems  to  attribute  to  the  word  action  of  itself, 
although  not  independent  of  Jahvch  (Is.,  Iv,  11 ;  Zach., 
V,  1-4;  Ps.  ovi,  20;  cxlvii,  15).  In  all  this  we  can  see 
only  bold  figures  of  speech:  the  word  of  creation,  of 
salvation,  or,  in  Zacharias,  the  word  of  malediction,  is 
personifiedi  but  is  not  conceived  of  as  a  distinct  Divine 
nypostasis.  In  the  Book  of  Wisdom  this  personifica- 
tion is  more  directly  implied  (xviii,  15  sq.),  and  a  par- 
idlel  is  established  (ix,  1,  2)  between  wisidom  and  the 
WonL  , 

In  Palestinian  Rabbinism  the  Word  (Memra)  is  very 
often  mentioned,  at  least  in  the  Targums:  it  is  the 
Memra  of  Jahveh  which  lives,  speaks,  and  acts;  but,  if 
one  endeavour  to  determine  precisely  the  meaning  of 
the  ezpressiony  it  appears  very  often  to  be  only  a  para- 

Sihraae  substituted  by  the  Targumist  for  the  name  of 
ahveh.  The  Memra  resembles  the  Logos  of  Philo  as 
little  as  the  workings  of  the  rabbinical  mind  in  Pales- 
tine rosembled  the  specxilations  of  Alexandria:  the 
ntbbiB  are  ohiefly  concerned  about  ritual  and  observ- 


ances; from  religious  scruples  they  dare  not  attribute 
to  Jahveh  actions  such  as  the  Sacred  Books  attribute 
to  Him;  it  is  enough  for  them  to  veil  the  Divine  Maj- 
esty imder  an  aratraot  paraphrase,  the  Word,  the 
Glory,  the  Abode,  and  others.  Philo  s  problem  was  of 
the  philosophic  order;  God  and  man  are  infinitely  dis- 
tant from  each  other,  and  it  is  necessary  to  establish 
between  them  relations  of  action  and  of  prayer;  the 
Logos  is  here  the  intermediary. 

Leaving  aside  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Wisdom, 
other  Alexandrian  Jews  before  Philo  had  speculated 
as  to  the  Logos;  but  their  works  are  known  only 
through  the  rare  fragments  which  Christian  authors 
and  Philo  himself  have  preserved.  Philo  alone  is 
fully  known  to  us;  his  writings  are  as  extensive  as 
those  of  Plato  or  Cicero,  and  throw  light  on  every  as- 
pect of  his  doctrine;  from  him  we  can  best  learn  the 
theory  of  the  Logos,  as  developed  by  Alexandrian  Juda- 
ism. The  character  of  his  teaching  is  as  manifold  as 
its  sources :  sometimes,  influenced  by  Jewish  tradition. 
Philo  represents  the  Logos  as  the  creative  Word  of  Grod 
(**De  Sacrific.  Ab.  et  Cain",  ed.  Cohn  and  Wendland, 
65— cf. ''  De  Somniis".  1. 182; " De  Opif.  Mundi",  13); 
at  other  times  he  describes  it  as  the  revealer  of  Grod, 
symbolized  in  Scripture  by  the  angel  of  Jahveh  (**  De 
Somniis",  1, 228-39; "De  Cherub.^  3;  "De  Fuga",  5; 
*  *  Quis  rer.  di  vin.  hseres  sit " ,  201 ,  205) .  Of  tener  again 
he  accepts  the  language  of  Hellenic  speculation;  the 
Lo^os  is  then,  after  a  Platonistic  concept,  the  simi  total 
of  ideas  and  the  intelligible  world  C  De  Opif.  Mundi", 
24,  25;  "I.eg.  Alleg.",  I,  19;  III,  96),  or.  agreeably  to 
the  Stoic  theory,  the  power  that  upholds  the  world, 
the  bond  that  assures  its  cohesion,  the  law  that  deter- 
mines its  development  ("  DeFuga",  110; "  DePlantat. 
Noe,"  8-10;  "C^uis  rer.  di  vin.  haercs  sit",  188,217; 
"Quod  Deus  sit  immut.",  176;  "De  Opif.  Mundi", 
143). 

Throughout  so  many  diverse  concepts  may  be  recog- 
nized a  nindaniental  doctrine:  the  Logos  is  an  inter- 
mediary between  God  and  the  world;  through  it  God 
created  the  world  and  governs  it;  through  it  also  men 
know  God  and  pray  to  Him  ("De  Cherub.",  125; 
"Quis  rcrum  divin.  hajres  sit ",  205-06.  In  three  pas- 
sages the  Logos  is  called  God  ("Leg.  Alleg.",  111,207; 
"De  Somniis",  I,  229;  "In  Gen.'"  II,  62,  cited  by 
Eusebius,  "Praep.  Ev.",  VII,  13);  but,  as  Pliilo  him- 
self explains  in  one  of  these  texts  (De  Somniis),  it  is  an 
improper  appellation  and  wrongly  employed,  and  he 
uses  it  only  oecause  he  is  led  into  it  by  the  Sacred  Text 
which  he  comments  upon.  Moreover,  Philo  does  not 
regard  the  Logos  as  a  person ;  it  is  an  idea,  a  power,  and, 
though  occasionally  identified  with  the  angels  of  the 
Bible,  this  is  by  symbolic  personification  (cf.  Drum- 
mond,  " Philo  Judseus",  II,  London,  1888,  222-73). 

III.  The  Logos  in  the  New  Testament. — ^Tho 
term  Logos  is  found  only  in  the  Johannine  writings:  in 
the  Apocalypse  (xix,  13),  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  i, 
1-14,  and  in  his  First  Epistle  (i,  1;  cf.  v,  7-Viilg.). 
But  already  in  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  the  theology  of 
the  Lo^os  had  made  its  influence  felt.  This  is  seen  in 
the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  where  Christ  is  called 
"  the  pov.'er  of  God,  arfd  the  wisdom  of  God"  (I  Cor.,  i, 
24;  cf.  Lightfoot,  "Notes  on  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  from 
Unpublished  Commentaries",  London,  1904,  164), 
"  the  ima^e  of  God"  (II  Cor.,  iv,  4) ;  it  is  more  evident 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (i,  15  sqc}.) ;  above  all  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  where  the  theology  of  the 
Logos  lacks  only  the  term  itself,  that  finally  appears  in 
St.  John.  In  this  epistle  we  also  notice  the  pro- 
noimced  influence  of  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  especially 
in  the  description  which  is  given  of  the  relations  be- 
tween the  Son  and  the  Father:  "the  brightness  of  his 
glory,  and  the  figure  of  his  substance"  (cf.  Wis.,  vii, 
26) .  This  resemblance  suggests  the  way  by  which  the 
doctrine  of  the  Logos  entered  into  Christian  theology; 
another  clue  is  furnished  by  the  Apocalypse,  where  the 
term  Logos  appears  for  the  first  time  (xix,  13),  and  not 


LOGOS 


330 


LOGOS 


k  propos  of  any  theological  teaching,  but  in  an  aix>ca- 
lyptic  vision,  the  content  of  which  has  no  suggestion 
of  PhiJo  but  rather  recalls  Wisdom,  xviii,  15. 

In  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  the  Logos  appears  in  the 
very  first  verse,  without  explanation,  as  a  term  famil- 
iar to  the  readers;  St.  John  uses  it  at  the  end  of  the 
prologue  (i,  14),  and  does  not  mention  it  again  in  the 
Gospel.  From  this  Hamack  concludes  that  the  men- 
tion of  the  Word  was  only  a  starting-point  for  the 
Evangelist,  and  that  he  paj^ed  directly  from  this  Hel- 
lenic conception  of  the  Logos  to  the  Christian  doctrine 
of  the  only  Son  ("Uel^er  das  Verhaltniss  des  Prologs  des 
vierten  Evangeliums  zum  ganzen  Werk"  in  "Zeit- 
schrift  fttr  Theol.  und  KircTie",  II,  1892,  189-231). 
This  hypothesis  is  proved  false  bv  the  insistence  with 
which  tne  Evangelist  comes  back  on  this  idea  of  the 
Word;  it  is,  moreover,  natural  enough  that  this  techni- 
cal term,  employed  in  the  prologue  where  the  Evan- 
gelist is  interpreting  the  Divine  mystery,  should  not 
reappear  in  the  sequel  of  the  narrative,  the  character  of 
which  might  thus  suffer  change. 

WTiat  is  the  precise  value  of  this  concept  in  the  writ- 
ings of  St.  John?  The  Logos  has  not  for  him  the  Stoic 
meaning  that  it  so  often  had  for  Philo:  it  is  not  the  im- 
personel  power  that  sustains  the  world,  nor  the  law 
that  regulates  it;  neither  do  we  find  in  St.  John  the 
Platonistic  concept  of  the  Logos  as  the  ideal  model  of 
the  world;  the  Word  is  for  him  the  Word  of  God,  and 
thereby  he  holds  with  Jewish  tradition,  the  theology 
of  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  of  the  Psalms,  of  the  Prophet- 
ical Books,  and  of  Genesis;  he  perfects  the  idea  and 
transforms  it  by  showing  that  this  creative  Word, 
which  from  all  eternity  was  in  God  and  was  God,  took 
flesh  and  dwelt  among  men. 

This  difference  is  not  the  only  one  which  distin- 
guishes the  Johannine  theology  of  the  Logos  from  the 
concept  of  Philo,  to  which  not  a  few  have  sought  to 
liken  it.  The  Logos  of  Philo  is  impersonal ,  it  is  an  idea, 
a  power,  a  law;  at  most  it  may  be  likened  to  those  half- 
abstract,  half-concrete  entities,  to  which  the  Stoic 
mythology  had  lent  a  certain  personal  form.  For 
Philo  the  incarnation  of  the  Logos  must  have  been  ab- 
solutely without  meaning,  ouite  as  much  as  its  identifi- 
cation with  the  Messias.  For  St.  John,  oh  the  con- 
trary, the  Logos  appears  in  the  full  light  of  a  concrete 
and  living  personahty;  it  is  the  Son  of  God,  the  Mes- 
sias, Jesus.  Equally  great  is  the  difference  when  we 
consider  the  r61e  of  tne  Logos.  The  Logos  of  Philo  is  an 
intermediary:  "The  Father  who  engendered  all  has 
given  to  the  Logos  the  signal  privilege  of  being  an  in- 
termediary {luShpwt)  between  the  creature  and  the 
creator  ...  it  is  neither  without  beginning  {iyivtirot) 
as  is  God,  nor  begotten  (tcmtt^i)  as  you  are  [mankind!, 
but  intermediate  {fjJ<rot)  l>etween  these  two  extremes 
rQius  rer.  divin.  hseres  sit,  205-06) .  The  Word  of  St. 
John  is  not  an  intermediary,  but  a  Mediator;  He  is  not 
intermediate  between  the  two  natures.  Divine  and  hu- 
man, but  He  unites  them  in  His  Person;  it  could  not  be 
said  of  Him,  as  of  the  Logos  of  Philo,  that  He  is  neither 
6rf4rriTos  nor  761^7x6?,  for  He  is  at  the  same  time  one 
and  the  other,  not  inasmuch  as  Ho  is  the  Word,  but  as 
the  Incarnate  Word  (St.  Ignatius,  *'Ad  Ephes.",  vii, 

2). 

In  the  subsequent  history  of  Christian  theology 

many  conflicts  would  naturally  arise  between  these 
rival  concepts,  and  Hellenic  speculations  constitute  a 
dangerous  temptation  for  Cnristian  writers.  They 
were  hardly  tempted,  of  course,  to  make  the  Divine 
Logos  an  impersonal  power  (the  Incarnation  too  defi- 
nitely forbaac  this),  but  they  were  at  times  moved, 
more  or  less  consciously,  to  consider  the  Word  as  an 
intermediary  being  between  God  and  the  world.  Hence 
arose  the  subordinationist  tendencies  found  in  certain 
Ante-Nicene  writers;  hence,  also,  the  Arian heresy  (see 
Nic^A.  CouNaL  op). 

IV.  The  Looob  in  Anctent Christian  Literature. 
—The  Apostolic  Fathers  do  not  touch  on  the  theology 


of  the  Logos;  a  short  notice  occurs  in  St.  Ignatiuf- 
only  (Ad  Magn.,  viii,  2).  The  Apoloeists,  on  the  con- 
trary, develop  it,  partly  owing  to  meir  philoeophie 
training,  but  more  particularly  to  their  desire  to  state 
their  faith  in  a  way  familiar  to  their  readers  (St.  Jus- 
tin, e.  g.,  insists  strongly  on  the  theology  of  the  Logos 
in  his  Apology''  meant  for  heathens,  much  less  so  in 
his ' '  Dialogue  with  the  Jew  Tryphon") .  This  anxiety 
to  adapt  apologetic  discussion  to  the  circumstanceB  <h 
their  hearers  had  its  dangers,  since  it  was  possible  that 
in. this  way  the  apolo^i^  might  land  well  inside  the 
lines  of  their  adversaries. 

As  to  the  capital  question  of  the  generation  of  the 
Word,  the  orthodoxy  of  the  ApologSts  is  irreproach- 
able: the  Word  was  not  created,  as  the  Arians  held 
later,  but  was  bom  of  the  very  Substance  of  the  Father 
according  to  the  later  definition  of  Nicaea  (Justin, 
"Dial.",  128;  Tatian,  "Or.",  v;  Athenagoras,  "Legat.", 
x-xviii;  Theophilus,  "Ad  Autolyc",  II,  x;  TertuUian, 
"  Adv.  Prax.' ,  vii).  Their  theology  is  less  satisfactory 
as  regards  the  eternity  of  this  generation  and  its  neces- 
sity ;  in  fact,  they  represent  the  Word  as  uttered  by  the 
Father  when  the  Father  wished  to  create  and  in  view 
of  this  creation  (Justin, "  II  Apol.",  6— cf . "  Dial.",  61- 
62;  Tatian,  "Or.",  v,  a  corrupt  and  doubtful  text; 
Athenagoras, "  Legat.",  x;  Theophilus, "  Ad  Autolyc", 
II,  xxii;  Tertullian,  "  Adv.  Prax.",  v-vii).  WTien  we 
seek  to  understand  what  they  meant  by  this  "utter- 
ance", it  is  difficult  to  give  the  same  answer  for  all; 
Athenagoras  seems  to  mean  the  role  of  the  Son  in  the 
work  <n  creation,  the  ayncatabasis  of  the  Nicene 
Fathers  (Newman,  "Causes  of  the  Rise  and  Successes 
of  Arianism"  in  "Tracts  Theological  and  Ecclesiasti- 
cal", London,  1902,  238);  others,  especiaUv  The- 
ophilus and  Tertullian  (cf.  Novatian,  "De  Trinit.", 
xxxi),  seem  quite  certainly  to  imderstand  this  "utter- 
ance" as  properly  so  called.  Mental  survivals  of 
Stoic  ps>xhology  seem  to  be  responsible  for  this  atti- 
tude: the  philosophers  of  the  Portico  distinguidied 
between  the  innate  word  (MidBerot)  and  the  uttered 
word  (xpoiftopiKSs);  bearing  in  mind  this  distinction, 
the  aforesaid  apologists  conceived  a  development 
in  the  Word  of  God  after  the  same  fashion.  After 
this  period,  St.  Irenajus  condemned  very  severely 
these  attempts  at  psychological  explanation  (Adv. 
Hffires.,  II,  xiii,  3-10;  cf.  II,  xxviii,  4-6^,  and  later 
Fathers  rejected  this  unfortunate  distinction  between 
the  Word  MidOtrot  and  vpwpopuc&s  [Athanasiua  (7), 
"Expos.  Fidei",  i,  in  P.  G.,  XXV,  201— cf.  "Orat.", 
II.  35,  in  P.  G.,  XXVI,  221;  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
"Cat.",  IV,  8,  in  P.  G.,  XXXIII,  465— cf.  "Cat.",  XI, 
10,  in  P.  G.,  XXXIII,  701— cf.  Council  of  Siimium, 
can.  viii,  in  Athan.,  "De  Synod.",  27— P.  G.,  XXVI, 
737]. 

As  to  the  Divine  Nature  of  the  Word,  all  apologists 
are  agreed,  but  to  some  of  them,  at  least  to  St.  Justin 
and  Tertullian,  there  seemed  to  be  in  this  Divinity  a 
certain  subordination  (Justin,  "I  ApoL",  13— cf.  "II 
Apol.",  13;  Tertullian,  "Adv.  Prax.^',  9, 14,  26). 

The  Alexandrian  theologians,  themselves  profoimd 
students  of  the  Logos  doctrine,  avoided  the  above- 
mentioned  errors  concerning  the  dual  conception  of 
the  Word  (see,  however,  a  fragment  of  the"Hypoty- 
poses",  of  Clement  of  Alexanckia,  cited  by  Photius,  m 
P.  G.,  cm,  384,  and  Zahn,  "Forachungen  cur  Ge- 
schichte  des  neutest.  Kanons",  Erlangen,  1884,  xiii, 
144)  and  the  generation  in  time;  for  Clement  and  for 
Origen  the  W^rd  is  eternal  like  the  Father  (Clement, 
"Strom.",  VII,  1,  2,  in  P.  G.,  IX,  404,  409;  and 
"  Adumbrat.  in  Joan.",  i,  1,  in  P.  G.,  IX,  734;  Origen, 
"De  Princip.",  I,  xxii,  2  sqq.,  in  P.  G.,  XI,  130  sqq.: 
"In  Jer.  Hom.",  IX,  4,  in  P.  G.,  XIII,  357;  "In  Jo>, 
ii,  32,  in  P.  G.,  XIV,  77;  cf.  Athanasius,  "De  decret. 
Nic.  syn.",  27,  in  P.  G.,  XXV,  465).  As  to  the  nature 
of  the  Word  their  teaching  is  less  sure:  in  Client,  it 
is  true,  we  find  only  a  few  traces  of  Bubordinationism 
("Strom.",  IV,  25,  in  P.  G.,  VIU,  1366;  "Strom.", 


LOGBOSO 


331 


LOHEL 


VII,  3,  in  P.  G..  IX,  421;  cf.  "Strom.",  VII,  2, 
in  P.  G.,  IX,  408) ;  elsewhere  he  very  explicitly 
afiBims  the  equally  of  the  Father  and  the  Son, 
and  the  unity  (**  Protrtpt.",  10,  in  P.  G.,  VIII, 
228:  "Paedag.",  I,  vi,  in  P.  G.,  VIII,  280;  I,  viii,  in 
P.  a,  VIII,  326,  337;  cf.  I,  ix,  in  P.  G.,  VIII,  353; 

III,  xii,  in  P.  G.,  VIII,  680).  Origen,  on  the  con- 
trary, frequently  and  formally  defended  subordina- 
tionist  ideas  (*'  De  Princip.'\  I,  iii,  5,  in  P.  G.,  XI,  150; 

IV,  XXXV,  in  P.  G.,  XI,  409,  410;  **In  Jo.",  ii,  2,  in 
P.  G.,  XIV,  108, 109;  ii,  18,  in  P.  G.,  XIV,  153,  156; 
▼i,  23,  in  P.  G.,  XIV,  268;  xiii,  25,  in  P.  G.,  XIV,  441- 
44;  xxxii,  18,  in  P.  G.,  XIV,  817-20;  "  In  Matt.",  xv, 
10,  in  P.  G.,  XIII,  1280,  1281;  "De  Orat.",  15,  in  P. 
G.,  XI,  464;  "  Contra  Gels.'',  V,  xi,  in  P.  G.,  XI,  1 197) ; 
his  teachin^concemin^  the  Word  evidently  suffered 
from  Hellenic  speculation:  in  the  order  of  religious 
knowledge  and  of  prayer,  the  Word  is  for  him  an  inter- 
mediarybetween  God  and  the  creature. 

Amid  these  speculations  of  apologists  and  Alexan- 
drian theologians,  elaborated  not  without  danger  or 
without  error,  the  Church  maintained  her  strict  dog- 
matic teaching  concerning  the  Word  of  God.  This  is 
particularly  recognizable  in  the  works  of  those  Fathers 
more  devoted  to  tradition  than  to  philosophy,  and 
especially  in  St.  Irensus,  who  condenms  eveiy  form  of 
the  Hellenic  and  Gnostic  theory  of  intermediary'  beinf^ 
(Adv.  Hser.,  II,  xxx,  9;  II,  ii,  4;  III,  viii,  3;  IV,  vii, 
4;  IV,  XX,  1),  and  who  affirms  in  the  strongest  terms 
the  full  comprehension  of  the  Father  by  the  Son  and 
their  identity  of  nature  (Adv.  Haer.,  II,  xvii,  8;  IV,  iv, 
2;  IV,  vi,  3,  6).  We  find  it  again  with  still  greater 
authority  in  the  letter  of  Pope  St.  Dionysius  to  his 
namesake,  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria  (see  Athan.,  **  De 
decret.  Nic.  syn.",  26,  in  P.  G.,  XXV,  461-65) :  "  They 
lie  as  to  the  generation  of  the  Lord  who  dare  to  say 
that  His  Divine  and  inefifable  generation  is  a  creation. 
We  must  not  divide  the  admirable  and  Divine  unity 
into  three  divinities;  we  must  not  lower  the  dignity 
and  sovereign  grandeur  of  the  Lord  by  the  word  crea- 
tion; but  we  must  believe  in  God* the  Father  omnip- 
otent, in  Christ  Jesus  His  Son,  and  in  the  Holy 
Ghost;  we  must  imite  the  Word  to  the  God  of  the 
universe,  for  He  has  said:  'I  and  the  Father  arc  one', 
and  again :  'I  am  in  the  Father,  and  the  Father  in  me'. 
Thus  we  protect  the  Divine  Trinity,  and  the  holy 
avowal  of  the  monarchy  [unity  of  Gotl]."  The  Council 
of  Nicsa  (325)  had  but  to  lend  official  consecration  to 
this  dogmatic  teaching. 

V.  Analoot  between  the  Divine  Word  and 
Human  Speech. — ^After  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  all 
danj^er  of  Subordinationism  being  removed,  it  was 
possible  to  seek  in  the  analogy  of  human  speech  some 
fight  on  the  mystery  of  the  Divine  generation;  the 
Greek  Fathers  especially  refer  to  this  analogy,  in 
order  to  explain  how  this  generation  is  purely  spiritual 
and  entails  neither  diminution  nor  change:  Dionvsius 
of  Alexandria  (Athan.,  *'  De  Sent.  Dion.",  23,  in  P.  G., 
XXV,  513);  Athanasius  C'De  decret.  Nic.  syn.",  11, 
in  P.  G.,  XXV,  444);  Basil  ("In  illud:  In  principio 
enU  VeHmm",  3,  in  P.  G.,  XXXI,  476-77) ;  Gregor\'  of 
Naiiansus  (*'  Dr.",  xxx,  20,  in  P.  G.,  XXXVI,  128-29)  ; 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  ("  Thes.",  iv,  in  P.  G..  LXXV,  56— 
cf.  76,  80;  xvi,  ibid.,  300;  xvi,  ibid.,  313;  *'De 
Trinit.",  dial,  ii,  in  P.  G.,  LXXV,  768-69);  John 
Damasc.  ("De  Fide  Orthod.",  I,  vi,  in  P.  G.,  XCIV, 
804). 

St.  Augustine  studied  more  closely  this  analogy 
between  the  Divine  Word  and  human  speech  (see 
espedaUy  "De Trinit.",  IX,  vii,  12  sq.,  in  P.  L.,  XLII, 
967;  XV,  X,  17  sq.,  ibid.,  1069),  and  drew  from  it 
teachings  long  accepted  in  Catholic  theolog>'.  He 
compares  the  Word  of  God,  not  to  the  word  spoken  by 
the  ups,  but  to  the  interior  speech  of  the  soul,  whereby 
we  mav  in  some  measure  grasp  the  Divine  mystery; 
engmdieTed  by  the  mind  it  remains  therein,  is  equal 
thereto,  is  the  source  of  its  operations.    This  doctrine 


was  later  developed  and  enriched  by  St.  Thomas,  espe* 
cially  in  "Contra  Gent.",  IV,  xi-xiv,  opusc.  "De 
natura  verbi  intellectus" ;  "Qusest.  disput.  de  verit." 
iv;  "De  potent.",  ii;  viii,  1;  " Summa  Theol.",  I-I, 
XX vii,  2;  xxxiv.  St.  Thomas  sets  forth  in  a  very 
clear  way  the  identity  of  meaning,  already  noted  by 
St.  Augustine  (De  Trinit.,  VII,  ii,  3),  between  the 
terms  Son  and  Word:  "eo  Filius  quo  Verbum,  et  eo 
Verbum  quo  Filius"  ("Summa  Theol.",  I-I,  xxvii, 
2;  "Contra  Gent.",  IV,  xi).  The  teaching  of  St. 
Thomas  has  been  highly  approved  by  the  Church, 
especially  in  the  condenmation  of  the  Synod  of  Pistoia 
by  Pius  VI  (Denzinger,  "Enchiridion^  1460).  (See 
Jesus  Christ;  Trinity.) 

On  tho  Logos  thooriea  in  jseneral  see:  A/iix,  Geachichte  der 
Logondee^  I:  In  der  griechxBchen  Philoaophie;  II:  In  der 
christlichm  Littcratur  (Lcipsiff.  1896-99);  Lebreton,  Lea 
ortgineft  du  dogme  de  la  Trtni<<?  (Paris,  1910).  On  the  Hellenic 
theories:  Heinze,  Die  Lchre  vom  Logon  in  der  grieehiachen 
Philosophie  (Oldenburg,  1872).  On  the  Memra  of  Palestinian 
Judaism:  Webkr,  JiidvKfte  Theologie  (2nd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1897), 
l8(>-84;  KoHLER  in  The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  s.  v.  Memra; 
OiNBBUROER,  Die  Anthropomorphiemen  in  den  Targumim 
(Brunswick,  1891),  7-20.  On  the  Alexandrian  and  Philo- 
nian  theory  of  tho  TiOgos:  Drummond,  PhiloJudttiUt  II  (London, 
1888),  15CP-273;  Brkhirr,  I^a  iddea  philoeophiquee  et  reliqieuMa 
de  Philon  d^Alexandrie  (Paris.  1908),  83-112.  On  the  Johan- 
nine  theory  of  the  Ix>gos:  Prat  in  Vio.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.; 
Calmes,  UEvangile  selon  a.  Jean  (Paris.  1904),  92-100;  LoiST, 
Le  quatrihrne  Evangile  (Paris,  190:0,  98-101;  151-^;  Scott. 
The  Fourth  Gospel  (Edinburgh,  1900),  145-76;  Grill,  Unter- 
auchungen  iiber  die  Enitiehung  dea  vier'en  Evangdiuma  (Til- 
bingen,  1902),  105-206.  On  the  Ante-Nicene  theol9gy  of  tho 
liOgos:  Petavius,  Dogmata  Theologica,  preface,  ii-vifl,  iii-vi; 
Newman,  Causes  of  the  Rise  and  Sueceaaea  ofArianiam  in  Tracta 
theological  and  ecclesiaatical  (London,  1902),  137-3(X);  Fedeb, 
Justins  des  Milrtyrfrs  I^hre  von  Jeaua  Christua  (Freiburg  im  Br.. 
1906), 7^154;  Poyiunicn,Dea ApologetenTheophxluaQoUee- una 
Logoslehre  (Dresden.  1002);  D'ALfes,  Aa  Theologie  de  TertuUien 
(Paris.  1905),  67-104:  loEaf.  La  ThMogie  de  s,  Hippoli/te 
(Paris,  1906),  8-35.  (Jn  tho  Nicene  theology  of  the  logos: 
Atzbbroer.  Die  Logoslehre  des  hi.  Athanaaiua  (Munich,  ISiSO); 
Zahn,  Marcellua  von  Ancyra  ((Jotha,  1867);  db  R^qnon, 
Etudes  de  thtologie  poaitivc  aur  la  aainte  TrinitS,  III  (Paris,  1898), 
381-463.  On  the  Augustinian  theology  of  the  Logos:  Gangauf, 
Dea  hi.  Auguslinue  speculative  Lehre  von  OoU  aem  dreieinigen 
(Augsburg,  1865),  209-95;  see  also  Auoubtine  or  Hippo, 
Saint. 

J.  Lebreton. 

Logrrofto.  See  Calahorra  and  La  Calzada,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

Logue,  Michael.    See  Ar>lagh,  Archdiocese  of. 

Lohel  (LoHKLius),  Johann,  Archbishop  of  Prague, 
b.  at  Eger,  Bohemia,  1549;  d.  2  Nov.,  1622.  Of  poor 
parent£^e,  he  was  piously  brought  up;  at  fifteen  he 
was  engaged  as  a  domestic  in  the  Norbertine  Abl)ey  of 
Tepl,  but  was  allowed  to  follow  the  classes  in  the  ab- 
bey school;  he  soon  surpassed  his  fellow  students,  and 
in  1573  received  the  Norljertine  habit.  After  a  two- 
veArs  novitiate,  Lohelius  went  to  studv  philosophy  at 
I'rague.  He  was  ordained  in  1576  ancl  was  recsdled  to 
the  abbey.  The  Lutheran  lieresy  having  made  inroads 
into  Bohemia,  he  gave  a  course  of  sermons  at  Tepl, 
in  which  he  gained  the  hearts  of  the  heretics,  and 
brought  many  back  to  the  Church. 

In  1579  he  became  prior  of  Mount  Sion  Abbey,  at 
Strahov.  The  abl)ot  and  he  strove,  with  some  suc- 
cess, to  lift  the  abbey  out  of  the  unfortunate  state  into 
which  it  had  fallen;  but  Lohelius  was  soon  called  back 
to  Tepl.  However,  he  was  in  1583  allowed  to  resume 
the  office  of  prior  of  Strahov. 

Lohelius  was  elected  Ablx)t  of  Strahov  in  1586. 
With  him  a  new  era  of  progress  and  prosperity  dawned 
on  the  sorely  tried  Abl)ey  of  Strahov.  The  emperor 
and  the  magnates  of  Bohemia  generously  assistea  him 
in  restoring  the  church  and  abbey  buildings;  the  ab- 
bot-general, John  Despruets,  named  him  his  vicar- 
feneral  and  visitor  of  the  circles  of  Austria,  Bohemia, 
[ungar}',  and  Poland.  In  1604  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Sebaste  inpartibus,  as  auxiliary  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Prague.  During  the  illness  of  Archbishop 
von  Lamberg,  Paul  V  created  Lohelius  coadjutor  in 
May,  1612.  At  the  death  of  von  Lamberg  on  18 
Sept.,  1612,  Lohelius  became  Archbishop  of  Prague. 


LOBHXB 


332 


LOJTA 


The  rescript  of  Rudolph  in  1609  had  emboldened 
the  Protestauits;  having  gained  the  upper  hand  in 
Prague,  they  persecuted  the  clergy  and  expelled  manv 
priests,  regular  and  secular.  The  cathedral  was  al- 
tered to  suit  the  Calvinistic  worship;  the  altars  were 
demolished,  and  the  painting  and  statues  destroyed. 
Lohelius  had  taken  refuge  in  Vienna,  where  he  re- 
mained imtil  1620.  After  the  battle  of  the  White 
Mountain,  the  archbishop  and  his  chapter,  as  well  as 
the  Jesuits  and  other  religious,  returned  to  Pra^e.  The 
cathedral,  cleansed  and  refurnished,  was  agam  conse- 
crated on  28  Feb.,  1621.    Lohelius  died  soon  after,  of 

a  slow  fever;  he  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Strahov. 
Dlabacz,  Lfben  .  .  .  Lohelius  .  .  .  (Prague,  1704);  Lachen, 
LaiukUio  FunebrU  (Antwerp,  1625}:  Goovaerts,  who  gives  the 
best  description  of  letters,  etc.,  pnnted  or  MSS..  of  Lohelius  in 
his  Dictionnaire  Bio-bibliooraphique  .  .  .  de  lOrdre  de  Pre- 
montrit  part  I  (Brussels,  1901),  523-531;  van  Cratwinckel, 
Lenens  . .  ,de  WiUe  Orde  van  den  H.  Norbertus,  pt.  II  (Antwerp, 
1665),  651-671;  Chorherrenbuch  (Warxbui«.  1883),  565  sq., 
606  sq. 

F.  M.  Geudens. 

Lohner,  Tobias,  b.  13  March,  1619,  at  Neudtting 
in  the  Diocese  of  Salzburg;  d.  26  (probably)  May, 
1697.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  on  30  August, 
1637,  at  Lansberg,  and  spent  his  first  years  in  the  class- 
room, teaching  the  classics.  Later  at  Dillingen  he 
was  professor,  first  of  philosophy  for  seven  years,  then 
of  speculative  theology  for  four  years,  and  finally  of 
moral  theolof^.  He  was  rector  of  the  colleges  of 
Lucerne  and  Dillingen  and  master  of  novices.  His 
zealous  sermons  won  for  him  the  reputation  of  a  great 
preacher,  and  his  versatility  made  him  a  remarkable 
man  in  many  ways.  His  chief  claim,  however,  to  the 
gratitude  of  his  contemporaries  and  of  posterity  is 
based  mainly  on  the  many  works  which  he  wrote,  both 
in  Latin  and  German,  on  practical  questions,  especially 
of  asceticism  and  moral  theology.  More  than  twenty 
years  before  he  died,  his  literary  activity  received 
nattering  recognition  in  the  "  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum 
Societatis  Jesu",  a  work  begun  by  Father  Peter  Riba- 
deneira,  S.J.,  continued  by  Father  Philip  Albegambe, 
S.J.,  and  brought  up  to  date  (1675)  by  Father  Na- 
thanael  Sotwel,  S.J.  Of  Father  Lohner's  many  pub- 
lished works,  those  which  have  secured  him  most  last- 
ing remembrance  are  the  "  Instructissima  bibliotheca 
manualis  concionatoria"  (4  vols.,  Dillingen,  1681 — ), 
and  a  series  of  volumes  containing  practical  instruc- 
tions, the  more  important  of  which  are  the  following: 
"  Instructiopractica  dess.  Missse  sacrificio";  "  Instruc- 
tio  practica  de  officio  divino" ;  "  Instructio  practica  de 
conversatione  apostolica";  "Instructio  practica  pas- 
torum  continens  doctrinas  et  industrias  ad  pastorale 
munus  pie,  f  ructuose  et  secure  obeundum" ; "  Instructio 

Sractica  de  confessionibus  rite  ac  fructuose  excipien- 
is"  (complete  edition  of  these  instructions,  in  eleven 
vols.,  Dilhngen,  1726 — ).  He  published  many  other 
similar  wor&  on  preaching^  on  catechizing,  on  giving 
exhortations,  on  the  origm  and  excellence  of  the 
priesthood,  on  the  various  states  of  life,  on  consoling 
the  afflicted,  on  questions  of  polemical,  ascetical, 
speculative,  and  moral  theology,  on  the  means  of  over- 
coming temptations,  on  the  foundations  of  mystical 
theology.  These  and  other  works  of  like  nature 
testify  to  his  untiring  zeal;  almost  all  of  them  were 
printed  in  separate  volumes,  ran  through  many  edi- 
tions, and  some  of  them  are  used  and  prized  even  at 
the  present  day. 

Thobuen,  L^entbUder  atta  der  Gesch.  der  deuttichen  Ordens- 
provinx  der  GeaeUschaft  Jesu;  SommeRvooel.  Bibl.  de  la  C.  de  J., 
IV  (1901):  Herder,  Konveraatuma-Lexikon,  s.  v.;  Hurter, 
Nomendator. 

J.    H.    FiSHEB. 

Loja,  Diocese  of  (Lojana),  suffragan  of  Quito. 
Ecuador,  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  Provinces  of 
Lojaand  El  Oro.  It  thus  occupies  the  south-west- 
em  portion  of  Ecuador,  lying  between  the  summit  of 
the  Andean  CordillafM  and  the  Pacific  Oooan.   Ithaa 


an  area  of  about  10.000  square'miles.  The  city  of  Lojs. 
which  has  a  population  of  ten  thousand,  is  situated 
some  270  miles  S3.W.  of  Quito,  in  the  Val  de  Can- 
bamba.    It  was  established  about  the  year  1546  to 

Protect  travellers  on  the  royal  road  from  Quito  to 
eru  against  the  attacks  of  the  Indians,  and  is  thus 
one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  state.  In  1580  the 
First  Provincial  Coimcil  of  fkniador  was  held  there;  at 
which  time  the  city  contained,  in  addition  to  its  parish 
churchy  a  Franciscan  convent  and  a  Dominican  pri- 
ory. It  was  at  Loja  that  the  valuable  prpperties  of 
the  cinchona-bark,  the  source  of  quinine,  were  first 
discovered  by  a  Spanish  soldier  who,  having  acciden- 
tally experienced  its  antipyretic  qualities,  by  means  of 
it  cured  the  vice-reine  of  rem,  the  Countess  of  Chin- 
chon  (a  quo  cinchona),  of  a  fever,  and  thus  made  it 
known  to  the  world.  Loja  suffered  much  from  earth- 
quakes and  Indian  inroads.  In  1861  it  possessed  a 
Jesuit  church,  a  college,  a  consistorial  house,  and  an 
hospital.  Five  years  later  a  bishopric  was  erected  at 
Loja,  Mgr  Checa  being  the  first  occupant  of  the  see; 
he  was  succeeded  by  Mgr  Riofrio,  afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  Quito;  the  third  prelate  was  Mgr  Jos^  Madi, 
O.F.M.;  bom  on  14  January,  1815,  at  Montroi|L 
in  Tarragona,  Spain,  he  was  consecrated  Bishc^  m 
Loja  on  16  September,  1S75.  This  illusU-ious  prdate 
died  in  1902  in  Peru,  a  glorious  exile  for  the  Faith. 
After  an  interregnum  of  several  years,  Mgr  Juan 
Jos^  Antonio  Eguiguren-Escudero,  the  present  or- 
dinary, was  appointed.  Mgr  Egui^uren  was  bom 
at  Loja  on  26  April,  1867;  he  studied  at  the  semi- 
nary of  Quito,  where  he  was  ordained  on  11  June, 
1892.  Shortly  afterwards  he  became  a  professor  in 
his  Alma  Maier;  in  1901  he  was  named  an  honorary 
canon,  and  three  years  later  was  made  Administrator 
Apostolic  of  Loja;  on  6  March,  1907,  he  was  elected  to 
fill  the  vacant  see  and  was  consecrated  at  Quito  on  28 
July,  1907.  The  Diocese  of  Loja  contains  61  secular 
priests,  20  regulars,  84  churches  or  chapels,  and  36 

Earishes.    There  are  two  colleges,  and  in  the  town  of 
loja  a  convent  fcjr  the  higher  education  of  women. 
The  Cathohc  population  is  about  81,000. 

With  the  exception  of  individual  cases,  there  is  no 
religion  professed  in  the  diocese  but  Catholicism  (and 

Saganism  among  some  of  the  Indians) ;  manv  of  the 
atholics  however,  are  lukewarm  and  the  Church  is 
suffering  from  the  increasing  hostility  of  the  advanced 
Liberal  or  Radical  party  at  present  m  power  in  E^eua- 
dor.  The  following  remarks  will  help  to  make  known 
the  present  (1909)  position  of  the  Church.  The  State 
and  the  Church  have  been  separated^  and  all  religions 
are  now  equal  before  the  law;  there  is  no  interference 
with  communications  between  the  clergy  and  the  Holy 
See.  The  secular  priests  were  formerly  supported  by 
tithes,  and  later  b^  a  percentage  of  the  import  duties; 
now  they  are  entirely  dependent  on  the  voluntary 
contributions  of  the  faithful.  Clerics  are  exempted 
from  military  service,  but  they  may  not  hold  any  civil 
public  office;  they  are  forbidden  to  preach  against 
enactments  of  the  legislature,  or  against  the  political 
parties,  under  a  maximum  penalty  of  a  fine  of  100 
sucres  (florins)  and  imprisonment  for  30  days.  None 
but  a  native-born  Ecuadorean  may  be  preferred  to  any 
ecclesiastical  dignity.  So  far  ecclesiastical  property 
has  not  been  confiscated  by  the  secular  power,  tbou^ 
it  is  tmder  state  control.  A  religious  organization  has 
to  obtain  permission  from  the  Government  before  it 
can  legally  receive  and  hold  gifts  or  legacies.  En- 
closed orders  are  to  disappear  gradually,  being  for- 
bidden to  accept  any  more  novices;  but  teaching  and 
charitable  institutes  may  receive  postulants  provided 
they  are  over  eighteen  years  of  age;  these  bodies,  how- 
ever, are  not  allowed  to  found  new  houses  in  the  State. 
Civil  marriage  alone  is  recognized  by  the  State,  and 
must  precede  the  religious  ceremony  if  there  be  any. 
Priests  who  violate  this  provision  of  the  law  are  liable 
to  a  fine  of  500  sucres  and  impriaomnent  for  three 


LOUUkBDS                            333  LOLLARDS 

«"9"th*  for  a  first  ofiFenoe,  and  1000  sucres  and  six  lish  fla^  or  in  the  Free  Companies,  brought  home  an 
month*  for  a  second.  Education,  to  which  the  secu-  evil  spirit  of  disorder,  while  the  military  system  helped 
lax  authorities  were  until  recently  indifferent,  and  to  produce  an  ''over-mighty",  greedy,  and  often  anti- 
which  was  therefore  provided  for  by  the  energy  of  the  clerical  nobility.  In  the  lower  ranks  of  society  there 
dergy,  is  now  compiusory  and  gratuitous  for  children  was  a  similar  growth  of  an  intemperate  and  subversive 
between  the  ages  of  six  and  twelve.  The  Liberal  Gov-  independence.  The  emancipation  of  the  peasant  class 
ermnent  testified  offici^y  (in  1900)  to  the  great  zeal  had  proceeded  normally  till  the  Black  Death  threw 
displayed  by  the  religious  teachers  and  the  success  into  confusion  the  relations  between  landlord  and  ten- 
that  attended  their  efforts;  since  then,  however,  the  ant.  By  gi^'ing  the  labourer  an  enormous  economic 
State  has  established  godless  schools;  yet  parents  are  advantage  in  the  depopulated  country  it  led  the  land- 
free  to  send  their  children  to  the  churdi  scnools.  The  lords  to  fall  back  upon  their  legal  rights  and  the  tradi- 
public  authorities  are  forbidden  to  contribute  to  the  tional  wages. 
support  of  the  latter.  In  the  Church  there  was  nearly  as  much  disorder  as 

Only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  population  of  in  the  State.     The  pestilence  had  in  many  cases  disor- 

tbe  diocese  is  of  pure  white  ori^,  the  remamder  being  eanized  the  parish  clergy,  the  old  penitential  system 

a  hybrid  race  of  mixed  Spanish,  Indian,  and  Ne^ro  had  broken  down,  while Tuxiny,  at  least  among  the  few, 

blood,  known  as  cholos,  zambos,  or  mestizos,  with  was  on  the  increase.     Preachers,  orthodox  and  hereti- 

many  pure-blooded  Indians.     The  climate  of  the  dio-  cal,  and  poets  as  different  in  character  as  Langland, 

oese  varies  from  a  mean  of  18°  C.  in  the  higher  regions  Gower,  and  Chaucer  are  unanimous  in  the  gloomy  pic- 

to  torrid  heat  on  the  slopes  of  £1  Oro  to  the  ocean,  ture  they  give  of  the  condition  of  the  clergy,  secular  and 

Trade  consists  mostly  in  cerealS)  coffee,  sugar,  cin-  regular.     However  much  may  be  allowed  for  exag- 

chona,  and  mules;  there  \a  considerable  mining  at  geration,  it  is  clear  that  reform  was  badly  needed,  but 

Zaruma.    The  principal  towns  are  Machala  (5000  in-  unfortunately  the  French  A\'ignon  popes,  even  when 

babitCLnts),  Santa  Rosa,  Zaruma,  and  Loja.  they  were  reformers,  had  little  influence  in  England. 

Daouin.  Etude  9ur  U  rigime  dea  cultes  dana  la  ripublique  de  Later  On,  the  Schism  gave  Englishmen  a  pope  with 

rSquaUrurin  the  BuUHin  merumel  de  laMcieUdrlcgiMion  whom  their  patriotism  could  find  nO  fault,  but  this  ad- 

SZ^  ^^SU^'^'^&i  i^2)f  B^i;*;^?.^:  vantage  was  dearly  purcha^  at  the  cost  of  weakening 

Aimiia«ivponA(/!cafo(Pam,  1010);  Gir6nyArcas.  La  iSi/uacu5n  the  spuritof  authonty  in  the  Church.     It  IS  to  these 

Juridical  la  Idesia  Catdli^^  en  Europa y  Arnica  (Madrid,  social  and  religious  distempers  that  we  must  look  for 

1905),  302-26:  Izaouirre,  BxograHa  del  IluMrlgimo  y  Rmo.  P.  .  l  _  «ft„«^«,  «p  ♦  Ko  Pfta«ATi+  Povnlf  onri  f  Vin  T^llorH  ttiova. 

Ft.  Joa4  Maria  Meuid,  Olnspo  de  Loja  (Barcelona.  1904).  ^^^  causes  Ol  the  i^eaS^t  Kevolt  and  the  iX>llarcl  move- 

A.  A.  MacErlean.  men.     Both  wece  mamfestations  of  the  discredit  of  au- 
thority and  tradition.    The  revolt  of  1381  is  unique  in 

LoUardfli  the  name  given  to  the  followers  of  John  English  history  for  the  revolutionary  and  anarchic 

Wyclif ,  an  heretical  body  numerous  in  England  in  spirit  which  inspired  it  and  which  indeed  partially  sur- 

the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  and  the  first  half  of  vived  it,  just  as  Lollardy  is  the  onlv  heresy  which 

the  fifteenm  century.     The  name  w^as  derived  by  con-  flourished  in  medieval  England.    The  disorganized 

temporaries  from  loUiunif  a  tare,  but  it  had  been  used  state  of  society  and  the  violent  anti-clericalism  of  the 

in  Flanders  early  in  the  fourteenth  century  in  the  sense  time  would  probably  have  led  to  an  attack  on  the  dog- 

of  " hypocrite '\  and  the  phrase  *'Lollardi  seu  Deum  matic  authonty  and  the  sacramental  system  of  the 

laudantes"  (1309)point6  to  a  derivation  from  loUcji,  Church,  even  if  Wyclif  had  not  been  there  to  lead  the 

to  sing  Boftlv  (cf.  En^.  lull).    Others  take  it  to  mean  movement. 

*'  idlers  "  and  connect  it  with  to  loll.     We  first  hear  of  it  The  Beginnings  of  LoUardu. — During  the  earlier  part 

aa  referring  tothe  Wycliffites  in  1382,  when  the  Cister-  of  his  public  career  Wyclif  had  come  forward  as  an 

cian  Henry  Crumpe  applied  the  nickname  to  them  in  ally  of  the  anti-cIcrical  and  anti-papal  nobility,  and  es- 

public  at  Oxford.     It  was  used  in  episcopal  documents  pecially  of  John  of  Gaunt.     lie  liad  asserted  the  ri^ht 

in  1387  and  1389  and  soon  became  habitual.     An  ac-  of  temporal  lords  to  take  the  goods  of  an  imdcserving 

count  of  Wyclif 's  doctrines,  their  intellectual  parent-  clergy  and,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  he  had  at- 

a^,  and  their  development  during  his  lifetime  will  be  tacked  the  power  of  excommunication.     He  was  popu- 

given  in  his  own  biography.     This  article  will  deal  lar  with  the  people,  and  his  philosophical  and  theologi- 

with  the  general  causes  wnich  led  to  the  spread  of  Lol-  cal  teaching  had  given  him  much  influence  at  Oxfora. 

lardy,  with  the  doctrines  for  which  the  Lollards  were  His  orthodoxy  had  been  frequcntlv  impeached  and 

individually  and  collectively  condemned  by  the  au-  some  of  his  conclusions  condemned  by  Gregory  XI, 

thorities  of  the  Church,  and  with  the  history  of  the  but  he  was  not  yet  the  leader  of  an  obviously  heretical 

sect.  sect.     But  about  1380  he  began  to  take  up  a  position 

Causes  of  the  Spread  of  LoUardg. — Till  the  latter  of  more  definite  hostility  to  the  Church.  He  attacked 
part  of  the  fourteenth  century  England  liad  been  the  pope  and  the  friars  with  unmeasured  violence,  and 
remarkably  free  from  heresy.  The  Manichean  move-  it  was  probably  about  this  time  that  he  sent  out  from 
ments  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  which  Oxford  the  "poor  priests"  who  were  to  carry  his 
threatened  the  Church  and  society  in  Southern  Europe  teaching  to  the  country  folk  and  the  provincial  towns. 
and  had  appeared  sporadically  in  Northern  France  and  The  necessity  of  giving  them  a  definite  gospel  may  well 
Flanders  had  made  no  impression  on  England.  The  have  led  to  a  clearer  expression  of  his  heretical  teach- 
few  heretics  who  were  heard  of  were  all  foreigners  and  ing,  and  it  was  certainly  at  this  date  that  he  be^an  the 
they  seem  to  have  found  no  following  in  the  country,  attack  on  transubstantiation,  and  in  this  way  inaugu- 
Yet  there  was  much  discontent.  Popular  protests  rated  the  mo8t  characteristic  article  of  the  Lollard 
against  the  wealth,  the  power,  and  the  pride  of  the  heresy.  Wycliflism  was  now  no  longer  a  question  of 
cfeixy,  secular  and  regular,  were  frequent,  and  in  times  scholastic  disputation  or  even  of  violent  anti-clcrical- 
of  (uaorder  would  express  themselves  in  an  extreme  ism;  it  had  become  propagandist  and  heretical,  and 
form.  Thus,  during  the  revolution  which  overthrew  the  authorities  both  of  Church  and  Stete  were  able 
Edward  II  in  1327,  mobs  broke  into  the  Abbey  of  for  the  first  time  to  make  a  successful  assault  upon  it. 
Bury  St.  Edmunds  and  attacked  that  of  St.  Albans.  In  1382  a  council  in  London  presided  over  by  Arch- 
As  the  century  proceeded  there  were  many  signs  of  na-  bishop  Courtenay  condemned  twenty-four  of  Wy- 
tional  disoiganiJEation  and  of  religious  and  social  dis-  clif's  'Conclusions":  ten  of  them  as  heresies,  four- 
content.  Tiie  war  in  France,  in  spite  of  the  glories  of  teen  as ' '  errors  ".  [For  the  Acts  of  this  council  and  the 
CMcy  and  Poitiers,  was  a  curse  to  the  victors  as  well  as  documents  connected  with  the  subsequent  proceed- 
to  die  vanquished.  The  later  campaigns  were  mere  ings  at  Oxford,  see  Shirley,  *' Fasciculus  Zizaniorum" 
ravaging  expeditions  and  the  men  who  inflicted  such  (Itolls  Series),  pp.  272-334.] 
untold  miseries  on  the  French,  whether  under  the  Eng-  Though  little  was  done  against  Wyclif  himselfi  a 


L0LL4BD8 


334 


LOLLABBS 


determined  effort  was  made  to  purge  the  university. 
Chdord,  jealous  as  ever  of  its  privileges,  resisted,  but 
ultimately  the  leading  WycliflStes,  Hereford,  Reping- 
don,  and  Ashton,  had  to  appear  before  the  archbishop. 
The  two  latter  made  full  abjurations,  but  their  subse- 
quent careers  were  very  different.  Repingdon  be- 
came in  course  of  time  Abbot  of  Leicester,  Bishop  of 
Lincoln,  and  a  cardinal,  while  Ashton  returned  to  his 
heretical  ways  and  to  the  preaching  of  Lollardy. 
Nicholas  Hereford  must  have  been  a  man  of  an  un- 
common spirit,  for  at  Oxford  he  had  been  much  more 
extreme  than  Wyclif ,  justifying  apparently  even  the 
murder  of  Archbishop  Sudbury  by  the  rebels,  yet  he 
went  off  to  Rome  to  appeal  to  the  pope  against  Cour- 
tenay,  was  there  imprisoned,  found  himself  at  liberty 
again  owing  to  a  popular  rising,  returned  to  England 
and  preached  Lollardy  in  the  West,  but  finally  ab- 

t'urea  and  died  a  Carthusian.  Though  the  Wycliffite 
lold  upon  Oxford  was  broken  by  these  measures,  the 
energy  of  the  Lollard  preachers,  the  extraordinary  lit- 
erary activity  of  Wyclif  himself  in  his  last  years,  and 
the  disturbed  conditions  of  the  time,  all  led  to  a  great 
extension  of  the  movement.  Its  chief  centres  were 
London,  Oxford,  Leicester,  and  Coventry,  and  in  the 
Dioceses  of  Hereford  and  Worcester. 

Lollard  Doctrines. — In  the  fourteenth  century  the 
word  "Lollard"  was  used  in  a  very  extended  sense. 
Anti-clerical  knights  of  the  shire  w^ho  wished  to  dis- 
endow the  Church,  riotous  teijants  of  an  unpopular 
abbey,  parishioners  who  refused  to  pay  their  tithes, 
would  often  be  called  Lollards  as  well  as  fanatics  like 
Swynderby,  the  ex-hermit  of  Leicester,  apocalyptic 
visionaries  like  the  Welshman,  Walter  Brute,  and  what 
we  may  call  the  normal  Wycliffite  who  denied  the  au- 
thority of  the  Church  and  attacked  the  doctrine  of 
the  Holy  Eucharist.  Never  was  Lollardy  so  wide- 
spread as  in  its  early  days;  the  Leicester  chronicles 
wrote  that  every  second  man  was  a  Lollard.  But  this 
very  extension  of  the  name  makes  it  difficult  to  give  a 
precise  account  of  the  doctrines  connected  with  it, 
even  in  their  more  extreme  form.  Probably  the  best 
summary  of  Lollardy,  at  least  in  its  earlier  stages,  is  to 
be  found  in  the  twelve  "Conclusions"  which  were  pre- 
sented to  Parhainent  and  affixed  to  the  doors  of  W  est- 
minster  Abbey  and  St.  Paul's  in  1395  (see  for  a  Latin 
form  "FasciculusZizaniorum",  pp.  360-8:  the  original 
English  form  is  analyzed  in  Dr. uairdner's  "Lollardy 
and  the  Reformation,"  I,  pp.  43-6;  see  also  H.  Cronin, 
"The  Twelve  Conclusions  of  the  Lollards"  in  "Eng. 
Hist.  Review",  1907,  292-304).  They  complain  of 
the  corruptions  by  appropriations  etc.  from  Rome,  "a 
step-mother";  they  attack  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy 
ana  the  religious  orders,  the  "feigned  miracle  of  tne 
sacrament",  the  "feigned  power  of  absolution",  and 
"feigned  indulgences  ;  they  call  the  sacramentals  jug- 
glery, and  declare  that  pilgrimages  are  "not  far  re- 
moved from  idolatry".  Prayers  for  the  dead  should 
not  be  a  reason  for  almsgiving,  and  beneficed  clergy- 
men should  not  hold  secular  offices.  There  is  no  al- 
lusion in  these  conclusions  to  Wyclif's  doctrine  that 
"dominion  is  founded  on  grace",  yet  most  of  the  early 
Lollards  taught  in  some  form  or  another  that  the  va- 
lidity of  the  sacraments  was  affected  by  the  sinfulness 
of  the  minister. 

This  refusal  to  distinguish  the  official  from  the  pei^ 
Bonal  character  of  the  priesthood  has  reappearea  at 
different  epochs  in  the  history  of  the  Church.  It  is  to 
be  found,  for  instance,  among  the  popular  supporters  of 
ecclesiastical  reform  in  the  time  of  Pope  St.  Gregory 
VII.  Reforming  councils  forbade  the  faithful  to  ac- 
cept the  ministrations  of  the  unreformed  clergy,  but 
the  reforming  mobs  of  Milan  and  Flanders  went  much 
further  and  treated  with  contumely  both  the  priests 
and  their  sacraments.  Wyclif  gave  some  kind  of 
philosophic  basis  to  this  point  of  view  in  his  doctrine  of 
dominion",  though  he  applied  it  more  to  the  property 
and  authority  of  tne  cler^  than  to  their  sacramental 


powers.  To  make  the  validity  of  baptism  or  the  oon- 
secration  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  depend  on  the  vir- 
tue of  the  priest  could  only  be  a  stepping-stone  to  a 
complete  denial  of  the  sacramental  system,  and  this 
stage  had  been  reached  in  these  conclusions  of  1395. 
Thus  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  became  the 
usual  test  in  trials  for  Lollardy,  and  the  crucial  ques- 
tion was  usually,  "Do  vou  believe  that  the  subsUmee 
of  the  bread  remains  after  consecration?"  The  here- 
tics were  often  ready  to  accept  the  vaguer  expressions 
of  the  orthodox  doctrine,  but  at  times  they  would  de- 
clare quite  frankly  that  "the  sacrament  is  but  a 
mouthful  of  bread".  Pilgrimages  and  other  pious 
practices  of  Catholics  often  came  in  for  very  violent 
abuse,  and  Our  Lady  of  Walsin^ham  was  known 
among  them  as  the  "  Witch  of  Walsmgham  ". 

There  is  at  least  one  striking  omission  in  the  "  Con- 
clusions "  of  1395.  Nothing  is  said  of  the  Bible  as  the 
sole  rule  of  faith,  yet  this  doctrine  was  probably 
the  most  original  which  the  movement  produced.  As 
the  chief  opponents  of  Lollardy  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
Thomas  of  Walden  and  Richard  Pecock  both  pointed 
out  that  the  belief  in  the  sufficiency  of  Scripture  lay  at 
the  basis  of  Wycliffite  teaching,  for  it  provided  an  al- 
ternative to  the  authority  of  the  Churcn.  It  occupied, 
however,  a  less  important  position  among  the  earlier 
than  among  the  later  Lollards,  for  there  was  at  first 
much  confusion  of  mind  on  the  whole  question  of  au- 
thority. Even  the  most  orthodox  must  have  been 
Cuzzled  at  the  time  of  the  Schism,  as  many  were  later 
y  the  struggle  between  pope  and  coimcils.  The  un- 
orthodox were  still  more  imcertain,  and  this  may 
partly  account  for  the  frequent  recantations  of  those 
who  were  summoned  by  the  bishops.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  the  Lollards  became  a  more  compact  body 
with  a  more  definite  creed,  or  rather  with  more  definite 
negations,  a  change  whicn  can  be  explained  by  mere 
lapse  of  time  whicn  confirms  a  man  in  his  beliefs  and 
by  the  more  energetic  rem^ession  exercised  by  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities.  The  breach  with  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  Church  had  now  become  unmistakable  and 
the  Lollard  of  the  second  generation  looked  for  support 
to  his  own  reading  and  mterpretation  of  the  Bible. 
Wyclif  had  already  felt  the  necessity  of  this.  He 
had  dwelt  in  the  strongest  language  on  the  sufi&ciency 
of  Scripture,  and  had  maintained  that  it  was  the  ulti- 
mate authority  even  in  matters  of  civil  law  and  poli- 
tics. Whatever  may  have  been  his  share  in  the  work 
of  translating  it  into  English,  there  is  no  doubt  that  he 
urged  all  classes  to  read  such  translations,  and  that  he 
did  so,  partly  at  any  rate,  in  order  to  strengthen  them 
in  opposition  to  the  Church  authorities.  Even  the 
pope,  he  maintained,  should  not  be  obeyed  unless  his 
commands  were  warranted  by  Scripture. 

As  the  Lollards  in  the  course  of  the  fifteenth  century 
became  less  and  less  of  a  learned  body  we  find  an  in- 
creasing tendency  to  take  the  Bible  in  its  most  literal 
sense  and  to  draw  from  it  practical  conclusions  out 
of  all  harmony  i^ith  contemporary  life.  Objections 
were  made  for  instance  to  the  Christian  Sunday  or  to 
the  eating  of  pork.  Thus,  Pecock  urged  the  claims  of 
reason  and  common  sense  against  such  narrow  inter- 
pretations, much  as  Hooker  did  in  a  later  age  against 
the  Puritans.  Meanwhile  the  church  authorities  had 
limited  the  use  of  translations  to  those  who  had  the 
bishop's  licence,  and  the  possession  of  portions  of  the 
English  Bible,  generally  with  Wycliffite  prefaces,  by 
unauthorized  persons  was  one  of  the  accepted  evi- 
dences of  Lollardy.  It  would  be  interesting,  ddd  space 
permit,  to  compare  the  Ix)llard  doctrines  with  earlier 
medieval  heresies  and  with  the  various  forms  of  six- 
teenth-centurv  Protestantism;  it  must,  at  least,  be 
pointed  out  that  there  are  few  signs  of  any  construc- 
tive system  about  Ix)llardy,  little  beyona  the  belief 
that  the  Bible  will  afford  a  rule  of  faitii  and  practice. 
Much  empha.sis  was  laid  on  preaching  as  compared 
with  liturgy,  and  there  is   evident  an  inclination 


LOMAN  335  LOMAN 

towards  the  supremacy  of  the  State  in  the  externals  of  hand  and  be  in  a  position  to  persecute  the  Catholics, 

religion.  This  unquiet  condition  lasted  during  the  earlier  part  of 

Outline  of  the  Hislory  of  the  LoUarde. — ^The  troubled  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  There  were  many  rccanta- 
days  of  Richard  II  at  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  cen-  tions  though  few  executions,  and  in  1429  Convocation 
tury  had  encouraged  the  spread  of  Lollardy,  and  the  lamented  Uiat  heresy  was  on  the  increase  throughout 
accession  of  the  House  of  Lancaster  in  1399  was  fol-  the  southern  province.  In  141.3  there  was  even  a 
lowed  by  an  attempt  to  reform  and  restore  constitu-  small  rising  of  heretics  at  Abingdon.  Yet  from  this 
tional  authority  in  Church  and  State.  It  was  a  task  date  Lollaray  Ijegan  to  decline  and  when,  about  1445, 
which  proved  m  the  long  run  beyond  the  strength  of  Richard  Pecock  wrote  his  unfortunate  "  Repressor  of 
the  dynasty,  yet  something  was  done  to  remedy  the  overmuch  blaming  the  Clergy",  they  were  far  less  of  a 
worst  disorders  of  the  previous  reign.  In  order  to  put  menace  to  Church  or  State  than  they  had  been  in  Wal- 
down  religious  opposition  the  State  came,  in  1401,  to  den's  day.  They  diminished  in  numbers  and  import- 
the  support  of  the  Church  by  the  Act  "  Do  Haeretico  ance,  but  the  records  of  the  bishops'  courts  show  that 
Comburendo"^  L  e.  on  the  burning  of  heretics.  This  they  still  survived  in  their  old  centres,  London,  Coven- 
Act  recited  in  its  preamble  that  it  was  directed  against  tr>',  Leicester,  and  the  eastern  counties.  They  were 
a  certain  new  sect ''who  thought  damnably  of  the  sacra-  mostly  small  artisans.  William  Wych,  a  priest,  was 
ments  and  usuiped  the  office  of  proacliing".  It  em-  indeed  executed,  in  1440,  but  he  was  an  old  man  and 
powered  the  bisnops  to  arrest,  imprison,  and  examine  belonged  to  the  first  generation  of  Lollards, 
offenders  and  to  hand  over  to  the  secular  authorities  The  increase  in  the  number  of  citations  for  heresy 
such  as  had  relapsed  or  refused  to  abjure.  The  con-  under  Henry  VII  was  probably  due  more  to  the  re- 
denmed  were  to  be  burnt  "in  an  high  place"  before  the  newed  acti\'ity  of  the  bishops  in  a  time  of  peace 
pMBople.  This  Act  was  prol)ably  due  to  the  authorita-  than  to  a  revival  of  Lollardy.  There  was  such  a  re- 
live Archbishop  Arundel,  but  it  was  merely  the  appli-  vival,  however,  under  Henry  VIII,  for  two  heretics 
cation  to  England  of  the  common  law  of  Christenaom.  were  burnt  on  one  day,  in  1511,  and  ten  years  later 
Its  passing  was  immediately  followed  by  the  burning  there  were  many  prosecutions  in  the  home  counties 
of  tne  first  victim,  William  Sawtrey,  a  ]x>ndon  priest,  and  some  executions.  But  though  Lollardjr  thus  re- 
He  had  previously  abjured  but  had  rcla{)Kcd,  and  he  mained  alive,  ''conquered  but  not  extinguished",  as 
now  refused  to  declare  his  lielief  in  transubstantiation  Erasmus  expressed  it  in  1523,  until  the  New  Leuning 
or  to  recognize  the  authority  of  the  Church.  was  brought  into  the  country  from  Germany,  it  was  a 

No  fresh  execution  occurred  till  1410,  and  the  Act  movement  which  for  at  least  half  a  century  had  exer- 

was  mercifully  carried  out  by  the  bishops.    Great  cised  little  or  no  influence  on  English  thought.    The 

pains  were  taken  to  sift  the  evidence  when  a  man  de-  days  of  its  popularity  were  long  passed  and  even  its 

nied  his  heres}^^  the  relapsed  were  nearly  always  al-  martyrdoms  attracted  but  little  attention,    llie  little 

lowed  the  benefit  of  a  fresh  abj  urat ion,  and  as  a  matter  stream  of  English  heresy  cannot  be  said  to  have  added 

of  fact  the  burnings  were  few  and  the  recantations  much  to  the  Protestant  flood  which  rolled  in  from  the 

many.    Eleven  heretics  were  recorded  to  have  been  Continent.    It  did,  however,  bear  witness  to  the 

burnt  from  1401  to  the  accession  of  Henry  VII  in  existence  of  a  spirit  of  discontent,  and  mav  have  pre- 

1485.    Others,  it  is  true,  were  executed  as  traitors  for  pared  the  ground  for  religious  revolt  near  London  and 

being  implicated  in  overt  aSts  of  rel)ellion.     Yet  the  m  the  eastern  counties,  though  there  is  no  evidence 

activity  of  the  Lollards  during  the  first  thirty  years  of  that  any  of  the  more  prominent  early  reformers  were 

the  fifteenth  centuiy  was  great  and  their  influence  Lollards  before  they  were  Protestants. 
spread  into  parts  of  the  coimtry  wliich  had  at  first        The  authoritiea  for  the  life  and  teaching:  of  Wyclif  Dv-ill  be 

been  unaffected.     Thus  the  eastern  counties  l>ecame,  found  at  the  close  of  his  biography;  many  of  the  Enslish  tracts 

»d  ^  loM  to  remain  «n  important  Lollard  centre.  !^<l,JL™l?M."^"X'^^rur 

Meanwhile  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  COntmued  the  fhe  English  Worka  of  John  Wydiffe  hitherto  unjninted  cd.  by 

work  of  repression.      In  14()7  a  svnod  at  Oxford  under  Matthew,  in  EaHy  Englinh   Text  Society  Publications  (1880) 

Anindel'spi^idencypassedani^berofc^^^^^  ^t^Td'^SSL^IT/JS^SS'^J^'S.^lS^^^^ 

to  regulate  preaching,  the  translation  and  use  of  the  RoIU  Scries,  collected  by  Thomas  op  Wau>f.n  contains  a  num- 

Scriptures,  and  the  theological  e<iucation  at  schools  berofimr)ortant  documents:  much  infonnation  about  the  Lol- 

and  the  university.    A  bodv  of  Oxford  censors  con-  fe."^«  ^"^^  be  found  in  the  chronicles  of  the  time,  «jpecially> 

J  J  .     ,]^Trt     "^1        xi-^rt/j-»  v/  »^vv.*iK.vy  s»  ^v/i*  Thomas  of  Walsinoham.  Chronxcon   Angha  m  Rolls  Senes, 

demnedm  1410  no  less  than  26/  propositions  collected  and  inthecontinuatorof  KNioHTON»'CA«)nirtmin/2o//«.SmM 

out  of  Wyclif's  writings,  and  hnaDv  the  Council  of  Foxe,  Book  of  Martyrs  includes  the  records  of  a  number  of 

Constance,  in  1415,  solemnlv  declared  him  to  have  ^",?"i  *"A^'  ^"^  »^  must^naturally  be  u8«l  with  the  Krcatert 

r^         i!       x»       rm-        j'«        "j.  J.    1-  caution.     Of  modem  works  Lechijer,  J oAann   twi  ^  tcUf  (2 

been  a  heretic.  These  different  measures  seem  to  nave  vob.,  Leipzlflr,  1873),  contjiins  what  is  probably  the  most 

been  successful  at  least  as  far  as  the  clergy"  were  con-  complete  account  of  the  movement,  while  Gairdner,  Lollardy 

cemed,  and  Lollardy  came  to  be  more  ancl  more  a  lay  "l^  i^^.  Reformation  in  England  (2  vols.,  Lon(k)n.  1908)  is  an 

'      .      £.  ^         .J      -Al         I-4,-     1  J-  J.     I  ailmirable  study  of  its  character  and  aims.     Bncfcr  sketches 

movement,  often  connects  with  political  discontent,  ^iu  be  found  in  Poole,  WycUJ[e  and  Movements  for  Reform  in 

Its  leader  during  the  reign  of  Henrv  V  was  Sir  John  Epochs  of  Church  History  Sencs  (Ix>ndon,  18S9),  and  in  Cam' 

Oldcastle,  commonly  known  as  Ix)rd  Cobham,  from  ^'  r^^^F  ?^  ^Vi^ rh'^Vf'^'^A'  '''?ko-J-  T«S^'=^\^^• 

,.  .'        -._      r<  Vu         u   •  Tj*    T     11     J     u   J  England  %n  the  Age  of  Wych ffe  {ljon<\oii,\^^  I )  ^R-WQWyKTiXijea 

his  marriage  to  a  Cobham  heu^s.     UlS  Lollardy  had  and  useful,  but  it  is  murkctf  by  a  frank  hostility  towards  and 

long  been  notorious,  but  his  po.sition  and  wealth  pro-  by  a  ^:ood  deal  of  i^onmcc  of  medieval  and  Catholic  ideas  and 

tected  him  and  he  was  not  proceeded  against  till  1413.  P'^*^«  ^^  &^  Zimmermann  in  Kirrhenlexicon,  s.  y  LtA- 

.--  „  J  1 u     -  *    I    ^  •    1         J  larden:   Bonet-Maury,  Les  pncurseurs  de  la  R^forme  (ParuL 

After  many  delays  he  was  arrcst<Hl,  tried  and  sen-  1904);  Hvuiana,  LoUarda  of  the  ChiUem  HiUa  (London,  19(W. 
tenced  as  a  heretic,  but  he  escai>ed  from  the  Tower  and  F.  F.  Urquhart. 

organised  a  rising  outside  I^ndon  early  in  1414.    The 

young  king  suppressed  the  movement  in  person,  but  Loman,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Trim  in  Ireland,  nephew 
Oldcastle  again  escaped.  He  remained  in  liiding  but  of  St.  Patrick,  wa«  remarkable  as  l)eing  the  first  placed 
seems  to  have  inspired  a  number  of  sporadic  disturb-  over  an  Irish  see  by  the  Apostle  of  Ireland.  This  was 
ances,  especially  during  Henry's  alj.sence  in  France,  in  the  year  433.  St.  Loman  ha<l  convertoii  lx)th  Fort- 
He  was  finally  captiu-ed  on  the  west  border,  con-  chem,  the  Prince  of  Trim  (grandson  of  Laeghaire, 
demned  by  Parliament,  and  executed  in  1417.  His  King  of  Meath),  and  his  father  Foidilmid,  and  was 
personality  and  activity  made  a  great  impression  on  given  Trim  for  an  episcopal  see.     Some  say  that  he 


hiB  contemporaries  and  his  poorer  followers  put  a    was  a  bishop  before  he  came  to  Ireland,  but  this 


this  time,  expected  that  they  would  get  the  upper     that  he  was  only  a  simple  priest,  but  consecrated  by 


St.  Pfttrick  for  Trim.  St.  Lonuui  did  not  long  survi^ 
his  promotion  to  the  episconite,  and  after  a  brief  visit 
to  iia  brother  Broccaid  at  Emlach  Ech  in  Connacht, 
be  resigned  hia  see  to  hia  princely  convert  Fort«hem, 
with  the  permission  of  St.  Patrick.  Fortchem,  how- 
ever, through  humility  only  ruled  tor  three  days  after 
the  death  of  St,  LomaJi,  and  then  ceded  hiB  of&ce  to 
Cathlaid,  another  British  pilgrim,  St.  Loman  is  not 
to  be  confounded  with  St.  Loman  of  Loch  Gill,  County 
Sligo,  but  he  ia  said  to  have  founded  Port  Loman  in 
County  Westmeath, 

0'ir*NLO(f,  titwt  of  I 

Lift  o/SL  Polrick  (Du 

Bt.  Pmnek  (toodan.  1S8T). 

W.    H.    GRATTAN-FnOOD, 


fold,  and  otheia  gained 


literature,  among 
ihe  latter  being 
the  famous  Fran- 
ciscan, Luke  Wad- 
ding. After  re- 
ceiving his  early 
education  at  Wat- 
erford,  young 
Lombard  was  sent 
to  Wpstmineter 
School,  whence, 
after  some  years,  ho 
went  to  Oxtotd. 
AtWestminater 
School  one  of  Ida 

Erofessors  was  the 
istorian  Camden, 
and  pupil  and  i 


16  LOHBASIVT 

ment.  Aimagh  was  thus  left  without  an  aichbishop 
for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century.  There  was  however 
an  adnumstrator  in  the  pemm  of  tlie  weU-known 
David  Kothe.    He  had  for  a  time  acted  at  Rome  ■■ 


act  in  this  capacity  even  after  161S,  whwi  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Ossory.  The  Northema  bitteriy  cMnplained 
of  being  left  so  long  without  an  archbishop.  In  anr 
case  they  disliked  being  ruled  by  a  Hunsteiman,  still 
more  bein^  ruled  by  one  unwilling  to  face  the  dangen 
of  his  position.  At  Rome  Lombard  wrote  "DeRe^Ki 
HibemiBB  sanctorum  insula  commentarius"  (Louvoin, 
1632;  re-edited,  Dublin,  1868  with  prefatory  memoir, 
by  Bishop,  now  Cardinal  liloran).  This  work  ^ve 
such  offence  to  Charles  I  that  he  gave  special  direc- 
tions to  his  Irish  viceroy,  Strafford,  to  nave  it  sup- 
pressed, Lombard  also  wrote  a  httle  work  on  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Sacrament  of  Penance,  and  in  1604 
a  yet  unedited  work,  addressed  to  James  t,  in  favour 
of  religious  Uberty  for  the  Irish  (Belleaheim,  "Gesch. 
dc  KaUi.  Kirtihe  in  Irland",  11  (Maim,  1890),  323-25, 


ter   ( 


.   have 


Camden's  Irurning 
wasKreatandlA>m- 


ArohUihop  at  Anuch  ( lflOl-35) 


of  his  master  for  hie  gentli    ^.     .  _ 

also  takes  credit  for  having  made  his  pupil  a  good 
Protestant.  But  the  change,  if  it  ixrciirrcd  at  all,  did 
not  last,  and  Ijombanl,  after  leaving  Oxford,  went  to 
Louvain,  passed  through  his  philasojihic  and  theolog- 
ical cla^'scs  with  great  distinction^  graiiiuted  as  Doctor 
of  Divinity,  and  was  ordained  priest.  Appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Louvain  University  he  soon  at- 
tracted notice  by  the  extent  o(  his  leammg.  In  1594 
he  was  made  provost  of  the  cathedral  at  Cambrai. 
When  he  went  to  Rome,  a  few  years  later,  Clement 
VIII  thought  so  highly  of  his  leaminp  and  piety  that 
he  appointed  him,  in  IGOl.  Archbishop  of  Armagh. 
He  also  appointed  him  his  cTomeslic  prelate,  and  thus 
secured  him  an  income,  which  in  the  condition  of 
Ireland  at  (he  time,  there  was  no  hope  of  gelling  from 
Armagh. 

Henceforth  till  his  death  I^mbard  lived  at  Rome. 
He  was  for  a  tJine  presidem  iif  the  "Congregatio  ile 
Auxiliia  "  (((.  v.)  cliargeij  with  ilie  duly  of  pronouncing 
ai  Stolina's  work  and  settling  the  controversy  on  pie- 
destination  and  grace  which  followed  its  publication 
(Schnecman,  "Conlroversiarum  dcdivinie  gratiiE  libcr- 
Ique  arbitrii  concordia  initia  et  progressua  ",  Fr^ihurg, 
18811.  Lombard  was  active  and  lealous  in  providing 
for  tne  wants  of  tlie  exilcil  Earls  of  Tyrone  and  Tyr- 
oonnel,  and  was  among  those  who  publicly  welcomed 
them  to  Rome.  He  was  not  however  able  to  go  Ui 
Ireland,  for  the  penal  laws  were  in  force,  and  to  set 
foot  in  Ireland  would  b«  to  invito  the  martyrdom  of 
(yDevanny  and  others.  This  would  certainly  have 
boBti  Lomoatd's  fate,  for  James  I  personally  disliked 
liim  and  publicly  attacked  him  in  the  English  Parii»- 


lin,  1880);  Smciligium  Oisorirni  (DubUn,  1874-84};  REHaHU, 
Iri^  ArJU/Mopi  (Dublin,  1861). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Lombard,  Petkr.    See  Peter  Lombard. 

Lombardy,  a  word  derived  from  Longobardia  and 
used  during  the  Middle  Ages  to  designate  the  country 
ruled  over  by  the  Longobards,  which  varied  in  extent 
with  the  varying  fortunes  of  that  race  in  Italy.  Dur- 
ing their  great^t  power  it  included  Northern  Italy, 
part  of  Central  Italy,  and  nearly  all  Southern  Italy  ex- 
cepting only  Calabria  (inaccessible  because  of  its 
mountainous  character),  anil  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
along  the  west  coast  including  the  cities  of  Naples, 
Ciacta,  Amalli,  and  TermAna.  Geographically  it  was 
divided  into  eight  regions: — Austria,  to  the  north-east; 
Neustria,  to  the  north-west;  Flaminia  and  a  portion  of 
Emilia;  I^mi>ar(l  Tuv;ia;  the  Duchy  of  8poleto;  the 
Duchies  of  lieucvi-jitu  and  Salerno;  Istria;  the  Ex- 
archate of  Ravenna,  and  the  Pentapolia,  a  late  oon- 
qucst  which  did  not  remain  long  in  the  hands  of  tha 
Longobards.  Sometimes  the  country  was  divided 
into  Greater  Lombardj',  including  Northern,  or  Trans- 
tiherine,  Italy  with  Pavia  as  its  capital,  and  Lesser 
Lombardy,  or  Cistiberine  Italy,  namely  the  Duchies  of 
Benevento  and  Spoleto.  In  the  ninth  centu^  the 
name  Lombardy  was  synonymous  with  Italy,  Politi-  ■ 
cally  the  country  was  divided  into  thirty-six  duchie^ 
of  which  we  know  with  any  certainty  the  names  of 
only  a  few;  these  are:  Pavia,  Milan,  Brescia,  Bergamo, 
Verona,  Vicenza.  Treviso,  Friuli,  Trent,  Istria,  Asti, 
Turin,  Panna,  Piacenxa,  Chiusi,  Rc^o,  Lucca,  Fl<w« 
ence,  Fermo,  Rimini,  Spoleto,  and  Benevento.  After 
the  kingdom  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks 
and  the  frontier  duchies  hod  asserted  their  independ- 
ence, and  new  principalities  had  been  set  up,  e.  g.  the 
Venetian  territory  in  the  east,  Piedmont  in  the  west, 
the  States  of  the  Church  in  the  south,  the  old  name 
shrank  untii  it  came  to  signify  that  extent  of  country 
comprised  more  or  lees  witlun  the  Duchy  of  Milan, 
bordered  on  the  north  by  the  Swiss  cantons;  on  the 
west  by  the  River  Ticino  and  Lake  llaggiore,  which 
separate  it  from  Piedmont;  on  the  south  Dy  the  Biver 
Po,  which  separates  it  from  Emilia ;  and  on  the  east  by 
the  lUver  Mrncio  and  I&ke  Garda,  which  separate  it 
from  the  Venetian  territory.  These  are  its  bounda- 
ries at  the  present  time. 

Actually,  Lombardy  is  one  of  the  thirteen  regJooB 
into  which  Italy  is  divided  and  it  contuns  eight  prov- 
inces: Bergamo,  Brescia.  Como,  Cremona,  Maotua, 
Milan,  Pavia,  SondHo.  It  is  the  most  popidous  prov- 
moe  of  Italy,  with  4,300,(XX)  inhnbitanta  and  an  ana 
of  8973  sq.  miles.    The  wealth  of  tbo  eountrjr  oi 


LOHBAKDT  3i 

in  the  fertility  of  the  mil,  which  in  the  m&in  liea  within 
the  basin  of  the  Po  valley.  Only  on  its  northem 
reaches  ii  it  conterroinous  with  the  Alpine  chain, 
where  the  Bernese  Alps  keep  watch  over  the  Provinces 
of  Sondrio  and  Bergamo,  and  advance  among  the 
wooded  valleys  of  Ctunonlca,  Seriana,  Brembsra,  and 
Vallellina.  In  these  mountains  many  streams  have 
their  soureea,  the  principal  ont;8  lieine  the  Ticino,  the 
Olona,  the  Adda,  the  Oslio,  and  the  Mincio,  all  tribu- 
taries of  the  Po  onitsleft  bank;  while  the  Trebbia,  fed 
from  the  Appennines,  fluH-s  in  on  the  right  bank.  Sev- 
ml  of  these  rivere  during  their  long  course  spread  out 
into  lakea  famous  for  the  oeauty  of  their  shores,  rich  in 
V^etation,  and  bordered  by  picturetique  villages  and 
lovely  villas,  the  favourite  summer  batmts  of  the  great 
sod  tiie  wealthy.  Sueb  for  instance  is  Lake  Klaggiore, 
or  Verbano,  formed  by  the  Ticino;  Lake  Como,  or 
Lftrio,  formed  by  the  Adda;  Lake  Isco  formed  by  the 
Aglio;  Lake  Garaa,  or  Dcnaco,  from  which  the  Mincio 
flows.     Other  similar  lakes  like  Lake  Varcsc  and  those 


Of  Italy". 

The  climate  of  Lomltardy  varies  with  itji  elevation; 
it  i^  cold  in  the  mountain  districts,  wann  in  the  plains. 

At  Stilan,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  US"  t .  The 
chief  products  are  grain,  maize,  rice.  The  pasture 
lands  are  many  and  the  flocks  numcroiia.  Ever  since 
the  fifteenth  century  the  greater  part  of  Iximliardy  has 
been  artifically  irrigated.  Innlunemlile  ranalh  liranch 
offfromtheriversandcany  their  waters  over  the  fields 
on  a  gentle  slope,  so  skilfully  arranged  that  a  thin 
'    it  of  water  can  be  made  t«  pa.iK  lightly  over  the  sur- 


e.  g,,  the  Naviglio  Grande  (known  also  im  the  Ticinello, 
bMause  it  flows  from  the  Ticino).  the  Naviglio  della 
Marteaana  (so  called  from  tlie  ilistrict  it  passes 
through),  are  navigable  by  means  of  locks  or  phuiea 
which  overcome  the  differences  of  level  cif  the  country 
they  pass  through.  The  mean  annual  crop  of  rice 
from  1900  to  1905  was  4,615,000  quintals  (a  quintal 
{•about  220  lbs.).  Milk  is  so  plentiful  that  butter 
and  cheese  are  among  the  chief  exports:  about  230,000 
quintals  of  cheese,  and  90,000  of  butter  are  produced 
annual>y.  The  more  famous  cheeses  are  tiic  Grana 
(wrong^  called  Parmigiono  or  Parmesan),  Gorgon- 
■ola,  and  Stracchini. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  mulberrj-lrec  during 
the  Middle  Ages  the  feeding  of  silkworms  begun  anil 
has  gone  on  prospering,  so  t^t  it  now  fomiH  one  of  the 
staple  sources  of  income,  the  average  output  per  an- 
num being  about  1S,000,000  kilos  of  cocoons.  The 
■ilk  is  woven  on  tbc  spot  and  givt^i  emploj-ment  (ac- 
cording to  statistics  for  1906)  to  126. [MM  persons  of 
both  sexes  who  work  1,400,000  spindles  for  straight 
■ad  twisted  eilk,  feeding  16,000  looms  that  turn  out 
10,000,000  kilos  of  grey  or  unbleached  silk.  There  are 
moreover  in  activity  36,000  looms,  and  900,000  spm- 
dies  for  cotton  and  10,000  looms  for  flux,  hemp,  jute, 
etc.  Other  industries  are  moulding  wood  and  iron  for 
machinery,  carriage-building,  railway  works,  furniture 
maldng,  bleaching  works,  tailoring  establishments, 
and  printing.  The  country  does  not  lioast  of  great 
mineral  wealth  although  there  are  iron  pyrites  and 
capper  pyrites  in  the  valleys  of  Tlcrguino  and  Brescia; 
lineolcnde  and  carbonate  of  sine  in  Val  Scriana;  lig- 
nite in  the  some  valley;  and  peat  In  the  Varese  valley 
and  along  Lake  Garda.     There  arc  rich  granite  ((Uur- 


the  need  of  means  of  rapid  communication  to  l)e  felt. 
and  besides  the  public  liighwaj'.'',  there  are  about 
850,000  miles  of  splendid  roads  in  I^mbardy,  railways 
wne  aoon  opened,  that  from  Jtfilan  to  Monza  in  1840 
IX.— 23 


17  LOMBARDT 

beine  the  second  in  Italy.  At  present  a  network  of 
1 ,1 1S,000  miles  of  railway  Ibes  and  more  than  600,000 
miles  of  steam- tramways  cover  tbc  surface  of  Lom- 

Reuoiocs  Division. — In  its  ecclesiastical  divisions 
Lombardy  naturally  exhibits  the  influence  of  its  civil 
history.  When  the  Longohards  swarmed  down  from 
the  Alps  the  peoples  in  tliat  region  had  lon^  been  evau' 
gcliEed  and  the  Church  hod  a  hierarchy  m  the  chief 
cities.  Among  tbexe  Milan  is  certainly  the  moat  an- 
cient of  all  Xorthem  Italy;  Aquileia  comes  next;  then 
Verona  and  Brescia  and  the  other  sees  that  sprang  up 
rapidly  after  peace  had  been  given  to  the  Church  by 
Constantine.  Milan  was  the  metropolitan  see  of  the 
region  and  its  bishop  took  the  title  of  archbishop  as 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century.  Within  this 
jurisdiction  Vere  Alba,  Alessandria,  Asti,  Turin,  Tor- 


Brescia,  Lodi.    It  is  doubtful  whether  Pavia  belonged 


to  Milan  in  ancient  times,  but  from  a  very  remote  date 
mitil  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  de- 
t>enil('d  directly  on  the  Holy  See.  In  tlie  seventh  con- 
tiiry  Como  wosscparated  front  Milan  and  became  sub- 
ject to  Aquileia  hut  was  joined  to  Milan  when  the 
Patriarchate  of  Aijuileia  was  supprcs^sed.  The  juris- 
diction of  Milan  was  gradually  restricted.  Genoa  be- 
came iin  archdiocese  iu  1133withSavona,  Ventimiglia, 
unil  Tortonu  as  suffragan  sees.  Likewise,  in  151S 
Turin  became  an  archdiocese  with  Asli,  Albi,  and 
Ai-<|ui  as  suffragans.  Finallv,  Vcrcelli  in  1817  was 
nioile  an  archdiocese  with  Alessandria,  Caxule.  Vige- 
vano,  and  Novara  an  suffragans.  At  the  present  time 
Loinljardy  is  divided  into  nine  dioc<'M.-s:  Bergamo, 
Brescia,  Como,  Pavia.  Cremona,  Crema,  Lodi,  Mantua, 
under  Milan  as  metropolitan.  A  noteworthv  peculiar- 
ity in  the  liturgy  is  the  special  rite  in  use  tliroughout 
all  the  Diocese  of  Milan  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
parishes,  a  rite  that  goes  back  to  vcrj'  primitive  times, 
and  known  as  the  Ambrosian  Itite  (q.  v.). 

IliSTORT. — When  the  IjOngoliards  arc  first  men- 
tioned by  I^tin  hi^florians  they  lire  dcscrilx^d  as  the 
fiercest  of  the  Ciemian  barbarians  1  VcUeius  Paterculus) 
while  Tacitus  praises  them  for  theh  intrepidity.  It 
would  seem  their  original  name  was  Winniii,  an<l  that 
they  were  called  Longoljards  from  the  length  of  the 
liea'rds  they  wore.  It  is  quite  true  tliat  in  German 
mythology  the  name  I^ngoljard  {lungbiMr)  was 
given  to  Udin,  their  chief  god.  We  first  mei:t  them 
along  the  Klbc  near  tbc  Baltic;  accoriLing  to  Bluliimc 
Ihey  came  from  Jutlacid.  The  "  I>jngiii.Nird  Chroni- 
cle' tliat  precedes  the  edict  of  Kiiip  Rotari  (630)  save 
"origo  gentis  nostne  Scaiidanan'  .  i.  e.,  (he  .Vortli. 
Their  quarrels  with  the  \'andals  were  of  ancient  date; 
afterwards  thev  took  possession  of  the  lands  of  the 
Heruli  when  thesie  tnbes  jKiurrd  into  Italy  under 
Odoocer.  Empcmr  Justinian  ^iive  them  lands  in 
Pannonia  and  Noricum  on  condition  that  they  would 


LOMBABDY 


338 


LOMBA&DY 


not  molest  the  Empire  and  that  they  would  assist  in 
the  wars  against  tne  Gepid®.  They  did  make  war 
against  the  Gepidse,  and  under  Alboin,  who  wanted  to 
carry  off  Rosamunda,  daugliter  of  Cimimund,  King  of 
the  Gepidse,  they  succeeded  with  the  help  of  the  Avars 
in  completely  routing  them.  Alboin  slew  Cunimund, 
and  as  was  the  custom  of  his  race,  fashioned  a  drinkinir 
cup  from  the  king's  skull .  Then,  gathering  together  all 
the  barbarians  he  could  muster,  Saxons,  Suevi,  Ostro- 
goths, the  remnant  of  the  Gepidse,  Saramati,  Bulgars,  and 
Thuringians,  he  set  out  from  Pannonia  towards  Italy 
on  1  April,  568.  Ill-defended,  and  torn  by  the  rival- 
ries of  the  Greek  leaders  or  generals,  Italy  fell  an  easy 
prey.  Alboin  met  with  no  resistance  either  in  Friuli 
or  in  Vcneta;  he  advanced  as  far  as  the  Adda,  taking 
possession  of  all  the  towns  on  his  way,  witii  the  excep- 
tion of  Padua,  Mantua,  and  Monselice.  Many  of  tne 
inhabitants  fled  for  refuse  to  the  islands  in  the  lagoons. 
The  following  year,  finding  none  to  bar  his  proeress,  he 
pushed  forward,  occupied  Milan,  and  invaded  Liguria 
meeting  resistance  only  in  Pa  via  and  Cremona.  The 
inhabitants  fled,  even  as  far  as  Genoa.  Pavia  held 
out  for  three  years,  then  fell,  and  became  the  capital  of 
Alboin's  short-lived  kingdom.  Rosamunda,  whom 
the  barbarian  forced  to  drink  out  of  her  father's  skull, 
in  revenge  had  him  assassinated,  and  then  fled  with 
her  accomplices  to  Ravenna.  The  Longobards  chose 
as  his  successor  Clefi,  chief  of  the  troops  which  had 
remained  at  Bergamo;  he  was  more  cruel  even  than 
Alboin  in  oppressing  the  conquered,  driving  them 
from  their  lands  and  putting  them  to  death  under  any 
pretext.  During  all  this  time  the  exarch,  Lonffinus,  sent 
from  Constantinople  to  replace  Narses,  haa  been  un- 
able to  defend  Italy,  and  snut  himself  up  in  Ravenna, 
leaving  the  people  to  their  cruel  fate.  The  Longo- 
bard  invasion  of  Italy,  the  last  stage  in  the  Germanic 
invasion  of  the  West,  marks  the  end  of  the  Roman 
world  and  the  beginning  of  a  new  historical  epoch, 
which  was  to  bring  about  deep  changes  in  the  social 
life  of  those  peoples,  who,  hitherto,  under  the  domina- 
tion of  Heruli  and  Goths,  had  indeed  changed  their 
masters  but  not  their  customs  or  their  manner  of 
life. 

With  the  new  conquerors  it  was  quite  otherwise. 
At  their  head  was  a  king  usually  chosen  by  the  chiefs 
of  the  tribe  nearly  always  from  the  stock  of  the  same 
family.  He  was  the  civil  and  military  head  of  the 
nation,  but  his  power  was  shared  with  the  leaders 
{heerzoge)  chosen  by  him  for  life,  one  for  each  toTTi- 
torial  division,  and  subject  to  him  de  jure,  though  de 
fcxlo  independent  and  even  hereditary,  as  was  the  case 
in  Friuli,  Spoleto,  and  Beneventum.  Those  nearer 
at  hand,  however,  found  it  more  difficult  to  escape  his 
authority,  but  outbreaks  were  not  infrequent  and 
were  the  cause  of  weakness  and  decay  from  within. 
Viceroys  pure  and  simple  were  the  gastaldi  nominated 
and  dismissed  by  the  King,  administering  his  posses- 
sions and  representing  him  in  the  various  territories  to 
which  they  were  appointed.  On  the  other  hand  the 
gasindi  were  part  of  his  household  and  members  of  his 
Court.  By  playing  off  the  one  against  the  other,  and 
by  increasing  their  power  the  royal  authority  was 
augmented  and  the  throne  consoliclated.  Then  again 
the  dukes  had  their  gasindi  and  shuldahis  to  assist  them, 
and  among  those  nobles  and  favourites  the  conquerea 
lands  were  distributed.  Whether  these  lands  wore 
part  of  the  imperial  domain  or  belonged  to  private 
mdividuals  who  had  been  slain  or  who  fled,  they  were 
parcelled  out  in  fiefs  or  given  away  in  freehold.  The 
conquered  became  tributary,  and  had  to  pay  thirds  of 
all  fruits  and  in  most  cases  they  seem  to  have  been 
reduced  to  the  state  of  aldii,  or  villains,  who  passed 
from  owner  to  owner  with  the  land.  Only  one  citizen- 
Bhip  was  recognized,  the  Longobardic,  and  all  had  to 
belong  to  it,  the  barbarian  auxiliaries,  the  Romans 
who  remained  freemen,  and  later  the  priests  and  the 
guargangi,  or  strangers  who  came  to  settle  in  Longo- 


bard  territory.  Tlie  Quality  of  being  a  freeman  (frn) 
was  inseparable  from  that  of  soldier  {heermann:  exar- 
citalis)  and  the  nation  itself  in  the  royal  edicts  is  styled 
the  exercUus, 

^  We  can  form  an  idea  of  the  social  and  l^al  condi- 
tion of  the  conquered  peoples  from  the  voxe&r-gtM^  or 
fine  imposed  for  a  muitier  or  any  damage  done  by  one 
inhabitant  to  another.  The  fine  was  always  increased 
when  a  Longobard  was  the  injured  party.  TTie  Ro- 
man was  cut  off  from  all  government  positions  and 
was  always  looked  upon  as  an  inferior.  Amone  the 
list  of  offices  and  honours,  and  even  in  the  public  docu- 
ments of  the  Longobards,  there  never  once  appears 
the  name  of  an  Italian  inhabitimt.  The  main  conse- 
quence of  this  antagonism  was  that  the  two  peoples  re- 
mained politically  apart.  In  spite  of  the  neavy  dis- 
advantages under  which  they  laooured  it  must  not  be 
imagihea  that  the  conauered  were  civilly  dead.  The 
Longobards  numbered  nardly  more  than  1^,000  souls 
without  a  code  of  laws,  and  without  imity  of  govern- 
ing methods  to  oppose  to  those  already  m  existence, 
and  which  it  was  only  natural  they  should  go  on  using 
in  their  dealings  with  the  Italians  on  all  points  not 
foreseen  by  their  own  barbarian  customs.  That  this 
was  the  case  is  seen  from  the  fact  that  hardly  had  the 
oppression  come  to  an  end  when  we  find  the  Roman 
municipium  once  more  arising  and  thriving  in  the 
comune.  But  the  preservation  of  the  tramtions  of 
Rome  was  due  to  another  cause — religion .  The  Longo- 
bards at  the  time  of  the  invasion  were  for  the  most 
part  pagan;  a  few  had  imbibed  Arianism,  and  henee 
their  ferocity  against  priests  and  monks  whom  they 
put  to  deatn.  They  destroyed  churehes  and  monas- 
teries; they  huntea  and  killed  many  of  tlfe  faithful 
who  would  not  become  pagan;  they  laid  waste  their 

groperty,  and  seized  Catholic  places  of  worship,  to 
and  them  over  to  the  Arians.  The  holy  pontiff, 
Gregory  the  Great,  does  not  cease  to  l^nent  the  desola- 
tion caused  by  the  Longobard  slaughter  throughout 
Italy.  Slowly  however  the  light  of  faith  made  way 
among  them  and  the  Chureh  won  their  respect  and 
obedience.  This  meant  protection  for  the  conquered. 
Gradually  the  Church's  constitution  and  customs 
spread  among  the  barbarians  the  ideas  of  Roman 
civilization,  until  at  last,  in  defence  of  her  own  liberty 
and  that  of  the  people  which  the  Longobards  con- 
tinued to  imperil,  she  was  foreed  to  call  in  the  aid  of 
the  Franks,  and  thus  change  the  fate  of  ItaJy.  This 
occurred  only  after  two  centuries  of  Longobardic 
domination.  The  succession  of  the  Longobard  kings 
is  as  follows: — Alboin  from  561;  Clefi,  573;  interreg- 
num, 575;  Autari  from  584;  Agilulf,  591;  Adaloala, 
615;  Ariovald,  625;  Rothari,  636;  Rodoald,  652;  Ari- 
bert,  653;  Gondibert  and  Pertarit,  661;  Grimoald, 
662;  Garibald,  671;  Pertarit  (a  second  time),  671; 
Cunibert  (as  co-ruler),  678;  Cunibert  (alone),  686; 
Luitpert,  700;  Regimbert,  701;  Aribert,  701;  Aus- 
prand,  702;  Liutprand,  712;  Hildebrand,  744;  Rat- 
chis,  744;  Astulf,  749;  Desiderius,  756  till  774.  In 
this  list  of  kings  prime  importance  attaches  to  the 
civil  and  religious  influence  of  Queen  Theodolinda,  a 
Frank  by  birth,  a  Catholic  in  faith,  the  wife  of  Autari, 
and  afterwards  of  Agilulf  whom  she  won  over  from 
barbarism  and  converted  to  Christianity.  To  her  is 
due  the  foundation  of  many  churehes  and  monasteries, 
among  others  St.  John's  at  Monza,  where  tiie  iron 
crown  was  kept  and  protection  granted  to  the  Irish- 
man, St.  Columbanus,  foimder  of  Bobbio  (q.  v.),  and 
apostle  of  the  religious  life  in  Gaul,  Britain,  Switser- 
land,  and  Italy.  Agilulf  had  much  trouble  with  his 
dukes,  who  had  grown  haughty  in  their  independence, 
and  were  perhaps  angered  at  his  conversion  to  the 
religion  of  the  conquered. 

The  son  of  Adaloald  was  deposed  and  his  place 
taken  by  an  Arian,  Ariovald,  Duke  of  Turin.  Rothari 
was  also  an  Arian;  during  his  reign  the  first  Lombaid 
code  was  published.    With  much  carnage  aad  deya»- 


LOMBABDY 


339 


LOBUABDY 


teticm  he  overthrew  Genoa  and  conciuercd  the  Ligur- 
ian  ooMt.  For  sixty  years  following  Rothari  and  until 
the  time  of  Liutprand  intense  anarchy  prevailed. 
Durimr  this  periodf  control  was  in  the  hands  of  Grim- 
<iald,  Dukeoi  Beneventum,  converted  through  the  zeal 
of  Saint  Barbatus,  bishop  of  that  toij^n.  Grimoald 
enlaiiged  Rotari's  code  by  the  addition  of  laws  con- 
cerning prescription  and  voting,  in  which  the  influence 
of  Roman  law  is  manifest,  as  such  ideas  were  alto- 
gether foreign  to  Teutonic  legislation.  Liutprand 
finally  overcame  this  anarchy.  He  was  the  greatest 
and  perhaps  the  best  of  the  Ijombard  pruiees.  His 
legislation  bears  increasing  traces  of  Ch^i^}tian  and 
Roman  influences.  He  to^Iy  suppressed  paganism, 
introduced  the  right  of  sanctuary  in  churches,  and  for- 
bade marriage  among  blood  relations,  etc.  He  was 
more  or  less  mixed  up  in  the  politics  of  the  Greek  Em- 
pire against  Rome;  but  his  moderation  was  most 
pnuseworthy,  and  his  quarrel  was  never  against  the 
pope  as  head  of  the  Chmtsh,  but  as  head  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Rome. 

Liutprand  and  his  successor  Rachis  were  sincere  and 
pious  Catholics;  Rachis  even  renounced  the  tlm)ne  in 
favour  of  his  brother  Astulf  and  retired  as  a  monk  to 
Bfonte  Cassino.  But  Astulf  was  of  a  different  stamp; 
he  aeiied  the  exarchate  and  the  Pentapolis.  and  in- 
vaded the  Duchy  of  Rome,  whereupon  the  popes  were 
ccmstrained  to  seek  aid  for  themselves  and  for  the  peo- 
ple who  looked  to  them  for  protection.  Constanti- 
nople was  appoUed  to  in  vain;  then  the  popes  turned 
to  the  Franks.  King  Pepin  went  down  into  Italy  and 
laid  siege  to  Pavia;  Astiuf  came  to  terms,  but  hardly 
had  Pepin  retired  before  Astulf  was  tr\'in^  once  more  a 
coup  de  main  M^ainst  Rome  (755) ;  he  besieged  the  city 
for  two  months,  putting  monks  and  farm-hands  to 
death  until  Pepin  return^  once  more  (75G)  and  again 
laid  siege  to  Pavia,  forcing  the  perjured  king  to  pay 
tribute  to  Rome  and  to  restore  the  territory'  he  had  in- 
vaded. His  death  forestalled  further  perjury,  but  the 
struggle  was  continued  by  his  successor  DesideriiLs 
who  placed  more  faith  in  diplonuicy  than  arms,  and 
sought  to  win  the  good  graces  of  Charlemagne,  Pepin's 
successor,  l^  giving  him  in  marriage  his  daughter  Desi- 
derata. When  she  was  sent  back  to  him  he  declared 
war  on  the  pope,  seized  Comanchio,  and  hastened 
towards  Ravenna  and  Rome.  Charlemagne,  setting 
the  evident  dishonesty  of  the  Longobards,  went  down 
into  Italy,  captured  Chiusi,  and  Ix^sieged  Desiderius  in 
Pavia  and  his  son  in  Verona.  Pavia  fell  after  a  ten 
months'  siege,  Desidcrius  was  sent  to  France  where  he 
was  shut  up  in  a  monastery,  but  his  son  succeede<l  in 
tn Airing  good  hls  escapc  to  Constantinople.  Thus 
ended  the  Longobard  Kingdom  in  774.  Barbarous 
and  daring  by  nature,  their  government  always  re- 
mained barbarous,  even  after  Christianity  had  taught 
their  rulers  some  gentleness. 

Treacherous  and  overl.)earing  towards  those  they 
conquered  the  fierce  warrior  Longo})ards  never  united 
with  the  Italians  until  both  had  to  I)eur  together  a 
common  yoke.  The  popes  did  all  they  could  to  pre- 
•vent  their  domination  so  as  to  rescue  what  reniamed 
of  liberty  and  the  culture  of  Rome:  to  them  it  is  due 
that  in  this  period  Italy  did  not  utterly  perish.  Char- 
lemagne took  the  crown  and  the  title  of  King  of  the 
Longobaids,  and  later  at  the  division  of  his  empire  he 
assigned  their  kingdom  to  his  eldest  son,  Pepin.  In 
the  constitutions  he  drew  up  each  nation  or  people 
was  left  the  use  of  its  own  laws;  gradually  the  ducmes 
were  divided  into  coimtships,  the  counts  Ibeing  vassals 
of  the  king,  and  having  in  turn  valvu-ssori  (vassi-vaa- 
aorum)  who  looked  up  to  them  as  liege-lords,  while 
ranking  over  all  were  the  misn  domiuwi  who  in  the 
king's  name  saw  to  it  that  justice  was  meted  out  to 
ever3rone.  Such  was  the  feudal  hierarchy.  The  gov- 
ernment of  the  towns  was  in  the  hands  of  tlu;  local 
count,  who  exercised  it  through  his  representat  i  ves,  to 
whom  were  added  later  scnhini,  or  assessors,  chosen 


from  among  the  more  worthy  citLeens.  The  old  Lom« 
bard  law,  set  down  originally  in  the  edict  of  King 
Rothari  (636)  and  enlaced  under  later  kings,  was 
later  kno^n  as  the '  *  Liber  Langobardorum  "  or  "  Liber 
Papiensis",  and  eventually  as  "Lombarda"  (L/ex) 
was  taught  and  commentea  at  Bologna.  The  bishops 
ranked  as  vassals  of  the  king,  by  reason  of  the  church 
fiefs  {weichbild)  they  held  from  him,  but  they  were  ex- 
enipt  from  any  other  subjection. 

For  two  centuries  Lombardy  followed  the  fortunes 
of  the  Carlovingian  Empire,  and  eventually  under 
Otho  (964)  it  fell  under  the  direct  sway  of  the  Saxon 
emperors.  The  Lombard  Duchy  of  Beneventum,  after 
various  divisions,  was  conquered  by  the  Normans  in 
the  eleventh  century,  while  the  city  of  Beneventum 
passed  (1051-52)  under  papal  sway.  Dtu'ing  this 
long  lapse  of  time,  however,  and  throughout  im  the 
struggles  that  marked  that  epoch,  the  sap  of  a  new 
life  was  working  in  the  cities  of  Loml>ardv,  destined 
})efore  long  to  take  their  fitting  place  in  the  story  of 
Italy.  Two  main  forces  were  at  work ;  one  the  prerog- 
ative of  honour  that  by  universal  consent  the  oishops 
cnjoyeil  over  the  laity.  WTien  fiefs  began  to  become 
here<iitarj'  in  families  it  was  to  the  emperor's  interest 
to  increase  the  number  of  ecclesiastical  lords,  seeing 
that  they  could  not  assert  independence  and  that  the 
imperial  authority  had  some  weight  in  the  selection  of 
their  successors.  The  other  cause  was  frequency  of 
immunities  and  franchises.  In  the  long  struggle  be- 
tween the  Church  and  the  Empire  concerning  investi- 
tures, and  during  the  disputed  elections  of  popes  and 
bishops,  the  opposing  parties  were  liberal  m  conces- 
sions to  win  over  the  various  towns  to  tlieir  side,  and 
the  towns  were  not  slow  in  claiming  payment  for  the 
obedience  and  loyalty  thev  renderecTto  a  master  some- 
times absent  and  often  Joubtful.  At  times  too,  the 
emperors,  detained  by  affairs  in  Germany,  did  not  con- 
cern themselves  with  Italy,  and  the  cities  drew  up  their 
own  code  of  laws,  without,  however,  shaking  off  the  im- 
perial yoke;  the  emperors,  either  through  love  or 
necessity,  when  they  could  not  do  otherwise,  re- 
mained satLsfitKl.  Thus  the  cities  multiplied  their 
privileges  and  their  population  increased  with  the 
privileges  on  account  of  the  security  they  afforded 
over  the  less  protected  country.  In  this  way  the 
cojuune  took  the  place  of  the  countship  of  the  feudal 
lord.  It  is  only  too  true  that  the  communes  made  bad 
use  of  their  early  li!)erty,  and  of  their  budding  civil  and 
commensal  life,  waging  war  against  one  another 
through  sheer  greed  of  power,  until  they  mutually  de- 
stroved  their  power. 

The  part  pla>'ed  by  Milan  in  these  troubles  was  the 
most  important  of  all.  Its  conflicts  with  Como, 
Pavia,  and  Lodi  furnished  pret«3^t  for  the  uitervention 
of  Frederick  I  who  led  two  expeditions  into  Italy.  The' 
first  brought  about  the  destruction  of  Asti,  Chieri,  and 
Tortona;  in  the  second  Milan  itself  was  besieged, 
forced  to  surrender  and  to  renoimce  its  claims  over 
Ixxli  and  Como.  and  to  submit  the  names  of  its  consuls 
for  approval  to  the  emperor,  to  whom  they  had  to  take 
an  oath  of  fealty.  In  the  Diet  of  Roncaglia  (1158) 
Fre<lerick  constrained  the  Bolognesc  jurisconsults  to 
acknowledge  his  supreme  authority  over  the  empire. 
This  autocracy  which  destroyed  the  constitutions  of 
the  communes  rallied  the  towns  of  Lombard v  for  a  life 
and  death  struggle:  Milan  was  again  l^esieged,  razed  to 
the  ground,  and  itis  inhabitants  dispersed  throughout 
the  neighlx)uring  villages  (1161).  But  while  Frederick 
persisted  in  making  war  on  Rome,  and  creating  anti- 
popes,  Verona,  Vicenza,  and  Padua  in  1163  formed 
what  is  known  as  the  League  of  Venice,  and  in  1167 
the  Lombard  League,  or  the  League  of  Pontida,  was 
set  on  foot  between  Bergamo,  Brescia,  Cremona,  and 
Mantua  to  oppose  the  inroads  of  Gernumy  and  to  de- 
fend their  own  civil  and  religioiLS  liberties,  as  well  as  to 
assort  their  loyalty  to  the  legitimate  pope.  Milan  was 
rebuilt  and  in  1168,  Alessandria  (called  after  Alexan- 


der  III)  was  founded  in  opposition  toPsvia,  which  per~  Emperor  Wencesl&us  the  title  of  duke.    He  Rtve  hk 

sistently  sided  with  the  emperor.     FinaJlj^in  1176  at  dauKhter,  ValeDtina,  in  marriaKe  to  Louis  I,  Duke  of. 

Lc^aiio,thcMi]anesea5siatedby  theBrescianB,Nav&-  Orl&DS,  brother  of  Charles  VI  of  France,  and  as  a 

rase, Verccllese,  and  Piacentians,  defeated  tlie  imperial  dowry  he  gave  her  the  cities  of  Aati  and  Cherasco, 

troops;  andFrcderickwasgladtomakepeacewiththe  which  later  formed  the  basis  of  the  pretensionB  of 

pope  and  the  Lombards.     At  Venice  a  truce  of  six  France  to  ri^ts  over  the  country  around  Milan.     At 

years  was  concluded,  and  confirmed  bv  the  Treaty  of  the  death  of  Filippo-Maria  in  1447  without  heirs  other 

Constance  (1183),  which  recogniied  the  franchises  of  than  a  daughter,  married  to  Sforca,  a  condottiere  of 

the  communes,  their  right  to  free  elettion  of  consuls,  mercenary  troops,  of  whom  there  were  many  in  Italy, 

to  administer  justice  acconling  to  their  own  laws,  and  Sforza  succeeded  him  in  1450  and  thus  began  a  new 

to  assess  taxes,  so  that  they  came  to  be  a*!  it  were  Tas-  d^asty  that  lasted  nearly  a  century.     About  tiis 

sal  states,  which  recognized  the  supreme  overlordship  time  France  began  to  aaaert  its  claims-     Louis  XII 

of  the  emperor.     Once  the  struggle  for  freedom  was  and  Francis  I  occupied  the  duchy,  driving  out  Lud- 

over,  the  communes  beftan  once  more  their  unfortu-  ovico   il   More   and   Maximilian   lus  eon.     Emperor 

nale  rivalries,  and  they  found  only  too  ready  an  occa-  Charles  V  drore  back  France  at  the  battle  of  Favia, 

don  in  the  endless  struggles  between  Guclnhs  and  and  restored  Milan  to  the  Sforzas,  but  only  for  a  short 

Ghibcllines.     Milan,  Brescia,  and  nearly  all  the  com-  time,  as  Francis,  the  last  son  of  Ludovico,  died  with- 

mimes  in  which  the  burghers  held  control,  were  on  the  out  issue  in  1535.     Then  the  duchy  became  a  fief  of 

Quelph  side;  those  wherein  the  nobles  and  the  classes  Spain,  and  as  such  it  remained  till  1706  when  it  passed 

privileged  by  the  emperors  had  the  upper  hand,  like  to  Austria,  which  took  possession  of  it  durinz  the  War 

Fbvia   and  'Cremona,   declared  tor  tlie  Ghiliellincs.  of  Succession,  at  the  death  of  Charles  IL     A  few 

From  these  civil  dissensions  u  few  changes  in  the  con-  years  later  1  he  death  of  Emperor  Charles  VI  of  Austria 

Btitution  of  the  communes  arose,  the  principal  one  be-  reopened  the  War  of  Succession,  and  Milan  fell  into 

ing  the  creation  of  the  podesla,  or  chief  magistrate,  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards  (1745);    at  the  peace  of 

necessitated  by  the  urgency  of  putting  an  end  to  the  1748  it  was  K'ven  back  to  Austria,  which  held  it  until 

dispute  arising  from  the  political  and  judicial  powers  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution,  when  Boaa- 

exercised  by  the  consuls.  parte  eataljlished  there  the  Cisalpine  Republic  and 

The  podesta  was  elected  by  the  general  assembly  of  later  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.     At  tne  fall  oJ  Napoleon 

the  people,  and  had  to  be  a  foreiEucr,  that  i3,.a  citizen  it  went  back  to  Austria  and  together  with  the  terri- 

from  some  other  commune;   he  belonged  to  the  same  tory  of  the  Venetian  Republic  it  made  up  what  was 

politicalcolourandha<l  to  be  of  knightly  family.     He  known  as  the  Lombardo- Venetian  Kingdom-     The 

sat  in  judgment  in  all  criminal  cases,  saw  that  sen-  warsof  Piedmont,  allied  with  France  in  1^9  and  with 

tences  were  carried  out,  commanded  the  arm j;,  and  Prussiain  1866,  tookawayLombardyaadVenicefrom 

declared  war  or  peace.     Hence  arose  the  prominence  Au-itria,  and  helped  to  make  the  present  Kingdom  of 

of  certain  families,  especially  when  the  same  citizen  Italy. 

was  chosen   by  more  llian  one  town,  and  this  led  to  The  eulisb  historiau  of  lombaidy  ia  Padli 

dictatorships  which  gave  rise  to  the  sigrwriaB,  to  be  SSii?''Jd"'"hl?^nM' ot  °W^  DHid^t*'" Wfa  'sVi^ 

found  in  the  towns  of  Lombardy  and  elsewhere.      The  Langobardoram  is  nn  importftnt  authority  for  the  traditioB*, 

leacue  of  the  communes  was  a  thorn  for  the  empire  cuslome,  and  poUtieal  hisloiy  of  hia  wople  to  the  aid  of  ibn 

andinmOFredcricklltriedoncemoretobreakitand  gSSSi^E^riit. 'iWsj-  ^  il^iw'cijadiri™'i^ 

to  conquer  the  Guelph  republics  of  Lomliardy.     To  iar£  (SbpIbs,  1832),  t^d  haada  tb.  hliiorin  of  Leo*  HaS- 

preventasiault,  when  Freuerickcameinl225toholda  mahi),  Cjirrri',  Bchhidt.  and  othen.  the  valusble  wock  of 

diet  at  Cremona,  the  cities  of  I^mlmrdy  formed  an-  f°^^''^/^^%^!;S,^"J^tenAi^'AlnM?;m^^ 

other  league  at  San  Zeno  di  Mosio  in  the  neighbour-  i907);  'loEy",  InMil.  poUl.  Hadm.da]iT<r>cip.hmbarrltt(Pi,na', 

hood  of  \lantiia.     The  emperor  placed  the  confederate  1907).    For  the  ndatlooi  of  the  Bonan  Churth  ttiih  the  Lum- 

towns  under  a  ban,  anil  with  the  help  of  a  Saracen  ^'^^^^^'''f^'Si^^-J'^J^'S',.'^"^-^^^-^;^^ 

armv,  which  he  brought  from  bicily,  and  of  the  troops  jiffl,^„  d-omUoI.  n  iThiM..  XXIII.  XXIV  (Paris.  1903):  atao 

of  the  Ghibelline  cities,  despite  the  interposition  of  CaiYHi-Lnoci.  Lt  Matt  cattoliebe  ed  i  Lumbardi  ariani  in  Stud* 

Honoriua  III  and  Gregorv  IX,  he  laid  waste  the  coun-  A"''™.  'V  (8'.  »"-,   O"  »■'•  J'^t^fS  communes  aee  Dij- 

tiy  of  the  League,  and  in  1247  defeated  it  at  Cortenova.  ^^Z>^^  SX^,?  i/^  X  i.*;™!^  yXfa^i^ 

But  his  victory  was  of  small  avail.    In  vain  did  be  be-  Univ.  Hit.  Sludiea  (BallimorB,  ISei).     The  medieval  cbrooi- 

Mcee  Brescia;  Genoa  and  Venice  rallierfto  the  League,  ^^i'^iS^^^l^^S^?i^S^l'^S'^-^'^'''f,'Z-  '^i 

which  had  its  revenge  at  Parma  and  elsewhere,  until  )ii„_  fairia  Motm™^.  mk  the  Arrslvo  Sb^'umbiirda- 

Jrederick  died  excommunicated  in  1250,  and  the  Lorn-  FmA)  {MIIu.  i874.Baq.).  ForLombord  jin  nee  M.i.v»iii,  t* 

hards  could  draw  breath.     In  the  period  that  follows  »i™  ^f^  "'«".  ^tj^^^h'^fe  '^''  ^*™''?*Ji'''*°  '^  ih " 

we  find  the  more  powerful  families  quartering  them-  „jdwSjs'n™LJ  o^niAont  of'the  L^i.Sris'Urpm.c.  Ut 

sclvesin  the  various  cities.      The  Torriani  and  the  Vis-  Ijimbanit  m  Fnmoi  a  -i  f  orii  (18»2).  and  nil  oconomi™!  his- 

contiat  Milan;   the  San  Bonifacios  and  the  Scaligers  jpfwa  of  the  Middle  Ag™,  e.g..  CunKiHaHAH.  WeMtmCitiliia- 

at  Verona;  the  Vitali  and  the  Ruaconi  at  Como;  the  """•                                                     p.nm  «ii«. 

Este  at  Ferrara;    the  Bonaceoisi  at  Mantua;    the  *^*''"*  ^     *■ 
Correggeschi  at  Parma,  etc. 

Among  these  the  Visconii  quickly  became  the  moat  LomCnie    de   Brlanne,    Ettennb-Ckahlkb    db, 

CcrfuTand  tor  two  centuries  were  lords  of  Lom-  French  cardinal  and  statesman,  b.  at  Paris,  1727;  d. 

ly.     At   first   Ihey   sought   to   have   themselves  atSens,  17W.     He  was  of  noble  lineage,  studied  at  the 

appointed  imperial  vicars  whenever  the  emperors  were  College  d'Harcourt  and  then  at  the  Sorbonne,  where, 

formidable  or  were  coming  into  Italy,  as  did  Henry  in  spite  of  certain  suggestions  of  unorthodoxy,  he  was 

VII  and  Louis  the  Bavarian;    but  afterwards  they  ^ven  the  doctorate  of  theolo^.     Ordained  priest  in 

cared  little  for  the  emperor  and  acted  as  though  intle-  1752,  ho  became  euccessively  \  icar-General  of  Rouen 

pendent  lords.     Matthew  1,   styled  the  Great,   was  (1752),  Bishop  of  Condom  (1760),  and  Archbishop  of 

created  lord  in  perpetuity  in  1295,  had  himself  made  Toulouse  (1762).     Forced  by  tlie  philosophers  upon 

count  in  1311,  placed  himself  at  the  bead  of  the  Ghi-  Louis  XVI,  who  feared  his  ambition  and  despised  his 

bellines  and  sdded  to  his  dominions  Pavia,  Bergamo,  private  life,  he  was  made  in  1788  minwire  principal 

Piaccnia,  and  Tortona.     Seventy  years  later  Gian  and  Archbishop  of  Sens,  the  second  richest  see  in 

Galeazzo  ruled  over  the  whole  of  Lombardv  including  Fiance.     As  a  minister,  he  was  popular  with  the  As- 

Farma  and  Riggio,  to  which  he  added  Verona  and  sembly  of  the  Notables,  but  failed  to  win  the  Parle- 

Vicenia  which  he  took  from  the  Scaligers,  and  Bolo-  ment  over  to  his  financial  schemes,  and  fell  after 

gna,  Siena,  and  Pisa,  and  then  he  purchased  from  the  announcing  the  convocation  of  the  States  General  for 


LOITDON  3^ 

1  Hll)^  1789.  la  order'to  o?Kt  bia  dowufall,  he  suc- 
ceedM  b^  otever  intrigue  id  Kaioing  for  biDtself  the 
cardinal's  hat,  and  in  hsiving  his  nephew,  Martial  de 
Lom^nie.  appointed  coadjutor  ot  Sens.  The  influence 
and  wealth  attached  to  his  see  he  used  to  have  Sens 
made  the  seat  of  the  new  ecclesiosticaJ  department  of 
Yonne — instead  of  Auxerrc,  the  natural  metropolis. 
Having  taken  the  conatitutiiinal  oath  on  30  Jan.,  1791, 
be  drew  after  him  a  large  portion  of  hia  clergy,  bu1>- 
nutted  to  popular  election,  and,  being  returned  both 
in  Toulouae  and  Sens,  chose  the  latter  place  because  of 
its  being  near  the  French  capital. 

When  Pius  VI,  by  a  Brief  of  23  Feb.,  1791,  severely 
rebuked  him  for  hie  disloyalty,  he  replied  bv  renouncing 
the  cardinalate,  and  was  foriaally  deposed  at  the  Con- 
sistory of  2R  Sept., 
1791.  He  then  re- 
tired with  his  fam- 
ily to  St.-Pierre- 
le-Vif,  a  confifi- 
calod  abl>ey  which 
he  had  tiurchased 
from  tne  spoli- 
ators and  shame- 
fully desecrated, 
and  there  awaited 

to  his  nobility, 
wealth,  and  ec- 
clesiastical rank, 
he  was  naturally 
made  the  object 
of  denunciations. 


bribing   the  local 

authorities  saved 
him  from  harm. 
On  1.5  Noi'ember. 
I  at  its  fiercest,  and 
danger,  he  apoata- 
neverthelc 


1793,  when  the  Conventir 
denunciations   meant 

tiled    for    safety's    sake,   but 

rested  on  IS  Feb.,  1794.  The  following  day  lie 
found  dead  in  bis  prison — some  say  from  suicide, 
and  some  from  a  stroke  of  apoplexy.  His  nephew 
and  former  coadjutor.  Martial  de  Lom^nie,  who 
bad  also  apoetatized,  w.is  sentenced  to  death  on 
10  May,  1794,  but  the  Christian  fortitude  of  Madame 
Elisabeth  and  the  warm  exhortations  of  the  dean  ot 
Sens,  both  of  whom  were  in  the  same  van  with  him, 
softened  his  heart,  and  he  died  repentant.  Lomf  iiie  de 
Brienne  was  a  member  of  the  French  Acadeniy.  The 
"CanaldeBrienne"  which  connects  the  river  Garonne 
with  the  Canal  du  Midi,  is  called  after  him.  He  wrote 
the  "Oraison  fundbre  du  Dauphin"  (Paris,  177S), 
"Compt«  rendu  au  Roi"  {Paris,  1788),  and,  in  colbb- 
oration  with  Turgot,  "LeConciliateur"  (Paris,  1754). 

Pbbbih.  U  card.  LonUnie  de  Brienne  (Sxnu.  IMIIG);  Fimuet 
in  Pranet  poBlifieaiK:  MUropate  dt  Smt  iKria.  ■.  d.):  PiiuHr  ><< 
RfptrtifirK  bwaraphiout  dt  t'^oiacopat  cone/itu/ionnd  (Pal 
IWl).  a.  v.;  MoMinia  La  GraTide  Enni  • - 


n  La  GraTide  Enruclopfdie. 


J.   F.   SOLLIER. 


-,  --'stor 

adminiBtrative  purposes: — (i)  The  City  of  London, 
with  a  population  of  26,923,  occupying  an  area  of  668 
■tktut«  acres,  little  more  than  one'  si't'^are  mile,  (ji) 
London,  as  defined  by  the  Metropolis  Local  Manaeo- 
ment  Act,  now  the  County  of  London,  with  a  ponuTa- 
tioB  (last  census  1901)  of  4.530,541  and  an  area  of  73,- 
462  statute  acres,  or  about  117  square  miles.  London 
district  as  refeired  to  in  the  Registrar-General's 
Tables  of  Mortality  coincides  very  nearly  with  this. 
(iii)  London,  in  reference  to  the  Parliamentary  Bor- 
oughs, has  a  population  of  about  4^  millions  and  an 


'aofS0,126Btatuteai 

ndon,  as  the  Metrop< 
with  the  Citv  has  a  population  of  6,.581,372  and  a 
area  of  nearly  700  square  miles.  It  extends  over  a 
radius  of  15  miles  from  Charing  Cross,  (-v)  I.«ndon, 
as  an  Anglican  diocese,  comprises  Middlesex,  Essex, 
and  part  of  Hertfordshire.  London  will  here  be 
trcatcil  underthe  following  heads:  I.  General  History. 
II.  Ancient  Catholic  Diocese.  HI.  London  Catholics 
aft^r  the  Reformation.  IV.  Modem  Ci^il  Adminis- 
tration. 

I.^  Gbhbral  HisToHr. — Pre-Norman  Timta.—Tbti 
origins  both  of  the  name  and  tbc  very  existence  of  the 
"great  burh,  Lunduuaborg,  which  is  the  greatest  and 
mo?t  famous  of  all  liurhs  in  the  northern  lands"  (Rag- 
iiar  Lodbrog  Saga)  lie  hidden  in  antiquity.  Boui 
name  and  town  alike  are  popularly  accounted  for  in 
the  wonderful  legend  of  GeoffrM'  of  Monmouth  which 
found  wide  credence  in  the  Middle  Ages.  According 
to  this,  Brutus,  a  dosceudant  of  lEncas  who  was  the 
son  of  Venus,  founded  this  city  after  the  fall  of  Troy, 
eleven  huTidred  vcars  before  Cnrist  came,  and  called  it 
Troy  no  van  t,  or  New  Troy.  And  after  a  thousand  years 
there  reigned  King  Lud  who  built  walls  and  ton^ers  to 
his  citv,  and  whose  name  y<tt  lives  in  Ludgate;  so 
tliftt  the  town  was  calle.1  Cfler  Lud.  Thus  Lud/s-Town 
liecam?  I^oiidon.  But  in  the  light  of  to[x>graphy  this 
legendary  explanation  must  ei\'e  way  to  the  nattu^ 
derivation  from  Lb/n-din,  tJie  I.>ako-fort.  For  the 
nucleus  of  Ixtndoii,  the  ground  which  the  city  proper 
still  occupies,  was  compoi^eil  of  two  hills  rising  with 
steep  sloping  sides  from  tlio  north  hank  of  the  Thames, 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  stream  known  later 
as  Walbrook,  and  shut  in  on  the  north  by  the  great 
moor  and  fen  the  memory  of  which  survives  in  the 
names  Moorfields  an<l  Finsbury. 

The  river  Fleet  bounded  the  western  hill  on  its 
western  side,  and  all  around  lay  the  marshes  tiirough 
which  the  Thatnes  flowed,  not  shut  in  by  eml>ai£- 


fcw  iflef  s  known  ctill  to  us  byplace-names  in  "  ey"  or 
"ea"  such  as  Bermondsey,  ITiorney,  Battersca,  and 
Chelsea.  The  western  island,  that  lictwccn  the  rivers 
Walbrook  and  Fleet  with  the  eminence  now  crowned 
by  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  was  the  site  of  a  British 
settlement  wliich  exi^^ted  Ix-fore  the  coming  of 
the  Romans.  Tlie  discovery  of  prehistoric  remains 
and  some  inscribed  coins  of  Cymlicline  have  estab- 
lished the  fact  of  this  jirc-Ronmn  city  against  the 
theoriesof  J.  R.  Green  (MakingofKiigland).  Dr.  Guest 
(Orirines  Ccltico?),  and  some  others.  It  proliablv  was 
a  collection  of  round  thal«hp<l  cottages  built  of  clay 
and  branches  and  surrounded  by  an  earthwork  whicn 
encloscdalioutonehutidredacres.  In  time  the  Thames 
brought  the  iKiats  of  tnuh;rs  and  it  Itccanic  a  place  of 
primitive  trade  and  commerce.  This  was  probably 
its  condition  when  the  Romans  arrivcil  in  a,  d.  43. 
Unless  it  hod  alreadv  been  establiilied  as  a  known 
mart  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  bv  the  year  a.  d.  61 
when  it  finds  its  first  mention  in  history  in  the  "An- 
nals" of  Tacitus  it  could  lie  descril)ed  as  "  Loiidinium, 
not  dignified  with  the  name  of  a  colony  but  celelnnted 
for  the  gathering  of  dealers  and  commodities  ".  (An- 
nals, \.  n.  61.) 

The  Roman  settlement  seems  to  have  been  first 
ma<le  on  the  eastern  hill,  to  the  east  of  Walbrook. 
Here  they  built  their  fortress,  a  walled  enclosure  such 
as  that  still  surviving  at  Richlmrough.     Under  the 

Erotection  of  this  the  town  grew  in  size  and  became  a 
usy  mercantile  centre,  with  the  villas  of  its  wealthier 
citizens,  traces  of  which  ore  still  discovered,  lying 
round  its  citadel.  For  nearly  four  hundred  years  it 
formed  the  Roman  city  of  Augusta,  though  the  old 
Celtic  name  still  survived.  During  this  period  it  was 
capture<l  by  Doadicea  who  massacred  the  inhabitants 
(a.  D.  6 1 ),  wBs  restored  by  the  Romans,  was  the  scene  o( 


LONDON 


342 


LONDON 


the  successive  usurpations  of  (,'araui?ius  (28())  and  Al- 
lectus  (293),  and  of  tho  defeat  in  battle  of  the  last 
named.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  Roman  occu- 
pation it  was  Christianized.  The  fact  that  all  the 
churches  ia  Thames  Street,  the  oldest  part  of  the  city, 
were  dedicated  to  the  Apostles  and  not  to  later  saints, 
suggests  that  they  occupied  the  sites  of  early  Christian 
churches.     In  314  Resti tutus.  Bishop  of  London,  was 

E resent  at  the  Council  of  Aries,  and  Wend  purports  to 
ave  preserved  the  names  of  several  of  his  predecessors 
and  successors  (Geoffrey  of  Monmouth),  a  claim  which 
the  modem  historian,  Dr.  Stubbs  (Episcopal  Succes- 
sion), treats  with  respect. 

When  the  Saxons  drove  out  the  Romans  and  Britons 
during  the  fifth  century,  London  was  one  of  the  few 
places  which  preserved  a  continuous  existence.  Prob- 
ably it  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  East  Saxons  be- 
fore 571  (Lethaby,  op.  cit.  inf.,  29-31).  In  604  St. 
Mellitus  was  sent  by  St.  Augustine  to  be  the  first 
Bishop  of  London  of  the  restored  hierarchy,  and  w^ith 
him  begins  the  line  of  bishoi>s  that  lasted  nearly  a 
thousand  years  (see  list  of  bishops  below).  In  the 
time  of  St.  Mellitus  the  cathedral  church  of  St.  Paul 
and  the  abbey  church  of  St.  Peter  at  Westminster  were 
founded.  But  little  is  known  of  London  during  early 
Saxon  times.  It  suffered  much  from  fires  and  much 
from  the  Danes,  being  sacked  by  the  latter  in  839  and 
again  in  895.  Under  Alfred  however  the  Londoners 
defeated  the  Danes  and  enjoyed  a  period  of  prosperous 
tranquillity,  so  that  by  the  time  of  Athelstan,  his 
grandson,  London  required  as  many  as  eight  money- 
ers,  to  produce  the  necessary  coinage.  But  in  the 
eleventh  century  the  Danes  again  harassed  it  and  it 
suffered  much  in  the  struggle  between  Canute  and  Ed- 
mund Ironside,  though  it  retained  its  wealth,  as  during 
the  reign  of  Canute  one-seventh  of  his  entire  revenue 
came  from  London.  From  this  time  it  disputed  with 
Winchester  the  priority  among  English  cities.  St. 
Edward  the  Confessor  during  his  reign  (1042-1066)  re- 
sided chiefly  at  Westminster  where  he  rebuilt  West- 
minster Abbey,  in  which  his  relics  are  still  enshrined. 
In  this  minster  the  coronation  of  all  English  sovereigns 
takes  place,  and  it  is  the  national  burying  place  for 
great  men,  statesmen  and  warriors  lying  in  the  north 
transept,  "Poets*  comer"  occupying  the  south  tran- 
sept, while  nearly  thirty  kings  and  queens  rest  in  the 
choir  and  side  chapels. 

London  under  the  Normans, — After  the  Battle  of 
Hastings  the  citizens  of  London,  after  an  indecisive  en- 
gagement with  the  troops  of  William  the  Conqueror 
in  Southwark,  submitted  to  him  at  Berkhamstead 
(Herts),  and  he  was  crowned  in  Westminster  Abl)ey. 
in  a  charter  of  four  and  a  half  lines  addressed  to  the 
bishop,  the  portreeve,  and  the  burgesses,  he  declared 
that:  "  I  grant  them  all  to  be  law-worthy  as  they  were 
in  the  days  of  King  Edward,  and  1  erant  that  every 
child  shall  be  his  father's  heir  after  his  father's  days 
and  I  will  not  suffer  any  man  do  you  WTong."  Not 
trusting  the  citizens,  however,  William  built  the  White 
Tower,  the  keejp  of  the  Tower  of  London,  to  overawe 
them,  and  also  Baynard's  Castle  at  the  western  extrem- 
ity of  the  city.  London  at  this  time  consisted  of  a  col- 
lection of  low  wooden  houses  thatched  with  reeds  or 
straw,  thus  affording  combustible  material  for  the  nu- 
merous and  destructive  fires  which  frequently  broke 
out,  as  in  1087  when  the  greater  part  of  the  city,  in- 
cluding St.  Paul's,  was  burnt.  Bishop  Maurice  inune- 
diately  began  a  new  cathedral  which  was  one  of  the 
largest  churches  in  Europe  being  600  feet  long.  It 
contained  the  shrine  of  St.  Erconwald  to  which  great 
crowds  of  pilgrims  journeyed,  reaching  the  cathedral 
by  the  thoroughfare  still  called  Pilgrim  Street. 

At  this  time  a  period  of  building  activity  set  in  dur- 
ing which  London  was  enriched  with  many  churches, 
reiiffious  houses  and  public  buildings  erected  in  stone. 
William  Rufus  built  Westminster  Hall,  the  Tower  ram- 
parts and  a  new  Ix>ndon  Bridge  to  replace  that  which 


was  washcil  away  by  the  great  floods  in  1091.  In 
1 100  the  citizens  obtained  a  new  charter  from  Henry  I, 
which  was  confirmed  by  Stephen  in  11 35.  In  Henry's 
reign  many  religious  houses  were  built,  including  the 
Priory  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  at  Clerkenwell,  and  the 
Priory  of  St.  Bartholomew  founded  by  Habere -in 
Smithfield,  the  noble  church  of  which  still  survives. 
The  ICnights  Templars  established  themselves  in  Hol- 
bom  in  1 1 18,  removing  to  Fleet  Street  later  in  the  cen- 
tury, where  the  Temple  church  (consecrated  1185)  yet 
remains.  Another  great  fire  broke  out  in  1136,  de- 
stroying the  city  from  Ludi^te,  then  the  west  end 
of  the  town,  to  St.  Paul's.  The  Civil  War  between 
Stephen  and  Matilda  with  which  the  Norman  period 
was  brought  to  a  close  marked  the  epoch  at  whicn  Lon- 
don rose  to  the  position  of  a  capital.  For  unlike  Win- 
chester it  did  not  suffer  in  the  war,  and  when  Matilda 
deprived  it  of  its  charters  the  citizens  rose  and  drove 
her  from  their  city. 

London  under  the  PlarUagenets. — Under  Hemy  II, 
who  viewed  the  Londoners  with  disfavour  owing  to 
their  repulse  of  his  mother,  we  have  our  first  contem- 
porary account  of  London,  the  vivid  description  of 
Fitzstephen,  monk  of  Canterbury,  and  friend  and 
biographer  of  St.  Thomas.  He  tells  us  of  a  city  walled 
round  with  the  White  Tower  on  the  east  and  Mont- 
fichet  and  Baynard's  Castle  on  the  west  where  Black- 
friars  now  is.  There  are  seven  double  gates,  Aldsate, 
Bishopsgate,  Cripplegate,  Aldersgate,  NewgBkte,  Lud- 
gate,  and  the  Bnage.  Two  miles  up  the  river  lay  the 
Royal  Palace  and  Abbey  of  Westminster  connected 
with  the  city  by  the  riverside  thoroughfare  called  the 
Strand.  He  describes  the  wealth  and  power  of  the 
citizens,  and  grows  enthusiastic  over  the  plenty  in  the 
markets,  the  Chepe — ^now  Cheapside — ^Eastcheap,  Bil- 
lingsgate, and  Dowgate.  The  various  trades  were  as- 
signed their  own  localities  as  the  ancient  surviving 
names  tell  us, — ^Milk  Street,  Bread  Street,  Wood 
Street,  Fish  Street,  Poultry  Street,  and  others.  Friday 
Street  was  the  market  for  Friday  fare— dried  fish.  In 
the  Chepe  were  the  mercers,  goldsmiths,  armourers, 
glovers,  and  many  others.  He  lingers  with  delight  on 
the  sports  of  the  youn^  citizens,  himting  in  Middlesex 
Forest,  wrestling,  leapmg,  and  playing  at  ball:  and  in 
winter  skating  and  sliding  on  frozen  Moorfields.  He 
describes  the  beautiful  garden  and  houses  occupied  by 
the  prelates  and  barons  when  they  were  smnmoned  to 
great  councils  by  the  king.  Above  all  he  bears  wit- 
ness to  the  orderly  government  and  careful  social  ob- 
servance practised.  *'  I  do  not  think  that  there  is  any 
city  with  more  commendable  customs  of  church  at- 
tendance, honour  to  God's  ordinances,  keeping  sacred 
festivals,  almsgiving,  hospitality,  confirming,  be- 
trothals, contracting  marriages,  celebration  of  nup- 
tials, preparing  f caste,  cheering  the  guests,  and  also  m 
care  for  funeral  and  the  interment  of  the  dead.  The 
only  pest  of  London  are  the  immoderate  drinking  of 
fools  and  the  frequency  of  fires"  (**Descriptio  nobi- 
lissimsB  civitatis  Londinia"  in  preface  to  "Vita  St. 
Thomie"). 

The  city  then  contained  thirteen  larger  conventual 
churches  and  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  parish 
churches.  In  1176  Peter  of  Colechurch,  a  priest,  be- 
gan the  rebuilding  of  London  Bridge  ¥rith  stone.  It 
took  thirty-three  years  to  build  and  lasted  for  seven 
hundred  years.  At  this  time  the  city  was  governed  by 
a  portreeve,  two  sheriffs,  and  the  alcfermen  of  the  van- 
ous  wards.  In  1189  Henry  Fitz-alwyne  became  Uie 
first  Mayor  of  London  under  the  title  of  ''  bailiff"  and 
he  held  the  office  till  1212.  During  his  tenure  of  office 
the  citizens  obtained  from  King  John  a  charter  em- 
powering them  to  elect  a  lord  mayor  annually.  They 
nad  previously  obtained  from  Richard  I  Jurisdiction 
over  and  conservancy  of  the  Thames.  In  llfiHd  the 
court  of  aldermen  decreed  that  in  future  houses  ahoidd 
be  built  of  stone  instead  of  wood  so  as  to  check  the  dis- 
astrous fires,  but  wooden  houses  continued  to  be  builty 


LOKOOH  3^ 

though  hy  thi>  time  tixtsy  were  pla8t«i:«d  and  whib>- 
wMbed.  During  the  thirteenth  century  the  conven- 
tual eBtabhshmente  were  increased  by  the  coming  of 
the  friuB,  who  unlilca  the  Benedictines  and  Aucustin' 
iana,  prtSemd  to  live  in  the  midst  of  cities.  The  Oo- 
nniniw^tun  eatabliafaed  themselves  in  Holbom  (1221), 
and  in  the  district  still  bearing  tbetr  popular  name, 
Bkckfrian  (1276),  on  which  occasion  the  city  boun- 
daries were  enlarged  so  as  to  include  their  property. 
The  FranciBoana  (Grey  friars)  settled  in  Farringdon 
Without  in  1224;  the  Carmelites  (White  Friars)  near 
Fleet  Street  (1241) ;  the  Austin  friars  in  Broad  Street 
Ward  (12A3);  the  Crutcbed  friars  (1298).  The  same 
poriodwitnaied  the  rebuildingof  Westminster  Abbey. 
beKun  hy  Henrv  III  in  1245  and  finished  in  1295,  and 
of  St.  Paul's  wnere  a  new  Gothic  choir  was  b^wi  in 
1240,  and  other  additions  including  a  tower  were 
madetillinI316thecathedralwascoropIet«.    Another 


In  1411  the  Guildhall  was  rebuilt,  and  duruw 

the  century  the  walls  and  gates  were  strengthened. 
That  this  was  a  wise  precaution  in  a  disturbed  age  is 
shown  by  the  failure  of  the  attack  on  London  during 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses  when  Thomas  Neville  assaulted 
each  gate  in  successioa  and  was  repulsed  at  every  oi 


Wbrde,  Pynson,  and  other  great  printers,      .  ._ 

pation  of  Richard  III  and  the  murder  of  Edward  V 
and  his  brother  in  the  Tower  (14S3)  were  the  last 
events  in  the  history  of  London  under  the  Planta- 

London  under  the  T'udnrt. — The  opening  of  this  pe- 
riod was  marked  by  repeated  outbreaks  ofthe  "  Hweat- 
ing  sickness"  which  was  so  common  in  England  that  it 
was  known  as  the  Sudor  Anglicanui.    Taia  £iBt  ap> 


noteworthy  church  of  this  period  was  St.  Saviour's, 
Southwark  (1250).  In  1285  the  citizens  were  de- 
prived by  Edward  I  of  their  right  of  electing  the  lord 
mayor  and  they  did  not  regain  it  till  1297.  In  1290 
the  Jews,  who  since  the  time  of  William  the  ConC|Ueror 
had  lived  in  what  is  still  called  Old  Jewry,  were  ex- 
pelled from  England. 

The  fourteenth  century  was  signalized  by  the  great 
^ague  of  1349  which  carried  oS  one-half  of  the  entire 
popalBt«m  of  England.  Close  to  the  spot  where  many 
of  the  vicUms  were  buried  Sir  Walter  Manny  built  tl^ 
ChartertuHue  in  1371.  The  remains  of  this  Carthu- 
•ianhoueeare  the  only  extensive  monastic  buildings  of 
medievsl  London  which  have  survived  the  Reformo- 
tioD  and  the  Great  Fire.  In  1381  the  peace  of  London 
was  disturbed  by  Wat  T>'lcr's  relielhon  when  much 
damage  was  done  in  the  city  till  the  citizens  arrayed 
themselves  in  arms  against  the  rebels  and  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  king.  The  close  of  the  century  witnewed 
the  first  mayoralty  of  Sir  Richard  Whittington,  the 
papular  hero  of  London  and  a  muniliccnt  benefactor 
to  the  city.  He  fiUed  the  office  three  times  (1397, 
1406  and  1419)  and  built  Newgate,  Christ's  Hospital 
and  »  coDiiderable  part  of  St.  Ikirtholomew's  hospital 
aa  well  oa  the  chapei  and  library  at  the  Guildhall.  Con- 
tanpoiary  with  him  was  one  of  London's  greatest 
Bona,  Geoffrey  Chaucer,  who  died  at  Westminster 
(1400).  Tbe  fifteenth  century  witnessed  little  devel- 
opment in  London.    Repeated  attacks  of  plague,  es- 


1607-1677) 


peared  in  1485  and  broke  outagainin  1500, 1517, 1528, 

and  1551,  carrying  off  thousands  at  each  visitation; 
while  in  1500  tnirty  thousand  Londoners  fell  victims 
to  the  plneue.  Nevertheless  the  city  continued  to 
prosper  under  the  finn  Tudor  rule,  and  frequent  royal 
paEcants  were  seen  in  its  streets.  Henry  Vll  added 
to  Westminster  Abbey  the  finest  building  in  the  Per- 
pendicular Style  in  £jigland.  His  chapel  was  bceun 
in  1502andflnishedin  1517.  In  1512 ttie royal  palace 
at  Westminster  was  burnt,  and  Henry  VIIl  was  left 
without  a  London  residence  until  in  1529  he  took  pos-  - 
session  of  Wolsev's  palace,  York  Place,  and  renamed  it 
Uliitchall.     In  1530  he  began  to  build  St.  James's 

And  now  a  great  change  was  in  store  for  London, 
though  it  came  about  little  by  little.  In  1534  Heniy 
obtained  the  scbismatical  Act  of  Parliament  abolish- 
ing the  authority  of  the  pope,  and  in  the  following 
year  the  Act  of  Supremacy  gave  him  the  title  "Su- 
preme Head  of  the  Church  in  l^ngland."  London  was 
reddened  with  the  blood  of  martyrs;  the  Carthusians 
of  the  London  Charterhouse,  Blessed  John  Fisher  and 
Blessed  Thomas  More  suffered  in  the  summer  of  1535. 
Others  followed  in  succeeding  years.  In  1536  the 
smaller  religious  bouses  were  suppressed;  in  1539  the 
ercater  monasteries  fell.  The  Benedictine  Abbeys  of 
Westminster  and  Bennondsey;  the  Cistercians  of  St. 
Mary  Graces;  the  Augustiniacs  of  the  Priories  of  St. 
Bartholomew,  Smithfield,  Holy  Trinity,  Aldgate,  and 


LONDON 


344 


LONDON 


St.  Mary  Overy,  Southwark;  the  convents  at  Clerken- 
well,  Hoiywell,  St.  Helen's  Bishopsgate,  Kilburn,  and 
Stratford,  and  all  the  houses  of  the  friars  were  seized 
by  the  king  and  the  religious  were  dispersed.  On 
Henry's  death  (1547)  things  went  from  bad  to  worse. 
Protector  Somerset  and  the  Reformation  party  were 
in  the  ascendant,  the  substitution  of  Englisn  for  Latin 
was  ordered  in  all  the  churches,  and  crucifixes  and 
images  were  pulled  down.  All  property  belonging  to 
colleges  and  chantries  was  seized  for  royal  uses,  and 
even  the  great  city  guilds,  which  held  lands  for  the  pur- 
poses of  providing  stipends  for  priests,  obits,  and  lights, 
had  to  redeem  such  lands  at  a  total  cost  of  £20,000, 
and  to  apply  the  rents  arising  therefrom  to  other  char- 
itable purposes. 

The  Catnolic  life  of  London  thus  received  blow  after 
blow.  There  can  be  Httle  doubt  moreover  that  a  con- 
Biderable]section  of  the  populace  was  in  sjrmpathv  with 
the  Reformers,  a  fact  wnich  was  largely  due  to  the  fre- 
quent communication  between  London  and  the  Conti- 
nent. The  brief  Catholic  revival  under  Mary  met  with 
considerable  opposition  in  London,  and  comparatively 
little  had  been  aone  in  the  way  of  restoration  when  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth,  in  1558,  led  to  the  complete 
overthrow  of  the  Catholic  religion.  From  the  feast  of 
St.  John  Baptist  on  24  June,  1559  the  Mass  was  for- 
bidden and  the  Holy  Sacrifice  ceased  to  be  offered  in 
London  churches;  St.  Paul's  cathedral  under  the  ener- 
getic influence  of  Bishop  Bonner  being  one  of  the  last 
where  Mass  was  said.  The  bishop  himself  and  many 
of  his  clergy  were  imprisoned  and  after  the  excom- 
munication of  Elizabeth^  in  1570,  the  martyrdoms  be- 
gan again,  reaching  their  hei^t  in  point  of  numbers 
in  1588,  the  year  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  From  this 
time  forward  London  became  a  Protestant  city  and 
the  history  of  the  dwindling  number  of  Catholics  will 
be  described  later. 

It  is  at  this  time  that  the  first  maps  of  London  were 
produced.  Anthony  van  den  Wyngaerde  produced 
nis  panorama  between  1543  and  1550.  Probably  the 
first  actual  map  is  that  of  Hoefnagel,  sometimes  known 
as  Braun  and  Hog;enberg's  map  from  the  work  in  which 
it  appeared.  It  is  dat^  1572.  Others  give  priority 
to  tne  undated  map,  attributed  to  Agas,  which  must 
have  been  noAde  between  1570  and  1600.  The  citv  at 
this  time  was  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity.  The  bril- 
liant Court  of  Elizabeth  attracted  men  of  action  and 
men  of  letters,  so  that  there  never  was  a  time  when 
London  held  more  distinguished  Englishmen.  Thea- 
tres now  began  to  be  built,  though  always  outside  the 
city  boundaries:  the  ''Theatre"  and  the  ** Curtain"  at 
Shoreditch;  the  " Globe", "  Rose"  and ''  Hope"  on  the 
Bankside.  There  was  also  a  theatre  at  Blackfriars. 
In  1566  the  Royal  Exchange  was  founded  by  Sir 
Thomas  Gresham,  receiving  its  name  from  Elizabeth 
in  1571.  Attempts  were  now  made  to  restrict  the 
growth  of  London,  but  in  vain,  for  its  ever-increasing 
material  prosperity  made  it  a  centre  which  drew  men 
from  all  sides.  Moorfields  was  drained  and  laid  out  as 
a  pleasure-ground.  The  wealthier  citizens  be^an  to 
build  country  houses,  while  courtiers  built  mansions  in 
the  neighbourhoods  of  Westminster,  Whitehall,  The 
Strand,  and  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields.  This  extension  of 
the  city  led  to  the  beginnings  of  a  regular  water-sup- 

{)ly,  the  water  being  conveyed  from  the  Thames  m 
eadcn  pipes.  The  river  itself  was  then  the  great  high- 
way of  London,  the  streets  being  unmade  and  often 
foul  and  muddy.  Drainage  and  refuse  alike  poured 
ipto  the  river  and  the  question  of  a  fresh  water  supply 
became  an  urgent  one,  especially  in  view  of  the  rapid 
CTOWth  of  London.  To  meet  the  want,  Sir  Hugh  Myd- 
dleton  devised  and  executed  a  wise  scheme  by  which 
he  provided  London  with  a  canal  which  brought  water 
from  Hertfordshire.  This  was  completed  in  1613. 
The  population  of  London  in  the  last  years  of  Eliza- 
beth was  estimated  at  145,000. 
Lmidan  under  the  Stuarts. — Between  1603  and  1714 


a  very  great  change  came  over  London,  for  during  tliifl 
period  the  centre  of  social  life  slowly  passed  from  the 
City  to  the  west  end  of  the  town,  leaving  the  City  as 
the  centre  of  municipal  and  commercial  me  only.  The 
suburbs  grew  until  tney  became  a  vast  town  encircling 
this  centre,  and  many  times  larger  and  more  populous. 
Little  by  little  the  old  walls  were  pulled  down  and 
many  of  the  open  spaces  were  covert  with  a  network 
of  streets  many  houses  in  which  were  now  built  of 
brick.  Pavements  for  foot-passengers  were  also  in- 
troduced. During  the  Civil  War,  London  was  the 
strength  and  mainstay  of  the  Parliamentarians,  and 
new  fortifications  consisting  chiefly  of  earthworks 
were  necessary.  The  execution  of  Charles  I,  which 
took  place  at  the  banqueting  hall  of  the  royal  palace  of 
Whitehall,  in  presence  of  vast  crowds  of  Londoners, 
was  a  memorable  event  in  London  history.  It  was 
followed  by  the  Commonwealth,  during  which  Jews 
were  allowed  by  Cromwell  to  return  to  London,  and  in 
1660  by  the  R^toration  when  the  separation  between 
the  fashionable  court  life  of  the  West  End  and  the 
commercial  life  of  the  City  was  completed.  In  1664 
London  was  stricken  by  the  Great  Pla^e,  last  and 
worst  of  the  pestilences,  which  raged  with  increasing 
violence  throughout  the  following  year.  The  number 
of  victims  is  not  known  for  certain.  Nearly  70,000 
deaths  from  plague  were  actually  registered,  but  in 
this  time  of  horror  the  registers  could  not  be  efficiently 
kept,  and  it  is  probable  that  at  least  100,000  persona 
perisned.  A  year  after  the  plague  had  ceased,  in 
1666,  the  Great  Fire  occurred  when  for  three  days  the 
whole  city  was  in  flames.  It  is  not  easy  to  overesti- 
mate the  damage  caused  by  this  conflagration  in  which 
almost  all  the  remains  of  medieval  London  were  de- 
stroyed. The  great  Gothic  cathedral  and  eighty-six 
of  the  old  Catholic  churches  perished,  together  with 
the  palaces  and  mansions  of  the  City  and  the  dwellings 
of  tne  citizens.  One  good  result  ensued:  the  seeds 
of  the  plague  were  d^royed  and  the  old  insanitary 
streets  were  no  more.  In  rebuilding  the  City  a  great 
opportunity  was  lost.  For  Wren's  noble  plan  was  not 
adopted  and  the  old  lines  of  streets  were  adhered  to, 
though  the  new  houses  were  all  of  brick.  Owing  to 
this  decision,  many  of  the  ancient  topographical  and 
historical  associations  have  been  preserved,  it  is  true, 
but  at  the  cost  of  both  appearance  and  convenience. 

In  1675  Wren  began  the  rebuilding  of  St.  Paul's 
which  was  not  finally  completed  till  1711.  Built  in 
the  classical  style  its  beauty  lies  in  its  proportions  and 
in  the  noble  and  massive  simphcity  of^the  great  dome 
which  lifts  the  cross  404  feet  above  the  pavements 
of  London.  In  it  lie  buried  Nelson.  Wellington,  and 
others  chiefly  of  military  and  naval  renown,  though 
many  famous  painters  and  musicians  are  also  interred 
there.  Besides  this  masterpiece  Wren  designed  thirty- 
five  of  the  new  City  churches  all  distinguished  by  their 
fine  steeples  or  towers  and  the  harmonious  propor- 
tions of  their  interiors,  enriched  as  they  are  also  by 
the  noble  carving  of  Grinling  Gibbons.  In  1671  tl>e 
Monument  was  erected  to  commemorate  the  fire;  it  is 
a  noble  column  202  feet  high,  originally  disfigured  by 
an  inscription  explaining  that  the  fire  waa  "  begun  and 
carried  on  by  the  treachery  and  malice"  of  the  Catho- 
lics, a  calumny  which  was  deservedly  pilloried  in 
Pope's  lines: — 

"  Where  linden's  column,  pointing  to  the  skies, 
Like  a  tall  bully  lifts  its  head,  and  lies." 
The  offensive  inscription  was  removed  during  the 
reign  of  James  II,  but  having  been  replaced  after  the 
Revolution  was  finally  obliterated  in  1831,  consequent 
on  the  passing  of  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act  of 
1829.  By  the  time  of  the  Revolution  London  was 
acknowledged  as  the  greatest  capital  in  Europe  and 
boasted  half  a  million  inhabitants.  In  1694  the  Bank 
of  England  was  founded,  and  in  1698  the  old  peJaoe  of 
Whitehall  was  burnt  down.  The  rebuilding  of  London 
was  still  proceeding  when  the  century  drew  to  a  close. 


LOHDOX  3' 

London  fn  the  Eighteenth  Cmtury. — London  under 
the  HAnorerun  kinga  lost  the  beauty  it  formerly  had 

and  became  a  vast  collection  of  houses,  plain  but  com- 
fortable, a  condition  from  which  it  la  only  now  success- 
fully emerging.  There  was  a  great  extension  of  build- 
ing in  tlic  West  end  and  in  the  neighliourhoods  ot 
Bloomsbury,  Marylebone,  and  May  Vair,  but  unfortu- 


or  rebuilt  to  meet  the  nants  of  the  increasing  numbers 
of  the  poor.  Among  these  were  Westminster  Hos- 
pital (founded  1719),  Guy's  (1725),  St.  Bartholomew's 
(rebuilt  17:J0-1733),  St.  Thomas's  (1732),  the  I-onHon 
Hospital  (instituted  1741),  and  the  Uiddleaex  Iloapital 
(1745).    Besidea  these,  that  noble  charity  the  Found- 


5  LOHDOX 

Relief  Act  (1778).  During  the  same  ^riod  new» 
papers  began  to  appear,  sevoral  of  which  still  ex- 
ist: the  "Morning  Post"  (1772)  '"nmea"  (1788),  "Ob- 
server" (1781),  "Morning  Advertiser"  (1794),  and 
"  Globe"  (1803).  This  century  also  witnessed  the  rise 
of  the  British  Museum  (1753),  the  Royal  Academy 
(1768),  and  the  Royal  Institution  (1799). 

lAtndon  in  the  Nineteenth  Ccn/un/.— In  1801  the  first 
census  was  taken  and  showed  that  the  total  popula- 
tion  of  London  was  900,000  and  of  the  city,  78,000. 
As  the  population  in  1901  wsa  returned  os  4J  millions 
it  will  be  seen  how  rapid  has  been  the  growth  of  I.011- 
don  during  the  past  hundred  years.  .\noIhcr  fact 
illustrating  this  is  that  during  uic  period  1S79-1909 
more  than  1500  miles  of  new  streets  were  built.    It 


^a^. 


■'--■-^^^>i'b-jA#^',fe^j;.it 


;i 


fing  Hospital,  was  institutod  in  1738  and  was  moved 
to  the  present  building  in  1754. 

Till  this  time  I-ondon  had  only  one  bridge,  but  in 
1738Westminst«r  Bridge  was  liegun  and  in  17.'>()itwas 
opened.  Blackfriars  Bridge  followed  in  17St).  In 
1758  the  houses  on  London  Bridge  had  lx«n  doniol- 
idted  and  shortly  after,  five  of  the  old  city  Gat«s, 
Howgate,  Aldersgate,  Aldgale,  Cripplegate,  and  Lud- 
cate,  were  pulled  down.  The  Westminster  Paving 
Act,  passed  in  1762,  introiluced  many  improvements 
in  tne  Uioroughfares;  pavements  were  laid,  and  ob- 
structions removed  from  the  streets.  About  this  time 
people  commenced  to  place  their  names  on  their  doors 
and  the  system  of  numbering  houses  began.  There 
was,  however,  indescribable  squalor  and  filth  in  many 

Eirts  of  the  town,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  pictures  of 
logartb,  and  the  moral  corruption  of  the  people  was 
indescribable.  The  term  "  Rookery"  was  by  no 
means  unapt.  The  city  bad  many  troubles  to  en- 
counter during  the  latter  part  of  the  century,  such  aa 
the  Silk-weaveiB  riota  (1765);  the  auarrel  with  the 
Court  and  Pariiament  about  the  election  of  John 
Wilkes  (1708),  and  the  terrible  Gonlon  Riots  (171*0) 
[<j.  V.)  which  were  the  outcome  of  the  first  Catholic 


is  clearly  impossible  within  these  limits  to  give  any 
but  tlie  most  snlieut  facts.  In  ISOl  the  fir^t  ntteinpts 
at  steam  navigation  were  made  on  the  Thauies.  "The 
London  docks  were  begun  four  years  later.  They 
cover  an  area  ot  120  acres  and  e0.1t  four  million  pounds. 
In  1806  three  great  fiinerals  took  place  in  London, 
Nelson  being  buried  in  St.  Paul's,  Pitt  and  Fox  in  the 
Abbey.  In  1807  gas  was  first  used  to  light  the  public 
streetfl,  and  five  years  later  a  charter  was  granted  f« 
the  Gas  Light  and  Coke  Company,  the  oldest  of  the 
lighting  companies.  Once  more  tnere  was  activity  in 
bridge  l)uildmg;  Old  Vauxhall  Bridge  was  opened  In 
1811,  Waterioo  Bridge  in  1817,  Southwark  Bridge  in 
1819,  and  new  London  Bridge,  a  little  farther  west 
than  its  predecessor,  was  begun  in  1825  and  finiiihed 
in  1831.  The  bridges  at  Westminster  and  Blackfriare 
have  since  been  rebuilt,  anrl  the  magnificent  To«-er- 
Bridge  was  opened  in  1S94,  bo  that  the  .seven  chief 
London  bridges  are  ot  nineteenth-century  construo- 
fion.  Among  the  new  buildings  of  this  period  were 
the  Mint  (1811),  Regent  Street  (1813).  the  British 
Museum  (1823),  General  Post  Office  (1H24),  while  . 
others  were  necessitated  by  the  fjre.'i  wliirli  destrovefl 
the  Old  Housf«  of  Pariiament  in  1><M  and  the  Royal 


UMDOM  3 

ExchADge  in  1S38.    The  new  Houses  of  Pariiament, 

designed  by  Barry  vith  much  assistance  from  the 
Catholic  architect  Pugin,  were  be^a  in  IS40,  the 
House  of  Lords  being  opened  in  1847,  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1852. 

In  the  great  revolutionary  year  of  1848  London  was 
threatened  by  the  Chartists,  and  extensive  prepara- 
tions were  made  for  defence,  but  the  movement  came 
to  nothing.  Two  great  international  exhibitions 
took  place  in  the  years  1851  and  1862  with  useful  re- 
sults to  the  commerce  of  the  capital.  This  was  fur- 
ther helped  by  the  development  of  the  railways,  which 
brought  about  further  alterations  in  London  and 
neccBsitatcd  the  erection  of  the  great  terminal  railway 
stations:  Euston,  L.  &  N.W.R.;  King's  Cross,  G.N.R.; 
St.  Pancras,  M.R.;  Paddinrton,  G.W.R.;  Maiylebone, 
G.C.R.;  Waterloo,  L.  and  S.W.R,;  Liverpool  St., 
G.E.R.;  Holbom,  S.E.  and  C.R.;  Cannon  St.,  S.E.  and 
C.R.;  Charing  Cross,  S.E.  and  C.R. ;  Victoria,  S.E.  and 
C.R.,  and  L.B.  and 
S.C.R.1  London 
Bridge,  L.B.  and 
8.C.R.;  Fenchurch 
St.,  London,  Tilburv 
and  Southend  Rail- 
way. One  of  the 
immediate  results  of 
the  facilities  offered 
by  railways  has  been 
the  desertion  of  the 
City  as  a  residential 
ir,  and  the 


ness  people  now  live, 
going  into  town  daily 
for  business  and  rc- 
turning  home  at 
night.  This  sepa- 
ration of  the  com- 
mercial man's  home 
from  his  business  has 
considerably  altered 
the  nature  of  London 
family  life.  New  in- 
ventions also  helped  in  accentuating  thiscbange.  The 
first  London  tele^ph  from  Paddington  to  West  Dray- 
ton was  opened  m  1830,  and  a  year  later  penny  post- 
age was  introduced.  In  1S43  the  Thames  tunnel  Irom 
Wapping  to  Rotherhithe  was  opened.  In  1860  the 
volunteer  movement  arose  under  public  apprehension 
of  a,  French  invasion.  Many  other  additions  to  the 
buildings  and  thoroughfares  of  London  were  made  dut^ 
ing  Queen  Victoria's  reign,  among  them  being  South 
Kensington  Museum  and  the  Public  Record  Office 
(1856);  theHolbomViaduct(1869);  the  Thames  Em- 
bankment (1870);  the  Albert  Halland  Burlington  House 
(1871);  the  New  Law  Courts  (1882);  the  Imperial  In- 
Btitute{1893)  and  theNationalPortraitCaliery  (1896). 
The  important  changes  which  took  place  during  this 
time  in  the  administration  of  London,  the  formation 
firet  of  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  and  then  of 
the  London  County  Council,  and  the  creation  of  nu- 
merous boroughs  will  be  de-wriljcd  later  (see  Modern 
Civil  Administration).  Since  the  death  of  Queen 
Victoria,  in  1901,  London  has  added  but  little  to  its 
history,  though  street  improvements,  such  as  the 
opening  of  Kingsway  and  Aldwych  and  tic  Ti-idening 
of  the  Strand,  continue  to  add  to  the  convenience  and 
beauty  of  the  metropolis.  The  opening  of  the  cathe- 
dral at  Westminster  m  1903  was  not  only  noteworthy 
to  Catholies,  but  lias  enriched  London  with  one 
more  impressive  arcliitecturai  feature,  remarkable  as 
being  the  only  building  in  the  Byiantine  style  in  the 
capital. 

Some  few  historical  notes  on  matters  which  have 
""*  ^-een  included  in  this  outline  of  London's  history 


From  a  drawlag  in 


16  LOMIMX 

may  here  be  added,  as  falling  more  conveniently  tmdar 
separate  heads. 

The  Citu  Corporation  and  Otiildt. — In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  Merchant  Guilds  and  Craft  Guilds  (see  Guildb, 

"  '  I  and  powerful  in  London. 


city  T  _ .  .._ 

exist:  Alder         .        „     .  ^^     . 

Bishop^te,  Bread  Street,  Bridge,  Bridge  Without^ 
Broad  Street,  Candlewick,  CastJe  Bavnard,  Cheap, 
Coleman  Street,  Cordwainer,  Comhill,  Cri^egate, 
Dowgate,  Farringdon  Within,  Farringdon  without, 
Langboum,  Lime  Street,  Fortsoken,  Queenbitbe, 
Tower,  Walbrook,  and  Vintiy.  Each  of  ttiese  wards 
and  is  represented  by  an  alderauui  originaDy 
'  ^  -'----  the  vear  13M  for  life. 
EtxAi  aldemiaa  ii, 
by  virtue  of  his  office, 
a  judge  and  magia- 
trate  tor  the  miile 
city.  T^e  aldeimcn 
were  assisted  i^  oam- 
mon  councillora^  who 
were  fint  appointed 
in  the  leign  of  Ed- 
ward I,  and  in  1384 
they  were  fomwd 
into  ttu 
council. 

each    ward    

two  counoillon,  but 
the  number  has  been 
increased  and  now 
the  wards  elect  vari- 
ous numbers  from 
four  to  sixteen.  In 
1840  the  number  (rf 
common  oouneihnen 
wasfbcedBt206.  They 
L»m«™b  PA..*e>  ^n^^  annually, 

ic  British  MuMum  ihough  the  com- 

mon council  bas  suc- 
ceeded to  tlie  powers  of  the  ancient "  Folk  Hole  ",  that 
assembly  is  also  represented  by  the  Court  of  Common 
Hall,  composed  of  the  lord  mayor,  four  ^dermen  and 
the  liverymen  of  the  city  guilds.  This  body  formerly 
elected  the  sheriffs  of  London  and  Middlesex,  but  since 
1888  the  election  of  the  sheriff  of  Middleeez  has  been 
vested  in  the  London  County  Council,  and  the  Cor- 
poration elects  two  sheriffs  of  London.  The  Court  of 
Common  Hall  also  annually  elects  two  aldermen  who 
have  served  as  sheriffs  from  whom  the  Court  of  Alder- 
men chooses  the  lord  mayor  for  the  conaingyear.  Thus 
even  now  some  power  remains  vested  in  the  nkembets 
of  the  guilds  or,  as  they  are  now  called.  City  Companies. 
Twenty-six  of  these  companies  still  survive.  They 
have  but  little  connection  with  the  crafts  or  trades 


their  charities,  Kir  many  of  thtm  are  very  wealthy  and 
contribute  largely  to  benevolent  objects,  technical  in- 
struction and  the  like.  Twelve  of  these  guilds  are 
known  as  the  Greater  Companies.  They  are: — Gold- 
smiths (founded  in  1327),  Skinners  (1327),  Grocers 
(1345),  Vintners  (1363),  Fishmongers  (1363),  Drapers 
(1364),  Mercers  (1393),  Habcrdashera  (1448),  Iron- 
mongers (1464),  Merchant  Taylors  (1466),  aotbwork- 
erB(14S0),andSaltcra(1530}.  .Other  important  com- 
panies are  Saddlers  (1364),  Cordwainers  (1410),  Ar- 
mourers (1452),  Barbers  (1462),  Stationers  {1566),aod 
Apothecaries  (1615).  Of  these  the  Hracers,  the  first 
in  order  of  civic  precedence,  have  an  inetnne  of  £111,- 
000  a  year,  and  fifteen  of  the  compaoiea  have  over 
£10,000  a  year. 


LOVDOS  ^ 

Hw  city  meetiogB  are  held  in  the  Guildhall  (erected 
141 1 ,  rebuilt  1789,  wiUk  B  Gothic  facade  added  in  1867) . 
It  contains  the  great  ball  UBed  for  Danquet«  and  other 
oercnKMiial  occosioDa,  the  common  council  chamber 
and  some  oourts  of  justice.  The  official  residence  of 
tJhe  lord  mayor,  known  as  the  Mansion  House,  was 
built  m  1740.  The  chief  cine  officials  are  the  recorder 
(first  appointed  in  1298),  the  chamberlain  or  treiLStirer, 
the  town  clerk,  and  the  common  serjeaiit.  The  juris- 
diction and  aaminiatnition  of  the  corporation  is  re- 
stricted to  the  ancient  limits  of  the  City  of  London 
which  cover  about  one  square  mile.  As  London  grew 
beyond  these  in  the  seventeenth,  eighteenth,  and  nine- 
teuith  centuries,  the  corporation  rnadc  no  effort  to  ex- 
tend its  activites.     So  greater  London  has  now  its  own 


the  ancient  church  in  nhich  the  Romano-British  bish- 


already  referred  to.  Theanus  Eluanus,  Cadar,  Obi- 
nus,  Cimanus,  Palladius,  Stephanus,  lltutua,  Theo- 
dwinua,  Theodredua,  and  Hilarius  are  said  by  vague 
tradition  to  have  been  predecessors  of  Rcstitutus  who 
attended  the  Council  of  Aries  in  314,  while  he,  it  is 
said,  was  succeeded  by  Guitelinus,  Fastidius,  Wodinua, 
and  Theonus.  A  century  and  a  half  had  elapsed  be- 
tween the  flight  of  the  lost  British  bishop  and  the  com- 
ing of  MclUtus,  aad  after  his  death  nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury- elapses  l>efore  we  find  the  name  of  St,  Cedd  (q.  v.) 
as  Bishop  of  the  East  SaxonsexereisingepiMCopaljuriB- 
diction,  though  he  does  not  seem  to  have  been  called 
Bishop  of  London.    After  him  the  line  is  unbroken:^ — 


government,  and  the  "City  of  London"  is  a  city  within 
a  city,  retaining  ite  autonomy,  hut  in  no  way  con- 
trolling the  rest  of  the  metropolis.  The  arms  of  the 
city  are  argent,  a  cross  gules  charged  on  the  first  quar- 


of  the  corporation  from  the  earliest  (lays  of  tlieir 

office  exercised  military  command,  luid  the  corpora- 
tion has  always  been  reudy  to  contribute  grants  of 
■hipe,  men  and  money  in  moments  of  national  omei^ 
aeoey.  The  trained-Sands  formed  for  the  defence  of 
the  citywerc  originally  divided  into  six  regiments  con- 
sisting of  eight  companies  each.  These  regiments 
known  as  the  Blue,  Yellow,  Green,  Orange,  Whitc.and 
Bed  n^iments,  included  at  their  full  strength  ten  Ihou- 
Mnd  men.  From  them  cmanal^t^d  five  regiments 
which  bold  the  privilege  of  marching  (hroueh  the  city 
with  "  the  pomp  of  war  ",  colours  fiving  and  bayonets 
fixed,  liieae  were  3rd  Battalion  Orenodier  Guards, 
3n)  East  Kent  (Bufts),  Royal  .Marines,  Royal  West 
London  Militia,  and  Royal  Kast  Ix>ndon  Militia.  The 
two  last  namedf  were  united  in  1820  as  the  lioval  Lon- 
don Militia  which  about  1880  vtan  made  the  4th  Bat- 
talim  Royal  Fusiliers. 

II.  AjfCiKNT  Catholic  Diocese. — The  consecra- 
tion of  St.  Hellitus  as  Bishop  of  London  by  St.  Angus- 
tine  in  604  has  aiready  l>een  mentioned.  Vcnerul>le 
Bede  adds  that  "when  this  province  n-n-ivMl  the  wonl 
of  truth  by  the  ptvaching  of  Mellit  u.s.  King  V.I  helliert 
built  the  churcli  of  9t.  Puiil  in  (lie  <'ity  of  London 
wbere  be  and  his  succesaont  should  have  their  episcu- 


Wine,  66Q 
St.  Erkcnwald,  075 
Waldhere,  693 
Ingwald,  705 
Eggwulf,  745 
Sighaeh,  772 
Eadbert,  774 
Eadfmr,  785  or  789 
Coenwalh,  789  or  791 
Eadbald,  793 
Heathobert,  794 
Osmund,  802 
iCthilnotb,  811 
Coelberht,  824 
Deorwulf,  860 
Swithwulf,  861 
Hcahstan,  898 
Wulfsige,  898 
Theodred,  926 
Bj-rrthelm,  953 
St.  Dunsten,  958 
jElston,  961 
Wulfatan,  996 
^Ifhun,  1004 
MKvdg,  1014 
iElfward,  1035 
Robert,  1014 
William  the  Norman,  1051 
HughdeOrivalle,  1075 
Maurice,  1085 
Richard  deBelmeis  1, 1108 
Gillwrt  the  Univeisal,l  128 
rnmncp/,  1135 
Rol>ert  dc  Sigillo,   1141 
Richard  dcBelmeiall,  1152 
Gillwrt  Foliot,  1103 
Richard    de    Ely    (Titz- 

neale),  1189 
William  dc  S.  Maria,  119S 
Eustace  de  Fauconberg, 

1221 
Roger  Niger,  1229  --- 

Of  this  long  list  two  stand  out  as  eanoniicd  samts. 
St.  ErkenwakI  (14  Nov.),  whose  shrine  was  the  centre 
of  devotion  in  the  catliwlral,  and  St.  Dun.itan  (19 
May).  Another,  Roger  Niger,  was  popularly  vener- 
ated as  a  saint.  Six  of  the  bi.ihops  became  archbish- 
ops of  Canterbury;  St.  Dunstan,  Itol>crt  of  Jumteges, 
Simon  de  Sudbury,  Courtenay,  John  Kempe,  and 
Wareham.  The  Saxon  cutheiiral  was  burnt  in  9(J2 
and  rebuilt  to  I*  destroyed  again  in  the  tire  of  1087. 
Bishop  Maurice  thenerectal  a  great  Nonnan  eatlwdral, 
scn-e<l  like  its  predecessors  by  secular  canons.  By  the 
end  of  the  twelfthcentur\' there  were  30  en(lov,-ed  preb- 
ends and  the  chapter  held  24,000  acres  of  lanii  us  its 
corporate  property.  The  Norman  nave  ^vas  again  re- 
built after tlulflre  of  1136.  Here  il  was  tliat  John  r^ 
signed  his  kingdom  to  the  pope  and  received  itback 
trSm  Pandulph  as  a  vassoT.     In  St.  Paul  a.  t«..  Vos, 


Pulk  Basset,  1242 
Henry  dc  Wingham,  1259 
Henry  de  Sandwich,  1263 
John  de  Chishul,  1274 
Richard    de    Gravesend, 

1280 
Ralph  <le  Baldoek,  1306 
Gilbert  de  Segra\-e,  1313 
Hichard  de  Nen-port,  1317 
Stephen    de    Gravesend, 

1310 
Richard    de    Bcntwoith, 

1338 
Ralph  de  Stratfoid,  1.340 
Michael  deNorlhburg,  13a 
Simon  de  Sudbury,  1362 
William  Courteniiv,  1375 
Robert  Bravbrookc,  1381 
Roger  Walden,  1405 
Nicholas  Bubbewich,  1406 
Richard  Clifford,  1407 
John  Kcnipc,  1422 
William  Grey,  1426 
Robert  Fitzhugh,  1431 
Rol)ert  Gilbert,  1436 
Thomas  Kempe,  H50 
Richard  Hill,  1489 
Thomas  Savage,  1496 
William  Wareham,  1501 
William  Barnes,  l.'iOl 
Richard  Fitz  James,  1506 
Cuthbert  Tunstall,  1522 
John  Stokesley,  1530 
Etimund  Bonner,  1539 

schismatical 
Nicholas  Ridley,  1550 

sehismalical 
Edmund    Bonner,    1553, 

with  whose  death  on  5 

Sept..  15R0.  the  linr  of 

Catholic  bisliops  of  Lon- 

[lon  ended. 


LOKBOH  it 

nobles  offered  the  kingdom  to  Louia  the  Dauphin  in 
1216.  In  1232  the  Council  of  St.  Paul's  was  held, 
when  Otho,  the  papal  legate,  published  the  Constitu- 
tions which  funned  so  important  a  part  of  English  ec- 
clesiastical law  until  the  Reformation.  During  this 
time  the  new  choir  was  being  built  and  this  was  conse- 
crated in  1240  in  the  presence  of  King  Henry  III,  St. 
Edmund,  ArchbiEhop  of  Canterbury,  and  Cardinal 
Otho  the  I^egate.  The  cathedral  was  completed  early 
in  the  fourteenth  century  by  the  erection  of  a  very 
high  steeple  surmounted  by  a  cross  containing  relics  of 
the  saints.  In  1262  a  long-standing  dispute  between 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  Chapter  of  St. 
Paul's  concerning  jurisdiction  aede  tiacante  was  settled, 
tbe  agreement  being  that  the  archbishop  shoula 
appoint  one   out   of 

sent«d  by  the  chap- 
ter to  rule  the  dio- 
cese till  the  election 
of  the  new  bishop. 
In  the  fourteenth 
century  Bishop  Bray- 
brooke  vainly  en- 
deavoured to  sup- 
press the  abuBc  by 
which  the  na^'e  of  St. 
Paul's  was  used  us  a 
market  and  coiinnon 
resort    for    business 


n  tor  a 


mcnts.  Abundant 
references    in    Eng- 

Ush  literature  show 
that  this  evil  prac- 
tice continued  till 
the  destruction  of  the 
cathedral  in  lt>66. 

Up  to  the  early 
years  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  St. 
Paul's  had  presented 
its  own  liturgicd 
use,  known  as  Usiu 
Sancli  Pauli,  but  on 
15  Oct.,  1414,  the 
Sarum  Rite,  then 
commonly  used 
through  the  greater 
part  of  England,  was 

substituted    for    it,  in" 

and  remained  in  use  irt!'™'?«a'"i^ 

tiU  the  Reformation.  '"^  »  "«■  " 

The  bishop  presided  at  the  greater  festivals,  the  dean  on 
ordinary  days.  The  deanwith  the  precentor,  the  treas- 
urer, the  chancellor,  and  the  prebendaries  formed  the 
chapter.  Nert  came  the  twelve  petty  canons  and  six 
vicars  choral,  while  there  were  fifty  chantry  priests  at- 
tarfied  tothecathedral.  The  diocese,  divided  into  the 
four  archdeaconries  of  London,  Essex,  Middlesex,  and 
Colchester,  included  the  counties  oC  Middlesex,  Essex, 
and  part  of  Hertfordshire.  Thefoundationof  St.  Paul's 
School  by  Dean  Colet,in  1512,  was  the  onlyotherimpoi^ 
tant  event  concerniitg  the  cathedral  church  of  London 
until  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  When  the  religious 
troubles  began  none  of  the  cathedral  clergy  made  any 
stand  against  the  king.  In  August,  1538,  the  Great 
Rood  and  the  statue  of  Our  Lady  of  Grace  were  re- 
moved; in  1547  all  the  altars  were  demolished  and  the 
church  plate  and  vestments  were  sold  by  the  Protes- 
tant Dean  May.  Under  Mary,  Bishop  Bonner  was  re- 
stored to  his  see  and  the  Mass  was  again  celebrated  til! 
the  first  year  of  Elisabeth.  With  the  imprisonment 
of  the  Bishop  and  the  deprivation  of  the  London 
clergy'  who  remained  faithful  to  the  Holy  See  the  his- 
tory of  London  as  a  Catholic  diocese  closes. 

111.  l.u.NOrtS  CAniOl.H-S  AFTER  THK  Refohmatios. 


g  LONDON 

— For  the  firat  few  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign  the  exist- 
ing clergy,  who  became  known  as  "Marian"  priests, 
administered  to  the  needs  of  the  Catholics,  saying 
Mass  and  giving  the  sacraments  in  secret.  Wlien  they 
began  to  die  out  their  numbers  were  reinforced  by  tl» 
"seminary  priesta"  sent  from  the  college  founded  hy 
Cardinal  Men  at  Douai  (1568),  from  the  Enghsh  Col- 
lege at  Rome  and  from  later  foundations  at  Valladolid, 
Seville.  Lisbon,  and  elsewliere.  Under  Elizabeth 
more  than  eighty  priests  and  laymen  went  to  martyr- 
dom in  London  alone,  and  a  far  larger  number  perished 
in  tbe  various  prisons.  Mie.r  the  death  of  Bishop 
Bonner  as  a  prisoner  in  1569  there  was  no  episcopal 
government,  and  the  priests  did  as  best  thev  coiiH .  not 
onlyinLonoon  but  throughout  England.  In  1598  the 
Holy  Sec  appointed 
an  aj-chpriest,  Geor^ 
BlackwelljWithj  urio- 
diction  over  all  Eng- 
land. He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  turn  by 
Ueorge  Birkhead 
(1608-1614) and 
William  Harrison 
(1615-1621).  Dur- 
ing this  period  a 
fierce  controvenre 
divided  English 
Catholics,  some  de- 
siring and  othen  op- 
posing the  appoint- 
ment of 'a  bishop  as 
vicar  ApoatoUc.  The 
pope  decided  this  in 


3  by  appt 
William  1 


that  same  year  there 


the  "  Fatal  Vespers '" 
when  a  large  body  of 
Catholics  and  otbera, 
who  were  assembled 
at  the  French  Em- 
bassy to  hear  a  ser- 
mon by  Father 
Drury,  8.J.,  were 
precipitated  from  tbe 
upper  floor  to  the 
ground,  and  very 
many  of  them  killed. 


Abo' 


priests  then  secretly  resident  in  London.  As  there  were 
probably  others  he  knew  nothing  of,  the  number  of 
Catholics  must  sttll  have  been  very  considerable, 
though  we  have  no  means  of  estimating  tjieir  num- 
bers at  this  period. 

In  1624  Dr.  Bishop  died  and  was  succeeded  by 
Dr.  Richard  Smith,  Bishop  of  Chalcedon,  Gut  his 
position  became  so  difficult  that  in  1631  he  with- 
drew to  Pari?,  where  he  lived  till  his  death  in  1655. 
From  that  time  till  the  accession  of  James  II  -no 
vicar  Apostolic  was  appointed  and  jurisdiction  con- 
tinued to  be  exercised  bv  the  chapter,  a  body  ap- 
pointed by  Dr.  Bishop  and  which  was  chosen  from  the 
most  experienced  priests  from  all  parts  of  England. 
The  chapter  held  delil)erativc  assemolies  from  time  to 
time  in  London.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  1  martyr- 
doms had  ceased  altogether  m  London,  though  after 
the  king's  departure  they  again  commenced  and  four- 
teen pncsts  were  executed  then  and  under  the  Com- 
monwealth. The  Restoration  brought  another  respite, 
but  the  Titus  Oalcs  Plot  of  1678  caused  a  fresh  out- 
break of  jierfwiition  and  fointctii  more  prieata  and 


LONBOy  3 

lAyineu  won;  niartj'rcd  at  Tvlmrti  or  Tower  UiU'  in- 
cluding Ven.Wiiliam  Howard,  Viscount  Stafford,  an<i 
Ven.  Oliver  Plunket,  Archbishop  of  ArmaKh.  wlio  was 
the  last  martyr  to  Biiller  in  London  (1  July,  1681). 
The  accession  of  James  1 1  raised  new  hopes  among  the 
Catholics  of  the  metropolis  and  the  presonee  of  a  papal 
envoy,  Mgr  d' Adda,  and  the  public  attendance  of  the 
king  and  queen  at  Moss  were  evident  si^B  of  tolera- 
tion. Cliapels  and  schools  wero  opeTied  sjid  Catholic 
wTitcra  and  printers  readily  seized  the  opportunity  of 
producing  devotional  and  controversial  works  in  tn- 
crmaed  numberB.  Once  more  the  Holy  See  appointed 
»  vicar  Apostolic  of  England,  Bishop  John  Leybum 
(q.  v.),  whowBBCOnaecrateil  9  Sept.,  1685. 

Two  years  later  the  jurisiliction  was  divided  between 
him  and  Bonaventure  GlSard,  but  almost  immedi- 
ately a  fresh  arrangement  ivas  made  and  on  'iO  Jan., 
1688,  Pope  Innocent  XI  created  four  vicariates,  I,on- 
doti,  Jtidland,  Northern  and  Western.  Binhop  Leybum 
become  the  first  vicar  Apostolic  of  the  London  District, 
whichincluded  tlie  counties  of  Kent,  Middlesex,  Fsscs. 
Surrey,  yusaex,  Hants,  ncrks,  Bedford,  Bucks,  and 
Hertford,  and  the  islands  of  Wight,  Jersey,  and  (luem- 
sey;  while  in  process  of  time  they  acijuired  jurisdic- 
tion over  all  British  possessions  in  North  America,  of 
which  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  and  Bome  of  the 
West  Indian  islands  contained  moat  Catholics.  Un- 
fortunately the  Revolution  in  the  same  year  put  a 
audden  and  complete  end  to  the  short-lived  hopes 
ot  Catholics.  Chapels  and  schools  were  closed,  one 
chapel  and  a  print ing-pres.^  were  wTccked  by  the  mob, 
tuidCatholics  had  to  withdraw  once  again  into  conceal- 
ment. A  penal  system  was  now  devised  to  cru-sh 
Catholicism  without  bloodshed  by  civil  and  political 
disabilities.  With  this  aim  fresh  persecuting  statutes 
were  passed  under  William  and  Mary,  under  which 
common  informers  were  entitled  to  a  reward  for  pro- 
curing convictions,  a  provision  which  was  a  fruit  fill 
Bource  ot  trouble  for  nearly  a  century  t*i  come.  One 
of  these  laws  (I  William  &  alary,  c.  B,  s.  2)  rei|uired  all 
Catholics,  with  certain  exceptions,  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  which  was  bo  phrased  as  to  he  unlawful  i[i 
conscience,  or  in  default  to  l)e  convicted  of  recu-suncy. 
This  act,  however,  was  not  very  rigorously  eiifdrced, 
but  the  penal  code  as  a  whole  weighed  heavily  on  Catho- 
lics, especially  after  the  alxirtive  Stuart  rising  in  1745. 
The  vicars  Apostolic  of  the  Tjorxlon  District  during 
the  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth  centuries  were: — 

John  Leybum 11188-1702 

Bonaventure  Giffard 17(i;i-17:(4 

Benjamin  Petre 17:14-1758 

Richard  Challoner 1758-1781 

James  Talbot 1781-1790 

John  Douglass 1790-1812 

William  Poynter 1812-1827 

James  Yorke  Brumston I827-1S36 

Thomas  Griffiths 18^0-1847 

(Nicholas  Wiseman,  pro-vicar- 

Apostolic 18-17-1848) 

Thomas  Walsh 184.S-1  SIS 

Nicholas  Wiseman 1840-1850, 

when  he  became  first  Archbishop  of  Westminster. 

The  chief  events  concenung  Loiulim  Catholics  dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century  were  the  long  episcopate 
of  the  Venerable  Bishop  Challoner  {r|.  v.);  the  petty 
persecution  carried  on  by  common  infonners  (1767- 
177S);  the  First  Catholic  Relief  Act  (1778),  and  the 
Gordon  Riota  which  broke  out  in  consequence  thereof 
(1780);  the  Second  Catholic  Relief  Act  (1791);  the 
dissensioDB  arLiing  from  the  action  of  the  Catholic 
Committee,  and  the  Influx  of  French  fmigrf  clergy  and 
laity  during  the  French  Revolution,  fliapels  and 
schoolsuowbcgan  to  be  oTwned  without  concealment. 
TTie  refugees  from  Pouai  went  to  Old  Hall,  in  Hert- 
fordshire, where  a  small  school  had  secretly  existed 
nnce  17fi9,  and  there  Bishop  Douglass  established  St. 


Kdmund's  College  .ih  llie  )>lii'-i-  iif  ediiealioii  for  tho 
clergy  of  the  London  District.  His  successor  opened 
the  large  church  at  -Moorlields,  which  long  served  as 
the  Pro-tatheflral  of  London  (I820-I86.5).  In  1829 
the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act  removed  from  Catho- 
lics nearly  all  their  remaining  restrictions  and  since 
then  they  have  taken  their  places  in  Parliament,  on 
the  judicial  bench,  and  at  the  bar.  Among  ministers 
of  tlic  Crown  there  ha\'e  been  Sir  C'harles  Russell 
(afterwards  Ixird  Russell  of  Killowen),  Attorney 
General  (1892-1894),  Mr.  Henrv  Matthews,  now  Lord 
LlanHaff,  Home  Secretary  (1885-18<)2),  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  Postmaster  General  (1885-1000),  and  the 


j 

AbdbT  (Wur  Fboht)  k: 


>  Brr,  HABOAiUT'a 


Coiimics  (1892-189.-.),  \x,n\  Privy  Seal  (1905-1908). 
In  the  High  t.'ourt  of  Jui^licc  then-  have  l>een  five 
Catholic  judges:— Sir  William  Shee  (186:1-1808),  Sir 
James  Mathew  (ISSl-lMMl),  Sir  John  Dav  (1882-- 
1901),  Lord  Russell  of  Killowen,  Ix)rd  Chief  Justice  ot 
of  England(1895-1900).and  Sir  Joseph  Walton  (1901). 
Two  Catholics,  father  and  son,  have  attained  the  posi- 
tion of  Lord  Mavor  of  London.  Sir  Stuart  Knill  (1892- 
1893)  and  Sir  John  Knill  (19(t9-1910).  Since  the 
EmancijMilion  Act  there  has  lieen  an  extraordinary 
development  of  Catliolic  life  in  every  ilireclioii,  gn>atly 
hcl[>eil  by  two  movements,  the  large  Iri.'ih  immigra- 
tion in  1847  and  the  conversions  resulting  from  the 
Oxford  Mo\fment,  Tlie  increase  in  nimil«rs  ia 
shown  by  the  episcopal  reports  to  Proi)aganda  previ- 
ous to  the  restoration  of  the  hierarchy. 

In  1810  Pope  Gregory  XVI  rediHtributed  England 
into  eight  vicariates,  on  which  occasion  the  London 
District  lost  Bedfordshire  and  Buckinghamsliire. 
Ten  years  later  Pope  Pius  IX  restored  the  hierarchy; 
the  London  District  ceased  to  exist  and  its  place  was 
taken  by  the  new  Dioceses  of  Westminster  and  South- 


Tolol 

(ilinH In thr    Cslljoli.- 
Lundon 


LOMDOH 


IV.  Mooehn  C.'n"ii.  Admihihtiiathin. — Lorat  Gov- 
iriiment. — It  has  ulnsody  l>eeii  bucii  that  the  extent  of 
the  city  of  London,  properly  po-called,  was  limitol  by 
the  ancient  walla,  and  that  there  grew  up  a  vast  npw 
citysurroundiii^  the  ancient  one  and  gradually  absorb- 
ing all  the  outlving  villogejt.  Until  1855  the  city  if  self 
waa  governed  by  ancient  charters,  and  the  rest  of  the 
metropolia  by  »xrochial  systems  under  various  Acts  of 


Hertford,  the  latter  embracing  London  south  of  the 
Thames  and  the  rest  of  the  old  vicariate.  The  prog- 
ress of  Cathol-cism  since  185(1  will  be  found  under 


Westmixstkh  and  SiiiiTiiivAiut.  The  jirclatcs  hav- 
inx  jurisdiction  over  IjOnilon  sinee  that  date  have 
been: — Arefdn'shups  u/  Weitminster: — Cardinal  Nicho- 
laii  Wiseman,  1850-18C5;  Cardinal  Henry  Edward 
HanntnK.  im5-l^S2;  C^ardinal  Herbert  Vaughan, 
1892-190:);  Francis  Bourne,  1903.  Buhops  >•/ fioulh- 
uwrA-.— Thomas  (Irani.  1851-1870;  JamcH  Danell, 
1871-1881;  Rolwri  Coffin,  C.SS.R.,  1882-1885;  John 
Butt,  188.'>-1897;  Francis  Bourne,  1897-19a3;  Peter 
Amigo,  1904,  Tlie  following  figures  refer  to  London 
itself,  including  only  the  postal  district: — 


I  No 

ofc 

,v 

<,(  prl^t„ 

w 

ffminrtcr 
thwiirk 

1 

02 
64 

- 

■Mi7 

ToliU 

wa 

Tlicrc  ore  no  means  of  iisccrtaining  even  approxi- 
mately the  total  nuinlxT  of  CalhotirH  now  in  l.oridon, 
but  it  is  estimated  variously  from  SOO.IKK)  to  40(1.000. 
All  other  particular*  will  be  found  uuder  Westmins- 
ter and  fk)UTHWAHK. 


45  memlxrrs  of  which  were  electeil  by  thirty-nine  ves- 
tries, or  district  Ixmrds.  Originally  established  for  the 
construction  of  sewers,  it  was  entrusted  by  later  Acta 
with  very  many  other  duties  and  powers,  including  all 
street  improwments,  tlie  care  of  parks  and  open 
,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  fire-brigade.  But 
[W  l(ody  in  noway  affected  the  City  corporation, 
which  preserved  all  its  original  rights  within  the  City 
boundaries.  This  state  of  tilings  continued  until  1889, 
when  the  Local  Government  Act  of  1888  came  into 
operation.  Tliis  Act  created  an  administrative 
county  of  London,  which  covers  an  area  of  121  square 
miles.  The  City  of  Loudon  was  very  slightly  affected 
by  the  Act  and  is  still  governed  by  the  City  corpora- 
tfon.  For  non-administrative  purposes,  Huchaaauar- 
ter-sessions  and  justices,  the  City  and  the  rest  ol  the 
metropolis  form  two  counties,  "known  respectively  as 
the  County  of  the  City  of  Ix>ndon  and  the  County  of 
London. 

(a)  The  City  of  I^ondon. — The  government  of  the 
City  properbv  the  lord  mavor,  aldermen  and  common 
coiincilmen  iaa  alreadv  been  descriLied.  The  lord 
mayor  is  elected  annuafly  on  29  Sept.  from  the  alder- 
men who  have  serve<l  as  sheriffs.  The  electors  are  the 
■'livery"  consisting  of  the  freemen  of  London.  The 
new  lord  mayor  is  sworn  into  office  on  8  Nov.,  and  on 
the  following  day  makes  his  final  declELration  of  office 
before  the  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England.    The  state 

Eicession  on  this  occasion  is  popularly  known  as  the 
rd  Mayor's  Show.  The  City  corporation  retains 
within  iti»  proper  limits  its  civil  and  criminal  jurisdic- 
tion and  full  rights  of  local  govemment.  It  returns 
two  members  to  Parliament. 

(bVThe  I/)ndon  County  Council.— The  Countv  of 
London  consists  of  twenty-eight  boroughs,  each  of 
which  is  ruled  by  a  mayor  and  corporation — Etatt«^ 
sea;  Bermondsey;  Bethnal  Green;  Camberwell;  Chel- 
sea; Deptford;  Finsburj-;  Fuibam;  Greenwich;  Hack- 
ney; Hammersmith;  Hampsiteatl;  Holbom;  Islington; 
Kensington;  lAmlM^h;  Ijcwisham;  Paddington;  Pop- 
lar; St.  Mnr>-leI>one:  St.  Pancras;  Shorcditch;  South- 
wark;  Stepney ;  Stoke  Ncwiugton ;  Wandsworth ; 
Westminster,  City  of;  Woolwich.  These  boroughs 
form  the  locnl  admin ist^ati^'e  authorities,  and  act  as 
local  .sanilarj-  authorit  ies,  arc  the  overseers  of  the  poor, 
collect,  the  rates,  are  responsible  for  making,  lighting, 
and  regulating  the  slrectif,  and  providing  public  baths 
and  libraries.  But  the  central  administration  remains 
in  theIx>ndon  County  Council,  consisting  of  ISSmeni- 
liers.  viz.,  a  chairman,  1!)  aldermen,  and  tl8  council- 
lors. The  powers  of  this  council  are  vcr>-  wide,  includ- 
ing all  duties  formerly  liclonging  to  the  MetropohtAo 
BtKird  of  Works  in  connexion  with  drainage,  parks 
and  open  spaces,  fire-brigade.-?,  street  improvementa, 
tramways,  artisans'  dwellings,  infant  life  protection, 
etc.  Secondly,  those  transferred  from  the  former 
eouiity-just ices  with  regard  to  reformatorj-  and  indus- 
trial schools,  lunatic  asylums,  music  and  dancing 
licences,  coroners,  etc.  Thirdly,  powers  as  to  high- 
ways, supervision  of  common  lodging-houses  and 
licensing  of  slaughter-liousi's.  Fourthly,  new  powers 
conferred  by  recent  Actfi  of  Parliament  as  to  registra- 
tion of  electors,  public  healtli.  historic  buildings  and 
monuments,  suppression  of  nuisances,  refonnatoriea 
for  inebriates,  and  the  n dm inist  ration  of  Acts  such  as 
the  Shop  Hours  Art,  Employmentof  Giildren  Act.and 
MidwivM  Act.    Fifthly,  under  the  Fiducation  (Loo- 


lohdoh  3i 

don)  Act  1903,  the  CouncLl  became  the  authority  (or 
all  public  edue&tion  in  the  county.  Sixthly,  powers 
coDneoted  with  the  raising  and  loaning  of  money  and 
the  aaactioiiiiig  of  loans  required  for  all  the  local  ati- 
UuMities  in  the  county.  Moat  of  the  business  is  done 
by  eommitteee  and  the  Council  meets  weekly  to  con- 
aider  their  reports.  Its  annual  expenditure  ia  about 
£16,000,000,  of  which  £5,000,000  are  spent  on  educa- 
tion. The  outlay  is  met  by  two  main  sources  of  sup- 
ply, capital  money  raised  ay  the  issue  of  stock,  and 
current  income  raised  by  a  county  rate.  The  rating 
for  the  yew  190S-9  amounts  to  three  shillings  in  the 
pound  (15  per  cent),  and  the  assessable  value  of  the 
County  of  London,  on  fl  April.  1908,  was  £44,332,025. 
Bdutation, — (a)  London  University, — This  univep- 
sitjr  WM  instituted  in  1836  aa  an  examining  body  for 


medical  schools  ai 
lectures  in  law  ar  „ 
Incorporated  Law  Society;  music  is  taught  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  (founded  1822),  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Music  (18S3),  Guildhall  School  of  Music  and 
elsewhere;  art  at  the  Koyal  Academy  Schools  of 
Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Architecture,  as  also  at  the 
London  Univereity. 

(c)  Secondary  Education,  —  The  chief  London 
schools  arc  St.  Paul's  and  Westminster,  The  former 
was  established  by  Dean  Colet  in  1512,  and  was  re- 
moved about  1880  from  St.  Paul's  church-yard  to 
Hammersmith,  The  latter  was  endowpd  by  Queen 
Elizabetb  in  1500,  and  provides  for  forty  king's  schol- 
ars on  the  foundation  in  addition  to  the  day  bova. 
Christ's  Hospital,  the  Blue  Coat  School,  founded  oj 


\,i.Pli^^   '  <_,».,^r-\-C 

^"^^^^^^ 

,  jitfcML-.^<rMWT(f^p^ 

^. 

Tbb  TawKR  Bbid, 


eoDfnring  dMroes,  and  was  reconstituted  in  1900. 
Snee  then  it  nas  possessed  an  "academic"  depart- 
ment for  the  organisation  and  control  of  higher  educa- 
tion, and  an  "external"  department  for  continuing 
its  fonner  fimctions  of  examining  students  and  confer- 
ring decrees.     Its  teaching  is  conducted  (i)  by  the 

»i 1,.  :i-„i(.  f;:\  i»y  jfjg  several  "Schools  of  the 

i  ill  which  there 

^ __i  Teachers  of  the  University".     In 

IBOO  UniverBity  College  (Gower  Street),  an  institution 
founded  in  18^  on  undenominational  principles,  was 
madea"School  of  the  University"  in  the  faculties  of 
arts,  law,  medicine,  science,  engineering,  and  eco- 
somiee,  and  on  1  Jan.,  1907,  it  was  transferred  to  the 
university  of  which  it  ia  now  an  integral  part.  The 
nuivenity  also  maintains  the  Physiological  Labora- 
tory at  South  Kensington  and  Goldsmiths'  College  at 
New  Cross. 

(b)  Huher  Education.  —  Other  institutions  for 
hi^er  education  are  King's  College,  founded  as  a 
Cbiuch  of  England  establishment  in  1828,  also  a 
"Sdiool  of  the  London  University",  in  the  same  facul- 
ties a>  Univeraity  Colln^,  with  the  adilition  of  thcol- 
onr,  and  Oreaham  College,  founded  in  1507  by  Sir 
"ninnaB  Gresbam,  niiere  lectures  are  given  in  divniitv. 


Edward  Vf  in  1533  with  nearly  1200  children  on  the 
foundation,  is  now  situated  at  Horsham;  and  the 
Cliartcrhouse  School,  established  by  Sir  Thomas  Sut- 
ton in  1611,  ha;s  been  removed  to  Godalming.  the  site 
of  the  old  school  being  now  occupied  by  the  Merchant 
Taylors  School,  a  medieval  foundation.  Mention 
must  also  be  made  of  the  City  of  London  School 
(founded  1835),  University  College  School,  King's 
College  School,  Dame  Owen's  School.  Islington,  the 
Mercers'  Grammar  School,  anil  St.  Olave's  School, 
Southwark.  Catholic  schools  include  the  college  of 
the  Brothers  of  Mercy  at  Highgulc,  the  Benedictine 
School  at  Ealing,  St.  lenatius's  (College,  Stamford  Hill, 
and  the  Sacred  Heart  College  at  Wimidedon,  both  oon- 
cluet«d  by  the  Jesuits  and  the  Salesian  school  at  Bat- 


and  the  National  Society  (1811).  Under  the  Educa- 
tion Act  1903.  the  London  Coimty  Council  became  the 
authority  for  all  public  education,  both  secondary  and 
elementary.  The  Education  committee  consists  of 
thirty-eigl'it  memliers  of  the  council  and  twelve  co- 
opted  members.  The  estimates  for  the  vear  1908-9 
amounted  to  £5,437,908,  of  which  £4,442,007  is  for 


LOHDOK                             352  LOMDOK 

elementary  aiid  £995,901  for  higher  education.     In  toes,  and  a  central  council.     Its  object  is  to  direct  into 

addition  to  the  council  schools  there  are  a  large  num-  the  most  effectual  channels  the  forces  of  benevolence, 

ber  of  "provided '*  schools  established  by  Catholics  or  All  agencies  and  persons  interested  in  charity  in  each 

by  the  (Snurh  of  England.     In  1905  there  were  554,-  Poor  Law  Union  are  invited  to  the  local  district  com- 

646  scholars  in  the  coimcil  schools,  205,323  in  the  mittee.    These  committees  form  centres  of  informa- 

"  provided ''  schools.  tion,  and  investigate  and  deal  with  cases  brought  before 

Civil  and  Criminal  Jurisdiction, — ^The  High  Court  them  on  the  twofold  principle  that  thorough  inves- 
of  Justice  for  the  whole  of  England  is  situate  in  tigation  should  precede  relief,  and  that  rehef  given 
The  Strand.  It  includes  the  Appeal  Court  and  the  should  be  suitable  and  adequate.  Cases  to  which  ade- 
Chancery,  King's  Bench,  and  Probate,  Divorce,  and  quate  relief  cannot  be  supplied  are  left  to  the  Poor 
Admiralty  Divisions.  For  the  special  requirements  of  Law.  The  various  organizations  which,  in  co-opera- 
London  tnere  is  the  Central  Criminal  Court  at  the  Old  tion  with  this  society,  or  independently,  relieve  digress 
Bailey,  the  Court  of  Quarter  Sessions  held  at  Newing-  may  be  divided  into  several  classes:  (1)  Relief  in  afflio- 
ton  and  Clerkenwell,  the  Police  Courts  presided  oyer  tion,  involving  the  care  of  the  blind,  deaf,  dumb,  crip- 
by  metropolitan  police  magistrates,  and  for  civil  pies,  lunatics,  inebriates,  idiots,  imbeciles,  the  men- 
causes  of  minor  importance  tSe  County  Courts.  The  tally  defective,  epileptics,  and  incurables.  (2)  Retiefin 
City  of  London  has  its  own  Court  of  Quarter  Sessions,  sickneaSf  which  embraces  the  work  of  the  general  ho»- 
and  the  Lord  Mayor,  sitting  at  the  Mansion  House  or  pitals,  special  hospitals,  siu^cal  aid  societies,  medical 
Guildhall,  has  the  powers  oi  justices  in  petty  session  of  and  surgical  homes,  convalescent  homes,  dispensaries, 
a  police  magistrate.  and  nursing  institutions.    (3)  Relief  in  permanent  di^ 

Trade  ar^   Commerce, — The  position  of  London  fre«jf,  which  includes  homes  for  the  aged  and  incapaci- 

and  its  intercourse  with  every  part  of  the  world  have  tated,  pensions,  homes  for  the  employed  (wondng 

combined  to  make  it  financiidly  rather  than  commer-  boys,  etc.),  homes  for  children,  and  day  nurseries.-  (4^ 

cially  the  world's  metropolis.     Being  a  market  far  re-  Relief  in  temporary  distress,  affording  shelter  of  various 

moved  from  any  great  manufacturing  centre,  there  is  a  kinds,  relief  m  money,  and  relief  in  kind.  (5)  R^ormo" 

ereat  excess  of  imports  over  exports.    The  port  of  tory  relief,  including  reformatories,  certified  inaustrial 

London  in  spite  of  some  drawbacks  is  still  the  n-eatest  schools,  prisoners'  aid  societies,  and  institutions  for 

port  in  the  world  in  respect  of  the  amount  of  shipping  fallen  women.     (6)  Miscellaneoris  relief,  under  whidi 

and  goods  which  enter  it.     In  1907  the  tonnage  of  head  may  be  grouped  the  various  emigration  societies, 

British  and  foreign  vessels  engaged  in  the  foreign  life  protection  societies,  traininig  farms  for  the  unem- 

trade  entered  and  cleared  was  n, 160,367  tons  en-  ployed,  and  social  and  p»hysical  improvement  societies, 

tered  and  8,598,979  tons  cleared,  as  against  Liver-  Purely  Catholic  charities  are  very  numerous.     The 

pool's  record  of  8,167,419  tons  entered  and  7,257,869  Aged  Poor  Society  (founded  in  1708),  and  the  Benevo- 

tons  cleared.    The  total  shipping  entering  it  is  about  lent  Society  for  the  Aged  and  Infirm  Poor  (established 

one-fiflh  of  the  total  shipping  of  tne  United  Kingdom ;  1761 )  both  give  pensions.    At  Nazareth  House,  Ham- 

the  value  of  imports  one-third,  and  the  value  of  ex-  mersmith,  and  tne  convent  of  t£e  Little  Sisters  of  the 

ports  one-fourth  of  the  total  value  of  the  national  im-  Poor  at  Notting  Hill,  there  are  homes  for  t^e  aged 

Sorts  and  exports.    Steps  are  now  bein^  taken  for  poor.    There  are  almshouses  at  Brook  Green,  Chelsea 

ock  extension  and  a  reconstitution  of  the  port  and  and  Ingatestone.  Homes  and  orphanages  for  boys  and 

dock  authorities.  girls  are  very  numerous,  and  a  great  work  is  done  by 

London  Charities. — ^Even  a  bare  enumeration  of  the  "Crusade  of  Rescue  and  Homes  for  Destitute  Cath- 

the  various  charitable  agencies  which  labour  for  the  olic  Children",  which  now  maintains  over  a  thousand 

relief  of  distress  in  London  would  be  beyond  the  limits  children.    The  visiting  and  relief  of  the  poor  is  chiefly 

of  this  article.    For  detailed  information  reference  inthehandsoftwosocieties,  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent 

should  be  made  to  the  "  Annual  Charities  Register  and  de  Paul,  and  the  LBtdies  of  Charity.    There  are  four 

Digest ",  which  is  a  classified  register  of  chanties  in  or  Catholic  hospitals:  that  of  St.  John  and  St.  Elisabeth, 

a\^ilable  for  the  metropolis,  together  with  a  digest  of  in  St.  John's  Wood,  under  the  Sisters  of  Mercy;  l^e 

information  respecting  the  legaH  voluntary,  and  other  French  hospital,  under  the  Servants  of  the  Sacred 

means  for  the  prevention  and  relief  of  distress,  and  the  Heart;  the  Italian  hospital,  under  the  Sisters  of  Chs^- 

improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  poor.   For  Catho-  ity ;  and  the  Hospital  for  the  Dying,  at  Hackney,  under 

lie  charities  see  the  * '  Catholic  Social  Year  Book  ",  and  the  Irish  Sisters  of  Charity.    There  is  a  home  lor  epi- 

the  "Handbook  of  Catholic  Charitable  and  Social  leptic  children,  under  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross,  at 

Works",  both  published  by  the  Catholic  Truth  Soci-  Much  Hadham.    There  are  industrial  schools  for  boys 

ety.     As^  in  addition  to  non-sectarian  organizations,  at  Manor  Park;  for  girls,  at  Isleworth*  a  reformatory 

every  relij^ious  body  has  its  own  agencies,  and  the  pub-  school  for  boys  at  Walthamstow;  and  the  Prisoners' 

lie  authorities  are  now  empowered  by  statute  to  exer-  Aid  Society  visits  Catholic  prisoners  and  helps  them  on 

cise  responsibilities  which  narrow  the  field  of  charity,  release.    The  charitable  ciubs  for  Catholics  are  too 

there  is  considerable  overlapping.     At  the  present  mo-  numerous  to  recapitulate. 

ment  there  is  a  crying  need  for  systematic  co-ordina-  The  books  written  about  London,  its  institutioiis,  buildinfs. 

tion  amone  the  various  charities,  and  could  this  be  intoi^ts  and  many ^ided  life  are  without  number.     Only  some 

^4T^  *.,„ii..  «««««««j    A0;^;»n»,r  J^A  <«A»»^*»^r  «*^.,M  o'  t*»c  more  important  and  more  recent  works  are  mentKmed 

effectually  arranged,  efficiency  and  economy  would  here.    The  divisions  of  the  above  article  are  repeated  and  aU 

gain  alike.     Turmng  first  to  statutory  provision  for  books  here  named  were  published  in  London,  except  where 

charitable  relief,  this  is  divided  among  various  bodies,  otherwise  stated.    Ample  though  not  ei^ustive  listo  ofbooks 

an;«  „  j.«:^:o4.««/:^«  ^t  "Drx^.  T  ««,  ^^mJt  ;«  ■^,^^4'^A  ;«  ♦!,«  about  London  are  given  m  Lowndes,  Btblwgraphert  Manual 

The  admmistration  of  Poor  Law  relief  is  vested  in  the  (igeo) ;  Anderson,  jBooJfc  of  British  TopoorapHy  (1881).  and  the 

Board  of  Guardians,  subject  to  the  direction  and  con-  Subject  Index  of  the  London  Library  (1909). 

trol  of  the  Local  Government  Board ;  the  Metropolitan  „  Hibtort  of  Ixjndon  — FrrzsTEPHEN.  Detention  of  iMfon 

A«,  i„.^c  n^A.^  :«  »no»>^^»;Kia  r^.  *i.J  :..a«»»  ««;!  a»n^»  (temp.  Henry  II):   first  detailed  accoimt  repnnted  m  Stow, 

Asylums  Board  is  responsible  for  the  insane,  and  some  ]^^^  ^f  ij;^^  (the  first  history-:— 1598;  continued  by  Muw- 

classes  of  the  sick,  and  the  Loudon  County  Council  has  day,  1618. 1633 ;  and  by  Strype.  1720, 1755.  New  editions,  1842 

also  certain  duties,  especially  with  regard  to  the  suit-  ^d  1890)-  Hatton,  -'Veir  V'i^  o/L<mdan  (I70g;  M^ 

able  housing  of  the  pJ»or.     the  ChanV  Comrni^ion.  %^.^{^iRiZ^L7k'^^^^^ 

ers  have  large  statutory  powers  over  endowed  chan-  A  Nexe  History  of  London  nT7Z)\  Pennant,  Lomion  (1st  edition, 

ties,  but  much  remains  to  be  done  in  the  direction  of  1790;  frequently  reprinted);  Hdnter  H«rforv<^Lon4«m(1811): 

remodeUing  some  of  these  charitable  trusts  on  wise  i'i5^27l^7-lt29lr  iSJ?oS^^^ 

principles.  by  Walpord.  1876-1877);   CJunninoham,  Handbook  of  Urn- 

Turning  to  voluntary  charities,  a  very  important  f>»».*  ^'Vf«2J{'  §:""»*  (2  vols..  1849);   LorgE.  Bitfmoj 

«-»«*  :«  «lt„^^  u„  .*u«  T^^j^w*  nL^^^^T  Aw*« «;:<>« ^.'^.^  Lomion  (1884);  Wheatlby,  London  Pati  and  Present  (3  ▼oh^ 

part  is  played  by  the  London  Chanty  (Jrgamsation  ^ggi^.  ^mj^t,  London  (1892);  Idem.   HiMorv  of  LonSSi 

Society,  a  federation  of  thirty-eight  district  commit-  (189d);  Idem.  Survey  of  London  (1902-1908);  SBABm,  Lm- 


L02n>0K 


353 


LONDON 


4m  (1804);  THOHNBuitT,  Old  and  Nvw  London  (1808);  Ton- 
aosr,  London  Hiitorienl  and  Deacriptive  (190A)  I^rthaby. 
London  be/oro  the  Sorman  Conquest  (1902);  Heniiam  and 
Wblch,  medieval  London  (1901) ;  Nicx>la4  and  Tyrrkl,  A 
Chronide  of  London  from  1089  to  1A86  (1827):  Hilet,  Chronicle 
of  the  nuHfore  and  ehtriffa  ill88-l27i)  (1863);  Annates  Lon- 
dinitnaee:  Annalee  Paulmi  (temp.  Edwani  I  and  Edward  II) 
(1882);  RiLET,  Memorials  of  Ixmdon  and  London  Life  in  fhe 
tkiHeenth,  fourieenth  and  jiUeenlh  centuries,  etc.  (1868); 
Liber  AlbuM  of  the  City  of  London,  fUteenth  cent.  (1861);  the 
Camden  Societv  has  included  in  ita'puolications  many  London 
chronicles.  Munimmta  Oildhallv  Lortdinienntt  in  Rolls  Seriee 
(4  vole..  1859-1862);  Shar^k,  Calendar  of  WiUa  proved  in  the 
Court  ofHuetinga  I25is-  /6««(1880-90) ;  Sharpk.  Calendar  of  Git  y 
of  London  Letter  bookafrcm  tS75  f8  vols.,  1900-190S,  in  rirogross^ ; 
Ideic,  Calendar  ofLetten  from  the  mayor  and  corporation  of  the 
Ciiy  ofljondon  ISSO-ISTO  (1885);  Bbbant.  London  in  the  Time 
of  the  Tudore  (1904);  Idem.  Ijondon  in  the  Time  of  the  StuarU 
(1003);  Idbic  London  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (1902) ;  Gommk, 
London  in  the  Reion  of  Victoria  (1898);  Kincmford,  Chroni- 
cle* of  London  (1905);  Hare,  Wcatminder  (1894);  Besant, 
We^mineter  (1895);  Ideu,  South  London  (1899);  lDE!ki,  Eaal 
London  (1901);  Idem.  Holbom  and  Bloomebury  (1903);  Idem, 
The  Thamee  (1903);  Besant  and  Milton,  We^stminater  (1902); 
Idem.  Strand  District  (1902);    Ltsons,  Environa  of  London 

i  1702-96);  Idem,  Pariahes  in  Middlraex  not  included  in  the 
Invirona  (1800);  Howitt,  The  Xorthcm  Heighta  of  London 
(1800);  Thorne,  Handbook  to  the  Environa  of  tendon  (1870); 
Walford.  Greater  London  (1901);   Wylue.  London  to  the  Sore 

il905);  SxirrH,  Antiquitiea  of  London  and  it  a  Environa  (1791- 
800);  Idem.  Anliquitiea  of  the  City  of  Westminater  (1807); 
Idem,  Ancient  Topography  of  London  (1815);  Malcolm,  Lon- 
dinium Redivivum  (1803-7) ;  Idem,  Anvcdotea  of  the  Mannera  and 
Cuetome  of  London  from  the  Roman  Invasion  to  the  year  1700 
(London*  1811);  Idem.  Anee.  of  the  Man.  and  CuM.  of  Jjondon 
dwingthe  18lhCent.{ih\il.^  1807);  Wilkinkon,  lAmdina  Flluatrata 
C1810); Clarke.  Arehitectura  Ecclea.  Londini  ( 1820) ;  Thomson, 
ChronwUe  of  London  Bridge  (1827);  Brayley,  Juondiniana 
(1820):  Lbioh Hunt,  The  Tovm.  (1848);  TnonNnunY  and  Wal- 
ford, CaaaeWa  Old  and  New  London  (1873-78) ;  Hark.  Walka  in 
London  (1878;  7th  ed.,  1901);  Birch,  Hiatorical  chnrtera  and  con- 
Mitutional  documenta  of  the  City  of  Londtm  (1884;  revised  ed.. 
1887);  HuTTON,  Literary  Landmarka of  f^ondon(\S92) ',  Welch, 
Hiataryo/the  London  Monument  [containing  a  bibliography  of  the 
Gnat  rirel  (1803):  Birch,  London  on  Thameain  Bygone  Daya 
(10^);  Barton,  Familiar  London  (1904);  Nohman,  London 
Yani^ed  and  Vaniahing  (1905);  Black,  Slapa  of  Old  London 
O008);  Tranaadione  of  the  London  and  Middleaejr  A  rchaological 
Sodeiy  (1860-00);  London  Topographical  Society,  London 
Topographical  Record  (5  vols.,  1001-1908,  in  progress),  nUo 
annual  publications  of  old  maps  and  sur\'eys;  I)ickkna,  Dic- 
tionary of  London  (1880). 

AirciRNT  Cathoijc  Diocese.— Gams,  Seriea  Episcopnrum 
(Ratisboa,  1873) ;  Brady,  Episcopal  Surceatdon  in  England  etc. 
J400-1875  (Rome.  1877);  Wharton,  Hi^toria  de  Epiaropia  et 
Deeanie  Ijondinienaibua  (1695);  Anon.  London  parish ra,  con- 
iaininff  the  eituation,  antiguiiy  and  rebuilding  of  the  churchea 
0824):  Godwin,  The  Churchea  of  Lmilon  (1830);  Wood, 
Ecdeaiaatical  Antiquiiiea  of  London  and  ita  Suhurba  (1S74); 
Hennessey,  Novum  Repertorium  Ecclrmnaticum  Parochiale 
Londinenee,  giving  the  London  diocenan  clergy  succession  from 
the  earliest  time  to  the  ycttr  1 808  i  1 898) ;  Bibliography  of  London 
Churches  in  Notea  and  Qurrie«,  9th  series,  vol.  IV.  (1890); 
DiMOCX,  The  Cathedral  ChurcJi  of  St.  Paid  (1900);  Beniiam, 
Old  SL  Patd'a  Cathedral  (1902);  Danfkll,  Ijondon  City  Churchei 
(1907);  Sinclair,  Memorials  of  St.  Paul'a  Cathedral  (1909). 

London  Catholics  after  the  Reformation. — Besides  the 
usual  works  dealing  with  the  martyrs  and  the  persecution  the 
following  are  useful:— Gee.  A  Foot  out  of  the  Snare  (1624) ;  Seh- 
oeant.  An  Account  of  Ute  Chapter  (1706;  reprinted  1853); 
DoDD*  Church  Historji  (Brussels.  1739-1742);  BEniN<;TON, 
State  and  Behaviour  of  English  Catholics  from  the  Ri  formation  to 
the  Year  1781  (1st.  ed.,  1780;  2nd,  1781);  Idem.  Memoirs  of 
Pantani  (1703);  Butler,  Historical  Memoirs  of  English  Catho- 
lics (2  vols.,  1810;  4  vols..  1822);  Anstev,  A  Guulc  to  the  Lawa 
of  England  affecting  Roman  Caifiolira  (1842);  Maddk.n',  The 
niaiory  of  the  Penal  Lava  (1847);  Flanagan,  History  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  England  (1857);  Morkih,  TrotdAea  of  our 
Catholic  Farefathera  (3  vols.,  1872-77);  Foley,  Records  of  Eng- 
liah  Province  S.J.,  especiallj'  vols.  I  and  V  (scries  XII,  1877- 
83) ;  Birt,  The  Elizabethan  Rdigioua  Settlement  ( 1 907 ) ;  C\>r  kson 
CondUion  of  Engliah  Catholics  under  Charles  II  (1800);  Kirk, 
Biographies  of  English  Catholics  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  ( 1 909 ) ; 
Burton.  Life  and  Times  of  Bialujp  Challoner,  1091-1 781  ( 1000 ) ; 
Ward,  Wilfrid,  The  Daunt  of  the  Calfiolic  Rei^'i^,  1781-1803 


The  Catholic  Directory  (1773  to  present  date) . 


Modern  Civil  Administration. — Fiktii,  Municipal  Lon- 
don (1876);  Webb,  The  lA>ndon  Proommmc.  (I8iil);  Hake, 
Sufferina  London  (1892);  Jay.  A  Story  of  Shortditch  (1K90); 
HuiTT,  London  Local  Government  (1897);  Shekwell,  Life  in 
West  London  (1897);  Richards  and  Payne,  London  Water 
Supply  (1899):  Seager,  Oovemment  of  London  iinrhT  the  Lon- 
don Government  Act  1899  (1899) ;  Booth,  Life  and  Labour  of  the 
People  in  London  (9  vols.,  1889-1897);  Idem.  Summary  of  "Life 
Labour,  etc**:  Rdigioua  Infuencea  (1002);  Hopkins.  The 
Bonumg  of  the  Mebropolia  (1900) ;  Neve.  L'adminietratiun  d'une 
IX.— 23 


grantle  ville  (Lou  vain,  1901) :  Philpott.  London  at  School  (1004)  ( 
GoMME,  The  Governance  of  London  (1907);  Whitaker'a  Alma^ 
nack  (annual  publication);  The  London  ManiuU  (annual  publi- 
cation). 

Miscellaneous. — Herbert,  History  of  the  Twelve  Great 
Livery  Companies  ofI.Mndon  (1K37);  Larwood^  The  Story  of  the 
Ijondon  Parka  (1872);  Hazlitt,  Ixmdon  Lxvery  Companies 
(1890);  Marshall,  Ixmdon  Libraries  (1890);  Cripps,  Position 
of  the  London  Water  Companiea  (1892);  Written,  London  i^ 
Song  (1898);  Hudson,  Birds  in  Ixmdon  (1898);  Marshall 
AND  MiTTON,  Scenery  of  London  (1905);  Hueffer,  The  Soul  of 
London  (1905). 

Edwin  Burtox. 

London,  DiocEfiE  op  (Londinensis),  in  Canada, 
est-ablishc<l,  21  February,  1855;  sec  tran:!}f erred  to 
Sandwich,  2  February,  1S59,  traiLsf erred  back  to 
London,  I]  ()ctol)er.  1869;  comprises  Middlesex,  Elgin. 
Norfolk,  O.xford,  Perth,  Huron,  I.ambion,  Kent-^  ana 
Essex  CJounties  in  the  south-western  section  ol  On- 
tario, Canada.  The  incorporation  of  the  city  of 
London  ami  its  selection  as  the  see  of  a  new  diocese 
in  1S56  were  almost  contemporaneous.  It  then  had 
a  population  of  about  10,000,  a  fifth  of  w^hom  were 
Catholics.  As  first  bishop  tlie  Rev.  Pierre-Adolphe 
Pinsonnault,  a  Sulpicianr  was  chosen.  He  was  bom 
at  Saint-Philippe,  (Juebec,  T,i  Xovemljer,  1815,  made 
his  studies  in  Montreal  and  iu  Paris,  and  was  or- 
dained in  the  latter  citv  in  1840.  lie  was  conse- 
crated in  Montreal,  13  ^iay,  1856.  On  2  Februanr, 
1S59,  he  procured  a  pontifical  Brief  altering  the 
title  of  the*  diocese  to  Sandwich,  and  authoriz- 
ing the  change  of  residence  to  that  location.  He 
resigned  the  see  on  18  December,  18<56,  and  died  at 
Montreal,  30  January,  1SS3.  As  his  successor,  the 
Very  Reverend  Jolm  Walsh,  V.G.,  Toronto,  was 
chosen  and  consecrated  on  10  November,  1S67.  Bom 
in  Mooncoin,  Co.  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  21  May,  1S30,  he 
was  ordained  priest  on  1  Noveml^er,  1854,  and  spent 
the  years  previous  to  his  elevation  to  the  episcopate  in 
parish  work.  He  was  promoted  to  the  Archl)ishopric 
of  Toronto  (q.  v.),  25  Julv,  1SS9,  and  died  there  on  31 
July,  1S98.  In  October,  1809,  he  transferred  his 
residence  from  Sandwich  to  London,  and  on  15  Novem- 
l>er  procured  from  Rome  a  decree  making  London 
once  more*,  the  name  of  tlie  diocese.  lie  began  the 
erection  of  a  new  cathedral  Mav,  ISSl,  and  largely 
increased  the  number  of  churclies  and  institutions 
throughout  the  diocese. 

The  thinl  bishop  was  the  Rev.  Denis  O'Connor, 
ossjiasilian,  and  suf>erior  of  the  Assumption  (.'ollege, 
Sandwich,  consecrated  on  19  Octolxir,  1890.  lie  was 
born  at  Pickering,  Onturio,  28  March,  1841,  and  or- 
dained prit^st  on  8  DecemlnT,  1803.  Like  his  prede- 
cessor, he  was  elevat^Ml  to  the  Archbishopric  of 
Toronto,  24  January,  1899.  To  fill  the  vacancy  thus 
created  the  Rev.  Fergas  Patrick  McEvay,  Vicar- 
(Jeneral  of  the  Diocese  of  Hamihon,  waa  named  and 
consecrated  on  6  August,  1899.  Bishop  McEvay 
was  born  at  Lindsay,  (hitario,  on  8  DecemlwT,  1852, 
an<l  ordained  priest  on  9  July,  1S82.  Again,  Toronto 
made  a  vacrancy  in  the  See  of  London,  for  Archbishop 
O'Connor  resigned  and  Bishop  McEvay  was  trans- 
ferred to  Toronto,  ant.1  took  possession  on  17  June,  1908, 
As  fifth  Bishop  of  London,  the  pope  apiK)intod  on  14 
December,  1900,  the  Very  Rev.  Alichael  M.  F.  Fallon, 
provincial  of  the  American  province  of  the  (Jblatcs 
of  M ary  I m macula t e.  He  was  1  >ori i  at  K i i igst on ,  Can- 
ada. 17  May,  1807,  and  entered  tlie  Oblate  congre- 
gation at  the  conclusion  of  his  course  at  Ottawa 
University.  His  theological  studies  were  complet<?d 
at  Rome,  after  which  he  became  professor  an(l  vice- 
rector  of  his  Alma  Mater.  At  the  end  of  three  years 
he  In'gan  parisli  work  at  Ottawa  continuing  it  at 
Buffalo.  In  1903  he  was  chosen  provincial  of  the 
Oblates. 

The  religious  communities  now  established  in  the 
diocese  are: — men :  i^asilians.  Franciscans;  women: 
Religious  of  the  Sacrc<l  Heart,  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  Sisters  of  Loretto  Cb\%\j*x^fc 


of  the  Blesaed  Virein  Mary),  Sifltera  of  St.  Joseph, 

Ureulincs,  Hospitaller  Xuns  of  St.  Joseph  at  Hotel 
Dieu,  Windsor.  Statistics:  Priests  70  (religiouB  18); 
there  arc  45  churches  with  resident  priests,  and  aJso 
29  missiona  with  churches,  totaJ  number  of  churches 
78;  1  college,  150  students;  4  academics,  4T0  pupils; 
85  parochial  schools,  11,500  pupils;  1  ontlian  osvlum, 
75  inmates;  3  hospitals.  Catholic  population  60.000. 
CorrcT.  The  City  anil  Jiioeru  of  Ijindim,  OiHaria  (Loaiion, 
Ontniici,  1SS5):  CaUiolie  Rtcord  a^on'lon).  Gkq;  l-'  Canada 
jMln(M(i9iH(Mi>iitre»l.  1010);  CulAo/icDirreloni  tMilwnukee, 
1910). 

TlIOMAB   F.  MtEIi.i.V. 

Longlliiu,  Saint.  See  Laste,  The  Hoi.y. 
Longatreet,  James,  soldier,  convert,  b.  S  Januaryr 
1821,  at  Edgefield,  South  Carolina,  U.  S.  A.;  d.  at 
Gainesville,  (icur^La,  2  January,  1D04.  In  1831  ho 
moved  to  Alabama  with  hiw  parents,  and  wiia  thence 
•ppointed  to  the  U.  S.  Mditary  Acudcniy  ;it  Wei^t 
Point,  where  he 
iduaWdinlS42. 
r  his  services 
a  the  Me: 


!?; 


AVoj 


diers.  He  received  at 


■ctled  major  and 

miiisionedca  pta  in . 
At  theoiitbreakof 
the  C'ivil  War  he 

rcsiRne<l  Ills  eom- 

18fil,  and  entcied 
the     (.'onfederatc 

he  afterwards  af- 
taineil  thcdistino~ 
tionoflicingoneof 
its  greatest  fight- 
ers and  ofwinninc 
the  unbounded 
confidence  andaf- 
feet  ion  of  Mm  mi- 
ra  nk  of  hrigad  ier-general . 


A  un 

While  aboftrd  of  his  vessel,  be  spent  his  spare  time  MOW 
pOBJog  his  poem  "Ang^hca",  a  continuation  of  tbt 
adventures  of  that  capricious  lady  already  lelated  fav 
the  Italian  poet  Ariosto  in  his  "Orlando  Furioao  . 
Married  by  1590  to  Isabel  de  Urbina.  he  returned  to 
the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Alba,  witn  whom  he  had 
been  prior  to  the  time  of  the  Annad&.  His  first  wife 
died  in  159T,  and  then,  after  some  amorous  adventure, 
he  contracted  a  second  marriage,  \bout  1600,  with 
Juana  del  Guardo.  By  this  time  he  had  become  the 
acknowlcdgedarbitcrof  theiSpaniah  stage,  and  such  he 
remained  until  shortly  before  Lis  death.  His  second 
wife  died  in  1G12  or  1G14,  greatly  saddened,  doubtleM, 
by  the  immorality  of  her  husband,  constantly  intrigu- 
ing with  this  or  tliat  actress.  The  result  of  one  of 
these  liaisons,  tJiat  with  llaria  de  Lujdn,  was  the  birth 
of  a  son.  Lope  Fi'lix,  who  bode  fair  to  become  a  good 
poet.  About  1610  Lone  had  made  his  home  at  Ma- 
drid. For  some  time  before  that  vear,  he  bad  led  > 
wandering  life,  in  Valencia,  Toledo,  Seville,  etc., 
cverynhere  stimulating  dramatic  composition,  lliil 
roving  was  in  part  due  to  a  decree  of  banishment 
issued  against  htm  in  punishment  of  a  base  Ubel  pub- 
lished by  him  upon  a  certain  actress  and  her  family. 
After  tlie  death  of  his  second  wife,  L<^  became  a 
priest,  with  the  express  purpose  of  oonecting  the  dil- 
ordcrs  of  his  life.  Unfortunately  it  cannot  be  said 
tliat  the  taking  of  Holy  orders  led  to  impraremeBt; 
his  alterrations  continued,  and  he  intensified  U*  bM^ 
ncss  by  playing  the  part  of  a  poetical  pandererforUi 
patron*,  the  Duke  of  Scssa.  Lope  was  wdl  awam  «f 
the  vijeness  of  llis  own  behaviour,  as  his  coinjsuuad- 
cure  clearly  shows;  but  he  was  too  weak  to  main. 
Retribution,  however,  came  upon  him  befoi«  hia  nd, 
for  his  heart  W'bs  broken  by  the  early  deMth  of  Ul 
l)rilli:int  son  Lope  and  the  elopement  of  bis  datu'''" 
Antunia  Clara  with  a  court  noble.     His  n 


rindows  of  the 


IS  to  pan  befon  the 
another  dau^iter  of 


, .  js  made  a  majur-geneml  .._ 

1802,  At  Anticlam  (17  Sept.,  1S62)  hccommiindecl  the 
right  wing  of  I^^'s  army,  and  wllh  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
ant-general hewasatthcbeadofacorpi^at  (lellv:<burg 
(2-3  July.  18G3).  In  the  battle  of  the  Wildeniciw  on 
B  -May,  18C4,  ho  was  severely  woimde<l.  but  resumed 
his  commnnd  during  the  si<-gc  of  I'etcrsbur);.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  engaRcd  in  business  in  New  Or- 
leans, and  accepted  the  political  Kiluntion.  l>ceominga 
republican  in  politics.  President  Gnmt  appointed 
him  surveyor  of  custonui  at  -Vew  Orleans,  anJ  later  he 
was  made  supervisor  of  internal  revenue  and  post- 
master. In  ISi.'i  he  removiil  to  (ieorgia,  and  in  ISSO- 
81  W08  sent  a.n  U.  S.  Jlinister  U>  Turkey.  In  1S9S  he 
was  appointed  U.  B.  railway  commissioner.  lie  left  a 
valuable  chapter  of  war  history  in  "From  Mnnasses 
to  .\ppomattox"  (Phila<lclpliia,  1901).  He  became 
a  Catholic  in  .Vew  Orleans,  7  Mareb.  1877. 

I.hv.hitbei:t,  I^ngUrM  and  Lrt  at  Hifh  Tidr  (rininnivflle. 
GtorKin.  IW*>;  Dift.  Am.  liioB..*.  v.;  UorniiKi  Ubir  {i\ct  Qiew 
OrloauH). 

T1IOMA8  V,  Me  EUAN. 

Iiopa  de  Vega  Oarpio,  Fi^lix.  poet  and  dramatist, 
b.  at  Madrid,  l.if.2;  <l.  2^  Aug..  1G35.  With  Lope  de 
Vega  IiegiM  the  era  of  drnmiitic  glor>'  in  ilpanish 
Uterature  of  the  Colden  Age.  He  seems  to  have  lx«n 
an  extraordiniirily  precocious  cliilil,  whence  the  term 
"monsfruo  de  la  nafurale^a",  "  fteak  of  nature", 
which  clung  to  him  throughout  liLs  life.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he  wnrte  a  play.  Like  Cervantes,  he  saw 
service  in  the  Spanish  navy,  and  even  took  part  in  the 
disastrotis  expedition  of  tbe  .\rmada  against  England. 


surpasses  belief.  PracticaJIv  all  forms  of  litenuycc  _ 
position  were  attempted  by  nim.  In  the  epic  he  tried 
nis  fortunes  with  the  "  Angelica",  already  mentioned; 
he  repeated  the  experiment  in  "Jenis^en  Conquie- 
tada ' ,  in  which  he  sought  to  rival  Tasso  as  prevknudy 
ho  had  emulated  Ariosto.  Mor^successful  than  tbeae 
attempts  «-aa  the  "Gatomaquia",  which  revives  the 
spirit  of  the  ancient  "Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice", 
and  therefore  belongs  to  the  catwor^  of  the  mock- 
heroic.  The  mythological  prevails  m  five  poems: 
"Circe",  "Andromeda  ,  "Pnilomela",  "Orfeo",  and 
"Proserpina".  He  wrote  several  historical  poem^ 
among  them  the  "SsJi  Isidro  Labrador",  celeMating 
the  patron  saint  of  Madrid,  and  the  "Dragontea",  an 
attack  on  the  English  adventurer.  Sir  Francis  Drake. 
He  essayed  the  didactic  in  an  errs  poetica,  or  code  of 
literary  principles,  which  he  entitled  the  "  Arte  nuev» 
de  hacer  comcdias".  In  this  he  reveals  his  acquaint- 
ance with  the  strict  .\ristotelean  rules  of  dramatic  com- 
position,  the  unities,  etc.,  but  acknowled{|eB  that,  in 
order  to  cater  to  the  popular  craving  of  his  tune,  be  di^ 
regards  those  classic  precepts.  Furthermore,  we  have 
from  him  a  mass  of  snnncts,  romances  (lyrjca  in  the 
ballad  metre),  odes,  elegies,  verse  epistles,  and  ao  on. 
of  which  Home  are  relit^ious  in  their  inspiration  ana 
Others  profane.  Thus  it  is  that  in  16u2  there  ap- 
peared, as  port  of  hia  "Rimas",  some  two  hundred 
sonnets,  a  number  of  which  give  expression  to  the 
poet's  genuine  sentiments.  In  1612  there  was  pub- 
lished the  "Quatro  Scliloquios",  full  of  devout  ex- 
pressions in  verse  which  contrast  sharply  with  the  au- 
thor's mode  of  life.  To  that  same  year  belongs  the 
Eublication  of  his  beautiful  sacred  pastoral,  perfaapa 
ismostftnislied  work  in  point  of  style,  the"  Aistorea 
de  Belf  n".  Of  this  he  himself  said: "  I  have  written  a 
book,  which  I  call  the  'Shepherds  of  Bethlehem',  in 


unz-oiat 


36S 


aacnd  proM  and  vecae,  After  tha  pUn  of  the '  Arcadia.' " 
Hie  laatrnaxaed  ia  ilia  partleular  contribution  to  the 
output  of  peatoral  ronumcea,  which  bad  begun  in 
Spun  with  the  "Diana"  of  Hontemayor,  and  had 
been  oairiad  on  by  Cervantes  in  his  "  Guatea".  Like 
all  the  poataral  nunanccd,  tho  "Arcadia"  of  Lope 
barks  back  eventuaUy  to  the  "  Arcadia  "  of  the  Neapol- 
itan Sannauaro,  which  cetabliuhcd  the  faahion  of  com- 
bining prose  and  verse.  The  paatonil  lovos  celebrated 
in  the  works  of  this  category  are  conventional:  tho 
riiepherda  and  shepherdeaees  are  gentlemen  and  ladiee 
of  Uihioa  masqucradinK-  Tlie  whole  genre  ia  very 
•rtifidal,  and  Lom'h  work  ie  certainly  so.  The  "  Pas- 
tana  de  Belfo"  nas  in  it  the  beautiful  Iidlaby  to  the 
Infant  JemiB,"Puesandai3  en  Ian  palni&s";  the  whole 
work  waa  dedicated  to  his  son  CotIoh,  who  soon  died. 
Of  Lope's  otber  ctmipOHitionB,  bctiidca  Km  plays,  tliere 
nuyMn>en^)nedthe"Filomena"  (ll)2n,the"Triun- 
fndivinos"  (religious  lyricsj,  the  "Corona  tr^ica" 
(1627 — an  epic  in  five  cantos  celeliratiiig  llarv,  Queen 
ofSoota),  the"  laurel deApolo"  (16:iO~a  rhymed  re- 

view  aTid   eulogy 

of  about  three 
hundred  poets, 
like     Ccrvanten's 


and  partisan),  EUid 
the  "  Riiuos  de 
licenciado  Tom  4 
deBurguillos" 
(1634).  The"Fi- 
lomena",  the  first 
of  the  works  just 
mentioned,  is  in 
part  Lope's  poetic 
defence  of  hunsclf 
and  his  methods 
aKaiimt  the  at- 
tacks of  a  certain 
Torres  Rjimila. 
The  defence  oc- 
cupies its  second 
part ;  the  first  con- 


wastoUowed  ^ter  by  three  others: "  1 A  desdicha  por la 
faonra",  "La  prudente  venganza",  and  "Gusm^  el 
Bueno",  all  published  in  Ui2i,  along  with  the  poem 
"CSrco  and  Ulysses".  Certain  "Epfstoiaa"  found  in 
the  "Fllomena"  {rive  information  regarding  Lope's 
^e  and  woric,  and  also  give  utterance  to  an  attack 
npon  tiie  school  of  Gongora. 

Among  the  prose  work.**,  besides  tho  talcs  already 
lilted,  are  the  "Fercgrino  en  su  patria"  (1604),  the 
"Triunfo  de  Ja  fe  en  el  Jap6n"  (1618),  and  the  "  Doro- 
tea"  (1632).  The  "Peregrino  is  a  somewhat  tedious 
imnanee  C^  adventurous  travel.  It  is  interesting, 
however,  for  the  lyrics  and  autus  (religious  plays)  con- 
tained in  it,  and  also  for  the  list  of  over  two  hundred 
of  his  plays  which  the  author  indicates  as  already 
iMiFiMMwed  The  "Triunfo"  deals  with  tho  Xavcrian 
nuamonsin  Japan,  and  is  devout  in  tone.  Thc"Doro- 
tea"  is  a  diamatjc  novel  in  form.  Begun  in  I^ope's 
early  yean,  it  was  kept  by  him  throughout  his  life, 
and  receiTed  final  emliellishmcnts  in  his  old  age.  It 
is  nractieally  an  autobiography. 

The  real  Lope  of  fame,  however,  is  the  dramatist, 
for  it  wae  as  dramatist  that  he  dominated  the  whole 
Qolden  Age  (sixteenth  and  nevent^^enth  centuries). 
Aoeoiding  to  his  own  account,  he  composed  1500 
omMdMt,  Le.,moi«  than  5,000,000  ver^a  of  o.'t.sonance 
and  rhyme  in  all  the  nstEve  and  the  borrowed  Italian 
im.  Besides  the  comedias  he  nTOtc  hundreds  of 
looa  (pndaguea,  curtain-raisers),  and  entremttet 


(interludes).  Of  the  comeditu  some  MO  remain,  and 
they  are  mode  the  subject  of  treatment  in  the  great 

edition  published  under  the  auspices  of  the  Spanish 
Academy  by  MenSndei  y  Pelayo,  Among  the  con- 
venient groupings  devised  by  this  eminent  scholar  are 
these:  pkys  oa^  upon  matters  of  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testament;  plays  on  lives  of  the  saints:  plajrs 
dealing  with  legends  or  devout  traditions;  mythologi* 
cal  plays;  plays  treating  of  classical  history;  playa 
treating  of  foreign  history;  plays  dealing  with  the  na- 
tional history;  pastoral  plays;  chivalrous  plays;  ro- 
mantic plays;  and  plays  of  manners.  No  attempt 
ma>;  licro  1>e  made  to  gi^'e  an  idea  of  the  nature  and 
subject-matter  of  even  the  more  striking  among 
Lope's  dramatic  masterpieces.  It  may  be  said  defin- 
itively that  in  uualities  of  style  his  dramas  are  defi- 
cient; they  lack  ttiu  finish  and  the  pvenness  that  only  do- 
lilieration  and  slowlv  matured  execution  can  give  to  a 
work  of  art.  Lope  s  theatre  is  mainly  one  of  impro- 
visation. He  wrote  hoatily,  Ui  answer  an  imperious 
and  never  sated  popular  demand  for  something  new. 
It  is  remarkable  tliat  bo  remained  ever  inventive.  His 
dramatic  imagination  was  agift  oF  nature,  and  did  not 
fail  him  no  matter  how  much  he  abused  it.  In  depth 
of  thought  he  is  all  too  often  lacking;  and  with  good 
sense  he  avoided  philosophical  themes,  for  he  would 
have  failed  tn  the  treatment  of  them.  Lope  had  the 
people  at  large  in  mind  when  he  wrot«.  Iliis  is  seen 
especially  in  nis  plays  of  manners  and  intrigue  {Corn*- 
diat  de  cava  y  eipada),  which  represent  his  best  dra- 
matic achievement.  The  peculiarly  Spanish  puno- 
tilio,  or  Ppint  of  honour,  receives  full  consideration  in 
these.  To  the  part  of  the  clown  he  gives  great  promi- 
nence. But  it  is  the  wonuin  that  Leconies  all  impor- 
tant in  Iadc's  plays;  as  Fitimauricc-Kclly  has  said: 
"  He  placed  her  in  her  true  setting,  as  an  ideal,  as  the 
mainspring  of  dramatic  motive  and  of  cliivolrous  con- 
duct. A^  leading  examples  of  Lope's  skill  in  the 
tragedy  there  may  De  mentioned  "  El  Castigo  sin  Ven- 
gania  (on  the  same  subject  as  Byron's  "Pariaina"), 
and  "Pnrfiar  hosta  Morir";  in  the  historical  drama, 
"I^  F^trella  de  Scvilla"  and  "El  mejor  Alcalde  el 
ney";iii  the  use  of  the  old  Spanish  heroic  legend,  "Ia 
fucrsa]a3timosa";andin  the  conietly  of  manners,  "El 
Acero  de  Madrid",  "Amar  sin  Saber  &  Quien",  "I* 
Moza  del  Clnlaro",  etc.     TjOpe  has  had  many  unita- 


rs.    Those  who  imitated  him  ii 


be   recorded  especially  the  Frenchmen   Hardy  a 

Rotrou,   and,   in  more  recent   times,   the   Austrian 
GrillpariKr, 

CMmm,  M,  MENfiNnEl  t  PsuTO  for  tha  AcsdemU  Eapariola 
(Madriil.  ISBO — ) ;  CBnirdia4  fcoaidaa  la  Hitiliotrra  rf*  aiifarM 
oiudolM,  XXIV,  XXXIV,  XU.  LII,  LVIII;  Obnt  iuUm 
(21  vob..  Mndrid,  lT7fl-0i:  mratno<Irtim4iia,tin  BiMitI,-  '- 

aulorrt  rtpni-oln.  XXXVIII;   Poitim     ~    ' — 

XXXVI,  and  LII;    Tdiiiija  and  Pti 
LoptdeVrea:  FeiieiP.' '-  " 


xvr,  XXXV, 


[  ^adl 


Madrirl,  I'ntg),  SW;'  ti>i 


:i  Pastor,  Pnem  dt 
raMmimlaiiFtlaiio, 

.  ,-._ Jthu  (MadiM,  IMl)— 

Ptm  Ptmtm  niDBiiw  on*  of  th*  lisM  anthoritii*  on  tba  Ufa  and 
worki  of  Lopr  da  Veen — HBm nr.  TAr  /,ifr  of  Lapt  dt  Vw 
(Gliuwov.  London,  vul  PUIadclphis.  1901};  lutai.  TU  3ft»- 
%ih  Slaiir  in  llir  Tlmf  of  fJi^t  ii  Vron  <Th<)  Hlnpniiio  8od*^, 
Nrw  York.  IfllO);  Pinu*t:NiCE-KKi.t.v,  LilUralm  dpadwib 
(Parifi,  11IU4).  npcdally  35U  iiqq.  and  tha  full  bibliosnipliy  oo 
pnsca  47S-8U. 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 


Juan  de  I^as  Uoclaa,  the  painter  of  the  great  altai^ 
piece  in  tlw  church  of  St.  Isidore  in  Seville,  of  the 
"Martyrdom  of  St.  Andrew"  in  the  museum  at  Se- 
villi',  and  of  the  pictures  in  the  university  chapel.  C^ 
his  pupil  we  know  exceedingly  little,  save  that  with  in- 
different  success  he  practised  the  art  of  painting  in 
Seville  until  alxiut  1660,  when  he  went  to  Madrid 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  died  in 
1662.  His  works  were  moinlp'  portraits,  some  of 
which  are  in  private  collecttons  lIiUwit^&,^-^ 


LORD'S  PRATSE 


356 


LOBD'8  PRJLTSE 


Granada,  and  SevillCi  but  nono  of  them  is  now  con- 
sidered of  specially  hi^h  merit. 

I^'rancibco  Cako,  his  eon  and  pupil,  b.  at  Seville  in 
1627;  d.  at  Madrid  in  1667;  he  entered  the  studio  of 
Alonzo  Cano  in  Madrid,  and  considerably  surpassed  his 
father  in  ability  and  slcill.  His  most  important  works 
are  those  representing  scenes  from  the  life  of  Our 
Lady,  which  adorn  the  chapel  of  St.  Isidore  in  St.  An« 
drew's  church  in  Madrid;  but  his  largest  work  refers  to 
the  indulgence  of  the  Portiuncula  and  the  jubilee  of  its 
grant.  It  was  painted  for  the  Franciscan  convent  at 
Segovia,  and  contains  the  portraits  of  the  donor  of  the 
picture  and  of  his  wife,  Seiior  and  Scfiora  de  Contreras. 
Both  father  and  son  are  spoken  of  in  Palomino's  work 
with  high  praise  on  account  of  their  devotion  to  their 
faith  and  the  serious  way  in  which  they  made  use  of 
their  artistic  abilities. 

PAiX)ifiNO  DE  Cabtro  y  Veij^sco,  El  Musfo  Pictorico  y  Bacala 
^Madrid,  1715):  Maxwell.  Annala  of  the  Artists  of  Spain  (Lon- 
aon,  1848);  Qi-illiet,  Dictiunnaire  des  Printrca  Espagnola 
(Paris,  1816);  Huakd,  Vie  Complete  des  Pcintres  Espagnola 
(Paris,  1839).  . 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Lord's  Prayer. — ^Although  the  Latin  t^rm  oratio 
dominica  is  of  early  date,  the  phrase  "Lord's  Praver" 
does  not  seem  to  liave  been  generally  familiar  in  Eng- 
land before  the  Reformation.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  the  "  Our  Father"  was  always  said  m  Latin,  even 
by  the  uneducated.  Hence  it  was  then  most  com- 
monly known  as  the  Pater  noster.  The  name  * '  Lord's 
prayer"  attaches  to  it  not  because  Jesus  Christ  used 
the  prayer  Himself  (for  to  ask  forgiveness  of  sin  would 
have  implied  the  acknowledgment  of  guilt)  but  because 
He  taugnt  it  to  His  disciples.  Many  points  of  interest 
are  suggested  by  the  history  and  employment  of  the 
Our  Father.  With  regard  to  the  English  text  now  in 
use  among  Catholics,  we  may  note  that  this  is  derived 
not  from  the  Rheims  Testament  but  from  a  version  im- 
posed upon  England  in  the  reign  of  Henrv  VIII,  and 
employed  in  the  1549  and  1552  editions  of  the  "  Book 
of  Common  Prayer  ".  From  this  our  present  Catholic 
text  differs  only  in  two  very  slight  particulars: "  Wiich 
art"  has  been  modernized  into  who  art",  and  "in 
earth"  into  "on  earth".  The  version  itself,  which 
accords  pretty  closely  with  the  translation  in  Tyndale's 
New  Testament,  no  doubt  owed  its  general  acceptance 
to  an  ordinance  of  1541  according  to  which  "his  Grace 
perceiving  now  the  great  diversity  of  the  translations 
(of  the  Pater  noster  etc.)  hath  willed  them  all  to  be 
taken  up,  and  instead  of  them  hath  caused  an  uniform 
translation  of  the  said  Pater  noster,  Ave,  Creed,  etc., 
to  be  set  forth,  willing  all  his  loving  subjects  to  learn 
and  use  the  same  and  straitly  commanding  all  parsons, 
vicars  and  curates  to  read  and  teach  the  same  to  their 
parishioners".  As  a  result  the  version  in  question  be- 
came universally  familiar  to  the  nation,  and  though 
the  Rheims  Testament,  in  1581,  and  King  James's 
translators,  in  1611,  provided  somewhat  different  ren- 
derings of  Matt.,  vi,  9-13,  the  older  form  was  retained 
for  their  prayers  lx)th  by  Protestants  and  Catholics 
alike. 

As  for  the  prayer  itself  the  version  in  St.  Luke,  xi, 
2-4,  given  bv  Christ  in  answer  to  the  request  of  His 
disciples,  differs  in  some  minor  details  from  the  form 
which  St.  Matthew  (vi,  9-15)  introduces  in  the  middle 
of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  but  there  is  clearly  no 
reason  why  these  two  occa^^ions  should  be  regarded  as 
identical.  It  would  ]xi  almost  inevitable  that  if  Christ 
had  taught  this  prayer  to  His  disciples  He  should  have 
repeated  it  more  than  once.  It  seems  probable,  from 
the  form  in  which  the  Our  Father  appears  in  the 
*'Didache"  (a.  v.),  that  the  version  in  St.  Matthew 
was  that  whicn  the  Church  adopted  from  the  beginning 
for  liturgical  purposes.  Again,  no  great  importance 
can  be  attached  to  the  resemblances  which  have  been 
traced  between  the  petitions  of  the  Lord's  prayer  and 
those  found  in  prayers  of  Jewish  origin  which  were 


current  about  the  time  of  Christ.  (See  on  this  Golts, 
"  Dm  Gebet",  40-41,  and  Chase, "  Lord's  Prayer  ",  3L) 
There  is  certainly  no  reason  for  treating  the  Christian 
formula  as  a  plagiarism,  for  in  the  first  place  the  rs- 
semblances  are  but  partial  and,  secondly  we  have  no 
satisfactory  evidence  that  the  Jewish  prayers  were 
really  anterior  in  date. 

Upon  the  interpretation  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  much 
has  Deen  written,  despite  the  fact  that  it  is  so  plainly 
simple,  natural,  and  spontaneous,  and  as  sucm  pre- 
eminently adapted  for  popular  use.  In  the  quasH 
official  ''Catechismus  ad  parochos",  drawn  up  in  1564 
in  accordance  with  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
an  eIal)orate  commentary  upon  the  Lord's  Prayer  is 

Srovidcd  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  analysis  of  the 
^ur  Father  found  in  all  Catholic  catechisms.  Many 
points  worthy  of  notice  are  there  emphasized,  as,  for 
example,  the  fact  that  the  words  "  On  earth  as  it  is  in 
Heaven"  should  Ixj  understood  to  qualify,  not  only  the 
petition  "Thy  will  be  done",  but  also  the  two  preced- 
ing, "hallowed  be  Thy  name"  and  "Thy  Kingdom 
come".  The  meaning  of  this  last  petition  is  idso  very 
fully  dealt  with.  The  most  conspicuous  difficulty  in 
the  original  text  of  the  Our  Father  conoems  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  words  d/^rot  hruiOaws,  which  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Vidgate  in  St.  Luke  we  translate 
"our  daily  bread",  St.  Jerome,  by  a  strange  incon- 
sistency, changed  the  pre-existing  word  qut^ianwn 
into  supersubstantialem  in  St.  Matthew  but  left  qtu)H- 
dianum  in  St.  Luke.  The  opinion  of  modem  scholars 
upon  the  point  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  the  Revised  Version  stul  prints  "daily"  in  the 
text,  but  suggests  in  the  margin  "  our  bread  for  the 
coming  day",  while  the  American  Committee  wished 
to  add  "our  needful  bread".  Lastly  may  be  noted 
the  generally  received  opinion  that  the  rendering  of 
the  last  clause  should  be  "  deliver  us  from,  ihe  evil 
one",  a  change  which  justifies  the  use  of  "but"  in 
stead  of  "and"  and  practically  converts  the  two  last 
clauses  into  one  and  tne  same  petition.  The  doxology 
"  for  Thine  is  the  Kingdom",  etc.,  which  appears  in  the 
Greek  textiis  recepUis  and  has  been  adopted  in  the  later 
editions  of  the  "  Book  of  Common  Prayer",  is  un- 
doubtedlv  an  interpolation. 

In  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  the  Our  Father  holds  a 
very  conspicuous  place.  Some  commentators  have 
erroneously  supposed,  from  a  passage  in  the  writings 
of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  (Ep.,  ix,  12),  that  that  doc- 
tor believed  that  the  bread  and  wine  of  the  Eucharist 
were  consecrated  in  Apostolic  times  by  the  recitation 
of  the  Our  Father  alone.  But  while  this  is  probably 
not  the  true  meaning  of  the  passage,  St.  Jerome  as- 
serted (Adv.  Pelag.,  iii,  15)  tnat  "our  Ix)rd  Himaelf 
taught  His  disciples  that  daily  in  the  Sacrifice  of  His 
Body  they  sliould  make  bold  to  say  *Our  Father'  4c." 
St.  Gregory  gave  the  Pater  its  present  place  in  the 
Roman  Mass  immediately  after  tne  Canon  and  before 
the  fraction,  and  it  was  of  old  the  custom  that  all  the 
congregation  should  make  answer  in  the  words  '*Scd 
lil)era  nos  a  nialo".  In  the  Greek  Liturgies  a  reader 
recites  the  Our  Father  aloud  while  the  priest  and  the 
people  repeat  it  silently.  Again  in  the  ritual  of  bap- 
tism the  recitation  of  the  Our  Father  has  Jrom  tne 
earliest  times  been  a  conspicuous  feature,  and  in  the 
Divine  Office  it  recurs  repeatedly  besides  being  recited 
both  at  the  l^eginning  and  the  end. 

In  many  monastic  rules,  it  was  enjoined  that  the 
lav  brothers,  who  knew  no  Latin,  instead  of  the  Divine 
office  should  say  the  Lord's  Prayer  a  certain  number  of 
times  (often  amounting  to  more  than  a  hundred)  per 
diem.  To  count  these  repetitions  they  made  use  of 
pebbles  or  l:)eads  strung  upon  a  cord,  and  this  appara* 
tus  was  commonly  known  as  a  "pater-noster",  a  name 
which  it  retained  even  when  such  a  string  of  beads  was 
used  to  count,  not  Our  Fathers,  but  Hail  Marys  in 
reciting  Our  Lady's  Psalter,  or  in  other  words  in  say* 
ing  the  rosary. 


LORD'S  &DFP1£ 


LOBUrZXTTX 


ScsBOD,  In  KirditnittiJum  ....  

10  priirt  tn  Sciena  rt    Rfligion.  404  (Fi 
LmiTi  Proiwr  tn  U<  EaWv  '"       '  .-..-.>.-■ 
Ooun,  Dot  OtM  in  der  nurum  (.nruinincu 
\AOWVrwyr.Ona  FrtA  Revision,  3rd  ed.  (Lot 
Hou  in  Wcf.  0/  ChHU.  Antiqm' 

(stutton,  i88i)i  " 


47Bh 


Lord's  Supper,    See  Euchasist. 


^?iS^'?S^'-  ^JE2"' ■?t?"  "  tis  expense  by  the  Spanish  Jeeuit,  Artv»lo:  "S.  Isi- 
™(n^bria™'i89»!'V™  «",;  Jo"  HispaJeMis  Opera  Omnia"  (R«me,  1797-1803). 
■im  cKntimiieii  (i^eiixii.  101)11:  Along  with  these  Scientific  pursuits  he  actively 
Fiirried  on  social  work,  foiindinK  hospitals  and  asy- 
luma  and  extending  a  helping  hand  to  the  needy. 
During  the  French  Revolution  he  was  ageneroua  beno- 
factor  of  the  exiled  French  clergy,  over  five  hundred 
of  whom  he  received  into  his  owe  diocese.  In  1789  lie 
was  created  cardinal  !iy  Pius  VI,  and  in  1797  v 


IR,  Lituraik,  1  (Frei 


Herbert  Thurston, 


LoiM,  titular  ee«  in  the  province  of  Arabia,  suf-  appointed  envw  extraordinary  irom  Spam  to  the 

fragan  of  Bostra.     The  city  figures  in  the  different  ■?™>;.Sfe.     In  this  capacity  he  supported  thepope  in 

manuscripM  ot  the  ".\otitiffl  episcopaluum "  of  An-  the  difficulties  attendant  on  the  trench  mvasion.   On 

tioch  in  tfie  tenth  century  under  the  namea  ot  Lourea,  *  'e  death  ot  Pius  VI  be  made  possible  the  holding  of 

Dourea,  and  Lores  {Echoa  d'orieiit,  II,  170;  X   05).  ^"^  conclave  at  Venice  {1  Dec.,  1799)  by  providing 

This  is  all  that  ia  known  concerning  the  city,  which  ia  travelling  expenses  tor  some  of  the  cardinals  who  were 

not  mentioned  by  any  geographer,  and  the  location  utterly  penniless.     He  accompanied  the  newly  elected 

of  which  is  unknown.  P"P<-'.  Pms  VII,  to  Rome  and  in  order  \a  remain  at  his 

S.  VAiutf;  ^^°'^  resigned  in  1800  his  archiepiscopal  see.  No  lees 
active  at  Rome  than  at  Mexico  or  Toledo,  he  was  in 

LoreiuUlfti  Francisco  Antonio  de,  Cardinal,  b.  1801  one  of  Ihp  founders  ot  a  new  Catholic  Academy 

22  Sept.,  1722,  at  Leon  in  Spain;  d.  17  April,  1804,  at  in  the  Eternal  City.     An  inheritance  of  25,000  s< 


After    the 

completion  of  his 
studiee  at  the  Jesuit 
College  of  his  native 
eity,  ne  entered  the 
ecclesiMtical  state 
and  WBB  appointed, 
at  an  early  date,  to 
a  caoonry  in  Toledo. 
In  17S5  he  was 
named  Bishop  of 
Plasencia  (not  Pa- 
lenci*,  OS  sometimes 
erroneously  stated). 
The  following  year 
he  was  called  upon 
to  assume  the  diffi- 
cult charge  of  the 
vast  Archdiocese  ot 
Mexico.  He  dis- 
played great  enerey 
inadvancingnot  only 
the  religious,  but  also 


the  s 


As  t 


which  fell  to  him  he 
aaiigned  to  the  poor. 
whom  he  designated 


..jlor,  2nd  ed..  Ill, 

N.  A.  Weber. 
Loieniettl,  Pietro 


Their  dated 
works  extend  over  a 
period  of  thirty  years, 
from  line  to  1.348. 
Pietro  was  the  elder. 
He  wa.s  the  pupil  ot 
Simonc  di  Martino, 
some  of  whose  for- 
muke  lie  has  pre- 
served tniihfully;T>ut 
he  wns  profoundly 
influeneeif  by  Giotto, 
He    introducer!    the 


monument  of  his  Iwneficcnce  may  be  mentioned  an  dramatic  into  the  Sienese  school.     Unfortunately  he 

asylum  for  foundlings  which  he  established  at  bis  own  could  not  control  biK  wonilerful  feeling  for  the  lifelike 

expense.     He  collected  and  published  the  acts  of  the  and  in  the  end  he  sometimes  failed  to  distinguish  his- 

first  three  provincial  councifa  of  Mexico  held  respQC-  toryfromthepassingeventsof  eveo'dny  life.    Hisfirst 

tively  in   1655,  1665,  and  1585:  "Concilios  provin-  known  work  is  the  "Iliatoiy  of  St.  Humilitas",  a 

cialea,  I,  II,  IIL  de  Mexico"  (Mexico.  1769-70).     In  relifiiouaot  Vallombrosa  (d.  1310).     The  picture  dated 

1771  he  himself  held  the  fourth  Mexican  provincial  1316  at  the  Academy  of  Florence  liears  tne  impress  cS 

eynod.     Unfortunately   its  decrees,   which  he  tor-  theliveli'cst  sense  of  reality.    It  .iboundsinsmall,  but 

warded  toMadrid  for  confirmation,  were  buried  in  the  often  delightful  genre  scenes.     In  his  Assisi  frescoes, 

royal  archives.     He  also  brought  together  valuable  whore  he  continued   Giotto's   "Life  of  Jesus",  this 

historical  documents  relating  to  the  profane  and  re-  realism  strangely  loses  tone.    In  the  "Cenocle",  for 

ligious  history  of  Mexico  and  published  them  in  a  example,  Pietro  devotes  an  entire  piece  to  a  kitchen 

nchly  illustrated  work  under  the  title,  "Historia  de  interior  where  lads  wash  the  dishes  while  a  dog  licks 

Nue>-a  Espaila"  (Mexico,  1770).     In  1772  the  inde-  the   plates.     This  lack  ot  dignity  is  perhaps   mere 

fatigable  archbishop  was  recalled  to  Spain  and  placed  familiarity  coupled  with  gooil  humour.     Fondness  for 

at  me  head  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Toledo.    He  built  a  this  sort  i>f  picture  is  in  part  the  cause  of  our  liking  for 

great  library  for  this  city  and  collected  the  works  of  the  creations  of  the  Dutch  school;  it  cannot  even  Ije 

toe  principal  writers  of  the  Church  of  Toledo.    These  said  that  details  of  thLs  kind  mny  not  1»  impressive  as 

writmgs  appeared   in   a   magnificent   edition,   "SS.  is  seen  in  Veronese's  "Marriage  utCana".    ButPietro, 

Patnun  Toletanorum  opera''  (Madrid,  1782-93).   He  likemostof  theartistsof  tlieMiddleAges,istoolacking 

likewise  published  a  new  and  very  beautiful  edition  instylennd  In  art.    Or  rather  he  has  only  an  intermit- 

cf  the  Gothic  or  Moaarabic  Breviary,  "Brevlarium  tent  sense  of  them.    Some  of  his  nieces  at  least  show 

Qotbicum"    (Madrid,    1775),  and   Mozarabic  Missal,  ot  what  he  was  capable;  such  as  tne  admirable  paints 

"Hissale  Gothicum"  (Rome,  1804).    In  the  intro-  ins  at  .\ssisi,  which  represents  the  Blessed  Virgin  in 

duetiona  to  these  publications  he  discussed  with  great  half-life  size  between  St.  John  and  St.  I,oui3,  and  in 

erudition  the  Moiarabic  lit  ur^-.    Editions  of  Spanish  which  the  fresco  work  attains  the  beauty  of  enamelling 

eoneiliar decrees,  ihe  Roman  Catechism, and theCan-  and  of  the  goldsmith's  art.  while  the  countenance  of 

onaof  tbeCouncilofTrentalsoengngedhisattention,  the  Virgin,  tearfully  regarding  the  Divine  Child,  ox- 

•od  the  works  of  Isidore  of  Seville  were  published  at  presses  mait  Iwautitully  maternal  anguish,  remindr 


ing  ua  of  the  tM^vdiF  -ytXifsffa  of  Bomer.  In 
presenoe  of  such  &  canvaa  it  is  tmpoaaible  Dot  to  de- 
plore the  frivolity  of  a  maater  who  sacrificed  hia  lofty- 
plastic  facultiea  and  gift  of  moral  expression  to  the 
painting  of  ao  many  trivicil  lealities  and  insignificant 
emotioDB. 

Though  still  more  gifted  than  his  brother,  Ambro^o 
ftlso  wasted  bis  talents,  but  owing  to  a  different  error, 
via.,  a  creae  for  the  allegoric  and  didactic.  He  wsa 
however  one  of  the  most  delicately  poetic  minds  of  hia 
generation,  and  no  one  at  Florence  could  rival  the 
aerious  and  dreamy  beauty  of  bis  female  faces,  as  in 
the  "St.  Dorothy''  of  the  Academy  of  Siena  (1326), 
in  whidi  seems  to  be  revived  the  soul  of  the  adorable 
saints  of  Simone  di  Uartino.  There  is  not  in  the  art 
of  the  fourteenth  century  a  more  impressive  canvaa 
than  that  of  the  Academy  of  Florence  in  which  St. 
Nieiiolaa  of  Ban,  on  the  snore  of  a  cliff-bordered  sea, 
contemplates  the  sunset  (1332).  He  excelled  in  lyric 
"  "Niects  but  he  attempted  painting  in  a  grand  pmio- 


sophical 

the  Palazzo  delta 
Bignoria  of  Siena, 
the  allegory  of 
"Good  and  Evil 
Govermnent"{133$ 
-40).  The  taste  of 
the  Middle  Ages  for 
these  "morJitiea" 
and  psychomacbiea 
is  well-luto  wn .  There 
is  hardly  a  French 
cathedral  in  which 
ve  do  not  find  sculp- 
tured representa- 
tions of  the  contest 
between  vice  and 
virtue,  allegories  of 
the  virtues,  the 
parable  of  the  wise 
and  foolish  virgins, 
the  figures  of  the 
Church  and  the 
:.  Already 
I  painted 
ftt  Assisi  the  allegor- 
ies of  the  Franciscan 
^itues,  and  Petrarch 


His  most  important  work  la  that  at     his   contradictory  talents 


one,  which  i>  more  int«llf|^ble,  sufllon  to  eonvey  u 
idea  of  the  painter's  method.  The  length  of  the  paint' 
iog  is  divided  into  two  halves,  one  of  which  shows  the 
dty  and  the  other  the  country.  And  in  each  of  these 
parts  is  a  host  of  episodes,  a  great  oolleetion  of  Uttle 
pictures  of  maimers,  which  anuyse  in  a  thousand  ways 
the  condition  of  a  happjy  society.  The  general  idea  is 
resolved  into  a  multitude  of  aneodotea.  We  see  dances, 
banquets,  children  at  school,  weddings,  some  peasants 
leading  tneir  asses  to  market  while  others  ore  tilling 
the  ground;  in  the  distance  is  a  port  whence  veesels 
are  sailing  away.  All  these  various  scenes  are  most 
entertaining  and  furnish  much  information  about 
Sieoeae  life  and  customs  in  the  Middle  Agee.  But  one 
is  lost  in  the  complexity  of  this  chronicle  and  the  eon- 
fusion  of  this  journal.  The  result  is  an  extremely 
curious  work,  though  one  almost  devoid  of  artistic 

To  sum  up,  Ambrogio  remains  one  of  the  moet  in- 
teresting minds  of  his  time  by  the  very  variety  ol 
id  tl 


ntora 


.''nf  T.r 


his  "Triumphs    of  Love,  Glory,  Time,  and  Eternity. 

For  the  past  sixty  years  the  Republic  of  Siena  had 
been  at  the  summit  of  its  fortunes.  It  was  desirous 
of  immortalizing  the  memory  of  its  greatness.  From 
this  point  of  view  the  frescoes  of  Ambrogio  are  of  great 
interest;  this  is  perhaps  the  first  example  of  lay 
painting  and  of  art  used  to  represent  ideas  and  life, 
without  any  religious  conception.  It  was  a  course  in 
Aristotelean  philosophy  and  at  the  same  time  a  hymn 
to  the  city.  The  composition  is  developed  on  tnree 
walls,  forming  a  sort  ol  triptych.  The  middle  fresco 
displays  under  a  dogmatic  form  the  ideal  of  democ- 
racy. The  Virtues  which  direct  the  State  are  seated 
on  a  platform ;  this  is  the  tribunal  or  the  legislative  as- 
sembly. The  most  famous  of  these  figures  is  that  of 
Peace,  which,  reclining  on  her  throne  in  magnificent 
drapery  and  resting  on  her  arms,  is  certainh  imitated 
from  an  antique  medal  or  statue  (such  imitations  are 
not  rare  in  the  thirteenth  century  cf  the  sculptures 
of  Capua,  the  work  of  Giovanm  Pisano  and  some 
■tatues  at  Reims).  But  the  other  figures  are  little 
more  than  abstractions  and  can  Ik.  identified  only 
with  the  adventitious  aid  ofamultituJe  of  mscrip- 
tions,  devices,  and  phylacteries. 

On  the  other  two  walla  are  siimlarlj  de^  eloped  the 
effects  of  good  or  evil  social  hygiene  Uter  the  theory 
follows  tbe  application.  The  left  wall  (Evil  Govern- 
ment) is  unfortunately  almost  ruined  Buttheopponto 


the  turn  of  mind  at 
once  idealistic  and 
realistic  which  be 
displayed,  without, 
unfortunately,  suc- 
ceeding in  bringing 
them  into  unity.  As 
a  whole  the  work  of 
the  Lorenietti 
(starting  from  very 
diflerent  pmnta  of 
view)  consists  in  an 
attempt  to  reconcile 
art  with  observation 
and  familiar  reaUty. 
Pietro's  aim  is  to 
move,  Ambrc^o's 
rather  to  instruct. 
The  former  is  a  dram- 
atist, the  latter  a 
moralist.  Both  tend 
equally  to  genre 
painting.  Unfortu- 
nately fresco,  espe- 
cially in  their  day, 
was  the  mode  of  ex- 
pression least  suited 
to  this.  They  re- 
quired tbe  minia> 
ture,  or  German  engraving,  or  the  small  familiar  picture 
of  the  Flemish  or  tbe  Dutch.  Their  talent  remained 
isolated  and  their  premature  attempt  was  doomed  to 
failure.  In  spite  of  everything  they  remain  the  most 
lifelike  painters  of  their  generation;  and  some  fifteenth- 
century  painters,  such  as  Sassctta  or  Sano  di  Pictro, 
owe  them  much  in  this  respect.  Besides,  AmbroKio, 
was  the  first  who  attempted  in  Italy  philoBopiuc 
painting  and  the  pictureaijue  expression  of  general  ' 
ideas.  His  "  Sermons  "  in  pictures  have  not  been  loaL 
tated  a  tradition  to  which  we  owe  two  ol  the 


nost  important  works  of  tbe  fourteenth  centuiy, 
be  anonymous  frescoes  of  the  "Anchorites  "  and  of  tbe 
Triumph  of  Death  "  at  the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa  and 

ofth       --  -  ■  ■-       ' 


Militant  and  the  Teaching  Chur 
the  Spanish  chapel.  In  fact  it  is  from  tbeee  that  the 
finest  conceptions  of  the  Renaissance  are  derived,  and 
the  honour  of  hav  mg  indirectly  inspired  R^hael  with 
the  "Camera  della  Segnatura'  cannot  be  disputed 
with  Ambrogio  Lorenietti  It  is  a  ^ory 
greatest  artiits  mav  well  env\  him. 


!  disputa 
which  th 


&'" 


-,. f?^or.. 

BiANOHi  iViKFM  daeit- 
•torn  ofSwia  (LdDdao. 

mchtn  Maleni  C8tn» 
iD  AnwTtor.  far  Kiwi- 

(l-.'-s      Miii>nrHo    i  ml  mgw  LormttUi  (ZaiUb. 

Peru..*   TJi  VaMtrpxati  of  AnhnQJe  LsrWMiW 


359 


LOBXHZO 


fa  BwUtiai&n  MaaoMins  (London,  before  1904);   Vbnturi. 
Staria dMatU UiManaiY  (Milan,  1907). 

Louis  Gillet. 

Loranio  d*  Brinditi,  Saint,  b.  at  Brindisi  in 
1560;  d.  at  Lisbon  on  22  July,  1619.  In  baptism  he 
reoeived  the  names  of  Julius  Csesar.  Gughelmo  de 
Rossi— or  Gughelmo  Russi,  according  to  a  contempo- 
imry  writer — ^was  his  father's  name;  his  mother  was 
E^isabetta  Masella.  £k>th  were  excellent  Christians. 
Of  a  precocious  piety,  Lorenzo  gave  early  evidence  of 
a  religious  vocation.  The  Conventuals  of  Brindisi  were 
intrusted  with  his  education.  EUs  progress  in  his 
studies  was  very  rapid,  and,  when  barely  six,  he  had 
already  given  indication  of  his  future  success  in  ora- 
tory. Consequently,  he  was  always  the  one  chosen  to 
address,  in  accordance  with  the  Italian  custom,  a 
short  sermon  to  his  compatriots  on  the  Infant  Jesus 
during  the  Christmas  festi\ntics.  When  he  was  twelve 
years  of  age  his  father  died.  He  then  pursued  his 
studies  at  Venice  with  the  clerics  of  St.  Mark's  and 
under  the  supervision  of  one  of  his  uncles.  In  1575  he 
was  reoeivea  into  the  Order  of  Capuchins  under  the 
name  of  Brother  Lorenzo,  and,  after  his  profession, 
made  his  philosophical  ana  theological  studies  at  the 
University  of  Padua.  Owing  to  his  wonderful  mem- 
ory he  mastered  not  only  the  principal  European 
languages!  but  also  most  of  the  ^mitic  toneues.  It 
was  said  be  knew  the  entire  original  text  of  the  Bible. 
Such  a  knowledge,  in  the  eyes  of  many,  could  be  ac- 
counted for  only  oy  supernatural  assistance,  and,  dur- 
ing; the  process  of  beatification,  the  examiners  of  the 
aamt's  writings  rendered  the  following  judgment: 
^'Vere  inter  sanotos  Ecclesis  doctorcs  adnumerari 
potMt." 

Such  unusual  talents,  added  to  a  rare  virtue,  fitted 
Brother  Lorenzo  for  the  most  diverse  missions.   When 
still  a  deacon  he  preached  the  Lenten  sermons  in 
Venice,  and  his  success  was  so  great  that  he  was  called 
successively  to  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  peninsula. 
Subsequently,  thanks  to  his  numerous  journeys,  he 
was  enabled  to  evangelize  at  different  periods  most  of 
the  countries  of  Europe.    The  sermons  he  left  fill  no 
leas  than  eight  folio  volumes.    He  ad  opted  t  he  met  hod 
of  preachii^  in  favour  with  the  great  Franciscan  mis- 
aionarieSi  or  rather  with  apostolic  workers  of  all  times, 
who,  aiming  primarily  to  reach  men's  hearts  and  con- 
vert them,  always  adapt  their  style  of  discourse  to  the 
spiritual  needs  of  their  hearera.    Brother  Lorenzo  held 
successively  all  the  offices  of  his  order.     From  1596  to 
1002  he  had,  as  general  definitor,  to  fix  his  residence  in 
Rome.  Clement  V  III  assigned  him  the  task  of  instruct- 
ing tlML.Jews;  thanks  to  his  knowledge  of  Hebrew 
and  his  powerful  reasoning,  he  brought  a  great  num- 
ber of  tnem  to  reco^ize  the  truth  of  the  Christian 
religion.    His  saintlmess,  combined  with  his  great 
tdndliness,  completed  the  preparing  of  the  way  for  the 
grace  of  converaion.    His  success  in  Rome  caused  him 
to  be  called  to  several  other  cities,  where  he  also  bap- 
tized numerous  Jews.    At  the  same  time  he  was  com- 
missioned to  establish  houses  of  his  order  in  Germany 
and  Austria.    Amid  the  great  difficulties  created  by 
the  heretics  he  founded   the  convents  of  Vienna, 
Prague,  and  Graz,  the  nuclei  of  three  provinces.    At 
the  chapter  of  1602  he  was  elected  vicar-general.     (At 
that  time  the  Order  of  Capuchins,  which  liad  broken 
away  from  the  Observants  in  152S  and  had  an  inde- 
pendent constitution,  gave  its  first  superior  the  title 
of  viear-geneTal  only.    It  was  not  until  1618  that 
Pope  Paiu  V  changed  it  to  that  of  minister  general.) 
The  very  year  of  his  election  the  new  superior  began 
the  visitation  of  the  provinces.    Milan,  Paris,  Mar- 
■eflles,  Spain,  received  him  in  turn.    As  his  coming 
was  preceded  by  a  great  reputation  for  holiness,  the 
peopW  flocked  to  hear  him  preach  and  to  receive  his 
blessing.    His  administration,  characterized  by  wise 
and  fatherly  tenderness,  was  of  great  benefit 


to  the  order.  At  the  Chapter  of  1605  he  refused  to 
undertake  for  a  second  term  the  government  of  his 
brethren,  but  imtil  his  death  he  was  the  best  adviser 
of  his  successors. 

It  was  on  the  occasion  of  the  foundation  of  the  con- 
vent of  Prague  (1601)  that  St.  Lorenzo  was  named 
chaplain  of  the  Imperial  army,  then  about  to  march 
agamst  the  Turks.  The  victory  of  Lepanto  (1571) 
mid  only  temporarily  checked  the  Mussulman  inva- 
sion, and  several  battles  were  still  necessary  to  secure 
the  final  triumph  of  the  Christian  armies.  9Elohammed 
III  had,  since  his  accession  (1595),  conquered  a  large 
part  of  Hungary.  The  emperor,  determined  to  pre- 
vent a  further  advance,  sent  Lorenzo  of  Brindisi  as 
deputy  to  the  German  princes  to  obtain  their  co- 
operation. They  responded  to  his  appeal,  and  moreover 
the  Duke  of  Mercceur,  Governor  of  Brittany, Joined 
the  imperial  army,  of  which  he  received  the  effective 
command.  The  attack  on  Allie-Royal  (now  Stuhl- 
weissenburg)  was  then  contemplated.  To  pit  18,000 
men  against  80,000  Turks  was  a  daring  undertaking 
and  the  generals,  hesitating  to  attempt  it,  appealed  to 
Lorenzo  for  advice.  Holding  liimself  responsible  for 
victory,  he  communicated  to  the  entire  army  in  a 
glowing  speech  the  ardour  and  confidence  with  which 
he  was  himself  animated.  As  his  feebleness  prevented 
him  from  marching,  he  mounted  on  horseback  and, 
crucifix  in  hand,  took  the  lead  of  the  army,  which  he 
drew  irresistibly  after  him.  Three  other  Capuchins 
were  also  in  the  ranks  of  the  army.  Although  the 
most  exposed  to  danger,  Lorenzo  was  not  wounded, 
which  was  universally  regarde<i  as  due  to  a  miracu- 
lous protection.  The  city  was  finally  taken,  and  the 
Turks  lost  30,000  men.  As  however  they  still  ex- 
ceeded in  numbers  the  Christian  army,  they  formed 
their  lines  anew,  and  a  few  days  later  another  battle 
was  fought.  It  was  always  the  chaplain  who  was  at 
the  head  of  the  army.  "  l^'on^'ard I  *'  he  cried,  showing 
them  the  crucifix,  "  Victory  is  ours  ".  The  Turks  were 
again  defeated,  and  the  honour  of  this  double  victory 
was  attributed  by  the  general  and  the  entire  army  to 
Lorenzo. 

Having  resigned  his  office  of  vicar-gencral  in  1605, 
he  was  sent  by  the  pone  to  evangelize  Germany.  He 
here  confirmed  the  faith  of  the  Catliolics,  brought  back 
a  great  number  to  the  practice  of  virtue,  and  con- 
verted many  heretics.  In  controversies  his  vast 
learning  always  gave  him  the  advantage,  and,  once  he 
had  won  the  minds  of  his  hearors,  his  saintlincss  and 
numerous  miracles  completed  their  conversion.  To 
protect  the  Faith  more  otficacioiisly  in  their  states,  the 
Catholic  princes  of  Genuany  formed  the  alliance  called 
the  '*Catnolic  league".  Emjxjror  Rudolph  sent  Lor- 
enzo to  Philip  III  of  Spain  to  jwrsiiaile  him  to  join  the 
League.  Having  dischargerl  this  mission  successfully, 
the  saintly  ambassador  receive<l  a  double  mandate 
by  virtue  of  which  he  was  to  represent  the  inter- 
ests of  the  pope  and  of  Ma«lri(l  at  the  court  of  Maxi- 
milian of  Bavaria,  head  of  the  League.  He  was  thus, 
much  against  his  wislies,  coini)elled  to  settle  in  Mu- 
nich near  Maximilian.  Besides  lx*ing  nuncio  and  am- 
bassador, Lon.»nzo  Wiis  also  commissarv  general  of 
his  order  for  the  provinces  of  Tyrol  and  havaria,  and 
spiritual  director  of  the  Bavarian  army.  lie  was  also 
cliosen  as  arbitrator  in  the  disi)uto  which  arose  be- 
tween the  princes,  and  it  w:l'<  in  fulfilment  of  this  role 
that,  at  the  request  f)f  the  emperor,  he  rCvStorcd  har- 
mony between  the  Duke  of  Mantua  and  a  German 
nobleman.  In  addition  to  all  these  occupations  he 
undertook,  with  the  as^^sistance  of  several  Capuchins, 
a  missionary  campaign  throughout  Germany,  ana 
for  eight  months  travelled  in  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  the 
Palatinate. 

Amid  so  many  various  undertakings  Lorenzo  found 
time  for  the  practices  of  personal  sanctification.  And 
it  is  perhaps  the  greatest  marvel  of  his  life  to  have 
combined  with  duties  so  manifold  on  unusually  intense 


LORBTO 


360 


LOBBTTO 


inner  life.  In  the  practice  of  the  religious  virtues  St. 
Lorenzo  equals  the  great^t  saints.  He  had  to  a  high 
degree  the  gift  of  contemplation,  and  very  rarely  cele- 
brated Hohr  Mass  without  falling  into  ecstasies. 
After  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  his  great  devotion  was  the 
Rosary  and  the  Office  of  the  Ble^ed  Virgin.  As  in  the 
case  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  there  was  something 
poetical  about  his  piety,  which  often  burst  forth  into 
canticles  to  the  Blessed  Virgin.  It  was  in  Mary's 
name  that  he  worked  his  miracles,  and  his  favourite 
blessing  was:  "Nos  cum  prole  pia  benedicat  Virgo 
Maria".  Having  withdrawn  to  the  monastery  of 
Caserta  in  1618,  Lorenzo  was  hoping  to  enjoy  a  few 
days  of  seclusion,  when  he  was  requested  by  the  lead- 
ing men  of  Naples  to  go  to  Spain  and  apprise  Philip 
III  of  the  conduct  of  Viceroy  Ossima.  In  spite  of 
many  obstacles  raised  by  the  latter,  the  saint  sailed 
from  Genoa  and  carried  out  his  mission  successfully. 
But  the  fatigues  of  the  journey  exhausted  his  feeble 
strength.  He  was  unable  to  travel  homeward^  and 
after  a  few  days  of  great  suffering  died  at  Lisbon  in  the 
native  land  of  St.  Anthony  f22  July,  1619),  as  he  had 
predicted  when  he  set  out  on  his  j  oumey .  The  process 
of  beatification,  several  times  interrupted  by  various 
circumstances,  was  concluded  in  1783.  The  canoni- 
sation took  place  on  8  December,  1881.  His  feast  is 
kept  on  6  July.  The  known  writings  of  St.  Lorenzo 
of  Brindisi  comprise  eight  volumes  of  sermons,  two 
didactic  treatises  on  oratory,  a  commentary  on 
Genesis,  another  on  Ezechiel,  and  three  volumes  of 
religious  polemics.  Most  of  his  sermons  are  written  in 
Italian,  the  other  works  being  in  Latin.  The  three 
volumes  of  controversies  have  notes  in  Greek  and 
Hebrew. 

Annalea  Min.  Capuc.,  Ill  (Lyons,  1676);  Anal.  Ord.  Min. 
Capuc.,  Ill,  IX.  XII  sq.;  Acta  SS.^  6  July;  Erardo  da  Rad- 
KXRSPUROO,  Vila  del  heato  Lorenzo  da  Brindiai  (Rome,  1783); 
NoRBERT  Stock,  Lorem  von  Brindisi,  Ft.  tr.  Rungo  (Paris, 
1881).  Cf.  (Euvrea  de  S.  Fr.  de  Sales:  Eloge  funkhre  du  Due  de 

F.  Candide. 
Loreto.    See  Recanati  and  Loreto,  Diocese  of. 

Loreto,  Holy  House  op.    See  Santa  Casa. 

Lorette,  full  name,  Notre-Dame  de  la  Jeune 
Lorette,  **Our  Lady  of  New  Loreto";  an  Indian 
village  occupied  by  the  principal  remnant  of  the  an- 
cient Huron  tribe  on  the  east  bank  of  Saint  Charles 
River,  about  eight  miles  north-west  from  the  city  of 
Quebec  in  Canada.  Population  in  1908,  not  including 
fifty-five  Indians  of  other  tribes  under  the  same 
agency  jurisdiction,  four  hundred  and  seventy-four 
souls.  According  to  Father  Jones,  the  historiog- 
rapher of  the  Huron  missions,  the  Indians  of  Lorette 
are  the  true  representatives  of  the  original  Hurons, 
while  the  modem  Wyandot  of  Ontario  and  Oklahoma 
are  descended  from  the  kindred  Tionontati,  or  Petuns. 

On  the  dispersion  of  the  Hurons  and  their  allies  by 
the  Iroquois  in  1648-9  a  considerable  body  of  fugitives 
was  gathered  by  the  missionaries  upon  St.  Joseph, 
now  Christian,  Island,  off  the  shore  of  Nottawasaga 
Bay.  Wasted  by  famine  and  the  lurking  Iroquois 
their  stay  here  was  short,  and  in  the  summer  of  1650, 
to  the  number  of  about  three  hundred  Indians,  besides 
sixty  French,  including  the  missionaries  and  their  as- 
sistants, they  removed  to  Quebec  and  were  quartered 
by  the  Jesuits  at  Beauport  adjoining  the  city,  where 
other  Huron  refugees  nad  been  settled  the  previous 
year.  In  the  spring  of  1651  they  removed  to  Orleans 
Island,  near  Quebec,  where  they  were  joined  by  other 
fugitives,  including  a  large  party  of  Huron  exiles  from 
the  distant  western  Islancf  of  Manitoulin.  In  1656 
they  numbered  altogether  between  five  hundred  and 
six  nundred,  but  in  July  of  that  year,  in  consequence 
of  a  sudden  destructive  inroad  of  the  Mohawk,  they 
again  fled  to  Quel^ec,  whence  they  sent  deputies  to  the 
whawk  begging  for  peace.  This  was  granted  on  con- 
dition that  the  Hurons  would  remove  to  the  Mohawk 


country  and  incorporate  with  that  or  some  other  Iro- 
quois tribe,  as  a  considerable  part  of  the  Hurons  had 
already  done  in  the  earlier  wars.  Of  the  three  Huron 
sub-tnbes  then  represented  at  Quebec,  two,  the  Rock 
and  the  Bear,  accepted  the  terms,  and  were  incorpo- 
rated with  the  Iroquois.  The  third  sub-tribe,  the  Cord, 
of  the  old  mission  town  of  Teananstaya^,  or  Saint 
Joseph,  refused  to  leave  the  French  and  continued  at 
Quebec.  In  1659  a  party  of  forty  of  their  warriors  to- 
gether with  twenty-three  French  and  Algonkin,  was 
cut  off  by  an  overwhelming  force  of  Iroquois,  after 
holding  out  for  ten  days,  at  the  Long  Sault  of  Ottawa 
River,  above  Montreal .  In  1666  peace  came  for  a  time 
and  the  distressed  Hurons  once  more  ventured  outside 
the  walls  of  Quebec.  In  1669  they  were  established 
by  Father  Chaumonot  in  a  new  mission  settlement 
which  received  the  name  of  Notre-Dame  de  Foye  (now 
Sainte  Foye)  about  five  miles  outside  the  city.  Hie 
mission  itself  was  dedicated  to  the  Annunciation.  The 
village  grew,  being  now  considerably  recruited  by 
Christian  Iroquois,  until,  finding  themselves  cramped 
for  both  land  and  timber,  they  removed  in  1673  to  a 
new  site  about  nine  miles  west  of  Quebec.  Here  was 
built  a  chapel  modelled  after  the  Holy  House  of  Lo- 
reto and  the  village  took  the  name  of  Notre-Dame  de 
(Vieille)  Lorette.  In  1697  the  final  remove  was  made 
to  their  present  location. 

In  1794  the  last  Jesuit  missionary  in  charge  died  and 
was  succeeded  by  a  secular  priest.  In  1829  the  last 
fiUl-blood  Indian  died  and  a  few  years  later  the  laneua^ 
itself  became  extinct  in  the  settlement,  all  the  iimabi- 
tants  now  speaking  French.  The  population  for  1870, 
1880,  1890,  1900,  and  1908  was  officially  reported  re- 
spectively at  329,  280,  293,  449,  and  474.  Of  their 
present  condition  the  agent  in  charge  re^rts  (1908): 
The  special  industry  of  the  Hurons,  that  is  to  say,  the 
making  of  snow-shoes  and  moccasins,  during  the  first 
part  ofthe  twelve  months  just  passed  was  not  flourii^ 
mg.  The  demand  has  decreased  and  the  trade  this 
year  is  almost  nil.  The  heads  of  families  on  the  re- 
serve are  obliged  in  order  to  support  their  families  to 
go  off  to  a  distance  in  order  to  earn  money  in  the  sur- 
rounding towns.  The  Indians  engage  but  little  in 
fishing,  as  fish  have  not  been  abundant.  On  the  other 
hand  they  have  done  a  good  deal  of  hunting  and  this 
has  been  both  successful  and  remunerative.  The 
prices  of  fur  are  very  hi^h.  The  Hurons  cannot  be  re- 
proached with  uncleanhness.  Nothing  but  praise  can 
oe  given  in  regard  to  temperance.  As  for  morality,  I 
observe  that  the  Hurons  do  not  deserve  any  reproach. 
(The  preceding  is  a  condensation  of  the  report.)  An 
eflEicient  and  appreciated  school  is  in  charge  of  the 
Sisters  of  Perpetual  Help.  All  but  seven  are  Catho- 
lic.    (See  Hurons.) 

Canadian  Indian  Reports  (Ottawa) ;  Jesuit  Relations  (French 
ed..  (Quebec;  English  cd.,  Tuwaitbs.  Cleveland);  Shka,  CoCA. 
Jnd.  Missions  (New  York,  1855). 

James  Moonet. 

Loretto,  Sisters  of,  at  the  Foot  of  the  Cross. — 
The  Sisters  of  Loretto  at  the  Foot  of  the  Cross  were 
foimded  in  Kentucky,  in  1812,  by  Father  Charles  Ne- 
rinckx,  who  first  called  them  "The  Little  Society  of 
the  P>iends  of  Mary  at  the  Foot  of  the  Cross  of  Jesus". 
The  Holy  See  approved  the  institute  under  the  title: 
The  Sisters  of  Loretto  at  the  Foot  of  the  Ooss.  The 
special  work  to  which  the  Sisters  devote  tJieir  lives  is 
Cihristian  education.  Amid  the  rude  conditions  of  life 
in  Kentucky  during  the  first  decade  of  the  nineteentii 
century,  the  pioneer  missionaries,  Fathers  Stephen 
Theodore  Badin  and  Charles  Nerinclcc,  realized  the 
necessity  for  schools  conducted  by  trained  Christian 
teachers.  It  was  practically  impossible  for  them  to 
brin^  such  teachers  from  Europe  or  elsewhere,  but  the 
possibility  remained  of  finding  the  means  to  establish 
such  schools  without  going  abroad.  The  Catholic 
colonists  in  Kentucky  were  in  general  good  people, 
some  of  them  eminently  virtuous.    Strong  practu^ 


LOBZTZ 


361 


LOBBAIN 


faith  and  unwavering  attachment  to  Catholic  truth 
marked  their  earnest  religious  character  and  sustained 
their  solicitude  for  the  Christian  training  of  their 
children.  Notine  these  traits  Fathers  Badm  and  Ne- 
rinckx  cherished  hopes  of  establishing  a  religious  com- 
munity. In  1812  their  hopes  were  realized  when 
Loretto  sprang  into  existence  with  no  other  provision 
for  its  subsistence  than  an  abiding  trust  in  Divine 
Providence. 

Miss  Mary  Rhodes,  educated  in  Baltimore,  opened  a 
school  in  a  log  cabin  near  St.  Charles's  church.  Two 
companions,  Miss  Christina  Stewart  and  Miss  Anne 
Havem,  soon  joined  her.  Father  Nerinckx,  seeing  a 
ray  of  promise  for  realizing  the  hope  he  had  cherished 
so  long,  encouraged  their  desire  to  aedicatc  themselves 
to  the  service  of  God  and  instructed  them  in  the  duties 
of  the  religious  life.  With  the  approval  of  the  Right 
Rev.  Benedict  Joseph  Flaget,  first  Bishop  of  Bards- 
town,  he  clothed  them  with  the  religious  nabit  on  25 
April,  1812.  This  date  is,  therefore,  commemorated 
by  the  sisters  as  their  foundation  day.  Two  other 
young  ladies,  Miss  Anne  Rhodes  and  Miss  Sarah  Hav- 
em, tnen  asked  for  the  habit  and  received  it  on  29 
June,  1812.  The  little  society  then  organized  and 
Miss  Anne  Rhodes  was  chosen  the  first  superioress. 
They  were  soon  joined  by  Miss  Nellie  Morgan  wiio  had 
been  a  successful  teacher.  She  received  the  hubit  on 
12  August,  1812.  The  health  of  Mother  Anne  soon 
failed;  she  pronounced  her  vows  on  the  Feast  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  and  died  on  11  December, 
1812.  Biary  Rhodes  Was  then  chosen  superioress. 
Mother  Manr  and  her  four  companions  pronoimced 
their  vows  of  perpetual  poverty,  chastity,  and  olxjdi- 
ence  on  15  August,  1813.  Postulants  continued  to 
seek  admission  and  Father  Nerinckx  w^atched  over  and 
encouraged  the  first  efforts  of  the  aspirants  and  directed 
them  till  his  death  (12  August,  1824)  in  the  practices 
of  the  spiritual  life  and  in  their  efforts  to  acquire 
greater  proficiency  as  teachers.  The  life  of  the  sis- 
ters edined  all  who  knew  them.  Their  austere  rule 
breathed  the  purest  spirit  of  Christian  perfection,  and 
though  some  of  the  regulations  were  found  by  experi- 
ence to  be  too  rigid  for  observance  in  this  country  and 
were  subsequently  omitted,  the  spirit  has  been  fully 

S reserved  and  still  animates  the  society.  After  the 
eath  of  Father  Nerinckx,  Bishop  Flaget  moved  Lor- 
etto from  the  place  of  its  first  foundation  to  St.  Ste- 
phen's, so  called  from  the  fact  that  Father  Badin  had 
Duilt  a  small  log  church  near  his  residence  and  dedi- 
cated it  to  St.  Stephen.  The  convent  and  church 
erected  here  by  the  sisters,  dedicated  in  1826  and  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1858,  have  been  replaced  by  more 
spacious  buildings,  and  here  the  mother  house  of  the 
^ters  of  Loretto  at  the  Foot  of  the  Cross  still  re- 
mains. 

In  the  transfer  of  Loretto  te  this  now  location,  noth- 
ing was  lost  of  the  primitive  spirit  of  the  society.  The 
growth  of  the  society  rendered  branch  establishments 
necessary  during  the  first  decade  of  its  existence.  The 
first  was  founded  in  1816,  near  Holy  Mary's  church; 
the  second,  in  1818,  at  the  place  where  the  great  Cis- 
tercian Abbey  of  Gethsemani  now  stands;  three 
others  in  Kentucky,  and  one  in  Missouri  were  founded 
before  the  death  of  Father  Nerinckx.  His  zeal  ani- 
mated the  sisters  and  led  them  westward  to  labour 
and  establish  schools  among  the  Indians  and  pioneers, 
where  no  provision  had  been  made  for  their  su{)port; 
these  early  foundations  were  for  education  what  the 
early  missionary  churches  were  for  religion.  Incor- 
porated by  Act  of  the  Legislature  of  Kentuckv,  in  1829, 
under  the  title,  "The  I-ioretto  Literary  and  Benevo- 
lent Institution",  the  Sisters  of  Loretto  at  the  Foot 
of  the  Cross  have  maintained  their  academic  courses 
abreast  with  current  progress  in  education,  and  when 
the  episcopate  advocated  the  establishment  of  paro- 
chial schools,  thev  were  among  the  first  to  support  the 
movement  aiid  devote  themselves  to  the  work.    In 


1816  Father  Nerinckx  submitted  their  rules  and  con- 
stitutions to  Pius  VII  for  approval.  The  Holy  Fa- 
ther, well  pleased  with  its  spirit,  placed  the  new  insti- 
tute under  the  protection  of  the  Sacred  Congregation 
of  the  Propaganda  and  granted  it  many  favours. 
Again  in  1851,  Right  Rev.  Martin  John  Spalding, 
after^'ards  Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  presented  the 
constitutions  to  the  Holy  See  for  the  encouragement 
and  blessing  of  Pius  IX.  At  the  l>eginning  of  the 
twentieth  century  the  Sisters  of  Loretto  at  the  Foot  of 
the  Cross  turned  again  to  the  Holy  See  for  guidance. 
In  1904  Mother  Praxedes  Carty  presente<l  the  consti- 
tutions which  Pius  X  fully  and  nnally  confirmed  in 
1907. 

The  general  government  of  the  society  is  vested  in 
the  mother  general  and  her  councillors  residing  at  the 
mother  house.  Each  establishment  is  presided  over 
by  a  local  superior  and  her  two  assistants.  The  society 
is  conif)Osed  of  but  one  class  of  sisters,  no  distinctions 
being  made  in  the  manner  of  training  to  the  prac- 
tice of  religious  virtues,  all  are  subject  to  the  same  reg- 
ulations of  the  religious  state.  Tlie  novitiate  lasts  one 
full  year,  at  the  completion  of  which  the  sisters  pro- 
nounce the  three  simple  vows  which  they  renew  annu- 
ally, mitil  at  the  expiration  of  the  fifth  year,  they 
make  perpetual  vows.  The  young  professed  sisters 
pass  an  examination  and  thasc  having  proper  qualifi- 
cations for  teachers  are  placed  in  the  normal  training 
school  of  the  society.  Whatever  educational  advan- 
tages a  sister  may  have  had  before  entering  the  society, 
she  is  required  to  apply  herself  to  the  special  line  oi 
studies  chosen  by  her  superiors  and  to  follow  a  course 
of  pedagogical  training  in  the  normal  school.  In  1909 
the  Sisters  of  Ix)retto  at  the  Foot  of  the  Cross  conducted 
schools  in  the  Archdioceses  of  St.  Louis  and  Santa  F^, 
and  in  thci  Dioceses  of  Louisville,  Covington,  Columbus, 
Cleveland,  Mobile,  Bellville,  Kansas  City,  Lincoln, 
Denver,  Tucson,  and  Dallas. 

The  A  rch  ives  of  the  Society, 

Edwin  Drurt. 
Loriti,  IIeixrich.    See  Glarean,  Henry. 

Lorrain,  Claudk  de  (Claude  Gillke  or  Gelli^), 
French  painter  and  etcher,  b.  in  IGOOat  Chamagncon 
the  banks  of  the  Moselle  in  Lorraine;  d.  in  Rome,  21 
Nov.,  1G81  (or  21]  Nov.,  1682).  Ilis  parents,  Jean 
Gell^e  and  Anna  Padosc,  poor  and  with  a  large  family, 
gave  Claude  little  schooling.  Left  an  orphan  at  the 
age  of  twelve,  he  lived  with  an  elder  brotlier,  a  wood 
carver,  at  Freiburg,  and  there  learned  to  draw  orna- 
ments and  arabesques.  Sandrart-,  a  writer  on  art  and 
Claude's  friend,  says  that  the  l.)oy  was  apprenticed  to  a 
pa<?try-cook;  but  piston  may  have  been  a  misprint  for 
pictori  (a  painter) .  About  i  6 1 3  a  relative  took  Claude 
to  Rome,  where  he  appears  to  have  abandoned  the 
boy.  Claude  wandered  to  Naples  seciking  Gottfried 
Wals,  a  Cologne  artist,  whose  pictures  he  greatly  ad- 
mired. For  two  yeiirs  Wals  taught  him  architectural 
perspective  and  landscape  painting.  In  lOlo  Claude 
returned  to  Rome,  and  became  a  member  of  the  house- 
hold of  Agostino  Tassi,  who  was  painting  a  scries  of 
decorations  for  Pope  Paul  V.  Claude  was  half  domes- 
tic servant  and  lialf  artistic  assistant  to  Tassi,  who 
mentions  him  as  a  co-worker  in  decorating  Cardinal 
Montalto's  palace.  In  1025  Claude  went  to  Venice,  a 
city  which  deeply  impressed  him  and  his  future  work, 
and  made  a  pilgrimivge  to  the  IIolv  Virgin  of  Lo- 
retto for  devotion  and  meditation,  lie  then  roamed 
tlu-ough  the  Tyrol,  Bavaria,  the  Black  Forest,  and  to 
Nancy  where  he  worked  for  a  year  on  architectural 
painting.  These  wanderings  impoverished  his  purse 
and  his  health,  and  he  longed  for  Rome,  to  wliich  he 
returned  in  1627  to  reside  there  until  his  death.  The 
Eternal  City  welcomed  him,  and  commissions  from 
the  illustrious  of  all  Europe  f)Oured  in  upon  him. 
Among  them  were  Popes  Innocent  X,  Urban  VIII, 
Clement  IX  (Cardinal  Rospigliosi),  and  Alexander 
VII,  Emperor  Leopold  I,  Philip  IV  <il  ^\»ncn.^  *<5oa 


toBunr  34 

Duke  of  Bouillon  (conmumder  of  tbe  papal  forces), 
the  Constable  ColoEuta  (Claude's  patron  of  later 
years),  and  Cardinals  Crracensio,  Poll,  Giorio,  and 

Spada. 

Claude  vaa  not  only  a  faithful  and  absorbed  student 
of  nature  but  a  tireless  and  rapid  worker;  in  1644  he 
completed  seventeen  important  canvasea.  It  is  uold 
that  he  took  extraordinary  core  in  pointing  one  pic- 
ture composed  of  trees  of  many  kinos,  a  study  he  al- 
ways kept  beside  his  easel,  aiul  that  he  refused  to  sell 
it  even  to  his  best  friend,  Cardinal  Kospigliosi,  who 
leered  to  cover  its  surface  twice  over  with  gold  pieces. 
Claude  was  the  first  original  French  painter,  the  first 
original  modern  painter,  and  the  first  to  paint  eSecta 
instead  of  thinf!^.  While  his  landscapes  are  thor- 
oughly classic,  tiley  are  above  all  ideal;  "there  ore  no 
landscapes  in  Nature  like  those  of  Claude"  (Goethe). 
He  would  contemplate  for  hours— even  days — one 
Bubject  in  nature,  to  which  he  would  rttum  in  other 
weathers  and  con- 
ditions. Herein  he 
resembled  the 
modem  Impres- 
sionists, one  of 
whom,  Pissaro,  re- 
gards Claude  as  the 
forerunner  of  their 
school.  Claude 
"effected  a  revolu- 
tion in  art  by  set- 
ting the  Bun  m  the 
heavens"  (Rus- 
kin);  and  in  the 
pic  torial  treat- 
ment of  aerial  per- 
spective, in  depth 
of  background,  and 
in  delicate  col- 

Ci.*^-,.  ».  LoKHAiH  i n g    s u n  1  i gh t ' s 

myriad  effects, 
he  is  unsurpassed.  His  earlier  painting  was  cool, 
bluish,  and  silvery;  but  he  soon  abandoned  these  tones 
for  a  rich,  warm,  and  golden  treatment  of  both  land- 
scape and  marine.  In  figure  painting  he  did  not  ex- 
eel;  he  sold  his  landscapes,  he  said,  and  gave  away  his 

Claude  united  the  lofty  poetic  feelings  of  the  Italians 
with  a  Flemish  correctness  and  mastery  of  perspec- 
tive; his  compositions  are  symmetrica!,  yet  free;  and 
if  he  had  a  fault  it  was  exaggerated  gracefulness.  In- 
spired by  Callot,  whom  perhaps  he  Knew,  Claude  be- 
gaa  etching  about  1S20,  and  within  a  decode  wrought 
the  greater  number  of  his  (forty-two)  plates.  These 
are  freely  needled,  carried  to  completeness,  tuU  of 
wonderful  atmosphere,  and  su^estivc  of  the  colour 
and  light  pervading  his  oil  paintings.  Hamerton  says 
that"  there  is  an  ineffable  l«ndcmcas  in  his  handling  , 
and  that  his  "Ilerd.sman"  is  "the  finest  landscape 
etching  in  the  world  for  technical  nualitv".  In  16G2 
Claude's  interest  in  etching  rcviveu,  anJ  he  executed 
two  large  plains,  "Mercury  and  Argus"  and  "Time, 
Apollo,  and  the  Seasons".  Claude  was  one  of  the  few 
great  artists  to  be  anpreciatcd  during  his  life;  and  such 
ademand  arose  for  tiis  paintings  tliot  numerous  forger- 
ies of  them  were  passed  off  as  "Claudes".  To  frus- 
taate  such  frauds  he  mode  drawings,  washed  with 
sepia  or  bistre,  of  all  his  paintings;  and  these,  about 
two  hundred  in  all,  constitute  the  "Liber  Veritatia" 
6t  treasure  now  possessed  by  the  Duke  of  Devonshire). 
This  eoUectionj  however,  is  far  from  containing  all  of 
Claude's  drawings.  Claude  was  of  a  reserved,  con- 
temj)lative,  and  religious  temperament,  kindly  in  dis- 
position and  generous.  His  favourite  relaxation  was 
music.  During  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  he  was 
in  precarious  Eealth  and  tormented  with  attacks  of 
gout.    At  his  death  he  provided  liberally  for  hia 


2  tOftftAm 

nephew  and  his  ward,  Agnes,  and  bequeathed  nobis 

fiicturea  lo  various  Roman  cburchesj  alao  to  his 
riend  and  patron  Cardinal  Roepiglioei  "for  the 
good  advice  he  has  always  ^ven  me".  Claude 
was  buried  in  tbe  church  of  Tnnit&  del  Uonti;  but, 
on  the  recommendation  of  H.  Thiers,  his  lemaini 
were  transported  to  the  French  church  of  San  Luici 
in  1S40. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  eanvMee  in 
Ekigland,  the  "Bouillon  Claudes",  Nuptials  of  iMae 
and  Rebecca",  and  "Embarcation  of  tbe  Queen  of 
Sheba"  are  world-famed,  and  became  conspicuous 
under  the  terms  of  Turner's  will.  The  HermibiBe 
possesses  twelve  fine  examples,  among  them  the 
great  series;  "Morning",  "Noon",  "Evening",  and 
Night".  Rome  has  seventeen,  Hunich  six,  and  tbe 
Vanderbilt  collection  four  fine  canvases.  In  Dresden 
is  the  "  Dido  and  Mneaa",  His  best-known  etehinp 
ore  the  "Herdsman",  the  "Ford",  and  the  "Fin- 

BROW-iELL.  Frtnci  Art  (Now  York.  1B08);  Pattuoh. 
Cloud*  Lrtraine.  «  Vit  rt  ws  (Buitm  (Pujij.  1884):  LtrnB, 
HiHan,  of  Art  (.!  vnli..  Ncir  York.  ie64);  Hi^id,  Suforv  «/ 
Snojamn-i  and  EUhinj  CLonilon.  1008);  Dcllea,  CtowkOifU* 
Ee  lorrain  (Ncir  \aA.  1S3T):  Samdrart.  Acadtmia  NatOif 
lima  Artii  Piclorvw  (Nuremburf.  1SS3}. 

Ljeioh  Hunt. 


Loiraioe.  I.  Orioin — By  the  Treaty  of  Verdun, 
in  843,  tbe  empire  of  Charlemagne  was  divided  [n 
three  parts:  Ludwig  the  German  leeeived  Earteni 
Franconia;   Charles   the   Bakl,    Western   Franeonia; 


witii  Italy  in  addition.  After  the  death  of  Lothoir  I, 
in  855,  Italy  prissed  to  his  son  Lothair  II,  who  gave 
his  name  to  the  district  henceforth  known  as  Lotiia- 
Hi  Regnum — Lotharingen,  Lothringen,  or  Lorraine. 
Lorraine  did  not  fonn  a  geographical  unit,  like  the 
two  great  neighlwuring  kingdoms,  complete  in  them- 
selves and  by  their  natural  formation.  Ita  bound- 
aries were  uncertain  for  though  the  Iteuse  was  on  tbe 
west,  the  Rhine  on  the  east,  and  the  sea  on  the  north, 
yet  to  the  south  it  was  completeVy  exposed.  The 
population,  which  in  the  eastern  kmcdom  was  Ger- 
manic, and  in  the  western  Roman,  nere  combined 
both  elements.  Lorraine^  moreover,  included  within 
its  boundaries  the  original  home  of  the  Austra- 
sian  dynasty,  with  Aacnen,  Charlema^ie's  capital, 
and  the  most  important  centres  of. ancient  culture: 
two  archbishoprics  (Cologne  and  Trier),  many  bidiop- 
rics  (Metz,  Toul,  Verdun,  eto.),  abbeys  and  royal 
castles.  From  the  beginning  it  was  coveted  by  the 
neighbouring  princes,  who  succeeded,  one  after  ao- 
other,  in  seizing  parts  or  the  whole  of  its  territory. 
The  composite  character  of  ita  ori^  also  led  to  end- 
less internal  v 


domination.  Missionaries  came  thither  frcxn  Trier 
whose  lir^t  bishop  was  St.  Euchorius  (about  2£0). 
One  of  his  successors,  Matemus  (313-14),  founded  tbe 
See  of  Cologne.  About  811  Trior  be(»Jne  an  arch- 
bishopric, the  episcopal  Sees  of  Meti,  Toul,  and  Ver- 
dun being  suffragan  to  it.  From  511  Heta  was  the 
capital  of  Austrosia,  and  became  a  bishopric  in 
the  sixth  century,  one  of  its  first  Insbom  being 
St.  Chrodegaog  (742-661.  Toul  and  Verdun  ham 
been  bishoprics  since  tne  fourth  century.  UndOT 
Bishop  Ilildebold,  in  799,  Cologne  received  from  St. 
Boniface  metropolitan  jurisdiction  over  LUrb  and 
Utrecht.     The  two  great  archbishoprics  early  bi 

temporal    lordships.     Trier    obtained    its    ten_^ 

power  in  893,  under  Radbod,  through  Duke  Zuente- 
bulch  of  Lorraine;  Bruno,  Archbishop  of  Cokipie 
(9&3-6&),  himself  obtained  the  dignity  ot  Ouka  of 


LCMUUXMI 


363 


LORRAZHE 


Lomioe.  Both  arehbishopries  became  imperial 
principalitiea.  Mets  and  Verdun  were  later  raised 
to  the  same  dignity.  With  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century  began  tBe  foundation  of  the  numerous  mon- 
asteries which  spread  from  the  Vosges,  and  to  which 
Lorraine  owed  its  advanced  culture.  Its  people  were 
remarkable  through  the  Middle  Ages  for  their  reli- 

E'ous  leal.  The  most  ancient  of  these  monasteries  is 
uzeuil  founded  by  St.  Golumba,  whoee  example  was 
followed  by  Amatus,  Romarich,  Deodatus,  Go<ieIbert, 
Hidulf,  azui  Chrodegang,  who  founded  the  abbeys  of 
Remiremont,  St.  Die,  Senones,  Moyen-Moutier,  St. 
Ifichiel,  and  Goose.  There  were  other  famous  monas- 
teries in  the  different  bishoprics,  such  as  those  of  St. 
MaximinuB  at  Trier.  St.  Epure  of  Toul,  Symphorian, 
Glossinda,  and  St.  reters  at  Metz.  Under  the  Gar- 
lovingiana  the  number  increased.  Ricliilde,  wife  of 
Charles  the  Bald,  foimded  Juvigny  near  Stenay  about 
874;  Bishop  Adventius  of  Metz,  Ncumunster;  while 
St.  Germain,  St.  Martin  on  the  Meuse,  and  Gellamont 
near  Dieulouard  also  date  back  to  this  period.  In 
these  ecclesiastical  abodes  and  in  the  bishops'  resi- 
dences celebrated  schools  flourished,  among  which 
St.  Mathiaa  near  Trier,  the  Abbey  ot  PrOm,  famous 
for  the  historian  Regino,  and  Verdun  with  its  Bertiv- 
rius  attained  great  prominence.  The  councils  of 
Meaux,  in  845,  of  Valence,  in  855,  and  of  Savonnidres. 
near  Toul,  in  859  improved  these  schools  and  f oundea 
new  ones. 

^  For  poUtical  reasons,  Lothair  II  ceded  smaU  por- 
tions of  his  domains  to  his  neighbours:  to  his  brother 
Charies,  the  Diocese  of  Belley  and  Mouticrs;  to  Loui^ 
of  Ital^,  provinces  in  the  Upper  Jura  and  the  Vaud; 
to  Louis  the  German,  Alsace.  After  his  death,  in 
860,  war  immediately  broke  out,  as  alniost  alwavs 
occurred  upon  the  death  of  a  ruler  of  Lorraine.  The 
Kings  of  France  and  Germany,  as  well  as  Louis  of 
Italy,  wished  to  seize  the  country;  Louis  the  German 
was  victorious,  and,  by  the  Treaty  of  Meersen,  in  870, 
far  the  greater  part  was  awarded  to  him — all  the  ter- 
ritory east  and  north  of  the  Meuse  and  the  territory 
and  cities  on  the  Moselle,  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine, 
and  in  Jura,  that  is  to  say  Friesland,  the  country  of 
the  Ripuarian  Franks  the  original  lands  of  the  House 
of  Lorraine,  Alsace,  and  a  part  of  Burgundy.  Charles 
the  Bald  received  the  countries  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Meuse  and  the  Moselle.  After  the  death  of  Louis 
the  German  (876)  Charles  tried,  but  failed,  to  recon- 

3uer  Ijorraine.  Louis  the  Younger,  in  879,  after  the 
eath  of  Louis  the  Stammerer,  repossessed  himself 
of  the  Frendi^  western,  half  of  Lorraine,  and  thus 
once  more  umted  the  entire  Regnum  Lotharii  under 
German  rule.  Under  Charles  the  Fat,  a  natural  son 
of  Lothair  II  named  Hugo  disturbed  the  peace  by 
calling  in  to  his  aid  the  Norman  Godfrey,  who  ac- 
quired Friesland  as  a  fief.  Both,  however,  were 
severely  defeated  m  888.  King  Arnulf  (887-99)  ex- 
pelled the  Normans,  gaining  a  victory  at  Louvain 
(891^,  and  improved  the  religious  situation  by  sum- 
momn||  the  great  Council  of  Tibour  (895).  At  the 
same  tmoe,  in  order  to  secure  Lorraine  as  a  part  of 
Westmark,  he  gave  it  to  his  natural  sou,  Zucntcbulch, 
who  surrendered  the  management  of  state  affairs  to 
Archbishop  Radbod  of  Trier,  as  his  chancellor.  Zuen- 
tebnlch  was  overthrown  in  an  insurrection  raised  bv 
the  mightiest  nobles  of  the  country,  Gerard,  Matfried, 
and  Reginar,  on  13  August,  900.  Gradually  the 
supremacy  passed  over  to  Reginar  of  Ilainauit  and 
Hasoei^u,  who,  after  the  death  of  Louis  the  Child 
(912),  Drought  Lorraine  under  the  allegiance  of 
Charies  the  Simple  of  France  and  in  return  received 
from  him  the  dignity  of  margrave  (Lord  of  the 
Marches)  and  duke.  To  these  titles  his  son  Giselbcrt 
succeeded  in  015.  Under  Gisclbert,  the  disputes 
about  the  succession  to  the  throne  of  France  gave  rise 
to  internal  divisions  among  the  people  of  Lorraine. 
Hsonr  I  (011M6)  was  cafied  by  one  party  to  its 


assistance  and,  after  repeated  invasions,  recovered 
all  oi  Lorraine  for  Germany  (025).  He  confirmed 
Giselbert  in  the  Duchy,  and,  m  028,  gave  him  his  own 
daughter  Gerberga  in  marriage .  In  spite  of  this,  Gisel- 
bert once  more  allied  himself  with  the  King  of  France, 
Louis  IV,  against  the  German  Emperor  Otto  I  (936- 
73).  But  when  Gisellx^rt  was  drowned  near  Ander- 
nach  in  933,  during  his  flight  from  the  loyal  Counts 
Udo  and  Conrad.  Otto  once  more  obtained  the  upper 
hand  and  gave  Lorraine  to  his  brother  Henr^.  The 
latter  was  driven  out  by  the  people  of  Lorrame,  and 
Otto  made  Count  Otto  of  Verdun,  son  of  Richwin, 
duke.  In  943  he  constrained  Louis  IV  of  France  to 
make  a  final  renunciation  of  the  rights  of  the  Carl- 
ovingians  over  Lorraine.  After  Count  Otto's  death 
(044),  the  lordship  passed  to  Coimt  Conrad  the  Red 
of  Franconia,  who  had  married  the  emperor's  dauj^ 
ter  Liutgarde.  But  Conrad,  too,  was  faithless,  and, 
while  Otto  I  was  absent  on  an  expedition  to  Italv 
(953),  he  called  in  the  Hungarians.  He  was  deposed, 
however,  and  replaced  by  St.  Bruno,  Archbishop  a 
Cologne  (953-65). 

Bruno  was  the  first  to  succeed  in  placing  German 
supremacy  on  the  firm  basis  which  lasted  until  the 
twelfth  century.  This  he  accomplished  bv  training 
an  austere  and  learned  clergy,  whom  he  deeply  im- 
bued with  the  national  sentiment  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  bishops  whom  he  appointed  (such  as  Heino  of 
Verdun,  Adalbcro  of  Metz,  Iiegelo  and  Bruno  of  Toul, 
Wazo  of  Li^ge)  became  the  princiiml  supports  of  the 
imperial  power.  In  order  to  control  its  continual 
unrest,  he  divided  the  country.  The  northern  part 
(Lower  Lorraine),  from  the  Ardennes  to  the  sea,  com- 
prised the  Arehbishopric  of  Cologne  with  the  Bishop- 
rics of  Utrecht  and  Li6ge.  The  southern  part.  Upper 
Lorraine,  or  the  Land  of  the  Moselle,  extended  to  the 
south-east  of  the  Vosges  and  to  the  Sichelbeig,  witii 
the  Arehbishopric  of  Trier  and  the  Bishoprics  of  Mets, 
Toul,  and  Verdun.  Subject  to  the  supreme  direction 
of  Bruno,  Lower  Lorraine  was  assigned  to  Count 
Gottfried,  Upper  Lorraine  to  Count  Friedrich,  bro- 
ther of  Bishop  Adalbcro  of  Metz.  The  German  Em- 
peror exercij?cd  suzerainty  over  both.  Aachen  be- 
came the  capital  in  905. 

II.  LowEK  I-iORRAiNE. — ^Thc  historj'  of  Lower 
Lorraine  is  connected  with  that  of  Upper  Lorraine  for 
only  a  few  more  centuries.  In  977  Emperor  Otto  II 
granted  it  to  Charles,  brother  of  Lothair  of  France,  as 
a  German  fief.  Lothair's  subsequent  invasion  was 
repelled  by  Otto's  famous  march  to  Paris  (078).  After 
Charles's  son  Otto  had  died  childless,  the  dukedom 
passed  to  Godfrey  of  Verdun,  whose  son  Gozelo  I  re- 
united the  upper  and  lower  duchies  under  his  rule  in 
1U33.  Of  his  sons,  the  elder,  Godfrey  the  Bearded, 
succeeded  him  in  Upper  Lorraine  and  Gozelo  II  (d. 
1046)  in  Lower  Lorraine.  After  the  latter's  death, 
Lower  Lorraine  was  conferred  upon  Count  Frederick  of 
Luxemburg  and,  immediately  after,  upon  Godfrey  the 
Bearded  ( 1 065-69) .  H is  son  Godfrey  the  Hunchback 
was  the  last  ruler  of  this  district  who  was  loyal  to  the 
empire.  As  the  bishops,  after  the  triumph  of  the  Cluniac 
Reform  and  the  struggle  over  investitures,  ceased  to 
support  the  German  emperors,  the  province  soon  re- 
solved itself  into  small  feudal  estates.  These  gradually 
withdrew  from  the  German  allegiance.  Part  of  the 
country  became  known  as  the  Netherlands,  or  Low 
Countries,  and  in  1214  reverted  finally  to  P'rance,  whilst 
the  remainder  took  the  name  of  Brabant.  Godfrey 
adopted  his  nephew  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  who  was  en- 
feoffed in  1088  by  Henry  IV.  Upon  his  death  at 
Jerusalem  Henry  v  gave  the  duch^'  to  Godfrey  the 
Bearded,  Count  of  Brabant.  In  1155  the  Lords  of 
Limburg  severed  themselves  from  Lower  Lorraine  and 
became  independent  dukes.  After  Henry  V  (1186- 
1235)  the  dukes  of  Lower  Lorraine  were  known  as 
dukes  of  Brabant.  In  1404  the  duchy  was  united  to 
Burgundy. 


III.  Upper  Lorraime. — After  Lower  Lorraine  re-  mnted  to  the  former  King  of  Poland,  StatiuUiu 
eeived  the  name  of  Brabant,  Upper  Lorraine  becama  Leciineki,  after  whose  death  in  1766  it  re\-ert«i  tn 
known  simply  as  Lorraine.     The  latt«r  was  split    France.    In  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  a  » 


up    amonK    numerous    small  countsbips   and    the  changes  took  place.    In  1598  Duke  Charles  had  tried 

dioceses  of   Metz,  Toul,  and   Verdun,   which   from  to  erect  a  biahoprio  at  Nancy  for  his  duchy;   but  in 

early  times  had  been  immediate  fiefs  of  the  empire.  1602  only  a  collegiate  chapter  was  established  there. 

The  histoiT  of  these  bishoi^rics  is  the  history  of  the  In  1 778  tne  episcopal  See  of  Nancy  was  really  founded, 

Church  in  Lorraine,  Ueti  being  the  centre  and  head  of  and  the  bishop  received  the  title  of  Primate  of  Lor- 

the   whole   ecclesiastical   organization.     The   larger,  raine.     At  the  same  period  the  See  of  Saint-Die  was 

southern,  half  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  See  of  founded,  while  that  of  Toul  was  abolished  in  1790. 

Toul,    The  secular  power  was  conferred  by  Emperor  By  the  division  of  France  into  departments,  in  1790, 

Henry  III,  in  1048,  upon  the  wealthy  Count  Gerhard  tho"ProvinceoftheThreeBishoprics",  asithadbeen 

of  Alsace,  ^Thoae  descendants  reigned  there  for  seven  known  since  1552,  with  the  Provinces  <M^  Lorraine  and 

hundred  years.    Under  Emperor  Otto  I  Uie  mona»-  Bar,  were  divided  into  the  depart.mente  of  Hoaelle, 

teries  were  reformed  by  Bishop  Albero  I  (928-C3).  Meurtbe,  Vosges.  and  Heuse.    The  juriedictiona  of 

Stephen,  of  the  powerful  house  of  Bar,  Bishop  and  Saarwerden,  Hcroitzhcim,  and  Diemeringen,  for  the 

Carainal  of  Hets  l]20-fi3,  brought  the  newly-founded  most  part  Protestant,  became  incorporated  with  the 

Premonstratensian  and  Cistercian   Orders  into   the  denartmentsof  the  Lower  Rhine  in  1793. 

country.    Complete  political  rest  never  really  ejtist«d.  IV.  Aitbr  1871, — By  the  Peace  of  Frankfort,  10 

When  not  repelling  the  attacks  of  France,  Lorraine  May,  1871,  France  was  obliged  to  cede  to  Gennaoy 

was  occupiea  with  intestine  wars,  either  among  the  from  this  Province  the  Department  of  Heurtiie  and 

spiritual  principalities  mentioned  above  or  among  the  the  arrondissements  of  Saarburg  and  Ch&teau  Salins. 

Counts  of  Bar,  Bitsch,  Vaudemont,  and  other  tern-  The  German  Lorraine  of  to-day  comprises,  of  the  old 

poral  lords.    Besides,  the  dukes  were,  as  a  rule,  in-  province  of  that  name:  Metz,  with  the  Pa^  Ueasin, 

volved  in  the  quarrels  of  the  German  suzerain  and  also  the  temporal  possessions  ot  the  old  Bishopnc  of  Heta; 

took  part  in  the  Crusades;  for  piety  and  devotion  to  E^rts  of  the  Duchy  of  Luxemburg;  parts  of  the  upper 

the  Church  distinguished  most  of  them,  in  Bpit«  of  Rhine  district;   the  former  imperial  Margravat^  t^ 

their  warlike  character.  Pont-a-Mousson  and  Nomency:   the  imperial  Prind- 

Duke  Theobald  11  (1304-12)  at  a  meeting  of  the  paiilies  of  Pfalzburg  and  Lbdieun;  half  of  the  Count- 
Diet  settled  the  rights  of  inheritance  upon  his  female  ship  of  Salm;  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Abbey  of  Gone; 
H  well  as  male  descendants.  Isabella,  daughter  of  ^e  Lordship  of  Bitsch;  further,  the  royal  fiefs  ao> 
Charles  I,  accordingly  mounted  the  throne  m  I43I,  (luired  from  the  See  of  Metz;  Blamont,  Saarburg, 
and,  with  her,  her  consort  Reai  of  Anjou  and  Bar,  Saareck,  Soaralben,  Hombui^,  cl«.  In  order  to  bii^ 
who  brought  the  lastr-named  duchy  to  Lorraine,  the  ecclesiastical  into  harmony  with  the  political 
'When  thisfemale  line  becameeztinctm  1473  themoie  boundaries,  Nancy,  in  1874,  surrendered eishty- three 
line  of  Vaudemont  succeeded  under  Ren^  II  (1473-  parishes  of  the  district  of  Chfiteau-Salina  and  one  hun- 
1508).  HesuccessfuUy  defended  his  country  against  dred  and  four  of  the  Saarburg  district  (aggregatiiig 
Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy  (1477),  and  to  his  106,027  souls)  to  the  Diocese  of  Mets.  In  1871  the 
maternal  inheritance  of  Lorraine,  Bar,  Pont-A-Mou^-  new  limits  of  Lorraine  included  451,633  Catiiolics, 
eon,  and  Guise  he  united  the  dignities  received  from  13,407  Protestants.  176  other  Christians,  and  629  who 
his  father — Vaudemont,  Joinville,  Aumale,  Mnyenne,  profo?-- other  religions. 

and   Ellxeilf— and   kept   up   Anion's   pretensions  to  „('"Ev«iEr,  ;/M(f,(Ve  ii<  iorrpme  (Bnisaela,  ■.  d.):    Ciurar. 

Naples  and  Sicily      Ren^lf,  by/orcmetheejectionof  ^^Jtl'lfril^'^/r'^'^'^.^^rrXV^^'^^ri^^^^^ 

his  uncle  Henry  II  as  bishop  m  1484,  brought  the  ad-  Sumux  (4  volg.,  Nnncy.  177e-S3):   Wilui-r.  Dit  EnutehmtQ 

ministrationoftheSeeof  Metz  to  the  House  of  Lor-  da  HrnogiumM  Loihnnam  (Gouiu™,  isp)'    BimofT.  ia 

r»ine,andBishopJohniyofVaudemont(1518^3and  ^i^^i^^ttn-^A^^^W^i^di 

1548-50),  as  Cardinal  of  Lorrame  and  papal  legate  for  Laminr  it  da  trail  dirMi  (Niaey. 

that  country,  united  in  his  own  hands  Bar  and  the  "Jf.<>f''i'''"^"^''_^'!^^'?r"™' 

prindpalitJM  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  the  episcopal  ^^*''  f,t™. />«  *«(™A,i.^. 
power  over  Toul,  Terouannc,  Narbonne,  Die- Valence, 

Verdun,   Lucon,    Reims,    Alby,    Lyons,   Agen,    and  ip~y;^;^V"^  •^""•i"- "■  y,-T;""-'^l  ^■„"i""j''- 

N«te;  ..„1  ™  Abbot  of  Go..    F&amp,  6my,  |Jjri,'SS|.' teKSA^?^"™^ 

Uarmoutier,  Samt-Oucn,  and  Saint-Mansuy.  GiaJiichttLatliriniienal2  voli.,  wirabuJoi,  lOOi). — Feriodimta; 

The  Reformation,  after  being  forcibly  averted  by  AnnaietderEif{S»BeT'ad¥tayi.\887~-h  VAuilrant (ileti. 

p»k,  Anton  (1K«M41,  obt.inrf  .  tr.n.itoy. f«*.  iS^li/SS^^^°ai'SUSfS'riT,'fiiri;J- 

hold  only  m  a  few  ot  the  eastern  districts,  and  m  the  moiVei  t*  OucumeWj  dt  h  Sac  tfArrh.  Li,rr,  (Nancy,  3849-73): 

seventeenth  century  it  was  constrained  to  give  way  -R<T«e'«''n''«(wi«iIe  Af(i«(JIeii,  1890 — ). 

entirely  to  Catholicism.     In  1552  the  great  French  ^^^^  l"l>l«'B'op>"*a  "'"I"  A.a*cE-LoRnAiNK;    Wrrx; 

encroachments  recommenced,  when  Henry  II,  as  the  Otto  Haittio. 
ally  of  the  German  Protestant  princes,  annexed  Metz, 

Toul,  and  Verdun,  and  Lorraine  itself  was  occupied  LOTBCb  Abbe?  (Lacrebhamense  HoNASTERimi), 

until  1559.     At  that  time  the  spiritual  life  received  a  called  also  Laurissa  and  LAtmESHAM,  one  of  the  most 

new  stimulus  under  Bishop  Henry  III  of  Metz  (1G12-  renowned  monasteries  of  the  old  Franco-German  Em- 

K)  through  the  erection  of  monflflteriesof  Benedictines  pire,  is  situated  aliout  ten  miles  east  of  Worms  in  the 

atSaint-BarbeiCfumelitesatMclz;  Minims  at  Dieuze,  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse,  Germany.     This  abbey  woa 

Nomeny,ond  BQssing;CapuchinsatVic,Dicdenhofcn,  founded  in  764  by  Count  Cancor  and  his  widowed 

Saarburg,  and  Bitsch;  and  Jesuit  houses  at  Metz  and  mother   Williswinda.     Having   built  a   chureh   and 

Buckenheim.     St.  Vincent  de  Paul  interested  himself  monastery  on  their  estate,  J.aurissa,  they  entrusted  its 

inthedistrictswhichaufferedsoscverelv  in  the  Thirty  government  to  the  care  of  Chrodegang,  Arehbishop^ 

Years'  War.    By  the  Peace  of  Wcstpnalia,  in  1648,  Metz.    This  well-known  and  saintly  prelate  dedicated 

Bfetz,   Toul,   and   Verdun   were  formally  ceded   to  the  church  and  monastery  in  honour  of  St.  Pet«r 

Franco,  which  had  rcHx;cupicd  the  Duchy  of  Lorraine  the  Apostle,  and  became  its  first  abtxit.     The  pious 

in  1632,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  1661  territory  was  ceded  founders  enriched  the  new  abbey  by  further  aona- 

to  Louis  XIV,  which  thus  secured  to  him  a  passage  tions.     In  TOGChrodeRangresicned  the  office  of  abbot 

■cross  Lorraine  to  Alsace,     In  1697,  by  the  Peace  of  owing  to  his  other  imfwrtent  duties  as  Arehbishop  of 

Ryswick,  he  gave  the  duchy  to  Duke  Leopold  Joseph  Metz.     He  then  sent  his  brother  Gundeland  to  Lorsdi 

(1S07-17Z9).    Inl738,  by  the  Peace  of  Vienna,  it  was  aa  his  successor,  with  lourteenBenedictiDemonka.  To 


U>BTMA  3f 

nuke  the  abbev  popul&r  as  a  Bhrine  and  a  place  of  pil- 
KHmAge,  Cbrooe^ang  obloitied  from  Pope  Paul  1  the 
body  oiF  St.  Naianua,  vho  with  three  other  Roman  sol- 
dien  had  won  the  crown  of  martyrdom  mider  Diocle- 
tian. On  11  July,  765,  the  Bftcred  relice  arrived,  and 
were  with  gi«at  solemnity  depoeited  in  the  basilica  of 
Uie  monastery.  The  abbey  and  basilica  were  then 
named  in  honour  of  St.  Nasariua,  instead  of  St.  Peter 
aa  heretofore.  Many  miracles  were  wrought  through 
the  intercession  of  St.  Nazarius,  and  from  all  ^rts  of 
Europe  piigrims  in  lar|;c  numbers  came  to  visit  the 
ahrine.  Having  grown  into  prominence  aa  a  nursery  of 
learning  and  ouTture,  the  monastery  become  no  less 
celebrated  as  a  centre  of  virtue  and  piety.    Popes  and 


r 
! 

i 

« JBi 

ancient  entrance  hall,  built  in  the  ninth  century  by 
Emp>eror  Ludwi^  III,  is  the  oldest  and  pro^bly  the 
moat  beautiful  monument  of  Franconian  architecture. 
This  hall,  though  the  property  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Hesse,  is  now  tued  as  a  chapel  where  Maaa  is  occasion- 
ally celebrated. 

Cadti  diplamaliau  UmaUerii  LauriKntit,  ed.  Klein  <Ta- 
ffflnifl.  1708);  Dahl,  Hutoriteh-topoonipkiKh-Matitiitche  Bt- 
KhrnbuiiB  drt  FtiramUum.  LotkSi  (Damutndl,  18121 ;  Aiwire 
ftir  httnteke  Gach.  u.  AUertiainukunde  (Dnmutodt,  1S36>; 
Falk,  OrKh.  dii  cAimaliirai  KluMttn  LotkA  an  dtr  Btrg^mtn 

(iiaiDi,  isea). 

Lbander  M.  Roth. 

Lotyma,  a  titular  see  of  Caria,  small  fortified  town 
and  liarbour  on  the  coast  of  Caria,  not  far  from  Cape 
1,  at  the  western  extremity   of  Rhodian 


Cheraonesua, 


opposib 


)  anil  twenty  Roman  milee 


emperora  repeatedly  favoured  the  abbey  with  special 

Sivileges.  The  transfer  of  many  estates  and  the  ad- 
tion  of  small  towna  to  its  possessions  soon  raised  the 
abbey  to  the  position  of  a  principality,  so  that  in 
a  abort  time  it  became  not  only  immensely  rich,  but 
also  a  seat  of  pohtical  influence. 

It  was,  however,  this  verj-  influence  of  its  wealth 
and  political  ascendency  that  caused  its  decline  and 
final  ruin.  The  ablxrr,  enjoying  state  rights,  become 
implicated  in  several  local  feiids  and  in  a  number  of 
ware.  After  forty-six  abbots  of  (he  Order  of  St.  Bene- 
dict hod  governed  the  abbey  more  or  less  successfully, 
Conrad,  the  last  of  the  abltots,  was  deposed  bv  Pope 
Gregory  IX  in  1226,  and  through  the  influence  of  the 
GeiTDon  Emperor  Frederick  II,  I^rach  came  into  the 
poBsmsion  of  Archbishop  Siegfried  III  of  Iktaini.  In 
1248  Premonstratetisiaii  moiwts  were  given  charge  of 
the  monastery  with  the  sanction  of  Pope  Celestine  IV, 
ftnd  they  remained  there  till  1554!,  when,  after  a  glori- 
ous existence  of  800  years.  Lorsch  ami  the  surrounding 
country  passed  into  the  haniU  of  Lutbcnui  and  Culvin- 
istic  prmccs.  The  princes  allowed  the  rcligiouB  a  pen- 
sion tor  life,  and  then  sent  them  adrift  in  tiie  world.  In 
Lorsch  itaelf,  first  the  Lutlieran,  and  later  the  CaKin- 
istic  religion  was  introduced.  During  the  Thirty 
YeoiB  War  Lorsch  and  its  neiphlMiurhood  suffered 
greatly,  but,  having  again  come  into  the  possession  of 
Haini,  it  returned  to  the  Catholic  Kaith.  The  most 
dretuy  period  for  Lorsch  wo^  during  the  war  between 
Fiance  and  Germany  from  167S  and  1697.  Whole 
villages  were  laid  in  ruins,  the  homes  of  the  peasantry 
were  destroyed  by  fire,  and  the  French  8()ldiers  liurneil 
the  old  buildings  whose  associations  had  made  them 
■aered  to  ttie  inhabitants.  One  portion,  which  was 
left  intact,  now  aerves  as  a  tobacco  warehouse.    The 


from  Rhodes  (Strobo,  XIV,  652,  Ptolemy,  V,  2, 8;  Tit. 
Liv.,  XXXVII,  17;  XLV,  10).  Nothing  is  known  of 
its  history,  but  Leake  (Asia  Minor,  223)  mentions  its 
niins:  towers,  toml>8,  and  ramparts,  west  of  Port  Aplo- 
thiki,  vilayet  of  Smyrna.  The  "  Notitiie  episcopa- 
tuum  "  mentions  Loryma  among  the  suffragan  sees  of 
Stuuropolis  up  to  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 
Lequien  (One  na  christian  us,  I,  915)  names  three  biah- 
ops:  George,  present  ut  the  Council  of  Constantinople, 
680,  AnthimuB  at  Niciea,  787,  and  Joseph  at  Coostanti- 
rople.  879. 

SuiTH.  Itidionary  ojOrttk  and  Ronan  Geoffntphg. 

S.  PirrBiDl». 

Lob  Angeles.    See  Monterey,  Diocese  or. 

LOBsen,  Kahl  Aucl'ht,  Cierman  petrologist  and 
geologist,  b.  at  Kreuznach  (Rhine  Province),  5  Janu- 
ary, JS41;d.  at  Beriin,  24  February,  1803.  Afterfin- 
ishing  his  studies  at  the  gymnasium  of  Kreuznach  in 
1859  Lessen  became  a  mining  engineer;  he  began  by 
twoan<l  a  half  years  of  practical  work,  then  studied  at 
the  tlniver^ties  of  Berlin  and  Halle,  where  he  grodu- 
ate<l  in  1866;  in  the  same  year  he  became  assistant 
geologist  of  the  I'russian  national  geological  survey  and 
as  such  began  immediately  his  famous  petrolographic 
studies  of  the  Hara  Mountains,  which  lasted  till  his 
death.  In  1870  he  became  instructor  in  petrology  at 
the  Berlin  mining  academy,  and  at  the  same  time  Ico- 
tunrat  the  university:  in  1873  ho  was  made  a  member 
of  the  newly  founded  Prussian  .Vational  Geological  In- 
stitute, and  in  1S82  recei\Td  the  title  of  professor;  be 
was  a  fellow  of  the  GOrres  Society  from  itsfoundation. 
In  IHSI)  ho  became  extraordinary  professor  in  the  uni- 
versity. He  published  the  results  of  his  investigation 
in  over  one  luimlred  treatises  and  noticci  which  ap- 
peared for  the  most  part  in  the  "  Zeitschrift  der  deut- 
sehcn  geologischen  Oeaellsciiaft "  of  1867-1891  and 
were  much  valued  by  his  fellow  scientists.  The  work 
of  his  youth,  "De  Tauni  montia  parte  transrhenana" 
(Halle,  1867),  appeared  independently;  then  in  1877 
followe<l  the  mam  of  the  geologicid  survey  of  the  Hara 
Mountains  and  later  many  special  maps  of  the  Han 
district,  and  the  exhaustive  work,  "  Boilen  der  stadt 
Bcriin  ".  Of  great  importance  are  his  papers  on  the 
contact  and  dynamomctamorphosis  of  mmerals.  So 
hichly  w:ia  L<rasen  con3idere<l  as  an  authority  on  this 
subject  that  the  committee  in  charge  of  the  programme 
tor  the  International  Geological  Congress  in  London 
refiucsted  him  to  present  a  paper  on  the  origin  of  crys- 
tallized slate  (printed  in  18S8).  He  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  Bclginn,  French,  and  English  learned  societies. 
The  mineral  losscnite  is  named  after  him :  it  is  a  hy- 
dntted  lend-iron  sulpharsenate  from  the  mines  of  Lau- 
rion  In  Attica.  Lossen  was  a  man  of  noble  character, 
loyal,  dutiful,  kinil-liearted,  full  of  good  humour  and 


with  very  strong  convictions   of  faith  and  decided 
views  for  church  authority. 

Kati4ri(  ill  Ntuft  JiifiHtjifn  far  Minfraloirif.  Geohffie  vnd 
Palaeonliilogie.  II  (Stutlsnrt,  ISftt);  voH  HKRTLUia  in  John*- 


UT 


366 


LOTTZ 


herieht  d&rOsm9om$Utehaft  far  1895  (Cologne.  1896);  Rnbllbb. 
Dm  Chrititmtum  vnd  die  YtrirtUr  dm  iMuem  Naturwiaamuchafi 
(FreibuxB.  1904). 

J.  H.  ROMPBL. 

Lot  (Heb.  tDl^;  Sept.  A(6r),  son  of  Abraham's 
brother  Aran  (Gen.,  xi,  27),  therefore  Abraham's 
nephew  (his  "brother":  xiii,  8,  11;  xiv,  14,  16)  and 
grandson  of  Thare,  father  of  Abraham  (xi,  31).  Lot 
was  among  those  whom  Thare  took  with  him  out  of 
Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  to  go  to  the  land  of  Chanaan. 
When  Thare  died  in  Haran,  Lot  continued  the  journey 
with  Abraham.  It  may  be  inferred  that  Lot  accom- 
^mied  his  uncle  to  Sichcm,  to  the  mountain  between 
Bethel  and  Hai,  and  then  to  the  south  (xii,  6,  8,  9). 
Whether  Lot  went  to  Egypt  with  Abraham  at  the  time 
of  the  famine  (xii,  10-^)  is  not  explicitly  stated,  but 
is  implied  in  xiii,  1 :  '^  And  Abraham  went  up  out  of 
E^ypt,  he  and  his  wife,  and  all  that  he  had,  and  Lot 
with  him  into  the  south. "  After  their  return,  they 
once  more  settled  between  Bethel  and  Hai  (xiii,  3). 
Lot  and  Abraham  had  numerous  flocks  and  herds,  so 
niunerous  that  the  pasture  and  watering  places  proved 
insufficient  for  them.  Strife  ensued  between  the 
herdsmen  of  Abraham  and  of  Lot.  Abraliam,  in  the 
interest  of  peace,  proposed  to  his  nephew  that  they 
should  live  apart,  and  even  allowed  Lot  to  t^ke  his 
choice  of  the  surrounding  countr>'.  Lot  chose  the  wa- 
tered and  fertile  region  "  about  the  Jordan  "  (Kikkar), 
and  fixed  his  abode  in  the  citv  of  Sodom,  whereas 
Abraham  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Chanaan  (xiii,  6-12). 
The  next  incident  in  the  life  of  Lot  is  related  in  con- 
nexion with  the  expedition  of  Chodorlahomor  against 
tiie  five  cities  **alx)ut  the  Jordan",  including  Sodom 
(xiv,  1  sqc^.).  The  kings  of  the  Pentapolis  were  de- 
feated, their  cities  pillaged,  and  among  those  carried 
away  by  the  victorious  kings  was  I^t,  who  lost  all  his 
possessions  (xiv,  12).  Lot's  predicament  was  made 
Known  to  Abraham,  who  at  once  chose  three  hundred 
and  eighteen  of  his  best  men  and  set  out  in  pursuit  of 
the  retreating  victorious  kings.  He  overtook  them 
in  Dan,  where  he  surprised  them  at  night,  and  route<l 
them  completely.  Lot  and  his  possessions  were  res- 
cued by  Abraham,  who  brought  all  back  safely  to 
Sodom  (xiv,  13-16;  see  Abraham). 

Again  we  read  of  Lot  in  connexion  with  the  mission 
of  the  angels  who  had  been  sent  by  God  to  destroy  the 
five  cities  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  These  angels, 
three  in  number,  were  first  entertained  by  Abraham  in 
the  vale  of  Mambre  (Gen.,  xviii,  2  sq(i.),  and  then  two 
of  them  made  their  way  towards  Sodom,  where  they 
arrived  in  the  evening  (xix,  1).  Here  they  met  Ix)t, 
who,  sitting  in  the  gateway  of  the  city — a  common 
place  of  meeting  in  the  East — ^arose  and  greeted  the 
strangers,  at  the  same  time  offering  them  the  hospital- 
ity of  his  house.  The  strangers  at  first  refusecl,  but 
finally  accepted  the  pressing  invitation  of  Ix)t,  who 
then  prepared  a  feast  for  them  (xix,  2, 3).  That  night 
the  men  of  Sodom  revealed  their  degradation  by, 
attacking  Lot's  house  and  demanding  liis  two  guests 
for  their  vile  purpose  (4,  5).  Lot  interceded  in  behalf 
of  his  guests  in  accordance  with  his  duties  as  host, 
which  are  most  sacred  in  the  East,  but  made  the  mis- 
take of  placing  them  al)ove  his  duties  as  father  by  of- 
fering his  two  daughters  to  the  wicked  designs  of  the 
Sodomites  (6-8).  The  latter,  however,  refused  the 
substitution,  and  just  as  thev  were  about  to  inflict  vio- 
lence upon  Lot  the  two  angels  intervened,  dra\*'ing  Lot 
into  the  house  and  striking  the  men  outside  with  blind- 
ness, thus  preventing  them  from  finding  the  ddor  of  the 
house  (9-11).  The  angels  then  made  known  to  JjOt 
the  object  of  their  visit  to  Sodom,  which  they  were 
sent  to  destroy,  and  advised  him  to  leave  the  city  at 
once  with  his  family  and  belongings.  Lot  imparted 
the  news  to  his  prospective  sons-in-law,  who,  however, 
refused  to  consider  it  seriously.  The  next  morning, 
the  angels  once  more  admonished  Ix)t  to  leave  Sodom, 
And  when  he  still  hesitated  they  took  him,  his  wife,  arxl 


two  daughters,  and  brought  them  out  of  the  city,  warn- 
ing them  not  to  look  back  nor  to  remain  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  doomed  city,  but  to  flee  into  the  mountains 
(1 2-1 7) .  The  mountains,  however,  seemed  too  far  dis- 
tant to  Lot,  and  he  requested  to  seek  shelter  in  a  small 
city  nearer  by.  The  request  was  granted,  and  Lot  fled 
to  Segor  (Heb.  Zo  'ar)^  which  is  also  promised  protec- 
tion (18-23).  Sodom,  Gomorrha,  and  the  other  cities 
of  the  Pentapolis  were  then  destn^ed.  Lot's  wife,  dis- 
regarding the  injunction  of  the  angels,  looked  back, 
and  was  converted  into  a  pillar  of  salt  (2i-26).  Lot, 
seeing  the  terrible  destruction  of  the  five  cities,  feai«d 
for  his  own  safety  in  Segor,  and  therefore  fled  with  his 
two  daughters  into  the  mountains,  where  thejr  dwelt  in 
a  cave  (30).  It  was  here,  according  to  toe  Sacred 
Text,  that  Lot's  two  daughters  were  guilty  of  incestu- 
ous intercourse  with  their  father,  the  outcOToe  of  which 
was  the  birth  of  Moab  and  Ammon,  the  fathers  of  Is- 
rael's  future  most  bitter  enemies  (31-38).  This  last 
incident  also  closes  the  history  of  Lot.  His  name, 
however,  occurs  again  in  the  expression  *'  the  children 
of  Lot",  meaning  the  Moabites  (Deut.,  ii,  9),  and  the 
Ammonites  (Deut.,  ii,  19),  and  both  (Ps.,  ixzxii,  9). 
In  the  New  Testament,  Christ  refers  to  the  destruction 
of  Sodom  *'in  the  days  of  Lot"  (Luke,  xvii,  28,  29), 
and  St.  Peter  (II  Pet.,  ii,  6-8)  speaks  of  the  deliver- 
ance of  the  ''just  Lot".  The  fate  of  Lot's  wife  is  re- 
ferred to  in  Wis.,  X,  7;  Luke,  xvii,  32.  Accordinf;  to 
Jewish  and  Christian  tradition,  the  piUar  of  salt  mto 
which  she  was  converted  was  preserved  for  some  tame 
(Josephus,  *'Antiq.",  I,  xi,  4;  Clement  of  Rome,  "I 
Cor.",  xi,  2;  Irenseus, "  Adv.  Haer.",  IV,  xxxi).  Vari- 
ous explanations  are  given  of  this  phenomenon.  Ac- 
cording to  von  Hummelauer  ("Comment,  in  Gen.", 
Paris,  1895,  417),  Lot's  wife  could  easilv  have  been 
overtaken  by  the  salty  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  lit- 
erally covered  with  salt.  Kaulen  had  already  ad- 
vanced a  similar  explanation,  accounting  for  the  coat- 
ing of  salt  by  the  heat  of  the  flames  releasing  the  salt 
fumes  from  the  soil. 

F.  X.  E.  Albert. 

Lottery  is  one  of  the  aleatory  contracts  and  is  com- 
monly defined  as  a  distribution  of  prises  by  lot  or  by 
chance.  Each  person  who  joine.  in  the  lottery  buys  a 
numbered  ticket  and  at  a  certain  fixed  time  lots  are 
cast  by  some  method,  as  by  drawing  the  numbers  out 
of  a  hollow  wheel,  to  decide  to  what  numbers  the  priie 
or  prizes  are  to  be  assigned.  Some  winners  get  much 
more  than  they  contributed,  some  less,  while  others 
get  nothing.  It  is  obviously  a  kind  of  gambling  if  con- 
sidered from  the  point  of  view  of  the  contributories;  by 
the  directors  it  is  sometimes  used  as  a  means  of  raising 
money.  Morally  it  is  objectionable  if  carried  to  ex- 
cess as  it  t^nds  to  develop  the  gambling  spirit  and  dis- 
tract people  from  earning  a  livelihood  by  nonest  work. 
However,  if  there  is  no  fraud  of  any  sort  in  the  trans- 
action, and  if  there  is  some  sort  of  proportion  between 
the  price  of  a  ticket  and  the  value  of  a  chance  of  ^n- 
ing  a  prize,  a  lotter\'  cannot  be  condemned  as  in  itself 
immoral.  In  the  tJnited  States  they  were  fonneriy 
permitted,  but  in  1890  Congress  forbade  the  mails  to 
oe  used  to  promote  any  lottery  enterprise,  and  now 
they  are  generally  prohibited  by  state  legislation.  In 
England  lotteries  have  long  been  forbidden  by  law  un- 
less conducted  by  art  unions  carr^'ing  on  business  by 
royal  charter  or  under  a  constitution  and  rules  ap- 
proved hv  the  Privv  Council. 

Ballehini,  Opua  Morale,  III  (Prato,  1892);  Oftmoor. 
Theologia  M oralis  (DnDincls,  1909)  ;  SuiTKit,  A  Manual  of 
Moral  Theoloffu,  I  (New  York.  1908). 

T.  Slater. 

Lotti,  Antonio,  composer,  b.  at  Venice  in  1667;  d. 
there,  5  Januar}',  1740  and  studied  under  Legrensi, 
producing  an  opera,  *'I1  Giustino",  in  his  sixteenth 
vear.  On  31  May.  1092,  he  was  appointed  second  or- 
'gsnist  of  St.  Mark's,  and  on  17  August,  1704,  he  sue- 


SAINT  LOUIS 

(1887) 

I  Hia 

"V 

B^NEl^P 

SCHE    or    CASTIIX 
ANT H Son 

SUBJECTS 

A 

CRUS 

A PER    IV 

PALESTJNE 

LOTTO  3l 

CMded  8p«d&  H  first  otfttuist.  On  3  April,  1736,  he 
was  daoted  moutro  di  cappdla,  though  Pollorolo,  Por- 
pm,  and  Porta  were  formidable  rivals  for  the  much' 
eoveted  post,  with  a  salary  of  400  ducats.  Between 
tlw  TMIS  1703  and  1730  he  composed  numeroua 
HiaiiM  II  and  motets,  especially  his  "Miserere",  which 
supplantod  the  vmsion  of  Legrenii  and  is  still  sung  at 
St.  Mark's  on  Holy  Thursday.  Lottl  also  comp^ed 
twHity-nven  operas  (1693-1717),  and  he  spent  two 
years  at  Dresden,  producing  various  works.  After  his 
return  to  Venioe,  in  November,  1719,  be  gave  up  secu- 
lar writing,  and  devoted  himself  solely  to  church  and 
diMnber  musie.  Had  he  continue<l  at  operatic  writ- 
ing his  financial  success  would  have  been  considerable, 
but  hs  preferred  his  post  as  maetiro  at  St.  Mark's.  One 
inddent  in  his  career  was  the  controversy  over  a  mad- 
rigal which  Bononcini  claimed  and  which,  it  is  said, 
led  to  that  eminent  composer  leaving  London,  but  it  ia 
now  genenUly  believed  that  Bononcini  was  wronged  in 
the  matter,  as 
iiaally    there  was 


7  LDUCBEDZ 

many  Rapbaelistio  characteristics.  He  first  reached 
Bergamo,  the  place  with  which  his  name  is  so  closelv 
connected,  in  1513,  spent  some  five  years  there,  ana, 
after  a  visit  to  Venice  in  1523,  returned  sgain  to  the 
same  place.  In  1512  and  in  1526  he  was  painting  at 
Jesi,  ttic  two  works  executed  in  the  latter  year  being 
of  high  importance.  A  wonderful  picture  is  the 
great  "Crucifixion",  painted  at  Monte  San  Giusto  in 
1531.  In  the  following  year  he  was  in  Venice,  and 
a  couple  of  years  afterwards  af!;ain  in  Bergamo. 
Manv  of  his  finest  pictures  were  painted  for  small 
rural  towns,  puch  as  Cingoli,  Mogliano,  Trescoire,  and 
Jeai.  Fortunately  most  of  his  works  are  dated,  and 
he  left  behind  bim  an  account  book,  which  ho  com- 
menced in  1539,  and  in  which  he  records  the  names 
of  his  later  pictures.  This  book  he  kept  down  to 
within  a  few  months  of  his  death.  There  are  a  few 
of  hiA  drawings  in  existence,  notably  at  (Thatsworth, 
Wilton  House,  the  Uflizi,  and  Vienna.  Almost  all  his 
latest  productions 
are  at  Loreto,  but 
during  the  last 
three  years  of  his 
life,  he  appears  to 
have  laid  aside 
his  brush. 


London  far 

a  jear  receiving 
ro^  patronage. 
Lotti  was  an  ex- 
oellmt  teacher,  as 
is  evident  from  his 
many  famous  pu- 
[rila,e.g.,Blarcello, 

Alberti,    ° 

Gasparini 
Galuppi.  ne  was 
taken  seriously  ill 
in  1736,  but  lin- 
gered until  5  Jan- 
uary, 1740,  aikd 
was  interred  in 
the  ehunh  of  St. 
The 


{Altributed  by  U 


ID  Lotlo.  Piui  Pulare. 


H  destroyed   with   the   church   in   1851. 
Quo*!,  Dia.  oj  Jfwie  and  Afuncioni.  new  ed.  (LondoD, 
1B06>;    EmiBR,  ChttUraitxilioa  (IDOO-Ol);    Bdhnkt,  Onitral 
BUon  'I  MiUK  Ooniloa,  1789). 

W.    H.    GRAlTAN-FLOOn. 

Lotto,  LoBEKZO,  Italian  portrait  painter,  b.  at 
Veniee,  1480;  d.  at  Loreto,  l.'i5G.  This  eminent 
artist  was  one  of  the  best  portrait  painters  who  ever 
Uvad,  and  occupies  an  ahnost  unique  position,  es- 
pseiallT  amongst  Italian  artists^  for  his  extraordinary 
skill  in  detectmg  the  pecnlianties  of  personal  char- 
aetv  and  his  power  of  setting  tbcm  forth  in  full  ac- 
eord  with  the  temperament  and  mood  of  his  sitters. 
He  was  a  great  oolourist,  and  posse»>ed  of  a  passionate 
admiration  for  the  beautiful,  with  a  somewhat  definite 
tendency  towards  the  ecstaticandmystieal,  in  religion. 
He  appears  to  have  Iteen  a  man  of  strong  personal 
Eaith,  and  had  a  sincere  devotion  to  I^orcto  and  its 
fntit  relic,  the  Holy  House,  spending  his  final  years 


and  from  that  place  he  went  to  Ifecanali  in  1508  to 
paint  an  important  altar-piece.  We  do  not  know 
who  was  his  master,  but  his  work  rei'cals  affinity  with 
that  of  Alvise  Vivarini.  He  is  belic^'ed  to  have 
painted  some  frescoes  in  the  upper  floor  of  the  Vatican 
m  1509,  but,  whether  or  not  these  were  executed,  he 
evidently  studied  the  work  of  Raphael  when  in  Rome, 
as  in  his  own  paintings  from  1512  to  1525  there  arc 


(BeniDmu.lTU:iliVA- 
MiLANEHi    (Flomico, 


Louchenx,  the  would-be  Kuchin  of  some  ethnol- 
of^ists,  and  the  Tukiulh  of  the  Protectant  missionaries; 
Richardson  called  them  Quarrellers.  They  call  them- 
selves generally  Dindjyc  (men)  and  form  an  aggregate 
of  closely  related  triht-s.  a  sort,  of  ethnographic  con- 
federation, the  most  north-western  of  all  the  Wa6 
divisions.  Their  habitat  extends  from  Anderson 
River  in  the  east  to  the  western  extremity  of  Alaska. 
Eiaat  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  their  soutliern  frontier 
is  to-day  al>oiit  67"  N.  lat.,  and  we^t  of  thai  range 
their  territory  reaches  somewhat  more  to  the  south. 
Practically  the  whole  interior  of  Alaska  h  claime<i  by 
them.  In  the  north  they  lave  for  neighlmurs  the 
E.-!kimns,  They  are,  or  were  originally,  divided  into 
fourt<*n  trflies,  via.  the  'Kaiytdi-kho-  tcnne,  or  Peo- 
ple of  the  Willow  River,  conterminous  with  the  Eski- 
mos of  Norton  Sound,  an  important  sul)di\'i6ion  of 
more  or  less  mixed  blood  more  commonly  known  by 
its  Eskimo  name,  Ingalcte;  the  Koyu-kukh-o 'tcnne, 
or  royukonp.  farther  up  the  (treat  Alaskan  stream  and 
along  the  Coyukuk  River;  the  Yuna-kho'-tenne,  still 
higher  ut>  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Yukon,  as  far  as 
Tanana  River;  the  Tiinana,  along  the  river  called  after 
them;  the  Kut'qa-ktit'ciin,  at  the  eonfltieneo  of  the 
Porcupine;  the  Gcnx  liu  Lnrffc,  or  JTatee-kut'nin,  from 
the  Porcupine  to  the  Romanoff  Mountains;  the  Vocn- 
kut'qin,  or  People  of  the  Lake;  the  Tsa-'ke-kut'qio. 


LOUIS                                  368  LOUIS 

or  Cros9-Eyed  Ones,  being  the  particular  tribe,  be-  braced  Protestantism  eventually  resulted  in  the  Cath- 

tween  the  headwaters  of  the  Porcupine  and  Fort  olic  Loucheux  having  to  leave  Fort  McPherson  (wha% 

McPherson,  which  gave  rise  to  the  French  name  of  the  priest's  house  was  burnt  down  by  their  Protestant 

Loucheux  now  applied  to  all  those  related  Arctic  ab-  compatriots)   for  the  environs  of  the  Arctic  Red 

origines;  the  Han-kut'qin,  or  River  People,  above  the  River,  where  a  Catholic  mission  was  built  for  Lou- 

Kotlo  River,  on  both  banks  of  the  Yukon;  the    utsone-  cheux  and  Eskimos.    An  Episcopalian  clenryman, 

kut'qin,  or  Crow  People,  from  the  sources  of  the  Por-  Rev.  W.  W.  Kirkby,  had  already  crossed  the  Rockies 

cupine  and  the  Peel  to  those  of  the  Liard;   the  to  prosel>i;i3se  amone  the  western  Loucheux.     In  1862 

Tehanin-kut'qin,  from  the  upper  branches  of  the  Yu-  and  1870  respectively,  P  athers  Seguin  and  Petitot  fol- 

kon  almost  to  the  Pacific  coast;  the  Thet'Iet-kut'qin,  lowed  him  tnither,  going  as  far  as  Fort  Yukon,  but 

on  Peel  River;  the  Nakotco-ondjig-kut'ciin,or  People  without  any  appreciable  results,  owing  to  the  calum- 

of  the  Mackenzie,  and  the  Kwit'(^a-kut  qin,  who  in-  nies  disseminated  by  the  minister,  who  had  preceded 

habit  the  dreary  steppes  bordering  on  the  Arctic  them  in  every  village.    Two  years  later.  Bishop  Glut, 

Ocean,  barring  a  strip  of  land  along  the  coast  between  O.M.I.,  accompanied  bv  Father  Lecorre,  walked  in 

the  Mackenzie  and  the  Anderson  Rivers.    The  desin-  their  footsteps  and  reached  the  Pacific,  meeting  along 

ence  -kiU^qin  in  these  tribal  names  means  inhabitants  the  Yukon  with  some  slight  success.     Father  Lecorre 

of  (as  well  as  *tenne  in  other  D6n6  denominations)  even  remained  on  that  stream  until  1874,  when  he 

and  not  men,  as  American  ethnologists  have  freely  learned  that  Alaska  had  been  entrusted  to  the  Bishop 

stated.  of  Vancouver  Island.    The  latter  advanced  in  1877 

The  total  population  of  the  Loucheux  tribes  is  to-  as  far  as  Nuiato  from  the  coast,  but  in  Nov.,  1886,  he 

day  about  5500  souls.    They  are  as  a  rule  superior,  was  murdered  in  the  course  of  another  apostolic  tour 

physically  and  mentally,  to  the  majority  of  the  north-  in  the  valley  of  the  Yukon  (see  Seghers,  Charles). 

ern  D^nds.    Tall  and  of  a  rather  pleasing  appearance,  Nevertheless  the  efforts  of  the  two  .bishops  had  not 

they  are  more  manly  than  their  southern  neighbours,  been  in  vain.    They  paved  tiie  way  for  the  establish- 

Owing  to  the  large  extent  of  their  habitat,  their  man-  ment  by  the  Jesuits  of  a  mission  in  1887  among  the 

ners  and  customs  cannot  be  represented  as  uniform,  westernmost  Loucheux.    The  following  year  a  little 

East  and  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  they  were  band  of  Sisters  of  St.  Anne  arrived  there,  who  im- 

originally  remarkable  for  their  fine  beaded  and  be-  mediately  opened  a  school  for  the  Loucheux  and 

fringed  leather  costume,  the  most  conspicuous  part  of  Eskimo  girls,  while  lay  brothers  of  the  Society  of 

which  was  a  coat  with  a  peaked  appendage  in  front  Jesus  were  doing  the  same  on  behalf  of  the  boys  of 

and  behind.    Their  footgear  was  made  of  one  piece  both  nations.    Most  of  the  eastern  Loucheux  are  now 


with  the  leggings,  the  counterpart  among  most  Ameri-  excellent  Catholics. 

can  aborigines  of  the  white  man's  trousers.     During  Richardson.  Arctic  Searching  ExvediHon,  2  vob.  (London, 

the  winter  they  lived  in  semi-spherical  skin  lodges,  not  1851 ) ;  Hoopbr,  Ten  Months  among  the  Tents  of  the  TuMki  (Lon- 

unlike  those  of  the  Tuskis  of  the  eastern  Asiatic  coast,  ^1?^*}^^  •  7"^*??^^  ^'S'^  and.  Adventure  %n  the  Territory  oj 

uu^xn.^  wixvo^vi  vi*^  xvwi^»vrx  t/u^«;«wt/^t«»  ^oM»vi^/^vrc»v,  ^i^gf^a  (London,  1868);    Petitot,  op.  c%t.,  and  Monographu 

and  m  summer  they  replaced  these  by  shelters  usually  des  Dfnf-Dindii^  (Pans.  1876);  Dall,  Tribes  of  the  Extreme 


aiiu  III  ouimnci  i,iicv  icpinvcu  t;uc»c  uj  oucii^cio  uauaiijr  tf„  tjene-utnottf  (rans,  i»7fj;;    LiALL.  Trtoes  Of  uie  JSxtreme 

made  of  coniferous  boughs,  generally  erected  in  pairs  of  North-west  (WashiniKton,   1877);    Scbwatka,  AUmg  Alaska's 

face  to  face  dwellings  so  that  a  single  fire  on  the  out-  S"^  5**^  ^^^^^  .X?^^-  ^^i*  ^?"?c^^  -K"tS!LP^^'i 

*»Y^  w  i»vv.  v*»»-t»»*  i(^o  ^vi^w  <*o.ug<^  ****.  v»*  VKE.K.  v^^iT"  ^j^^^  MonncTS  and  Ctutoms  (Toronto,  1890);   The  Oreat  Deni 

Side  served  for  both.    Their  tribal  organization  varies  Race  (in  cooxae  of  publication.  Vienna.  Austria);    Dzvinb. 

according  to  their  environment.     While  east  of  the  Across  Widest  America  (New  York,  1906). 

Rocky  Mountains  they  have  preserved  the  original  A.  G.  Morice. 
patriarchy  of  the  D^n^  in  all  its  primitive  simplicity, 

some  of  the  western  tribes  have  adopted  a  sort  of  Louis  IX,  Saint,  King  of  France,  son  of  Loiiis  VIII 
matriarchy,  with  chiefs,  clans,  totems  and  other  con-  and  Blanche  of  Castile,  b.  at  Poissy,  25  April,  1215;  d. 
sequent  institutions.  Their  religion  originally  con-  near  Tunis,  25  August,  1270.  He  was  eleven  ^ears  of 
sisted  in  the  shamanism  common  to  all  the  northern  a^e  when  the  death  of  Louis  VIII  made  him  king,  and 
D^n^s,  and  their  traditions  clearly  point  to  the  west,  nineteen  when  he  married  Marguerite  of  Provence 
that  is,  Asia,  as  the  region  whence  they  migrated,  by  whom  he  had  eleven  children.  The  regency  of 
Their  wars  were,  as  usual,  series  of  ambuscades  and  Blanche  of  CJastile  (1226-1234)  was  marked  by  the 
massacres,  of  which  the  Eskimos  were  often  the  vie-  victorious  struggle  of  the  Crown  against  Raymond 
tims.  Several  of  these  are  on  record,  as  for  instance  VII  in  Languedoc,  against  Pierre  Mauclerc  in  Brit- 
the  treacherous  slaying  of  five  or  six  Eskimos  on  the  tany,  against  Philip  Hurepel  in  the  He  de  France,  and 
Lower  Mackenzie,  in  the  spring  of  1850,  and,  in  Octo-  by  indecisive  combats  against  Henry  III  of  England, 
ber  of  the  same  year,  the  murder  by  the  (Doyukons  of  In  this  period  of  disturbances  the  queen  was  power- 
Lieutenant  Barnard  with  his  body  servant,*  and  then  fully  supported  bythe  legate  Frangipani.  Accredited 
the  destruction  bv  fire  and  arrows  of  an  almost  entire  to  Louis  VlII  by  Honorius  III  as  early  as  1225,  Frangi- 
village  of  the  Nuiato  Indians,  on  the  Yukon.  Early  wini  won  over  to  the  French  cause  the  sympathies  ©f 
the  following  spring  the  same  party  likewise  encom-  Gregory  IX,  who  was  inclined  to  listen  to  Ilenry  III, 
passed  the  death  of  the  Russian  commander  with  one  and  through  his  intervention  it  was  decreed  that  all 
of  his  men,  whereby  we  see  that  the  assertion  of  the  chapters  of  the  dioceses  should  pay  to  Blanche  of 
Father  Petitot  that  **  the  Loucheux  never  imbrued  Castile  tithes  for  the  southern  crusade.  It  was  the 
their  hands  in  the  blood  of  Europeans"  (Traditions  legate  who  received  the  submission  of  Raymond  VII, 
Indiennes  du  Canada  Nord-Ouest,  p.  14)  is  unreliable.  Count  of  Languedoc,  at  Paris,  in  front  of  Notre-Dame, 
The  Loucheux  are  of  all  the  northern  D6n^  tribes  and  this  submission  put  an  end  to  the  Albigensian  war 
that  which  has  been  the  least  influenced  by  CathoH-  and  prepared  the  union  of  the  southern  provinces  to 
cism.  The  Catholic  missionaries  had  secured  a  firm  France  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (April,  1229).  The  in- 
footing  among  their  neighlx)uring  congeners  when  the  fluence  of  Blanche  de  Castile  over  the  government  ex- 
Protestant  preachers  reached  the  Mackenzie  and  tended  far  beyond  St.  Louis's  minority.  Even  later, 
directed  their  steps  towards  the  Ix)ucheux,  especially  in  public  business  and  when  anibassadors  were  offi- 
those  whose  habitat  lav  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  cially  received,  she  appeared  at  his  side.  She  died  in 
who  had  not  as  vet  l)een  visited.  There  being  no  1253.  In  the  first  years  of  the  king's  personal  govem- 
priests  to  oppose  them,  thev  practicallv  had  the  field  ment,  the  Oown  had  to  combat  a  fresh  rebellion 
to  themselves.  East  of  that  range,  the  Oblate  Fath-  against  feudalism,  led  by  the  Count  de  la  Marche,  in 
ers  Seguin  and  Petitot,  liailing  from  the  Missions  of  league  with  Henry  III.  St.  Louis's  victory  over  this 
Good  Hope  antl  Fort  McPherson.  long  devoted  them-  coalition  at  Taillebourg,  1242,  was  followed  by  the 
selves  to  the  salvation  of  the  Loucheux,  not  without  Peace  of  I^rdeaux  which  annexed  to  the  French  realm 
success.     But  the  fanaticism  of  those  who  had  em-  a  part  of  Saintonge. 


XdOUXS 


369 


LOUIS 


It  was  one  of  St.  Louis's  chief  characteristics  to 
cany  on  abreast  his  administration  as  national  sover- 
dgn  and  the  performance  of  his  duties  towards  Chris- 
tendom; and  taking  advantage  of  the  respite  which 
the  Peace  of  Bordeaux  afforded,  he  turned  his  thoughts 
towards  a  crusade.  Stricken  down  with  a  fierce 
m^ady  in  1244,  he  resolved  to  take  the  cross  when 
news  came  that  the  Turcomans  had  defeated  the 
Christians  and  the  Moslems  and  invaded  Jerusalem. 
(On  the  two  crusades  of  St.  Louis  [1248-1249  and 
1270]  see  Crusades.)  Between  the  two  crusades  he 
opened  negotiations  with  Henry  III,  which,  he  thought 
would  prevent  new  conflicts  between  France  and  Eng- 
land. The  Treaty  of  Paris  (28  May,  1258)  which 
St.  Louis  concluded  with  the  King  of  England  after 
five  years'  parlev,  has  been  very  much  discussed.  By 
this  treaty  St.  Louis  gave  Henry  III  all  the  fiefs  and 
domains  belonging  to  the  King  of  France  in  the  Dio- 
ceses of  Limoges,  Cahors,  and  Pdrigueux;  and  in  the 
event  of  Alphonsus  of  Poitiers  dying  without  issue, 
Saintonge  and  Agenais  would  escheat  to  Henry  III. 
On  the  other  hand  Henry  III  renounced  his  claims 
to  Normandy,  Anjou,  Touraine,  Maine,  Poitou,  and 
promised  to  do  homage  for  the  Duchy  of  Guyenne.  It 
was  generally  considered,  and  Joinville  voiced  the 
opinion  of  the  people,  that  St.  Louis  made  too  many 
territorial  concessions  to  Henry  III;  and  many  histon- 
ans  held  that  if,  on  the  contrary,  St.  Louis  had  carried 
the  war  against  Henry  III  further,  the  Hundred 
Years'  War  would  have  been  averted.  But  St.  Louis 
considered  that  by  making  the  Duchy  of  Guyenne  a 
fief  of  the  (>own  of  France  he  was  gaining  a  moral 
advantage;  and  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  the 
Treaty  of  Paris,  was  as  displcasine  to  the  English  as 
it  was  to  the  French.  In  1263,  St.  Louis  was  chosen  as 
arbitrator  in  a  difference  which  separated  Henrv  III 
and  the  English  baxons:  by  the  *'Dit  d' Amiens  (24 
January,  1264)  he  declared  himself  for  Henry  III 
against  Uie  liarons,  and  annulled  the  Provisions  of  Ox- 
ford, by  which  the  barons  had  attempted  to  restrict 
the  authority  of  the  king.  It  was  also  in  the  period 
between  the  two  crusades  that  St.  Louis,  by  the 
Treaty  of  ()orbeil,  imposed  upon  the  King  of  Aragon 
the  aoandonment  of  his  claims  to  all  the  fiefs  in  Lan- 
euedoc  excepting  Montpellier,  and  the  surrender  of 
his  rights  to  Provence  (11  May,  1258).  Treaties  and 
arbitrations  prove  St.  Louis  to  have  been  alx)ve  all  a 
lover  of  peace,  a  king  who  desired  not  only  to  put  an 
end  to  conflicts,  but  also  to  remove  the  causes  for 
fresh  wars,  and  this  spirit  of  peace  rested  upon  the 
Christian  conception, 

St.  Louis's  relations  with  the  Church  of  France  and 
the  papal  Court  have  excited  widely  divergent  inter- 
pretations and  opinions.  However,  all  historians  agree 
that  St.  Louis  and  the  successive  popes  uuitecT  to 
protect  the  clergy  of  France  from  the  encroachments 
or  molestations  of  Uie  barons  and  royal  officers.  It  is 
equally  recognized  that  during;  the  absence  of  St. 
Louis  at  the  crusade,  Blanche  of  Castile  protected  the 
clergy  in  1251  from  the  plunder  and  ill-treatment  of 
a  mysterious  old  maurauder  called  the  "Hungarian 
Master  "  who  was  followed  bv  a  mob  of  armed  men — 
call^  the  *'  Pastoureaux  ".  'the ' '  Hungarian  Master  " 
who  was  said  to  be  in  league  ^lith  the  Moslems  died  in 
an  engagement  near  Villaneuve  and  the  entire  Imnd 

Eursued  m  every  direction  was  dispersed  and  annihi- 
kted.  But  did  St.  Louis  take  measures  also  to  defend 
the  independence  of  the  clergy  against  the  papacy? 
A  number  of  historians  once  claimed  he  did.  They 
attributed  to  St.  Louis  a  certain  '^pragmatic  sanction^' 
of  March,  1269,  prohibiting  irregular  collations  of 
ecclesiastical  benences,  prohibiting  simony,  and  inter- 
dicting tlie  tributes  wmch  the  papal  Court  received 
from  me  French  clergy.  The  Gallicans  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  often  made  use  of  this 
measure  against  the  Holy  See;  the  truth  is  that  it  was 
«  foigeiy  fabricateil  in  the  fourteenth  centur>'  by  juris- 
IX.— 24 


consults  desirous  of  giving  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction 
of  Charles  VII  a  precedent  worthy  of  respect.    ITiis 
so-called  pragmatic  of  Louis  IX  is  presented  as  a  royal 
decree  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church;  never  would 
St.  Louis  thus  have  taken  upon  himself  the  right  to 
proceed  authoritatively  with  this  reformation.    When 
m  1246,  a  great  number  of  barons  from  the  north  and 
the  west  leagued  against  the  clergy  whom  they  accused 
of  amassing  too  great  wealth  and  of  encroaching  upon 
their  rights.  Innocent  IV  called  upon  Louis  to  dis- 
solve this  league;  how  the  king  acted  in  the  matter  is 
not  definitely  known.     On  2  May,  1247,  when  the 
Bishops  of  Soissons  and  of  Troyes,  the  archdeacon  of 
Tours,  and  the  provost  of  the  cathedral  of  Houen, 
despatched  to  the  pope  a  remonstrance  against  his 
taxations,  his  preferment  of  Italians  in  the  distribution 
of  benefices,  against  the  conflicts  between  papal  juris- 
diction and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinaries.  Marshal 
Ferri  Past^  seconded  their  complaints  in  the  name  of 
St.  Louis.     Shortly  after,  these  complaints  were  reit- 
erated and  detailed  in  a  lengthy  memorandum,  the 
text  of  which  has  been  preserved  by  Mathieu  Paris,  the 
historian.     It  is  not  known  whether  St.  Louis  affixed 
his  signature  to  it,  but  in  any  case,  this  document  was 
simply  a  request  asking  for  the  suppression  of  the 
abuses,  with  no  pretensions  to  laying  aown  principles  of 
public  right,  as  was  claimed  by  the  Prannatic  Sanction. 
Documents  prove  that  St.  Louis  did  not  lend  an  ear 
to  the  grievances  of  his  clergy  against  the  emissaries 
of  Urban  IV  and  Clement  IV;  he  even  allowed  Clement 
IV  to  generalize  a  custom  in  1265  according  to  w^hich 
the  benefices  the  titularies  of  which  died  while  so- 
journing in  Rome,  should  be  disposed  of  by  the  pope. 
Docile  to  the  decrees  of  the  I^ateran  Council  (1215), 
according  to  which  kings  were  not  to  tax  the  churches 
of  their  realm  without  authority  from  the  pope,  St. 
Louis  claimed  and  obtained  from  successive  popes, 
in  view  of  the  crusade,  the  right  to  levy  quite  heaiy 
taxes  from  the  clergy.     It  is  a^ain  this  fundamental 
idea  of  the  crusade,  ever  present  m  St.  Louis's  thoughts, 
that  prompted  his  attitude  generally  in  the  struggle 
between  the  empire  and  the  pope.     While  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  II  and  the  successive  popes  sought 
and  contended  for  France's  support,  St.  Louis's  atti- 
tude was  at  once  decided  and  reserved.    On  the  one 
hand  he  did  not  accept  for  his  brother  Robert  of  Ar- 
tois,  the  imperial  crown  offered  him  by  Gregorv  IX  in 
1240.     In  his  correspondence  with  Frederick  he  con- 
tinued to  treat  him  as  a  sovereign,  even  after  Fred- 
erick  had   been  excommunicated  and  declared  dis- 
possessed of  his  realms  by  Innocent  IV  at  the  Council 
of  Lyons,  17  July,  1245.     But  on  the  other  hand,  in 
1251 ,  the  king  compelled  Frederick  to  release  the  French 
archbishops  taken  prisoners  by  the  Pisans,  the  em- 

geror's  auxiliaries,  when  on  their  way  in  a  Genoese 
eet  to  attend  a  general  council  at  Rome.  In  1245,  he 
conferred  at  length,  at  Cluny,  w^ith  Innocent  IV  who 
had  taken  refuge  in  Lyons  in  December,  1244,  to 
escape  the  threats  of  the  emperor,  and  it  was  at  this 
meeting  that  the  papal  disi>ensation  for  the  marriage 
of  Charles  Anjou,  brother  of  Louis  IX,  to  Beatrix,  heir- 
ess of  Provence  was  granted,  and  it  was  then  that 
Ijouis  IX  and  Blanche  of  Castilo  promisoil  Innocent 
IV  their  support.  Finally,  when  in  1247  Frederick  II 
took  steps  to  capture  Innocent  IV  at  Lyons,  the  meas- 
ures Louis  took  to  defend  the  pope  were  one  of  the 
reasons  which  caused  the  emperor  to  withdraw.  St. 
Louis  looked  upon  ever}'  act  of  hostility  from  either 
power  as  an  ol)stacle  to  accomplishing  the  crusade. 
In  the  quarrel  over  investitures,  the  king  kept  on 
friendly  tenns  v;ith  Iwth,  not  allowing  the  emperor  to 
harass  the  pop^  and  never  exciting  the  pope  against 
the  emperor.  In  1262  when  Urban  offered  St.  Louis, 
the  Kingdom  of  Sicily,  a  fief  of  the  Apostolic  See,  for 
one  of  his  sons,  St.  Louis  refused  it,  through  consitlera- 
tion  for  the  Swabian  dvTiasty  then  reigning;  but  when 
Charles  of  Anjou  accepted  Urban  IV's  offer  and  went 


LOUIS                                370  LOUZB 

to  eomquer  the  Kingdom  of  Sicily,  St.  Louis  allowed  LOQls  ZI,  King  of  France,  eldest  son  of  CharleB 
the  bravest  knights  of  France  to  join  the  expedition  VII  and  Marie  of  Anjou,  b.  at  Bouigee  3  July,  1423; 
which  destroyed  the  power  of  the  Hohenstaufens  in  d.  at  Plessis-les-Tours,  30  August,  1483.  Maving 
Sicily.  The  king  hoped,  doubtless,  that  the  possession  married  Margaret  of  Scotland  in  June,  1436,  he  to^ 
of  Sicily  by  Charles  of  Anjou  would  be  advantageous  part  in  two  mtrigues  against  his  father,  Charles  VII, 
to  the  crusade.  the  first  in  1440,  when  he  organised  the  revolt  of  the 
St.  Louis  led  an  exemplary  life,  bearing  constantly  Praguerie,  the  second  in  1446,  when  he  withdrew  into 
in  mind  his  mother's  words:  "  I  had  rather  see  you  Dauphiny  and  later  to  the  Court  of  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
dead  at  my  feet  than  guilty  of  a  mortal  sin."  His  gundy.  Succeeding  to  the  throne,  21  July^  ^^h  ^ 
biographers  have  told  us  of  tne  long  hours  he  spent  in  had  t^  make  lar^e  concessions,  by  liie  Treaties  of  Uon- 
prayer,  fasting,  and  penance,  without  the  knowledge  flans  and  Saint-Maur  (1465),  to  the  feudal  lords,  who 
of  his  subjects.  The  French  king  was  a  great  lover  had  organized  against  him  the  League  of  the  Public 
of  justice.  French 
judgments  under 
mg  his  reign  that  the 

was  organized  into  a  regular  court  of  justice,  having  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  as  the  heaid  of -the  feudal 

competent  experts,  and  judicial  commissions  acting  organization;    he  had  to  treat  with  him  or  subdue 

at  regular  periods.    These  commissions  were  called  him.    The  Conference  of  P^ronne  (1468)  ended  with 

parlements  and  the  history  of  the  "Dit  d' Amiens"  an  act  of  treachery  on  the  part  ot  Charles,  who  re- 

E roves  that  entire  Christendom  willingly  looked  upon  tained  Louis  a  prisoner,  forced  him  to  sign  a  disad- 

im  as  an  international  justiciary.    It  is  an  error,  vantageous  treaty,  and  took  the  king  with  him  on  an 

however,  to  represent  him  as  a  great  legislator;  the  expedition  against  the  revolted  burgbnv  of  Li^. 

document  known  as  '' Etablissements  de  St.  Louis"  But  on  the  return  of  Louis  to  France  preparations 

was  not  a  code  dravvn  up  by  order  of  the  king,  but  were  begun  for  a  decisive  struggle  between  the  king, 

merely  a  collection  of  customs,  written  out  before  who,  in  1474,  had  formed  an  aluance  with  the  Swiss 

1273  by  a  jurist,  who  set  forth  in  this  book  the  cus-  cantons,  and  the  duke,  who  was  an  ally  <A  the  King 

toms  of  Orleans,  Anjou,  and  Maine,  to  which  he  added  of  England.    Charles  the  Bold  having  fallen  at  Nancy, 

a  few  ordinances  of  St.  Louis.    St.  Louis  was  a  patron  5  January,  1477,  Louis  took  possession  of  the  Duchy 

of  architecture.  The  SainteChappelle,  an  architectural  of  Burgundy,  of  Artois,  and  of  Hainaut.     Maripiret. 

gem,  was  constructed  in  his  reign,  and  it  was  under  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold,  married  Maximihan  of 

his  patronage  that  Ilo))ert  of  Sornonne  founded  the  Austria,  in  August,  1477;  the  result  of  this  marria^ 

"College  de  la  Sorbonne",  which  l)ecame  the  seat  of  would  have  been  to  place  Burgundy  and  Artois  m 

the  theological  faculty  of  Paris.     He  was  renowned  the  hands  of  Philip  the  Handsome,  grandson  of 

for  his  charity.    The  peace  and  blessings  of  the  realm  Charles,  and  it  was  to  provide  against  such  an  un- 

come  to  us  througli  the  poor  he  would  say.     Beggars  desirable  eventuality  that  Louis  affianced  his  son 

were  fed  from  his  table,  he  ate  their  leavings,  washed  Charles  (afterwards  Charles  VIII)  to  the  daughter  of 

their  feet,  ministered  to  the  wants  of  the  lepers,  and  Margaret  and  Maximilian.     (The  marriage  of  Charies 

daily  fed  over  one  hundred  poor.     He  founcied  many  VIII  to  Anne  of  Brittany,  in  1491,  after  Louis's 

hospitals  and  houses:  the  liouse  of  the  Filles-Dieu  for  death,  frustrated  this  precaution.)     Louis    passed 

reformed  prostitutes;  the  Quinze-Vingt  for  300  blind  his  last  years  in  his  castle  of  Plessis-les-Tours,  sur- 

men(12.S4),  hospitals  at  Pontoise,  Vernon,  Compi^gne.  rounded  by  persons  of  low  estate,  very  suspicious. 

The  "  Enseignements "  (written  instructions)  wliich  very   irascible.     His   character   was   contemptible, 

he  left  to  his  son  Philip  and  to  his  daughter  IsabeL  though  he  was  a  clever  politician;    he  was  fond  of 

the  discourses  preserved  by  the  witnesses  at  judicial  pilgrimages  and  pious  practices,  but  he  had  a  narrow 

investi<i;ations  preparatory  to  his  canonization,  and  idea  of  God;  his  religion  was  based  on  morbid  fear, 

Joinville's  anecdotes  show  St.  Louis  to  have  been  a  his  Christianity  never  displayed  itself  in  kind  deeds. 

man    of   sound    common    sense,    possessing    inde-  His  perfidy  and  cruelty  were  notorious;  he  kept 

fatigable   energy,  graciously  kind   and  of   plaj'ful  Cardinal  Balue  (q.  v.)  a  prisoner  for  eleven  years  m 

humour,  and  constantly  guarding  against  the  temp-  an  iron  cage. 

tation  to  be  imperious.    The  caricature  made  of  him  The  relations  of  Louis  XI  with  the  Holv  See  are 

by  the  envoy  of  the  Count  of  Gueldre:  "worthless  worthy  of  special  study,  for  they  definite^  shaped 

devotee,  h>7)ocritical  king"  was  very  far  from  the  the  reli^ous  policy  of  the  French  monarchy.    From 

truth.    On  the  contrary,  St.  Louis,  through  his  per-  the  begmniiig  of  nis  reign  there  were  two  questions 

sonal  qualities  as  well  as  his  snintliness,  increased  for  that  necessitated  continued  communication  oetween 

many  centuries  the  prestige  of  the  French  monarchy  Louis  and  the  pope:   the  question  of  the  PTagmatic 

(see  France).    St.   Louis's  canonization  was  pro-  Sanction  and  the  Italian  question.    Pius  II,  at  the 

claimed  at  Orvieto  in  1297,  by  Boniface  VIII.     Of  Council  of  Mantua,  in  1459,  had  protested  onoe  more 

the  inquiries  in  view  of  canonization,  carried  on  from  against  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges.  and  the 

1273  till  1297,  we  have  only  fragmentary  reports  Bull  ^'Execrabilis"  (18  June,  1460),  by  wliich  Pius 

published  by  Delaborde  (M^'moires  de  la  soci6t6  de  II  condemned  appeals  to  future  councils,  was  directed 

I'histoire  de  Paris  et  de  I'lle  de  France  ",  XXIII,  against  it.     Again,  Louis  was  always  anxious  to  form 

1896)  and  a  series  of  extracts  compiled  by  Guillaume  ^^  olTensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Uie  irnijiHyr 

de  St.  Pathus,  (Jueen  Marguerite's  confessor,  under  the  Italian  States,  to  reduce  the  revolted  Genoese,  and 

title  of  "Vie  Monseigneur  Saint  Loys"  (Paris,  1899).  bring  the  north  of  the  peninsula  under  his  sway  by 

means  of  the  possessions  of  the  house  of  Orleans  in 


Svjie  ae  oi.  ixmw  iraris,  im/-ou;  i?  acre,  Htstoire  de  St.  Louis         i  •     i     r  i. •     tI  T' 

xna,  1865);    Wallon.  St  Louis  et  »on  irmpa  (Paria,  1875)-  ^  kmd  of  hegemony  m  Italy 

COT  DE  LA  Mahche.  La  France  Boun  Si.  Louis  (Paria,  1894);  He  began  his  reign  by  suppressinff  the  Praffmatie 

Kxna  (New  York,  1901);  Berger.  St.  Tx>uia  H  Innocent  l\\  hunself  in  opposition  to  the  policy  of  his  father— ftn 

HwUiniTUarnjypoH*delaFrnnceetduSaintSiae(VtinnASm)\  attitude  which   he  waS  aiudoUS  tO  emphasise— «nd 

VKYim,  The  Jnvaaum  of  Egypt  bifLouia  IX of  France,  and  a  Hia-  of  the  same  time  he  took  nwnv  fmm  thA  AnloMmAl 

fpry  of  the  Contemporary  Sultana  of  Egypt  (London.  1898);  **.  \"*^  same  lime  ne  TOOK  awav  irom  Ue  eplSCOpal 

UONGNON.  Documenta  pariaiena  aur  riconographie  de  St  Louia  anstocracy,  the  feudalism  of  the  ChUTOh,  a  Weapon 

(Fans,  1882):  Chkyauucr,  Biobibi.  2873-83.  which  they  very  much  desured  to  keep.     And  thus  the 

Georges  OoYAr.  same  measure  which  won  him  the  favour  of  Rome 


Lorns  3 

■1m  «nt(md  bto  the  plao  of  his  eampaiga  K^lnat 
feudalism.  He  even  restored  the  Duchies  of  Die  and 
Vslentmois  to  Piue  11.  But  when  he  saw  that  the 
pope  ma  unwilliiv  to  aid  him  in  recapturing  Genoa, 
and  su[>port«d  the  Neapolitan  claims  of  Ferrante, 
the  candidata  hostile  to  the  House  of  Anjou,  Louia 
ehanged  bb  attitude,  and,  in  14G3,  t>egan  a  religious 
mr.  It  waa  marked  tw  the  ordinance  of  Paria  (17 
Felmiary,  1163)  which  forbade  the  giving  of  any  of 
the  property  of  deceased  ecclesiastics  to  the  poatificnl 
collectors;  by  the  ortlinancca  of  Murct  [24  May.  140:t) 
ftndLuzieu(19June,  1464),  by  which  the  king  claimed 
the  diapoaal  of  all  vacant  benefices  aa  a  right  of  the 
Crown  (r^lida)  and  revived  the  Pragrantic  Sanction 
in  DauphinT  by  the  ordinance  of  Dampierre  (June, 
14A4),  whion  prohibited  the  raising  of  undue  sub- 
ndies  established  by  Rome;  by  the  ordinance  of 
RuA  (7  September,  1464),  which  Buppresacd  the 
grtten  tepealativea  (reversion- 
aiT  rij^ta  to  beneficea).  Theae 
orainauoes  were  so  displeas- 


Uoreover,  Louis,  at  the  begin- 
lungof  the  reign  of  Paul  II, 
refused  to  allow  the  collection 
^  tithes  for  the  orusades,  and 
entertained  the  proposals  of 
Fodiebrad  of  Bohemia,  for  a»- 
•embling  aa  anti-papal  coun- 
eil.  But  the  discontent  of 
Uie  Glergy  with  Louis  helped 
to  develop  the  League  of  the 
Public  Weal  (1465),  the  mem- 
bers of  which  askel  Paul  II 
to  release   them  from  their 


_  ..  _.e  friendly 

policy  towards  Roroe ;  he  sent 
thither  aa  hia  ambassador, 
Balue,  Biahop  of  Angera,  and 
by  the  ordinance  of  Etampea 
(24  July,  1467)  revoked  the 
edicts  cuttailiuK  the  papal 
authority.  But  when,  in 
1468,  the  kmg  wished  to  try  Cardinal  Balue  for  trea- 
son, ft  eoofliet  aroae  between  Louis  and  Paul  II,  who 
did  not  wish  the  cardinal  to  be  tried  by  civil  judges. 
During  Uw  three  years'  struggle,  Ixiuis  could  not  in- 
duce tbe  Holy  See  to  reet^mze  the  supremacy  of  the 
lay  magiatraoy.  He  impneoned  Balue  and  the  other 
prelat«B.  for  whose  liberty  the  Holy  See  was  contend- 
ing. There  aeemed  to  be  no  way  of  coming  to  terms, 
Wtan,  in  1471,  Paul  II  waa  Buececded  by  Sixtus  IV. 
The  Dew  pope  sent  Cardinal  Bcssarion  to  France  to 
preach  the  oruaade  against  the  Turks.  Louis  sent 
<MrarddeCninol,Biahopof  Valence,  to  Rome.  This 
misHon  resulted  in  the  Concordat  of  Amboise  (31 
October,  1472),  by  the  terms  of  which  the  pope 
agreed  uat  no  priest  should  be  raised  to  any  dignity 
until  he  hod  fint  obtained  royal  letters  att«:sting  tlmt 
he  waa  ptnona  grtOa  to  the  kinc-  I'lie  altrmative 
KJtibeia  was  to  be  adooled  in  beatowinj;  l>enefices:  the 
pope  waa  *a  diR>uM>  of  them  only  during  sva  months 
ot  *J>e  jear.  Ol  the  reversionarv  righta  reserved  to 
tbe  pope,  two  out  of  six  were  to  be  at  the  disposal  of 
the  royal  family  and  the  parliamentary  courts.  The 
pope  made  other  conoeaaions  in  matters  of  taxation 
ana  Juriadiction,  Thiaconcordat  marks  the  fir^t  sue- 
eearful  attramtt  on  the  part  of  the  French  kings  to 
aecniire  the  nght  of  intCTfcring  in  the  nomination  to 
w  <ilwyiiitifal  <Acea.  Soon  both  parties  were  dis- 
aatiified  with  the  ooncordat.  Moreover,  the  political 
^fsqiatliiaa  of  the  pope  and  hia  legates  with  the  cause 


of  ChailM  the  Bold  irritated  Louis,  who  L 

self  by  oocupyiiiK  Avignon,  hf  ordering  (8  Januajr', 
1475)  pontifical  Bulls  to  be  verified  before  being  puo- 
lialied  m  France,  and  by  convoking  a  general  council 
at  Lyons. 

Louis,  however,  did  not  wish  to  go  the  length  cf 
causing  a  schism'  bis  policy  from  that  time  was 
directed  against  the  pope  as  a  temporal  sovereign. 
The  conspiracy  of  the  Fazzi  (1478)  gave  him  an  im>. 
portunity.  Lorenso  do'  Medici  asked  his  help;  he 
intervened,  and  charged  Commines  with  diplomatic 
missions  to  Florence  and  Rome.  Soon  he  became 
the  undisputed  arbiter  of  Italy,  The  pope's  attcinpt 
to  win  the  support  of  Austria  was  unsucceaful.  On 
the  otlier  hand,  as  Louis  needed  the  help  of  tbe  p<^ 
to  bring  about  peace  with  Majdmilian.  he  and  SixtUB 
IV  were  reconciled,  thanks  to  the  diplomatic  skill  o( 
the  legate,  GiuUano  della  Rovere,  later  Julius  II, 
who  also  obtained  the  re- 
lease of  Balue.  A  certain 
amount  of  coquetting  between 
France  and  the  papacvmarked 
the  last  months  of  Louis's 
life.  Sixtus  IV  oiTered  the 
Dauphin  of  France  the  in- 
vestiture of  Naples;  and  Louis, 
who  acted  aa  arbiter  between 
tbe  pope  and  Venice,  decided 
in  favour  of  the  Holy  See. 
The  results  of  this  rdgn  were 
twofold:  on  the  one  hand,  the 
moral  hegemony  which  France 
had  gained  in  Italy,  and  which 
made  Louis  XI  in  the  words 
of  the  Florentine  Government 
"the  preserver  of  peace  in 
Italy",  inaugurated  the  policy 
that  gave  nse  to  the  waia  of 
Italy;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
manifold  negotiations  between 
the  king  and  the  pope,  and 
tbe  concordat  of  1472,  had 
prepared  for  the  Church  of 
Prance  the  coming  of  a  regime 
in  which  the  pope  and  the 
king,  without  consulting  the 
bishops  and  the  clergy,  di- 
between  them  the  gov- 


XI  died  in  the  amis  of  St.  Francb  of  Paula,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  Notre- Dame -de- ClSrj^,  near 
Orldans,  whither  ho  had  frequently  gone  aa  a  pilgrim. 
Bauk.  Hittoire  de  CharUt  VII  d  it  Louit  XI,  «L  QnicHEUT 
(Paris,  IS.'M-'J):  ConuiNEB,  Uimoirn.  ei.  Dummt  IPsiia, 
1840-T>;  VoFMs  ct  Ch*r*vat.  LcIIth  dt  Louii  XI  (fuk, 
lSS5-ID(XJ):DccLOB. //ti'vt'ratfaLDuii.T/  (Psm,  17M);  Tbi- 
MULT.  Im  ffUTUue  de  Lout*  XI  CPtrit.  I90S):  Coubbt,  Zdwi 
XIHleSainl-SHat  (Paris,  1903);  Rbt.  Lovii  XI  it  In  Halt  pm- 
■  (ft  f  rowf  oa -Vl'- n/fle  CGnsDohli:,  1890);  Pi-rroH.  Hit. 


1,pfth 


lO-l). 


wf  aa  XV  litcU  CGnsnohli:,  1890);  Pimm.  Hi*. 
n  from  Ihe  Clone  el  Uu  UiddU  Aga.  Ill,  IV  (St. 


Geokgeb  Goyau. 


LoniB  XIT,  King  of  France,  b.  at  Soint-Ciermajn- 

en-La_vc,  IC  Septenilier,  11)38;  d.  at  A'crsailles,  1  Sep- 
tember, 1715;  was  the  son  of  Louis  XIII  and  Anne  of 
Austria,  and  liecumc  king,  upon  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther, 14  May.  lC4:t.  Until  1(>01  the  real  master  of 
France  waa  Cardinal  Masorin  (q.  v.),  under  whose 
government  his  countrv,  victorious  over  Austria 
(1643-18)  and  Spain  (1643-59),  acquired  by  the 
Treaties  of  Westphalia  (1684)  and  the  Pyrenees  (1659) 
Alsace,  Artois,  and  Roussillon,  which  had  already 
been  occupied  by  French  troops  since  the  days  w 
Richelieu.  As  a  result  of  the  marriage  between 
Louis  XIV  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  Louis  XIV 
also  acquired  tights  over  the  Low  Countries.  When 
Louis's  personal  government  began  (1661)  France 


LOUIS 


372 


UUIS 


was  the  arbiter  of  Europe:  she  had  re-established 
peace  among  the  Powers  of  the  North  (Sweden,  Bran- 
denburg, Denmark,  and  Poland);  she  protected  the 
League  of  the  Rhine,  and  her  authority  in  Germany 
was  greater  than  the  emperor's.  At  that  period  the 
power  of  France,  established  upon  the  firmest  founda- 
tions, was  perhaps  less  imposing,  but  was  assuredly 
more  solid,  than  it  iDecame  during  the  most  glorious 
days  of  Louis  XIV's  personal  government. 

The  n^emory  of  those  dangers  with  which  the  par- 
liamentary Fronde  and  the  Fronde  of  the  nobles 
(1648-53)  had  threatened  the  power  of  the  Crown  per- 
suaded the  young  king  that  he  must  govern  in  aoso- 
lute  fashion,  reganlless  of  the  still  existing  provincial 
relics  and  local  rights.  The  nobility  Ixjcame  a  court 
nobility  and,  the  nobles  instead  of  residing  on  their 
estates  where  they  were  influential,  became  mere 
ornaments  of  the  Court.  The  Parliaments,  which  had 
hitherto  used  their  right  of  registration  (droU  d^enre- 
aUiremerd)  of  edicts  to  revise,  to  some  extent,  the 
kings  decrees,  were  trained  to  submission.  The 
whole  power  of  the  State,  represented  in  the  provinces 
by  intendants  at  once  docile  and  energetic,  was  gath- 
ered up  in  the  hands  of  the  king,  who  consulted,  in 
his  council,  certain  assist-ants  chosen  by  himself — 
Colbert,  for  finance  and  justice;  Louvois,  for  war; 
Lionnc,  for  foreign  affairs.  Colbert  (q.  v.)  desired 
that  France  should  rule  the  sea.  He  did  much  to 
develop  French  colonial  power;  but  before  the  end 
of  the  reign  that  power  was  to  enter  upon  its  period  of 
decadence.  Coll)ert*s  plans,  were  inaeed,  constantly 
embarrassed  by  the  Continental  wars  which  Louis 
undertook.  No  doubt,  the  king  was  forced  into  some 
of  these  wars:  it  was  necessary  to  strengthen  the 
French  frontier  at  certain  points.  But  his  lust  of 
fame,  the  flattery  of  his  courtiers,  and  his  desire  to 
humiliate  Europe  led  him  to  prefer  the  glories  of  war- 
fare to  the  wiser  and  more  durable  triumphs  which  a 
great  maritime  development  would  have  secured  for 
France.  His  European  policy  continued  those  of 
Richelieu  and  of  Mazarin  in  the  struggle  against  the 
House  of  Austria,  but  it  differed,  too,  from  the  poli- 
cies of  the  two  cardinals  in  being  a  jjolicy  of  religious 
creecl,  confronting  Protestantism  in  Holland  and 
England. 

The  war  against  Spain  (1667-68)  undertaken  to 
enforce  the  claim  of  the  queen,  Maria  Theresa,  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Low  Countries  {giterrc  de  d('vol'Ur- 
tion)f  in  which  the  king  in  person  accomplished  the 
conquest  of  Flanders  and  made  a  militarv  promenade 
in  Franche-Comt6 ;  the  Dutch  War  (1672-78),  in  which 
Louis  distinguished  himself  by  that  passage  of  the 
Rhine,  of  which  contemporary  poets  sang  by  the 
siege  of  Besan<^on,  the  definitive  conquest  of  Franche- 
Comt^*  (1674),  and  two  campaigns  in  Flanders  (1676- 
78) ;  the  judiciary  and  police  measures  by  virtue  of 
which,  without  any  declaration  of  war,  he  occupied 
Strasburg  (1681),  a  free  and  imperial  city,  as  well  as 
several  other  places  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine — all 
these  brought  Louis  XIV  to  the  apogee  of  his  glory,  the 
date  of  which  is  commonly  assigned  as  the  year  1685. 
But  these  very  successes,  the  king's  habit  of  not  con- 
sidering himself  bound  by  treaties,  and  the  pride 
which  led  him  to  commemorate  by  insulting  medals 
his  triumplis  over  various  nations,  combined  to  arouse 
in  Euroi>?  a  sort  of  uprising  against  France  which 
found  expression  in  numerous  pamphlets,  on  the  one 
hand,  and,  on  the  otlier,  in  diplomatic  coalitions. 
The  soul  of  these  coalitions  was  the  Protestant  William 
of  Orange.  The  Ix?ague  of  Augsburg,  formerl  in  1688 
between  the  emperor,  Spain,  Holland,  and  Savoy,  set 
on  foot  a  war  during  which  Louis  himself,  in  1691  and 
1692,  made  two  campaigns  in  Flanders.  In  spite  of 
the  victories  of  Luxembourg  and  Catinat  the  war  was 
ruinous  for  Louis  XIV,  and  ended  in  a  peace  less 

gorious  than  those  which  had  preceded  it  (Peace  of 
yswick,  1697),  forcing  him  to  restore  Lorraine  and 


all  the  cities  of  the  empire  outside  of  Alsaoe,  and  to 
recognize  William  as  ICmg  of  England.  Thus,  at  the 
opening  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Louis  stood  face 
to  face  with  England,  a  Protestant  power,  a  power 
in  which  insteadf  of  the  monarchy  or  Divine  right 
the  Parliament  held  sway,  and,  lastly,  a  power  al- 
ready stronger  on  the  sea  than  France  was — three 
circumstances  which  made  the  prestige  of  that  nation 
all  the  more  galling  to  the  King  of  France. 

In  consequence  of  the  testament  of  Charies  II, 
King  of  Spain,  the  Spanish  Throne  passed  from  the 
Halwburgs  to  the  Bourbons.  The  Duke  of  Anjou, 
the  king's  grandson,  became  Philip  V  of  Spain.  Hence 
resulted  the  W^ar  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  a  long  and 
ruinous  war,  and  yet  glorious,  thanks  to  the  triumphs 
of  Vendome  and  Villars,  though  it  brought  France  to 
the  brink  of  destruction.  At  one  time,  in  1712,  the 
king  thought  of  placing  himself  at  the  head  of  his 
brave  nobility,  and  burying  himself  beneath  the  ruins 
of  his  throne.  The  victory  of  Villara  at  Denain  (1712) 
saved  the  country.  The  Treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Ba- 
den (1713  and  1714)  maintained  Philip  V  on  the 
throne  of  Spain,  but  gave  to  the  emperor  Spain's 
ancient  possessions  in  Italy,  doomed  the  maritime 
power  of  France  to  destruction,  and  made  a  breach 
m  her  colonial  power  by  the  cession  of  Newfoumlland 
and  Acadia  to  England,  thus  firmly  establishing  Eng- 
land in  North  America  at  the  same  time  that  she 
was  established,  at  Gibraltar,  in  the  Mediterranean. 

The  close  of  nis  reign,  saddened  by  these  reverses 
and  by  financial  catastrophes,  also  brought  a  series 
of  personal  griefs  to  Louis  XIV:  the  death  of  the 
Dauphin  (1711),  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  the  king's 
grandson,  and  the  Duchess  of  Burgundy  (1712),  of 
their  eldest  son  (1712),  and  of  his  other  grandson, 
the  Duke  of  Berry  (1714).  He  left  his  throne  to  Louis 
XV,  then  five  years  of  age,  the  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  Thus  did  all  the  glories  of  the  reign  end 
in  the  dangers  of  a  regency.  Such  as  he  was,  Louis 
XIV  left  a  great  memory  in  the  soul  of  France.  Vol- 
taire calls  the  seventeenth  century  the  Age  of  Louis 
XIV,  Warriors  like  Turenne,  Cond4,  Luxembourg, 
Catinat,  Vend6me,  and  Villars,  navigators  Hke  Du- 
quesne,  Trouville,  and  Duguay-Trouin,  preachers  like 
Bossuet,  Boiudaloue,  and  Massillon,  engineers  like 
Vauban,  architects  like  Perrault  and  Mansart,  painters 
hke  Poussin,  Le  Sueur,  and  Le  Brun,  sculptors  like 
Puget,  writers  fike  Comeille,  Racine,  Moli^re,  Boileau, 
La  Fontaine,  La  Bruy^re,  F^nelon^  Madame  de 
S^vign6,  gave  to  France  a  glory  by  which  Louis  XIV 
profited,  and  the  "M6moires"  of  Saint-Simon,  in 
which  the  reverse  of  that  glory  is  often  exhibited, 
have  rather  enriched  the  history  of  the  reign  than 
damaged  the  prestige  of  the  king. 

LoriB  XIV  AND  Reugion. — Louis  XIV  was  mucli 
occupied  with  rcfigion  and  rcli^ous  Questions.  His 
reign  is  generally  considered  as  ai\idea  into  two  peri- 
ods: (1 )  that  of  libertinage,  during  which  his  heart  was 
ruled  by  Mile  de  la  Vallidre,  Madame  de  Montespan, 
and  other  favourites;  (2)  that  of  devotion,  coincioing 
with  the  influence  of  Madame  de  Maintenon,  the 
widow  of  Scarron,  who,  when  Maria  Theresa  died  (31 
July,  1683),  secretly  married  the  king,  and  who,  for  a 
quart<?r  of  a  centuf\'  assisted  him  in  ruling  the  king- 
dom. The  second  of  these  two  p>eriods  was  also  that 
of  the  influence  of  Pi^rc  Le  Tellier  (q.  v.).  This  divi- 
sion is  natural  and  accounts  for  certain  developments  of 
religious  policv ;  but  it  must  not  be  exa^eratcd.  Even 
dunng  his  ix'riod  of  libertinage,  Louis  jQV  took  a  jm?- 
sionate  interest  in  religious  questions:  and  durine  his 
devout  period,  he  never  altogether  abandoned  those 
Gallican  principles  wliich  incessantly  exposed  him  to 
conflicts  with  Rome.  Certain  pamphlets,  publisheii 
in  tlie  days  of  the  Fronde,  opposed  to  the  doctrines  of 
royal  absolutism  the  old  theological  doctrine  of  the  ori- 
gin and  the  rcsixjnsibilities  of  power.  "Le  Th^lo- 
gien  Politique"  declares  that  obedience  is  due  only  to 


Loms  3! 

thme  kingB  who  denuuid  what  is  jubt  and  reaMiiahlc; 
Ibetre&tiao  "Chretien  et  Politique''  asserts  that  kings 
do  not  make  peoples,  but  that  peoples  have  made 
kin^  But  the  doctrine  of  the  Di^-ine  right  of  kings 
succeeded  in  establishing  itself  upon  the  ruiiis  of  the 
Fronde;  according  to  that  doctrine  Louia  XIV  had  to 
reckon  only  with  God,  and  the  same  doctrine  ser^'cd  aa 
one  of  the  supports  of  the  dictatorship  which  he  pro- 
tended to  exercise  over  the  Church  of  France. 

In  the"iHmoires"  of  Louis  XIV  a  whole  theory  of 
the  lolationa  between  Church  and  State  is  expounded. 
He  seta  forth  that  the  king  is  the  proprietor  of  the 
Church's  wealth,  in  virtue  of  the  maxim  that  there  is 
no  other  proprietor  in  the  kingdom  but  the  king.  He 
holds  that  all  the  faithful,  "whether  lav  or  t<ni!iiired". 
are  the  sovereign's  subjects;  that'^hc  clerey  ^i^  bound 
to  bew  their  part  pecuniarily  in  the  public  burdens, 
and  that  they  "should  not  excuse  themselves  from 
that  obligation  by  alleging  that  their  pos!*c»sions  are 
for  B  particular  purpoiie,  or  that  the  employment  (A 
thoM  poBsestuons  muBt  be  regulated  by  the  intention 
of  the  donors".  The  oascmblioit  of  tliu  clergy,  which 
discuss  the  amounts  la  be  contributed  by  the  cler^', 
ate,  in  the  eyes  of  Loui.^  XIV,  only  tolerated;  he  con- 
aidets  that,  as  sovereign,  he  would  be  within  bis  rights 
in  laying  imposts  upon  the  clerjo'i  and  that "  the  popes 
who  have  wished  to  contest  that  right  of  royalty  tiave 
made  it  clearer  and  more  incontcstal>lG  by  the  ilistinct 
withdrawal  of  their  ambitious  pretensions  which  they 
have  been  obUged  to  make";  he  declares  it  to  be  inad- 
missible that  ecclesiastics,  "exempt  from  the  dangers 
of  war  and  the  burden  of  families",  should  not  con- 
tribute to  the  necessities  of  the  State.  The  Minims  of 
Provence  had  dedicated  to  Louis  XlVa  thesis  in  which 
they  compared  him  to  God;  Bossuet  declared  that  the 
loDg  could  not  tolerate  any  such  doctrine,  and  the  Sor- 
bonne  condemned  it.  But  at  Court  the  person  of  the 
kii^  was  the  object  of  a  sort  ot  religious  worship,  in 
which  certain  courtier  bishops  loo  easily  acquiesced, 
and  the  consequence  of  which  became  perceptible  in 
the  relations  between  the  Church  and  thn  Slate. 

From  these  principles  resulted  bis  attitude  towards 
the  assemblies  of  the  clergy.  He  shortened  the  dura- 
tion of  their  sessions  and  caused  them  to  l)c  watched 
by  his  ministers,  while  Colliert,  who  detested  the  finan- 


semblies  which  the  wisest  politicians  have  alwi 
aidered  dineases  of  the  body  politic",  l-'rom  tnese 
principles,  too,  arose  the  fear  of  cvcrj'thing  by  wliich 
churchmen  could  aci^uire  pohtlcul  influence.  Unlike 
his  predecessors,  Louis  XlV  employed  few  prelates  in 
the  service  of  the  State. 

The  Concordat  of  Francis  I  placed  a  large  number  of 
benefices  at  the  disposal  of  Louis  XIV;  he  felt  that  the 
appointment  of  bishops  wa.1  the  most  critical  part  of 
bis  kingly  duty,  and  the  bishops  whom  he  appointed 
were,  in  general,  very  well  chosen.  He  erred,  how- 
ever, in  the  readiness  with  whieh  ho  dispensed  them 
from  residence  in  their  dioceses,  while,  as  to  abliacies, 
he  too  often  availed  himscir  of  them  to  reward  services 
rendered  by  laymen,  and  gave  them  an  means  of  sup- 

Ert  to  impoverished  nobles,  Tothef'omteduVexin, 
I  SOD  by  Madame  de  MonteNpaii,  he  gave  the  two 
creat  Abbacies  of  Saint- Denis  and  Suint-CIcrmain-des- 
Frte. 

Louie  XIV  was  particularly  fond  of  taking  a  hand 
in  doctrinal  matters;  and  those  who  surrounded  him 
ended  by  believing  that  the  king  could  supervise  the 
Church  and  supply  it  with  information  on  religious 

Juestiooa.  Daf^esseau,  on  14  August,  1699,  went  so 
ir  as  to  proclaim  that  the  King  of  France  ought 


reprimanded  (or  neglecting  to  report  three  preaches 
of  Paris  who  were  in  the  haiiit  of  speaking  of  grace  in  a 
Jansenistic  manner. 

IvOUIS  XIV  ANB  THE  Papacy. — There  was  always  a 
certain  inconsistency  in  Louis's  policy  towards  the 
Holj[  Sec.  On  the  one  hand,  he  called  forth  the  inter- 
vention of  Alexander  Vll  against  the  Jan.senists  (see 
below),  which  would  have  1)ecn  anomalous  if  the  king 
had  believed  that  the  Bishop  of  Rome  was  no  more  in 
the  Church  than  any  Otiier  bishop.  On  the  other 
hanil,  he  set  himself  up  as  the  head  of  his  Church 
(thougl„atthesame  time,  not  wishing  to  Iwsohismati- 
eal),  and  the  Gallicaiiism  of  his  inagistral«s  " — '  ='■•"'• 


.  ..if  Augsburg, 

Louis  was  careful  to  have  a  report  prepared  for  him  on 
a  catechism  which  was  suspected  of  Jansenism;  and 
to,  again,  in  171 5,  he  caused  a  lieutenant  of  police  to  lie 


of  his  bishops  found  support  in  him.  Full  submission 
to  Rome  and  rupture  with  Rome  wi're  e<|Ually  distaste- 
ful to  him.  The  humiliation  which  he  inflict«d  on 
Alexander  VH  when  C'r^iui,  his  amliaasailor,  hod  to 
complain  of  tho  pope's  (?orsican  guard  (August,  1662) 
was  inspired  rather  by  the  need  of  displaying  his  un- 
limited power  than  by  any  feeling  of  hostility  to  the 
Ilolv  Hee  (see  Alexakdkr  VII).  In  IfiTii^,  a  papal 
Bull  having  condemned  the  censure  whieh  the  Sor- 
bonne  had  passed  against  the  doctrine  of  infallibility, 
I.x>uis,  after  inviting  the  procurator-general  to  appoil 
against  it  cvmme  d'abii»,  desisted  from  furtlier  action. 
In  166fi,  when  Colbert,  in  order  to  diminish  the  num- 
l.>er  of  priests  and  monks,  wished  to  put  lioek  the  legal 
age  for  ordination,  the  nuncio  declared  to  Pi-re  Aunat, 
the  king's  confessor,  that  there  would  be  a  scliisni  if 
the  king  continued  to  consult  only  laymen  on  spiritual 
affairs;  Louis  thought  these  words  "horrible'',  and 
('olljcrt's  project  was  abandoned.  In  short,  Louis 
XlV  held  that,  as  he  expressed  it.  it  was  "an  advan- 
tage that  (he  Roman  Curia  should  be  favourable  to 
him  rather  than  unfavourable". 

In  1673  the  conflict  of  the  rfgaU  broke,  tw*..   "ff^ae. 


LOUXB 


374 


unm 


tenn  r^oZtf  WM  applied  to  that  right  by  which  the  king 
upon  the  death  of  a  bishop,  drew  the  revenues  of  the 
see  and  made  appointments  to  benefices  imtil  the  new 
bishop  had  registered  his  oath  in  the  Court  of  Excheq- 
uer (Chambre  des  comptes),  Louis  XIV  claimed,  in 
1673  and  again  in  1675,  that  the  ri^ht  of  r^ale  was  his 
in  all  the  bishoprics  of  the  kingdom.  Pavilion, 
Bishop  of  Alet,  ana  Caulct,  Bishop  of  Pamiers,  refused 
to  submit.  These  prelates,  both  Jansenists,  alleged 
that  the  Jesuits  had  stretched  the  right  of  r^ale  so  as 
to  increase  the  number  of  benefices  in  the  collation  of 
which  Pdre  La  Chaise,  the  king's  confessor,  might 
exert  his  influence.  In  1677,  Caulet,  having  refused 
to  give  the  cure  of  souls  within  his  diOcese  to  priests 
whom  the  king  had  nominated  in  virtue  of  the  r^aie, 
was  deprived  of  his  temporalities.  Three  Briefs  of  In- 
nocent XI  ^arch,  1678,  and  January  and  December, 
1679)  sustained  Caulet  and  threatened  Louis  with  the 
pains  of  conscience  before  God's  tribunal  and  the  ru- 
mour was  current  that  the  king  was  about  to  be  ex- 
communicated. 

In  Jul^,  1680,  the  assembly  of  the  clergv,  in  a  letter 
to  the  king,  identified  themselves  with  tne  king  and 
threatened  the  pope.  Upon  the  death  of  Caulet,  the 
Diocese  of  Pamiers  was  contested  between  the  vicar 
capitular  nominated  bv  the  chapter,  who  was  hostile 
to  the  r^alCf  and  another  vicar  capitular,  nominated 
by  Uie  Archbishop  of  Toulouse  and  installed  by  the 
roysd  officers.  The  former  of  these  two  vicars  was  re- 
moved by  the  king's  order,  the  latter  was  excommuni- 
cated by  the  pope.  A  third  vicar  capitular,  nomi- 
nated by  the  chapter,  remained  in  hiding  while  he 
administered  the  diocese,  was  condenmed  to  death,  and 
was  executed  in  effi^  by  the  king's  command.  A 
rupture  between  Louis  and  the  Holy  See  appeared  to 
be  imminent;  the  king,  in  convoking  the  assembly  of 
the  cler^  for  November,  1681,  threw  out  some  mnts 
of  a  schism.  This  was  an  attempt  to  frighten  the 
pope.  In  fact,  neither  side  wished  for  any  schism. 
Louis  made  the  concession  that  priests  provided  by 
him  in  virtue  of  his  right  of  rigale  should  be  obliged  to 
first  receive  canonical  mission,  and  this  concession  was 
offset  by  the  passage  of  the  Declaration  of  the  Four 
Articles,  which  showed  the  "wish  to  humilate  Rome". 
The  very  animated  correspondence  between  the  pope 
and  the  assemblv  was  a  disouieting  circumstance,  but 
Louis  prorogued  the  assembly  on  29  June,  1682  (see 
Bossuet;  Assemblies  of  the  French  Clebgt).  In 
this  way  he  made  his  escape  from  the  advisers  who,  to 
use  his  own  words,  would  nave  liked  to  "invite  him  to 
don  the  turban  ".  He  had,  in  the  words  of  the  Jesuit 
Avrigny,  "a  foundation  of  religion  which  would  not 
allow  him  to  face  these  di\'isions  without  emotion  ". 

Again,  when  Innocent  XI  steadfastly  rcfuse<l  to  ac- 
cept bishops,  who,  as  priests,  had  participated  in  the 
assembly  of  1C82,  Louis  went  through  a  series  of  ma- 
noeuvres which  had  the  appearance  ofacts  of  contrition. 
Innocent  remained  insensible  to  all  this  and,  on  the 
other  lumd,  refused  to  maintain  the  right  of  asylum 
and  the  franchises  which  the  ambassador  of  France 
claimed  at  Home.  Tliis  new  incident  made  an  im- 
mense stir  in  Europe;  there  was  talk  of  the  conquest  of 
Avignon  and  Civitavecchia  by  France;  the  Bull  of  12 
May,  1G87,  excommimicatin^  the  ambassador  and  his 
accomplices,  was  pronounced  abominable  by  the  par- 
lementaires  of  Pans,  who  had  in  \iew  the  assembling  of 
a  nation^  council  and  declared  that  the  pope,  by  rea- 
son of  his  infirmities,  could  no  longer  support  the 
weight  of  the  papacy.  Alexander  VIII  (1089-91), 
dunn^  his  short  pontificate,  induced  Louis  to  surren- 
der his  claim  in  tne  matter  of  the  franchises  and  also 
published  a  Bull,  until  then  reserved,  by  which  Inno- 
cent XI  had  condemned  the  Declaration  of  1082.  In- 
nocent XII  (1691-1700)  made  but  one  concession  to 
Louis  XIV:  he  declared  his  readiness  to  grant  Bulls 
without  delay  to  all  bishops  nominated  by  the  king, 
provided  they  had  taken  no  part  in  the  assembly  of 


1682,  and  provided  that  th^  made  a  profession  of 
faith  before  the  nimcio.  Louis,  on  14  September, 
1603,  declared  that,  to  show  his  veneration  for  the 
pope,  he  ordered  the  declaration  of  1682  to  be  held 
without  effect  in  regard  to  religious  policy.  The  Gal- 
ileans in  France  and  the  I^testants  abroad  pointed  to 
this  decision  of  the  king  as  a  desertion  of  his  principles. 

The  good  understanding  between  Louis  and  the 
papacy,  while  they  fought  side  by  side  against  Jan- 
senism (see  below),  was  ag^n  momentarily  clouded 
during  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  In  a  very 
long  and  very  cordial  Brief  dated  6  February,  1701, 
Clement  XI  had  recognised  Philip  V  as  Kin^  of  Spain. 
Political  conditions,  threats  made  against  him  by  the 
Emperor  Joseph  I,  brought  the  pope  to  recognise 
Charles  III  as  king,  lO  October,  1709.  The  diploma- 
tic representatives  of  Louis  XIV  and  Philip  V  at  Rome 
had  done  everything  to  prevent  this;  the  extremehr 
reserved  tone  and  the  laconic  style  of  the  Brief  aa- 
drcssed  to  Charles  III  did  not  sufiiciently  console  them 
and  Cardinal  de  la  Tr^mouille,  on  13  October,  1709, 
protested  in  the  name  of  Louis  XIV  against  the  public 
recognition  of  Charles  III,  which  was  to  take  pliu^  in 
Consistory  on  the  next  day. 

Louis  XIV  AND  THE  HERESIES. — His  care  to  main- 
tain a  certain  orthodoxy,  and  the  conception  which  he 
had  formed  of  the  religious  unity  of  his  kingdom,  ex- 
pressed themselves  in  nis  policy  towards  the  Jansen- 
ists, the  Quietists,  and  the  Protestants. 

A.  Louis  XIV  and  «/an«ent9m.— Since  the  days  of 
Mazarin  Louis  had  felt  *Hhat  the  Jansenists  were  not 
well-disposed  towards  him  and  the  State''.  A  certain 
niunber  of  them  had  been  implicated  in  the  I^tmde: 
they  wished  to  obtain,  in  spite  of  Mazarin,  the  recall  of 
Cardinal  de  Retz,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  who  had  es- 
caped from  his  prison  at  Nantes  and  gone  to  Rome; 
some  of  them  applauded  the  triumphs  over  Louis's 
armies  won  by  Cond^,  who  was  in  alliance  with  the 
Spaniards.  Louis,  in  September,  1660,  caused  the 
*'Provinciales"  of  Pascal  to  be  examined  hy  a  com- 
mission, and  the  book  was  burned.  His  desire,  ex- 
pressed in  December,  1660,  to  the  president  ot  the 
assembly  of  the  cleigy,  induced  that  body  to  draw  up, 
in  February,  1661,  a  formula  condemning  "the  doc- 
trine of  the'nve  propositions  of  Jansenius  contained  in 
the ''  Augustinus",  which  formula  was  to  be  signed  by 
all  ecclesiastics;  and  the  superiors  of  the  two  monas- 
teries of  Port-Royal  received  orders  to  dismiss  their 
pupils  and  their  novices.  Mazarin,  on  his  death-bed, 
m  March,  1661,  told  the  king  that  he  must  not  "toler- 
ate either  the  sect  of  the  Jansenists  or  even  so  much  as 
t  heir  name' ' .  The  vicars-general,  who  govamed  the  Dio- 
cese of  Paris  in  the  absence  of  de  Retz,  explained,  in  a 
charge  published  in  May,  1661,  that  the  signature  re- 
quired was  compatible  with  reserves  on  the  question  of 
fact — i.  e.,  the  question  whether  the  five  propositions 
were  in  fact  contained  in  the ' '  Augustinus' .  Tiie  royal 
council  and  the  pope  condemned  this  chaigc,  and  in 
1664,  Archbishop  Hardouin  dcP^r^fbce  made  two  visits 
to  Port-Royal  (9  June  and  21  August)  and  demanded 
of  the  religious  their  signatures  without  reserve.  The 
religious  of  Port-Royal  refused,  and  thereupon,  on  26 
Au^t,  the  police  expelled  those  of  Port-Royal  de 
Paris,  and,  in  November,  those  of  Port-Royal  des 
Champs.  Later,  in  1665,  lest  they  might  have  a  dis- 
turbing effect  on  the  various  convents  in  which  they 
had  found  shelter,  thev  were  all  coUected  in  the  des 
Champs  convent  and  placed  under  a  police  guard. 

The  concern  felt  by  Louis  on  the  subject  of  Jansen- 
ism  was  so  px^at  that,  in  1665,  he  appealed  to  Pope 
Alexander  VII  to  break  down  the  opposition  of  Pavil- 
ion, Bishop  of  Alet,  w^ho  did  not  recognise  the  right  of 
assembly  of  the  clergy  to  legislate  for  the  Qiurch,  and 
was  carrying  on  a  campaign  against  the  formula 
drawn  up  bv  that  assembly  and  against  the  obligation 
to  sign  it.  France  was  presented  with  the  speetacle  of 
a  joint  effort  of  the  pope  and  the  king;  the  royal  ooim* 


LOtJtt 


376 


Loxns 


dl  annulled  a  chane  in  which  Pavilion,  after  having 

S'ven  the  reauired  signature  to  another  formula 
awn  up  by  the  pope,  developed  some  new  Jansenis- 
tie  theones  on  grace;  the  pope,  without  arousing  any 
feeling  on  the  king's  part,  hmisclf  appointed  a  com- 
misaion  of  French  bisnops  to  try  Pavilion  and  three 
other  bishope  who  refused  to  make  the  unreserved 
Bubnussion.  Presently,  in  December,  1667,  nineteen 
bishops  wrote  to  the  king  that  the  appointment  of 
such  a  commission  by  the  pope  was  contrary  to  the 
Gallican  liberties.  The  difficulties  appeared  insiu-- 
mountable;  but  the  nuncio,  Bargcllini,  and  the  foreign 
secretanr,  Lionne,  found  a  wav.  The  four  bishops 
signed  the  formulary  and  caused  it  to  })q  signed,  at  the 
same  time  explaining  their  action  in  a  letter  expressed 
with  such  intentional  ambiguity  that  it  was  impossible 
to  make  out  whether  their  signatures  had'  been  given 
pyre  et  rimpliciier  or  not;  the  pope,  in  his  reply  to  them 
tbok  care  not  to  repeat  the  words  pure  et  simpliciter 
and  spoke  of  the  signatures  which  they  had  given 
tineere.  It  was  Lionne  who  had  suggested  to  the 
pope  the  employment  of  this  word  sincere.  And 
thanks  to  these  artifices,  "the  peace  of  the  Church'' 
was  restored. 

The  question  of  Jansenism  was  revived,  in  1702,  by 
the  case  oi  conscience  which  the  Janscnist^s  presented 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Paris:  *'  Is  a  respectful  and  silent 
submission  to  the  decision  of  the  Cliurch  sufficient  in 
regard  to  the  attribution  of  the  five  propositions  to  Jan- 
aeniusT"  Agairv  the  pope  and  the  king  were  imani- 
mous  against  Jansenism.  In  February  and  April, 
17(X3,  Clement  XI  called  upon  Louis  XIV  to  intervene, 
and  in  June,  1703,  Louis  aI  V  asked  Clement  XI  for  a 
Bull  against  Jansenism.  To  k(>ep  peace  with  tlie 
Jansenists,  however,  the  king  at  the  same  time  begged 
the  pope  to  particularly  mention  in  the  Bull  that  it 
was  issued  at  the  instance  of  the  French  Court.  Cle- 
ment, not  wishing  to  yield  to  this  Gallican  suggestion, 
temporised  for  twenty-six  months,  and  the  Bull 
"  Vmeam  Domini"  (15  July,  1705)  lacked  the  rhetori- 
cal precautions  desired  b^  Louis.  The  king,  never- 
theless, was  glad  to  take  it  as  it  was.  lie  lioped  to 
make  an  end  of  Jansenism.  But  Jansenism  from  that 
time  forward  maintained  its  resistance  on  the  ground 
not  of  dogma  but  of  ecclesiastical  law;  the  Jansenists 
involrod  Gallican  liberties,  asserting  that  the  Bull  had 
been  issued  in  contravention  of  those  lilxirties.  More 
and  more  plainly  the  king  saw  in  Jansenism  a  political 
danger;  he  thoueht  to  destroy  the  party  by  razing  the 
oonvent  of  Port-Ko^al  des  Champs,  dis()en«ing  the  re- 
ligiousand  disintemng  the  buried  Jansenists  (1 709-1 1 ); 
and  he  sacrificed  his  Gallican  ideas  to  the  pope  when 
he  forced  an  extraordinary  assembly  of  the  clerg>', 
in  1713,  and  the  parliament,  in  1714,  to  accept  the 
Bull  "  UnigcxiltUB  which  Clement  XI  had  published 
against  Quesnel's  book.  But  at  the  time  of  nis  death 
he  wished  to  assemble,  for  the  trial  of  Noailles,  Arch- 
bishop of  PariSi  and  the  bishops  who  resist<Kl  the  Bull, 
a  national  council  to  which  ne  was  to  dictate,  and 
Cement  XI,  naturally,  scouted  this  idea,  as  bearing 
the  marks  df  Gallicanism.  Thus  was  Louis  XIV  ever 
anxious  for  an  understanding  with  Rome  against 
Jansenism,  and  in  this  alliance  it  was  he  wh»  dis- 
played the  greater  furv  against  the  common  enemy. 
At  the  same  time,  he  brought  to  his  warfare  against 
Jansenism  a  Gallican  spirit,  making  concessions  and 
displays  of  politeness  to  the  Holy  See  when  the  con- 
duct of  the  struggle  required,  but  on  other  occasions 
using  methods  and  terms  to  which  Home,  rightly 
impatient  of  Gallican  pretensions,  was  obliged  to  take 
exception  (see  Janbbnius  and  Jansenism). 

B.  LtmU  XIV  and  Quietism. — His  personal  interest 
in  the  question  of  Quietism  was  shown  in  1604,  when, 
at  the  suggestion  of  Madame  de  Maintenon,  he  ordered 
three  coDunisBioners — Noailles,  Bossuet,  and  Tronsr  o 
— to  draw  up  the  Issy  articles  for  the  signature  of 
|fa4f«i^  Ouyon  and  Ftoelon.    In  July,  1697,  he 


asked  the  pope,  in  a  personal  letter,  to  pronounce  as 
soon  as  possible  upon  the  book  "  Maximes  des  Saints" 
(see  F±nelon);  in  1698  he  again  insisted,  threatening 
that,  if  the  condemnation  were  deferred,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  who  was  already  causing  the  "Maxi- 
mes" to  be  censured  by  twelve  professors  of  the 
Sorbonne — should  take  aiction.  Here  again,  as  in  the 
matter  of  Jansenism,  Louis  evinced  a  great  zeal  for 
correctness  of  doctrine  and,  on  the  other  hand,  an 
obstinate  Gallicanism  ready  at  every  moment  to  prose- 
cute a  doctrine  apart  from  and  without  the  pope,  if  the 
pope  himself  hesitated  to  proceed  against  it. 

C.  iMuis  XIV  and  Protestants.-— 4iinct  jutttice,  strict 
application  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  but  no  favour — 
such  was  Louis's  policy  towards  the  Protestants  after 
1661.  It  was  a  policy  based  on  the  hope  that  the  union 
of  all  his  subjects  in  one  faith  would  sooner  or  later  l)c 
easily  accomplished.  From  16<U  to  1679  means  were 
sought  to  limit  as  much  as  possible  the  application  of 
those  concessions  which  Henry  IV  had  niade  to  the 
Protestants  by  the  famous  Edict,  and  Pellisson,  a  con- 
vert from  Protest  an  ism,  organized  a  fund  to  aid  Hu- 
guenots who  should  come  over  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
From  1679  to  1685  a  more  active  policy  was  followed: 
Protestants  were  excluded  from  public  office  and  from 
the  liberal  professions,  while  tne  police  penetrated 
into  Protestant  families  in  order  to  keep  watch  upon 
them.  Ix)uvois'8  idea  of  quartering  soldiers  in  Protes- 
tant households  to  bring  them  to  reason  was  applied, 
after  1680,  in  Poitou  by  the  intendant  Marillac  in  the 
cruel  fashion  which  has  remained  famous  under  the 
name  of  dragannades.  The  king  blamed  Marillac,  but 
in  1684,  at  the  instigation  of  Louvois,  the  dragannades 
recommenced  in  Poitou,  B(6am,  Guyenne,  ond  Lan- 
suedoc,  with  more  excesses  than  the  kin^  knew  of. 
Misled  by  the  letters  of  Louvois  and  the  mtcndants 
(see  Lamoignon),  Louis  Ix-lievcd  that  there  were  no 
more  Protestants  in  France,  and  the  Edict  of  18 
October,  1685,  revoked  the  Edict  of  Nantes  and 
ordered  the  demolition  of  places  of  worship,  the  clos- 
ure of  Protestiint  schools,  the  exile  of  pastors  who 
refused  to  bo  converted,  and  the  baptism  of  Protestant 
children  by  Catholic  parish  priests.  On  the  other 
hand,  article  xii  of  the  eiiict  pro\'ided  that  subjects 
could  not  Ix;  molested  in  their  liberty  or  their  property 
on  account  of  the  ''alleged  reformecf"  religion,  so  that, 
in  theorj-,  it  was  still  permitted  to  anyone  to  be  in- 
dividually a  Protestant.  By  these  measures  Louis 
imagined  himself  to  l)e  only  Registering  an  accom- 

51islie<l  fact — the  extinction  of  the  heresy.  Innocent 
^I,  while  praising  the  king's  zeal,  in  the  consistorical 
allocution  of  18  March,  1686,  expressed  satisfaction 
with  those  French  prelates  who  had  censured  the 
dragonnadeSf  and  b(^e<l  James  II  to  use  his  good 
offices  with  Louis  to  obtain  gentler  treatment  for  the 
Protestants. 

The  fufiitive  and  proscril^  Protestants  thought 
of  retuniing  to  France,  even  in  spite  of  Louis.  Jurieu, 
in  his  "Avis  aux  Protestants  de  I'Europe  "  (1685-86) 
and  Claude  in  his  "Plaintes  des  Protestants"  (1686), 
gave  utterance  to  the  idea  of  a  union  of  all  the  Pro- 
testant powers  to  force  upon  the  King  of  France  the 
return  of  the  exiles.  In  the  success  of  William  of 
Orange,  in  16S8,  Jurieu  saw  an  indication  that  Eng- 
land would  soon  reinstate  Protes-tanism  in  France, 
and  that  an  aristocratic  government  would  be  sub- 
stituted there  for  the  monarchical.  These  prognos- 
tications were  developed  in  the  "Soupirs  de  la  France 
esclave ",  which  was  issue<l  in  parts  by  subscription. 
In  1698,  when  the  peace  of  Ryswick  was  being  ne- 
gotiated l)etween  Louis  and  William,  two  Protestant 
committees,  at  the  Hague,  made  an  attempt  to  com- 
mit Holland  and  England  to  the  demand  of  liberty 
for  French  Protestants,  but  William  confined  himself 
to  vague  and  politic  approaches  to  the  question  in 
his  dealings  with  Louis,  and  these  were  ill  received. 
In  a  letter  to  Cardinal  d'Estr^  (17  January,  \fiSft\^ 


L0X7IS 


376 


LOUIS 


Louis  liad  flattered  himself  that,  out  of  from  800,000 
to  900,000  Protestants,  only  from  1200  to  1500  re- 
mained. The  collective  abjurations  were  generally 
far  from  sincere;  the  new  converts  were  not  practising 
Catholics,  and  the  policy  of  the  authorities,  in  regard 
to  those  new  converts  who  remained  too  tepid,  varied 
strangely  in  the  several  provinces.  Was  it  still  lawful 
in  France  for  an  individual,  as  an  individual,  to  re- 
main a  Protestant?  Article  xii  of  the  edict  of  revo- 
cation implicitly  said  "Yes";  Louis  and  Louvois,  in 
their  letters,  said  "No",  explaining  that  all,  even  to 
the  very  last  individual,  must  be  converted,  and  that 
there  ought  no  longer  to  be  any  religion  but  one  in 
the  kingdom. 

In  1698  intendanis  and  bishops  were  consulted  as 
to  the  measures  to  be  taken  in  regard  to  the  Protest- 
ants. Bossuet,  Archbishop  Noailles,  and  almost  all 
the  bishops  of  northern  and  central  France  declared 
for  a  purely  spiritual  propaganda  animated  by  a  spirit 
of  gentleness;  Bossuet  maintained  that  Protestants 
must  not  be  forced  to  approach  the  sacraments.  The 
bishops  of  the  South,  on  the  contrary',  leaned  to  a 
policy  of  constraint.  As  r  result  of  this  consultation 
the  edict  of  13  December,  1698,  and  the  interpreting 
circular  of  7  January,  1699,  inaugurated  a  milder 
regime  and,  in  particular,  forbade  anyone  to  compel 
Protestants  to  approach  the  sacraments.  Lastly,  at 
the  end  of  his  reign,  Louis  ordered  a  new  inquiry  into 
the  causes  and  the  persistence  of  the  heresy,  and  de- 
creed, by  the  declaration  of  8  March,  1715,  that  jUl 
Protestants  who  had  continued  to  reside  in  the  king- 
dom since  1685  were  liable  to  the  penalties  of  relapsed 
heretics  unless  they  became  Catholics .  This  amounted 
to  an  implicit  admission  that  the  edict  of  1685  had 
meant  to  command  all  Protestants  to  embrace 
Catholicism.  The  alliance  between  the  revolted 
Protestants  of  the  Cevcnnes  (the  Camisards,  1703-06) 
and  England,  the  enemy  of  France,  had  driven  Louis 
to  adopt  this  policy  of  sternness. 

The  attitude  of  Innocent  XI  in  regard  to  the  perse- 
cution of  Protestants  and  the  grave  and  mature  dehb- 
pration  with  which  Clement  XI  proceieded  against  the 
Jansenists  prove  that,  even  at  those  very  moments 
when  the  religious  policy  of  Louis  XIV  was  resting 
upon,  or  was  invoking,  Rome,  the  full  responsibility 
for  certain  courses  of  precipitancy,  of  violence,  and 
of  cruelty  must  rest  with  tne  king.  Aspiring  to  be 
master  in  his  Church,  he  chastised  Protestants  and 
Jansenists  as  disobedient  subjects.  Though  there 
may  have  been  a  parallelism  of  action  and  a  reciproc- 
ity of  services  between  Louis  and  the  Holy  See,  still 
the  ideas  which  inspired  and  guided  the  religious 
policy  of  the  king  were,  in  fact,  alwavs  unlike  those 
of  the  contemporary  popes.  "Louis  XlV",  says  the 
historian  Casiniir  Gaillardin,  "assumed  to  direct  the 
conversion  of  his  subjects  at  the  whim  of  his  pride,  and 
by  ways  which  were  not  those  of  the  Churcn  and  the 
sovereign  pontiff." 

Documenth: — (Euvrca  de  Louis  XTV,  ed.  Grimoard  et 
Grouvelle  (Paris.  1806);  Mhnoires  de  Ixtuis  XIV  pour  Ttn- 
ttruciion  du  Dauphin,  ed.  Dretss  (Paris,  I860):  Deppino, 
Correspondance  admintstralive  nous  le  rigne  de  Louis  XJV  (Paris, 
1850-52);  Hanotaux.  Rrrurils  des  Instructions  aux  ambassa- 
deurs  h  Rome  (Paris,  1888);  Vast,  Les  grands  traiirs  du  rf-ffne 
de  I^uis  XIV  (Paris,  1898);  Mention,  Documents  relatifa 
aux  rapports  du  clergr  avec  la  roj/autf  de  168S  a  1705  (Paris, 
1893) ;  Lkmoine,  Memoirts  des  &t>f^ques  de  France  sur  Ja  conduits 
a  tenir  h  Vi'gard  des  rfformis  en  1698  (Paris,  1903);  Dangeait, 
Journal  U 684-1 720),  (Paris,  1854-61);  de  Sodrches,  Me- 
moires  sur  le  rigne  de  Louis  XIV  (1681-1712),  ed.  Cosvac; 
Saint-Simon,  Mhnoires,  ed.  Boisliblb  (Paris,  1871-1909); 
Spanheim,  Relation  de  la  cour  de  France  en  1690,  ed.  Bourgeois 

i Paris,  1900);  de  Maintenon,  Correspondince  gintrale,  ed. 
jAVALLtE  (Paris,  1865-1866);  Correspondence  de  la  Princesse 
Palatine,  trad.  Jaegl^  (Paris,  1890);  the  numerous  Mi-moires 
included  in  the  collection  of  Michaud  and  Poujoulat  should 
be  consulted. 

B.  Historical  Writinos. — Voltaire,  SiMe  de  Louis  XIV, 
ed.  RtBELLiAU,  (Paris,  1894);  Gaillardin,  Histoire  du  r'gne 
ds  lA>uis  XIV  (Paris,  1877-79);  Phiupp»on,  Das  ZeitaUer 
Ludwigs  des  Vienehnien  (Beriiu,  1870);  Hassall,  Louis  XIV 
and  the  Zenith  of  the  French  Monarchy  (New  York,  1895); 
LATiflsii,  Histoire   de  France,    VII-VIIT    (PAiia,    1907-06); 


Ch^^rot,  La  premiere  jeunesse  de  Louie  XIV  (Lille,  1802); 
Lacour-Gatbt,  Uiducation  politique  de  Louie  XTv  (PaiiB, 
1898) ;  CHiRUBL,  Histoire  de  France  pendant  la  minoriti  de 
Louie  XIV  (Paris,  1879-^);  Reynold.  LouU  XIV  el 
GuiUaume  III  (Paris,  1883):  Valfret,  Huguee  de  Uonne 
(Paris,  1877  and  1881);  De  Boisusle.  Lee  Coneeile  eoue  Louie 
XIV  (Paris,  1891);  Haggard,  Louie  XIV  in  Court  and  Camp 
(London,  1904) ;  Farmer,  Vereaillee  and  the  Court  under  Louu 
XIV  (London,  1906);  De  MoOt,  L'Ambaseade  du  due  de  Cri- 
qui  (Paris,  1893);  Michadd,  Louie  XIV  el  Innocent  XI  (Paris. 
1882-83);  G±«nf,  Recherchee  sur  Vaseemblie  de  1682  (Paris. 
1870);  IDEIK,  Lottie  XIV  et  le  Saint  Sii'm  (Pans,  1894);  Idem. 
Le  pape  Innocent  XI  etla  rH>ocation  de  I  Edit  de  Nantes  in  Reeue 
des  Questions  historiques,  XXIV  (1878);  Douen,  La  R&voeation 
a  Paris,  et  dans  Vile  de  France  (Paris,  1894);  Landau,  Rem, 
Wien  und  Neapel  wAhrend  dee  spaniechen  Erhfolgekriege  (Ldp- 
ziff,  1885);  D'Haussonville,  La  duchesse  de  Bourgogne  (Fans. 
1898-1908);  Lb  Rot.  La  France  et  Rome  de  1700  a  1716  (Paris, 
1892). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Louifl  Allemandy  Blessed,  Cardinal,  Archbishop 
of  Aries,  whose  name  has  been  written  in  a  great  vari- 
ety of  ways  (Alamanus,  Alemanus,  Almannus,  Ala* 
mandus,  etc.),  was  bom  at  Arbent  in  the  Diocese  of 
Belley  in  1380  or  1381  (Beyssac,  p.  310) ;  d.  16  Septem- 
ber, 1450.  Through  the  influence  of  a  relative,  Fran- 
9oi8  de  Conzi^,  who  was  papal  chamberlain,  AUemand 
soon  l>ecame  prominent  in  the  ecclesiastical  world. 
He  was  named  Bishop  of  Maguelonne  in  1418  by  Mar- 
tin V,  who  entrusted  him  with  important  missions,  re- 
garding for  example  the  transference  from  Pavia  to 
Siena  of  the  council  which  was  convoked  in  1423.  In 
December,  1423,  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Aries  and 
in  1426  Cardinal.  Later  on  and  espepiaUy  after  1436 
he  began  to  play  a  most  important  part  in  the  Coimcil 
of  Basle,  where  he  made  himself  the  head  of  the  party 
which  maintained  the  supremacy  of  the  council  over 
the  pope  (a  doctrine  already  much  ventilated  at  Con- 
stance where  Allemand  haa  been  present),  and  which 
eventually  proceeded  to  the  deposition  of  Eugeniua 
IV. 

In  1439  Allemand  was  primarily  responsible  for 
the  election  of  Felix  V,  the  antipope,  and  it  was  AUe- 
mand who,  sometime  later,  consecrated  him  bishop 
and  crowned  him  as  supremepontiff .  During  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  assembly  at  Bask  the  cardinal  showed 
heroic  courage  in  tending  the  plague-stricken.  He 
was  also  a  diligent  promoter  of  the  decree  passed  by 
the  council  in  favour  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of 
Our  Lady.  In  the  years  which  followed  Allemand  dis- 
charged several  diplomatic  missions  in  behalf  of  FeUx 
V,  while  he  op^ly  disregarded  the  decrees  of  Eugenius 
IV,  which  pronounced  him  ''excommunicated  and 
deprived  him  of  his  dignity  as  cardinal.  After  the 
resignation  of  Felix  V,  brought  about  by  the  assembly 
of  bishops  which  met  at  Lvons  in  1449,  Allemand  was 
reinstated  in  his  dignities  by  Nicholas  V.  His  violent 
action  at  Basle  seems  to  have  resulted  from  an  earnest 
desire  for  the  reform  of  the  Church,  and  having  made 
his  submission  to  Nicholas  V,  he  is  believed  to  have 
done  penance  for  his  former  disloyal  and  schismatical 
conduct.  He  died  shortly  after  in  the  odour  of  sanc- 
tity. His  private  life  had  always  been  a  penitential 
one,  and  many  miracles  were  reported  to  nave  been 
worked  at  his  tomb.  In  1527  a  Brief  of  Clement  VII 
permitted  him  to  be  venerated  as  Blessed. 

Ada  SS.,  Sep.,  V;  Schmid  in  Kirchenlexieon  8.  ▼.  AUman, 
Ludwig;  Beyssac  in  the  Rexme  du  Lyonnaie,  Nov.,  Dec,  1809; 
Alban^.b  and  Chevalier,  Gallia  Christiana  Notieeima  (Aries, 
1901).  787-830,  1312-79;  Pastor,  History  of  the  Popee,  I  (tr. 
London,  1891);  Hefele,  Camn'/MtH^eacAtcAte,  VII,803;  SAXiua, 
Pontificium  AreUUense  CA\x,  1629),  and,  moat  important  of  all 
Pekouse,  Le  Cardinal  Louie  Aleman,  (Paris,  1904). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Louis  Bertrand,  Saint,  b.  at  Valencia,  Spain,  1 
Jan.,  152G;  d.  9  Oct.,  1581.  His  parents  were  Juan 
Bertrand  and  Juana  Angela  Exarch.  Through  his 
father  he  was  related  to  the  illustrious  St.  Vincent 
Ferrer,  the  great  thaumaturgus  of  the  Dominican 
Order.  The  boyhood  of  the  saint  was  unattended 
by  any  of  the  prodigies  that  frequently  forecast 
heroic  sanctity.    At  an  early  age  be  eonoeiiFied  the 


LOUIS  377  L0UI8B 

idea  of  beooming  a  Friar  Preacher,  and  despite  the  Church  by  St.  Louis.  Turon  places  the  number  of 
efforts  of  his  father  to  dissuade  him,  was  clothed  with  converts  in  Tubera  at  10,000.  What  gr^tlv  enhances 
the  Dominican  habit  in  the  Convent  of  St.  Dominic,  the  merit  of  this  wonderful  achievement  is  that  all  had 
Valencia,  26  Aug.,  1544.  After  the  usual  probation,  been  adequately  instructed  in  the  teachings  of  the 
in  which  he  distinguished  himself  above  all  his  asso*  Church  before  receiving  baptism,  and  continue  stead- 
dates  in  the  qualities  of  an  ideal  religious,  he  pro*  fast  in  their  faith. 

nounced  the  vows  that  irrevocably  bound  him  to  the  From  Tul^era  the  Apostle  bent  his  steps  in  the  dlrec- 
Hfe  of  perfection.  The  profound  signiiicanoe  of  his  tion  of  C*ipacoa  and  Paluato.  Ilis  success  at  Uie  for* 
religious  profession  served  as  a  stimulus  to  the  in-  mer  place,  the  exact  location  of  which  it  is  impossible 
crease  of  virtues  that  already  gave  evidence  of  being  to  determine,  was  little  inferior  to  that  of  Tubera.  At 
cast  in  heroic  mould.  In  demeanour  he  was  grave,  Paluato  the  results  of  his  zealous  efforts  were  some- 
and  apparently  without  any  sense  of  humour,  vet  what  disheartening.  From  this  imfruitful  soil  the 
withal  possessed  of  a  gentle  and  sweet  disposition  that  saint  withdrew  to  the  pro\incc  of  St.  Martha,  where 
greatly  endeared  him  to  those  with  whom  he  came  in  his  former  successes  were  repeated.  This  harvest 
contact.  While  he  could  lav  no  claim  to  the  great  yielded  15,000  souls.  While  labouring  at  St  Martlia, 
intellectual  gifts  and  ripe  scholurship  that  have  dis-  a  tribe  of  1500  Indians  came  to  him  u'om  Paluato  to 
tingmshed  so  manv  of  the  saints  oi  the  Dominican  implorethcgraceof  l)aptism,  which  1x;fore  they  had  re- 
Order  he  a{)plied  himself  assiduously  to  study,  and  jectoid.  The  work  at  St.  Martha  finished,  the  tireless 
storedf  his  mind  with  the  sacred  truths  expounded  in  missionary  mulertook  the  work  of  converting  the  war- 
the  pages  of  the  "Summa".  In  1547  he  was  ad-  like  Caribs,  probably  inliabitaiits  of  the  I..eeward  Is- 
vanoed  to  the  priesthood  by  the  Archbishop  of  Valen-  lands.  Ilis  efTorts  amone  these  fierce  tril)esmen  seem 
cia,  St.  Thomas  of  Villanova.  not  to  liavc  been  attended  with  any  great  success. 
The  extraordinary  sanctity  of  the  young  Domini-  Xeverthcless,  the  apostolatc  among  the  Caribs  fur- 
can's  life,  and  the  remarkable  influence  he  exercised  nished  the  occasion  again  to  make  manifest  the  Divine 
on  those  about  him,  singled  him  out  as  one  peculiarly  protection  which  constantly  oversliadowed  the  minis- 
fitted  to  lead  others  along  the  path  of  perfection.  tr>' of  St.  Louis.  A  deadly  draught  was  administered 
Consequently,  he  was  appointed  to  the  most  responsible  to  him  ])y  one  of  the  native  priests.  Through  Di\'ine 
office  oif  master  of  no\ices.  in  the  convent  at  \  alencia,  interposition,  the  virulent  poison  failed  to  accomplish 
the  duties  of  which  he  discliarged  at  different  inter-  its  purpose,  thus  fulfilling  the  words  of  St.  Mark:  "  If 
vals  for  an  aggregate  of  thirty  years.  The  plague  they  shall  drink  anj'  deadly  thing,  it  shall  not  hurt 
that  decimated  t)^  inhabitants  of  \'ulencia  and  the  them"  (xvi,  18).  Tenerifte  next  became  the  field  of 
vicinity  in  1557,  afforded  the  saint  an  excellent  op-  the  saint's  apostolic  labours.  Unfortunately,  how- 
portunity  for  the  exercise  of  his  charity  and  zeal,  ever,  there  arc  no  records  extant  to  indicate  what  was 
Tirelessly  he  ministered  to  the  spiritual  and  physical  the  result  of  his  preaching.  At  Mompox,  thirty-seven 
needs  ot  the  afflicted.  With  the  tenderness  and  do-  leagues  south-cast  of  Carthagena,  we  are  told,  rather 
votion  of  a  mother  he  nursed  the  sick.    The  dead  indefinitely,  that  many  thousands  were  converttnl  to 


scope  ,          . 

ready  large  ministry  into  the  apostolate  of  preaching.  After  an  apostolatc  the  marvellous  and  enduring 

Though  possessed  of  none  of  the  natural  qualities  fruits  of  which  have  richly  merited  for  him  the  title  of 

deemed  essential  for  a  successful  career  in  the  pulpit,  Apostle  of  South  America,  he  n'turncd  under  obcdi- 

he  immediately  attracted  attention  as  a  preacher  of  ence  to  his  native  Spain,  which  he  had  left  just  seven 

great  force  and  far-reaching  influence.    The  cathe-  vears  before.     Duriiig  the  eleven  remaining  vears  of 

dral  and  most  capacious  churches  were  placed  at  his  his  life  many  offlces  of  honour  and  responsibility  were 

disposal,  but  proved  wholly  inadequate  to  accom-  imposed  upon  him.    The  numerous  duties  that  at- 

modate  the   multitude  that  desir^   to  hear  him.  tachcd  to  them  were  not  ix'rniitted  to  interfere  with 

Eventually  it  became  necessary  for  him  to  resort  to  the  exacting  regime  of  his  holy  life.    The  ever  increas- 

tbe  public  squares  of  the  city.    It  was  probably  the  ing  fame  of  his  sanctity  and  wis<lom  won  the  admira- 

fame  of  his  preaching  that  brought  him  to  the  atten-  tion  and  confidence  of  even  the  officials  of  the  Govem- 

tion  of  St.  iferesa,  who  at  this  time  sought  his  coun-  ment,  who  more  tlian  once  consulte<l  him  in  affairs  of 

ael  in  the  matter  of  reforming  her  order.  State.     With  the  heroic  natience  tliat  characterized 

Unknown  to  his  brethren,  St.  Louis  liad  long  cher-  bis  whole  life  he  endured  tiie  ordeal  of  his  last  sickness, 

fields  of  tlie  New  He  was  canonized  by  Clement  X  in  1C71.     His  feast 


ished  the  desire  to  enter  the  mission 

World.    The  hope  that  there  he  might  find  the  coveted  is  observed  on  10  Octolx?r. 

crown  of  martyrdom  contributed  not  a  little  to  sliarp-  _  Wilberforck,  The  Life  of  St. 

emng  the  ed^  of  his  desire.     Possessed  of  the  neces-  Dominique  (r.-iris.  1747),  IV,  4S5-5l»0;  Kozk.  I.es  Dominicnxn% 

nry  permission  he  sailed  for  Amenca  m  1562,  and  m  AnUrique  {Pans,  187S),  2<k)-:uo;  Byusk,  i>kticht8  of  hIu^- 

landed  at  Cartagena,  where  he  immediately  entered  ^ribtt«Z)om»nk:on«CBo3tou,  1884).  1-95.  ^ 

upon  the  career  of  a  missionary.     The  work  thus  be-  John'  B.  O  C  onnor. 

gun  was  certainly  fruitful  to  an  extnvordinary  degree,        Louis  de  Blois.    See  Bi/^sius,  Fran^^ois-Louis. 
and  bore  unmistakably  the  stamp  of  Divine  approba- 

bation.  The  process  of  his  canonization  bears  con-  Louise,  Sistkr,  educator  and  organizer,  b.  at 
vincin^  testimony  to  the  wonderful  conciuest  which  Bergen -op -Zoom,  Holland,  14  Nov.,  l!Sl3;  d.  at 
the  saint  achiev^  in  this  new  field  of  kljour.  The  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  3  Dec.,  ISfSC).  Josephine  Susanna 
Bull  of  canonisation  asserts  that,  to  facilitate  the  work  Vanderschriek  wiw  the  tenth  of  the  twelve  children  of 
of  converting  the  natives  to  Gml,  the  apostle  was  Cornelius  Vanderschriek,  advocate,  and  his  wife  Clara 
miraculously  endowed  with  the  gift  of  tongues.  From  Maria  Wecnan.  Soon  after  her  birth  her  father  re- 
Cartagena,  the  scene  of  his  first  lalxjiu^.  St.  I^uis  was  moved  with  lus  family  to  Antwerp,  gave  up  the  prac- 
sent  to  Panama,  where  in  a  comparati)  J.y  short  tinie  tice  of  the  law,  and  engaged  in  what  had  l)ecn  the 
he  converted  some  6,000  Indians.  His  next  mission  family  businetf>s  for  generations,  the  manufacture  and 
wis  at  Tubera,  situated  near  the  sea-coast  and  mid-  exportation  of  woolen  cloths,  in  which  he  amassed  a 
way  between  the  city  of  Cartagena  and  the  Magdalcna  large  fortune.  From  her  father  Josephine  inherited 
Riyer.  The  success  of  his  efforts  at  this  place  is  wit-  remarkable  skill  in  the  management  of  affairs,  finnness 
nened  by  the  entries  of  the  baptismal  registers,  in  the  in  whatever  involve<l  principle,  and  unswerving  fidel- 
■aint'B  own  handwriting.  These  entries  show  that  all  ity  to  duty;  from  her  mother,  a  gentle  and  amiable 
tbe  inhabitantB  of  the  place  were  received  into  the  disposition  which  endeared  her  to  all.    Sho.  ncvic^  <^\br 


LOUZftimA 


878 


hoxnuiJUL 


eated  by  the  Sisten  of  Notre-Dame,  at  their  mother- 
house  at  Namur,  Belgium,  and  by  private  tutors  at 
home.  Her  desire  to  enter  the  novitiate  being 
thwarted  for  some  years,  she  busied  herself  in  works  of 
piety  and  charity,  until  in  1837  she  was  permitted 
to  return  to  Namur.  Clothed  in  the  reli^ous  habit, 
15  Oct.,  1837,  under  the  name  of  Sister  Xouise,  her 
fervour  was  such  that  her  time  of  probation  was 
shortened,  and  ^e  pronounced  her  vows  on  7  May, 
1839. 

That  same  year  Bishop,  later  Archbishop,  J.  B. 
Purcell,  of  Cincinnati,  visiting  Namur,  asked  for  sis- 
ters for  his  diocese :  and  Sister  Louise  was  one  of  eight 
volunteers  chosen  for  the  distant  mission.  The  sisters 
hmded  in  New  York,  19  Oct.,  1840,  and  proceeded  at 
once  to  Cincinnati,  where,  after  some  delay,  they  set- 
tled in  the  house  on  East  Sixth  Street,  which  still 
forms  the  nucleus  of  the  large  convent  and  schools. 
Sister  Louise's  knowledge  of  the  English  language,  her 
great  mind,  but  still  more  her  edifying  life,  caused  her. 
although  the  ^^ouneest  of  the  community,  to  be  named 
in  1845  superior  of  the  convent  at  Cincinnati,  and  in 
1848  superior  of  all  houses  which  might  branch  out 
from  that,  a  responsibility  she  bore  until  her  death. 
During  these  forty  years  the  institute  spread  rapidly, 
owing  to  her  zeal  and  prudence.  She  founded  houses 
at  Cincinnati  (Court  Street),  Toledo,  Chillicothe,  Co- 
lumbus, Hamilton,  Reading,  and  Dayton  (Ohio); 
Philadelphia  (Pennsylvania);  Washington  (D.  C); 
Boston  f4),  Lowell,  Lawrence,  Salem  (2),  Cambridge, 
Somerville,  Chelsea,  Lynn,  Sprinefiela,  Worcester, 
Chicopee,  Milford,  Holyoke,  and  W^bum  (Massachu- 
setts). In  many  of  these  cities  the  sisters,  residing  in 
one  convent,  teach  in  the  schools  of  several  parishes ; 
so  that  in  1886  the  number  of  pupils  all  told  was 
23,000,  while  the  pupils  in  Sunday  schools  and  the 
members  of  sodalities  for  women  counted  as  many 
more.  The  institute  itself  increased  in  the  meantime 
from  eight  members  to  nearly  twelve  hundred.  From 
the  outset  the  rule  was  kept  in  its  integrity.  Strict 
\mlbn  has  always  been  mamtained  with  the  mother- 
house  at  Namur;  but  it  was  early  recognized  that  if 
the  supply  of  teachers  was  to  keep  up  with  the  de- 
mand, a  no\'itiate  must  be  established  in  America. 
This  was  accordingly  done,  and  the  first  to  be  clothed 
by  Sister  Louise  in  the  New  World  (March,  1846)  was 
Sister  Julia,  destined  to  be  her  successor  in  the  office 
of  provincial,  after  she  had  been  her  trusted  counsellor 
for  years.  In  1877  a  second  novitiate  was  opened  at 
Roxbury,  in  the  suburbs  of  Boston,  Massachusetts, 
which  was  later  transferred  to  Waltham.  Up  to  that 
time,  colonies  of  sisters  had  occasionally  been  sent 
from  Namur,  and  the  ranks  had  been  increased  by 
some  of  the  sisters  exiled  from  Guatemala  in  1859. 
On  the  other  Iiand,  Sister  Louise  was  able  to  send 
some  help  to  the  province  of  California,  established 
in  1851. 

The  mere  recital  of  these  facts  as  the  outline  of  one 
woman's  life-work  implies  her  possession  of  uncom- 
mon talents  and  of  administrative  power  of  a  high 
order.  Sister  Louise  was  a  perfect  religious;  yet  her 
sanctitv  was  so  free  from  any  singularity  of  manners 
or  conduct,  so  true  to  the  rules  and  spirit  of  her  insti- 
tute, that  what  was  said  of  St.  Teresa  by  her  sisters 
might  also  be  said  of  her,  "Thank  God,  we  have  seen 
a  saint  just  like  ourselves  ".  From  her  zeal  for  God's 
glory  and  the  salvation  of  souls  sprang  love  of  prayer, 
open-handed  generosity  in  adommg  the  house  of  God, 
reverence  for  priests  and  religious.  From  her  spirit  of 
faith  sprane  trust  in  God,  humility,  charity  to  the  poor 
and  the  suffering,  and  the  thoughtful  motherly  tender- 
ness for  all  her  sistors  with  which  her  great  heart 
overflowed.  She  sedulously  prepared  her  teachers  to 
impart  an  education,  simpfe,  solid,  practical,  progres- 
sive, full  of  the  spirit  of  taith,  capaole  of  turning  out 
good  Catholic  young  women  for  the  upbuilding  of  the 
home  and  the  naUoiL    She  had  no  patience  with  the 


superficial,  the  showy,  in  the  training  cf  giris.  She 
visited  every  year  the  convents  east  and  west,  saw  all 
the  sisters  privately,  inspected  the  aehods,  and  con- 
sulted with  the  reverend  pastors.  It  was  therefore 
with  full  knowledge  of  her  wide  field  of  labour  thai  she 
uttered  as  her  last  advice  to  her  community,  and  un- 
consciously therein  her  own  best  eulogy: "  Inank  God, 
there  are  no  abuses  to  be  corrected,  individual  faults 
there  are,  for  that  is  human  nature,  but  none  of  com- 
mimitv.  Keep  out  the  world  and  its  spirit,  and  God 
will  bless  you." 

SisTSR  OF  NoTRB  Dame,  Life  oJSider  Smerwr  LouUe;  Maw- 
nix,  Memoiru  oJSUter  Louise;  A  nnaU  of  the  Iio%U€  ofCimeinnati  ; 
Conference*  of  Sitter  Louise  to  her  Communiiy;  see  also  JuuB 
BiuxAST,  BLE88SD,  and  NoTRB  Dame  de  NAifint,  fosrsm  or. 

Sister  of  Notre  Dams. 

Louisiana. — I.  Colonial — ^The  history  of  Louisiana 
forms  an  important  part  of  the  history  ci  the  United 
States,  and  is  romantic  and  interesting.  It  is  closely 
connected  with  the  history  of  France  and  of  Spain, 
somewhat  with  that  of  Enuand,  and  for  this  reason  is 
more  picturesque  than  the  history  of  any  other  state  of 
the  American  Union.  Alvarez  de  Pineda  is  said  to 
have  discovered  the  Mississippi  River  in  1519.  but  his 
Rio  del  Espiritu  Santo  was  probably  the  Mobile  River, 
and  we  may  leave  to  Hernando  de  Soto  the  honour  of 
having  been  in  1541  the  discoverer  of  the  mighty 
stream  into  which  his  body  was  projected  by  his 
companions  after  the  failure  of  his  expedition,  under- 
taken for  the  conouest  of  Florida.  Some  time  before 
the  discovery  by  De  Soto,  Pamphilo  de  Narvaes  had 
perished  in  endeavouring  to  conquer  Florida,  but  five 
of  his  followers  had  succeeded  m  reaching  Mexico. 
One  of  them,  Alvar  Nufiez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  described 
their  wanderings,  in  which  they  must  have  crossed  the 
Mississippi.  Many  years  after  de  Soto  the  great 
Mississippi  was  rediscovered  in  1673  by  the  Canadian 
trader  Louis  Joliet,  and  by  the  saintly  missicHiary, 
Father  Jacques  Marquette,  forerunners  of  Robert 
Cavelier  de  La  Salle,  the  celebrated  Norman  explorer. 
The  latter  floated  down  the  Illinois  River  in  1682. 
and,  entering  the  Mississippi,  followed  the  course  or 
the  river  to  its  mouthjana  on  9  April  toc^  possesion, 
in  the  name  of  Louis  AlV,  of  the  country  watered  by 
the  Mississippi  and  ite  tributaries.  To  that  vast 
region  he  gave  the  name  of  "  Louisiane"  in  honour  of 
the  King  of  France,  who  carried  royal  power  to  the 
highest  point,  and  who  was  always  firm,  energetie,  and 
courageous.  Among  La  Salle's  compsmons  were  the 
chivalric  Henry  de  Tonty  and  Fathers  Z6nobe  Mem- 
bra and  Anastase  Douay.  ^  The  name  Louisiane  is 
found  for  the  first  time  in  a  grant  of  an  island 
to  Frangois  Daupin,  signed  by  La  Salle,  10  Junew 
1679. 

Louis  XrV  wbhed  to  colonise  Louisiana  and  to 
unite  it  to  his  possessions  in  Canada  by  a  chain  of 
posts  in  the  Mississippi  valley.  England  would  thus 
De  hemmed  in  between  th«)  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the 
Appalachian  range  of  mountains.  La  Salle  endea- 
voured to  carry  out  this  scheme  in  1684,  but  Mi 
colony,  Fort  Louis,  established  by  mistake  on  the 
coast  of  what  is  now  Texas,  periled  when  its  founder 
was  murdered  on  the  Trimty  River  by  some  of  his 
own  men  on  19  March,  1687.  In  1688  James  II  was 
expelled  from  England,  and  the  war  which  ensued 
between  Louis  XIV  and  William  III  lasted  until  1697. 
When  there  was  peace,  the  King  of  France  thoujdit 
once  more  of  settlmg  the  land  discovered  by  La  SaUe, 
and  his  minister  Maurepas  chose  Pierre  Le  Ifoyne 
d'Iberville  as  the  man  best  fitted  to  aooomplish  that 
task.  Iberville  was  the  third  son  of  Charles  Le  If  osmeu 
a  Norman  established  in  Canada.  He  was  a  native  of 
Villemarie  (Montreal) ,  was  "  as  military  as  his  swoid '% 
and  was  a  brave  and  able  marine  officer.  He  left 
Brest  on  24  Oct..  169S,  and  that  date  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  history  of  the  United  States,  for  oo 
board  the  small  frigates,  the  Badine  and  the  Maitab 


L0UX8XAIUL                          379  lOUIUAlU 

wwe  the  seeds  from  which  was  to  grow  Louisiana,  and  the  Indians  had  to  be  subdued.    It  was  only  then 

the  province  which  was  to  give  to  the  American  Union  that  the  work  of  civilization  coidd  be  begun,  and  the 

thirteen  states  and  one  territory  and  to  exert  a  great  admirable  culture  of  the  French  extended  to  the 

influence  on  the  civilisation  of  the  United  States.    In  Mississippi  Valley.    The  ele^nce  and  refinement  of 

Fefaruaiy,  1600,  Iberville  and  his  young  brother  Bien-  manners  of  Pans  in  the  'eighteenth  century  were 

ville  saw  the  beautiful  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  found  in  New  Orleans  from  the  very  foundation  of  the 

where  are  now  Biloxi  and  Ocean  Spring,  and  after  city,  and  the  women  of  Louisiana  are  mentioned  by 

having  found  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  on  2  March,  the  early  chroniclers  with  great  praise  for  their  beauty 

1009,  and  explored  the  "  hidden"  river,  they  built  and  charm.    Thev  owed,  to  a  great  extent,  their 

Fort  liaureDas  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  French  mental  and  moral  training  to  the  instruction  and 

oc^ony  on  the  Gulf  Coast,  on  the  Ocean  Springs  side  education  which  they  received  at  the  convent  oi  the 

of  the  Bay  of  Biloxi.    Iberville  ordered  a  fort  to  be  Ursidine  nims.    The  sons  of  wealthy  colonists  were 

built  fifty-four  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  sent  to  France  to  be  educated  or  were  taught  at  pri- 

This  was  the  first  settlement  in  the  present  State  of  vate  schools  at  home,  such  as  the  one  kept  in  1727 

Louisiana,  and  was  abandoned  in  1705.    On  4  May,  by  Father  C^ile,  a  Capuchin  monk.    As  girls  could 

1600,  Iberville  sailed  for  France  on  board  the  Badine,  not  be  sent  to  Europe  to  obtain  an  education,  a  schoc^ 

with  the  Count  de  Surg^res  who  commanded  the  for  them  was  absolutely  necessanr  in  New  Orleans, 

Miarin.    Sauvole,  a  young  French  officer,  had  been  and  Bienville,  at  the  suggestion  ot  the  Jesuit  Father 

given  command  of  the  fort  at  Biloxi.  and  Bienville  de  Beaubois,  asked  that  six  Ursuline  nuns  be  sent 

bad  been  appointed  lieutenant  (second  in  command),  from  France  to  attend  to  the  hospital  and  to  open  a 

Sauvole,  who  may  be  considered  the  first  Governor  of  school  for  girls.    The  nuns  arriveu  in  July,  1727,  and 

Irfniisiana,  died  on  22  Aug.,  1701,  and  Jean-Baptiste  were  received  with  great  kindness  by  Governor  P^rier, 

Le  Moyne  de  Bienville  succeeded  him  in  the  command  his  wife,  and  the  people  of  the  town.    In  her  letters 

of  the  colony.    Iberville  ordered  Bienville  to  remove  to  her  father  Sbter  Madeleine  Hachard  gives  an 

the  seat  of  the  colon3r  from  Biloxi  and  form  an  estab-  interesting:  account  of  New  Orleans  in  1727,  speaks  of 

liahment  aa  Mobile  Kiver.    This  was  done  in  January,  the  magnificent  dresses  of  the  ladies,  and  sayis  that  a 

1702,  when  Fort  Louis  de  la  Mobile  was  constructed  song  was  publicly  sung  in  which  it  was  said  that  the 

at  a  pmnt  eighteen  leagues  from  the  sea.    In  1711  city  had  as  much  ''appearance"  as  Paris,  and  she 

the  settlement  was  moved  to  the  site  which  is  now  adds  quaintlv:  "Indeed  it  is  very  beautiful,  but  be- 

oeeufided  by  the  city  of  Mobile.    In  1704  the  devoted  sides  that  I  have  not  enough  eloquence  to  be  able  to 

friend  <rf  La  Salle,  Henry  de  Tonty,  died  at  Mobile,  persuade  ^'ou  of  the  beauty  which  the  song  mentions, 

and  on  0  July,  1706,  Iberville,  the  founder  of  Louisi-  I  find  a  difference  between  this  city  and  that  of  Paris. 

ana«  died  at  Havana  of  yellow  fever.  It  might  persuade  people  who  had  never  seen  the 

Tiie  founders  of  Louisiana  had  made  the  mistake  of  capital  of  France,  but  1  have  seen  it,  and  the  song 
oeglectixig  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  when  the  fort  will  not  persuade  me  of  the  contrary  of  what  I  believe. 
on  tile  river  was  abandoned  in  1705,  and,  although  It  is  true  that  it  is  increasing  every  day,  and  later  may 
there  were  Old  Biloxi  and  Mobile,  the  settlement  coiud  become  as  beautiful  and  as  large  as  the  principal 
not  proq>er  as  long  as  it  was  limited  in  its  site  to  the  towns  of  France,  if  there  still  come  workmen,  ana  it 
laxKl  on  the  gulf.  The  colony  might  not  have  been  become  peopled  according  to  its  size."  Sister  Made- 
permanent,  had  not  Bienville  in  February,  1718.  Icine  was  prophetic,  as  Father  Charlevoix  had  be^i 
twelve  years  after  the  death  of  Iberville,  founded  in  his  letter  quoted  above  (in  1722).  In  1734  the 
New  Orieans,  so  admirably  situated  between  the  UrsuUnes  occui)ied  the  convent,  built  for  them  by  the 
deep  and  broad  Mississippi  and  beautiful  Lake  Pont-  Government,  which  is  still  stanciing  on  Chartres  street. 
chartrain.  In  1722  the  seat  of  the  colony  was  trans-  They  remained  there  until  1824,  when  they  moved  to 
ferred  from  Xew  Biloxi,  which  had  l)een  founded  in  another  building  do;^^  the  river.  Their  services  as 
1710,  to  New  Orleans,  and  the  future  of  Louisiana  was  educators  of  the  girls  of  Louisiana  in  colonial  times 
assured.    It  was  then  directed  by  the  Western  Com-  were  invaluable. 

pany,  had  received  for  a  time  the  aid  of  the  bank  of  The  Province  of  Louisiana  had  been  divided  on  16 

John  Law,  and  from  1712  to  1717  had  been  conceded  May,  1722,  into  three  spiritual  jurisdictions.    The 

to  another  banker,  Crozat,  who  had  agreed  to  develop  first,  comprising  all  the  countiy  from  the  mouth  of  the 

the  resources  of  the  colony  but  had  failed  in  his  enter-  Mississippi  to  the  Wabash,  ancf  west  of  the  Mississippi, 

prise.    On  10  January,  1722,  Father  Charlevoix,  in  a  was  allotted  to  the  Capuchins,  whose  superior  was  to 

letter  dated  from  New  Orleans,  says:  "This  wild  and  be  vicar-gencral  of  the*Bi:3hop  of  Quebec  and  was  to 

desert  place,  which  the  weeds  and  trees  still  cover  reside  in  Xew  Orleans.    The  second  extended  north 

almost  entirely,  will  be  one  day,  and  perhaps  that  from  the  Wabash  and  belonged  to  the  Jesuits,  whose 

day  is  not  distant,  an  opulent  city  and  the  metropolis  superior,  residing  in  the  Illinois  country,  was  also  to  be 

of  a  rich  and  great  colony."    The  distinguished  his-  vicar-general  of  the  Bishop  of  Quebec  in  that  depart- 

torian  baaed  this  hope  "on  the  situation  of  this  town  ment.    The  third  comprised  all  the  country  east  of 

thirty-three  leagues  from  the  sea,  and  on  the  bank  the  Mississippi  from  the  sea  to  the  Wabash,  and  was 

of  a  navigable  river,  which  one  can  ascend  to  this  given  to  the  Carmelites,  whose  superior  was  also 

plaoe  in  twenty-four  hours;    on  the  fertility  of  its  vicar-general  and  resided  usually  at  Mobile.    The 

soU,  on  the  mildness  and  goodness  of  its  climate,  at  a  Capuchins  took  possession  of  their  district  in  1722. 

latitude  of  thirty  degrees  north;   on  the  industiy  of  The  Jesuits  had  already  been  in  theirs  a  long  time, 

its  inhabitants;   on  the  proximity  of  Mexico,  where  The  jurisdiction  of  the  Carmelites  was  added  to  that  of 

one  can  go  in  two  weeks  by  sea;  on  that  of  Havana,  the  Capuchins  on  19  December,  1722,  and  the  former 

which  is  still  closer,  of  the  most  beautiful  islands  of  returned  to  France.    In  December,  1723,  the  juris- 

America  and  of  the  English  colonics."  diction  of  the  Capuchins  was  restricted  to  the  country 

It  was  no  easy  matter  to  establish  a  successful  on  both  sides  of  the  river  from  Natchez  south  to  the 

colony  in  the  New  World,  and  the  French  under  sea,  as  the  Capuchins  were  not  very  numerous.     It 

Iberville  and  BienviUe,  and  the  descendants  of  these  was,  however,  decided  in  1725  that  no  monks  or 

men,  were  just  as  energetic  as  the  Englishmen  who  priests  could  attend  to  churches  or  missions  within 

settled  Virginia  and  Massachusetts.    There  were  on  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Capuchins  without  the  consent 

the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  primeval  forests  to  be  cut  of  the  latter.    A  little  later  the  spiritual  care  of  all  the 

down,^  in  order  to  cultivate  profitably  the  fertile  land  savages  in  the  province  was  given  to  the  Jesuits,  and 

deposited  by  the  Jgeat  river  in  its  rapid  course  to-  their  superior  was  allowed  to  reside  in  New  Orleans, 

^mds  the  gulf.    Tlie  turbulent  waters  of  the  river  provided  he  performed    no   ecclesiastical  functions 

were  to  be  held  in  their  bed  l>y  strong  embankments,  ^-ithout  the  consent  of  the  Capuchins.  Several  Jesuits 


LOUISIAHA 


380 


LOxnaiAlTA 


anived  in  New  Orleans  with  the  Ursuline  nuns,  and 
Father  de  Beaubois  soon  became  their  superior.  It 
was  the  Jesuits  who  in  1751  introduced  the  sugar  cane 
into  Louisiana  from  Hispaniola.  They  cultivated  on 
their  plantation  the  su^r-cane,  indigo,  and  the 
myrtle-wax  shrub. 

The  tribes  with  which  the  early  colonists  had  princi- 
pally to  deal  were  the  Natchez,  the  Chickasaws,  and 
the  Choctaws.  The  last  named  were  very  numerous 
but  not  warlike,  and  were  generally  friendly  to  the 
French,  while  the  Natchez  and  the  Chickasaws  were 
often  at  war  with  the  colonbts,  and  the  former  had  to 
be  nearly  destroyed  to  ensure  the  safety  of  the  colony. 
The  village  of  the  Natchez  was  the  finest  in  Louisi- 
ana, and  their  country  was  delightful.  The  men  and 
women  of  their  tribe  were  well-snaped  and  very  cleanly. 
Their  chief  was  called  the  Great  Sun,  ancf  inherit- 
ance of  that  title  was  in  the  female  line.  The^r  had  a 
temple  in  which  a  fire  was  kept  burning  continually 
to  represent  the  sun  which  they  adored.  Whenever 
a  Great  Sun  died,  or  a  female  Sun,  or  any  of  the'in- 
ferior  Suns,  the  wife  or  the  husband  was  strangled 
together  with  the  nearest  relatives  of  the  deceased. 
Sometimes  little  children  were  sacrificed  by  their 

EarenU.  The  Natchez  were  defeated  by  P^rier  and 
y  St.  Denis,  and  what  remained  of  the  tribe  were 
adopted  by  the  Chickasaws.  The  name  of  the  Nat- 
chez as  a  nation  was  lost,  but  it  will  live  for  ever  in 
literature  on  account  of  tne  charming  pages  devoted 
to  them  by  Chateaubriand.  Bienville  wished  to  com- 
pel the  Chickasaws  to  surrender  the  Natchez  who  had 
taken  refuge  among  them,  and  his  ill-success  in  two 
campaigns  against  that  powerful  tribe  was  the  cause 
of  his  asking  in  1740  to  be  allowed  to  go  to  France  to 
recuperate  his  exhausted  health.  He  left  Louisiana 
in  May,  1743,  and  never  returned  to  the  colony  which 
he  and  Iberville  had  founded.  He  had  endeavoured 
to  establish  in  New  Orleans  a  school  for  boys,  but  had 
not  been  successful.  La  Salle,  Iberville,  and  Bien- 
ville are  the  greatest  names  in  the  history  of  French 
Louisiana. 

Pierre  Rigaud,  Marquis  de  Vaudreuil,  arrived  in 
Louisiana  on  10  May,  1743.  He  was  known  as  the 
"Grand  Marquis'*,  and  his  administration  was  very 
popular.  In  1752  he  became  Governor  of  Canada, 
where  he  was  not  as  successful  as  he  had  been  in 
Louisiana.  The  time  had  come  to  settle  forever  the 
question  of  supremacy  on  the  American  continent 
between  France  and  England,  and  the  brave  Mont- 
calm and  his  able  lieutenant  L^vis  could  not  prevent 
the  British  from  capturing  Quebec  and  Montreal.  On 
the  Plains  of  Abraham  in  1759,  where  both  Wolfe  and 
Montcalm  fell,  the  fate  of  Canada  was  decided,  and 
the  approaching  independence  of  the  English  colonics 
might  nave  been  foreseen.    By  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in 


with  the  exception  of  New  Orleans  and  the  Island  of 
Orleans.  Spain,  in  her  turn,  ceded  to  Great  Britain 
the  Province  of  Florida,  ana  all  the  country  to  the 
east  and  south-east  of  the  Mississippi.  Already,  by 
the  secret  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  (3  Nov.,  1762), 
the  wretched  Louis  XV  had  made  to  Charles  III  of 
Spain  a  gift  of  *'the  country  known  by  the  name  of 
Louisiana,  as  well  as  New  Orleans  and  the  island  in 
which  that  city  is  situated."  This  was  the  province 
which  was  retroceded  to  France  in  1800,  and  ceded  by 
France  to  the  United  States  in  1803.  Although  the 
Kin§  of  Spain  had  accepted  on  13  Nov.,  1762,  the  gift 
of  his  gracious  cousin,  the  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau 
was  announced  to  the  Louisianians  only  in  1764  by  a 
letter  from  the  King  of  France  to  Director-General 
d'Abbadie,  dated  at  Versailles,  21  April.  The  selfish 
monarcli,  who  cared  nothing  for  liis  suDJects  in  Europe, 
in  India,  or  in  America,  ended  his  letter  with  these 
hypocritical  words:   "Hoping,  moreover,  that  His 


Catholic  Majesty  will  be  pleased  to  give  to  his  subjecta 
of  Louisiana  the  marks  of  protection  and  good-will 
which  they  have  received  under  my  domination,  and 
which  only  the  misfortunes  of  war  have  prevented 
from  being  more  effectual.''  The  Loubianians  were 
remote  from  France  and  were  attached  to  their 
sovereign,  whose  defects  they  really  did  not  know. 
They  wished,  therefore,  to  remain  Frenchmen,  and 
sent  Jean  Milnet  as  their  delegate  to  beg  Louis  X  V  not 
to  give  away  his  subjects  to  another  monarch.  It 
was  in  vain  that  Bienville  went  to  see  Minister  Choi- 
seul  with  Milhet.  They  were  kindly  received,  but 
were  told  that  the  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  could  not 
be  annulled.  In  the  meantime  Don  Antonio  de 
Ulloa  had  arrived  in  New  Orleans  on  5  March,  1766, 
as  governor,  and  the  Spanish  domination  had  begun. 
The  rule  of  the  Spaniards  was  more  apparent  3ian 
real,  for  Ulloa  came  with  only  two  companies  of  in- 
fantry, and  did  not  take  possession  omciallv  of  the 
colony  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Spain.  Indeed  the 
Spanish  banner  was  not  raised  in  the  Place  cTArmes 
in  New  Orleans,  the  capital  of  Louisiana,  and  the 
orders  of  Ulloa  were  issued  through  Aubry,  the 
French  commandant  or  governor.  The  colonists 
should  have  been  treated  with  gentleness  at  the  very 
beginning  of  a  change  of  regime,  but  Ulloa,  who  was 
a  distinguished  scientist,  lacked  tact  in  his  dealings 
with  the  Louisianians,  and  issued  unwise  commercial 
regulations.  Jean  Milhet  returned  from  France  at  the 
end  of  1767,  and  the  colonists  were  greatly  excited 
by  the  narrative  of  the  failure  of  lus  mission.  The 
inhabitants  of  Louisiana  resolved  to  expel  the  foreign 
governor,  and  held  a  meeting  in  New  Orleans,  where 
It  was  decided  to  present  a  petition  to  the  Superior 
Council  on  28  Oct.,  1768.  The  colonists  said  that 
they  would  "offer  their  property  and  blood  to  preserve 
for  ever  the  sweet  and  inviolable  title  of  French 
citizen."  Nicolas  Chauvin  de  Lafr^nidre,  the  attor- 
ney-general, who  had  been  the  principal  speaker  at 
the  great  meeting  in  Npw  Orleans,  addressed  the 
council  in  favour  of  the  petition  and  delivered  a  bold 
and  eloquent  discourse.  On  29  Oct . ,  1768,  the  council 
rendered  a  decree  in  compliance  with  the  demands  of 
the  inhabitants  and  the  conclusions  of  Lafrdnidre. 
Aubry  protested  against  the  decree,  but  the  council 
ordered  its  enforcement,  and  on  31  October  Ulloa 
embarked  on  board  a  Frcneh  ship  which  he  had 
chartered.  The  next  day  the  cables  of  the  vessel  were 
cut  by  a  Louisianian  named  Petit,  and  the  foreigner 
was  expelled.  It  was  a  real  revolution.  The  colo- 
nists were  actuated  by  the  highest  and  most  patriotic 
motives,  resistance  against  oppression  and  love  of 
country.  They  endeavoured  oy  all  means  in  their 
power  to  induce  the  King  of  France  to  keep  them  as 
his  subjects,  and,  not  succeeding  in  their  enorts,  they 
thought  of  proclaiming  a  republic  on  the  banks  of  the 
Mississippi  in  New  Oneans.  This  contribution  of  a 
spirit  of  heroism  and  independence  to  the  civilization 
of  the  future  United  States  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance, and  deserves  to  be  carefully  noted. 
^  The  Louisianians  were  not  successful  in  the  Revohi- 
tion  of  1768,  for  the  Spanish  Government  sent  power- 
ful troops  to  subdue  the  insurgents.  General  Alexan- 
der O'Reilly  arrived  in  New  Orleans  with  3000  soldiers 
on  17  Aug.,  1769,  and  raised  the  Spanish  flag  in  the 
Place  (TArmes.  At  first  he  treated  the  chiefs  of  the 
insurgents  with  great  politeness,  and  led  them  to  be- 
lieve that  he  would  take  no  harsh  measures  in  regard 
to  the  event  of  Octol)er,  1768.  He  acted,  however, 
with  great  duplicity,  and  caused  the  principal  insur- 
gents against  Llloa  to  be  arrested  while  tney  were 
attending  a  reception  at  the  govemor'shouse.  Viller^ 
who  was  a  planter  on  the  German  coast  and  one  oi  the 
leaders  of  the  revolution,  was  killed  while  resisting 
arrest,  and  Lafr^niiire,  Marquis,  Noyan,  Carresse,  and 
Joseph  Milhet  were  condemned  to  be  hanged.  No 
one  was  found  in  the  colony  to  act  us  executioner,  and 


LOUISIAIU 


381 


LOUISIANA 


tlie  five  heroic  men  were  shot  by  Spanish  soldiers  on 
25  Oet..  1769.  Six  others  of  the  insurgents  were  con- 
demned to  imprisonment  in  Morro  Castle  at  Havana. 
Among  them  was  Jean  Idilhet,  the  patriotic  merchant. 
O'Reilly  acted  with  impardonable  severity,  and  his 
victims  are  known  as  the  Martyrs  of  Louisiana". 
Although  the  Spanish  domination  began  with  cruelty, 
it  was  afterwards  mild  and  paternal,  and  at  one  time 
^orious.  Most  of  the  officials  married  Creole  wives, 
women  of  French  origin,  and  the  influence  of  charming 
and  gentle  ladies  was  most  beneficial.  Unzaga,  who 
succeeded  O'Reilly  in  the  ^vemment  of  Louisiana, 
acted  with  great  tact  in  dealmg  with  the  Louisianians. 
and  Bernardo  de  Calves  gave  them  prosperity  ana 
glonr  and  reconciled  them  to  the  rule  of  Spain.  In 
1779  the  war  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  was  at  its  height.  France  had  recognized  the 
independence  of  the  new  republic,  and  Lafayette  had 
offered  his  sword  to  aid  Washington  in  his  great  work. 
Spain  came  also  to  the  help  of  the  Americans,  and 
dedaied  war  against  En^nd  on  8  May,  1779.  On 
8  Julv  Charles  III  authorized  his  subjects  in  America 
to  take  part  in  the  war,  and  Galvez,  who  had  thus  far 
acted  as  provisional  governor,  received  his  commission 
as  governor  and  intmidant.  He  resolved  immediately 
to  attack  the  British  possessions  in  West  Floricfa,  and 
refused  to  accept  the  advice  of  a  council  of  war,  that  he 
should  not  begm  his  operations  before  he  had  received 
reinforcements  from  Havana.  He  had  already  aicled 
the  cause  of  the  Americans  by  furnishing  ammunition 
and  money  to  their  agent  in  New  Orleans. 

He  called  a  meeting  of  the  principal  inhabitants  in 
the  city  and  told  them  that  he  could  not  take  the  oath 
oi  office  as  governor,  unless  the  people  of  Louisiana 
promised  to  help  him  in  waging  war  against  the  Brit- 
ish. This  was  assented  to  with  enthusiasm  by  all  the 
men  who  were  at  the  meeting,  and  Galvez  made 
preparations  to  attack  Baton  Rouge,  which  the  British 
nad  named  New  Richmond,  and  which  for  a  time  hod 
be^i  called  Dironville  by  the  French  from  Diron 
d'Artaguette,  an  early  official  in  the  colony.  On 
27  Aug.,  1779,  Galvez  marched  with  an  army  of  670 
men  against  Baton  Rouge,  and  sent  his  artillery  by 
boEitB  on  the  river.  On  7  September  lie  took  by 
storm  Fort  Bute  at  Manchac,  and  on  21  Septem- 
ber, captured  Baton  Rouge.  It  was  agreed  that  Fort 
Panmura  at  Natchez  should  capitulate  also.  The 
campaign  of  Galvez  was  glorious,  and  the  greater  part 
of  his  army  was  composed  of  Louisianian  Creoles  of 
French  origin,  and  of  Acadians  who  wished  to  take 
vengeance  upon  the  British  for  their  cruelties  against 
them,  when  they  were  so  ruthlesslv  torn  from  their 
homes  in  1755.  The  heroism  of  Galvez  and  his  army 
in  1779  inspired  Julien  Poydras  to  write  a  short  epic 
poem,  ''La  Prise  du  Mome  du  Baton  Rouge  par 
MoDseigneur  de  Galvez  ",  a  work  which  was  published 
in  New  Orleans  in  1779,  and  was  the  first  effort  of 
French  literature  in  Louisiana.  In  1780  Galvez 
attacked  Fort  Charlotte  at  Mobile  and  captured  it, 
and  in  1781  he  resolved  to  make  the  conquest  of 
Pensacola  and  to  expel  the  British  entirely  from  the 
country  adjoining  New  Orleans.  He  went  to  Havana 
and  obtained  men  and  a  fleet  for  his  expedition.  Among 
the  ships  was  a  man-of-war,  the  ''  San  Ramon  ",  com- 
manded by  Commodore  Callx>  de  Irazabal.  When 
an  attempt  was  made  to  cross  the  bar  and  enter  the 
harbour  of  Pensacola  the  **  San  Ramon  "  ran  aground. 
Irasabaly  thereupon,  refused  to  allow  the  frigates  of 
his  fleet  to  cross  the  bar.  Galvez,  who  understood 
how  important  it  was  that  the  fleet  should  enter  the 
port,  in  order  that  the  army  should  not  l)e  left  with- 
out means  of  subsistence  on  the  island  of  St.  Rosa, 
resolved  to  be  the  first  to  force  entrance  into  the  port. 
He  embarked  on  board  the  brig  "  Galveztown",  com- 
manded by  Rousseau,  a  Louisianian,  and  which  was 
directly  under  his  orders,  and,  followed  by  a  schooner 
and  two  gunboats,  he  boldly  entered  the  port.    He 


had  caused  his  pennant  to  be  raised  on  the  "  Galves- 
town",  that  his  presence  on  board  might  be  known, 
and  acted  with'such  valour  that  the  Spanish  squadron 
followed  the  next  day  and  crossed  the  bar.  After  a 
siege  of  several  months  Fort  George  and  Fort  Red 
CliBf  in  the  Barrancas  were  captured,  and  Pensacola 
surrendered  on  9  May,  1781.  For  his  exploits  against 
the  British  the  King  of  Spain  made  Galvez  a  lieuten- 
ant-general and  captain-general  of  Louisiana  and  West 
Florida,  and  allowed  him  to  place  as  a  crest  on  his 
coat  of  arms  the  brig  "  Galveztown"  with  the  motto, 
"  Yo  Solo  "  (I  alone).  The  campai^  of  Galvez  gave 
the  Louisianians  the  right  to  claim  the  honour  of 
ha\'ing  taken  part  in  the  war  for  American  independ- 
ence, and  the  help  given  the  Americans  by  the  Spaniards 
was  acknowledged  by  Washington  in  letters  to  Galvez. 
The  heroic  Governor  of  Louisiana  became  Viceroy  of 
Mexico  in  1785  and  died  in  1786,  aged  thirty-eight. 

During  the  Spanish  domination,  besides  the  ex- 
ploits of  Galvez,  we  may  mention  as  being  of  impor- 
tance in  the  history  of  the  United  States  the  attempts 
made  by  Governor  Mir6  of  Ix>uisiana  in  1788,  and 
Governor  Carondelet  in  1797,  to  separate  the  western 
country  from  the  United  States  and  join  it  to  the 
S]:)am6n  possessions  in  the  south.  The  Mississippi 
River  was  absolutely  necessary  to  the  people  in  the 
West  for  their  exports,  and  the  right  of  deposit  of 
their  products  at  New  Orleans  was  guaranteed  to 
them  l)y  a  treaty  between  Spain  and  the  United 
States  in  1795.  In  1800,  however,  Louisiana  became 
French  again  by  treaty,  and  the  Americans  seemed 
destined  to  have  much  more  powerful  neighbours 
than  the  Spaniards  had  ever  been.  France  was  at 
the  time  under  the  rule  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  He 
wished  to  revive  the  colonial  empire  of  !•  ranee,  lost 
during  the  wretched  reign  of  Louis  XV.  He  easily 
obtained  that  province  from  Charles  IV.  By  the 
secret  Treaty  of  St.  Ildefonso,  1  Oct.,  1800,  connrmed 
by  that  of  Madrid,  21  March,  1801,  Louisiana  was 
retroce<led  to  France,  and  Bonaparte  made  great 
plans  for  the  administration  and  development  of  the 

Province.  He  wished  it  to  be  a  kind  of  storehouse  for 
anto  Domingo,  which  he  mtended  to  reconquer  from 
the  blacks,  and  he  appointed  as  captain-general  of 
Louisiana  one  of  his  most  distinguished  officers,  Victor, 
who  later  Ix^came  Duke  of  Bellunc  and  Marshal  of 
France. 

The  plans  of  Bonaparte  in  regard  to  Louisiana  were 
fnistrated  by  the  subsequent  outbreak  of  hostilities 
between  France  and  England.  Victor  never  reached 
the  province  he  was  given  to  govern,  and  when  Pierre- 
Clement  de  Laiissat,  the  colonial  prefect,  arrived  in 
New  Orleans  in  March,  1803,  Louisiana  was  on  the 
point  of  becoming  American.  The  right  of  deposit  in 
New  Orleans  had  been  twice  withdrawn  by  the  Span- 
ish intendant,  and  the  people  of  the  West  feared  they 
would  lose  the  natural  outlet  for  their  products. 
There  was  great  agitation  on  the  subject  in  C'ongress, 
and  President  Jefferson  sent  James  Monroe  to  France 
in  March,  1S03,  to  co-operate  with  Rolxirt  R.  Livings- 
ton in  the  negotiations  concerning  the  cession  to  the 
United  States  of  New  Orleans  and  of  the  Island  of 
Orleans.  Bonaparte,  meanwhile,  made  up  his  mind 
to  offer  the  whole  province  to  the  American  negotia- 
tors, and  on  30  April,  1803,  Monroe,  Livingston,  and 
Barb^-Marbois  signed  the  'treaty  of  Paris,  by  which 
Louisiana  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  for  about 
$15,000,000.  Bonaparte  himself  prepared  the  tliird 
article  of  the  treaty,  which  reads  as  follows:  "The 
inhabitants  of  the  ceded  territor>' shall  be  incorporated 
in  the  Union  of  the  United  States  and  admitted  as 
soon  as  possible,  according  to  the  principles  of  the 
Federal  Constitution,  to  the  enjo^Tnent  of  all  the 
rights,  advantages,  and  immunities  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  the  mean  time  they  shall  be 
maintained  and  protected  in  the  free  enjojTnent  of 
their  liberty,  prosperity,  and  the  religion  which  they 


LOnniAiu  Si 

profen."  In  the  old  Cabildo  building  b  New  Orleans 
the  pravinM  was  traoBferred  on  30  Nov.,  1S03,  br  the 
Spanish  oonunissionera  Casa  Calvo  fTnd  Salcedo  to 
IdiUBsst,  the  representative  of  France;  and  the  latter, 
at  the  same  place,  transferred  the  sovereignty  of 
Louisiana  on  20  Dec.,  1803,  to  the  Amcricau  Com- 
tniaaiDnera,  Wilkinson  and  Claiborne.  There  was  no 
longer  a  colonial  Louisiana.  In  1804  the  territory  of 
Orleana  waB  organiied,  which  became  on  30  April, 
1812,  the  State  of  Louisiana. 

FVffioh  and  Spmniih  nunuscripta  in  &rchiv«  of  LoiiauuiA 
Hlsloric^  SodeC]',  New  Otieuu:  tnuucripb  tmm  Freacb  and 
BnuiUiu-chJvcs.aiDoocwbicharePiiRilEMABOBi'Bnacufnnili 
turlaLemtimt:  Manuteript  Memcir  ol  TxAsciaco  Boouanr, 
UiHtuy  Oovcnior  of  Louinuuia  in  1T99  (1776):  officiiiL  roytl 
orden.  regubtiDiu,  and  edicB,  in  archiva  oC  Louisiana  Higlori- 
oal  Society:  ^  Mmitrur  de  ta  lAtuinani  (1794  lo  1803).  Con- 
sult Hasokt.  Oriffinet  fran^itet  det  Payt  tTOutrc-Mer  (0  vols., 
Puia,  1S8I):  BiHARD  oi  La.  Harpe,  Journal  HiUonaat  dt 
raaUiMtmeni  da  Frantaii  h  la  Lauitianr  (Nsn  Orleans,  Ir31): 
Ij  Paqi  dd  Pkatt,  HitloiTe  di  la  Louiiinnt  ([i  vob..  PHtia. 
1TS8):  Dauom,  Mimoiret  HitUrrmtn  tor  la  iMviaiant  (PariB, 
1783);  CBARLKVoti.Joumal  d'wi  VoMogt  daoi  iAmfrumc  Sty- 
laitnonaU.  VI  (Paris,  1744):  Gratieb.  RrtalUm  du  Voyagt  dn 
CAvuIiiwi  (Paris.  1872):  LAnivMT.  M^motnn  (Pmi.  IS.^));  Mar- 
m,  Hitani  ot  Louitiana  (Z  vob..  New  Orlrani,  ltt27) :  Monetti. 
Bilart  oj  A^  VaUtu  at  Ou,  Mutisnpj}!  (2  voh..  New  York, 
1846) ;  GATAaai,  HMom  dt  la  Louiiianr  {i  vols..  Sew  Orleans. 
1846-7):  Idem,  HiHoiy  of  Loauiana  (4  vola..  New  OrlHua, 
1864-a):  Kaa.  Sieur  it  BienpUU  (New  York.  1893):  Hauii^ 
TOM,  Colonial  MobiU  (BoatoD,  1S9S):  Fobtieh.  Louitiana 
Sluiui  (New  Orleana,  1894):  Ideu,  Huloni  of  Louuiana  (4 
voh..  Now  York.  1004). 

Alc6b  Forties. 

II.  The  State  or  Louisiana,  lying  at  the  mouth  of 
the  HissisBtppi  River,  was  so  named  in  honour  of 
LouiaXIVinieSZ.  Louisiana  of  the  seventeen Ui  cen- 
tury extended  from  the  Miasissippi  River  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  from  the  Rio  Grande  and  Gulf  of 
Mexico  to  British 
America.  The  pres- 
ent 8tat«  of  Louisi- 
ana is  bounded  on 
the  Boulh  by  the 
Gulf  of  Me.xi. 
the  east 
SUte 

sippi;  on  the  west 
by  the  State  of 
Texas,  and  on  the 
north  by  the  State 
oF  Arkansas.  The 
thirty-third  par- 
allel of  latitude 
forms  the  boundary 
between  Louisiana 
and  Arkansas. 

-The  area  of  the  state  is 

46,4K)  square  miles,  of  which  232S  are  wa't«r  surface. 
There  is  no  very  high  IsJid  in  the  state.  The  Red 
River  enters  the  state  from  Texas  a  few  miles  south  of 
tlie  northern  boundary,  and  traverses  the  whole  state 
in  a  south-easterly  direction,  emptying  itself  Into  the 
Mi^isaippi  River  at  the  thirty-nret  parallel  of  lati- 
tude. The  northern  portion  of  Louisiana  is  mainly 
forest  area  with  numerous  small  farms,  but  in  the 
eastern  portion,  north  of  Red  River  an<l  for  some  dis- 
tance south  of  its  mouth,  therearc  large  cottuu  planta- 
tions on  alluvial  soil,  while  below  the  mouth  of  Red 
River  stretches  the  sugar  countr}',  all  the  south-eastern 
portion  of  Louisiana  with  small  exceptions  being  de- 
voted to  sugar  cultivation.  In  Che  south-wcstcm 
portion  are  the  great  salt  and  sulphur  mines,  oil-wells, 
and  rice  fields.  With  means  of  communication  from 
one  part  of  the  state  to  another,  Louisiana  is  probably 
better  provided  than  any  other  state  in  the  Union. 
Within  the  borders  of  the  state  are  3771  miles  of  navi- 
gable water,  and  6163  miles  of  railroad  (including  2000 
mites  of  side-tracks).  The  alluvial  lands  along  the 
rivers  and  larger  streams  are  protected  by  1430  miles 
of  embankments,  locally  called /eoees  and  r  ' 

by  the  state. 


*of    Misi 


BmJJ.  or  LODUIIHA 

Phytieal  Characterwtia 


2  Lounuiu 

/luItutnM.— Agriculture  is  the  chief  naouro  of 
Louisiana,  although  of  late  salt,  oil,  and  sulphur  an 
beginning  to  produce  large  retunu.  The  leport  of  the 
Louimana  State  Board  of  Afrioulture  for  ISOS,  givei 
the  agricultural  output  as  foUows: 

Total  area  undw  cultintioD 4,730,148  mam 

Cottrai fil7,7(Mbalai         1.84US0     ** 

Com 20.303.717  builuib     1,637,185     ** 

Suaar. 444,241.800  poondi        401,461     ' 

HoUaMa  31.M9/)S0  salkina 

Clsuisd  Rica. 170.096,700  pooDdi        37aj6B     ' 

Sweat  Potatoes....       3.010.615  bualieh  M.S21     " 

Irish  "         ....  739345       "  J7  J33     " 

Orancea 100,440  tMiOi  2.900     " 

The  mineral  products  are  chieBy  sulphur,  nit,  and 
petroleum.  The  largest  sulphur  deposit  in  tils  worid 
laat  Sulphur  Citv,  whence  1000  tons  daily  are  shipped. 
It  is  eatunated  that  there  are  forty  million  tons  ofsut 
phur  in  this  deposit.  At  Aveiy  s  Island  is  found  ft 
deposit  of  pure  salt,  5(X)  tons  daily  being  mined.  Id 
this  section  the  au^er  went  down  l^W  feet  through 
salt.  Large  quantities  of  petroleum  aie  piped  out  of 
wells  in  the  south-western  and  nortb-weotem  peKe  of 
the  state. 

History.— The  history  of  Louisiana  as  a  colony  bns 
already  been  traced  from  the  first  settlemeote,  and  the 
growth  of  the  population  up  to  its  admission  to  the 
Union.  The  cession  of  Louisiana  W  France  to  the 
United  States  took  pl^  on  20  December,  1803,  and  in 
1804  Congress  organised  the  Territory  of  Orieans, 
which  comprised  a  portion  of  the  great  district  of 
Louisiana.  In  1806  there  were  but  350  English  cnieak* 
ing  white  men  in  New  Orleans.  Between  1806  and 
1809,  3100  Americans  arrived.  In  1809-10  come  the 
immigration  from  the  West  Indies,  due  to'  the  Santo 
Domingo  and  Haitian  negro  uprisings.  In  1810  the 
Irinh  l>cgHn  to  come,  and  they  kept  coming  steadily  for 
over  forty  years.  The  Civil  War  (1861^  stopped'aU 
immigration  until  about  1900,  since  which  time  Ital- 
ians are  arriving  in  great  numbers.  The  fint  steam- 
boat, the  "Orleans  ,  from  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania, 
arrived  in  New  Orleans,  10  January,  1812, 

In  1811  Congress  authoriied  the  uihabitants  of  the 
territorv  to  draw  up  a  constitution,  witji  a  view  to 
establish  a  state  government.  This  constitution  was 
adopted  in  1612,  and  immediately  thereafter,  on  30 
AprU,  11^12,  (^n^as  admitted  Louisiana  into  the 
Union.  Almost  simultaneously  with  her  admission, 
the  war  with  England  broke  out,  and  on  8  Janoary, 
1815,  the  famous  battle  of  New  OrleBas,  between 
12,000  English  soldiers  under  P&kenham  and  6000 
American  recruits  under  General  Andrew  Jackson, 
was  fought  within  a  few  miles  of  the  oitv  of  New  Of 
leans,  resulting  in  the  overwhelming  oefeat  of  the 
British.  The  commercial  position  of  New  Orieans 
being  very  advantageous^  her  ^wth  was  phenomenaL 
In  1840  she  was  the  third  city  in  popubtion  in  the 
United  States,  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  poui^ 
ingereat coramercialwealtnintoLouiaianB.  However, 
as  the  railroads  lie^n  to  be  built,  much  of  this  river 
commerce  was  carried  by  them  to  northern  and  eastern 
marts.  On  26  January,  1861,  an  ordinance  of  seoes- 
sion  was  passed,  withdrawing  Louisiana  from  the 
Union,  and  on  21  March,  ISGl,  the  Convention  of 
Louisiana  ratified  the  Confederate  Constitution  and 
joined  the  Ck>nfederacy.  The  Civil  War  laid  waste 
Louisiana  in  common  with  her  sister  states  cit  tbs 
south.  In  April,  1862,  the  city  of  New  Orieans  was 
captured  by  the  Union  forces.  In  1864,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Federal  troo^,  a  convention  was  held 
to  draw  up  a  new  constitution  for  the  state,  prepara- 
tory to  its  re-admission  to  the  Union  Under  Pedctal 
auspices  it  was  ratified  by  a  vote  of  the  people  in  Sep- 
tember, 1864.  This  constitutbn,  althou^  adopted 
under  the  auspices  of  the  United  States  Government, 
was  not  satisfactoiy  to  that  government,  and  in  D^ 
cember,  1867,  another  convention  was  oalled  and  pre- 
pared a  constitution  that  was  adopted  on  6  Hareh, 
1868,  whereby  Louisiana  was  again  admitted  to  ttM 


XOUXBXAXA                         383  LOXHSXAXi 

XJhloii  upon  oondition  of  ber  ratifying  the  Fourteenth  tions  and  chapels;  1  preoaiatory  seminary  with  SO 

Amendment  to  the  Federal  Constitution.    This  was  students;   11  colleges  ana  academies  for  Do^rs  with 

done  on  9  July,  18d8,  and  on  13  Jul^  the  state  was  2253  students;  29  academies  for  young  ladies  with 

transferred  from  the  military  to  the  civil  powers.  3519  students;  111  parishes  have  parochial  schools. 

Then  began  the  period  of  reconstruction,  which  was  The  Catholic  population  is  550,431,  but  no  statistiea 

prmeticaUy  a  seven  years'  orgy.    Adventurers  from  are  available  to  uiow  its  racial  classification;  the  bap- 

the  north,  oamp-followers  left  oehind  by  the  Union  tisms  of  1908  were  15,853.    Of  the  3935  marriages 

armies,  and  renegade  southerners,  under  the  proteo-  onlv  472  were  mixed. 

tion  of  Federal  bayonets,  welded  the  recently  emand-  Laws  affecting  Religion  and  Religious  Work. — ^There 
pftted  negro  slaves  into  a  political  party,  and  the  is,  of  course,  absolute  freedom  of  worship  recognized 
difligraceful  scenes,  which  form  that  blot  upon  Amen-  by  law  and  practically  carried  out  throughout  the 
ean  history  known  as  the  "Reconstruction  Era ''.  cost  state.  There  is  a  Sunday  Law  prohibiting  the  opening 
Louisiana  millions  of  treasure  and  himdreds  of  lives,  of  any  place  of  business,  except  of  certain  classes,  such 
In  September,  1874,  a  revoltoccurred  which  overthrew  as  drug-stores,  barber-shops,  etc.  All  liquor  saloons 
the  state  government  and  placed  the  intelligent  people  are  kept  closed.  Theatres,  however,  are  permitted  to 
€i  the  state  in  office.  Three  days  afterwaros  the  open  on  Sunday.  In  all  the  courts  the  oath  is  admin- 
United  States  troops  expelled  the  popular  govern^  istcred  on  the  6ible  to  all  witnesses.  Blasphemv  and 
ment,  and  replaoect  the  negroes  and  adventurers  in  profanity  are  prohibited  by  law.  The  Legislature 
office.  In  the  election  of  1876,  the  Democratic  party  opens  each  session  in  each  house  with  prayer,  cleigy- 
oanied  the  state  both  for  state  offices  and  for  presi-  men  of  different  denominations  officiating.  Among 
dential  electors.  Then  began  the  national  dispute  in  the  1^1  holidays  prescribed  by  law,  on  which  all  pub- 
Congress  which  resulted  in  a  compromise  being  made,  lie  offices  are  closed,  etc.,  we  find  New  Year's  Day, 
whereby  the  vote  of  Louisiana  for  President  and  Vice-  Shrove  Tuesday,  Good  Friday,  All  Saints'  Day.  Christ- 
President  of  the  United  States  was  counted  for  the  mas,  and  of  course  every  Sunday.  The  Catholic 
Republican  party,  and  the  vote  for  state  offices  and  churches  of  the  state  are  not  all  incorporated.  For  in- 
knlatuxe  was  counted  for  the  Democratic  party,  stance^  in  the  northern  diocese  called  the  Diocese  of 
The  oarr3rmg  out  of  this  compromise  by  the  seating  of  Natchitoches,  all  parochial  property  vests  in  the 
President  Hayes  in  the  White  House,  and  the  forming  bishop;  whereas,  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  state, 
of  a  Democratic  or  white  man's  government  in  Louis-  in  the  Archdiocese  of  New  Orleans,  every  church  is  in- 
iana,  mariced  the  end  of  the  lon^  period  of  misrule,  corporated.  There  is  a  separate  corporation  for  each 
The  great  moral  movement  against  the  Louisiana  church,  the  directors  being  the  archbishop,  the  vicar- 
State  Lottery,  ending  in  its  abolition  in  1892,  is  prob-  general,  the  pari.^h  priest,  and  two  laymen  from  the 
ably  the  most  creditable  event  in  the  history  of  the  con^gation,  and  tnis  corporation  holds  title  to  all 
state.     ^  parish  property.    Church  property  used  for  the  pur- 

Frinapal  Rdigious  Denominations. — The  latest  pose  of  public  worship,  the  actual  residence  of  the  pas- 
available  statistics  of  religious  denominations  are  tor,  the  parochial  school  buildings  and  ^unds,  and, 
given  in  the  U.  S.  Census  Bulletin  for  1906,  from  which  of  course,  all  asylums,  hospitals  and  chantable  institu- 
we  take  the  following  table,  except  that  the  number  of  tions  are  exempt  from  all  taxation.  Cemeteries  and 
Jews  is  taken  from  the  *' Jewish  Year  Book  "  for  1907:  places  of  public  burial  are  exempt  from  all  taxes  and 
Catholics^  477,774;    Baptists,  185,554;    Methodists,  from  seizure  for  debt. 

79,4d4;  Jews,  12,000;  Protestant  Episcopalians,  9070;  All  clergymen  are  exempt  from  jury  and  military 

Presbyterians,  8350;  Lutherans,  5793;  German  Evan-  service,  and  in  fact  from  every  forced  public  duty, 

gelicals,  4353;    Disciples,  2458;    Congregationalists,  The  supreme  court  has  held  that,  while  public  funds 

1773;   all  other  denominations,  4222.    It  must  be  cannot  be  given  to  religious  institutions,  yet  the  gov- 

bome  in  mind  that  these  figures  do  not  give  us  a  emmcnt  may  contract  with  religious  institutions  for 

proper  comparative  view,  because  the  bases  of  various  the  care  of  the  sick  or  the  poor,  and  for  such  pay  them 

denominations  are   different.    For  example,   most  compensation.    In  all  prisons  and  reformatories  cler- 

Protestant  bodies  count  as  members  only  those  per-  gymen  of  all  denominations  are  welcomed  and  ^iven 

sons  officially  enrolled  as  members.    And,  in  counting  access  to  the  inmates,  and  in  most  of  the  large  insti- 

Githolkx,  the  Census  Bureau  counts  only  those  over  tu tions,  where  there  arc  many  Catholic  inmates,  Mass 

nine  ytm  of  age;^  whereas,  in  the  figures  given  else-  is  celebrated  every  Sunday.   Beouests  made  to  priests 

where  in  this  article  we  count  all  those  who  have  for  Masses  have  been  held  as  valid,  and,  although  there 

been  baptised.                   ~  is  an  inheritance  tax  levied  on  inheritances  in  Louis- 

Caiholieifm. — Because  of  her  Latin  origin.  Catholics  iana,  yet  legacies,  made  eo  nomine  to  churches  and 
and  Catholic  influences  have  always  been  predominant  charitable  institutions,  are  exempt  from  this  tax,  al- 
io Louisiana.  Her  first  governor,  Clairbome,  was  a  though  a  legacy  left  to  a  priest  in  his  own  name  would 
Protestant  from  Virginia,  but  nearly  all  his  descend-  be  subject  to  the  inheritance  tax.  Under  the  first 
ants  were  Catholics.  With  few  exceptions  the  gover-  Constitution  of  Louisiana  (1812)  no  clergyman  could 
nore  of  the  state  were  Catholics.  Amongst  noted  hold  a  public  office.  The  second  Constitution  (1845) 
Louisianians  of  the  Catholic  Faith  we  may  include  cxcludeil  them  onlv  from  the  legislature.  The  third 
F.  X.  Martin,  presiding  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  Constitution  (1852)  abolislied  tlie  restriction,  which 
for  forty  yean,  Bermudez,  one  of  his  successors,  has  not  l)ecn  re-enacted  in  the  subsequent  Constitu- 
Breaux,  the  present  (1909)  incumbent,  Thomas  J.  tions  of  1868,  1879,  and  1898. 

Semmes,  the  eminent  jurist  and  Confederate  sen-  Marriage  and  Divorce. — ^The  marriage  and  divorce 

BioT,  Alexander  Dinutry,  who  in  1847  oi^anized  the  laws  of  Louisiana  are  not  so  loose  as  those  of  some 

pubuc  school  QTstem  of  the  state,  Adricn  Ilouquette,  other  states.    Marriage  between  whites  and  blacks  is 

the  poet-priest  and  Indian  missionary,  Charles  Ga-  prohibited  by  law.    Any  clergyman  has  the  power  to 

yarre,  the  historian,  Justice  E.  D.  White,  now  on  the  perform  a  marriage  ceremony,  but,  before  doing  so,  he 

United  States  supreme  bench,  Paul  Morphy,  the  fa-  must  be  handed  a  license  issued  by  the  local  secular 

nious  chess-player,  Father  Etienne  Vial,  the  first  na-  authorities  authorizing  the  marriage,  and  must  have 

tave-bom  GathoUc  priest  (b.  1736).  the  marriage  registered  within  ten  days   after  its 

The  state  comprises  the  Arehdiocese  of  New  Orleans  solemnization.   Absolute  divorce  is  permissible  for  the 

ithe  southern  half),  and  the  Diocese  of  Natchitoches  following  causes:    (1)  adultery;  (2)  condemnation  to 

the  northern  half).    The  ''Catholic  Directory"  for  an  infamous  punishment;  (3)  habitual  intemperance 

1909  gives  the  following  figures:    1  archbishop;    1  or  cruelty  of  such  a  nature  as  to  render  living  together 

Ushop;  1  abbot;  181  secular  and  132  regular  pnests;  insupportable;  (4)  public  defamation  of  the  other  by 

152  enuxches  with  resident  priests;  212  missions,  sta-  husl^nd  of  wife;  (5)  desertion;  (6)  attempt  of  one 


L0UZ8-BCABIS 


384 


LOmS-MAEIX 


q)ouse  to  kill  the  other;  (7)  when  husband  or  wife  is  a 
fugitive  from  j  ustice,  chained  with  an  infamous  offence. 
but  proof  of  ^It  must  be  made.  For  the  first  ana 
second  mentioned  causes  immediate  divorce  is 
granted.  For  the  other  causes  only  a  separation,  which 
ripens  into  a  divorce  at  the  expiration  of  one  year  on 
the  application  of  the  plaintiff,  provided  no  reconcilia- 
tion has  taken  place,  or  also  at  the  expiration  of  two 
years  on  the  application  of  the  defendant. 

Population. — ^The  growth  of  population,  as  shown 
by  the  United  States  Census,  is  as  follows: — 


1810 

1820 

1830 

1840 

1850 

1860 


76,556 
153.407 
215,739 
352,411 
517.762 
708.202 


1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1906  (U.  S. 
Census  Est.) 


726,916 

940.236 

1.118.587 

1.381,625 

1.539.449 


Education. — ^The  educational  system  of  Louisiana  is 
under  the  control  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  and 
subordinate  boards  in  the  various  parishes  (such  being 
the  Louisiana  name  for  counties): 

Educable  youth:  white  275,087;  coloured  221,714; 
total  490,801. 

Enrolment  in  schools:  white  163,603;  coloured 
80^28;  total  243,731. 

Teachers  employed  in  public  schools:  white  4812; 
coloured  1168;  total  5980. 

Teachers  employed  in  private  schools  1125. 

Pupils  in  private  schools:  white  36354;  coloured 
8646;  total  45,000. 

Number  of  public  schools:  white  2316;  coloured 
1167; total  3483. 

Number  of  private  schools:  white  274;  coloured  154; 
total  428. 

Receipts  from  Public  School  Funds  in  1907  (in- 
cluding $563,153.24  on  hand,  1  January,  1907), 
$3,856,871.09;  disbursements,  $3,481,275.59. 

At  the  head  of  the  system  is  the  Louisiana  State 
University  in  Baton  Rouge,  the  state  capital,  with  57 
instructors  and  657  students.  Tulane  University,  in 
New  Orleans,  is  a  semi-official  institution,  with  an 
endowment  of  $5,454,423.83,  225  instructors,  and 
1600  students.  The  public  school  system,  besides  pri- 
mary, grammar  and  nigh  schools,  includes  the  follow- 
ing institutions: — State  Normal  School,  with  32  in- 
structors and  700  students;  Audubon  Sugar  School 
for  instruction  in  sugar  making;  three  experimental 
stations  for  agricultural  instruction;  Ruston  Indus- 
trial Institute,  with  31  instructors  and  500  students: 
Lafayette  Industrial  Institute,  with  IS  instructors  and 
250  students;  State  Institute  for  Deaf  and  Dumb; 
State  Institute  for  the  Blind;  Gulf  Biologic  Station, 
located  on  Gulf  Coast;  Southern  University  for  col- 
oured youth  J  with  397  students. 

FoRTiER,  Htstqry  of  Louisiana  (Paris.  1904);  Report  of  Louis- 
iana Slate  Superintendent  of  Education  (1907);  Report  of  Louis- 
iana Commissioner  of  Agriculture  (1908);  Bulletin  No.  103  U.  S. 
Census  Bureau  (1909);  Jewish  Year  Book  (1907);  Catholic  Di- 
rectory (1909):  UATABR^,  History  of  Louisiana  (New  Orloans, 
1903). 

James  J.  McLoughlin. 

Louis-Marie  Orignion  de  Montfort,  Blessed, 
missionary  in  Brittany  and  Vendue;  b.  at  Montfort,  31 
January,  1673 ;  d.  at  Saint-Laurent-sur-Scvre,  28 
April,  1716.  From  his  cliildhood,  he  was  indefati- 
gably  devoted  to  prayer  before  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
and,'whcn  from  his  twelfth  year  he  was  sent  as  a  day 
pupil  to  the  Jesuit  college  at  Rennes,  he  never  failed 
to  visit  the  church  before  and  aft«r  class.  He  joined 
a  society  of  young  men  who  during  holidays  ministered 
to  the  poor  and  to  the  incurables  in  the  hospitals,  and 
read  for  them  edifying  books  during  their  meals.  At 
the  age  of  nineteen,  ho  went  on  foot  to  Paris  to  follow 
the  course  in  theology,  gave  away  on  the  journey  all 
his  money  to  the  poof,  exchanged  clothing  ^ith  t£em, 
and  made  a  vow  to  subsist  thenceforth  only  on  alms. 


He  was  ordained  priest  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  and 
for  some  time  f ulnlled  the  duties  of  chaplain  in  a  hos- 
pital. In  1705,  when  he  was  thirty-two,  he  found  his 
true  vocation,  and  thereafter  devoted  himself  to 
preaching  to  the  people.  During  seventeen  years  he 
preached  the  Gospel  m  countless  towns  and  villages. 
As  an  orator  he  was  highly  gifted,  his  language  being 
simple  but  replete  with  fire  and  divine  love.  His 
whole  life  was  conspicuous  for  virtues  difficult  for 
modem  degeneracy  to  comprehend:  constant  prayer^ 
love  of  the  poor,  poverty  carried  to  an  unheara-of  de- 
gree, joy  in  humiliations  and  persecutions.  The  fol- 
lowing two  instances  will  illustrate  his  success.  He 
once  gave  a  mission  for  the  soldiers  of  the  garrison  at 
La  Rochelle,  and.  moved  by  his  words,  the  men  wept, 
and  cried  fdoud  tor  the  forgiveness  of  their  sins,  in 
the  procession  which  terminated  this  mission,  an 
officer  walked  at  the  head,  barefooted  and  carrying  a 
banner,  and  the  soldiers,  also  barefooted,  followed, 
carrying  in  one  hand  a  crucifix,  in  the  other  a  rosary, 
and  singing  hymns.  Grignion's  extraordinary  influ- 
ence was  especially  apparent  in  the  matter  of  the 
calvary  at  Pontch&teau.  When  he  announced  his  de- 
termination of  building  a  monumental  calvary  on  a 
neighbouring  hill,  the  idea  was  enthusiastically  re- 
ceived by  the  inhabitants.  For  fifteen  months  be- 
tween two  and  four  hundred  peasants  worked  daily 
without  recompense,  and  the  task  had  iust  been  com- 
pleted, when  the  king  commanded  uiat  the  whole 
should  be  demolished,and  the  land  restored  to  its  former 
condition.  The  Jansenists  had  convinced  the  Governor 
of  Brittany  that  a  fortress  capable  of  affording  aid  to 
persons  in  revolt  was  being  erected,  and  for  several 
months  five  hundred  peasants,  watched  by  a  com- 
pany of  soldiers,  were  compelled  to  carry  out  the  work 
of  destruction.  Father  de  Montfort  was  not  disturbed 
on  receiving  this  humiliating  news,  exclaiming  only: 
"Blessed  be  God  1" 

This  was  by  no  means  the  only  trial  to  which  Grig- 
nion  was  subjected.  It  often  happened  that  the  Jan- 
senists, irritated  by  his  success,  secured  bv  their  in- 
trigues his  banishment  from  the  district,  in  which  he  was 
giving  a  mission.  At  La  Rochelle  some  wretches  put 
poison  into  his  cup  of  broth,  and,  despite  the  antioote 
which  he  swallowed,  his  health  was  always  impaired. 
On  another  occasion,  some  malefactors  hid  in  a  narrow 
street  with  the  intention  of  assassinating  him,  but  he 
had  a  presentiment  of  danger  and  escaped  by  going  by 
another  street.  A  year  before  his  death.  Father  de 
Montfort  founded  two  congregations — the  Sisters  of 
Wisaom,  who  were  to  devote  themselves  to  hospital 
work  and  the  instruction  of  poor  ^rls,  and  the  Com- 

1>any  of  Mary,  composed  of  missionaries.  He  had 
ong  cherished  these  projects  but  circumstances  had 
hindered  their  execution,  and,  humanly  speaking,  the 
work  appeared  to  have  failed  at  his  death,  since  tliese 
congregations  numbered  respectively  only  four  sis- 
ters and  two  priests  with  a  few  brothers.  But  the 
blessed  founder,  who  had  on  several  occasions  shown 
himself  possessed  of  the  gift  of  prophecy,  knew  that 
the  tree  would  grow.  At  the  beginning  of  the  twen- 
tieth century  the  Sisters  of  Wisdom  numbered  five 
thousand,  and  were  spread  throughout  every-  country; 
they  possessed  forty-four  houses,  and  gave  instruction 
to  60,000  children.  After  the  death  of  its  founder, 
the  Company  of  Mary  was  governed  for  39  years  by 
Father  M ulot.  lie  had  at  first  refused  to  join  de  Mont- 
fort in  his  missionary  labours.  "I  cannot  become  a 
missionarv  ",  said  he,  ''for  I  have  been  paralysed  on 
one  side  ior  years ;  I  have  an  affection  of  the  lungs 
which  scarcely  allows  me  to  breathe,  and  am  indeed  so 
ill  that  I  have  no  rest  day  or  night."  But  the  holy 
man,  impelled  by  a  sudden  inspiration,  replied,  ^As 
soon  as  you  begin  to  preach  you  will  be  completely 
cured."  And  the  event  justified  the  preaictioo. 
Grignion  de  Montfort  was  beatified  by  Leo  XIII  in 
1888. 


unm  385  LOUIS 


^^_     ,  ..  ®*^  (T/onHon,  1892);  Jac,  Vie,    lated  into  the  various  European  Iar\guaees  and  several 

1903);  Lavwujb,  \  le,  etc.  <»;»ri».  11J07  ^  j^^^q  Turkisli  and  Japanese.    The  best  known  of  his 

AUSTIN  rouLAiN.  agcetical  writings,  and  the  one  that  achieved  the 
LooIb  of  Ouoiia.  Venerable,  Friar  Minor  and  greatest  measure  of  success,  is  "The  Sinner's  Guide" 
founder  of  the  Frati  Bigi;  b.  at  Casori^,  near  Naples,  C^a  ^uia  de  Pecadores).  This  work  was  pubUshed  at 
11  March,  1814;  d,  at  Pausilippo,  30  March,  1885.  Badajoa  m  looo.  It  is  inarked  by  a  smooth,  har- 
Hia  name  in  the  world  was  Archangel©  Piihnentiere.  moiuoiw  style  of  purest  Spanwh  whom  which  has 
On  1  July,  1832,  he  entered  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor,  mented  for  it  the  reputation  of  a  classic,  and  by  an 
ftnd  shortly  after  the  completion  of  the  year's  no  viti-  unctuous  eloquence  that  has  made  it  a  perennial  source 
ate  was  appointed  to  teach  philosophy  and  mathemat-    o[  religious  msmraUon.    It  has  been  most  {a^x>ur. 

ies  in  the  ftinciscan  convent  of  San  Pietro  in  Naples.  aWy  compared  with  A  Kempis  s  "  Inutation  of  C  hnst^ 
FoOowing  the  advice  of  his  superiors,  he  instituted  a     ^^  ^^hm  a  comparatively  short  time  after  its  first 

bfmch  of  the  Third  Order  at  San  Pietro  from  the  mem-  appearance  it  was  translated  into  Italian,  Latin. 

bers  of  which  he  formed  later  a  reUgious  institute,  Irench,  German    Pohsh,  and  Greek.    A  new  and 

eommonly  known  as  the  Frati  Bigi  on  account  of  the  revised  Enghsh  tnmslation  was  published  at  New 

grayish  or  ashen  colour  of  their  habits.    Louis  in-  ^  or^  ^  1889.    His    Memonal  of  the  Christian  Life 
stituted  likewise  a  congregation  of  religious  women,     (Memorial  de  la  vida  Christiana)  is  almost  equally 

known  as  the  Suore  Bi5e,  whom  he  placed  under  the  ^'^^^  known.     In   1576  he  published  at  Lisbon  a 

protectionofSt.EUsabeth  of  Hungary.  Abouttheyear  ^^}^  ^ork  on  the  principles  of  pulpit  oratorv(Rhe- 

1862  he  opened  a  school  for  the  education  of  African  ^^ncae  Ecclesiastics,  sive  de  ratione  concionandi).   It 

bcOT  and  girls  redeemed  from  slavery.    Ten  years  enjoyed  an  extensive  vogue,  not  only  m  Spain,  but  in 

before  his  death  he  was  attacked  with  a  serious  and  ^^*  ^^  *^e  countries  of  Europe;   new  editions  ap- 

painful  iUness,  from  which  he  never  completely  re-  P?2j;p4i"^,^?.^'y,  **  X^^i^^?^)i.^^^^^  Q^^^' 
covered.  The  numerous  works  of  charity  in  Naples,  ^^2,  loll),  Milan  (1585),  and  Fans  (1635).  A  bpan- 
Rome,  Assisi,  and  Florence  which  owe  their  origin  to  '^^  translation  was  published  at  Madrid  in  1585.  To 
Louis  of  Casoria,  as  well  as  the  fame  for  sanctity  which  illustrate  the  principles  embodied  in  this  work,  a 
he  enj<^ed  even  during  his  lifetime,  account  for  the  volume  of  the  author's  sermons,  marked  by  great  pu- 
veneratKm  in  which  he  was  held  by  all  classes,  high  "^y  of  style  and  deep  religious  feeling,  was  published 
and  low  aHke.  The  cause  of  his  beatification  was  seven  years  after  his  death.  In  all,  some  twenty- 
introduced  in  Rome  in  1907.  seven  works  are  attnbuted  to  his  pen.    A  Latin  edi- 

Ada  OrdinU  Minorum  (BCay,  1907),  156-158-  The  CaiMie  tion  of  all  his  wntmgs  was  published  by  Andrew  Schott 

SS?  iSwrSSlS.  ^®®*^'  *^^^*    ^*^  ^*  '^'"*''  ^'»^*<>  and  Michael  of  Isselt  at  Cologne  in  1628-29.    A  com- 

(juQr*  iwi7>«  23-20.  -m*    TA  olcte  edition  of  his  ascetical  works  was  brought  out  at 

Stephen  M.  Donovan.  gf^^d,  in  1679,  by  Dionysius  Stoche.  Moif no,  O.P., 

Lonla  of  Oranada,  theologian,  writer,  and  preacher;  and^  a  complete  edition  of  his  sermons,  m  French,  at 

b.  of  very  humble  parentage  at  Granada,  Spain,  1505;  ^^^f  iu  1868.  .  »  , .,     .       „,  ,,     ,      ,o.„v 

d,  at  libon.  31  Dec^.  1588     At  the  aRe  of  (t^^^^A^S'^^^rk'^^^'^UlTkZ-^!^'^] 

nineteen  he  was  received  into  the  Dominican  Order  hommes  iUtutresdeVOrdrede  Saint  Dominique,  IV  IVuns,  1743- 

in  the  convent  of  Santa  Cms,  Granada.    With  a  *«)•  5^592;  Hurteii,  Nomenciator  liurariug,  I.    Tlie  firet 

«wiam4-aK^v  r»/  4-1«a  l«Bf*kAa4-  y^imlUtr  A««rl  ♦ka  mTi-  ^9  »»•»_  TiBTt  oi  Tm  Stntiera  QuMie  entitled  Counseiaon  Homu:vt  of  Life, 

mentahty  of  the  hi^est  quality  and  the  gift  of  unre-  £J.  Shiplkt  in  The  Ascetic  LUmiry,  Vlll  (London,  isoq/,  con- 
nutting  apphcation  he  united  a  profoundly  spintual  uins  a  brief  sketch  of  the  author's  life. 
character  which  promised  a  brilliant  and  fruitful  J.  B.  O'Conxor. 
career  in  the  service  of  the  Chureh.    His  philosophical 

studies  finished,  he  was  chosen  by  his  superiors  to  Louis  of  Toulouse,  Saint^  Bishop  of  Toulouse, 
represent  his  convent  at  the  College  of  St.  Gregory  at  generally  represented  vested  in  pontifical  garments 
Valladolid,.  an  institution  of  the  Dominican  Order  and  holding  a  book  and  a  crosier,  b.  at  Brignoles,  Pro- 
reserved  for  students  possessed  of  more  than  ordi-  vence,  Feb.,  1274:  d.  there,  19  Aug.,  1297.  lie  was 
nary  ability.  Here  he  acquitted  himself  with  rare  the  second  son  or  Charles  II  of  Anjou.  called  the 
distinction,  not  only  in  the  regular  ecclesiastical  Lune,  King  of  Naples  (1288-1309),  and  nephew  61 
courses,  but  in  the  humanities,  to  which  he  gave  St.  Louis  IX  of  Franco;  and  of  Marv  of  Ilungary. 
special  attention  at  the  request  of  his  superiors.  His  whose  great-aunt  was  St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  it 
studies  completed,  he  at  once  entered  upon  the  career  in  some  and  even  early  sources  (/Vnalecta  FrancLscanar 
of  a  preacher,  in  which  he  continued  with  extraordi-  IV,  310)  he  is  called  primogenitus^  it  is  only  because  he 
naiy  success  during  forty  years.  The  fame  of  his  succeeded  to  the  rights  of  his  eldest  brother,  Charles 
preaching  spread  b^ond  the  boundaries  of  his  native  Martel  (d.  1295).  In  12.S8  Louis  was  sent  with  two  of 
land,  ana  at  the  request  of  the  Cardinal  Infante,  Dom  his  brothers  to  the  Kingdom  of  Anigon  as  hostage 
Henrique  of  Portugal,  son  of  King  Manuel,  he  was  forhisfather,whohadl>eon(Iofoatc(Ian(lcapture(lina 
transferred  io  the  latter  ooimtnr,  where  he  became  naval  battle  off  Naples  by  the  Sicilians  and  Aragonians 
provincial  of  the  Portuguese  Dominicans  in  1557.  (1284).  During  the  seven  years  of  their  captivity 
His  extraordinary  sanctity,  learning,  and  wisdom  soon  ( 1288-95)  in  the  castle  of  Sciurana,  Dioc^so  of  Farra- 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  queen  regent,  who  ap-  gona^  and  partly  in  Barcelona,  tlie  education  of  the 

B minted  ^  him   her   confessor   and   counsellor.    The  three  princes  was  entrusted  to  some  Franciscan  friars, 

ishopric  of  Viseu  and  the  Archbishopric  of  Braga  were  amon^  whom   were   Ponzius   Carbonelli    (Analecta 

successively  offered  to  him  only  to  be  courteously,  but  Franciscana,  IV,  310),  Peter  of  Falgar,  and  Richard  of 

firmly,  renised.    The  honours   of   the  cardinalate,  Middleton  (.Vnalecta  Bollandiana,  IX,  205).    Peter 

offered  to  him  by  Pope  Sixtus  V,  were  also  declined.  John  01i\'i,  the  groat  Franciscan  Spiritual,  was  also 

Among  the  hundreds  of  eminent  ascetical  writers  one  of  their  friends,  who  on  18  May,  1295,  wrote  them  a 

of  Spain,  Louis  of  Granada  remains  unsurpassed  in  the  long  letter,  published  by  Elirle  in  "  Archiv  f.  Litt.  u. 

beauty  and  purity  of  his  style,  the  soliditv  of  his  doc-  Kirchengesch.",   III^   531-40   (see  ibid.,   430-41). 

trine,  and  thiB  popularity  and  influence  of  nis  writings.  Louis  outstripped  his  brothers  both  in  holiness  anfl 

Besides  asoeticaf  theology,  his  published  works  treat  learning,  and,  during  a  severe  illness,  made  the  vow 

of  Scripture,  dogma,  ethics,  biography,  and  histery.  to  become  a  Friar  Minor. 

He  is  best  known,  however,  for  ms  ascetical  writings.        He  was  still  in  captivity  when  Celestine  V  entrusted 

The  appreciation  of  their  worth  extended  throughout  to  him  the  administration  of  the  Archbishopric  of 

Europe,  and  later  to  America,  and  their  popularitv  still  Lyons,  on  7  Oct.,  1294  (Bullar.  Franc.,  IV,  332) ,  hav- 

remains  but  little  impaired  after  the  passage  ot  four  ing  pre\nousIy  granted  Francis  of  Apt,  0.1'\M.,  the 

hundfed  years.  Neariy  all  of  thesa  works  were  trans-  saint's  confessor,  the  faculty  of  giving  him  the  clerical 
IX.— 25 


LOUISVILLE 


386 


LOUISVILLE 


tonsure  and  minor  orders  (cf .  Bullar.  Franc,  IV,  332) . 
Neither  Bull  s^ms  to  have  been  carried  out.  From 
.Tolm  of  Orta  (Anal.  Boll.,  IX,  292)  it  appears  that  he 
was  tonsured  only  on  1  Nov.,  1295,  after  his  release. 
Louis  then  returned  to  Naples.  After  renouncing  s^L 
the  rights  of  succession  in  favour  of  his  brother 
Robert,  he  was  ordained  subdcacon  in  Home  by 
Boniface  VIII,  and  in  1296  deacon  and  priest  at 
Naples  (Anal.  Boll.,  IX,  314).  Boniface  VIII  ap- 
pointed the  saintly  young  priest  Bishop  of  Toulouse, 
out  Louis,  wishing  first  to  Decome  a  Friar  Minor^  re- 
ceived the  Franciscan  habit  in  Rome  from  the  minis- 
ter general.  Jolm  Minio  of  Murro,  on  24  Dec.,  1296, 
and  immccliately  made  solemn  profession.  He  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Toulouse  by  Boniface  VIII  on 
29  (30?)  Dec,  1296  ("Bullar.  Franc",  IV,  422;  cf. 
"Anal.  Boll.",  IX,  297).  After  the  Feast  of  St.  Agatha 
(5  Feb.),  1297,  on  wliich  day  he  appeared  for  the 
first  time  publicly  in  the  Franciscan  nabit,  he  betook 
himself  to  Toulouse,  where  his  mild  figure  and  his 
virtues  were  admired  by  everybody.  He  was  the 
father  of  the  poor  and  a  model  of  administration .  But 
his  episcopate  was  very  brief,  for  on  his  return  journey 
from  a  visit  to  his  sister,  the  Queen  of  Aragon,  he  was 
seized  by  fever  and  died  at  Brignoles. 

We  have  scarcely  any  record  of  literary  work  of  St. 
Louis.  Recently,  however,  Amelli,  O.S.6.,  published 
iu  the  "Archivium  Franciscanum  Historicum",  II 
(Quaracchi,  1909),  378-83,  a  small  treatise  on  music 
written  by  the  saint,  and  from  this  it  appears  that  he 
is  also  the  author  of  a  "  Liber  de  Musicae  Commenda- 
tione".  Sbaralea  ("Suppl.  ad  Script.",  Rome,  1806, 
p.  498)  ascribes  to  him  also  some  sermons.  His  canon- 
ization, promoted  by  Clement  V  in  1307  (Bullar. 
Franc,  V,  39),  was  solenmized  by  John  XXII  on  7 
April,  1317  (loc.  cit..  111).  His  relics  reposed  in  the 
Franciscan  church  at  Marseilles  till  1423.  when  they 
were  taken  by  Alfonso  V  of  Aragon  to  the  cathedral 
church  of  \^alencia,  of  which  towp  Louis  became 
patron  saint.  His  feast,  celebrated  in  the  Franciscan 
Order  on  19  Aug.,  was  decreeil  by  the  general  chapter 
held  at  Marseilles  in  1319  (Anal.  Franc,  III,  473). 
and  the  rhytlmiical  office,  beginning  Tecum^  composed 
by  the  saint's  brother^  King  Robert  of  Naples,  was  in- 
serted in  the  Franciscan  Breviary  by  the  General 
Chapter  of  Marseilles  in  1343  (loc.  cit.^  539),  but  seems 
to  have  been  abolLshed  by  the  Tridentme  reform  of  the 
Breviary  imder  Pius  IV,  1568  (cf.  Acta  SS.,  Aug., 
in,80o) 

Tho  best  contemporary  life  Is  by  the  saint's  chaplain,  John 
DE  Orta  in  Anal,  BoU.,  IX  (Paris  and  Brussels.  1890).  27&-340: 
ibid.,  341-51  (miraclcfl);  and  in  Anal.  Ord.  Min,  Cap.,  XIII 
(Rome,  1897),  338-51,  360-72;  XIV  (1898),  16-27,  83-92: 
some  appendixes,  ibid.,  92-4, 120-6, 150-8, 181-3.  A  second  old 
life  is  by  Peter  Calo,  of  which  extracts  are  given  ia  Acta  SS., 
Aug.,  Ill,  781-97,  passim;  a  compendium  edited  by  Presuti 
in  Archiv.  Franc. Hist.,!  (Quaracchi.  1908),  278-80:  cf.  ibid., 
669-76  (miracles).  Bartholomew  of  Pisa  in  Anal.  Franc., 
IV  (Quaracchi.  1906),  309-17;  Chronicle  of  the  XXIV  Generals 
in  AnaL  Franc,  III  (Quaracchi.  1897),  447-52;  Blume  and 
Dreyer,  Anal,  Ilymmca  Medii  JSvii,  XXVI  (Leipzig.  1897), 
265-74,^ve  three  riiytbmical  offices  formerly  used  in  Franciscan 
Breviunes.  For  some  samples  of  notable  nymns  see  EuBfesB 
(aLOP,  Cantua  varii  tn  usu  apud  nostraiea  (Toumai.  1902). 
177-88.  Leon,  Lives  of  the  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the  Three 
Orders  of  St.  Francis  (Taunton.  1886).  20-49.  tr.  from  the  Au-  • 
rSole  S^raphique,  III.  The  best  modem  life  b:  Vbrlaque, 
Saini  Louis,  prince  royal,  H'ique  de  Totdouse  (Paris,  1885) ;  da 
pALBfA,  Vita  di  S.  Lodoxico  d^Angib  (Naples,  1855).  On  the 
Iconography,  see  Salter.  Franciscan  Legends  in  Italian  Art 
(London,  1905),  180-1S2;  Bertaux,  Les  saints  Louis  dansVart 
italien  in  Reime  drs  Deux  Afow/«,  CLVIII  (Paris.  1900),  616-44; 
Klein'Rchmidt,  St.  Lwlwig  tnm  Toulouse  in  der  Kunst  m  Archi- 
vium Franc.  Hist.,  II  (Quaracchi.  1909)  197-215.  Oonceming 
the  sixth  centenary  see  the  richly  illustrated  work,  S.  Lodovico  . 
d'Angio  ,  .  ,  e  Siui  SantUh  Leone  XIII,  Ricordodel  VlCente- 
nario  della  morte  del  Santo  1S97-1897  e  del  LX  Anniversario  dd 
Giubileo  Sacerdotale  di  Sua  Saniit<'i  18S8-1898  (Rome.  1«98). 

LlVARIUS  OlJGEB. 

Louisville,  Diocese  of,  comprises  that  part  of 
Kentucky  west  of  the  Kentucky  River  and  western 
boTvlora  of  Carroll,  Owen,  Franlklin,  Woodford,  Jes- 
samine, Garrard,  Rockcastle,  I^aurel,  and  Whitley 


C-ouutics,  embracing  an  area  of  22,714  square  miles. 
Prior  to  the  erection  of  the  Covington  Diocese  (29  July, 
1853),  it  embraced  all  the  State  of  Kentucky  with  an 
area  of  47,0(X)  square  miles.  Ori^nally  it  was  called 
Diocese  of  Bardstown,  and  its  bishop  administered 
spiritually  a  territory  now  divided  into  over  twenty- 
eight  dioceses  (five  of  which  are  archdioceses).  The 
first  Catholics  who  are  known  to  have  settled  in  Ken- 
tucky were  William  C^mes  and  family  (Mrs.  CToomes 
was  not  only  the  first  white  female  settler,  she  was  also 
the  first  school-mistress)  and  Dr.  Hart  the  first  resident 
physician.  They  were  among  the  first  white  settlers 
at  Ilarrod's  fort  (Spring,  1775).  Catholic  settlers 
soon  followed  from  Maryland,  and  in  a  short  time 
their  niunbers  were  greatly  increased  by  an  influx  of 
Irish-bom  immigrants.  The  latter  were  probably 
more  numerous  at  Hardin  Creek  station  than  at  anv 
other,  with  the  sole  exception  of  the  wholly  Irish 
settlement  at  Lower  Cox's  Creek  (seven  miles  north  of 
Bardstown),  where  the  Irish  language  was  almost  ex- 
clusively spoken  (see  Kentucky).  Dr.  Carroll  was 
unable  to  send  a  priest  before  the  vear  1787^  and  re- 
ligion suffered  greatly  thereby.  The  first  missionary 
sent  (1787)  was  Father  Whelan,  an  Irish  Franciscan, 
succeeded  by  Fathers  Badin,  de  Kohan,  and  Barridres, 
Foumier  and  Salmon.  The  nrst  American-bom  priest 
assigned  to  Kentucky  was  Father  Thayer,  a  converted 
Congregational  minister.  He  remained  four  vears, 
only  two  of  which  were  spent  in  missionary  cluties. 
Father  Nerinckx  arrived  at  St.  Stephen's  on  IS  July, 
1805,  and  remained  there  with  Father  Badin  till  1811. 
He  was  a  tireless  and  energetic  worker,  and  erected  ten 
churches.  He  founded  the  Sisterhood  of  Loretto  (see 
LoRETTO,  Sisters  of).  A  colony  of  Trappists,  under 
Fr.  Urbaji  Guillet,  came  to  Kentucky  in  18()5,  and 
settled  on  Pottinger's  Crock,  about  one  zbile  from  Holy 
Cross  church,  and  established  a  school  for  boys.  Fr. 
Guillet,  however,  withdrew  his  monks  from  Kentucky 
in  the  spring  of  1809.  The  Dominicans  under  Father 
Fenwick  came  to  Kentucky  in  1806,  and  settled  on  a 
farm  (now  St.  Rose's  Convent  near  Springfield).  A 
brick  church  was  immediately  begun  but  not  finished 
until  1808.  This  was  the  cradle  of  the  Dominican 
Order  in  the  United  States.  Upon  the  resignation  of 
Father  Fenwick,  Father  Wilson  was  appointed  pro- 
vincial and  under  him  the  foundation  became  prosper- 
ous and  permanent.  A  novitiate  opened  in  18(^  was 
soon  filled  with  candidates  from  the  school. 

Erectiok  of  the  Diocese  op  Bardstown. — ^Pius 
yil  ("Ex  debito",  8  April,  1808)  erected  Baixistown 
into  an  episcopal  seat  and  appointed  Rev.  Benedict 
Joseph  Flaget,  a  Sulpician,  as  its  first  bishop.  The 
new  diocese  embraced  the  States  of  Kentudcy  and 
Tennessee,  and  its  bishop  was  given  spiritual  juris- 
diction, not  only  over  his  own  diocese  proper,  but  also, 
until  other  dioceses  might  prudently  oe  formed,  over 
the  whole  north-western  territory  (states  and  terri- 
tories) of  theUnited  States  hnng  between  35®  N.  latitude 
and  the  Great  Northern  I^akes,  and  between  the  states 
bordering  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, thus  including  the  present  States  of  Buchigan, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
about  half  of  Arkansas,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa.  From 
this  mother-see  of  the  West  were  formed  ten  dioceses 
(including  that  of  Little  Rock)  in  the  life  of  its  first 
sainted  bishop.  Though  the  Bulls  for  Flaget's  conse- 
cration readied  him  in  September,  1808,  the  consecra- 
tion did  not  for  several  reasons  take  place  until  4 
November,  1810,  when  Bishop  Caixoll,  assiBted  by 
Bishop  Cheverus  (Boston)  ana  Bifi^op  Egan  rPhila- 
delphia)  consecrated  him  at  St.  Patridc's  cnureh. 
Fell's  Point. 

Bishops. — (1)  Bishop  Flaget,  aooompanied  by 
Fathers  David  and  Savine,  and  three  semiDiurians  (one 
of  whom,  Guy  I.  Chabrat,  was  afterwards  the  second 
coadjutor  to  Flaget)  reached  Louisyille  from  Pitts- 
burg on  4  May,  and  arrived  on  9  May,  1811,  at  Banto* 


Luuisvnus 


387 


LOUISVnUB 


towiu    Until  a  residonoe  aud  church  could  be  built, 
Bishc^  Flaget  resided  at  St.  Stephen's.    The  bishop 
found  twenty-four  stations  and  ten  churches  all  built 
of  logs,  except  the  Danville  church  wliich  was  built  of 
brick  upon  ground  donated  by  an  Irishman,  named 
Daniel  McElroy,  and  with  monies  mainly  given  by  the 
Irish  in  the  vicinity,  attended  by  six  priests.    The 
Catholics  of  Kentucky  then  numberecl  about  6000 
souls.    Outside  of  Kentud^  he  had  one  priest  at  De- 
troit, Michigan,  one  at  Keiskaskia.    The  congrega- 
tion at  Vincennes.  Indiana,  had  no  priests,  and  was 
indifferent.    Caholda  had  no  pastor,  but  was  anxious 
for  one.    The  bishop  sent  Fr.  Savine.    There  was  no 
priest  in  Ohio.    He  had  ten  priests  for  a  territory 
over  which  before  his  death  ten  bishops  wielded  the 
crosier.    Father  David  removed  on  11  November, 
1811,  to  the  Howard  house  and  farm  and  began  to 
erect  a  log  seminary  and  brick  church.    On  Christmas 
Day,   1811,  Bishop  Flaget  ordained  in  St.  Rose's 
church  Girf  Ignatius  Chabrat,  first  priest  of  the  semi- 
nary and  nrst  priest  ordained  west  of  the  Alleghanies. 
With  the  help  of  the  seminarians  who  cut  wood,  burned 
the  brick,  and  mixed  and  carried  the  mortar,  a  small 
brick  church  was  built  in  1816.    Then  (1817)  followed 
the  erection  of  a  brick  seminary.    The  first  diocesan 
B3mod  in  the  west  was  held  on  20  February,  1812. 
According  to  the  bishop's  report  to  Pius  VII  (11  April, 
1815)  the  Catholics  had  increased  to  10,000  souls,  minis- 
tered to  by  10  priests,  there  were  6  subdcacons  (5  of 
them  Dominicans),  6  in  minor  orders,  and  6  tonsured 
clerics,  5  brick  and  14  log  churches;  Tennessee  had 
about  25  Catholics;  Ohio  50  families  without  a  priest; 
Indiana  130  families  attended  occasionally  from  Ken- 
tacky;  Illinois  about  120  families;  and  Michigan  2000 
souls.    The  seminary  from  its  beginning  until  1819 
had  given  eleven  diocesan  priests  to  the  missions. 
Vocations  were  numerous,   out  on  account  of  the 
poverty  of  parents  and  bishop,  almost  as  many  were 
turned  away  as  were  received .    Burdened  with  episco- 
pal labours  too  heavy  for  one,  Bishop  Flaget  applied 
tor  a  coadjutor  with  right  of  succession,  and  Kev. 
Father  David,  president  of  the  theological  seminary, 
was  appointed  m  the  autumn  of  1817,  but  the  conse- 
cration was  put  off  until  15  August,  1819,  one  week 
after  the  completion  and  consecration  of  the  cathedral 
at  Bardstown,  which  had  been  begun  on  16  Julv,  1816. 
Bishop  Flaget  was  relieved  of  Ohio  and  North- West- 
em  Territory  by  the  erection  of  Cincinnati  (19  June, 
1821)  and  the  consecration  of  Father  Fen  wick  as  its  first 
bishop  (13  Janiuuy,  1822).     A  community  of  religious 
women  under  guidance  of  Dominican  Fathers  was 
started  (1822)  near  St.  Rose's  church.    The  bishop 
initiated  (1823)  a  religious  society  called  the  Brother- 
hood of  die  C^stian  Doctrine,  but  it  survived  only 
three  years.    The  year  1826  is  notable  for  a  wonder- 
ful renewal  of  faith  as  the  fruit  of  a  series  of  missions 
all  through  the  diocese.    The  missions  were  successful. 
Six  thousand  received  the  Sacraments  of  Penance  and 
the  Eucharist,  1216  were  confirmed,  and  many  con- 
verts were  baptised.     In  1828  Bishop  Flaget  conse- 
crated Most  Rev.  James  Whitfield,  fourth  Archbishop 
of  Baltimore.    In  September,  1828,  he  attended  the 
First  Council  of  Baltimore.     Soon  after  his  return  to 
Kentucky  he  consecrated  Dr.  Kenrick  (6  June,  1830). 
A  new  church,  a  replica  of  Bardstown  cathedral,  was 
built  on  Fifth  street  by  the  Rev.  Robert  A.  Abell,  and 
consecrated  in  1830.    The  Sisters  of  Charity  started  a 
school  for  ffirls  near  the  St.  Louis's  church.    The  Jesu- 
its, invited  in  182^  arrived  in  1832,  and  were  pre- 
sented with  St.  Mary's  Colle^  by  its  founder  and 
owner.  Rev.  Wm.  Byrne.    Whilst  at  St.  Louis,  Bishop 
Flaset  received  news  from  Rome  that  his  resignation 
of  tne  Bishoprio  of  Bardstown  had  been  accepted,  and 
that  his  coadjutor.  Father  David,  would  be  his  suc- 

(2)  *Rt.  Rev.  John  Baptist  Mary  David,  b.  in  1761, 
Nantee,  France,  educated  and  ordained  there  on 


24  Septemlx^r,  1785.  Having  joiniHl  the  Sulpicians, 
he  taught  philosophy  and  theology  in  France,  and,  in 
1792,  came  to  the  United  States.  He  laboured  on  the 
Maryland  missions  for  twelve  years  with  indefatigable 
zeal;  and  after  teaching  some  years  at  Georgetown 
College  and  St-Mary's,  Baltimore,  in  1810  he  went 
west  with  Bishop  Flaget,  and  established  the  theo- 
logical seminary  of  St.  Thomas  at  Bardstown.  He 
was  a  strict  disciplinarian  and  an  able  and  lucid  pro- 
fessor. He  foimued  the  religious  institute  of  Sisters 
of  Charity  of  Nazareth  (November,  1812),  and  was 
their  ecclesiastical  superior  almost  to  the  end  of  his 
life.  Appointed  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Flaget  in  a-u- 
tumn,  1817,  his  consecration  was  delayed  for  almost 
two  years  by  reason  of  his  reluctance  to  accept  the  dig- 
nity. After  his  consecration,  he  continued  at  the 
head  of  the  seminary,  discharging  at  the  same  time 
the  duties  of  professor  and  pastor  of  the  cathedral 
parish.  The  priests  trained  mider  him  numbered 
forty-seven,  of  whom  twenty-three  were  either  natives 
of  the  diocese,  or  had  been  raised  in  it  from  childhood. 
Four  of  them  became  bishops:  Chabrat  (coadjutor  to 
Bishop  Flaget),  Reynolds  (Charleston),  McGill  (Rich- 
mond, Va.),  Martin  John  Spalding  (Louisville,  and 
later  Archbishop  of  Baltimore).  Ujwn  succeeding  to 
the  bishopric  early  in  December,  1832,  his  first  act  was 
to  appoint  the  former  bishop,  the  Rt.  Rev.  B.  J.  Flaget. 
vicar-general  with  as  ample  faculties  as  he  could,  and 
then  forward  his  resignation  to  Rome.  Rome  ac- 
cepted the  resignation  (May,  1833),  and  reappointed 
Bishop  Flaget  to  the  See  of  Bardstown.  Declining 
health  compelled  Bishop  David,  towards  the  end  of 
1841,  to  retire  to  Nazareth,  where  he  died  12  July, 
1841,  aged  80,  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his  priesthood, 
and  twenty-second  of  his  episcopate. 

(3)  Bishop  Flaget,  reappointed  to  Bardstown,  thus 
became  its  third  bishop.  Dr.  Chabrat  was  named  his 
coadjutor  (29  Jmie,  1834).  After  consecrating  him 
(20  July,  1834),  Flaget  left  to  him  the  details  of  the 
administration.  In  September,  of  the  same  year,  a 
small  church  and  orphan  asylum  were  erected  in  Cov- 
ington, thus  laying  the  foundation  of  the  Covington 
Diocese.  Indiana,  and  the  eastern  portion  of  Ilhnois, 
were  removed  from  Bishop  Flaget's  jurisdiction  by  the 
erection  of  the  Diocese  of  Vincennes,  6  May,  1834. 
Bishop  Flaget,  in  1835,  visit^'d  France,  and  made  his 
episcopal  visit  to  Rome.  The  first  weekly  Catholic 
paper,  *'The  Catholic  Advocate",  was  published  in 
Bardstown  in  1836,  succeeding  a  month!}'  magazine, 
the  "  Minerva",  founded  and  edited  by  the  faculty  of 
St.  Joseph's  College,  in  October,  1834.  During  the 
years  18;»6-7  sevend  churches  were  erected  and  dedi- 
cated, among  them  one  at  Ixixington,  Fancy  Farm, 
Lebanon,  and  Ijouisville  (St.  Boniface  was  the  first 
erected  for  German  Catholics).  In  April,  1837,  Dr. 
Chabrat  attended  the  Third  Provincial  Council  of  Bal- 
timore, and  made  known  Bishop  Flaget's  desire  to  have 
Tennessee  formed  into  a  new  diocese.  Gregory  XVI 
established  the  Diocese  of  Nashville  on  25  July,  1837. 
Father  Napoleon  Joseph  Perch6  (afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  New  Orleans)  organized  a  new  city  parish. 
Our  Lady's  of  the  Port.  The  diocese  numbered  at 
this  time  forty  churches,  seventy  stations,  fifty-one 
priests,  two  ecclesiastical  seminaries,  and  nine  acade* 
mies  for  young  ladies.  Bishop  Flaget  returned  to 
Bardstown  in  September,  1839,  and  new  churches 
were  erected  at  Taylor3\dlle  and  Portland.  Louisville 
had  in  1841  a  population  of  21,210.  Owing  to  its  in- 
creasing population,  and  the  development  of  its  Catho- 
lic institutions,  the  episcopal  seat  was  transferred  to  it 
from  Bardstown  in  that  year,  and  Flaget  became 
Bishop  of  Louisville  and  Bardstown. 

Diocese  op  Louisville. — La  Salle,  a  Catholic  ex- 
plorer, was  the  first  white  man  who  visited  the  Falls 
of  Ohio  and  the  site  upon  which  the  city  of  Louisville 
is  built.  Thomas  Bullitt  and  party  arrived  at  the 
Falls  on  8  July,  1773,  and  marked  oft  \3K»«^u&<AViosv 


LOUISVILLE 


388 


LOtnSVILLl 


city  in  August  of  the  sjime  yt^ar.  Louisville  was 
establish^  by  Act  of  the  legislature  of  Virginia 
on  1  May,  1780,  on  1000  acres  belonging  to  one 
John  Connolly.  Three  French  priests,  Revs.  Flaget, 
Levadoux.  and  Richard,  met  in  Louisville  and  prob- 
ably said  M&Ba  there  for  the  first  time  in  1792.  It  is 
not  certain  that  any  professing  Catholic  was  resident 
before  1791.  Several  Catholic  families  of  Irish  and 
American  birth  settled  there  between  1805  and  1825. 
In  1806  a  large  colony  of  Frenchmen,  with  their  fami- 
lies, settled  about  one  or  two  miles  south  of  the  city 
limits,  and  upon  the  southern  bank  of  the  Oliio,  and 
though  but  very  few  of  them  were  practical  Catholics 
they  aided  Father  Badin  liberallv.  A  church  was 
erected  on  the  comer  of  Tenth  and  Main  streets,  and 
opened  on  Christmas  Day,  1811,  but  not  finished  until 
1817.  Father  Philip  Hosten  attended  it  occasionally 
from  Fairfield  until  17  August,  1822,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  Louisville.  Typhoid  fever  was 
carrying  off  hundreds  of  the  population  when  he  ar- 
rived, and  he  ministered  night  and  day  to  the  sick  and 
dying.  He  fell  a  victim  to  the  fever  and  died,  30  Oc- 
tober. He  was  succeeded  in  1823  by  Father  Robert 
A.  Abell,  who  attended  the  Catholics  in  the  town 
proper,  and  the  villages  of  Shippingport  and  Portland, 
St.  John's,  Bullitt  county,  on  tne  southern,  and  those 
of  New  Albany  and  Jefifersonville  on  the  northern 
bank  of  the  Ohio.  Father  Abell  was  succeeded  by 
Rev.  J.  I.  Re>'nolds,  who  had  for  assistants  Fathers 
George  Hay  den,  McGill,  and  Clark.  Father  Stahl- 
smidt  replaced  Father  Clark,  and  gathered  together 
the  Catholic  Germans  in  the  basement  chapel,  and 
thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  first  German  congrcga- 
tioQ  in  the  city. 

Bishops, — (1)  Rt.  Rev.  Benedict  Joseph  Flajjct,  on 
the  removal  of  the  see  from  Bardstown  to  Louisville, 
appoint^  Father  Reynolds  vicar-general,  and  Rev. 
Dr.  Martin  J.  Spalding,  pastor  of  the  old  cathedral  at 
Bardstown.  A  colony  of  five  sisters  of  the  Good  Shep- 
herd, from  Angers,  France,  arrived  in  Louisville  m 
1842,  and  were  installed  in  a  home  on  Eighth  street 
near  Walnut  purchased  for  them  by  Bishop  Flaget. 
This  was  the  cradle  of  this  religious  community  in  the 
United  States.  The  confraternity  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary  for  the  Conversion  of  Sinners  was  es- 
tablished on  21  March,  1843,  by  Bishop  Flaget.  The 
coadjutor  bishop,  Dr.  Chabrat,  being  tnreatened  with 
the  loss  of  sight,  tendered  his  resignation,  which  was 
at  length  (1847)  accepted,  and  Dr.  Martin  J.  Spalding 
appointed  in  his  place.  Two  Franciscan  Brothers 
from  Ireland  opened  the  first  free  school  in  Louisville 
in  1847.  The  year  previous  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  in 
charge  of  St.  Mary's  College  for  fourteen  years,  left  the 
diocese.  About  Alay,  1848,  negotiations  between  the 
bishop  and  the  Jesuits  of  St.  Louis  were  completed,  by 
which  the  fathers  took  chai^  of  St.  Joseph  s  College, 
at  Bardstown,  and  the  Catholic  free  school  founded  by 
the  Irish  Franciscan  Brothers.  Soon  after  the  Jesuite 
arrived  in  Louisville,  they  erected  a  spacious  edifice  as 
a  college  adjoining  the  free  school.  The  college  at- 
tendance was  from  100  to  200,  and  that  of  the  free 
school  about  l^OO  boys.  Late  in  December,  1848,  a 
colony  of  Trappists  from  Melleray,  France,  arrived  at 
and  settled  on  a  farm  of  about  1600  acres  formerly 
belonging  to  the  Loretto  Sisters,  and  named  Gethse- 
xnanL  Bishop  Fkiget  d  on  11  February,  1850  (see 
Flaget,  Benedict  Joseph). 

Coad  j  utor  Bishop  Guy  Ignatius  Chabrat,  b.  at  Cham- 
bre,  France,  on  28  December,  1787;  d.  at  Mauriac, 
France,  on  2 1  November,  1868.  He  came  to  Kentucky 
in  1800  and  was  ordained  on  25  December,  181 1.  He 
did  missionary  duty  at  St.  Michael's,  Fairfield,  St. 
Clare's,  and  Louisville.  He  had  charge  for  a  short 
time  (1823)  of  St.  Pius's,  Scott  County.  Upon  the 
death  of  Father  Nerinclu,  Father  Chabmt  succeeded 
/t//o  as  superior  of  the  Loretto  sisterhood  till  1 8 16.  IIo 
ooaaecr&ted  (20  July,  1834)  Biahop  of  Bolina  and 


coadjutor  of  Bardstown.  Wlien  Bishop  Chabrat  was 
forced  to  resign  by  reason  of  his  approucliing  blindness 
he  retired  (1847)  on  a  comfortable  pension  to  his  old 
home  in  France.  He  died  in  the  thirty-fourth  year  of 
his  episcopate. 

(2)  Rt.  Rev.  Martin  John  Spalding,  b.  23  May,  1810, 
was  one  of  the  first  pupils  of  Father  Byrne's  College, 
afterwards  of  the  diocesan  seminary  of  St.  Thomas, 
thence  he  passed  to  Rome  and  was  ordained  on  13 
August,  1834;  became  vicar-general  of  the  diocese  in 
1844,  caidjutor  bishop  on  10  September,  1848,  and 
bishop  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Flaget,  11  February,  1850. 
Upon  the  death  of  Dr.  Kendrick,  Bisliop  Spalding  was 
elevated,  11  June,  1864,  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Balti- 
more. He  appointed  his  brother.  Rev.  Dr.  Benedict 
Joseph  Spalding,  administrator  of  the  diocese.  In 
1848  Bishop  Spalding  found  30,000  souls  in  the  whole 
state,  cared  for  by  40  priests,  and  at  his  departure 
there  were  70,000  souls  with  51  diocesan  and  24  re- 
ligious priests  in  the  Diocese  of  Louisville.  There 
were  but  43  Catholic  churches  in  the  state  in  1848;  in 
1864  there  were  80  in  the  Diocese  of  Louisville.  Dui^ 
ing  the  administration  of  Dr.  B.  J.  Spalding  the  Jesuit 
Fathers  of  St.  Joseph's  College  left  the  diocese  (see 
Spalding,  Martin  John). 

(3)  Rt.  Rev.  Peter  Joseph  Lavialle,  b.  in  1820  at 
Laviallc  near  Mauriac,  in  Auvergne,  France,  made  his 
preparatory  studies  in  France,  and  came  to  Kentucky 
with  his  relative,  Bishop  Chabrat,  in  1841;  he  was  or^ 
dained  pnest  in  1844,  and  assigned  to  work  at  the 
cathedral.  In  the  year  1849  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  St.  Thomas's  Seminary  where  ne  remained 
until  Bishop  Spalding,  in  1856,  made  him  president  of 
St.  Mary's  College,  which  office  he  held  until  he  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Louisville  on  24  September, 

1865.  He  invited  the  Dominican  Fathers  to  locate 
in  the  episcopal  city  in  Decenil>er,  1 865.  The  following 
year  St.  Joseph's  and  St.  Micliael's  churches,  Louis- 
ville, were  dedicated,  and  a  temporary  frame  church 
(St.  Louis  Bertrand's)  built  and  tlie  convent  of  the 
Dominican  Fathers  commenced.  Thougli  exhausted 
from  continued  labours  and  mortifications,  he  at- 
tended the  Second  C-ouncil  of  Baltimore  in  October, 

1866,  and  on  his  return  resumed  the  diocesan  visita- 
tion, but  had  to  retire  to  St.  Joseph's  Infirmary,  and 
thence  to  Nazareth  Academy  where  he  died  on  11 
Mav,  1867.  He  was  buried  in  the  crypt  of  Louisville 
cathedral.  Very  Rev.  B.  J.  Spalding  was  again  ap- 
pointed administrator  of  the  diocese,  but  he  soon 
died  (4  August.  1868).  Archbishop  Purcell  then  ap- 
pointed Very  Rev.  Hugh  I.  Brady  administrator  seoe 
vacante, 

(4)  Rt.  Rev.  William  George  McCloskey;  b.  on  10 
November,  1823,  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  He  studied  law 
in  New  York  City,  but  abandoning  his  worldly  career 
he  was  ordained  priest  by  Archbiishop  Hugnes  on  4 
October,  1852.  After  acting  as  assistant  for  one  year 
to  his  brother,  Rev.  John  McCloskey,  pastor  of  the 
Nativity  church.  New  York,  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Latin  and  after^-ards  of  holy  Scripture  and 
moral  theology  at  St.  Mary's  College,  Maryland,  and  in 
1857  was  chosen  as  director  of  Mount  St.  Mary's 
Seminary,  which  office  he  held  until  he  was  appointed 
(8  December,  1859)  by  Pius  IX  first  rector  of  the 
recently  established  American  College  at  Rome.  Upon 
the  death  of  Bishop  Lavialle  the  Pope  named  Dr. 
McCloskey  to  the  vacant  see,  and  he  was  oonaecrated 
bishop  by  Cardinal  Reisach  in  the  American  College 
on  24  May,  1868.  Bishop  McCloskey  ruled  the  dio- 
cese for  forty-one  years  and  died  at  Preston  Park  Sem- 
inary on  17  September,  1909.  Very  Rev.  James  P. 
Cronin,  former  vicar-general,  was  appointed  adminia- 
trator  of  the  diocese  by  ArchbishopldoeUer  of  Cincin- 
nati. The  Right  Rev.  Denis  Ol>onaghue,  Titular 
Bishop  of  Pomario  (25  April,  1900)  and  Bi^op  Auxiliaiy 
of  Inclianapolis,  was  chosen  as  the  new  Bishop  of  Louia- 
villc  and  took  possession  of  hia  see  on  29  Mareh^  191flL 


L0UBDI8  3! 

STATumos. — Frieata  204  (142 (Hooesan,  62  rcgulur); 
ehurdiea  Ifij;  seminary  1;  colleges  3,  pupils  718; 
academies  16,  pupils  1621;  purochial  schools  70, 
pupils  11,225;  Ifknaergartens  D.  pupils  l-ir);  industrial 
andnformsdiools'l,  ininates225;  orplian  asylums :j, 
orphans  272;  hospitals  4;  homes  for  &geil  poor  i; 
inm»t«t  301;  Catholic  population  135,421.  The 
coloured  Catholics  number  4251,  and  have  4  churches 
and  7  achoi^  with  ,S65  pupiU. 

Rdigunu  Comtnurtities. — (Men);  Benedictines  2; 
Dominioana  17  (14  priests};  Franciscan  Friiira  Minor, 
professed  24,  clergy  18;  Mi  nor  Conventual,  professed  Ci 
priests;  Passionists  in  community  24;  Fathers  of  the 
Resurrcotion,  professed  5,  total  12;  Refortned  Cis- 
tercian, profe^ed  32,  total  87;  Brothers  of  Mary  7; 
Xaverian  Brothers  21)  professed. 

(Women);  Sisters  of  Charity;  mother-house  at  Nai- 
areth,  Ky  22  houses  in  the  diocese  and  establish- 
ments  in  States  of  Ohio,  Teniiessce,  Arkansas,  Miit- 
sisaippi,  Maryland,  Virginia  and  Massocbuaetts;  total 
relinMi9,800.  Sisters 
of  Lointto  at  the 
Foot  of  the  Cross: 
mother-house  at  Ne- 
riockx.  Nelson  Co., 
Ky.,  700  members, 
conducting  23  acade- 
mies and  42  parochial 
schools  in  the  Dio- 
ceses of  Louisville, 
Covington,  Cleve- 
land, Columbus, 
lL[obik,  Belleville, 
l^t.  Louis,  Kansas 
City,  Lincoln,  Den- 
veT,  Dallas,  Tucson, 
and  Santa  P6.  Sis- 
ters 0*  Third  Order 
of  St.  Dominic: 
mother-house,  St. 
Catherine  near 
Springfield,  Ky.,  pro- 
fessaa  nsters,  04, 
total  number,  79. 
Good  Shepherd  Sisters:  2  convents,  professed  choir 
sisteta  24,  18  lay,  9  out-door  sisters  having  in  charj^ 
55  professed  magdalcnes,  39  penitents,  170  in  reform- 
atory class,  and  170  children  from  5  to  12  years  of  age 
in  St.  Philomena's  Industrial  School.  Ursuline  nuns: 
mother-house  irt  Louisville,  local  houses,  7.  academics, 
3,  20  parochial  schools,  and  1  orphan  asylum,  and 
establishments  in  Maryland  and  Indiana,  total  sub- 
ject to  mother-house,  247.  Sisters  of  Mercy;  mother- 
Douse  at  Louisville,  academy  hi)u.se  and  parochial 
scliool,  professed  tiO.  Franciscan  Kistcra;  St.  Anthony's 
hospital,  23  sisters.  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor:  home 
for  the  ageil,  iH  sisters  in  charp:  of  225  aeed  poor. 

H.  J.  Spaldiho,  Life.  Timet  anrf  rtiaranrr  of  Uentdict  Joiph 
naoet  (Louisville,  1852);  Idkh,  Ukrlrhn  ol.Ar  Earlu  CtUMie 
Wiwioiu  in  Ktntucku.  ITaT-lSlT  (LouJBvillc.  IftM):  Shea.Hu- 

MalCaAalie  ClmrA  in  aeUniuaSlaUtltivti  York,  1886-03); 
.  SPALDmo.  lAfiof  ArehbiiAop  liaaUinii  (N«w  York.  1873); 
Wen,  Cailtmm  of  CaOatieUy  in  Kmtvtkfi  (Loiiiaville,  18S4) ; 
Dbtun,  LmiMSt  Ouiilt  lloimvUh,  IHSTj ;  CatMie  OrjAm'a 
Smmmir  (Uxiuvilla.  IBOl):  SIm  of  Catholtc  Admaate,  CaOoUe 
(hmtimt  mud  CatMie  Rtard. 

P.  M.  J.  Rock. 

ZiOurdas,  BROTnERSOFOriiLADY  or  (abbreviation 
C.N.D.L. — Corigr^ationde  Not  re-Damp  dcI.ourdcH), 
a  community  devoted  to  the  education  of  youth  ami 
the  care  of  the  sick  and  intirtu.  1r  wdm  fijiindcil  at 
Renaix,  Flanders,  in  1830,  l)y  Etieiuic  Moilcste  Glo- 
rieux,  a  Belgian  prieet,  and  approval  in  1S02  by  Leo 
XIII.  The  cor^regatioo,  numbenn"  51S  members, 
has  its  mother-house  at  Ooetacker,  lielgium,  and  30 
HliaJ  houses,  ona  in  tiie  United  StatM  and  tlie 
othen  in  Beleiiim  and  Holland.  The  Amprican  house 
is  at  South  Park,  in  the  Diocese  of  Seattle,  Washing- 


ton, where  there  arc  13  Brothers  in  charge  of  a  house 

of  studies  and   day-  and  boardinf;-school  for  boys. 

Heiubucheii,  nitOrdmundKonarroiUianm.  Ill  a>a(Ierbinii, 
10O8),  360;  Catholic  Dirtdorv  (Milwaukee,  IBIO). 

Leo  a,  Kkllt. 
Lourdes,  NontK-DAMt:  de,  in  the  Department 
of  llautos  Pyrenees,  France,  is  far-famed  for  the  pil- 
Krimafte  of  which  it  is  a  cnntro  and  for  the  extraordi- 
nary- events  that  have  occurrcii  and  still  occur  there. 
Hijttori^The  pilErimagc  of  Lourdes  is  founded  on 
the  apparitions  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  toa  poor,  four- 
teen-year-old girl,  Bemudctte  Soubiroux.  The  first 
apparition  occurred  11  February,  18.">S.  There  were 
eighteen  in  all;  the  lu-'st  took  iilacc  IQ  July,  of  the 
same  year.  Bemailette  often  fell  into  an  ecstasy.  The 
myslcrious  vision  slie  saw  in  the  hollow  of  the  rock 
Massabiellc  was  that  of  a  young  anil  iicautiful  lady. 
" Loi-e!icr  thin  I  have  ever  seen"  said  the  child. 
But  the  girl  was  the  only  one  who  saw  the  vision, 
although  sometimes  many  stood  there  witbher.  Now 
and  then  the  appa- 
rition spoke  to  the 
seer  who  also  was  the 
only  one  who  hoard 
the  voice.  Thus,  she 
one  d!iv  told  her  to 
drink  of  a  mj'stcrious 
fountiiin,  in  the  grot- 
I  to  itnelf.  the  existence 
of  which  was  un- 
known, and  of  which 
there  witsnosign,  but 
which  immediately 
gushed  forth.  On 
another  occasion  the 
appuri tion  bade 
Bemadctte  go  and 
tell  the  priests  she 
wished  11  chapel  to 
be  built  on  tike  spot 
and  procctwioos  to 
be  made  to  this 
grotto.  At  first  the 
clerpj'  were  incredu- 
lous. It  was  onlv  four  j-ears  later,  in  1802,  thiit  the 
bishop  of  the  ■liocese  drciared  the  faithful  "justi- 
fied in  lielieving  the  reality  of  the  apparition  .  A 
tiasilica  was  built  upon  tlie  rock  of  MassaMclle  by 
M.  PeyraniolCj  the  parish  priest.  In  1873  tlie  great 
"national"  French  pilKrimagcs  were  inaugurated. 
Three  yea'rs  later  the  liasilicu  was  consecrated  and  the 
statue  solemnly  crownetl.  In  l.S8,'i  the  foundation 
stone  of  another  church  was  laid,  as  the  Rnt  was  no 
longer  large  enough.  It  was  built  at  the  foot  of  the 
basilica  and  was  consecrated  in  1001  and  called  the 
Church  of  the  Rosiiry-  Pope  Leo  XIII  authorized 
a  special  office  and  a  Mass,  in  commemoration  of  the 
apparition,  and  in  1907  I'iua  X  extended  the  observ- 
ance of  this  feast  to  the  entire  Church;  it  is  now 
observed  on  1 1  Ichruary. 

Never  has  a  sancluarv  attracted  such  throngs. 
At  the  end  of  tlie  year  VMS,  when  the  fiftieth  anni- 
versary of  the  apparition  was  celebrated,  althou^ 
the  rMord  really  only  licgan  from  1867,  5297  pil- 
grimages had  been  repstcred  and  these  had  brought 
4,019,000  pilgrims.  Inilividiuil  pilgrims  arc  more 
numerous  by  far  tlian  those  who  come  in  groups.  To 
their  numl)er  Toast  lie  added  the  \Tsitor8  who  do  not 
come  OS  pilitrinis.  but  who  are  attracted  by  a  religious 
feeling  or  sometimes  merely  by  tlic  desire  to  see  this 
far-famed  spot.  The  Company  of  the  Chernins  de 
Per  du  Midi  estimates  that  the  I>ourdes  station  re- 
ceives over  one  million  travellers  per  annum.  Every 
nation  in  the  world  furnishes  its  contingent.  Out  of 
the  total  of  pilgrimages  given  n1>ove,  four  hundred  and 
sixty-four  c:inii'  fiimi  coiiiitrieH  other  tlv?L^ 'S^wss*- 
They  arc  sent  by  ttt  t;\i:\\.«ii'^W\«^»,'-',«TOiS!.-o^v'%^- 


LOU&DES 


390 


UV&DES 


nuni,    AuHtria,    Hungiiry,    Spain,    Portugal,    Italy,  fulatudy:  "Onreadingit, unprejudiced  minds  cannot 

England,  Ireland,  Canada,  linizii,  Bolivia,  otc.     The  but  be  convinced  that  the  tacts  stated  are  authentic." 
bisbopa  lead  the  way.     At  the  end  of  the  year  of  the  Tlieir  Cause, — There  cxiBta  no  natural  cause  capable 

^ftietli    annivcnsarv,    201.1   jirclates,   includJne   .'ilii  of  proiiucing  the  cures  witnessed  at  Lourdee  which  dia- 

archbishopB,  10  priniatps,  19  patriarchs,  60  cardinal,  penBeanunbittssed  mind  from  tracing  them  back  to  the 

had   made   the   pilgrimaKe   to   Lourdca.     But   more  jmrticularagencyotGod.  ThoBewhorefuBedtobeiievr 

remarkable  still  than  the  crowd  of  pilgrima  la  the  in  a  miraculous  intervention  Bought  at  first  the  Hr~ 


I  of  wonderful 
occurrences  which 
take  place  under 
the  protection  of 
the  celebrated  sauc- 
tuary.  Passing  over 
upiritual  cures,  which 
more  often  than  not 
escape  huniau  oli- 
eervance,  we  shall 
confine  ourselves  to 
bodily  <liseascs.  The 
writer  of  tliis  article 
has  recorded  every 
recoverj',  whether 
partial  or  complete, 
and  in  the  firat  half- 
century  oF  the 
shrine's  existence  hs 
has  counted  3962. 
Notwithstanding 
very  careful  statis- 
tics which  give  the 


titic  interpretation  of 

the  chemical  compo- 
dtton  of  the  water 
of  the  Crotto.  But 
it  was  then  declared 
by  an  eminent  chem- 
ist officially  ap- 
pointed tu  make  the 
analysis,  and  his 
stateiuent  has  since 
been  corn  ihora  ted, 
that  the  H-alcr  eon- 
tains  no  curative 
properties  of  a  nat- 
ural chancier.  Then 
the  incredulous snid, 
perhaps  it  ope  rotes 
through  ils  temper- 
ature, or  the  results 
obtained  at  I^ourdes 
may  be  accounted 
for  "by  the  bathing  in 
i  of  the  patients  who  have  re-  cold  water.  However,  every  one  knows  thnt  hydro- 
covered,  the  (late  of  the  cure,  ttie  name  of  the  disease,  therapy  is  practised  elsewhere  thnn  iit  Lourdes,  and 
and  generally  that  of  the  physician  who  had  charge  of  that  it  docs  not  work  the  miracle  of  curing  every 
the  case,  there  are  inevitably  doubtful  or  mistaken  kind  of  disease,  from  cancers  to  troubles  which  bring 
cases, attributable, as  arule,totheexcitedfancyof  the  on  blindness.  Besides,  many  ailing  ones  are  cured 
afflicted  one  and  which  time  soon  dispels.  But  it  is  without  ever  bathing  in  the  basins  of  the  Grotto; 
only  right  to  note:  first,  that  these  unavoidable  errors  this  deciiles  the  question.  Therefore,  those  who  deny 
re^ud  only  secondary  oases  which  have  not  like  the    eupematuraJ   intervention  attribute  the  wonderful 

others  been  the  object  of  special  "  '  '       ->--•-• -i— 

studv;  it  must  also  be  noted  that  the 
Dumber  of  such  cases  is  equalled  and 
exceeded  by  actual  cures  which  are 
not  put  on  record.  Tlie  afflicted 
who  nave  reco\-erod  are  not  obliged 
to  present  tliemselves,  and  half  of 
thenl  do  not  presenttfiemselves,  at 
the  Btiieait  dea  Constatations  M(di- 
ooles  at  Lourdes,  anil  it  is  frorn 
this  bureau's  official  reports  that  the 
list  of  cures  is  druwn  up. 

The  eEtiniale  that  about  4000 
cures  have  lx>en  obtained  at  Lounlea 
within  the  first  fifty  ycan<  of  the 
pikrima)^  is  tmdoubtcdiy  eonsid- 
OTSDly  leas  than  the  actual  numlier, 
Tbe  uurea  u  des  Constatations  stands 
oear  the  shrine,  and  there  arc  re- 
corded anil  checked  the  certificates 
ofmalaities.and  also  the  certifimtes 
of  cure;  it  is  ftec  to  all  ph>'siciHua, 
whatever  their  nationality  or  re- 
ligious belief.  Consci'iuentlv,  on  an 
aversKe,  from  two  to  three  liuiidred 
plrveicians  annuallv  visit  this  niar- 

veUous  clinic.     As  to  the  nature  of    BuujiDmrEflonBiHonx, 
the  diseases  which  are  cured,  ncr-         ^"""'  "'"lourb" 
VOUB  disorders  so  frequently  men- 
tionnl,  do  not  fumisli  even  the  fourteenth  part  of    eua 

the  whole;  27H  have  lieen  counted,  nut  of  a  total  of     the   ,,   ,^_._ _     .       . 

3962.    The  present  writer  has  publislied  the  number    gressively,  while  the  complete  cures  of  Lourdes 
'  ""    B  of  each  disease  or  infirmity,  among  them    stantaneous.    Therefore    curative   suggesti 


results  seen  at  Lourdes  to  two  otbei 
causes.  The  first  is  suggestion. 
To  this  we  answer  unhesitatingly 
that  suggestion  is  radically  power- 
less to  furnish  the  hoped-for  ex- 
t I  lunation.  Omitting  ner\'ous  or 
unctional  diseases,  wnce  they  are 
in  the  minority  among  those  regis- 
tered as  cured  at  the  Medical  Office 
of  the  Grotto,  and  the  tact  we  are 
now  establishing  does  not  require 
them  to  lie  taken  into  account,' 
we  may  confine  our  attention  to 
organic  diseases.  Can  suggestion 
be  nued  efficaciously  in  diseases  of 
this  nature?  The  most  learned 
and  daring  of  the  suggest iouists  of 
the  present  day,  Bemheim,  a  Jew, 
head  of  tlie  famous  school  of  Naniy , 
the  mote  advanced  rival  of  the 
Ecole  de  la  Salpitriire,  answers  in 
the  nepti\-e  in  twenty  passages 
of  tlie  Look  in  which  tie  has  re- 
oonled  tlie  result  of  his  observa- 
tions: "Hypnotisme,  Suggestion, 
Psychothcrapic"  (Paris,  190.1,2nd 
eiiition).  Studj-ing  this  work,  we 
find  also  that  in  the  very  cases 
where  suggestion  has  a  chance  of 
■tain  functional  diseases,  it  requires 
operation  of  time,  it  cures  slowly  and   pro- 


tubercuiosis.  tumours,  sores,  cancers,  deafness,  blind-  explanation, 

nees,  etc.     The  "Annales  des  Sciences  Physiques",  Lourdes:  ti 

a  sceptical  review  who.se  ehict  editor  is  Doctor  Ch.  is  infinitely 
Itiehet,  l*rotessor  at  the  Mediciil  I'aeultv  of  Paris,  said         There 

io  till,  rmlisi-  ,.|-  :■  Ic.ilk  ;irticlf,  a|..-..,>c«  .if  (lij.,  I:iilli-  mme  ilti 


the  CI 


It  i! 


ns  the  lost  resource  of  having  re 

1  ItiW  and  of  saying,  for  instance, "  How 


XAUtB  3f 

do  we  know  that  some  natural  force  of  which  we  &rc 
still  ignorant  doea  not  openite  the  marvellous  cures 
which  are  attributed  directly  to  GodT"  How  do  we 
knon'?  In  the  firat  place,  if  a  law  of  thia  nature  did  ex- 
.  ist,  the  pilgrima  of  Lourdes  would  not  be  coKniiant  of 
it  any  more  than  the  rest  of  mankind;  neither  would 
the}' know  anv  better  than  others  how  to  set  it  in  mo- 
tion. Why  Bhouid  this  law  operate  for  them  and  not 
tor  others?  la  it  because  they  deny  ita  existence  and 
the  others  beUeve  in  it?  Moreover,  not  only  there 
does  not  exist,  but  there  cannot  exist,  and  conse- 
quently will  never  exist,  a  natural  law  producing  in- 
stantaneously the  regeneration  oF  tissues  affected  with 
iMion,  tjiat  ia  to  say,  the  cure  of  an  oi^anic  disease. 
Why  soT    Because  any  growth  and  consequently  any 


restoration  of  the  tissues  of  the  organism 

plishcd— and  thia  is  a  scientific  fact— by  tli 

and  growth  of  the  protoplasms  and  cells  which 

]Miae  every  living  body.  Every  existing  protoplasm 
comes  from  some  former  protoplasm,  ana  that  m)m  a 
previous  one  and  so  on,  back  to  the  very  banning; 
Ihese  generations  (the  fact  is  self-evident)  are  neoce- 
Karily  successive,  that  is,  they  require  the  co-operation 
of  tune.  Therefore,  in  order  that  a  natural  force 
should  be  able  to  operate  a  sudden  cure  in  an  organic 
disease,  the  cssentiul  basis  of  life  aa  it  ia  in  the  present 
creation  would  liave  to  be  overthrown:  nature  as  we 
Imaw  it  would  have  to  be  destroyed  and  another 
created  on  a.  different  plan.  Therefore,  the  hypothe- 
sis of  unknown  forces  of  nature  cannot  be  brought  for- 
ward to  explain  the  instantaneous  cures  of  tjourdes. 
It  ia  logically  untenable.  Aa  a  matter  of  fact,  no  nat- 
ural cause,  known  or  uiiknown,  is  sufficient  to  ac- 
count for  the  marvelloits  cures  witnessed  at  the  foot 
of  the  celebrated  rock  where  the  Virgin  Immaculate 
deigucd  to  appear.  They  can  only  be  from  the  inter- 
vention of  God. 

IfjJWEHRE.  tfatrt-Dame  de  Lourdts:  Bouwahie,  L'teuvn  dt 
Lmtfrte^i  Bertiuh,  Ui/doir*  critigut  dta  ivfnfm^nU  da  Lourdet. 
appanliont  rf  auMmu  (Pnria.  1900),  tr.  (liBin;  Idsh,  Un  mi- 
nuUd-avjiiunr/iuiaiteuiuj-idiovr'iilne  tPaiB,  190B). 

UEORoes  Bektrin. 


II  LOUVAZV 

Louth.    See  Clooher,  Diocese  of. 

Lonvain,  Univehsitv  of. — In  order  to  restore  the 
splendour  of  Louvain,  capital  of  bis  Duchy  of  Brabant, 
Llohn  IV  of  the  Hou.se  of  Burgundy  petitioned  the 
papal  authority  for  the  estabhsbment  of  an  educa- 
tional institution  called  at  the  time  sludium  generaU. 
The  Bull  of  Martin  V,  dated  9  December,  1425,  waB 
the  result,  Thia  Bull,  in  founding  the  university,  pre- 
scril>ed  also  that  the  prince  should  give  it  advantages 
and  privileges.  In  its  early  days,  however,  the  uni- 
versity wa.s  incomplete.  It  was  only  in  1'131  that  Eu- 
gene IV  created  the  faculty  of  theology.  Louvain  had 
the  character  of  a  sludium  generaie,  i.  c.,  it  bad  the 
right  to  receive  students  from  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  the  degree  of  doctor  wliich  it  conferred  gave  the 
right  to  (4^ach  anywhere.  Popes  and  princes  vied  with 
one  another  in  granting  the  university  imiw)rt.aut  priv- 
ileges and  estalilishing  endowments  to  provide  for  ita 
needs  and  development.  The  organization  of  the  uni- 
versity and  its  history  have  been  recorded  by  many 
aiiiialista.  TheMSS.  preserved  in  the  archives  amply 
complete  the  hterary  sources,  although  the  entire  his- 
tory of  the  university  has  not  yet  been  written.  From 
any  ptunt  of  view  tlut  may  bo  token,  the  history  and 
description  of  the  university  admit  of  an  important 
division,  the  H^iime  from  142S  to  1797  being  quite  dif- 
ferent from  that  adopted  at  the  time  of  the  restoration 

Firii  Period  (I4«5-/7ff7).— The  ancient  university 
constituted  a  juridical  body  enjoying  a  large  measure 
of  autonomy.  The  arrangement  of  the  programme  of 
studies  ana  the  conferring  of  degrees  were  among  its 
prerogatdves;  it  had  jurisoiction  and  disciplinary  pow- 
ers over  ita  merobere.  Ita  constitution  was  elective; 
the  authority  of  the  rector  was  conferred  for  three 
months,  then  for  six,  by  delegates  of  the  faculties, 
each  one  h<dding  in  turn  the  rectoral  office.  The  facul- 
ties organised  after  the  foundation  of  the  theologi- 
cal faculty  oomprised  those  of  law  (civil  and  canon), 
medicine,  and  arts.  The  scope  of  the  latter  was 
very  broad,  including  the  physical  and  mathematical 
sdences,  jwiloeopby,  literature,  and  history.  It  cov- 
ered everything  contained  in  the  trivium  and  quadri- 
vium  of  the  Middle  Ages;  it  was  an  encyclopedic 
faculty.  The  university  profited  by  the  increasing 
power  of  the  sovereigns  of  Brabant,  dukes  of  Bur- 

fimdy,  afterwards  princea  of  Habsburg,  Austria,  and 
pain.  TTie  imperial  splendour  of  Charles  V  contrib- 
uted greatly  to  its  prosperity,  owing  to  the  important 
position  of  the  Netherlanda  among  the  nations  of  Eu- 
rope. Doubtless,  too,  it  felt  the  effects  of  the  civiland 
foreign  wars,  which  devastated  these  provinces;  its 
material  and  scientific  intereals  suffered  considerably, 
but  for  ail  that,  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  it  was  one  of  the  strongcat  intellectual  cen- 
tres of  the  West.  The  princes  had  contributed  to  tie 
influence  exerted  by  Louvain  liy  giving  it  a  imiveraity 
monopoly;  for,  fearing  the  influence  of  the  doctrines 
taught  in  other  coimtrics,  the  FuniCHO  Government 
forbade  yoiuig  Helgiaim  to  study  in  foreign  uiiii-ersi- 
tiea,  as  manv  of  them  liad  lieen  iloiiig  until  th.it  time. 
It  ia  true  tnat  this  rule  permitted  exceptions  for 
worthy  motivea.  On  the  other  hand,  to  provide  for 
the  southern  provinces,  Philip  II  hod  brought  about 
the  establishment  of  an  affiliated  university  at  Douai, 
which  was  soon  to  rival  the  parent  institution  and 
share  its  privileges.  The  faculties  of  Ixiuvain  did  not 
confine  themselves  to  oral  teaching  in  optional  courses. 
Various  institutions  sprang  up  about  the  university. 
-More  tlian  forty  colleges  received  Ktiidents  of  various 
groups  provided  with  spci'iul  means,  flpecial  chairs 
were  created,  for  instance,  in  the  Mixf«enth  century, 
the  celebrated  "College  of  the  Tlircc  Languages' 
founded  by  Busleiden.  In  these  colleges  (I-ya,  Pore, 
(Tifiloau,  Faucon)  courses  were  given  and  a  very  keen 
competition  fi)r  ncademic  lioriours  sprang  up  among 
them.    Tlie  students  were  also  grouped  according  to 


LOUVAm  3! 

nationalities,  c.  g.,  the  Geiman  nation,  the  Braluntine 
Diition,  etc. 

In  the  ancient  university  the  faculty  of  law  ciccu- 
pied  a  dominant  position.  Its  course  of  studies,  how- 
ever, offers  no  features  characteriaiic  of  that  period. 
Founded  at  the  time  when  Roman  law  viae  be^nning 
to  assert  its  supremacy  in  Europe,  the  faculty  of  Lou- 
vain  remaine<l  a  stanch  exponent  of  ito  principles. 
Here  as  iii  France,  it  is  possible  t«  distinguish  various 
periods,  but  the  ivsction  brought  about  in  IJiat  coun- 
try by  the  school  of  Cuja.'*  was  not  equally  strong  in 
Bel^um  with  Mudde  and  his  disciples  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  Roman  law  reigned  almost  suptvmc  in  the 
lecture-halls;  even  during  the  formation  of  national 
law,  while  the  up-buildinR  of  this  law  Wiis  everywhere 


in  process,  it  found  no  place  in  the  teaching  of  the  uni- 
versity. It  was  only  in  exceptional  cases  that  certain 
subjects  succeeded  in  obtaining  recognition.  The 
junsts  of  Lou  vain,  however,  exercised  a  tremendous 
influence.  Indeed  they  soon  nUcd  the  tribunals  and 
the  councils.  Admimstration  and  judiciary  drew 
their  jurisprudence  from  the  sources  in  the  university; 
mogistratcH  and  officials  studied  under  the  teachers  at 
Louvain,  and  sometimes  the  teachers  themselves  were 
called  to  tliese  high  positions.  And  thus  the  bw  de- 
veloped under  their  mspiration.  When  the  period  of 
compilations  (such  as  those  of  customary  and  princely 
Uwb)  began  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  jurists  i^ 
Louvain  la vished  on  the  work  the  i^csuft  of  their  learn- 
ing and  experience.  The  perpetual  edict  on  the  re- 
form of  justice  isjiucd  in  iiill,  murks  a  memorable 
epoch  in  this  respect.  The  situation  liecame  still  more 
tense  when  in  1617  a  rule  was  adopted  lequiring  for 
eligibility  to  nieinlwrsliip  in  the  councils  of  justice,  and 
even  for  adcnission  io  tlie  bar,  the  completion  of  a 
course  of  studies  in  a  university  of  the  Netherlands. 
In  this  Mcbcitic, the  tencliing  of  Roman  law  had  a  large 
place;  it  was  re>E:iriled  as  the  scicniilic  clement,  hut 
It  Ben'itl  in  iiraetice  to  mould  and  cimnlinate,  not  to 
destniy  tliP  li^iiiK  law  of  ii:iti.Hial  inisU.rii.  Wliile  one 
prvserviil  the  tlieoretical  priiuney,  the  other  was  in 
xciaai  conlnA,  and  it  is  from  tliiiir  union  realized  in 


12  LOUVAIN 

studies  and  edicts  that  the  written  national  Ian'  came 
forth.  Influential  in  all  that  pertained  to  law  as  such, 
the  jurists  of  Louvain  had  also  a  strong  political 
influence.  Under  the  old  regime  justice  and  admin- 
istration were  not  divided.  Then,  the  highest  govern- 
mental offices  were  almost  always  entrusted  to  ex- 
perienced jurists  who  held  diplomas  from  Louvain. 

The  jurisla  of  Louvain,  brought  up  in  the  spirit  of 
Byiantme  law,  were  somewhat  imbued  with  royalist 
theories;  however,  although  aerving  the  prince,  they 
showed  a  decided  preference  for  the  limited  monarchy. 
They  certainly  consoUdated  and  enlarged  the  princely 
power,  but  they  did  not  favour  an  aljsolute  monarchy. 
The  national  opposition  to  the  royal  power,  which  had 
become  too  foreign  in  character,  undoubtedly  met 
among  the  leasts  adversaries  so  far  as  these  helped 
powerfully  to  create  the  mechanism  of  the  princely 
Btate;but  if  anumber  were  hostile  to  the  old  privileges 
of  the  provinces,  the  theory  of  absolute  royalty  found 
Qo  representative  among  them  even  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  is  only  in  the  eighteenth  century  that 
royalist  conceptions  took  on  greater  importance  at 
Louvain,  without,  however,  becoming  predominant. 
The  history  of  these  conceptions  has  been  sketched  in 
a  volume  of  the  faculty  of  law  indicated  below.  If 
the  faculty  of  law  exercised  a  far-reaching  influence  in 
the  inner  ufe  of  the  university,  the  faculty  of  arts  shetl 
a  more  brilliant  light.  There  we  find  the  illustrious 
group  of  Humanists  whofora  century  and  a  half  give 
Louvain  an  international  fame;  it  t>ecomes  one  of  the 
scientific  centres  of  the  litcrar}-  Renaissance  which  so 
largely  developed  the  knowledge  of  letters  and  history 
and  gave  a  new  impetus  to  many  branches  of  learning, 
but  which  was  also  marked  by  the  ferment  of  many 
dangerous  germs  and  hasardouB  ideas.  I'Ouvain  isin 
the  very  heart  of  this  literary  movement,  and,  apart 
from  the  subtle  trifling  with  ideas  which  endangered 
orthodoxy,  reference  must  be  made,  and  often  with 
well-deserved  praise,  to  the  brilliant  phalanx  of  lin- 
guists, jihilotogists,  and  historians  gathered  at  the 
university.  There  we  find  a  succession  of  names 
which  adorn  the  literary  annals  of  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  and  the  history  of  which  has 
been  written  in  part  by  Fflix  NSve  ("La  Renais- 
sance des  lettres  en  Belgique",  Louvain,  1K90),  a 
work  which  is  being  gradually  brought  Xa  completion, 
especially  by  the  writings  of  Professor  Roersen,  of 
Ghent.  The  ancient  languages  ruled  over  this  do- 
main, theOrientalandGra.-co-Latinstudies  occupying 
a  prominent  place.  It  is  particularly  through  this 
faculty  that  Louvain  stied  its  lustre  beyoiiil  the 
Netherlands.  If  its  jurists  were  well  knowii,  its  phi- 
lologists were  even  more  famous.  Besides,  literary 
Humanism  formed  a  vast  international  association 
for  fine  cultural  study,  and  intercourse  l)etween 
teachers  was  supplemented  by  the  journeys  of  their 
disciples.  Louvain  hail  a  distinguished  reputation 
in  this  world  of  letters;  it  was  the  Athens  of  Bel- 
gium. The  English  Catholic  Humanists,  such  as 
Thomas  More,  found  tlicre  a  hapny  refuge  during 
the  persecution.  At  the  end  of  tne  eixtecntli  cen- 
tury, the  name  of  Justus  Lipsius,  poor  as  a  philos- 
opher and  statesman,  but  great  as  a  philologist, 
sums  up  this  prestige  of  classical  lore,  of  which  he 
stands  out  as  the  culminating  point,  forming  with 
Caaaubon  and  Scaliger  the  "triumvirate"  of  European 
Humanism.  Distin^ished  names  abound,  but  that 
of  CWnard,  the  ,\rabLst,  is  entitled  to  special  mention. 
Thomiaaen  and  Roeisch  have  written  tlie  life  of  this 
indomitable  scholar.  Moreover,  the  study  of  Icttera 
permeated  the  other  sciences  and  the  professors  of  law 
were  Humanists  as  well. 

But,  as  we  know,  the  faculty  of  arts  does  not  con- 
sist wholly  of  linguistic  anil  pbilolo^cal  studies;  it  in- 
cludes the  natural  and  inatheiiiatical  sciences  in  close 
connexion  witli  philosophy.  Without  attempting  to 
treat  its  tiistor}'  and  controversies,  it  may  suffice  to 


LOUTAIV  3( 

note  thftt  in  the  sixteenth  century,  ^metiy,  astron- 
may,  and  geography  found  at  Louvain  celebrated  pro- 
feeaote  who  paved  the  way  for  the  practical  achieve- 
ments of  Antwerpian  cartography.  Adrian  Romaniw 
and  Gemma  Frisius  are  ita  accredited  representatives. 
The  Cartesian  disputes  of  the  seventeenth  century 
gave  rise  to  heated  controversies,  the  stirring  history 
of  which  has  been  related  by  Georges  Hinchamp  (Le 
Cart^sianisme  en  Belgique,  I8S6).  The  same  is  true 
of  the  system  of  CopemicuB  and  the  trials  of  Galileo 
(Monchamp,  " Galilfe et  fa  Belgique",  Brussels,  1892). 
The  eighteenth  oentury  brings  the  name  of  Minckelers, 
who  Jnveated  illiuninatinii;  gas.  Within  the  last  few 
years  several  monuments  have  been  erected  tu  him  at 
teutsmcht  and  at  Louvnin,  and  Professor  Dcwalque, 
of  Louvain,  has  written  his  biogranhy.  The  history 
of  each  science  will  not  be  related  here,  as  it  should 
properly  be  left  to  specialists.  This  in  particular  is 
true  as  regards  the  faculty  of  medicine.  It  may  be 
stated,  however,  that  although  few  in  number  this 
faculty  grouped  in  its  midst  and  about  it  powerful 
elements  of  progress.  Vesalius  and  Van  Helmont 
worked  at  Louvain;  R^ga  was  an  authmity  in  surgery 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  there  are  many  I ' 


Belonging  to  a  very  different  order  in  virtue  of  its 
high  mission  stands  the  faculty  of  theology.  The 
ta^  of  treating  its  doctrines  hes  lieyond  the  scoi>e  of 
this  article.  As  a  whole  its  history  is  one  of  fruitful 
activity  to  which  its  numerous  productions  bear  wit- 
ness. It  was  disturbed  by  the  currents  of  thought 
which  agitated  religious  doctrine  throu^out  the 
world,  but  it  vigorously  resisted  Protestantism.  The 
errors  which  sprang  from  ita  bosom  throu^  the  teach- 
ings of  Balus  and  Jansenius  cauaed  senous  anxiety 
during  the  entire  seventeenth  centui?.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  the  influence  of  Febronianism  and 
Josephinism  was  strongly  felt,  without,  however,  ever 
becoming  predominant  m  the  faculty.  The  theolog- 
ical teaching,  from  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 
onwards,  was  based  upon  that  of  the  scholastics,  tho 
writings  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  having  replaced  those 
of  Peter  Lombard,  Special  scholastic  chairs  were 
added  through  the  initiative  of  the  princes.  Among  its 
illustrious  teachers  we  shall  name  but  one:  Adrian 
Floris,  tutor  of  Charles  V,  later  Cardinal  of  Utrecht, 
and  finally  pope  under  the  name  of  Adrian  VI  (1522). 
To  him  is  due  the  foundation  of  a  university  college 
which  still  bears  his  name. 

The  statutes  of  the  university  had  been  modified 
several  times,  but  the  laura  doeUiralis  was  throughout 
the  crowning  feature  of  the  studies.  The  doctorate 
ceremonies  were  not  ahke  in  all  the  faculties  nor  were 
they  the  only  onee  observed  in  the  university;  but  the 
conferring  of  d^rees  was  always  a  considerable  event 
accompanied  with  festivities  academical,  gastronomi- 
cal,  and  public.  Not  only  did  solemn  processions 
pass  through  the  town,  but  these  were  repeated  in 
each  community  according  to  a  traditional  ntuaJ  both 
comphcated  and  onerous.  These  functions  were 
conmnemorated  in  verse,  tableaux,  stories  and  are 
perpetuated  in  the  nation's  memory.  Except  for  well- 
)ustified  retrenchments,  the  custom  has  been  main- 
tained in  certain  doct«ratea,  the  conferring  of  which 
atill  preserves  the  festive  form  and  the  public  proces- 
sion. Certain  competitions  in  the  faculty  of  arts 
roused  great  interest.  At  the  conclusion  of  each  com- 
petition the  candidates  were  graded;  the  "  Primus"  In 
the  first  "line"  became  from  that  fact  an  important 
personage,  an  honour  to  hia  family  and  city. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  student  body  of 
Louvain  was  not  given  exclusively  to  study.     The 

dee  of  the  university  and  the  rect«ral  tribunal  who 
jurisdiction  over  the  entire  academic  body  occa- 
sionally had  very  difficult  cases  to  handle.     During 


3  LOUVAIN 

the  civil  wars  the  habits  of  the  young  men  had  not  be- 
come any  more  peaceful.  If  it  happened  that  in  the 
sixteenth  century  they  rrndcred  Ixjuvain  the  great 
service  of  saving  it  from  being  taken  and  pillaged  by 
armed  bands,  on  the  other  hand  their  rapiers  often  en- 
dangered public  peace.  Unfortunately  we  have  but 
few  tacts  concerning  the  student  life  of  the  period, 
although  one  of  our  historians,  Poullet,  has  written 
an  interesting  sketch  (see  "Revue  catholique",  Lou- 
vain, 1867).  Certain  articles  of  the  statutes  con- 
stituted the  disciplinary  code  relating  to  the  viola- 
tion of  university  regulations,  and  during  the 
stormy  times  of  civil  struggles  and  general  warfare, 
the  academic  tribunal  had  all  it  could  do  to  keep  the 
restless  student  throng  in  order.  Studies  at  the  uni- 
versity went  through  various  phases.  For  a  long  time 
they  were  under  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  uni- 
versity body  itself.  But  in  the  midst  of  civil  disturb- 
ances, certain  weaknesses  and  defects  of  organisation 
became  apparent,  and  these  the  authorities  endea- 
voured to  remedy.  -At  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  an  important  fact  is  to  be  noted:  tbs 


iM_ 

P 

^Wfcl- 

VasTiBiTU  or  thi  Ukitibsitt  o 


'  LoOTAtH 


investigation  and  reform  of  1617.  In  union  with 
Paul  V,  and  after  a  careful  examination  tlie  sovereign 
archdukes  published  new  university  statutes.  Thence- 
forth the  programme  of  studies  and  the  conferring  of 
degrees  were  minutely  provided  for.  Moreover,  the 
diploma  of  studies  and  examinations  was  generally 
required  for  the  professions  of  law  and  of  medicine. 
There  was  still  free  acientific  activity,  but  the  profes- 
sional r^ulating  tendencies  were  much  in  evidence  in 
the  faculties  of  law  and  of  medicine.     The  new  regula- 


withstanding  the  complaints  of  the  Gover 
the  score  of  discipline. 

The  seventeenth  century  cunnot  be  looked  upon  ns 
a  period  of  decay  for  the  university,  as  there  ore  noted 
names  and  numerous  scholarly  productions.  True, 
ancient  literature  no  longer  liad  the  brilliancy  given  it 
by  Justus  Lipsius  up  to  1606,  but  there  were  very  dis- 
tinguished jurists,  noted  Humanists  (like  Putiamus). 
The  attraction  exerted  by  Louvain  was  still  very 
great.  In  fact  it  was  only  towards  tlie  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century  that  the  niitio  germaniea,  which 
comprised  a  succession  of  distingushed  names  from 
various  parts  of  the  empire,  was  officially  establisbed- 
Louvain  was  celeltrated  and  many  studied  there  in 
preference  to  the  Protestant  universities  of  Germany 
and  Holland  (Wils,  "L'illustre  nation  germnnique  , 
Louvain,  1909).  Publications,  Belgian  bibliographiea 
of   various  kinds  flourished-,  the  '' ftvyiiWOM^si.  ""i^ii- 


xirtant  anil 


volumes  (liti  honour 


piitilinF!  Iioiisc  of  Phintiu  anil  Morelus  at  Antwerp. 
Through  ils  tpachcrs  nml  its  influence,  Louvain  had  a 
vcr^-  large  spliere  in  their  activity.  Even  more  than 
the  acveiilponth  century  the  eighteenth,  hithert* 
acurcely  known,  lias  been  represented  ns  one  of  de- 
cadeiiee  tor  tlie  uniiersity.  Odc  niuy  lie  Miirprised 
at  thii',  since  from  17.10  at  le,ist,  owing  to  the  recon- 
ciliation of  the  HaljslnirRS  an<i  tlie  Bourbons,  the 
country  enjoyed  ^jcrfect  peace  under  the  apparently 
easy-goini:  iulmi>nstr;ition  of  Prince  Charles  of  Lou- 
vain, But  in  reality,  it  there  were  some  aliortcom- 
ings,  the  iniputiilion  of  decay  gt>t  its  principal  em- 
phasis [rum  llie  Austrian  (iovernment  itself.  The 
prineely  inithoTitie«  followed  a  policy  which  met  with 
strong  opposition,  esneclilly  in  ecclesiiistical  matters. 
The  nuni.'ftura  from  A'ieima  exjiocted  to  linil  [mlilical 
tools  hi  the  nnirerHity  famlltert  ami  did  not  succeed. 
Oq  the  other  hanil,  there  was  reason  to  regard  the 
programme  of  studies  as  out  of  ifalc  in  some  re.>i|>ecls. 
There  was  a  certain 

The  faculty  of  law 
especially  confined 
itself  to  the  teacli- 
ing  of  Roman  law, 
ami  this  was  clearly 
no  louf^r  Huflicient 
for  the  training  of 
youngjuristM.  And 
aueh  was  the  case 
in  otlter  hranches. 
It  is  certainly  a 
matter  of  regret 
that  the  two  ques- 
tions,  the  xLCadeniic 
an<l  the  poliiieal, 
were  linked  to- 
gether. 

In  seeking  to  im- 
pregnate the  uni' 
-:— -ithcentral- 


nd    ) 


i  LOWAIH 

erlands  were  occupied  by  the  French  KcpuMican 
troops  and  offipially  annexed  by  tlie  t'onvention  in 
17H5.  The  exiutonce  <rf  the  universityj  its  privileges 
and  ita  teachings  were  incompatilile  with  the  regime 
of  the  new  leaehcra.  In  1797  the  university  was  sup- 
pressed; iti  scientific  property  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  spoilers;  the  whole  insiitution  was  ruined  for  a  long 
time  by  this  fiiry  ot  liHstruclion. 

Secmid  Prt-toi—lS:j4-19()l).  — After  an  int#r\ai 
marked  by  the  eslablishinent  of  a  state  university  un- 
der tlie  Dutch  (ioi'emment  of  1-Slu,  the  episcopate  of 
Belgium  decided  to  create  afreeCatholic institution  for 
hiKheredueation.  TheConstitution  of  independent  IJel- 
giumhaitprocloimedfrecdom  of  C<lucntion,  and  ad  van- 
tage was  taken  of  this  wilhdaring  initiative.  Gregory 
XVI  s.inct  ioned  the  project.  First  opened  at  Mechlin, 
the  university, at  the  request  of  tlie  city  of  Louvain,  was 
transferreii  the  following  year  to  the  buildings  of  the 
old  Alma  Mater  and  thus  took  up  again  the  historical 
GUCcesKion.  The  t>ope  of  1S34  revived  the  work  of  his 
j)redecessor  of   H25.     The  restored   university  is  a 

Its  administration, 
its  teaching,  attd 
its  budget  are  inde- 
pendcnt  of  the 
state.  The  episco- 
pate controls  the 
mstitulion  and  ap- 
point.'; its  head,  the 
HirtiH-  Magnijiciw. 
The  latter  governs 
with  I  he  a.'isistaiiee 


ed   of 


eil  conijiosed  ol 
deans  ol  the  livt 
faculties  (thetilo^', 
Liw,  medicine,  phd- 
os,ii.hv.  letters) 
iind  of  a  few  other 


The 


lung    am  J     Jirvaiiau  ^^ 

ideas  tlie  Auiiirian  GouAoi 

ministers  an<l  piirlicularly  tlie  Marciuis  of  Nonv.  the 
commissionerattaehciltotheunii'ersily,  practically  de- 
feated the  attempt  toreform  the  programme  of  stuilies. 
Itwasrightiyeoii.uidei'eil  that  warwiisdeclared against 
theuniverMtyprivileges,  the  national  tiMditions,  and  the 
relii^ous  riglits  of  the  Church.  It  was  ou  this  account 
and  also  Iweause  of  the  opinions  of  the  professors  ap- 
ptantcd  that  I  lie  creation  of  a  course  in  public  law,  so 
Oscful  in  itself,  t»iee  failed.  Verluiegen,  in  his  "His- 
toire  dcs  cin<[iiuntc  demi^res  annCes  de  I'ancieniie 
uiuvcrsiti^"  (l!iS1)  has  shown  how,  even  in  the  eigli- 
tecnth  century',  tlie  university  had  ntill  a  creditable 
scientific  existence,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  how 
bravely  il  n'siMliil  llie  eiieroachincnts  made  upon  it 
by  the  (lovenimcnt.  'Hie  conflict  lietween  tlu-  Gov- 
ernment and  till'  university  re,aclieil  an  acute  crisis 
under  the  reigu  of  Emix^ror  .fosenh  II,  who  wisheil  to 
force  the  professors  to  adopt  his  royalist  theories. 
Some  of  them  yiylded,  but  many  resisted,  particularly 
when  the  emperor,  on  his  own  authority  and  in  dis- 
regard of  tlii^  right  of  the  Church,  altcmjtted  to  im- 
pose a  general  seminary  on  the  iiniversitj^.  Thi.s 
Htruce'^  re.-'ulled  in  the  suspeniuoii  and  exile  of  a 
uumlier  of  piufcssuni,  whilst  tniisc  who  supjiurfed  the 
Ciovenmient  tv-gan  teaching  in  Bnis.sek,  as  they  could 
not  remain  at  Louvain.  ^le  crisLi  was  consefjiicntl;' 
a  viotcnl  niir  and  eiitirelv  to  tlie  creilit  of  the  univer- 
sity. It  ceasivl  only  with  the  end  of  the  -losephini.st 
repme.  The  National  Consen'ative  Government  re- 
miciierl  ihe  university  in  1700  and  recalled  tlte  exiles. 
UnfrirtuiiMlelv  (his  teni]M'sl  was  but  the  forerunner  of 
anolhvT  wliicti  was  to  la:iit  longer.     In  1792  (he  Xeth- 


charge  i: 


irs  are   ap- 

Coinied  by  the 
ishops  on  presen- 
tation of  (he  rec(or; 
facidtics  they  elect  their  ilean  for  one 
or  (.wo.  The  vie^'-rector,  whose  special 
(o  watch  over  the  students,  also  assists 
and  takes  his  place  when  necessarj';  within 
recent  years  the  latter  hasalso  lieen  given  an  assistant. 
In  principle  the  univeniity  organizes  its  teacliing  and 
regulates  its  scientific  degrerK  as  it  sees  lit.  Pinctical 
necessittes  have  w-t  limit.s  not  to  its  riglit^,  but  to  the 
use  of  those  rights.  While  respecting  the  freedom  of 
teaching,  the  State  has  proscrilx^  examination  re- 
quirements for  the  practice  of  certain  jirofeasions;  the 
programroc  of  these  examinations  is  fixed  by  law. 
The  state  universities  must  necessarily  conform  to  it; 
the  free  universities  comply  with  il  in  oriler  to  secure 
the  legal  professional  advantages  for  Iheir  diiilouias. 
The  (ioveniment,  moreo\er.  faithfid  in  iw  interpre- 
tation of  liberty,  deals  uith  the  free  universities  just 
ns  it  <leals  with  its  own.  The  dinloiiias  awanled  have 
the  same  value  on  tlie  same  conditions;  vii.,  elflciency 
in  the  ]>rescril>cd  minimum  ot  academic  work,  this 
cflicieney  Iieing  gwiranteed  through  the  supervision 
of  a  eomniLssion  specially  appointed  tor  the  purpose. 
In  no  cii-v  docs  this  supcrvisiiin  operate  as  a  control  or 
restriction  on  the  methiKls  or  lendencies  ot  the  teach- 
ing itself,  tor  that  would  suppress  lil)erty.  Under 
these  minimum  reiiuiremeiits  tlie  universities  them- 
selves confer  (he  le^l  tlegrces.  Until  1876  it  was  the 
work  ot  a  j  ury,  either  central  or  mbced.  Since  then  the 
freedom  of  teaching  has  liern  made  complete  and  baa 
been  extended  to  the  conferring  of  degrees.  The  uni- 
versity, therefore,  has  free  action  guarantee<l  by  the 
ronntttutionanditsexernseisaanctiotieil  by  lliclaw& 


LOUVAIN  3! 

Besides  the  official  profcramme  of  legal  studies,  the 
university  develops  aa  it  best  plesBes  tlic  various 
branches  of  special  teachine.  This  development  has 
been  conHidcrable.  The  Utiiver^lty  of  Louvaiii  has 
had  a  large  ahare  in  the  scientific  movement  of  the 
country.  "LeMouvement  scientifique  on  Belgique", 
a  recent  and  importtwnt  pubhcatioii  from  the  <lopiirt- 
jnent  of  Bciences  aiid  arbt,  enalilos  one  to  judge  of  the 
prominent  place  it  occupies  in  all  the  brandies.  Tho 
University  of  Louvain  is  the  only  one  in  Belgium  that 
has  a  theological  faculty,  and  this  fai^ulty  ix  Cutholio 
in  virtue  of  the  fundantentol  principle  of  the  inutitu- 
tjon  itself.  The  doctorate,  which  requires  six  years  ot 
extra  study  after  the  completion  of  the  seminary 
course,  is  an  academic  event.  It  is  not  conferred  every 
year,  but  the  scries  of  dissertations  is  alreaily  impoi^ 
tant.  The  Amaricaa  College,  treated  in  another  arti- 
cle of  this  "Encyclopedia  ,  is  connected  with  this 
faculty.  The  non-ecclesiastic  faciihies  have  also 
grown  considerably  and  numerous  foundations  of  in- 
eUtutes  and  special  choirs  have  been  added.     As  a 


5  LOUVAIN 

guish  t\^o  groups  of  studies  niid  diplomas.  Some  on 
primarily  professional;  they  pave  the  way  to  n  lucra- 
tive careor.  They  liave  a  scitntilic  biBis  and  the 
worli  Is  serioTis;  out  among  the  auditors  there  are 
niuilc  a  numiier  who  wiiih  to  du  tho  least  amount  of 
wiiric  [lossilile.  Then  there  are  the  special  scientific 
courses,  among  which  may  l>e  ranked  certain  pro- 
fes.'iional  courses,  for  instance  those  preparaloi?  to 
teaching.  The  profe:^-'ioiial  diploinuA  regulated  by 
stale  hiwa  are  chii'lly  those  of  doi-tor  in  mwiicine,  sur- 
gery, a[i({  obstetrirK,  pharmacy,  doctor  in  law,  notary, 
tlic  doctor  ill  pjiilosophy  and  letters  (especially  with  a 
view  to  teaching  iuiiguagcs  aiid  history),  in  nature 
»<cienc<«,  m:itliumati('^,  mining  and  civil  eneineeriiig. 
It  i^  not  possible  to  analyse  here  the  courses  leadiiie  to 
these  diplomas,  as  this  would  involve  the  entire  his- 
tory of  higher  professional  teaching.  Side  by  side 
witD  these  pro);rammc9  is  a  series  of  specialties,  the 
importance  of  which  is  indicated  by  the  titles:  doctor- 
ate iu  social  and  political,  or  poUtical  and  diplo- 
matic sciences,  commercial  or  colonial  sciences;  higher 


and  the  ancient  faculties  of  law  and  philosophy  have 
shared  in  the  development. 

Before  giving  an  outline  of  the  work  of  the  univer- 
sity it  is  well  to  say  a  word  regarding  its  character. 
For  a  long  time,  as  was  everywhere  else  the  cose,  the 
auditive,  receptive  meUiod  prevailed.  This  is  no 
longer  so.  Hie  constant  effort  is  to  stimulate  love  of 
woMc  and  petsoiutl  initiative,  especially  among  the 
students  who  show  ability.  These  earnest  workers 
are  inraeuiDg  in  number,  for  they  fmd  within  their 
reftch  both  iiiBtrumenta  and  methods.  The  prefer- 
ence for  research  has  thus  become  <(uite  marke<l,  par- 
ticularly during  the  past  twenty-five  years.  I'nivcr- 
sity  work  is  not  at  OU,  then,  a  mere  preparation  for  a 
profesnon.  On  the  {Mut  of  the  profrxiiors  it  is  serious 
scientific  investigation;  and  so  it  i»  with  the  students 
who  are  being  carefully  directed  along  the  samii  lines. 
As  a  consequence,  the  courses  of  ntu<ly,  the  institut«B, 
the  special  courses,  the  seminaries  (in  the  German 
■eneeof  the  word,  practical  courses),  the  publications, 
competitions,  collections  are  steadily  increasing.  The 
list  of  university  institutes  a:id  the  bibliocraphy  are 
very  important.  On  various  occasions,  and  especially 
in  190Oand  1908,  there  has  been  publishcda  ver>-  com- 
plete and  instructive  account  n-hicli  makes  up  a  large 
volume.  Activity  on  the  part  of  the  professors  and 
personal  collaboration  of  student  and  teachers  arc 
therefore  characteristic  features  of  ^e  present  con- 
(lltion  of  university  life. 

As  we  liave  already  pointrrt  out,  one  must  distin- 


philoi^pliv:  mural  and  historical  scii-nces;  urchK^logy; 
Oriental  literature  and  loiigiiagcs  (Semitic  or  Indo- 
Eurojican).  The  historical  and  linguistic  doctoratea 
are.  a^  aforementioned,  professional  also.  I''urther, 
there  is  a  doctorate  in  natnnil  seieiices,  mathematics, 
(ui<l  their  special  branches.  Then  there  are  a  few  free 
profes-sional  diploma-i,  not  regiilate<l  by  law:  agricul- 
t  un',  engineering,  nrchitceture.  arts  and  manufactures, 
electricity,  ete. 

As  will  be  readily  nnilcrstood,  this  development  of 
the  work  hiiii  brought  aboiitacorrespondingincrease  in 
the  teaching  si alT  niulupiircellingoul  of  specialties  into 
a  lurRcnuniiier of  institutes.  Iloubtle.ss,  loo.  the  unifi- 
cation of  all  bmnches  of  study  is  advant;igeou-i  in  the 
way  (^contact  ami  co-o)>i-ration;  ami  while  each  of  the 
various  lirjnclies  prescn'en  its  nutunumy,  the  work  of 
tlie  university  as  a  whole  is  also  vei^-  fniitful.  These 
institutes  art'  <iuite  nunierous;  it  will  Ix;  sulhcient  to 
name  a  few.  The  higlier  philoHoiiliical  inslilute  (In- 
stitut  sup'-rieur  de  i)liilosopliie),  due  to  the  initiative 
of  Pope  Irf'o  XIII,  is  hase<l  on  tlie  teaching  of  St. 
Thomas  of  A(|uin.  It  wiis  organized  by  I'rofessor 
Mercier,  lieod  of  tho  school  of  nco-scholnstic  philoso- 
phy, and  now  Cnrdinnl  .Archbishop  of  tieehlin.  Hia 
works  are  known  tlie  world  over,  among  them  "La 
Revue  Xi''0-McolaHtiquf: ",  of  which  he  is  tlie  founder. 
The  school  of  political  and  social  sciences  (I/Ecole  dee 
seieiiccs  polili(|ues  et  sociales)  annexed  to  the  faculty 
of  Liw  mid  line  to  the  initiative  of  the  minister  ot 
State,  Professor  van  den  licuvel,  has  produced  an  im- 
portant series  ot  publications,  a.r«l  taa  tt&&s^^^»^^ 
courses  eonteivwces  i-S  vi  \>Ta.t\wi\  s\\a.-^'W**^  -   "vt»'™^ 


LOUTAIH  3t 

atituteot  a^culture  (L'Institut  aup^rieur  d'agrono- 
tiiie),aawcllaM  the  cuiiuiiurcial,  consular,  and  cotuiiiul 
■ehool  (L'Ecole  commerciale,  consulaire  et  colomale), 
OTeparea  students  for  careers  in  these  several  lines. 
The  historical  and  linguistic  lectures  Imvo  grown 
Bteadily  in  importance,  thnoks  to  professors  such  as 
Jungmann,  MocUer,  Collard,  and  Cauchie.  The  latter 
IB  ptiblishing,  with  the  preaent  rector,  P.  Ladeuze,  the 


well-known  "  Revue  d'Histoire  Eccl^siastique  ".  Par- 
ticular mention  must  be  made  of  abmnch  of  teaching 
which  is  not  or^niial  in  a.  distinct  school,  but  which 
hiu  here  an  important  development;  it  is  that  of  the 
Oriental  languages  (Hebrew^  byriac,  Arabic.  Coptic), 
distributed  in  various  faculties,  and  for  which  there  is 
a  special  diploma. 

The  various  schools  and  institutes,  provided  with 
libraries,  apparatus,  etc.,  familiarize  the  student  with 
methods  of  study  under  the  immediate  supervision  of 
masters.  They  are  also  centres  of  scientific  produo- 
tim:  we  have  alreadv  mentioned  the  importance  of 
the  bibliography  of  the  university  (Blbliagraphie  des 
travaux  univetsitaires),  the  catalogue  of  which  has 
been  published.  These  publications  include  a  series 
of  periodicals  which  carry  abroad  the  work  of  Louvaill 
ana  bring  back  in  exchange  the  productions  of  the  out- 
Bde  worid.  There  are  about  tnirty  of  these  periodi- 
cals published  by  the  professors  of  Louvain,  and  more 
than  one  thousand  are  received  in  exchange  from 
other  sources.  Among  these  reviews  may  be  men- 
taoned :  "  Iji  Revue  Ndo-Scolastiquc  "  and  "  La  Revue 
d'Histoire  EccWsiastique",  whicli  have  already  been 
noticed;  "La  Revue  Sociale  C'atholigue"  and  "La 
Revue  Catholique  de  Droit"  (all  four  from  the  philo- 
aophical  institute);  "La  Revue  Miklicale"  (double); 
"La  Cellule"  (review  of  biology,  founded  by  Camoy) ; 
"La  Nfvrose  (review  of  neurology,  founded  bv  Van 
Gehuchten);  the  "Bulletins"  of  tlie  schools  of  engi- 
neering, commerce,  agriculture,  and  electricity  .  "Le 
Husfe  Beige"  (pedagogy');  "I-a  MusCon"  (philology 
and  Oriental  sciences) ;  "  Revue  des  Socifit^s  ( 'omraer- 
oiales",  etc.  To  the  above  might  be  added  collec- 
tions that  do  not  appear  regularly,  but  which  form  im< 
portant  series,  such  as  the  historical  and  philological 
conferences;  and  the  publications  of  the  school  of  polit- 
ical sciences;  the  collection  of  the  ancient  pluloso- 
^rs  of  Belgium  (M.  de  Wulf),  and  that  of  the  old 
English  dramas  (Bang).  Frequently,  too,  the  pro- 
[cMors  bring  out  their  students'  work  in  foreign  maga- 
■ines  not  under  their  direction,  and  in  the  bulletins  of 
various  academies.  The  list  of  these  is  to  lie  found  in 
the  university  bibliography.  An  idea  may  thus  be 
fanned  of  the  activity  of  men  like  Louis  Henry  (chem- 
iMry)  and  J.  Denys  (bacteriology),  who  prefer  this 
mode  of  publication. 

Besides  these  lines  of  work,  there  are  others  in  which 
professors  an(!  students  do  not  work  absolutely  side  by 
^^A?.-0/^/:*/n  vhich  the  leacher'srAle  censes  t«l>e  that 


K  LOUVAIN 

of  Immediate  instruction,  and  becomes  one  of  assist- 
ance and  su|>ervisioii.  TItc  conferences  on  history 
and  social  economy  are  really  courses  of  teaching, 
where  the  students  work  under  the  constant  supervi- 
sion of  the  professor  with  an  increasing  amount  o(  in- 
dividuality. The  "circle"  in  apologetics  created  by 
the  present  rector  comprises  expositions  by  profes- 
sors, at  times  by  studentt— along  with  questions  and 
solutions  of  the  difSculties  presented  by  the  study  of 
reli^ous  subjects.  Elsewhere  the  student  does  his 
work  independently,  and  submits  his  results  for  dis- 
cussion by  his  comrades.  The  role  of  the  preying 
professor  becomes  a  very  uneven  one  and  is,  at  times, 
purely  exlernal.  It  then  becomes  rather  a  matter  of 
exercises  tetween  students,  verv  useful  and  very  com- 
mendable, but  of  quite  another  kind.  There  are  quite 
a  numljer  of  clubs  in  the  various  faculties,  where  the 
professor  plays  a  very  active  part  as  inspirer,  guide. 
adviser.  Among  the  other  ones  which  have  rendered 
^eat  services  are;  "  Le  cercle  industriel "  "  L'f  mula- 
tion'V'Lecercled'^tudea  sociales",  the  Flemish  soci- 
ety "Tyd  en  Vlyt",  and,  more  rccently,"La  soci^t^ 
pniloeopbique ",  "Le  cercle  agronomique",  and  vari- 
ous literary  and  social  clubs. 

Since  Belgium  gained  its  independence,  Louvain 
has  almost  always  been  represented  in  Parliament 
and  very  often  in  the  Cabinet  Councils.  Professor 
Delcour  and  Professor  Thonissen  were  ministers  of 
the  Interior  on  which  depended  the  department  of 
Education;  and  to-day  Professor  Baron  Descamps  is 
minister  of  science;  several  had  other  portfolios:  not- 
ably Nyssens,  who  in  1897  established  the  depart- 
ment of  labour.  But  Louvain  docs  not  seek  merely  to 
turn  out  professional  men  and  scientists;  it  aims  at 
making  men  and  Christians  of  its  students ;  that  is  one 
of  its  fundamental  characteristics.  The  influence 
over  the  spirit  and  mode  of  living  of  its  young  men  is 
far-reaching.  Itisexerted  through  the  teaching  itself, 
without  departing  from  scientific  accuracy,  but  on  the 
contrary  proving  by  it  the  harmony  between  science 
and  faith.  It  is  extended  by  the  action  of  different 
groups  and  by  personal  initiative.  Furthermore, 
there  are  many  societies  of  a  distinctly  moral  and  re- 
ligious nature  ap- 
pealing to  the  life 
and  cliaraeter  of 
youth:  reUgious 
reunions,  organ  i - 
aationsforinst^uo- 
tion,  apostleship, 
pious  and  chari- 
table enterprises, 
such  as  the  Lucha- 
ristic  adoration, 
Catholic  missions, 
the  Christian 
Press,  Society  of 
St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  school  for 
adult  working- 
men.  Nor  is  phys- 
ical development 
overlooked,      "  ' 


the 


equipments 

the  various  sports. 

The  university  has  a  strong  bond  of  unity;  its  moral 

force  is  incontest  ably  the  most  powerful  element  of  ita 

vitality.  The rebti<ms between professorsandstudents 


MaltT.    The  Alumni  associations  are  one  of  the  out- 
ward signs;   the  permanence  of  personal  relations  is 

To  complete  t£is  sketch  of  Louvain  something  must 
be  said  about  the  student  life.  Owing  to  the  fimit«d 
territory  of  the  countiy   to  the  many  easy  and  inex- 


X^OVE 


397 


LOVE 


pexMive  meanB  of  oommunication,  many  students  are 
enabled  to  return  home  every  day.  They  are  called 
navetUa  in  the  college  slang.  The  others  live  at  Lou- 
vain,  some  (about  200)  in  the  university  colleges  (am* 
vietus),  supervised  by  one  of  the  professors  as  presi- 
dent, where  for  a  moderate  sum  (about  700  francs) 
they  are  given  full  board.  Others  live  with  citizens  of 
the  town,  usually  occup3ring  two  rooms.^  A  very  large 
number  go  away  and  spend  Sunday  with  their  fami- 
lies, and  this  is  encouraged.  The  academic  year  al- 
lows for  quite  a  number  of  vacations.  It  begins  about 
the  third  week  in  October  with  the  Mass  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  There  is  a  fortnight's  vacation  at  Christmas, 
three  weeks  at  Easter:  the  lectures  cease  on  25  June. 
The  month  of  July  ancl  the  first  part  of  October  are  de- 
voted to  examinations.  During  their  soioum  at  Lou- 
vain  the  students  lead  a  life  which  thougn  serious  may 
be  varied  and  agreeable.  There  are  the  numerous 
dubs  previously  mentioned;  also,  friendly  societies 
grouped  by  cities  and  provinces,  and  it  is  easy  for  the 
students  to  have  daily  reunions.  Notwithstanding 
all  the  sources  of  distraction  it  seems  that  the  work  ol 
the  average  student  is  improving.  It  is  quite  evident 
also  that  the  better  class  of  students  is  becoming  more 
and  more  select,  while  social  gradations  are  more  clearly 
and  more  securely  defined. 

This  sketch  of  the  university  life  of  Louvain  would 
be  incomplete  if  we  did  not  add  a  few  statistical  ele- 
ments. L'Aimuaire  ",  a  valuable  volume  published 
regularly  by  the  university  authorities,  records  the 
events  and  achievements  of  each  year  and  is  indis- 
pensable as  a  means  of  studying  the  activity  and 
growth  of  Louvain.  Number  of  students  in  18^,  86; 
1854,  600^  1874,  1160;  1894,  1636;  1904,  2148:  Dis- 
tiibution  m  19(^:  theology,  125;  law,  491;  medicine, 
475;  philosophy,  313;  sciences,  286;  special  schools, 
570:  total.  2260.  In  this  total  were  'Zo2  foreigners: 
29  from  tne  United  States.  5  from  Canada,  13  from 
South  America,  7  from  England,  6  from  Ireland.  The 
corps  of  instructors  numbered  120  in  active  service 
holding  various  positions:  full  professors,  associates, 
lecturers,  substitutes.  Among  the  eminent  profes- 
sors of  the  university  since  the  restoration  in  IHM 
we  select  for  mention  the  following  deceased:  In 
theology:  Beelen  (Oriental  languages,  Scripture), 
Jungmann  (ecclesiastical  history),  Malou  (Bishop  of 
Bruges),  Lamy  (Oriental  languages,  Syriac,  etc.. 
Scripture),  Reussens  (archaeology-,  histor>').  In  law: 
de  Coux  and  P^rin  (political  economy),  Thonisscn 
(criminal  law),  Nyssens  (conunercial  l:iw).  In  phi- 
losophy and  letters:  Arendt^  David,  Mo(»llcr,  PouHet 
(history),  N^ve,  de  Harlez  (Oriental  literature),  Wil- 
lems  (philology  and  history) .  In  physical  sciences  and 
mathematics:  (jilbert  (mathematics),  de  la  Valine 
Poussin  (geology).  Van  Beneden  (zoologj),  Camoy 
(bicdogy).  In  medicine:  Schwann,  Cranincx,  Mi- 
chanx,  van  Kempen,  Hubert,  Lefcbvre.  Charles 
Cartuyvels,  vice-rector  for  over  twenty-five  years, 
was  far-famed  for  his  pulpit  elociuence.  The  rectors 
during  the  modem  period  were  seven  in  nunilx^r: 
P.  J.  de  Ram,  a  very  prolific  historian;  N.  J.  Laforet; 
A.  J.  Nam^he,  Belgium's  historian;  C.  Pienierts; 
J.  B.  Abbeloos,  orientalist;  Ad.  nebl)el>'nk,  another 
orientalist  who  has  recently  l)ecn  succeeded  in  the 
rectorate  by  a  colleague  of  the  same  department,  P. 
Ladeuse.  appointed  in  July,  1909. 

The  bibliography  of  the  university  in  very  extensive  and  it  is 
impoasible  to  quote  it  in  full.  There  arc  both  uncient  sources 
and  recent  writings  with  regard  to  the  old  university,  among  the 
former  being  the  works  of  Molanuh;  Valekius-An ureas; 
VsRNULiKUs;  Van  Lanoendonck;  Van  de  Veldk,  and  nu- 
merous M8S.  documents,  notably  a  portion  of  the  "Acta"  of 
the  faculties.     Tliese  sources  are  tndirat  c<l  in  the  modem  works 


mentioiied  bdow, although  unfortunately  ageneral  history  of 
the  univenity  has  not  yet  been  written.  Tiie  chief  source  of 
the  history  of  the  restored  university  is  its  own  A  nnwiire;  since 


%e 


1000  there  has  also  been  published  ref^ulnrly  the  BibJiographv 
d*  rUni9traUit  in  which  there  is  a  section  indicating  the  contri 
butiom  to  the  history  of  the  institution,     rnivrrsil^  Catholique 
iMLmnavHf  Annyaire  (73  vols.,  I^ouvain,  1837-1909);    Uniwr- 
mi  C€0kahq¥€  <U  Louvain,  Biblioffraphie  de  CUnivernti  (Lou- 


vain, 1000-^),  VVniveniU  de  Louvain,  Coup  d^ail  tur  ton 
hivloire  H  vev  invtihUions  (Brussels,  1900);  Vbrrabobn,  Lm 
cinquanU  demiirev  aniUea  de  Vaneienne  univeraili  de  Louvakt 
(Ghent,  1884) ;  Bbants.  La  factUU  de  droit  h  Ijouvain  h  trawn 
einq  eiMee  (Louvain,  1906);  NkvE,  Reussens,  and  de  Ram 
numerous  works  mentioned  in  the  BibHographif  of  the  univenity 
under  their  names;  Liber  memorialie,  or  report  of  the  jubilee 
celebrations  of  the  restoration  of  the  university  in  1884  and 
1909  (Loavain,  1884, 1909).  V.  BraNTS. 

Loye,  Theologicaii  Virtue  of,  the  third  and 
greatest  of  the  Divine  virtues  enumerated  by  St.  Paul 
(I  Cot.,  xiii,  13),  usually  called  charity ,  and  defined:  a 
Divinely  infused  habit,  inclining  the  human  will  to 
cherish  (jrod  for  His  own  sake  above  all  things,  and 
man  for  the  sake  of  God.  This  definition  sets  ofiF 
the  main  characteristics  of  charity: — (1)  Its  origin, 
by  Divine  infusion.  "The  charity  of  God  is  poured 
forth  in  our  hearts,  by  the  Holy  Ghost"  (Rom.,  v,  6). 
It  is,  therefore,  distinct  from,  and  superior  to,  the  in- 
born inclination  or  the  acauired  habit  of  loving  God  in 
the  natural  order.  Theologians  agree  in  saymg  that 
it  is  infused  together  ^ith  sanctifying  grace,  to  which 
it  is  closely  related  either  by  way  of  real  identity,  as 
some  few  hold,  or,  according  to  the  more  conmion 
view,  bv  way  of  connatural  emanation.  (2)  Its  seat, 
in  the  human  will.  Although  charity  is  at  times  in- 
tensely emotional,  and  frequently  reacts  on  our  sen- 
sorv  faculties,  still  it  properly  resides  in  the  rational 
will,  a  fact  not  to  be  forgotten  by  those  who  would 
make  it  an  impossible  virtue.  (3)  Its  specific  act,  i.  e., 
the  love  of  benevolence  and  friendship.  To  love  (lod  is 
to  wish  Him  all  honour  and  glory  ana  every  good,  and 
to  endeavour,  as  far  as  we  can,  to  obtain  it  for  Him. 
St.  John  (xiv,  23;  xv,  14)  emphasizes  the  feature  of 
reciprocity  which  makes  charity  a  veritable  friend^p 
of  man  with  God.  (4)  Its  motive,  i.  e.,  the  Divine  good- 
ness or  amiability  taken  absolutely  and  as  made 
known  to  us  by  faith.  It  matters  not  whether  that 
goodness  be  viewed  in  one,  or  several,  or  all  of  the 
Divine  attributes,  but,  in  all  cases,  it  must  be  adhered 
to,  not  as  a  source  of  help,  or  reward,  or  happiness  for 
ourselves,  but  as  a  good  in  itself  infinitely  worthy  of 
our  love;  in  this  sense  alone  is  God  loved  for  His  own 
sake.  However,  the  distinction  of  the  two  loves:  con- 
cupiscence, which  prompts  hope;  and  benevolence, 
which  animates  charity,  should  not  be  forced  into  a 
sort  of  mutual  exclasion,  as  the  Church  has  repeatedly 
condemned  any  attempts  at  discrediting  the  workings 
of  Christian  hope  (q.  v.).  (5)  Its  range,  i.  e.,  bothG^ 
and  man.  While  (jrO<l  alone  is  all  loval^lc,  yet,  inas- 
much as  all  men,  by  grace  and  glory,  cither  actuidly 
share  or  at  least  are  capable  of  sharing  in  the  Divine 
goodness,  it  follows  that  supematurallove  rather  in- 
cludes than  excludes  them,  according  to  Matt.,  xxii, 
39,  and  Luke,  x,  27.  Hence  one  and  the  same  virtue 
of  charity  terminates  in  both  Go<l  and  man,  (jrod  pri- 
marily and  man  secondarily. 

I.  Love  of  God. — Man's  paramount  duty  of  loving 
God  is  tersely  expressed  in  Deut.,  vi,  5;  Matt.,  xxii,  37; 
and  Luke,  x,  27.  Quite  obvious  is  the  imperative 
character  of  the  words  'Hhou  shalt".  Innocent  XI 
(Denziger,  noa.  1155-57)  declares  that  the  precept  is 
not  fulTilled  by  an  act  of  charity  performed  once  in  a 
lifetime,  or  cver>^  five  years,  or  on  the  rather  indefinite 
occasions  when  justification  cannot  be  otherwise  pro- 
cured. MonUists  urge  the  obligation  (1)  at  the  be- 
girming  of  the  moral  life  when  reason  has  attained  its 
full  development;  (2)  at  the  point  of  death;  and  (3) 
from  time  to  time  during  life,  an  exact  count  beinjg 
neither  possible  nor  necessary  since  the  Christian  habit 
of  daily  prayer  surely  covers  the  obligation.  The  vio- 
lation ot  the  precept  is  generally  negative,  i.  e.,  by 
omission,  or  indirect,  i.  e.,  implied  in  every  grievous 
fault;  there  are,  however,  sins  directly  opposed  to  the 
love  of  God:  spiritual  sloth,  at  least  when  it  entails  a 
voluntary  loathing  of  spiritual  goods,  and  the  hatred 
of  God,  whether  it  l>e  an  al)omination  of  God's  restric- 
tive and  punitive  laws  or  an  averavoYv  ^^'^  ^S!»5^^«br»^ 
Person  (sea  SuyiB.\^MYiax.\i^, 


LOVE 


398 


LOVE 


The  qualifications,  "  with  thy  whole  heart,  and  with 
thy  whole  soul,  and  with  thy  whole  mind,  and  with  thy 
whole  stren^h'',  do  not  mean  a  maximum  of  inten- 
aily,  for  intensity  of  action  never  falls  under  a  com- 
mand; still  less  do  they  imply  the  necessity  of  feeling 
more  sensible  love  for  God  than  for  creatures,  for 
visible  creatures,  howsoever  imperfect,  appeal  to 
our  sensibility  much  more  than  the  invisible  God. 
Their  true  significance  is  that,  both  in  our  mental 
appreciation  and  in  our  voluntary  resolve,  God 
would  stand  above  all  the  rest,  not  excepting  fa- 
ther or  mother,  son  or  daughter  (Matt.,  x,  37).  St. 
Thomas  (II-II,  Q.  xliv,  a.  5)  would  assign  a  special 
meaning  to  each  of  the  four  Biblical  phrases;  others, 
with  more  reason,  take  the  whole  sentence  in  its  cumu- 
lative sense,  and  see  in  it  the  purpose,  not  only  of  rais- 
ing charity  above  the  low  Alatcrialism  of  the  Saddu- 
oees  or  the  formal  Ritualism  of  the  Pharisees,  but  also 
of  declaring  that  "to  love  God  above  all  things  is  to  in- 
sure the  sanctity  of  our  whole  life"  (Le  Camus,  "Vie 
de  Notre-Seigneur  Jfeus-Christ",  III,  81). 

The  love  of  God  is  even  more  than  a  precept  binding 
the  human  conscience;  it  is  also,  as  Le  Camus  observes, 
"the  principle  and  goal  of  moral  perfection". 

As  the  principle  of  moral  perfection  in  the  supemat- 
aral  order,  with  faitn  as  foimdation  and  hope  as  incen- 
tive, the  love  of  God  ranks  first  among  the  means  of 
salvation  styled  by  theologians  necessary,  * '  necessitate 
medii".  By  stating  that  "charitv  never  fallcth 
away"  (I  Cor.,  xiii,  8),  St.  Paul  clearlv  intimates  that 
there  is  no  difference  of  kind,  but  only  of  degree,  be- 
tween charity  here  below  and  glory  above;  as  a  cons^ 
auence  Divine  love  becomes  the  necessary  inception  of 
uiat  God-like  life  which  reaches  its  fullness  in  heaven 
only.  The  necessity  of  habitual  charity  is  inferred 
from  its  close  communion  with  sanctifying  grace.  The 
necessity  of  actual  charity  is  no  less  evident.  Apart 
from  the  cases  of  the  actual  reception  of  baptism,  pen- 
ance, or  extreme  unction,  wherein  the  love  of  charity, 
by  a  special  dispensation  of  God,  admits  of  attrition  as 
a  substitute,  all  adults  stand  in  need  of  it,  according  to 
I  John,  iii,  14: "  He  that  loveth  not,  abideth  in  death  ". 

As  the  goal  of  moral  perfection,  always  in  the  super- 
natural order,  the  love  of  God  is  called  "the  greatest 
and  the  first  commandment"  (Matt.,  xxii,  38),  "the 
end  of  the  commandment"  (I  Tim.,  i,  5), "  the  bond  of 
perfection"  (Col.,  iii,  14).  It  stands  as  an  all-impor- 
tant factor  in  the  two  main  phases  of  our  spiritual  life, 
E*  "ication  and  the  acquisition  of  merits.  The  justi- 
power  of  charity,  so  well  expressed  in  Luke,  vii, 
[id  I  Pet.,  iv,  8,  has  in  no  wav  been  abolished  or 
reduced  by  the  institution  of  the  Sacraments  of  Bap 
tism  and  Penance  as  necessary  means  of  moral  rehabil- 
itation; it  has  only  been  made  to  include  a  willingness 
to  receive  these  sacraments  where  and  when  possible. 
Its  meritorious  power,  emphasized  by  St.  Paul  (Rom.. 
viii,  28),  covers  both  the  acta  elicited  or  commanded 
by  charity.  St.  Augustine  (De  laudibus  caritatis) 
oalls  charity  the  "life  of  virtues"  (i*ita  virtntum);  and 
St.  Thomas  (II-II,  Q.  xxiii,  a.  8),  the  "  form  of  virtues" 
(forma  virttUum).  The  meaning  is  that  the  other  vir- 
tues, while  possessing  a  real  value  of  their  own,  derive 
a  fresh  and  greater  excellence  from  their  union  with 
charity,  which,  reaching  out  directly  to  God,  ordains 
all  our  virtuous  actions  to  Him.  As  to  the  manner 
and  degree  of  influence  which  charity  should  exercise 
over  our  virtuous  actions  in  order  to  render  them 
meritorious  of  heaven,  theologians  are  far  from  being 
agreed,  somerefiuiring  only  the  state  of  grace,  or  habit- 
ual charity,  others  insisting  upon  the  more  or  less  fre- 
quent renewal  of  distinct  acts  of  di^^ne  love.  Of 
course,  the  meritorious  power  of  charity  is,  like  the 
virtue  itself,  susceptible  of  indefinite  growth.  St. 
Thomas  (II-II,  Q.  xxiv,  24  a.  4  and  8)  mentions  three 
principal  stages:  (1)  freedom  from  mortal  sin  by  stren- 
uous rf'sistanco  to  temptation;  (2)  avoidance  of  delil>- 
entte  vmial  sins  by  the  assiduous  practice  of  virtue; 


(3)  union  with  God  through  the  frequent  recurrence  of 
acts  of  love.  To  these,  ascetic  writers  like  Alvarez  de 
Paz,  St.  Teresa,  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  add  many  more 
degrees,  thus  anticipating  even  in  this  world  the 
"many  mansions  in  the  Father's  house".  The  prerog- 
atives of  charity  should  not,  however,  be  construed 
so  as  to  include  inamissibility.  The  saying  of  St.  John 
(I  Ep.,  iii,  6),  "UTiosoever  abideth  in'^him  [God],  sin- 
neth  not",  means  indeed  the  special  permanence  of 
charity  chiefly  in  its  higher  degrees,  but  it  is  no  al)so- 
lute  guarantee  against  the  possible  loss  of  it;  while  the 
infused  habit  is  never  diminished  by  venial  sins,  a 
single  grievous  fault  is  enough  to  destroy  it  and  so  end 
man's  union  and  friendship  with  God. 

II.  Love  of  Man. — While  charity  embraces  all  the 
children  of  God  in  heaven,  on  earth,  and  in  purgatory 
(see  Communion  of  Saints),  it  is  taken  here  as  mean- 
ing man's  supernatural  love  for  man,  and  that  in  this 
world ;  as  such,  it  includes  both  love  of  self  and  love  of 
neighbour. 

(1)  Love  of  Self.— St.  Gregory  the  Great  (Hom.  XIII 
in  Evang.)  objects  to  the  expression  "  charity  towards 
self  ",  on  the  plea  that  charity  requires  two  terms;  and 
St.  Augustine  (De  bono  viduitatis,  xxi)  remarks  that 
no  command  was  needed  to  make  man  love  himself. 
Obviously,  St.  Gregory's  objection  is  purely  grammat- 
ical; St.  Augustine's  remark  applies  to  natural  self- 
love.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  precept  of  supernatural 
love  of  self  is  not  only  possible  or  needed,  but  also 
clearly  implied  in  Christ's  command  to  love  our  neigh- 
l>our  as  ourselves.  Its  obligation,  however,  bears  in  a 
vague  manner  on  the  salvation  of  our  soul  (Matt.,  xvi, 
26),  the  acquisition  of  merits  (Matt.,  vi,  19  sqq.),  the 
Christian  use  of  our  body  (Rom.,  vi,  13;  I  Cor.,  vi,  19; 
Col.,  iii,  5),  and  can  hardly  be  brought  down  to  prac- 
tical points  not  already  covered  by  more  specific 
precepts. 

(2)  Love  of  Neighbour, — The  Christian  idea  of 
brotherly  love  as  compared  with  the  pagan  or  Jewish 
concept  has  been  touched  upon  elsewhere  (see  Charitt 
AND  Charities).  Briefly,  its  distinctive  feature,  and 
superiority  as  well,  is  to  be  found  less  in  its  commands, 
or  prohibitions,  or  even  results,  than  in  the  motive 
which  prompts  its  laws  and  prepares  its  achievements. 
The  faithful  carrying  out  of  the  "new  commandment" 
is  called  the  criterion  of  true  Christian  discipleship 
(John,  xiii,  34  sq.),  the  standard  by  which  we  shall 
be  judged  (Matt.,  xxv.  34  sqq.),  the  best  proof  that 
we  love  God  Himself  (I  John,  iii,  10),  and  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  whole  law  (Gal.,  v,  14),  because,  viewing 
the  neighbour  in  God  and  through  God,  it  has  the 
same  value  as  the  love  of  God.  'The  expression  "to 
love  the  neighbour  for  the  sake  of  God  "  means  that  we 
rise  above  the  consideration  of  mere  natural  solidarity 
and  fellow-feeling  to  the  higher  view  of  our  common 
Divine  adoption  and  heavenly  heritage;  in  that  sense 
only  could  our  brotherly  love  be  brou^t  near  to  the 
love  which  Christ  had  for  us  (John,  xiii.  35),  and  a 
land  of  moral  identity  between  Christ  ana  the  neigh- 
bour (Matt.,  xxv,  40),  become  intelligible.  From  this 
high  motive  the  universality  of  fraternal  charity  fol- 
lows as  a  necessary  consequence.  Whosoever  sees  in 
his  fellow-men,  not  the  human  peculiarities,  but  the 
God-given  and  God-like  privileges,  can  no  longer  re- 
strict his  love  io  members  of  the  family,  or  co-rehgion- 
ists,  or  fellow-citizens,  or  strangers  within  the  borders 
(Lev.,  xix,  34),  but  must  needs  extend  it,  without  dis- 
tinction of  Jew  or  Gentile  (Rom.,  x,  12),  to  all  the 
units  of  the  human  kind,  to  social  outcasts  (Luke,  x, 
33  son.),  and  even  tp  enemies  (Matt.,  v,  23  sq.).  Very 
f  oroiDle  is  the  lesson  wherein  Christ  compels  His  hearers 
to  recognize,  in  the  much  despised  Samaritan,  the  true 
type  of  the  neighbour,  and  truly  new  is  the  command- 
rnent  whereby  He  urges  us  to  forgive  our  enemies,  to 
be  reconciled  with  them,  to  assist  and  love  them. 

The  exercise  of  charity  would  soon  become  injudi- 
cious and  inoperative  unless  there  be  in  this,  as  in  all 


LOW 


399 


LOW 


the  moral  virtues,  a  well-defined  order.  The  wdo 
caritcUis,  as  theologians  term  it,  possibly  from  a  wrong 
rendering  into  Latin  of  Cant.,  li,  4  (ordinavit  in  me 
eharUatem)^  takes  into  account  these  different  factors: 
(1)  the  persons  who  claim  our  love,  (2)  the  advantages 
which  we  desire  to  procure  for  them,  and  (3)  the 
necessity  in  which  they  are  placed.  The  precedence  is 
plain  enough  when  theise  factors  are  viewed  separately. 
Regarding  the  persons  alone,  the  order  is  somewhat  as 
follows:  self,  wife,  children,  parents,  brothers  and 
sisters,  friends,  domestics,  neighbours,  fellow-country- 
men, and  all  others.  Considering  the  goods  by  them- 
selves, there  is  a  triple  order:  the  most  important 
spiritual  goods  appertaining  to  the  salvation  of  the 
soul  should  first  appeal  to  our  solicitude;  then  the  in- 
trinsic and  natural  goods  of  the  soul  and  body,  like  life, 
health,  knowledge,  libertv,  etc.;  finally,  the  extrinsic 
goods  of  reputation,  wealth,  etc.  Viewing  apart  the 
various  kinds  of  necessity,  the  following  order  would 
obtain:  first,  extreme  necessity,  wherein  a  man  is  in 
danger  of  damnation,  or  of  death,  or  of  the  loss  of  other 
goods  of  nearly  equal  importance  and  can  do  nothing 
to  help  himself;   secodd,  grave  necessity,  when  one 

E laced  in  similar  danger  can  extricate  himself  only  by 
eroic  efforts;  third,  common  necessity,  such  as  af- 
fects ordinary  sinners  or  beggars  who  can  help  them- 
selves without  great  difficulty. 

When  the  three  factors  are  combined,  they  give  rise 
to  compUcated  rules,  the  principal  of  wnich  are  these: 
(1)  The  love  of  complacency  and  the  love  of  benefac- 
tion do  not  follow  the  same  standard,  the  former  being 
guided  by  the  worthiness,  the  latter  by  the  near- 
ness and  need,  of  the  neighbour.  (2)  Our  personal 
salvation  is  to  be  preferred  to  all  else.  We  are  never 
justified  in  committing  the  slightest  sin  for  the  love  of 
any  one  or  anything  whatsoever,  nor  should  we  expose 
ourselves  to  spiritual  danger  except  in  such  cases  and 
with  such  precautions  as  would  give  us  a  moral  right 
to,  and  guarantee  of,  God's  protection.  (;^)  We  arc 
bound  to  succour  our  neighbour  in  extreme  spiritual 
necessity  even  at  the  cost  of  our  own  life,  an  oljligation 
which,  however,  supposes  the  certainty  of  the  neigh- 
bour's need  and  of  tne  effectiveness  of  our  service  to 
him.  (4)  Except  in  the  very  rare  cases  dc^cril)ed 
above,  we  are  not  bound  to  risk  life  or  limb  for  our 
neighbour,  but  only  to  undergo  that  amount  of  incon- 
venience which  is  justified  by  the  neighbour's  n?ed  and 
nearness.  Casuists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  right  to 
give  one's  life  for  another's  life  of  equal  importance. 

TanquerisV,  De  virtuteairiiaHs  in  Sj/nopsUTheohgia  Moralin, 
II  (New  York,  1906),  426;  Slater,  A  Manual  of  Moral  The- 
oloffUt  I  (New  York,  1909),  179  eqq.;  Batiffol,  U Enseignement 
de  Jiaua  (Paris,  1905);  Northcote,  The  Bond  of  Perfection 
(London.  1907);  GArrRE,  La  Lot  d' Amour  (Paris,  1908);  de 
Salxs,  TraiiS  de  Vamour  de  Dieu:  Pksch,  Pralectionea  Dogmor 
Ucm,  VIII  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1898),  226  aqq.;  Dublanchy, 
in  Diet,  de  Thiol.  Cam.,  a.  v.  CharitS,  with  an  exhaustive  biblio- 
hy  of  the  theologians  and  mystics  who  have  dealt  with  this 


gnwby 
matter. 


J.  F.  SOLUER. 


Low  Ohiirch,  the  name  given  to  one  of  the  three 
parties  or  doctrinal  tendencies  that  prevail  in  the 
Established  Church  of  England  and  its  daughter 
Churches,  the  correlatives  being  High  Church  and 
Broad  Church.  The  last  of  these  names  is  not  a  cen- 
tury old,  but  the  other  two  came  into  use  simulta- 
neously at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Their  invention  was  due  to  the  controversies  stirred 
up  by  William  Ill's  endeavour  to  undo  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  of  1662  and  concede  to  the  Dissenters  all 
that  they  had  demanded  in  the  Savoy  Conference, 
(^uite  a  war  of  pamphlets  was  carried  on  at  the  time 
in  which  the  terms  High  Church  and  Low  Church  were 
bandied  to  and  fro.  To  cite  one  w^itness  out  of  many, 
Bishop  Burnet,  in  his  "History'  of  his  o^ti  Time" 
(VII.  347),  writes:  "From  these  disputes  in  Convoca* 
tion  divisions  ran  through  the  whole  body  of  the 
dergy,  and  to  fix.  tliem  new  names  were  found  out. 


They  were  distinguished  by  the  names  of  High  and 
Low  Church.  All  that  treated  the  Dissenters  with 
temper  and  moderation,  and  were  for  residing  con- 
stantly at  their  cures  .  .  •  were  represented  as  secret 
favourers  of  presbytery^  and  as  disaffected  to  the 
Church,  and  were  called  Low  Churchmen.  It  was  said 
that  they  were  in  the  Church  onlv  while  the  law  and 
preferments  were  on  its  side,  but  tliat  they  were  ready 
to  ^ve  it  up  as  soon  as  they  saw'a  proper  time  for  de- 
claring themselves." 

^  Naturally  the  Low  Churclimen  resented  an  appella- 
tion with  which  this  suggestion  of  unworthy  motives 
was  associated.  Still  the  term  has  passed  into  general 
usage,  nor,  if  we  forget,  as  the  world  has  forgotten,  an 
implication  which  is  by  no  means  essential  to  it,  can  it 
be  denied  that  it  and  its  correlative  indicate  fairly 
well  a  root-difference  which  throughout  their  various 
stages  has  characterized  the  two  parties.  What  is  the 
nature  of  the  visible  Church?  Is  it  a  society  whose  or- 
ganization with  its  threefold  ministry  has  been  pre- 
ordained by  Jesus  Christ,  and  is  therefore  essential,  or 
is  it  one  in  which  tliis  organization,  though  of  Apos- 
tolic precedent,  can  be  departed  from  without  for- 
feiture of  church  status?  The  High  Churchmen  have 
alwiiys  stood  for  the  former  of  these  alternatives, 
the  Low  Churchmen  for  the  latter.  Moreover,  round 
these  central  positions  more  or  less  consequential  con- 
victions have  gathered.  The  High  Churchmen,  in 
theory  at  least,  emphasize  the  principle  of  church  au- 
thority as  the  final  court  of  doctrinal  appeal ;  whilst  the 
Low  Churchmen  appeal  rather  to  the  Bible,  privately 
interpreted,  as  the  decisive  judge.  The  High  Church- 
men exalt  ecclesiastical  tradition  as  the  voice  of 
church  authority,  regard  the  Holy  Eucharist  as.  in 
some  sense  a  sacrifice  and  the  sacraments  as  effica- 
cious channels  of  grace,  and  they  insist  on  rites  and 
ceremonies  as  the  appropriate  expression  of  external 
worship;  whilst  the  Low  Churchmen  are  distrustful 
of  what  they  call  human  traditions,  regard  the  Holy 
Eucharist  as  a  s>'mbolic  meal  only,  hold  firmly  that 
the  grace  of  justification  and  sanctification  is  imparted 
to  the  soul  independently  of  visible  channels,  and  dis- 
like all  rites  and  ceremonies,  save  those  of  the  sim- 
plest kind,  as  tending  to  substitute  an  external  form- 
alism for  true  inward  devotion.  In  short,  the  one  party 
attaches  a  hiRher,  the  other  a  lower  degree  of  impor- 
tance to  the  visible  Church  and  it^  ordinances;  and  this 
may  suffice  to  justify  the  retention  of  the  names — 
though  it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  they 
state  extremes  between  which  many  intermediate 
grades  of  thought  and  feeling  have  always  subsisted  in 
the  AngUcan  Church. 

Of  the  pre-Revolution  period,  although  the  two 
names  were  not  as  yet  coined,  it  may  be  said  that  Low 
Church  ideas  were  in  the  ascendant  ail  through  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  but  that  under  James  I  religious  opinion 
began  to  grow  high,  imtil,  mainly  through  the  action 
of  ArchbiSop  Laud,  it  obtained  a  firm  footing  in  the 
national  Church;  and,  the  lapse  of  the  Rebellion  not- 
withstanding, retained  it  throughout  the  Caroline  pe- 
riod, and  even  through  the  reigns  of  William  and  Anne 
— although  William  filled  the  episcopal  sees  with  Low 
Church  prelates.  With  the  advent  of  the  Hanoverian 
djTiasty  a  deep  spiritual  lethargy  settled  down  on  the 
country.  The  bishoprics  were  now  openly  given  as 
rewards  for  political  service,  the  lesser  benefices  were 
mostly  filled  by  pluralist^  of  good  familv.  The  chief 
soUcitude  of  the  clergy  was  to  lead  comfortable  lives, 
their  highest  spiritual  effort,  if  such  it  could  be  called, 
taking  the  form  of  sermons  on  the  reasonableness  of 
Christianity  directed  against  the  Deists,  or  vapid 
laudations  of  moral  virtue.  Then,  in  the  forties  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  there  broke  on  this  season  of  tor- 
por an  intense  revival  of  religious  fervour  which  stirred 
the  country  to  its  foundations,  and  gave  a  new  and 
much  improved  complexion  to  the  Vvikvel  "mx^  ^'"^J^ 
of  the  liow  CU\xt<iVv^\x\V^ .  "Sv^^  ^\>^\^t^^>r^^v2^^- 


LOW                                  400  LOW 

tion  was  resented,  the  adherents  of  the  transformed  His  second  period  Bishop  Moule  names  the  Shafi«s- 

party  churning  to  be  colled,  as  their  deacmdants  do  bury  period,  after  the  tnil^  venerable  noblcniBD  who 

sdll.  Evangelicals.   The  name,  however,  has  attached  devoted  his  life  to  the  protection  and  elevaiion  of  the 

to  tnem,  and  is  applicable  in  so  far  as  they  share  the  poorer  claHsea.    He  was  a  fervent  Evaneelical,  and  as 

doctrine  about  the  Church  which  has  been  described,  a  great  layman  bore  to  the  party  someUung  of  tjie  re- 

The  Evangelicals  of  the  eighteenth  century  insisted  lation  which  William  Wllberforce  had  borne  to  it  in 

that  they  were  not  introducing  any  new  doctrines  into  the  earlier  part  of  the  century,  its  members  in  their 

their  Church  but  only  calling  on  people  to  take  its  doo-  tum_ co-operating  with  him  energetically  in  his  many 

trines  to  heart  and  apply  them  seriously  to  their  lives,  charitable  undertakings.    Through  his  mfluence  with 

Still  thcrewcrepointsof  doctrine  to  which  they  gave  a  Lord  Falmerston  he  obtained  the  promotion  of  scveml 

construction  of  their  own,  and  on  which  they  laid  conspicuous  Evangelicals  to  posts  of  responsibility, 

special  stress.    It  is  by  these  that  their  party  is  char-  Thus  Villiera,  Barmg,  Waldegrave,  Wigram,  and  Fel- 

acteriied.    They  insisted  on  the  total  depravity  of  ham  were  promoted  to  bishoprics,  and  Close  to  the 

human  nature  in  God's  eyes  as  the  consequence  of  the  deanery  of  Carlisle.    Other  names  of  note  during  tJiis 

Fall;  on  the  vicarious,  sacrifice  of  Christ  as  the  subeti-  period  were  John  Bird  Sumner,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 

tute  for  fallen  man;  on  the  imputed  righteousness  of  bury,  Edward  Bickersteth,  John  Charles  Ryle,  Hugh 

Christ  as  the  sole  formal  cause  of  justification;  on  the  McNeile,  Hugh  Stowell.    This  too  was  the  flourishing 

necessity  of  a  conscious  conversion  to  God  which  must  period  of  the  May_  meetings  held  annually  at  Exeter 

be  preceded  by  conviction  of  sin  (not  of  sinsonly),  and  Hall,  and  it  was  in  1876  that  the  Keswick  conven- 

which  involves  a  species  of  faith  whereby  the  tund  is,  tions,  which  have  since  become  annual  events,  were 

as  it  were,  stretchcii  out  with  firm  assurance  to  appro-  first  commenced.     His  third  period,  to  which  lie  a»- 

priatethe  justification  offered,  the  witness  of  the  Spirit  ngns  the  last  two  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century, 

whereby  the  soul  is  interiorly  certified  that  it  is  in  a  Bishop  Moule  calls  the  Church  Itlissionary  Society  pe- 

state  of  salvation,  and  the  commencement  of  a  process  riod,  m  view  of  the  immense  advance  wnich  that  pet 

<A  interior  sanctification  wrought  in  the  heart  by  the  child  of  the  party  has  made  during  recent  years.    As 

Holy  Spirit.    This  doctrine,  which  in  its  earliest  form  did  Evangelicalism  to  the  old  Low  Church  ideas,  so 

is  traceable  to  Luther,  is  in  reality  due  to  a  false  anal-  has  Tractarianism,  which  rose  up  in  the  middle  of 

yais  of  some  fundamental  Catholic  truths,  and  it  is  this  the  nineteenth  century,  given  a  new  interpretation  to 

intermixture  of  truth  with  error  which  renders  intelli-  the  old  High  Church  views,  which  since  then  have  lieen 

^ble  the  rich  harvest  of  edifying  conversions  and  holy  carried  in  the  direction  of  Catholic  doctrine  far  beyond 

hves.  chequered,  however,  by  not  infrequent  instances  what  the  old  Caroline  divines  ever  dreamt  of.    This 

erf  regrettable  extravagances,  which  marked  the  begin-  movement  has  also  struck  root  in  the  country,  and  has 

nings  of  the  new  spiritual  movement.    The  foremost  aoextendeditself  that  of  late  years  people  have  begun 

name  among  its  leaders  was  that  of  John  Wesley,  who,  to  ask  it  the  Evangelical  party  is  not  dying  out. 

it  must  be  remembered,  if  somewhat  restive  to  its  dis-  There  are,  indeed,  appearances  which  may  seem  to 

dpline,  never  himself  forsook  the  Anglican  communion,  point  that  way,  but  as  an  evidence  to  the  contrary  the 

though  the  main  body  of  his  followers  did  shortly  Evangelicals  may  reasonably  point  to  their  Qhurch 

after  nis  death.  Missionary  Society,  which  is  supported  entirely  by 

But  siile  by  side  with  the  Wesleys  and  Whitefield,  their  contributions.     Its  annual  income  of  late  has 

the  Anf;1ican  Church  of  that  time  had  other  leaders  in  fallen  little  short  of  £400,000,  which  is  more  than 

whom  the  same  species  of  spiritual  impulse  was  active,  double  that  of  the  society  that  comes  next  to  it. 

but  in  whom  it  was  kept  freer  from  emotional  ex-  Surely  it  is  a  fair  inference  from  this  impressive  fact 

cesses  and  manifested  no  tendency  to  stray  oS  into  that  EvanKeticalism  is  still  a  living  force  of  great 

separatism.    It  is  these  who  must  be  recognized  as  the  power;  and  it  must  be  added  that,  though  this  is  not 

trucFathersofthemodem  Low  Church  or  Evangelical  bvan;^  means  it^  exclusive  privilege,  it  can  still  as  of 

puty.    William  Romaine  may  be  regarded  as  thetr  old  point  to  numberless  bright  examples  of  holy  living 

forerunner,  but  he  was  soon  followed  by  Henry  Venn  amongthose  who  take  its  teaching  U>  heart. 


n  followed  by  Henry  Venn  amongthose  who  take  its  teaching  U. 

erf  Huddersfield,  John  Newton  of  OIney,  William  Cow-  Hiaiuiu la u—TAi  prindptca  o/  Loa-Churiji-Mcn  fairly  rcp- 

per,  the  poet,  with  their  younger  colleagues,  Thomas  ""^  ""^  ''f^S^^-  j^"  ?  '"W"""  "™''"y'j'  ""wmmo  'o 

&t,  tirc«n,me.Ut«,,  J~Ph  Miher    thar  hij  'SSiTt^'^^ISkSkiSf.^'ZSriiil.'il 

t«>rian,  and  Isaac  Miloer  his  brother,  also  Richard  ^reUMop  Tan  (tandon,  1BS8>:  Otehton,  Thr  Evajierlifal 

Cewl,  their  intellectual  chief.    These  were  the  leaders  R«™^  «  «•  ?«™™*  «^"*  t'™J  "  Cre'ohtoi..  E^rh>a/ 

in  the  second  half  of  the  eirfiteenth  century    .In  the  ^-^J'^  gSl7^f  S^lf^Jfl^Vir-tSS^ 

nineteenth  century  Bishop  Handley  Moule,  their  most  Mmrmmti  of  RrKj/ioiu  TViouoW  ui  Bnelatia  during  Ihe  Nine- 


.B»th™peri<xj.o(Ev.n„lio.ll,rkorr     Of  th«  ':SJS^^S;?S£f^lASi^i^rSS-Jt 

the  Iir:<t  lasted  till  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  tiaaical Biographg (ljiadaa.lS49t-. Stock, UiitirrvvfchrChvrh 

He  names  it  the  period  of  Simeon  and  Wllberforce,  af-  .Jf«i»a™.5on^  (London,  ispoj;  Heath,  rt*  Waning  aj 

ter  the  cleric  anj  the  kyman  whose  influence  contrib-  nJ^RoSeX  J?  bSU^ESSL  rfSS;»^iMj            ' 

uted  the  most  of  all  to  its  progress  and  development.  Doctnxtiu.' r-tnt  Dbvotionu.— Vimk.  Tkt  CampUr  Du^  of 

At  the  commencement  of  this  period  one  remarkable  '^'HSl'.^,'!^  "^H'^  «bMnii»it  edlttoiu)!  WiLBERrDH<;K, 

<„., II .1 : .C  I t  T-r ii.  A  fhwdml  Vita  a/ O^prrpatlnv  nltinout  ivirm  «/ rmfe'trd 


effect  of  their  intimate  association  with  one  another  Yo«,  1909), 

was  seen  in  the  important  works  to  which  their  leat  sydnbt  F.  Suith. 
Bive birth.    Tliey  fouwied  the  "Christian  Observer" 

(for  three-quarters  of  a  ccnturj-,  the  organ  of  their  Low  Soilday,  the  first  Sunday  after  E^ter.     The 

party),  of  which  Joeiah  Pratt  and  Zachary  Macaulay  origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  apparently  iu- 

werc  the  first  editors.   The v  were  mainly  instrumental  tended  to  indicate  the  contrast  between  it  and  the 

in  founding  the  Church  Stissionary  Society  in  IT99,  great  Easter  festival  immediately  preceding,  and  also, 

had  much  to  do  with  the  founding  of  the  Bible  Society  perbapSj  to  signify  that,  being  the  Octavo  Day  of 

in  180t,  and  collaborated  actively,  to  their  eternal  Easter,  it  was  considered  part  of  that  feast,  though  in 

credit,  with  Wilberiorce  and  Henry  Thornton  in  their  a  lower  degree.     Its  liturgical  name  is  iJomiitiea  tn 

Baceeaaful crusade  agaiast  the  slave  trade.  aUrii  deporitia,  derived  from  the  fact  that  <ai  it  the 


LUBSGK 


401 


LUBBOK 


neophytes,  who  had  been  baptized  on  Easter  Eve,  then 
for  the  first  time  laid  aside  their  white  baptismal  robes. 
St.  Augustine  mentions  this  custom  in  a  sermon' for 
the  day,  and  it  is  also  alluded  to  in  the  Eastertide  Ves- 
per hymn.  ''Ad  regies  Agni  dapes"  (or,  in  its  older 
torm,  "  Aa  c<Bnam  Agni  providi  ),  written  by  an  an- 
cient imitator  of  St.  Amorose.  Low  Sunday  is  also 
called  b/some  liturgical  writers  Pascha  dausumf  signi- 
fving  the  close  of  the  Easter  Octave,  and  "Quasimodo 
Sunday",  from  the  Introit  at  Mass — "Quasi  modo 
geniti  infantes,  rationabile,  sine  dolo  lac  concupiscite", 
— ^which  words  are  used  by  the  Church  with  special  ref- 
erence to  the  newly  baptized  neophytes,  as  well  as  in 
general  allusion  to  man's  renovation  through  the 
Resurrection.    The  latter  name  is  still  common  in 

parts  of  France  and  Gennany. 

DuRAND,  Rationale  Divini  Officii  (Venice.  1568):  MARrkwE, 
De  Antiquit  Monaehorum  RitibuM  CLArons,  1700);  UuiiRANaER, 
L'Ann^e  liturgigue,  tr.  Shkpherd,  The  Liturgical  Year  (Dublin, 
1867);  Leroset,  Histoire  et  aumbolisme  de  la  IMurffie  (Paris, 
1889);  BxTirFOL,  Hietoire  du  Briviaire  Romaine  (Paris,  1803). 

G.  Cyprian  AxfiTON. 

Lttbeck,  a  free  imperial  state  and  one  of  the  Hanse 
towns,  is  in  area  the  second  smallest  and  in  popula- 
tion the  twentieth  state  in  the  German  Empire.  The 
state,  which  includes  the  city  of  Ltibeck  ana  its  neigh- 
bourhood, has  an  area  of  al)out  115  sq.  m.  and  a  popu- 
lation (1905)  of  105,857  inhabitants,  of  whom  101,724 
were  Lutherans,  2457  Catholics,  and  638  Jews.  Of 
the  three  Hanse  towns  which  still  remain — Hamburg, 
Bremen,  and  LQbeck — LObeck  was  the  last  founded. 
It  was  first  established  in  the  eleventh  century,  below 
the  site  of  the  present  town,  and  in  the  midst  of  the 
Slavic  tribes  dwelling  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  and 
a  church  was  erected  there  under  the  protection  of 
Henry  the  Proud.  This  settlement,  however,  proved 
too  weak  to  withstand  the  attack  of  the  pagan  Slavs, 
and  was  destroyed  early  in  the  twelfth  century.  In 
1143  Count  Adolf  II  of  Holstein  founded  a  new  colony 
above  the  site  of  the  former,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Trave  and  the  Wakenitz,  and  introduced  settlers 
from  Flanders,  Holland,  Westphalia,  and  Friesland. 
The  rapid  development  of  the  town  awakened  at  first 
the  envy  of  Duke  Henry  the  Lion,  and  he  only  b^^in 
to  favour  it  after  its  submission  to  him  in  1157.  He 
gave  the  town  a  municipal  constitution,  established 
a  mint  there,  and  made  Bishop  (Jlerold  transfer  to 

ijObeok  the  seat  of  the  Bishopric  of  Oldenburg, 
oimded  by  Otto  I  for  Wagria.  In  1173  Henry  him- 
self laid  the  foundation-stone  of  the  Romanesque 
cathedral,  which  was  completed  in  1210.  To  the 
east  of  the  town  the  Johanneskloster  was  founded  in 
1177,  and  occupied  by  Benedictines  from  Brunswick. 
On  the  downfall  of  Henry,  the  bishopric  became, 
immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  while  the* 
town  itself  voluntarily  submitted  to  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  who,  in  1188,  confirmed  its  liberties 
and  its  territorial  boundaries.  The  commerce  of 
the  town  developed  rapidly,  and  its  ships  traversed 
the  whole  Baltic  Sea.  This  prosperity  by  no 
means  diminished  with  the  advent  of  the  Danes, 
who,  under  Cnut  VI,  brought  Holstein  and  Lttbeck 
into  subjection  in  1201.  The  victory  of  the  Hol- 
steiners  over  the  Danes  at  Yomhood,  in  1227,  re- 
stored to  Lttbeck  its  complete  independence.  In 
1226  it  had  been  already  raised  by  Frederick  II  to  the 
rank  of  a  free  city  of  the  empire,  altnou^h  the  emperor 
had  not  availed  himself  of  his  authority  to  appoint 
a  protector  for  its  territories.  Even  the  bishop,  who 
resided  at  first  in  the  area  capUuli  (the  Thum  or  Dom- 
hof) — but  after  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century 
in  Eutin,  while  his  chapter  remain^  in  the  cathedral 
area — ^had  no  secular  jurisdiction  over  the  town, 
whose  privileges  were  ratified  by  Popes  Innocent  TV 
and  Alexander  IV.  What  great  prestige  Lttbeck  ac- 
quired throughout  Northern  Germany  by  its  vigorous 
preservation  of  its  independence,  may  be  inferred 
DC— 2^ 


from  the  fact  that  numerous  North  German  towDfl 
adopted  the  municipal  law  of  Lttbeck  as  the  model 
for  their  own.  The  prominent  position  which  Lttbeck 
held  in  Baltic  commerce  from  the  thirteentii  centu^ry 
resulted  naturally  in  her  taking  the  leading  part  in 
the  Hansa,  or  great  conf ederacv  of  Low  German  cities, 
formed  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
As  head  of  the  Hansa,  the  importance  of  Lttbeck  in- 
creased enormously  in  Northern  Europe,  until  finally 
it  stood  at  the  head  of  over  100  towns  and  cities  which 
had  adopted  its  statutes.  At  times,  however,  it 
had  to  Dear  the  burden  of  defending  the  Hansa 
unassisted,  especially  against  its  hereditary  foe, 
Denmark. 

In  the  war  of  1362-70,  Lttbeck  captured  Ck>penha- 
gen  (1368),  and,  by  the  Peace  of  Stralsund,  was  ap- 

B)inted  arbitrator  of  the  dispute  concerning  the 
anish  Crown.  The  following  decades  constitute  the 
era  of  Lttbeck's  greatest  prosperity.  In  1372  its 
burgomaster  was  appointed  by  the  emperor.  Do- 
mestic strife  between  the  patricians  ana  the  ^Ids 
broke  out  in  Lttbeck  as  elsewhere,  but  resulted  in  its 
case  in  the  maintenance  of  the  rule  of  the  merchant 
patricians,  from  whose  families  were  chosen  through- 
out the  Middle  Ages  the  four  burgomasters  and  the 
twenty  councillors.  The  power  of  Lttbeck  in  the 
fifteenth  century  is  shown  by  the  emperor's  request, 
in  1464,  that  it  should  arrange  peace  between  the 
Teutonic  Order  and  the  Poles,  although  the  mission 
of  the  burgomaster,  Castorp,  was  none  too  successfuli 
He  met  with  greater  success  in  preventing  his  city 
from  being  drawn  into  the  disputes  of  the  nei^bourinff 
Scandinavian  lands.  In  the  war  between  (Jnristian  I 
of  Denmark  and  Sweden  (1499 —  ),  however,  Lttbeck 
could  not  remain  neutral;  it  afforded  protection  and 
shelter  to  the  exiled  Gustavus  Vasa,  formed  the  cotk^ 
federacy  of  the  Wendish  towns  and  Danzig  against 
Christian,  in  1 521 ,  asserted  once  more  the  might  of  the 
Hansa  in  the  Baltic,  and  dispatched  with  Gustavus 
Vasa  a  fleet  to  blockade  Stockholm  in  1522.  In  1523 
Stockholm  had  to  surrender  to  the  Lttbeck  admirals,, 
and  from  their  hands  the  newly  elected  King  Vasa 
of  Sweden  received  the  keys  of  his  capital. 

The  Reformation  found  a  later  ent  ranee  into  Lttbeck 
than  into  other  North-German  towns.  The  initiative 
in  introducing  the  new  doctrine  wa.s  taken  by  the  mid- 
dle classes,  while  the  municipal  authorities,  on  account 
of  their  friendship  for  the  emperor  and  the  bishop, 
strongly  opposed  the  innovation.  After  1529,  how- 
ever, in  consec}uence  of  the  pecuniary  demands  of 
the  council,  a  citizens'  committee  of  forty-eight  mem- 
bers was  formed  to  enquire  into  the  finances  of  the 
town.  This  committee  procured  a  petition  of  the 
citizens  for  the  introduction  of  Lutheran  preachers. 
On  5  June,  1530,  pursuant  to  a  decree  of  the  citizens 
which  the  council  could  not  oppose,  Lutheran  ser\'ices 
were  introduced  into  all  the  cnurches  of  Lttbeck  ex- 
cept the  cathedral,  which  was  under  the  territorial 
jurisdiction  of  the  chapter,  and  all  clergymen  were 
forbidden  to  celebrate  Mass  until  further  notice.  In 
consequence  of  the  supineness  of  the  chapter,  Lu- 
theran services  were  held  even  in  the  cathedral  in 
July,  and  it  was  only  in  the  choir,  and  at  certain 
hours  that  Catholic  worship  was  tolerated.  The 
reigning  bishop,  Heinrich  III  Bockholt  (1523-35), 
could  offer  no  effective  resistance  to  the  Reformation 
in  liie  town,  but  he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost. 
After  his  death,  the  cathedral  chapter,  desiring  the 
friendship  of  the  neighbouring  Protestant  princes  lest 
their  property  should  be  confiscated,  elected  bishops 
of  Lutheran  views — Detlef  von  Reventlow  (1535)  and 
Balthasar  von  Rantzow  (1536-47).  These  were  suc- 
ceeded by  four  Catholic  bishops:  Jodokus  Hodfilter 
(1547-53).  who,  however,  lived  away  from  his  diocese; 
Theodoricn  von  Reden,  who  resigned  in  1555;  AsssixswBi 
von  Barby  (1557-79), >n\\o  d\vVxv<ci\:  ^\38:vsi.vs5^^«^- 


LTJBIOK                               402  LUBSOK 

Tiedemann  (d.  1561).    Eberhard  von  Holle  (1564-  trade  for  the  first  two  decades  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 

86)  openly  espoused  Protestantism  in  1565,  intro-  tnry,  the  prosperity  of  Ltibeck  gradually  increased, 

dvksed  the  Reformation  ahnost  completely  into  the  although  the  town  was  far  removed  from  the  great 

cathedral  chapter,  and,  in  1571,  surrendered  even  trade-routes  of  the  world.    The  Imperial  Delegates' 

the  choir  of  the  cathedral  to  the  preachers.  Enactment  of  1803  (see  Germany)  brought  it  a  small 

With  the  eleven-year-old  Johann  Adolf,  who  was  increase  of  territory  by  assigning  to  it  the  portion  of 
the  first  Bishop  to  many  (1596),  beean  the  succession  that  diocese  (the  area  capituli)  which  lay  within  its 
of  bishops  from  the  House  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  in  boundaries ;  the  remainder  fell  to  the  Duchy  dfOlden- 
whose  possession  this  bishopric — the  only  Lutheran  burg,  to  which  the  episcopal  line  of  the  House  of  Got- 
bishopric  of  Germany — remained,  even  after  the  torp  had  succeeded  in  1773,  and  forms  to-day  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,  until  the  secularization  of  1803.  Oldenburg  principality  of  Liibcek.  As  the  imperial 
Most  of  the  canonries  also  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  del^ates  nad  also  guaranteed  Lubeck  perpetual  neu- 
Protestants:  on  1  Jan.,  1624,  the  Catholics  still  occu-  traUty,  and  the  citizens  had  begun  to  level  the  fortifi- 
pied  6  canonries.  13  vicarships,  and  4  prebends  in  the  cations,  they  were  unable  to  offer  any  rcs^i.stance  to  the 
cathedral;  at  tne  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  French,  who,  after  the  Battle  of  Jena,  in  1806,  pur- 
they  held  only  four  canonries.  It  was  owing  to  the  sued  Bluchcr  northwards.  Occupie<l  by  the  French 
continued  existence  of  a  remnant  of  Catholic  property  on  5  November,  the  town  was  pillaged  for  three  days, 
within  the  city  that  Catholicism  did  not  utterly  perish  and  remained  in  their  possession  until  1813.  For  the 
in  Ltibeck.  The  care  of  the  few  Catholics  there  (in  1709,  Catholics,  who  then  numbered  between  500  and  600, 
fourteen  families  with  sixty  members  within  the  city  the  foreign  occupation  brought,  in  some  measure,  aii 
and  about  forty  outside)  was  entrusted  to  a  missionary  equality  of  rights  with  the  Prot<istants,  and  the  liberty 
paid  by  the  canons.  This  missionary  was,  as  a  rule,  — never  since  contested — of  baptizing  and  marrying 
one  of  the  Jesuits  who,  from  1651,  were  permanently  their  co-religionists  according  to  Catholic  rites,  with- 
established  within  the  cathedral  domain,  or  area,  out  outside  interference.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  rec- 
Tbe  Catholics  of  LQbeck  repeatedly  received  imperial  ognized  Ltibeck  as  a  free  member  of  the  German 
letters  of  protection  in  favour  of  the  free  practice  of  League.  Subsequently  the  town  devoted  itself  with 
their  religion.  In  1683  the  Catholic  clergy  were  great  energy  to  removing  all  the  obstacles  impeding 
granted  the  right  of  holding  service  within  the  cathe-  the  development  of  its  commerce  and  navigation, 
oral  area  and  administering  the  sacraments,  and  the  These  were  due  principally  to  the  opposition  of  Den- 
right  of  the  Catholics  of  the  city  to  attend  these  ser-  mark,  which  still  occupied.  Holstein. 
vices  and  receive  the  sacraments  was  never  after-  The  Liberal  Constitution  of  1848,  which  guaranteed 
wards  disputed.  Concerning  the  right  to  administer  to  the  middle  classes  a  ^eat  measure  of  influence  in 
the  sacraments  of  Baptism  and  Matrimony,  disputes  the  government  of  the  city  side  by  side  with  the  Sen- 
afterwards  arose,  ana,  for  the  periods  1705-14  and  ate,  contributed  -very  p^tly  to  foster  the  pubUc 
1775-1805,  the  Catholic  priests  did  not  dare  to  bap-  spirit  of  the  citizens  and  initiated  a  new  period  of  pros- 
tine  or  many  in  public.  The  Jesuits  resided  with  the  perity  for  the  old  Hanse  town.  Its  inclusion  in  the 
canons  until  1702,  when  thev  founded  a  separate  German  Customs  Union  (Zollverein)  opened  to  Lii- 
CBtablishment  in  which  they  held  Catholic  worship  beck,  in  1868,  a  great  field  of  commercial  activity.  In 
until  1773.  On  the  suppression  of  their  order,  the  1866  Ltibeck  had  imhesitatingly  taken  the  side  of 
fathers  at  first  continued  their  pastoral  duties  as  Prussia.  In  the  new  German  Empire  its  position  as 
secular  priests,  but  other  secular  priests  succeeded  a  free  city  is  miimpaired:  under  the  protection  of  the 
them  in  course  of  time.  It  was  the  French  domina-  Empire,  and  during  the  lon^  epoch  of  peace  since  1871. 
tion,  in  1811.  which  first  brought  an  extension  of  it  has  developed,  not  precipitately,  but  steadily  and 
reU^ous  freeaom  for  CathoUcs.  surely,  and  its  population  has  more  than  doubled 

In  the  sixteenth  centuiy  the  political  importance  of  (1871 :  in  the  city,  39,743,  and  witliin  the  state  boun- 

LQbeck  declined.    The  rash  efforts  of  Burgomaster  daries,  52,158;  1905:  in  the  city,  91,541,  and  in  the 

JQigen  Wullenweber  (1533-35)  to  oust  Dutch  trade  state,  105,857). 

from  the  Baltic,  to  revive  LQbeck*s  hegemony  there,  The  Catholics  of  Lubeck,  whom  immigration  has  in- 
and,  in  union  with  Count  Christopher  of  Oldenbui^,  creased  almost  threefold  since  1871,  are  subiect  to  the 
to  restore  the  exiled  Christian  II  of  Denmark  to  his  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Northern  Missions.  The  priests 
throne,  ended,  after  some  initial  successes,  unfortu-  of  the  parish  of  Lubeck  (1  pastor  and  3  assistants) 
nately,  and  led  to  the  decay  of  Ltibeck.  Once  more  did  minister  to  all  the  Catholics  ot  the  free  state,  the  Cath- 
it  appear  as  an  important  pofitical  factor,  when  war  olics  of  the  Principality  of  Lubeck,  who  live  nearer  to 
broke  out  between  Denmark  and  Sweden  in  1563,  and  Labeck  than  to  Eutin,  and  a  portion  of  the  Catholics 
LObeck  sustained,  in  union  with  the  former,  a  vigor-  of  Ratzeburg,  Lauenberg,  Holstein,  and  Mecklenburg- 
ens  and  successful  naval  conflict  against  Sweden.  The  Schwerin.  The  Catholic  soldiers  are  spiritually  sub- 
Peace  of  Stettin,  in  1570,  guaranteed  the  town  many  ject  to  the  armv  provost  at  Berlin,  who  entrusts  them 
of  its  claims,  but  the  heavy  cost  of  the  war  had  im-  to  the  care  of  the  pastor  at  Lubeck. 
posed  such  a  burden  on  it  that  it  was  henceforth  with-  By  the  Regulation  of  18  March,  1904,  which  deter- 
out  the  resources  for  carrying  on  war.  With  the  mines  its  relations  towards  the  Catholic  Church,  the 
diminution,  through  various  causes,  of  the  power  and  state  has  reserved  to  itself  the  jus  circa  sacra.  The 
influence  of  the  whole  Hansa,  in  the  sixteenth  and  names  of  the  clerey  appointed  by  the  Bishop  of  Osna- 
seventeenth  centuries,  that  of  Ltibeck  also  declined,  brilck  must  be  submitted  to  the  Senate  with  copies  of 
especially  as  Hamburg  and  Bremen  were  now  gradu-  all  their  certificates  of  studies.  Religious  orders  and 
ally  outstripping  it  in  commerce.  The  town  finally  congregations  may  at  any  time  be  excluded  by  the 
sank  into  tne  position  of  a  port  of  call  between  the  Senate.  Catholic  citizens,  who  are  taxed  on  an  in- 
transatlantic  and  northern  commerce.  The  Thirty  come  of  more  than  1000  marks,  must  pay  a  church 
Years' War  imposed  grievous  burdens  on  the  defence-  tax;  otherwise,  the  ecclesiastical  revenue  is  derived 
less  citizens  in  consetiuence  of  the  repeated  cjuartering  from  the  general  church  and  school  funds,  and — since 
of  soldiers  in  the  town.  When,  after  its  last  diets  in  this  is  insufficient  to  meet  the  expenditure — ^from  the 
1630  and  1069,  the  Hansa  was  finally  dissolved  and  voluntary  contributions  of  the  Catholics,  who  are 
there  was  formed  a  defensive  alliance — Ltibeck,  Ham-  mostly  poor,  and  from  the  Bonifatiusverein.  To  the 
buig,  and  Bremen,  the  Council  of  LObeck  still  retained  assistance  of  this  association  is  also  due  the  erec- 
Che  directorship  as  the  sole  remnant  of  its  former  posi-  tion  of  the  parish  church  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  the 
tkm  of  eminence.  town  (1888-91)  and  of  the  chapel-of-ease  in  the  indus- 

there 
a 


/ijBJOIi 


Ikin'n/^  t}ie  lonf^  period  of  peace,  following  the  con-     trial  district  of  Kiickiiitz  (190€t-10).    Since  1850  thei 
ton  of  the  Northern   War  which  crippled  Baltic     lias  l>een  a  Catholic  school,  which  is  conducteil  by 


LTJBLXK 


403 


LTJBLXK 


religious  directOFi  and  has  received  since  1905  a  grant 
from  the  state.  In  1874  an  establishment  of  the  Sis- 
ters of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  from  the 
mother-house  at  Breslau,  was  foimded  to  teach  and  to 
care  for  the  sick.  The  Catholic  associations  of  LUbeck 
include  those  of  the  Christian  Familv,  the  Holy  Child- 
hood, Guardian  Angels,  St.  Elizabeth,  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  and  one  for  the  adornment  of  poor  churches, 
an  association  for  Catholic  business  men  and  offi- 
cials, a  men's  association;  an  association  for  journey- 
men, one  for  youths,  ani!  a  Sodality  of  Mary  for 
unmarried  women.  The  Catholic  press  is  represented 
by  the  "  Nordische  Volksaeitung". 

Bbckbr,  UnuMndliche  GesehichU  der  kaiaertichen  und  dea 
Heiliatn  RGmiachen  Reichea  freyen  Stadt  Liiheck  (3  vols.,  Ltibeck, 
1782-1805):  Petersen,  Auifiihrlxche  GeachichU  der  LUbeck- 
iachen  KirckenrefomuUion  1629-1531  (Ltibeck,  1830) ;  Diecke, 
Die  FreU  und  Hanseatadt  Lubeck  (4th  ed.,  Lilbeck,  1881); 
Urkundenbueh  dex^Stadt  Liibeck  (11  vols.,  Labeck,  1843-1904); 
Urkundenbueh  dea  Biatuma  Liibeck  (Oldenbunr.  1856);  Die 
Freie  und  Hanaeatadi  Liiheck  (Ltibcck,  1890);  HomiAN, 
Oeachichte  der  Freien  und  Hanaeaiadt  Liiheck  (LObeck,  1889-93); 
Iluoens,  Der  Olauhe  der  V&ter  dargeatelU  in  den  kirchlichen 
AUerlUmem  LHhecka  (Padertx>m,  1895);  Idem,  GeachicMe  der 
Lnbeckiaehen  Kirche  von  t6SO'1896^  Geachichte  dea  ehemalyfen 
kathoHaehen  Bialufnat  der  nunmehnoen  katholiachen  Gemeinde 
(Paderbom,  1896);  Liibeck f  aeine  Bauten  und  Kunatwerke 
(Lnbeck,  1897) ;  Holm,  Liiheck,  die  Freie  und  Hanaeatadt  (Biele- 
feld, 1900) ;  Dfie  Bau-  und  KunatdenkmUler  der  Freien  una  Han- 
aeatadt Liibeck  (2  vols..  Lubeck,  1906);  Kobter,  Nachrichien 
uber  die  rdmiache-kaiholiache  Pfarrgemeinde  Liiheck  (LObeck, 
1908);  Zeitachrift  dea  Vereina  fiir  lHheckiache  Geachichte  und 
AUertumakunde  (II  vols.,  Ltibeck,  1860-1910);  Hanaiaehe 
GeachuMa-bUUter  (1871—) ;  HantiaeheGeachichtaQuellen  (1875—), 
Hanaereceaae  (1876 — ),  Hanaiachea  Urkundenbueh  (1870 — ), 
Hanaiaehe  Invenlare  (1876).  JoSEPH  LiNS. 

Lublin,  Diocese  of  (Lublinensis). — ^The  city  of 
Lublin  is  in  Russian  Poland,  capital  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  Lublin,  lies  on  the  Bistrzyca,  a  tributary  of 
the  Vistula,  and  in  1897  had  a  population  of  50,152, 
of  whom  30,914  were  Catholics.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
Catholic  bishop,  a  governor,  and  an  army  corps.  Con- 
spicuous among  the  eleven  Catholic  churches  of  the 
town  are  the  cathedral,  dedicated  to  St.  John  the 
Baptist  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  which  was  built 
by  Bemhard  Maciejow.ski  (afterwards  cardinal)  be- 
tween 1582  and  1600,  remained  till  1772  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Jesuits,  and  since  1832  has  been  the 
cathedral;  also  the  church  of  St.  Stanislaus,  erected  in 
1342  by  King  Casimir  for  the  Dominicans;  the  church 
of  the  Assumption  of  Mary  *'de  triumphis",  built 
during  1412  and  1426  by  King  Wladislaw  Jagello,  in 
memory  of  the  victory  gained  over  the  Teutonic 
Order;  the  parish  church  of  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul, 
erected  in  1461,  and  till  1864  the  church  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans, etc. 

Lubhn  was  foimded  in  the  eleventh  century,  and 
soon  began  to  flourish.  In  the  events  arising  out 
of  the  relations  between  Poles  and  Lithuanians, 
the  town  on  various  occasions  played  an  impor- 
tant r61e.  From  the  (liets  which  assembled  there, 
the  so-Hcalled  union  of  diets  of  1569  came  to  l)c  of  de- 
cisive importance  to  the  fortunes  of  both  kingdoms. 
The  alliance  between  Lithuanians  and  Poles  was  al- 
wajrs  more  or  less  loose  (see  Lithuania);  only  the 
hostility,  coniinon  to  both  of  them  against  the  Teu- 
tonic Older,  obviated  a  separation  more  than  once. 
Following  the  downfall  of  the  onier,  a  much  more 
dangerous  enemy  arose  in  the  East  in  the  upward- 
struggling  empire  of  the  Muscovites  under  Ivan  III. 
When  he  had  got  rid  of  the  Tatars  he  set  about  build- 
ing up  a  centralized  state.  And  as  he  had  designs  on 
Polish  territory,  he  sought  to  rouse  up  enemies 
agidnst  the  Poles.  His  successor  followed  a  like 
policy.  It  became  obvious  that  there  would  have  to  be 
a  fight  with  Russia  over  the  supremacy  in  the  East. 
That  could  only  be  done  with  any  success  if,  in  place 
of  the  looser  auianoe,  a  uniform  incorporation  of  the 
states  took  place.  King  Sigismund  (1548-1572) 
showed  himself  strenuously  in  favour  of  a  closer  union. 
Nevertheless  when  the  united  .tliots  finally  met  at 


Lublin  in  1569,  the  Lithuanians,  although  their  Greek 
Orthodox  nobles  had  in  1563  by  roval  decree  become 
possessed  of  the  same  rights  as  the  Catholic  tiobility  of  . 
Poland,  stoutly  opposed  a  closer  union  between  Lith- 
uania and  Poiana.  Their  representatives  demanded 
absolute  independence  in  all  home  questions,  and  the 
maintenance  of  their  own  constitution  and  adminis- 
tration. Only  in  the  case  of  war  were  Lithuanians  and 
Poles  to  meet  in  diet,  while  the  monarch  was  not  to  be 
common  to  both,  but  to  be  separated  from  both  coun* 
tries,  and  to  be  freely  elected.  A  passionate  confliot 
ensued  with  the  Polish  nobility.  These  latter  were  so 
much  the  stronger  that  they  had  the  king  on  their  side, 
and  could  also  reckon  on  the  lower  Lithuanian  nobles, 
who  were  much  oppressed  by  princes  and  senators,  and 
were  not  possessed  of  the  same  independence  as  the 
higher  nobility.  The  king  cleared  away  the  last  l^gal 
obstacle  by  renoiincing  his  hereditary  nghts  as  Grand 
Duke  of  Lithuania,  and  thus  placed  both  divisions  in 
the  same  relation  to  his  person.  When,  then,  Sigisr 
mund  Augustus  by  virtue  of  his  royal  authority  com- 
manded the  Lithuanians  to  consent  to  the  union,  they 
left  the  diet,  in  order  to  prevent  the  uiiion,  and  made 
every  preparation  to  defend  their  independence  by 
the  sword.  The  Poles,  however,  broke  tne  opposition 
by  inducing  the  king  to  imite  one  by  one  to  tne  Polish 
crown  the  Lithuanian  territories,  such  as  Podlaohia. 
Volhynia  and  others,  in  which  his  authority  remainea 
unshaken.  Only  the  use  of  the  Russian  language  in 
the  courts  was  guaranteed  to  them.  The  few  who  re- 
fused to  submit  to  this  arrangement  were  declared  to 
have  forfeited  their  lands  and  dignities,  and  thus 
Lithuania  was  robbed  of  its  richest  province.  The 
Lithuanian  magnates,  who  had  also  the  smaller  no- 
bility opposed  to  them,  had  nothing  to  do  but  submit. 
They  joined  the  diet  at  Lublin  again,  and  on  27  June, 
1569,  announced  their  willingness  to  acknowled^  the 
union.  On  1  July  the  union  was  solemnly  proclaimed. 
Lithuania  thus  ceased  to  be  a  self-dependent  state.  Ih 
retained  however  at  least  some  marks  of  independence: 
Lithuanian  offices,  its  own  seal,  and  the  title  of  grand 
duchy. 

Under  Kmg  Stephen  Bdthori  (1576-86)  Lublin  be- 
came the  scat  of  five  of  the  highest  law  courts,  which 
the  king,  under  the  renunciation  of  his  old  right, 
established  to  pronoimce  judgment  as  courts  of  appeal 
for  the  several  combined  territories.  King  John 
Sobieski,  the  conqueror  of  the  Turks  at  Vienna  (1680), 
summoned  a  synod  at  Lublin,  to  put  an  end  to  the 
controversies  among  Roman  Catholics  and  those  of 
other  confessions  and  to  win  over  the  small  number  of 
schismatics,  who  after  the  Union  of  Brest  remained  in 
Lithuania;  but  the  synod  had  no  success.  In  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  Lublin  still  re- 
mained one  of  the  most  important  towns  in  Poland. 
At  the  Partition  of  Poland  the  town  went  first  to 
Austria;  in  1809.  after  the  victory  of  Xapoleon,  to  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  on  the  disruption  of  which 
by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  Russia  obtained  it.  During 
the  period  of  Austrian  rule  Pius  VII,  on  the  petition 
of  Enij)oror  Francis  II,  established  at  Lublin  a  sep- 
arate bishopric.  Adallx^rt.  Skarszewski  was  appointed 
first  bishop  in  1807.  When,  during  the  reorganization 
of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Russia,  Pius  VII,  by  the  Bull 
"Militantis  Ecclesiie",  of  12  March,  1817,  elevated  the 
Bishopric  of  Warsaw  into  an  archbishopric,  Lublin 
with  other  dioceses  was  placed  under  it  as  suffragan 
and  at  the  same  time  a  oishopric  was  instituted  for 
Po<lIachia,  with  the  seat  in  Janow.  In  1868  both  dio- 
ceses were  in  a  way  united,  the  Bishop  of  Lublin  being 
likewise  permanent  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Podlachia. 
Josephus  Marcellinus  Dziecielsti  (1828-39)  succeeded 
the  first  bishop,  who  was  elevated  in  1825  to  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  W  arsaw,  then,  after  a  long  vacancy,  Vin- 
centius  a  Paulo  Pienkowski  (1853-63),  Valentinus 
Rarenowski  (1871-79),  Casimirus  Jo€e^\\»9.  ^^3Iwsbb««w 
Wi lorowski  (I88:i-S5^^ ,  «aA  N^Wi  v^^sy5KvV^\NScv^\»>^^^ 


LUa4 


404 


LUOAS 


0IS0U9  Jaczewski  (since  1889) .  The  brief  history  of  the 
bishopric  exhibits  many  vicissitudes,  particularly  since 
.  Tsar  Nicholas  I  took  up  the  plans  or  Catharine  II,  to 
bring  over  to  the  Orthodox  Church  those  who  were  in 
oommunion  with  Rome,  and  carried  them  through  by 
the  most  violent  methods.  Thousands  of  Catholics  in 
oommunion  with  the  Church  in  the  Diocese  of  Lublin 
were  "  converted  "  by  force  to  Orthodoxy,  and  a  ereat 
number  of  religious  buildings  were  taken  from  them. 
The  appointment  of  an  auxiliary  bishop  for  this  large 
diocese  has  for  along  time  been  consistently  frustrated 
by  the  Russian  Government,  and  the  long-continued 
oppression  in  many  parishes  hinders  the  care  of  souls 
and  does  great  injury  to  the  Church.  Since  the  issue 
of  the  ^ict  allowing  religious  toleration,  in  1905,  the 
conditions  have  somewhat  improved,  though  the  offi- 
cials put  all  the  obstacles  they  can  in  the  way  of  a 
return  to  Catholicism  by  those  who  were  formerly 
compelled  to  join  the  Orthodox  Church.  In  spite  of 
•yerything,  many  thousands  have  returned  to  the 
Catholic  Church  since  1906. 

The  diocese  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  Oovem- 
ments  of  Lublin  and  Siedlcc,  and  numbers  19  dean- 
eries, 427  parishes,  403  secular  priests  (205  administra- 
tors, 28  curates,  145  vicars,  and  25  other  priests),  and 
1,532,300  Catholics.  The  cathedral  chapter  has  4 
(Mrelacies  and  8  canonries;  there  is  also  a  collegiate 
chapter  with  3  prelacies  and  4  canonries  at  Zamosd. 
The  diocesan  seminary  for  priests  at  Lublin  has  1 
regent,  1  viceregent,  6  professors,  and  108  students. 
The  Sisters  of  Cnarity  have  6  establishments  with  29 
flisters. 

TaoAtKh  de»  Unionsreichdaot  tu  Lublin  (St.  Peterabun^, 
1868);  Catalogtu  EccUaiarum  H  utriuaque  Cleri  tarn  tacuUxrxa 
OMom  reotdarxa  Dioecewoa  Lublinenais  pro  anno  Domini  1909 

(Lublin,  1909).  Joseph  Lins. 

Lnca,  Giovanni  Battibta  de,  Cardinal  and  Italian 
canonist  of  the  seventeenth  century,  b.  at  Venusia, 
Southern  Italy,  in  1614;  d.  at  Rome,  on  5  February, 
1683.  Bom  of  humble  parentage,  he  studied  at 
Naples,  but  owing  to  ill-health  he  nad  to  return  to 
his  native  place.  In  1645  he  went  to  Rome,  where 
he  soon  won  a  high  reputation  for  his  legal  ability, 
thereby  stirring  up  much  enmity  and  jealousy.  At 
an  advanced  age  he  became  a  pncst  and  enjoyed  the 
patrcmage  of  Innocent  XI,  who  made  him  successively 
referendary  UtriuaqueSignaturcBfSMditoroi  the  Sacred 
Palace  and  finally  in  1681  raised  him  to  the  cardi- 
nalate.  His  writings,  which  arc  eminently  practical 
in  character,  are  most  important  for  a  proper  under- 
standing of  the  jurisprudence  of  the  Roman  Court  and 
especially  of  the  Rota  in  his  time.  We  may  mention 
his  "Relatio  Curiae  Romanae"  (Cologne,  1683), 
"SacrsB  RotfiB  decisiones"  (Lyons,  1700)  "Annota- 
tiones  praticae  ad  S.  Conciluim  Tridentinum"  (Cologne, 
1684).  His  complete  works  were  published  under  the 
title  "Theatrum  veritatis  et  justitiaj  (19  vols.,  Rome, 
1669-77;  12  vols.,  Cologne,  1689-99). 

Shbber  in  Kirchenlex.,  8.  v.;  Schulte,  Die  Oetchichte  der 
QudUH  und  LiUratur  des  canoniachen  RechtB,  III  (Stuttgart, 
1875-80),  487;  Wrrnz,  Jua  Decretalium,  I  (Rome,  1898),  415; 
HUBTER,  NomenckUor  lilierariuat  II,  364. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Lqcm,  Frederick,  Member  d  Parliament  and 
journaUst,  b.  in  Westminster,  30  March,  1812;  d.  at 
Staines,  Middlesex,  22  Oct.,  1855.  He  was  the  second 
son  of  Samuel  Hayhurst  Lucas,  a  London  com-mer- 
ohant  who  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends. 
Educated  first  at  a  Quaker  school  in  Darlington,  then 
at  University  College,  London,  he  gave  early  proof  of 
bk  abilities,  particularlv  in  essa^r-writing  and  a$  a 
speaker  in  tne  college  deoating  societv.  Even  at  this 
time  he  was  an  ardent  supporter  of  Catholic  £manci- 

Etion,  which  was  then  being  much  discussed.    ()n 
iving  college  he  began  to  study  for  the  law  at  the 
MJdd)e  Temple,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1835. 
TWo  Jecttur^  on  education  which  he  delivered  at 


Staines  in  1838  showed  that  he  felt  that  attraction  to 
the  Christianity  of  the  Middle  Ages  which  was  then 
influencing  so  many  minds.  Yet  ruled  by  the  preju- 
dices of  his  early  education  it  was  to  the  Oxford 
School  rather  than  to  the  Catholic  Church  that  he 
was  first  led.  But  early  in  1839  an  end  was  put  to  his 
doubts  and  difficulties:  his  intimate  friend  Thomas 
Chisholm  Anstey  (q.  v.),  himself  a  recent  convert, 
persuaded  him  to  examine  the  Catholic  claims,  and 
the  perusal  of  IMilner's  "End  of  Controversy"  con- 
vinced him  of  their  truth.  He  was  received  mto  the 
Church  by  Father  Lythgoe,  S.J.  In  a  letter  to  the 
Kingston  monthly  meeting  of  Friends  he  resigned  his 
membership  of  tne  Society  and  announced  his  con- 
version (18  Feb.,  1839).  In  1840  he  married  Miss 
Elizabeth  Ashby  of  Staines,  who,  like  two  of  his 
brothers,  followed  him  into  the  Catholic  Church. 

In  the  same  year  he  determined  to^tart  a  weekly 
Catholic  paper,  *'The  Tablet",  the  first  number  of 
which  appeared  on  16  May,  1840.  After  two  years 
his  origmal  supporters,  Messrs.  Keasley,  failed  in 
business,  and  he  was  left  without  the  resources  neces- 
sary for  continuing  the  paper.  But  he  had  many 
Catholic  friends  who  put  great  confidence  in  his 
courage,  abilitjr,  and  broad  scholarship,  and  they 
came  to  his  assistance.  A  claim  on  the  part  of  the 
printers,  which  he  regarded  as  unjust,  led  to  a  struggle 
between  him  and  them  for  the  possession  of  the  prem- 
ises, and  during  the  year  1842  rival  publications  were 
issued — the  *' Tablet^'  by  the  printers,  and  the  "True 
Tablet"  by  Lucas.  By  the  end  of  the  year  he  was 
victorious,  and  in  January,  1843,  he  was  able  to  begin 
the  fourth  volume  of  the  "Tablet"  without  a  rival. 
He  conducted  the  paper  on  such  fearless  lines  that  he 
alarmed  some  of  the  old  English  Catholics,  who  had 
been  trained  in  a  school  of  the  utmost  prudence  and 
circumspection,  and  who  looked  askance  at  the  uncom- 
promising boldness  with  which  he  asserted  Catholic 
rights  and  defended  the  Catholic  position.  He  re- 
ceived, however,  the  hearty  suppwrt  of  many  Irish 
priests  with  whose  political  aspirations  he  was  thor- 
oughly in  sympathy.  This  led  nim  in  1849  to  transfer 
the  publishing  offices  of  the  "Tablet"  from  London 
to  Dublin,  and  from  this  time  forward  he  took  a  keen 
interest  in  Irish  (>olitics. 

Returned  to  Parliament  in  1852  as  one  of  the  mem- 
bers for  Meath,  he  quickly  won  for  himself  a  position 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  was  recognized  as  one 
of  the  leading  Catholic  politicians.  Questioning  the 
sincerity  of  some  of  the  Irish  Nationalist  members, 
he  did  not  shrink  from  denouncing  them,  and  before 
long  he  became  involved  in  a  conflict  with  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  Dr.  CuUen^  who  prohibited  his 
priestiB  from  interference  in  politics.  Lucas  attacked 
this  action  of  the  archbishop  in  the  "Tablet",  and  in 
1854  he  went  to  Rome  to  lay  his  case  before  the  pope. 
Pius  IX  received  him  kindly,  and  requested  him  to 
draw  up  a  memorial  on  Irish  affairs  and  the  differences 
between  himself  and  the  archbishop.  Though  in 
failing  health  he  set  about  this  task,  which  occupied 
him  tnrough  the  winter.  In  May,  1855,  he  returned 
to  England  hoping  after  a  few  weeks  to  go  back  to 
Rome,  but  his  health  grew  worse  and  he  died  on  22 
October  in  the  house  of  his  brother-in-law  at  Staines. 
His  death  was  regarded  as  a  public  loss  by  Catholics 
both  in  England  and  Irclanci,  who  realized  that  he 
had  breathed  a  new  spirit  of  independence  into  Catho- 
lic journalism  and  set  an  example  of  high  principle  in 
pohtical  life.  "As  a  father,  a  husband,  a  journalist 
and  member  of  Parliament  he  had  a  high  ideal  of  duty 
— an  ideal  such  as  rarely,  if  ever  enters  into  the  minds 
of  ordinary  men"  (Life,  II,  468). 

Lucas,  The  Life  of  Frederick  Luoatt,  M,  p,  (London,  1886): 
AnoNm  a  Memoir  of  Frederick  Lucaa  (Derby,  1857);  Rieth- 
mCller,  Frederick  Lvcaa:  A  Biography  (London,  1862);    7\i6- 
let,  27  Oct,  3  Nov..  ID  Nov.,  185.5;   Gillow,  BibL  Diet,  Eng 
Cath,,  8.  v.;   Ck>oPER  in  Diet.  Nat,  Biob.,  s.  v. 

Edwin   Burton. 


LUOOA  4 

Lucca,  ARcniwocKHK  i)K  (Lvcensis). — Lucca,  tbc 
CApital  of  the  tike  nstueil  pruvincc  in  TuKcuiiy,  L'ciitrul 
Italy,  ia  situated  on  the  Hivctr  fk^rcliio  in  ii  fertile  oulti- 
vRted  pl&in.  Ita  clilcf  imlustriGs  arc  the  ([Uorrying 
and  dnssing  of  niorble,  luid  tlie  production  of  nilk, 
wool,  flax,  and  hemp.  Itn  olive  oil  etijoya  a  world- 
wide fame.  Not«wortliy  among  the  church  buildingB 
ia  the  cathedral,  which  dat«s  hock  to  the  sixth  cen- 
tury; it  was  reliuilt  in  the  Homanutyle  in  the  eleventh 
century,  consecrated  !>y  Alexander  II  IM'O),  and 
a^n  restored  in  the  quattrocento,  when  the  IxMUtiful 
columns  of  the  upiper  archen  were  added.  In  the  ajxtc 
are  three  large  windowH  painted  by  UkoIiiio  da  Piui. 
Of  the  Bculptural  adornments  wc  may  mention  Civi- 
taJi's  equestrian  statue  of  ^t.  Martin  dividinK  his  clouk 
with  the  beggar,  the  Deposition  by  Nicold  PiMiiio,  and 
the  Adoration  of  the  Ma^i  by  (iiovojini  da  ]'ii<a — ull 
three  on  the  fa<(ade.  Within  are  pictun-H  by  Tinto- 
retto and  Parmigianino,  and  n  Madonna  by  l''n\  Barto- 
lommeo.  But  the  most  ct-lcbrated  work  in  thi<  Viillii 
Santo,  an  ancient  crucifix  carvetl  in  wood,  with  CliriKt 

clothadinthe"colo- 

bium" ,  a  long 
eleevelesa  garment. 
Throughout  the 
Middle  Agea  this 
image  was  regarded 
as  a  palladium  by 
the  Lucchcai,  who, 
on  their  journeys  to 
every  country,  dis- 
tributed   facsimileB, 


I4bcrata  and  Kt. 
Wil^fortis,  of  the 
"hcdifre  Kummer- 
niii"  of  the  Germans 
and  the  "Ontkom- 
mer"  of  the  Dutch; 
Professor  Schnurer 
of  the  University  of 
Fribourg  (Switscr- 
land),  MB  in  prep- 
aration a  study  on 
this  subject.  San 
Frediano  is  the  only  example  of  Iximbarriarchitpcture 

firescrved  without  notable  aitomlion,  excepting  tin- 
acade,  which  is  of  the  year  laXI.  H.  Maria  foris  Por- 
tam,  S.  Michelc,  S.  Romano,  and  the  other  churches 
(fully  eighty  in  nutalier),  all  possess  valuable  works  of 
art.  In  the  church  of  S.  Francesco  (ijuattroceiito)  is 
the  tomb  of  the  Lucchcse  poet,  (luiiliccioni,  Amoni; 
the  profaneedifices  isthc  Palazzo  Pubblico.  formerly 
the  ducal  palace,  liegun  by  Ammarati  in  lf>7S.  con- 
tinued by  Piniin  1729,  and  further  I'nlargi-d  by  Print* 
Bacciochiintheninet^nthcfnlury;  .vljoitiingare  the 
library,  with  many  valuabli-  nianuwrif>t9>.  and  a  |)ieture 
galleiy.  The  Manzi  palticoali'o  cont-uitiMii collection  of 
pointings.  There  is  i\  niugtiiliccnt  aipie«Iuct  nf  450 
arvhes,  constructed  by  Nattolini  (ili'2:t  :t2).  Tlie  ar- 
chives of  the  Capitol  and  the  archiepiscopiil  palace 
are  important  for  their  many  private  dm'umenta  of 
the  early  Middle  Afnst.  Ruins  of  a  Ronian  amphi- 
theatre of  imperial  timcfl  still  exist.  The  t^rritorv  of 
Lucca  is  rich  m  mineral  and  thermal  sprinKs.  The 
celebrated  taths  of  Lucca  are  al>out  fifteen  miles  from 
the  city. 

Lucca  was  a  city  of  the  Ligurians.  and  is  first  men- 
tioned in  218  B.C.,  when  the  Roman  general  St^mpro- 
nius  retired  thither  after  an  unsucceKsful  I>altlc  with 
Hannibal.  InlTTB.c.aRomancolonywaHestahliKhed 
there.  In  56  b.  c.  Ctesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus  re- 
newed the  triumvirate  at  Lucca.  Durinjt  the  (lOthic 
wars  the  city  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Totila  (550). 
Hoping  for  aBBistance  from  the  Franks,  the  Lucchesi 
obstinately  reaiflt«d  the  attack  of  Names,  surrendering 


5  LUOOA 

onlyafterattiegcof  st^vcii  montbs  (5S3).  Itloterfdl 
into  the  hands  uf  the  Ijumliunis,  wao  thenceforward  a 
place  (if  great  importance,  and  became  the  favourite 
scat  of  the  Manjueaiies  of  Tuscany.  In  981  Otto  be- 
Htowcd  on  its  bisitop  civil  jurisidictioii  over  the  entire 
diocesan  tcrritorj';  but  in  1081  Henry  IV  made  it  a 
free  city  and  conferred  other  favours  upon  it,  espe- 
cially in  the  way  of  trade.  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
Republic  of  Lucca,  which  lasted  until  1799.  From 
1088  to  1144  Lucca  was  continually  at  war  with  her 
rival  Pistt,  and  either  by  conquest  or  purchase  in- 
creased her  possesHious.  In  1160  the  Guelph  mar- 
SuesH  linally  surrendered  all  right  of  jurisdiction. 
lUcea  was  generally  on  the  side  of  the  pope  against  the 
emperor,  and  hccire  joined  the  league  of  ^.  (linesio 
(I1!I7).  In  the  thirteenth  century,  despitt  her  wars 
wilh  Pisa,  >1orence,  and  the  imperial  cities,  Lucca  in- 
creased her  pow(T  and  commerce.  But  in  1313  the 
city  was  taken  by  I'j^ucciono  della  Faggiuola,  Lord  of 
Pisa.  The  I.uecheHi,  however,  under  the  most  dra- 
niutii'  circumstances,  freed  themselves  and  chose  for 
captain  their  fellow- 
citizen,  Castrucdo 
degli  Antelminelli, 
known  as  C'astracaoe 
(131G),  the  restorer 
of  the  military  art, 
who  had  been  im- 
prisoned by  UgUD- 
cione.  L'astruccio 
drove  out  the  Pisans, 
obtained  for  life  the 
title  of  Defender  of 
the  People,  and  re- 
ived    from    Louis 


the      Uavai 


title    < 


the 


from  tlie  Magra  to  Pistoia  a 


hereditarj' 
Duke  of  Luc 
descendants,  how- 
ever, were  deprived 
of  the  title  by  the 
same  prince  (1.^8- 
9j.  CaNtruccio 
adomciland  fortified 
tiie  city  whose  ter- 
ritory now  extended 
id  Vol  terra. 


On  the  death  of  f;astruccio,  Louis  conferred  Luoca 
on  Francesco,  a  relative  aiul  enemy  of  Castruecio. 
The  Luccliesi,  hon'ever,  jilaced  themselves  under  John 
of  Bohemia;  tlie  latter,  in  i:i:i3,  pawned  the  city  to 
the  Rossi  of  Parma,  who  ceded  it  to  Mastino  della 
Kcala  (i:t:tr>),  bv  whom  it  was  sold  to  the  Florentines 
for  KMI.IXMflonns  (i:t4I).  This dispiea.sed  the  I>isanB, 
who  occuuieil  tlie  city  (1;J42).  It  was  liberated  by 
Charles  IV  (i:{<tO).  who  gave  it  an  imperial  vicar. 
From  l:i7l)  it  was  free.  In  1-100  Paolo  Ouinigi  ob- 
tained the  chief  (lowt-r,  which  bo  cxerciseil  willi  mod- 
eration and  justice.  .At  the  instigation  of  the  Flur- 
entinet),  who  .soueht  iKisM'ssion  of  tlie  cit  v,  ( jiiinigi  was 
lietrayed  into  (lie  fiaiids  uf  Filipjiv  Maria  Visconti 
(U30),  who  causoii  him  to  l«  munlcrcd  at  Pavia. 
With  the  aid  of  Picciiiino,  Lucca  maintained  her  free- 
dom aguinst  tlie  I-'loren tines.  After  that  the  security 
of  this  littlo  state,  governed  by  the  people,  was  undia- 
turlieil  except  by  the  revolt  of  the  n/racnoni  (the  low- 
est dass^  in  ir>'2l,  :in<l  the  conspiracy  of  Piciro  Fati- 
nelli  (1512),  who  aspire<l  to  power.  But  in  1556  the 
Martinian  law  (Martino  Bernardini)  restricteti  partici- 
pation in  the  ciA'cmmeut  to  the  sons  of  citizens,  and 
in  1li28  thin  limitation  was  furtlter  accentuated,  until 
in  17S7  only  eichty  families  enjoyed  the  right  to  public 
office.  Among  the  institutions  of  this  republic  the 
discolaln  descr\-ea  mention.  It  was  similar  to  the 
ostracism  of  the  .Athenians.  If  a  citizen,  either  through 
wealth  or  merit,  obtained  excessive  favour  among  tAe 
people,  twenty-five  signatures  were  auffic!*s&.\B\«ii«- 


LUOERA 


406 


LUOSRNE 


ish  him.  In  1799  Lucca  was  joiucd  to  the  Cu>aipiue 
Republic.  In  1805  Xapoleon  made  it  a  dukedom  for 
his  cousin  Felice  Bacciochi.  In  1814  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Neapolitans,  and  later  by  the  Austrians.  In 
1817  it  was  given  to  Maria  Luisa,  widow  of  the  King  of 
Etniiia,  whose  son  Carlo  Ludovico  ceded  it  to  Tus- 
cany in  1847.  Illustrious  citizens  of  Lucca  were  Pope 
Lucius  III  (Allucingoli) ;  the  jurist,  Bonagiunta  Ur- 
bidani  (thirteenth  century);  the  physician,  Teodoro 
Borgognoni;  the  historian,  Tolomeo  de'  Fiadoni;  the 
women  poets,  Laura  Guidiccioni  and  Chiara  Matraini; 
the  philologist,  L.  Fomaciari  (nineteenth  century); 
the  painters,  Berlinghieri  and  Orlandi  (thirteenth 
century);  the  sculptor,  Matteo  Civitali  (first  half  of 
the  fifteenth  century). 

There  is  a  legend  that  the  Gospel  was  preached  at 
Lucca  by  St.  Paulinus,  a  disciple  of  St.  Peter,  and  the 
discovery  in  1197  of  a  stone,  recording  the  deposition 
of  the  relics  of  Paulinus  a  holy  martyr,  apparently  con- 
firmed this  pious  belief.  On  the  stone,  nowever,  St. 
Paulinus  is  not  called  Bishop  of  Lucca,  nor  is  there  any 
allusion  to  his  having  lived  in  Apostolic  times  ("Ana- 
lecta  Bollandiana  ",  1904,  p.  491;  1905,  p.  502).  The 
first  bishop  of  certain  date  is  Maximus,  present  at  the 
Council  of  Sardica  (343).  At  the  Council  of  Rimini 
(369),  Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Lucca,  was  present.  Per- 
haps the  above-mentioned  legend  arose  through  a 
repetition  of  this  Paulinus.  Remarkable  for  sanctitv 
ami  miracles  was  St.  Fridianus  (560-88),  son  of  Ul- 
tonius.  King  of  Ireland,  or  perhaps  of  a  king  of  Ulster 
(Ultonia),  of  whom  in  his  "Dialogues"  (IIL  10)  St. 
Grejgory  the  Great  relates  a  miracle.  On  St.  Fridianus 
see  Colgan.  "Acta  Sanct.  Scot.",  I  (1645),  633-51; 
"Diet.  Christ.  Biog.",  s.  v.;  Fanucchi,  "Vita  di  San 
Frediano"  (Lucca,  1870);  O'Hanlon,  "Lives  of  Irish 
Saints",  under  18  Nov.;  "Analecta  BoUand.",  XI 
(1892)  262-3,  and  "  Bolland.  Bibl.  hagiogr.  lat."(1899), 
476.  In  739,  during  the  episcopate  of  Walprandus, 
Richard,  King  of  the  Angles  and  father  of  Saints 
Willibald,  Wunibald,  and  Walburga,  died  at  Luocaand 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  S.  Frediano.  Under 
Blessed  Giovanni  (787)  it  is  said  the  Volto  Santo  was 
brought  to  Lucca.  Other  bishops  were  Anselmo 
Badagio  (1073),  later  Pope  Alexander  II,  who  was 
succeeded  as  bishop  by  his  nephew  Anselm  of  Lucca, 
a  noted  writer;  Apusio  (1227),  under  whom  Lucca  was 
deprived  of  its  episcopal  see  for  six  years  by  Gregory 
Ia;  the  Franciscan  Giovanni  Salvuzzi  (1383),  who 
built  the  episcopal  palace;  Nicold  Guinigi  (1394),  ex- 
iled by  his  relative  Paolo  Guinigi,  Lord  of  Lucca.  In 
140S  Gregory  XII  went  to  Lucca  to  come  to  a  personal 
agreement  with  the  anti-pope,  Benedict  XIII,  and 
was  there  abandoned  by  nis  cardinals.  Worthy  of 
moition  also  are  the  writer,  Felino  Maria  Sandeo 
(1499),  nephew  of  Ariosto;  Cardinals  Sisto  della 
Kovere  (1508),  Francesco  Sforza  Riario  (1517),  and 
Bnrtolommeo  Guidiccioni  (1605),  under  the  last- 
named  of  whom  the  Diocese  of  San  Miniato  was  formed 
and  separated  from  Lucca;  Cardinal  Girolamo  Bon- 
visi  (1657);  Bernardino  Guinigi  (1723),  the  first  arch- 
bishop (1726);  the  learned  Gian  Domenico  Mansi 
(176^9) ;  and  finally  the  present  cardinal  archbishop, 
B^iedetto  Lorenzelli  (1904),  last  nuncio  to  Paris  l)e- 
fore  the  separation.    The  Archdiocese  of  Lucca  lias  no 

suffragans;  it  has  246  parishes  with  230.000  souls. 

Mansi,  Diaric  aacn  ddla  Ckieta  di  Lucra  (Venice,  1753); 
Tmihaai.  Sommario  deUa  ttoria  di  Lucca  (1847):  Cappellktti, 
U  Chi€M  d' Italia,  XV  (Venice,  1857).  See.  for  further  bibiiog- 
imphy,  Chevauer,  Tcpo-hM.,  8.  v.  Lucquea. 

U.  Benigni. 

Lneera,  Diocese  of  (Lucerinensis). — Lucera  is  a 
very  ancient  city  in  the  province  of  Foggia  in  Apulia, 
Southern  Italy.  It  originally  belong^  to  Daunia. 
In  320  B.  c.  it  was  taken  by  the  Romans,  n  Roman 
odony  being  established  there  in  314.  The  Samnites 
defeated  the  Romans  near  Lucera  in  294.  During  the 
w&rffetween  Coisarnm]  Pompey  it  was  an  important 


point  of  defence  for  the  latter.  In  a.  d.  G6J  it  was 
captured  from  the  Lombards  and  destroyed  by  Con- 
stantius  II.  Lucera  attained  great  importance  when 
Frederick  II  transferred  thither  the  Saracens  of  Sicily 
whom  he  had  shortly  before  subjugated,  and  who  from 
enemies  became  his  most  faithful  and  trusted  support- 
ers in  his  wars  against  the  popes  and  the  great  barons 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples.  The  royal  treasury'  was  also 
located  at  Lucera.  During  the  invasion  of  Charles  of 
Anjou  Lucera  made  the  longest  resistance.  The  re- 
maining Saracens  were  converted  at  masse  in  1300; 
their  mosque  was  destroyed  by  Charles  II,  and  upon 
its  ruins  arose  the  present  cathedral,  S.  Maria  della 
Vittoria.  Local  tradition  traces  the  origin  of  the 
episcopal  see  to  the  third  century  (St.  Bassus).  The 
first  historically  certain  bishop  is  Marcus  (c.  743). 
Among  other  noteworthy  bishops  were  Nicold,  papal 
legate  at  Constantinople  in  1261;  the  Dominican 
A^ostino  Gasotti  (1318),  formerly  Archbishop  of  Zaga- 
bria;  Tonmiaso  de  Acemo  (1378),  author  of  "De 
creatione  Urbani  VI  opusculum";  Scipione  Bozzuti 
(1582),  killed  in  a  sack  of  the  city  by  some  exiles  in 
1591.  In  1391  the  Diocese  of  Lucera  was  increased  by 
the  addition  of  that  of  Farentino,  or  Castelfiorentino, 
a  city  founded  in  1015  by  the  Byzantine  catapan, 
Basileios.  It  was  the  place  of  Frederick  II's  death. 
After  1409  the  See  of  Tortiboli  (Tortibulum)  created 
before  1236,  was  united  to  Lucera.  Finally  in  1818, 
the  united  Diocese  of  Montecorvino  and  Vulturaria 
were  added  to  Lucera.  Montecorvino  became  an 
episcopal  see  in  the  tenth  century,  and  among  its 
bishops  was  St.  Albert  (d.  5  April,  1(K^7).  Its  union 
with  Vulturaria,  a  town  now  almost  deserted,  took 
place  in  1433.  Noteworthy  among  the  later  bishops 
was  Alessandro  Gerardini  d'AnicIia  (1496),  a  Latm 
poet,  authorof  many  historical,  educational,  and  moral 
works,  and  one  of  the  cJiief  supporters  of  the  expedi- 
tion of  Columbus;  in  1515  he  was  transferred  to  San 
Domingo  in  America,  where  he  died  in  1521.  The 
Diocese  of  Lucera  has  17  parishes  with  75,000  souls; 
4  religious  houses  of  men  and  6  of  women ;  1  school  for 
boys  and  3  for  girls.  In  March,  1908,  the  Diocese  of 
Troia  was  united  with  Lucera.  It  was  established  in 
the  eleventh  century,  and  has  9  parishes  with  26,200 
souls,  one  Franciscan  convent,  and  three  houses  of 
monks. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiene  d^ Italia,  XIX  (Venice,  1867); 
d'Ameu,  Storia  della  citih  di  Lucera  (1861). 

U.  Benigni. 

Lucerne,  chief  town  of  the  Canton  of  Lucerne  in 
Switzerland.  The  l^eginnings  of  the  town,  as  wcU  as 
the  derivation  of  its  name,  are  obscure;  the  supposi- 
tion of  iEgidius  Tschudi,  that  Lucerne  was  once  the 
chief  town  of  the  Burgundian  kings  in  Aargau,  is 
legendary.  It  is  safer  to  assert  that,  in  the  eighth 
centur>',  there  stood  at  the  place  where  the  Reuss 
flows  out  of  the  Lake  of  the  Four  Cantons  a  small 
Benedictine  monastery  de<licated  to  St.  Leodegar, 
which,  as  early  as  the  reign  of  King  Pepin,  belonged 
to  the  Abbey  of  Murbach  in  Alsace.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  there  was  a  previous  settlement  here,  or 
whether  the  place  was  only  an  accretion  of  the  monas- 
tery. The  earliest  mention  of  Lucerne  is  in  a  charter 
of  Emperor  Lothair  I,  25  July,  840.  With  the  flour- 
ishing church  community  a  civil  community  also  dc- 
velo^d,  and  the  buildings  of  the  two  graduallv  com- 
bined to  make  a  small  town,  which  appears  in  German 
documents  of  the  thirteenth  century  as  Lucerren,  or 
Luzzemon.  The  Abbot  of  Murbach  exercised  feudal 
fiscal  rights  through  a  steward  or  bailiff;  twice  a  3'ear 
the  abbot  himself  administered  justice  from  the  steps 
in  front  of  the  Hofkirche,  with  twelve  free  men  beside 
him  as  aldermen.  Each  newly  elected  Abbot  of  Mur- 
bach had  to  promise  fideHty  to  the  law  in  Lucerne. 
The  paramount  jurisdiction  over  the  settlement  be- 
longed to  the  landgrave  of  the  Aargau  (after  1239, 


LUOSRHS 


407 


LUOBBHE 


the  Count  of  Habsburg),  who  exercised  it  through 
pinioreSf  or  bailiffs.  The  rapid  rise  of  the  town  in  the 
thirteenth  century  was  chiefly  due  to  the  opening  of 
the  road  over  the  St.  Gothard,  and  the  consequent 
increase  of  traffic  between  Italy  and  Western  Ger- 
many. Lucerne  thus  became  an  important  mart,  and 
the  citizens  aspired  to  make  themselves  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  any  overlord.  To  this  end  they  exploited 
the  financial  embarrassments  of  the  abbots  topurchase 
one  pri  vilege  after  another.  In  the  so-called  Ueschuxtr- 
enen  Brief  of  1252,  the  council  and  the  citizens  of  the 
town  already  appear  as  quite  independent  of  the  ab- 
bot, who  was  theoretically  their  feudal  lord,  and  as  a 
community  possessing  a  seal  and  its  own  tribimals. 

As  tihe  abbots  of  Murbach  were  often  at  odda  with 
the  Counts  of  Habsburg,  who  were  also  Landgraves  in 
Alsace,  in  regard  to  their  estates  in  Upper  Alsace, 
Rudolf  of  Habsburg,  after  his  election  as  emperor, 
confirmed  all  the  privileges  of  the  town,  and  declared 
that  the  citizens  of  Lucerne  were  received  as  a  fief 
of  the  Empire.  In  order  to  conciliate  the  town,  he 
bought,  in  1291,  from  the  Abbot  of  Murbach  the 
estates  of  the  abbey  in  Lucerne  and  in  the  Forest 
Cantons  (Schwyz,  Uri,  and  Unterwalden)  for  2000 
silver  marks  and  five  villages  in  Alsace.  Although  the 
town  looked  very  unfavourably  on  this  change  of 
ownership,  it  was  nevertheless  obliged  to  swear  alle- 
giance to  Rudolf's  son  Albrecht  for  the  confirmation 
of  its  liberties.  But  the  Habsburg  supremacy  did  not 
last  long.  By  the  renewal  of  the  league  of  the  above 
three  Forest  Cantons,  which  had  revolted  from  Aus- 
tria, the  foundation  of  a  Swiss  natioiialitv  was  laid. 
In  the  wars  which  now  broke  out.  Lucerne  had  to  fight 
against  its  own  countrymen;  still  it  was  faithful  to  its 
Austrian  suzerain  until  after  the  Battle  of  Morgarten 
(1315).  The  victor}'  gained  there  by  the  Swiss  encour- 
aged the  friends  of  liberty,  and  two  parties  were  formed 
in  Lucerne,  an  Austrian  and  a  Swias.  When  the  town 
was  transferred,  in  1228,  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
Rothen))urg  to  that  of  Baden,  twenty-six  citizens 
formed  an  association  for  five  years  to  maintain  the 
city's  privileges;  in  1330  this  association  was  joined 
by  the  burgomaster  and  the  council,  and  on  7  Novem- 
ber, 032,  Lucerne  entered  into  a  perpetiial  league 
with  tne  three  Forest  Cantons.  Althoufijn  this  alliance 
did  not  contemplate  complete  independence,  still  the 
struggle  with  the  House  of  Habsburg  could  not  be  long 
delayed. 

After  1336  several  campaigns  were  carried  on,  and 
the  city's  liberties  were  sometimes  increased,  some- 
times curtailed;  but  Lucerne  was  still  Austrian.  In 
1361  it  obtained  exemption  from  the  St.  Gothard  toll; 
in  1379  Wenceslaus  granted  it  the  judicial  jurisdiction 
of  first  instance  over  property,  and  in  1381  penal  ju- 
risdiction also  was  granted.  While  the  Austrian  su- 
premacy was  thus  dwindling,  the  city's  territory  was 
augmented  by  the  accession  of  Krienz,  Horw,  and 
other  neighbouring  towns.  In  consequence  of  a  dis- 
pute about  tolls,  the  Lucerners  stormed  Rothenbtirg, 
on  23  Dec,  1385,  destroyed  the  castle,  took  Entle- 
buch,  and  assisted  in  the  destruction  of  the  castle  of 
Wolhusen.  The  war  with  Austria  ended  with  the 
Battle  of  Sempach  (9  July,  1386),  in  which  the  Burgo- 
master of  Lucerne^  Peter  von  Gunoldigen,  met  a  hero's 
death,  and  the  city  was  rid  of  the  Austrian  yoke. 
Lucerne  henceforward  had  free  scope  for  develop- 
ment. In  1394  it  acquire'd  the  lordships  of  Wolhusen, 
Rothenburg,  and  Sempach;  in  1406  of  Habsburg,  in 
1407  the  countship  of  Willisau.  The  village  of  Meren- 
schwand  voluntarily  placed  itself  under  the  protection 
of  Lucerne  in  1397.  About  this  time  the  city  was  en- 
circled with  strong  fortifications,  of  which  the  "Mu- 
segg",  to  the  north,  with  its  nine  towers,  still  exists. 

When  the  Austrian  Frederick  "  Empty-purse  "  was 

gut  under  the  ban  of  the  Empire  at  the  Council  of 
bnstance  (1415),  by  Emperor  Sigismund,  on  account 
of  his  relations  with  Pope  John  XXIII,  and  the  Swiss, 


allied  with  the  emperor,  prepared  to  conquer  the  Aar- 
gau.  Lucerne  conquered  Sursee  and  occupied  the  Cis- 
tercian monastery  of  St.  Urban  at  Bonnwalde,  the 
monastery  at  Beromilnster,  and  other  places.  The 
whole  territory  was  now  divided  into  thirteen  baili- 
wicks. Lucerne  took  a  considerable  part  in  the  nu- 
merous Italian  campaigns  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  especially  in  the  victorious  campaigns  of  the 
Swiss  against  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  which 
brought  rich  spoils  to  the  city.  By  tl^  war  of  the 
Swiss  against  Maximilian  in  1499,  known  as  the  Swa- 
bian  War,  the  bond  between  Lucerne  and  the  German 
Empire  was  entirely  severed  in  fact,  though  this  fact 
was  finally  recognised  only  in  1648,  by  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia. 

The  fifteenth  century  brought  important  internal 
changes:  the  Council,  which  had  governed  somewhat 
arbitrarily,  was  forced  to  stipulate  that,  without  the 
consent  of  the  entire  community,  it  would  begin  no 
war,  enter  into  no  alliance,  purclmse  no  lordships,  and 
impose  no  new  taxes.  As  m  politics,  so  also  in  learn- 
ing, Lucerne  took  a  leading  part  in  Switzerland;  in  the 
Hofschule,  dating  from  1290,  it  possessed  the  oldest 
teaching  institution  of  Switzerland;  in  addition,  there 
was  a  school  at  the  Minorite  convent.  The  latter  was 
famous  for  the  production  of  religious  dramas,  which 
reached  their  zenith  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth 
century  and  attracted  audiences  numbering  as  many 
as  30,000.  The  Benedictine  foundation,  which  had 
fallen  into  decay,  was  in  1456  changed  into  a  founda- 
tion of  canons,  wnich  existe  to  this  day.  In  the  course 
of  the  sixteenth  century  an  aristocratic  constitution 
was  formed,  which  survived  every  political  storm  and 
lasted  till  the  dissolution  of  the  canton. 

The  Reformation  divided  Switzerland  into  two 
camps.  Besides  the  four  Forest  Cantons  (Schwyz, 
Uri,  Unterwalden,  and  Lucerne),  Fribourgand  Soleure 
formed  the  Catholic  part.  The  new  teaching  found  no 
great  following  in  the  city,  although  a  few  scholars  like 
Myconius  and  Textorius,  tried  at  first  to  obtain  ad- 
mission. A  zealous  defender  of  the  Faith  arose  in 
the  Franciscan  Thomas  Mumer,  who  came  to  Lucerne 
in  1524.  The  authorities  also  actively  interposed 
against  the  followers  of  the  new  teachmg.  As  the 
most  important  of  the  Catholic  cities,  Lucerne  took 
the  leading  part  in  the  conflict,  notabljr  at  the  Battle  of 
Kappel,  which  strengthened  the  position  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  in  Switzerland,  under  her  burgomasters. 
Hug  and  Golder.  Also  it  was  at  the  head  of  all  the 
alliances  which  the  Catholic  cantons  made  with 
France  or  with  the  pope.  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  who 
visited  Lucerne  in  1570,  rendered  great  services  to  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Switzerland  (see  Charles  BoBt 
ROMEO,  Saint).  At  his  suggestion,  on  7  Aug.,  1574, 
the  first  Jesuits  entered  Lucerne,  two  fathers  and  a 
lay  brother;  in  1577  they  receivea  the  Rittersche  pal- 
ace for  a  college.  Tlieir  sptecial  protector  was  the 
burgomaster,  the  famous  Swiss  soldier,  Ludwig  Pfyf- 
fer,  who  had  fought  at  Jamac  and  Monteontour 
against  the  Huguenots,  and  who,  from  1571  to  his 
death  in  1594,  as  "Iving  of  the  Swiss  "^  was  the  prin- 
cipal leader  of  Catholic  opinion  in  Switzerland.  His 
assistant  for  many  years  was  the  learned  town  clerk 
Renward  Cysat,  who  collected  valuable  materials  for 
the  history  of  his  native  city. 

In  1583  the  Capuchins  obtained  an  establishment 
in  the  city,  and  a  permanent  papal  nunciature  was 
erected  there,  Giovanni  Francesco  Bonhomini.  Arch* 
bishop  of  Vercelli,  being  the  first  nuncio.  The  alli- 
ances of  the  Swiss  with  warlike  popes  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  had  resulted  in  active  inter- 
course with  Rome.  At  the  instance,  and  in  the  pres- 
ence, of  the  third  nuncio,  Battista  Santorio,  there  was 
concluded  (15  Oct.,  1586),  in  the  Hofkirche  of  Lu- 
cerne, the  so-called  Borromean,  or  Golden,  Alliance,  in 
which  the  four  Forest  Cantons,  together  with  Zuc% 
Fribourg,  and  Soleure,  swore  <»  V*^  Vs!bS^>^  \i5fc  ^^kj^ 


LVOXRNE 


408 


LUOBBHE 


Catholic  Church,  to  strive  for  the  conversion  of  any  of 
their  number  who  niiglit  full  away,  and  to  protect  the 
Faith  to  the  best  of  their  ability.  As  the  capital  of 
Catholic  Switzerland,  Lucerne  made  many  sacrifices, 
and  rendered  great  services,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  to  maintain  the  Faith  in  the 
Oanton  of  Valais.  At  the  same  time  the  Council 
atrongl^  insisted  upon  its  ancient  spiritual  rights,  in 
opposition  to  the  nuncio,  and  this  lea  to  the  sharp  dis- 
putes which  eventually,  in  1725.  caused  the  nuncio, 
Fassionei,  to  abandon  Lucerne  tor  many  years.  In 
domestic  affairs  the  ascendency  of  the  patricians  in- 
mased ;  eligibility  to  office  was  limited  to  a  few  fami- 
lies, and  the  hereditary  principle  even  invaded  the 
Council.  Trials  for  witchcraft  cast  a  deep  shadow  on 
this  period,  and  corruption  was  rife  among  pubUc 
officials  and  members  of  the  Government. 

The  eighteenth  century  wore  on  in  a  generally 
peaceful  course,  after  its  stormy  beginning  in  the  un- 
fortunate participation  (1712)  of  Lucerne  in  the 
quarrel  of  the  Abbot  of  St.  Gall  with  the  rebellious 
Toggenbuig.  Signs  of  decay  showed  themselves  little 
by  nttle  in  the  Ixxly  politic.  The  embezzlement  of 
state  funds  and  the  wrangles  of  certain  families,  who 
dragged  the  State  into  their  private  feuds,  added  to 
the  im  jx)pularity  of  the  twenty-nine  *'  ruling  families  *\ 
The  ideas  of  "enlightenment",  emanating  from 
France  in  the  eighteenth  century,  found  in  Lucerne 
sealous  literary  champions  in  Councillor  Felix  Bal- 
thassar,  whose  work  "De  Helvetiorum  iuribus  circa 
sacra",  appeared  in  1768,  and  in  Coimcillor  Valentin 
Mever.  Thus  the  Revolution  found  a  well-prepared 
soil  at  Lucerne.  After  the  entr>'  of  the  French  into 
the  Waadtland  (Vaud),  and  the  Revolution  at  Basle 
in  1798,  Jjuceme  could  no  longer  remain  unaffect'Cd: 
without  anv  popular  upheaval,  the  high  Council,  quite 
unexpecteJly,  on  31  Jan.,  1798,  promulgated  the  abo- 
lition of  aristocratic  government,  and  ordered  the  con- 
vocation of  delegates  from  the  country,  to  consider  a 
new  constitution  founded  upon  the  principle  of  legal 
equality.  Before  this  project  could  be  realized,  the 
entry  of  the  French  into  Bern,  in  March,  1798,  ended 
the  old  confederation.  Under  orders  from  France 
the  "Helvetian  Republic"  was  formed,  and  the  terri- 
tory of  the  confederation  was  divided  into  uniformly 
administered  subordinate  provinces.  The  Act  of 
Mediation  of  Napoleon  (19  Feb.,  1803),  which  restored 
the  old  federal  constitution  of  the  republic,  also 
brought  to  the  people  of  Lucerne  a  larger  share  of  self- 
government.  Witn  the  fall  of  Napoleon  an  d  the  entry 
of  the  allies  into  Lucerne,  the  old  constitution  was  re- 
established there  (Feb.,  1814),  with  the  patrician  re- 
gime. At  the  same  time  Jjuceme  became,  alternately 
with  Berne  and  Zurich,  the  seat  of  the  National  Diet. 

In  the  following  twenty  years  much  feeling  was 
aroused  by  the  question  arising  out  of  the  secu&riza- 
tion  of  the  Bishopric  of  Constance.  A  vicar-general- 
ship, imder  the  Provost  Ciiildlin  von  Beromtinster. 
was  created  for  the  part  of  Switzerland  that  had 
belonged  to  Constance.  In  1821  the  Bishopric  of  Con- 
stance was  entirely  abolished,  and  it  being  left  to  Lu- 
cerne to  decide  w-hat  should  take  its  place,  the  city 
wished  to  be  itself  the  new  see.  After  years  of  nego- 
tiation, however,  the  Diocese  of  Basle  was  erected 
(1828),  with  the  see  at  Soleure.  The  liiberal  Democratic 
movement,  which  began  in  that  year,  destroyed  the 
Ocmservative  Government.  The  Revolution  of  July 
in  France  helped  on  the  Radical  victor>%  and  at  the 
end  of  March,  1831,  a  Lil)eral  Government  came  into 
power,  whose  leaders  were  the  Burgomaster  Amrh3m 
and  the  brothers  Pfyflfer.  Josephinism  thereupon  be- 
eame  dominant  in  the  relations  of  Church  and  State. 
On  the  advice  of  the  burgomaster,  Edward  Pfyflfer,  the 
Government  called  a  conference,  on  20  Jan.,  1834,  at 
Baden,  wliich  agreed  upon  a  number  of  articles  de- 
fining the  8tat<»'s  right*  over  the  Church,  and  to  in- 
Au^jRite  certain  ccclosiastical  reforms.    After  the 


High  Council  had  adopted  these  Baden  articles  (which 
the  pope  condenuied  by  the  Bull  of  18  May,  1835)  the 
Government  began  to  carry  them  out;  the  schools 
were  laicized;  the  Franciscan  monastery  at  Lucerne 
and  others  were  abolished;  property  of  foundations 
considered  superfluous  was  inventoried;  obnoxious 
clergjy  were  called  to  account.  The  Government  even 
considered  the  idea  of  expelling  the  nuncio,  but  hc> 
forestalled  them,  and  transferred  his  residence  to 
Schwya.  Those  of  the  people  who  remained  faithful 
to  the  Church  organized  themselves  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  worthy  peasant  Joseph  Leu  of  Ebersoll. 
Their  first  steps,  such  as  the  proposal  to  recall  the 
Jesuits,  were  mdeed  without  result.  But  when  the 
High  Council  of  the  Canton  of  Aarj^au,  on  20  Jan., 
1841,  on  the  proposal  of  Augustin  Keller,  director  of 
seminaries,  had  suppressed  all  the  monasteries  of  the 
canton,  and  the  Liberal  party  at  Lucerne  had  openly 
expressed  their  sympathy  with  these  hostile  measures, 
the  Liberal  regime  was  overturned  by  the  Conserva- 
tives in  the  election  of  1  May,  1841,  and  a  new  consti- 
tution was  formed,  which  safeguarded  the  Church's 
rights.  Under  Joseph  Leu,  Siegwart  Miiller,  and 
Bemhard  Meyer,  Lucerne  was  again  at  the  head  of  thi^ 
CathoUc  cantons,  the  Baden  Articles  were  declared 
null  and  void,  and  the  nuncio  reinstated  at  Lucerne. 

In  1844  the  recall  of  the  Jesuits  was  decided  upon  by 
70  votes  to  24,  an  act  which  caused  much  bitterness  of 
feeling  and  loud  protests  among  the  liberals.  Tlui 
more  thoughtless  of  them  even  had  some  idcui  of  ob- 
taining their  ends  by  force;  guerilla  warfare  was  or- 
gaziized  in  the  Cantons  of  Basle,  Soleure,  and  Aargau, 
which  in  1844  and  1845,  imited  with  their  Lucerne 
sympathizers,  to  the  number  of  3C00,  and  marched 
against  the  city  of  Lucerne,  but  were  easily  van- 
quished by  the  city's  forces.  The  victories  of  t\w 
Radicals  in  several  cantons  and  the  murder  of  Leu 
(20  July,  1845)  caused  Lucerne  to  conclude  a  separate? 
alliance  (Sonderbund,  11  Dec.,  1845)  with  Uri,  Schwyz, 
Unto^'alden,  Fribourg,  Zug,  and  Valais,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  alliance  of  the  liberal  cantons  of  lH^i2. 
Civil  war  was  now  almost  inevitable.  On  20  July  the 
Swiss  Diet  decided  on  the  dissolution  of  the  Sonder- 
bund,  and  on  16  Aug.  accepted  a  revision  of  the  alli- 
ance: on  2  Sept.  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  was  de- 
cided on.  Wnen,  on  29  Sept.,  a  proposal  of  the  seven 
cantons  for  an  arrangement  was  refused  by  the  liiberal 
majority,  who  wished  to  ensure  an  extension  of  the 
federal  power  and  a  curtailment  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  individual  cantons,  the  delegates  of  the  Sander- 
bund  left  the  Diet,  and  the  war  desired  by  the  Liberal 
majority  broke  out.  With  the  superiority  of  the  alli- 
ance, the  result  could  scarcelv  be  in  doubt.  On  Vi 
Nov.,  Fribourg  was  conquered;  on  23  Nov.,  the  Son- 
derbund  troops  were  beat^^n  in  the  Battle  of  Gislikon ; 
on  24  Nov.,  Lucerne  was  forced  to  surrender,  where- 
upon the  other  Sanderbund  cantons  also  surrendered 
one  by  one.  The  campai^  was  decided  in  twenty 
days.*  Under  the  protection  of  the  troops  of  the 
Confederation,  a  Lit)eral  Government  was  elected  at 
Lucerne,  the  Jesuits  expelled,  a  few  monasteries  sup- 
prrased,  notably  the  rich  foundation  of  St.  Urban,  and 
the  remaining  ones  burdened  with  levies.  The  new 
constitution  (1848)  of  the  Confederation  substantially 
curtailed  the  rights  of  the  cantons,  as  also  did  tlie 
Revision  of  1874. 

After  several  decades  of  religious  peace,  the  Old- 
Catholic  movement  brought  fresh  discord  into  the 
canton.  The  reckless  proce^ngs  of  the  Confederation 
in  favour  of  the  Old  Catholics,  the  deposition  of  Bishop 
Lachat  of  Basle  by  the  diocesan  conference  of  29  Jan., 
1873,  the  bigoted  suppression  of  the  nunciature  by  the 
national  Government,  which  had  the  approval  of  the 
Lucerne  Liberals,  goaded  the  Catholics.  Their  \ac- 
tory  at  the  election  of  1871  led  to  the  establishment  uf 
the  Conservative  Government  (then  headed  by  Pliilipp 
A.  von  Segesser)  which  since  then  has  held  its  own  at 


LnOUHUTS                        400  Luon) 

evciy  election.    Under  it  Lucerne  eJIorded  a  refuge  ciled  with  tbe  Church  early  in  the  epiecopate  at 

to  the  exiled  bishop,  Lachat,  until  the  dispute  was  Cyril  (i)erhK{jeRbout286)thanintiuktofhiseucceeBOr; 

settled  after  protracted  negotiations  in  which  Lu-  otherwise  it  is  hard  to  understand  how  bishops  in  the 

ceme  took  a  cooeiderable  part.    Since  the  opening  of  Orient  could  have  received  his  pupils.    Very  Uttle  ia 

the  St.  Gothaid  railway,  the  town,  owing  to  its  noble  known  about  the  life  of  Lucian,  though  few  men  have 

situation  on  the  lake,  and  as  the  gateway  opening  into  left  such  a  deep  imprint  on  the  history  of  Christianity, 

the  heart  of  Switzerland,  has  rapidly  aeveloped  and  The  opposition  to  the  allegorizing  tendraiciee  of  the 

has  become  one  of  the  centres  of  Swiss  travel.  Aleranorines  centred   in  liim.     He    rejected    this 

The  canton  of  Lucerne,  at  the  census  of  1900,  num-  system  entirely  and  propounded  a  s^tem.  of  Ut«nl 

bered   146,519  inhabitants,   134,020  of  whom  were  interpretation  which  dominated  the  Eastern  Church 

Catholics,  12,085  Protestants,  and  414  of  other  de-  for  a  long  period.    In  the  field  of  theology,  in  tha 

nominations;   the   city,   29,255   inhabitants    (23,955  minds  of  practically  all  writers  (the  most  notf^ile 

Catholics,  4933  Protestants,  299  Jews).     Of  the  ci^ht  modem  exception  being  Gwatkin,  in  bis  "  Studies  of 

Catholic  churches  and  seven  chapels,  tha  most  im-  Arianism", London,  1900), hchaathetmenviablerepu- 

portant  is  the  collegiate  church  called  the  Hofkirche,  Uttion  of  being  the  real  author  of  the  opinions  which 

which  was  rebuilt  after  the  fire  of  1633;    the   two  afterwards  found  expression  in  the  heresy  of  Arius. 

towers  of  the  old  Gothic  building  atill  remain.     The  In  his  Chrislological  s^tem — a  compromise  between 

former  church  of  the  Jesuits  was  built  in  1667-73.  Hodalismand  Sulmrdinationism — the  Word,  though 

The  earlier  Franciscan  church  has  one  of  the  oldest  Himself  the  Creator  of  all  sul>sequent  beings,  was  a 

architectural  monuments  of  the  city  in  its  thirteentb-  creature,  thouah  superior  to  all  other  created  tl^ga 

century  Gothic  choir.    Lucerne  is  the  scat  of  the  semi-  by  the  wide  gulf  between  Creator  and  creature.    T&B 

nary  for  the  Diocese  of  Basle,  with  six  professors.  F^^''  loaders  in  the  Arian  movement  (Arius  himself. 

Besides  the  collegiate  foundation  in  the  city  of  Lu-  Eusebius.  the  court  Bishop  of  Nicomedia,  Maris,  ana 

ccrne,  with  eleven  canons  and  four  chaplains,  there  Theognis)  received  their  training  under  him  and  aU 

has  existed  since  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  the  ways  venerated  him  as  their  master  and  the  foundw 

foundation  of  Beromilnstcr,  with  a  provost,  eighteen  of  their  system. 

canons,  and  ten  chaplains.     Of  religious  establish-  Despit«  his  heterodoxy,  Lucian  was  a  man  of  the 

ments  there  are  at  present  three  Capuchin  houses  most  unexceptionable  virtue  (Eusebius,  H.  E.,  VIIl, 

(Lucerne,  Sursee,  and  SchUprbeim),  a  house  of  Capu-  xiii,  2);  at  tne  height  of  the  Arian  controversy  his 

chinesses   at   Gerlisheim,   one   of  Cistereianesses  at  fame  for  sanctity  was  not  less  than  his  reputation  as 

Eschenbaeh,  whose  abbess  has  the  right  of  bearing  the  a  scholar.     During   the   persecution   of   Maximinua 

crosier;  the  Sisterhood  Of  St.  Martha  in  the  hospital  at  Doia  he  was  arrested  at  Antioch  and  sent  to  Nicome- 

Luceme  and  the  society  of  the  Baldcgger  Sisters,  with  dia,  where  he  endured  many  tortures  and,  after  de- 
ft branch  house  and  a  seminary  for  governesses.    The  .  livering  a  long  oration  in  defence  of  his  faith,  was 

"Vat«rland",  the  most  important  Catholic  newspaper  finally  put  to  death.    The  most  enduring  memorial 

in  Switaerland,  appears  at  Lucerne,  also  the  excellent  of  the  life  of  Lucian,  next  to  the  Christological  contro- 

"  Schweizerische  Katbolische  Kirchenzeitung".  ver»^  which  his  teachings  aroused,  was  hia  influence 

PrmBK.Otichuiiieder ShidtuTuidcf  Karao<uLuteni(,2voia.,  on  Biblical  study.    Receiving  the  literal  sense  alone, 

Zunoh,    lBSO-sl)\     Idem,    UnlomiA^fotiraphiKli-itaiuiiiAei  ],„  |_:j  -.—.a  _„  t\.„  „oj^   „f  tm,t,,nl   aj.r.ti,-ai.<,  ami 

OmMldr  dci  Kanlom  Liutn  (2  vola..  Lucerne.  1851-58);  yon  ™  l*",*;  S'"f*  °",  ""^  '^^  °'  ,tettual  accuracy  antt 

BBoessER,    ArcAiwucAicUa    dir   Sladt    umJ   Bepuilik    Liutrn  himself  undertook  to  revise  the  Septuagmt  on  the 

U  vob.,  Lucerne,  I(i5i--58):   Idxu   is  John  in  tiaerniiAm  original  Hebrew.     His  edition  was  Widely  used  in  the 

&aa<y/,™(  (Bern.  iS87)i  W=r„.  ^^^^J^^^^.-f^^]^^  fourth  centuiy  (.Jerome,  De  Vir.  III.,  bcxvi;;  Pnef.ad 

f/nrrfcinJleiuaoB*!  twdijor'       ■      '  ■•        ■■■    -       ° '■'-•  ■    '•'-■     Tr..l:„..^    .,.,«.    fm=       IriKl        II.  „1„ 

,, ^_nn   fl.ucnmB.   lOOSI:    Kfjmei 

Vimraidmiaeri 


Dit  Stirit- -and  Plarrkirdie  z-u  Satikl  Lrndtoariia  told  Mavrltiti*     Parahp.;  Adv.  Rufinum  XXvl;  Lpis.,  l(>b).     He  also 
iBHo/iu^Lmem  (Lucerne,  ^1008);    KTmK.J.ufm  ^ad  dff     published  a  recension  of  the  New  Testament.      St 


_f  ™S  T^;_i  t  (a;;i„.i;.._;  liuiai.  ii_JA  jerome  I  Lie  vir.  iii.,  /  /  Kinaaaitioniot 

, id  OachicMt  dtrkallt.  Kirdti  in  drr  Inner-  the  Bible,  speaks  of   'Libelll  de  Fide    , . 

•cAkwb,  I  (Lucerne,  1909);   Dtr  GeieliuJitifrewtd.  MiUeibirvm  are  extant.      He  is  also  Credited  with  the  composition 

mldm  and  Zuj  (Eiiaiedelii  Bud  Staia.  1843 ).  °\  ?,  ^"^l  E"^?    o  "*  a     J^'^<"'.''I  Antiocn  m  Ml 

Joseph  Lins.  (Athan.,     Ep.  do  Synod.  Arim.  et  Seleuc.  ,  xxm), 

-     ,     .  .       c     ,,  ,,  but  his  authorship  is  doubtful:  in  fact  it  is  certain  be 

LucianiBta.    See  Makcion  and  Mabcionites.  ^^  ^^  compose  it  in  its  present  form.    Rufinus  (H. 

Lncian  ot  Antioch,  a  priest  of  the  Church  of  An-  E.,  IX,  vi)  has  preservea  a  translation  of  his  apolo-. 

lioch   who   suffered    martyrdom    {7    January,    312)  getic  oration.     There  are  epistles  mentioned  by  Sui- 

duriiiK  the  reign  of  Maximinua  Dazo.     Acoordiog  to  das;  a  fragment  of  one  announces  the  death  of  Anthi- 

a  tradition  preserved  by  Suidas  (s,  v.),  Lucian  was  mus,  a   bishop    ("ChroniDon    Paschale",   in   P.   G.. 

bom  at  Samosata,  of  pious  parents,  and  was  educated  XCII,  689) 

in  the  neighbouring  city  of  Bdessa  at  the  school  (rf  a        Roith  www-"-  ■■^■"^'"- 1^''  '■  '':  ■I""  ^f^- T""  '■  ■'■]!■  S5; 

certain  Macarius.     Not  much  faith  can  be  attached  ^^F'']l"^^jr;X'D''v^'^^^ 

to  these  statements,  which  are  not  corroboiated  by  f ; j^i  JSj^.^^m.,  Sfudt  Jftwwrawu.  anmnt;  La  Pmsioa  dt 

anv  other  author;  Suidas  very  probably  confounded  '  TJl'liilri  1'    '       '■■■***^'  ^r.mi,rm^,^,ie„...  .-.^ 

the  history  of  Lucian  with  thrtot  hisTamoua  n«i^  ■Sfl^^^ltlT^^^l^'k'^-^i^i'U^i.^^, 

sake,  the  pagan  satirist  of  a  century  enrlloif.     liw  aRbm  of  tht  Fourth  Cenium;  BAHDEvnEWEB,  Poiroloro.tr. 

confusion  is  easily  pardoned,  however,  as  both  ex-  Srahiin  (St.  Louia,  1908). 

hibited  the  same  intellectual  traits  and  the  same  love  Patmck  J.  Uealt. 

for  cold  literalism. 

Early  in  life  Lucian  took  up  his  residence  at  An-  Lndc  (m-  Locids),  John,  Croatian  historian,  b. 
tioch,  where  he  was  ordained  presbyter,  and  where  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  at  Trojir,  or  Tragur- 
he  soon  attained  a  coramandinf;  position  as  head  of  ion,  in  Dslmatia;  d.  at  Rome^  11  January,  1679.  He 
the  theologirni  school  in  that  city.  Though  he  can-  was  descended  from  an  ancient  and  noble  Croatian 
not  be  accused  of  having  shared  the  uieolo^cal  family.  After  making  his  college  course  at  his  birth- 
views  of  Paul  of  Samosata,  he  fell  under  suspicion  place,hetookupthestudyoflaw,first  at  Padua  (1620) 
attbetimeofPaul'scondemnationiandwas  compelled  and  later  at  Rome,  where  he  received  the  degree  trf 
to  sever  his  communion  with  the  Church.  Thia  Doctor  Utriumrue  Juna.  RetumingtoTrojir  in  1633, 
breach  with  the  orthodox  party  lasted  during  the  he  resided  there  until  1654,  and  there  discovered  the 
episcopates  of  three  hiBbo])^,  Domnus.  Timeus,  and  nisnuacript  of  the  "Ctena  Trimalchionis",  known  as 
C^ril,  wliose  oilministratinn  estendwl  from  268  to  tlie  "Traguriensis",  which  was  afl«rwa.rds  published. 
303.    It  seems  more  likely  that  Lucian  was  recon-  byStatilifiatPadua,  IBM.    At'C^'a\.t'w.\»^>as.'is»,-»- 


LUOXnBB                              410  LUOIMA 

searohes  into  the  history  of  his  native  country,  to  Vercelli.    Both  were  exiled,  Lucifer  beiug  sent  to 

which  he  chiefly  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life,  and  wnich  Gennanica,  in  Syria,  and  thence  to  Eleutheropolis  in 

gained  for  him  the  title  of  "Father  of  Croatian  His-  Palestine;  he  was  finally  relegated  to  the  Thcoaid. 

tory".    When,  in  1654,  he  returned  to  Rome  to  con-  In  the  course  of  this  exile  Lucifer  wTote  an  ex- 

tinue  his  historical  studies,  he  gained  the  friendship  tremely  virulent  pamphlet  entitled  "Ad  Constant ium 

and  protection  of  many  men  of  eminence,  among  them  Augustum  pro  sancto  Athanasio  libri  II",  an  elo- 

several  cardinals.    To  Ughelli,  the  author  of  "  Italia  quent  defence  of  Catholic  orthodoxy,  but  in  such 

Sacra",  he  furnished  much  of  the  material  relating  to  exaggerated  language  that  it  overshot  the  mark  and 

Croatian  history.    In  April,  1663,  he  was  named  presi-  injured  the  cause  it  was  meant  to  serve.     Lucifer 

dent  of  the  "  Congregatio  S.  Hieronymi  nationis  Illyii-  boasted  of  his  work,  and  Constantius,  tyrant  that  he 

corum  de  Urbe  '*,  by  Cardinal  Julius  Sacchetti.  Lucid  was,  refrained  from  further  revenge.     After  the  death 

also  wrote  various  works  on  ecclesiastical  history,  of  Constantius,  Julian  allowed  all  the  exiles  to  return 

most  of  which  are  lost.    A  few  of  them  are  still  pre-  to  their  cities.    Lucifer  went  to  Antioch,  and  at 

served  in  the  Vatican  Library.  once  meddled  in  the  diajcnsions  which  divided  the 

Lucid  was  never  married.     He  resided  at  Rome  un-  Catholic  party.     He  prolonged  and  embittered  them 

til  his  death,  and  was  buried  there,  in  the  church  of  St.  by  coa«5ecrating  a  bishop  who  iippeared  to  him  ca- 

Jerome,  where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  mem-  pable  of  continuing  the  opposition  to  the  bishop  and 

ory  in  1740.    The  following  are  his  principal  published  I>arty  which  he  judged  the  weaker  under  the  circuni- 

works:  "  De  Regno  Dalmatiae  et  Croatia?  libri  sex  "  (6  stances.     Incapable  of  tact,  he  aggravate*!  the  dissen- 

vols.,  Amsterdam,  1666  and  1668;  Frankfort,  1667);  ters,  instead  of  dealing  cautiously  with  them  in  order 

"Memorie  storiche  di  Tragurio  ora  detto  TmCi"  (6  to  win  them,  and  displayed  special  severity  towards 

vols.,  Venice,  1673);  "  Inscriptiones  Dalmatica?,  notiB  those  Catholics  who  had  wavered  in  their  adherence 

ad  memoriale  Pauh  de  Paulo,  notas  ad  Palladium  Fus-  to  the  Xicene  Creed.     About  this  time  a  Council  of 

cum.  addenda  vel  corrigenda  in  opere  de  regno  Dal-  Alexandria  presided  over  by  St.  Athanasius  decreed 

matiHJ  et  Croatiie,  varia;  lectiones  Chronici  Ungarici  that  Arians  renouncing  their  heresy  should  be  par- 

manuscripti  cum  editis  "  (Venice,  1673).  doned  and  that  bishops  who,  by  compulsion,  had  tcm- 

Klai<5, P(w/M<ffnw/o,  I  (Zagreb,  IKW),  3-6;  RAcici,Par/i-/rf-  porized    with    heretics    shoukl    not    be    disturbed. 

mk  Ivan  Luci6-U  Rmdu  Jugoalavenske  Akademije  (Zagrob,  Against  this  indulgence  Lucifcr  protested,  and  went 

ISSii^  CVi^i^uSSr  '^"^'^  '^'*  '^*'**  *^'"''"  ^''^  so  far  as  to  anathematize  his  former  friend,  Eusebius 

Anthony-Lawrence  GANCEVid.  of  Vercelli,  who  carried  out  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Alexandna.     Seemg  that  his  extreme  oninions 

Lucifer  (Hebr.  hHH;  Septuagint  ^w<^0V^  Vulgate  won  partisans  neither  West  ndt  East,  he  withdrew  to 

Ztici/er)  originally  denotes  the  planet  Venus,  emphasiz-  Sardinia,  resumed  his  see,  and  formed  a  small  sect 

inir  itq  hrillianev.     The  Vuleate  emnlovs  the  worrl  jil«o  Called   the   Luciferians.     These   sectaries   pretended 

had  participated  in  Arianism 


^      their  dignity,  and  that  bishops 

(Ps.,  cix,  3).'  Metaphorically,  the  word  is  applied  to  who  recognized  the  rights  of  even  repentant  heretics 
the  King  of  Babylon  (Is.,  xiv,  12)  as  pre-eminent  should  be  excommvmicated.  The  Luciferians,  being 
among  the  princes  of  his  time;  to  the  high  priest  Simon  earnestly  opposed,  commissioned  two  priests.  Mar- 
son  of  Onias  (Ecclus.,  1, 6),  for  his  surpassing  virtue;  to  cellinus  and  Faustinus,  to  present  a  petition,  the  well- 
the  glory  of  heaven  (Apoc.,  ii,  28),  by  reason  of  its  ex-  known  ''Libellus  precum",  to  the  Emperor  Theo- 
oellency;  finally,  to  Jesus  Christ  himself  (II  Petr.,  i,  dosius,  explaining  their  grievances  and  claiming 
19:  Apoc..  xxii,  16;  the  "  Exultet  *'  of  Holy  Satuniav),  protection.  The  emperor  forbatle  further  pursuit  of 
the  true  light  of  our  spiritual  life.  The  Syriac  version  them,  and  their  schism  seems  not  to  have  lasted  be- 
and  the  version  of  Aquila  derix^e  the  Ilebrew  noun  yond  this  firet  generation. 

hlfa  fi*nm  fhA  vnrh  liflltil   "fr»  latnpnf  "•  Si-     TAmm*»  Hartel  in  Corp.  script.  cccUa.  lat.,  aIV  (1886);    Ukkner, 

laUi  from  tne  verU  yaiai     .^*\™®^J^^'?\-  Jerome  ^^y^  ^^  CagliaH  wtdsein  Latein  in  Archiv  far  hilein.  Lexi- 

agrees  with  them  (In  Is.,  l,  14;  P.  L.,  AAl  V  ,  161),  and  kogr.  und  Gramm.,  HI  (1886).  1-58;  KrCqeb.  Lucih-r  Bisi'hof 

inakes  Lucifer  the  name  of  the  principal  fallen  angel,  von  Calaria  und  daa  Schiama  der  Lwnferiancr  (Leipzig,  1886); 

who  must  lament  the  loss  of  his  original  glory  bright  as  Vlt^^T^hi^^r^i^^  s\        ^^ '  ^^'  ^^'*"^'*'  '^^  '^' 

the  morning  star.    In  Christian  tradition  this  mean-  jj    Leclercq 

ing  of  Lucifer  has  prevailed ;  the  Fathers  maintain  that 

•Lucifer  is  not  the  proper  name  of  the  devil,  but  denotes  •  ««•««  r»««,«,  ^«  *i...  *-«  j  •*•       i  *  '^i      r  xi 

only  the  state  from  which  he  has  fallen  (Petavius, "  De  "cma.  Crypt  op,  the  traditional  title  of  the  most 

^^eeUs"  III  iii  4).  ancient  section  of  the  catacomb  of  St.  Callistus.    Ac- 

Tfte  principal'commenUries  on  the  foreming  texts  of  Sacred  CO^ling  to  the  theory  of  De  Ilossi,  St.  Lncina  (hon- 

Scripture  and  LesLtre  in  Diet,  de  la  BibUriV,  407  sqq.  oured  at  Rome  on  30  June) ,  after  whom  this  port  ion  of 

A.  J.  ]VU  AS.  the  cemetery  is  called,  was  the  original  donor  of  the 

area,  and  at  the  same  time  identical  with  the  noble 

^Lndfer  of  Oagliari  (Lucifer  Calabttanus),  Roman  matron,  Pomponia  Greecina,  wife  of  the  con- 
jbnihop,  must  havcbeeo-bora^  mJJbQ  early  v^jjT^  queror  of  Britain,  Aulus  Plautius.  Lucina  is  l)elieved 
the  foUlCb  fldlitury;  d.  in  371.  His  bu^npia^Mv  to  have  been  the  baptinrqal  name  of  Pomponia  Gnc- 
the  circumstances  of  his  youth  are  unknown.  lie  cina.  De  Rossi's  hypothesis,  which  is  gencniUy  ac- 
fint  appears  in  ecclesiastical  history,  in  full  ma-  cepted,  rests  on  a  passage  of  the  "Annals"  of  Tacitus 
turity  of  strength  and  abilities,  in  3^4  when  he  was  (XIII,  xxxii),  and  on  certain  inscriptions  discovered 
deputed  by  Pope  Liljerius,  with  the  priest  Pancratius  in  the  Crypt  of  Lucina.  According  to  Tacitus,  *'  Pom- 
ana  the  deacon  Hilarj",  to  request  the  Enaperor  Con-  ponia  Grsecina,  a  distinguished  lady,  wife  of  the  Plau- 
Btantius  to  convene  a  council,  to  deal  with  the  ac-  tins  who  on  his  return  from  Britain  received  an  ova- 


Alexandria  with  much  passion  and  in  very  violent  the  presence  of  kinsfolk,  mvolving,  as  it  did,  her  le^al 

language,  thus  furnishing  the  adversaries  of  the  great  status  and  character, and  he  reported  that  she  was  in- 

Akmndrian  with   a   pretext   for  resentment   and  nooent.    This  Pomponia  lived  a  lone:  life  of  unbroken 

further  violence,  and  causing  a  new  condemnation  of  melancholy.     After  the  murder  of  Julia,  Dnisus's 

Athanasius.    Constantius,    unaccustomed    to   inde-  daughter,  bv  Messalina's  treachery,  for  forty  vears 

pendence  on  the  part  of  the  bishops,   grievously  she  wore  only  the  attire  of  a  mourner  with  her  heart 

nu/treati'*l  LucUor  and  his  colleague,  Eusebius  of  ever  sorrowful.   For  tbi»«  during  the  reign  of  Claudius, 


LV0IU8 


411 


Luoixrs 


she  escaped  unpunished,  and  it  was  afterwards 
counted  a  glory  to  her."  ^  The  "foreign  superstition" 
of  the  Roman  historian  is  now  generally  regarded  as 
probably  identical  with  the  Christian  religion.  When 
de  Rossi  first  conjectured  that  this  might  be  the 
case,  he  announced  his  view  mcfrely  as  a  more  or  less 
remote  probal)ility,  but  subsequent  discoveries  in  the 
cemeteiy  of  St.  Callistus  confirmed  his  supposition  in 
the  happiest  manner.    The  first  of  these  discoveries 


Section  of  the  Chypt  of  Lucina 


was  the  tomb  of  a  Pomponius  Grekeinos,  evidently  a 
member  of  the  family  of  Pomponia,  and  possibly  her 
descendant;  the  inscription  dates  from  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  third  century.  A  short  distance  from 
this,  the  tomb  of  a  Pomponius  Bassus  was  also  found 
— another  member  of  tne  family  to  which  belonged 
the  mysterious  lady  of  the  reign  of  Claudius.  Thus  the 
conversion  to  Christianity  of  this  noble  lady  is  estab- 
hshed  with  a  degree  of  probability  that  approaches 

certainty. 

NoRTHcoTB  AND  Brownlow,  Roma  SoUerraneOt  I  (2nd  ed., 
London,  1879),  82-3,  270-81;  Stokes  in  Smith  and  Wace, 
Diet.  Christ,  Biog.^  IV  (London,  1887),  s.  v.  Pomponia  Gracina. 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Lucius  I,  Saint,  Popb  (253-^54);  d.  at  Rome,  5 
March,  254.  After  the  death  of  St.  Cornelius,  who 
died  in  exile  in  the  summer  of  253,  Lucius  was  chosen 
to  fill  his  place,  and  consecrated  Bishop  of  Rome. 
Nothing  is  Known  of  the  early  life  of  this  po|3e  before 
his  elevation.  According  to  the  "  Liber  Pontificalia  ", 
he  was  Roman  born,  and  his  father's  nanae  was  Por- 
phyrins. Where  the  author  obtained  this  information 
IS  not  known.  The  persecution  of  the  Church  under 
the  Emperor  Callus,  during  which  Cornelius  had  been 
banished,  still  went  on.  Lucius  also  was  sent  into  ex- 
ile soon  after  his  consecration,  but  in  a  short  time,  pre- 
sumably when  Valerian  was  made  emperor,  he  was  al- 
lowed to  return  to  his  flock.  The  Felician  Catalogue, 
whose  information  is  found  in  the  "Liber  Pontifica- 
lis  ",  informs  us  of  the  banishment  and  the  miraculous 
return  of  Lucius:  "  Hicexul  fuit  et  postea  nutu  Dei  in- 
columis  ad  ecclesiam  reversus  est. '  St.  Cyprian,  who 
wrote  a  (lost)  letter  of  congratulation  to  Lucius  on  his 
elevation  to  the  Roman  See  and  on  his  banishment, 
sent  a  second  letter  of  congratulation  to  him  and  his 
companions  in  exile,  as  well  as  to  llic  whole  Roman 
Churcli  (ep.  Ixi,  ed.  llartel,  H,  (iO')  sciq.). 


The  letter  begins:  "Beloved  Brother,  only  a  short 
time  ago  we  offered  you  our  congratulations^  when  in 
exalting  you  to  govern  His  Church  God  graciously  be- 
stowed upon  ^ou  the  twofold  glory  of  coiifessor  and 
bishop.  Agam  we  congratulate  you,  your  compan- 
ions, and  the  whole  congregation,  in  that,  owing  to  the 
kind  and  mighty  protection  of  our  Lord,  He  has  led 
you  back  with  praise  and  glory  to  His  own,  so  that  the 
flock  can  again  receive  its  shepherd,  the  ship  her  pilot, 
and  the  people  a  director  to  govern  them  and  to  show 
openlv  tnat  it  was  God's  disposition  that  He  permitted 
your  banishment,  not  that  the  bishop  who  had  been 
expelled  should  l>e  deprived  of  his  Church,  but  rather 
tliat  he  might  return  to  his  Church  with  greater 
authority.*'  Cyprian  continues,  alluding  to  the  three 
Hebrew  children  in  the  fiery  furnace,  that  the  return 
from  exile  did  not  lessen  the  gjory  of  the  confession, 
and  that  the  persecution,  wliich  was  directed  only 
against  the  confessors  of  the  true  Church,  proved 
wliich  was  the  Church  of  Christ.  In  conclusion  he  d^ 
scriljes  the  jov  of  Christian  Rome  on  the  return  of  its 
shepherd.  When  Cyprian  asserts  that  the  Lord  by 
means  of  persecution  sought "  to  bring  the  heretics  to 
shame  and  to  silence  them,"  and  thiLs  to  prove  where 
tlic  Church  was,  who  was  her  one  bishop  chosen  by 
God's  dispensation,  who  were  her  presbvters  bound  up 
with  the  bishop  in  the  glory  of  the  priesthood,  who  were 
the  real  people  of  Christ,  united  to  His  flock  oy  a  pecu- 
liar love,  who  were  those  who  were  oppressed  by  their 
enemies,  and  at  the  same  time  who  those  were  whom  the 
Devil  protects  as  his  own,  he  obviously  means  the 
Novatians.  The  schism  of  Noyatian,  through  which 
he  was  brought  forward  as  antipope,  in  opposition  to 
Cornelius,  still  continued  in  Rome  under  Lucius. 

In  the  matter  of  confession  and  the  restoratioa  of 
the  "  Lapsi "  (fallen)  Lucius  adhered  to  the  principles 
of  Cornelius  and  Cyprian.  According  to  the  testi- 
mony of  the  latter,  contained  in  a  letter  to  Pope  Ste- 
phen (ep.  Ixviii,  5,  ed.  Hartel,  II,  748),  Lucius,  like 
Cornelius,  had  expressed  his  opinions  in  writing:  "Uli 
enim  pleni  spiritu  Domini  et  in  glorioso  martyrio  con- 
stituti  dandam  esse  lapsis  pacem  censuerunt  et  poeni- 
tentia  acta  fructum  communicationis  et  pacis  negan- 
dum  non  esse  litteris  suis  signaverunt. "  (For  they,  filled 
with  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  and  confirmed  in  glorious 
martyrdom,  judged  that  pardon  ought  to  be  given  to 
the  Lapsi,  and  signified  in  their  letters  that,  when  these 
had  done  penance,  they  were  not  to  be  denied  the  en- 
joyment of  communion  and  reconciliation.)  Lucius 
died  in  the  beginning  of  March,  254.  In  the  "  Depositio 
episcoporum''  the  "Chronograph  of  354"  gives  the. 
date  of  his  <ij}^h  afi  B  March,  the  ^'  Martyrologium  Hier- 
onymiap^ei'/jo^.4  March.  The  first^ate  is  probably 
rights. ^  i^>j|p  Lucius  died  on  4  March  and  was 
burlAewMcn.  According  to  the  ''  Liber  Pontificar 
lis"  tro^pope  was  beheaded  in  the  time  of  Valerian, 
but  this  testimony  cannot  be  admitted.  It  is  true 
that  Cyprian  in  the  letter  to  Stephen  above  mentioned 
(e|>,  Ixviii,  6)  gives  him,  as  well  as  Cornelius,  the  hon- 
o^iry  title  of  martvr:  "servandus  est  enim  anteces- 
s^'|im  nostrorum  Tbeatorum  martyrum  Comelii  et 
Lt^  Jii  honor  gloriosus  "  (for  the  glorious  memoiy  of  our 
predecessors  the  blessed  martyrs  Cornelius  and  Lucius 
IS  to  be  preserved) ;  but  probably  this  was  on  ac- 
count of  Lucius's  short  banishment.  Cornelius,  who 
died  in  exile,  was  honoured  as  a  martyr  by  the  Romans 
after  his  death ;  but  not  Lucius.  In  the  Roman  calen- 
dar of  feasts  of  the  "  Chronograph  of  354  "  he  is  men- 
tioned in  the  "  Depositio  episcoporum  ",  and  not  under 
tlie  head  of  "Depositio  martyrum".  His  memory 
was,  nevertheless  particularly  honoured,  as  is  clear, 
from  the  appearance  of  his  name  in  the  "  Martyrolo-, 
gium  Hieronymianum".  Eusebius,  it  is  true,  main- 
tains (Hist.  EccL,  VII,  10)  that  Valerian  was  tavour- 
able  to  the  Christians  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign. 
The  emperor's  first  persecution  edict  appeared  onlv  wl 
257. 


LWIT  41 

fdeven  reli|;iout)  coniiiiuuitirat  of  woinpn.  At  11  ic 
doae  of  the  niDeteenth  ceDtury  the  dioceue  could 
boast  of  the  following  establiBhrnentB  conducted  by 
nligious:  42  infant  schools,  1  boys'  orphanage,  5 
giria'  orphanages,  1  alms-house,  15  hospitals  or  hos- 
pices, and  13  communitiea  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in 
their  homes.  At  the  end  of  1907  the  Diocese  of  Lugon 
had  a  population  of  441,311,  36  canonical  parishes, 
262  "succursalca"  parishes,  154  curacies,  12  chapels- 
of-ease,  and  633  priesta. 


L*  F0HTE[ 

BttQiiti  dt  Zuc""  (Foalenay-lv- 
Cqmlc.  1847:|;  nn Trew* !.»>•- 


■     JlDNTA 


dt  Lveon,  I 
BUB  Di  V 
la  CtMcepti 
tittit  (ViiE___.    .. 

I^nmdri    dr<    fom-    —   , 

dt  Viglite  dr  Luton  (Fontriu 
le-Comle.  1SB2);  LabadlKb 
RecMtreAea  hiatar-igue*  fvt  Lu^' 
(Lueon,  1907):  1-irEioix,  Ricl 
Ut»  A  iufon  (Puris.  1M90):  I. 
CDBiB,  Uuioifp  de  I'abbnuf 
Mu'IlBaif  (FoDleDsy-lp-dimL. , 
I8B2);  CHEv*i.irH,  T->pabibl..  :•. 

Georqbs  Goyau. 

Lae7,  Saint,  a  virgin  and 
nuutTT  of  Syracuse  in  Sici- 
ly, wnosc  feast  is  celebrated 
ay  Latins  and  Greeks  alike 
on  13  Dec.  According  to 
the  traditional  ston',  she 
waa  bom  of  rich  and  noble 
nsrents  about  the  yedr  283. 
Her  father  was  of  Roman 
origin,  but  his  early  death 
left  her  dependent  upon  her 
mother,  whose  name,  Euty- 
chia,  seems  to  indicate  that 
Bhe  came  of  a  Greek  stock. 
Like  BO  many  of  the  early 
martyrs,  Lucy  had  conse- 
crated her  virginity  to  God, 
and  she  hoped  to  devote  all 
her  worldly  goods  to  the 
service  of  the  poor.  Her 
mother  was  not  so  single- 
minded,  but  an  occasion 
offered  itself  when  Lucy 
could  carry  out  her  gener- 
ous resolutions.  The  fame 
of  the  virgin-martyr  Agatha, 
who  haa  been  executed 
fifty-two  years  before,  in  the 
Decian  persecution,  was  at- 
tracting numerous  visitors 
to  her  relies  at  Catania,  not 
fiftr  miles  from  Syracuse, 
ana  many  miracles  had  been 
wrought  through  her  intercession.  Eutychia  was 
therefore  persuaded  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  Catania, 
in  the  hope  of  being  cured  of  a  luemorrhage,  from 
which  she  had  been  suffering  for  several  veara.  There 
ahe  was  in  fact  cured,  and  Lucy,  availing  herself  of 
the  opportunity,  persuaded  her  mother  to  allow  her 
to  distribute  a  great  part  of  their  riches  among  the 
poor.  The  largess  stirred  the  greed  of  the  unworthy 
youth  towhom  Lucy  had  been  unwillingly  betrothed, 
and  he  denounced  her  to  Paschaaius,  the  Governor 
of  Sicily.  It  was  in  the  year  .303,  during  the  fierce 
persecution  of  Diocletian.  She  wa?  first  of  all  con- 
demned to  suffer  the  shame  of  prostitution;  but  in  the 
strei«1h  of  fiod  she  stood  immovable,  so  that  they 
mniJcniot  cirag  her  away  to  the  place  of  shame.  Fag- 
giMv  wire  then  heaped  about  }>eT  and  net  on  fire,  and 


4  LtlOT 

again  Goil  saved  her.  Finally,  she  mot  her  death  by 
the  sword.  But  before  she  died  she  foret«td  the  p<mish- 
ment  of  Paschasiua  and  the  speedy  termination  of 
the  persecution,  adding  that  Diocletian  would  reign 
no  more,  and  Ma;dmian  would  meet  his  end.  So, 
strengthened  with  the  Bread  of  Life,  she  won  her 
crown  of  vir^iuty  and  martyrdom. 

This  beautiful  story  cannot  unfortunately  be  ac- 
cepted without  criticism.  The  details  may  be  only 
a  repetition  of  similar  accounts  of  a  virgin  martyrs 
life  and  death.  Moreover,  the  prophecy  was  not 
realiied.  if  it  required  that  Maximian  "should  die 
immediately  after  the  termination  of  his  reign.  Pas- 
chasiua. dJso,  is  u  strange 
name  for  a  pagan  to  bear 
(see  Schill  in  Kraus,  "Real- 
Encyc",  s,  v.  "Namefi"). 
However,  eince  there  is  no 
other  evidence  by  which 
the  story  may  l>e  tested,  it 
can  only  he  suggested  that 
the  (acts  peculiar  to  the 
saint's  stor)'  deserve  special 
notice.  Among  these,  the 
place  and  time  of  her  death 
can  hardly  be  questioned; 
for  the  rest,  the  most  nota- 
^ith 


blea 


Rt.  Agatim  and  the  n 
bus  cure  of  lihityehia,  and 
it  is  to  l>e  hojied  that  these 
have  not  been  introduced 
by  the  pious  compiler  of 
(he  saint  s  Btory  or  a  popu- 
lar instinct  to  link  together 
two  imtional  saints.  The 
story,  such  as  we  have 
eiven  if,  is  to  l>e  traced 
Fmck  to  the  Acta,  and  these 
protiably  lieloiig  to  the  fifth 
century.  Though  they  can- 
not be  regarded  as  accurate, 
there  can  be  no  doulrt  of  the 
(treat  veneration  that  was 
.thowii  to  St.  Lucy  by  the 
early  Church.  She  is  one 
of  those  few   female  sninta 


1  the 


Tlepolo,  Church 


if  St.  Gregory,  and 
"  arc  special  prayers 
<  :i^n|ih<ms  for  her  in  his 
:iir;iinentan'"  and  "An- 
^  honary".  SheisaJsocom- 
me>noratert  in  the  ancient 
Roman  Martvrology.  St. 
Aldhrlni  (d  709)  is  the  first 
es  her  Acta 
logiveaiiii]  account  of  her 
life  and  death.  This  he  does 
in  prose  in  the  "Tractatua 
de  Laudibus  \'irginitatis" 
(Tract.  x!ii,  P.  L.,  LXXXIX,  142)  and  again,  in 
verse,  in  the  poem  "  De  Laudibus  Virginum  (P.  L., 
LXXXIX,  26B).  Following  him,  the  Venerable 
Bede  inserts  the  story  in  his  Martj'rologj-. 

With  regard  to  her  relics,  Sigebert  (1030-1112).  a 
monk  of  GemNoun,  in  his  "serrao  do  Sancta  Lucia", 
says  that  her  liody  lay  undisturbed  in  Sicily  tor  400 
years,  until  Faroald.  Duke  of  Spoleto,  captured  the 
island  and  transferred  the  s^nt  s  body  to  Corfiniimi 
in  Italy.  Thence  it  was  removed  by  the  Emperor 
Otho  I,  972,  to  Mete  and  deposited  in  the  church  of 
St.  Vincent.  And  it  was  from  this  shrine  that  an  arm 
of  the  saint  was  taken  to  the  moniujterj-  of  I.uitburg 
in  the  Diocese  of  Spires — an  incident  celebrated  by 
Sigeltert  himself  in  verae.  The  .subsequent  history  of 
the  relics  is  not  clear.    On  their  capture  of  Oonstamti- 


LUDDBI 


415 


LUBLAlk 


nople  in  1204,  the  French  fomid  some  of  the  relics  in 

that  city,  and  the  Doge  of  Venice  secured  them  for  the 

monastery  of  St.  George  at  Venice.     In  the  year  1513 

the  Venetians  presented  to  Louis  XII  of  France  the 

head  of  the  saint,  which  he  deposited  in  the  cathedral 

church  of  Bourges.    Another  account,  however,  states 

that  the  head  was  brought  to  Bourges  from  Rome 

whither  it  had  been  transferred  during  the  time  when 

the  relics  rested  in  Corfinium. 

The  lives,  by  Be AUGRAifD  (Paru,  1882,  It.  tr.,  Mantua.  1896) ; 
by  Cbdbbicoki  (Ck>rtoiia»  1888} ;  by  Siuonbllx  (Caserta,  1803) ; 
BiGEUCAZRinBucHBEBOBR,  K%reMich€aHandlex.,8.  v.  Luciail). 

James  Bridqe. 

jjodden,  Patrick  A.    See  Syracuse,  Diocese  of. 

Ludger  (Lt)DiGER  or  Liudoer),  Saint,  missionary 
among  the  Frisians  and  Saxons,  first  Bishop  of  Mtin- 
ster  in  Westphalia, 'b.  at  Zuilen  near  Utrecht  about 
744;  d.  26  March,  809.  Feast,  26  March.  Repre- 
sented as  a  bishop  reciting  his  Breviary,  or  with  a 
swan  at  either  side.  His  parents,  Thiadgrim  and 
Liafbure,  were  wealthy  Frisians  of  noble  lineage.  In 
753  Ludger  saw  the  great  apostle  of  Germany,  St. 
Boniface,  and  this  sight  and  the  subsequent  martyr- 
dom of  the  saint  made  deep  impressions  on  his  youth- 
ful mind.  At  his  urgent  request  he  was  sent  to  the 
school  which  St.  Gregory  had  founded  at  Utrecht,  and 
made  good  progress.  In  767  Gregory,  who  did  not 
wish  to  receive  episcopal  consecration  liimself,  sent 
Alubert,  who  had  come  from  England  to  assist  him  in 
his  missionary  work,  to  York  to  be  consecrated  bisho|>. 
Ludger  accompanied  him  to  receive  deaconship  and 
to  study  under  Alcuin,  but  after  a  year  returned  to 
Utrecht.  Some  time  later  he  was  granted  an  oppor- 
tunity to  continue  his  studies  in  the  same  schooly  and 
here  contracted  a  friendship  with  Alcuin  which  lasted 
throughout  life.  In  773  a  friction  arose  between  the 
Anglo-Saxons  and  the  Frisians,  and  Ludger,  to  provide 
for  nis  personal  safety,  left  for  home,  ta^ng  with  him 
a  number  of  valuable  books.  In  775  he  was  sent  to 
Deventer  to  restore  the  chapel  destroyed  by  the 
heathen  Saxons  and  to  find  the  relics  of  St.  Lebwin 
(Liafwin),  who  had  laboured  there  as  missionary, 
had  built  the  chapel,  and  had  died  there.  Ludger 
was  successful  in  his  undertaking,  and  then  taught  in 
the  school  of  Utrecht.  He  and  some  others  were  next 
sent  north  to  destroy  the  heathen  places  of  worship 
west  of  the  Lauwers  Zee. 


and  built  a  Christian  temple.  The  well  onoe  saored  i^ 
the  heathen  gods  became  his  baptismal  font.  ^  On  hia 
return  he  met  the  bUnd  bard  Berulef,  cured  his  blind- 
ness, and  made  him  a  devout  Christian. 

In  793  (Hist.  Jahrb.,  I,  282)  Charlemagne  wished  to 
make  Ludger  Bishop  of  Trier,  but  he  declined  the 
honour,  while  declarmg  himself  willing  to  imdertake 
the  evangelizing  of  the  Saxons.  Charlemagne  gladly 
accepted  the  offer,  and  North-western  Saxony  was 
thus  added  to  Ludger's  missionary  field.  To  defray 
necessary  expenses  the  income  of  the  Abbey  of  Leuce, 
in  the  present  Belgian  Province  of  Hainaut,  was  given 
him,  and  he  was  told  to  pick  his  fellow-labourers  from 
the  members  of  that  abbey.  As  Mimigemaford 
(Mimigardeford,  Miningaidvaixl)  had  been  designated 
the  centre  of  the  new  district,  Ludger  built  a  monas- 
tery (jnonaaterium)  there,  from  which  the  place  took 
its  name  MUnster.  Here  he  lived  with  nis  monks 
according  to  the  rule  of  St.  Chrodegang  of  Metz,  whidi 
789  had  been  made  obligatory  in  the  Frankish 


m 


After  Ludger  had  been  ordained  at  Colog^^i^s^v .  > 
the  missions  of  Ostergau  (Ostracha,  i.  e.,  EsAt^i  Frie&- 
land)  were  committ^  to  his  charge,  anid  Dokkum,  the 
place  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Bcvniteuoe,  was  made  the 
centre.  During  each  autumn  he  came  to  Utrecht  to 
teach  ab  the  cathedral  school.  In  this  manner  he 
toiled  for  about  seven  years,  imtil  Widukind,  the  in- 
domitable leader  of  the  Saxons,  induced  the  Frisians 
to  drive  out  the  missionaries,  bum  the  churches, 
and  return  to  the  heathen  gods.  Ludger  escaped  with 
his  disciples.  In  785  he  visited  Rome,  was  well  re- 
ceived by  Pope  Adrian,  and  obtained  from  him  good 
counsel  and  special  faculties.  From  Rome  he  went 
to  Monte  Cassino,  where  he  lived  according  to  the  rule 
of  St.  Benedict,  but  did  not  bind  himself  by  vows. 
The  news  of  Widukind's  submission,  and  the  arrival  of 
Charlemagne  at  Monte  Cassino  in  787,  put  an  end  to 
liud^er's  peaceful  retirement.  He  was  appointed 
missionary  to  the  five  districts  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Ems,  which  was  still  occupied  almost  entirely  by 
heathens.  With  his  usual  enei^gy  and  unbounded 
confidence  in  God  he  began  his  work;  and,  knowing 
the  language  and  habits  of  the  people,  he  was  able  to 
turn  to  advantage  many  national  traits  in  effeetins 
their  conversion .  H  is  zeal  knew  no  bounds ;  the  islana 
of  Bant,  long  since  swallowed  by  the  sea,  is  mentioned 
as  the  scene  of  his  apostolic  work.  He  visited  Heligo- 
land (Fossitesland),  where  St.  WiUibrord  had  preaehed ; 
he  destroyed  the  remaining  vestiges  of  heathenism, 


territories  (Schmitz  Kallenberg,  ''  Monasticon  West- 
phaliie"^  MQnster,  1909,  p.  62,  places  the  date  of 
foundation  between  805  and  809).  He  also  built  a 
chapnel  on  the  left  of  the  Aa  in  honour  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  besides  the  churches  of  Billerbeck,  Coesfeld. 
Herzfeld,  Nottuln,  and  others.  Near  the  church  of 
Nottuln  he  built  a  home  for  his  sister,  St.  Gerbur^, 
who  had  consecrated  herself  to  God.  Many  pious  vir- 
gins soon  gathered  about  her,  and  so  arose  the  first 
convent  in  Westphalia  (c.  803).  At  the  request  of 
Charlemagne,  Ludger  received  episcopal  consecration 
some  time  between  13  Jan.,  802,  and  23  April,  805,  for 
on  the  first  date  he  is  still  staled  abbot,  while  on  the 
latter  he  is  called  bishop  (Hist.  Jahrb.,  I,  283).    His 

Sincipal  care  was  to  have  a  good  and  efficient  clergy, 
e,  to  a  great  extent,  educated  his  students  personal^, 
and  generally  took  some  of  them  on  his  missionary 
tours.  Since  his  sojourn  at  Monte  Cassino  Ludper 
had  entertained  the  idea  of  founding  a  Benedictine 
monastery.  During  the  past  years  he  had  been  ac- 
quiring propertjr  and  looking  for  a  suitable  location. 
At  lengtn  he  decided  upon  Werden;  but  it  was  only  in 
799  that  building  began  in  earnest,  and  in  804  that  he 
consecrated  the  church. 

On  Passion  Sunday,  809,  Ludger  heard  Mass  at 
Coesfeld  early  in  the  morning  and  preached,  th^ 
TPirent  to  Billerbeck,  where  at  nine  o  clock  he  again 
/preached,  and  said  his  last  Mass.  That  evening  he 
'*^U^ired  peacefully  amidst  his  faithful  followers.  A 
dilute  arose  between  MOnster  and  Werden  for  the 
possessioti  of  his  body.  His  brother  Hildegrim  being 
appealed  to,  after  consultation  with  the  emperor,  de- 
cided in  favour  of  Werden  ^  and  here  the  relics  nave 
rested  for  eleven  centuries.  Portions  have  been 
brought  to  MUnster  and  Billerbeck.  From  22  June  to 
4  July,  1909,  the  Diocese  of  MUnster  celebrated  the 
eleventh  centenary.  ''Bishop  Hermann  Dingelstad, 
the  present  successor  of  the  apostle,  celebrated  the 
Jubilee,  uniting  it  with  the  golden  jubilee  of  his  own 
priesthood.  A  most  touching  scene  was  witnessed 
when  thousands  of  men,  who  had  come  from  far  and 
near,  after  a  stirring  sermon  of  the  orator-bishop  of 
Treves,  Mgr  Felix  Korum,  renewed  their  baptismal 
vows  at  t&  same  well  from  which  St.  Ludgerus  had 
baptized  their  forefathers.  A  Benedictine  abbot  and 
eleven  bishops,  among  them  the  archbishop  of  the 
saint's  Frisian  home,  Utrecht,  and  Cardinal  Fischer  of 
Cologne,  took  part  in  the  sacred  oelebr^tions " 
("America",  1, 381). 

BcTLKR,  Lives  of  the  Saints;  Revue  Benedictine^  III.  107;  Vll, 
412;  &i\i>\XRjHeuioenlex.\  ScBWAm'm Kirchenlex.:  Oeaehiehtt' 
quellen  der  Dioaeee  MOnaier.  IV:  PmosMAMN,  Der  hi.  Ludotnu 
(FreibuiKi  1879);  BteER,  Am  Cfrabe  dee  hi,  Ludger  (MOnstei; 
1906). 

Francis  Mebshman. 

Ludluiiy  Robert,  Vensrablb.      See  Garuci:^ 
Nicholas,  Venerable, 


LUDBULLA 


416 


LUDOVIOITS 


LudnuUa  (Lidmilla),  Saint,  wife  of  Boriwoi,  the  his  principal  work.  This  is  not  a  simple  biography 
first  Christian  Duke  of  Bohemia,  b.  at  Mielnik,  c.  860;  as  we  understand  such  to-day,  but  at  once  a  history, 
d.  at  Tetin,  near  Beraun,  15  September,  921.  She  a  commentary  borrowed  from  the  Fathers,  a  series  of 
and  her  husband  were  baptized,  probably  by  St.  dogmatic  and  mond  dissertations,  of  spiritual  in« 
Methodius,  in  871.  Pagan  fanatics  drove  them  from  structions,  meditations,  and  prayers,  in  relation  to 
their  country,  but  they  were  soon  recalled,  and  after  the  life  of  Qirist,  from  the  eternal  birth  in  the  bosom 
reigning  seven  more  years  they  resigned  the  throne  in     -'  ^^'  ^-^^     ^    •"•    '^  •'' ^      -  -   - 

favour  of  their  son  Spitignev  and  retired  to  Tetin. 
Spiti^ev  died  two  years  later  and  was  succeeded  by 
Wratislaw,  another  son  of  Boriwoi  and  Ludmilla. 
Wratislaw  was  married  to  Drahomira,  a  pretended 
Christian,  but  a  secret  favourer  of  paganism.  They 
had  twin  sons,  St.  Wenceslaus  and  Boleslaus  the 
Cruel,  the  former  of  whom  lived  with  Ludmilla  at 


of  the  Father  to  His  Ascension.  It  has  been  called  a 
summa  evangelica,  so  popular  at  that  time,  in  which 
the  author  has  condensed  and  resumed  all  that  over 
sixty  writers  had  said  before  him  upon  spiritual 
matters.  Nothing  shows  better  the  great  popularity 
of  the  "Vita  ChriSii"  than  the  numerous  manuscript 
coi)ies  preserved  in  libraries  and  the  manifold  editions 
of  it  which  have  been  published,  from  the  first  two 


Tetin.    Wratislaw  died  in  916,  leaving  the  eight-year-    editions   of    Strasburg  and  Cologne,  in    1474,    to 


old  Wenceslaus  as  his  successor.  Jealous  of  the  great 
influence  which  Ludmilla  wielded  over  Wenceslaus, 
Drahomira  instigated  two  noblemen  to  murder  her. 
She  is  said  to  have  been  strangled  by  them  with  her 
veil.  She  was  at  first  buried  in  ttee  church  of  St. 
Biichael  at  Tetin,  but  her  remains  were  removed  to  the 
church  of  St.  George  at  Prague  before  the  year  1100, 


the  last  editions  of  Paris  (folio,  1865,  and  8vo, 
1878).  It  has  besides  been  translated  into  Catalo- 
nian  (Valencia,  1495,  folio,  Gothic),  Castilian  (Alcald, 
folio,  Gothic),  Portuguese  (1495,  4  vols.,  folio),  Italian 
(1570),  French,  "by  Guillaume  Lemenand,  of  the 
Order  of  Monseigneur  St.  Francois",  under  the  title 
of  the  "Great  Life  of  Christ"^  (Lyons,  1487,  folio, 


probably  by  St.  Wenceslaus,  her  grandson.    She  is  man^  times  reprinted),  and  more  recently  by  D. 

venerated  as  one  of  the  patrons  of  Bohemia,  and  her  Mane -Prosper  Augustine  (Paris,  1864)  and  by  D. 

feast  is  celebrated  on  16  September.  Florent    Broquin,    Carthusian    (Paris,    1883).    St. 

The  chief  "ource  is  Vita  el  poMio  a.Wencedai  d  a,  LuAniUB  Teresa  and  St.  Francis  de  Sales  frequently  quote  from 

S3?  r&r^^5£?Lrffi£^.'S'.^ro'f"^ilk^:  it.  fnd  it  1^  not  ceased  to.  affork  delight  to  pio,^ 

Until  recently  this  work  was  considered  a  fori^ory  of  the  12-14  SOUls,  who  find  m  it  instruction  and  edincation,  food 

ceoturv.     But  Fekar,  Die  WemeU-  und  LudmtllO'Leoenden  und  for  both  mind  and  heart. 

fef'^Tf^  ^P^^  (Prague.  1905).  and  Voigt.  Die  vondem  Qufcmr  and  Echard.  Scriptorea  Ordinis  Pnedicaiorum,  I. 

Premyaltden  Chrxdum  verfaaate  and  AdalbeH^von  ggfl^<JJ«fJ,'»^  SeSiBupQms.Inirodutipru  Noticejo^  his  tr.  of  the  Vita  Chriati,  t 


Biographie  dea  heil.  Wemel  und  ihre  GeachiehtadarateUung 
(Pracue,  1907),  have  adduced  grave  reasons  for  its  genuineness. 
Acta  SS.,  IV,  16  Sept.;  Dunbar,  Dictionary  of  Saintly  Women, 
1  (London.  1904),  475-7. 

Michael  Ott. 

Lndolph  of  Saxony  (Ludolph  the  Carthusian), 
an  ecclesiastical  writer  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  13  April,  1378.     His  life 


(Paris,  1883),  i-zxvii;  Dorean.  Ephemeridea  of  the  Carihiiaian 
Order,  IV  (MontreuU-Sui>Mer,  1900).  384-93. 

Ambrose  Mougel. 

LndoviciiB  a  8.  Oarolo  (LuDOvicnB  Jacob),  Car- 
melite writer,  b.  at  Chdlons-sur-Mame  (according  to 
some  at  Chalon-sur-Sa6nc),  20  Aug.,  1608;  d.  at  Paris 
10  ICarch,  1670.    The  son  of  Jean  Jacob  (whence  he 


is  as  Uttle  known  as  his  works  are  celebrated.    We  is  also  commonly  known  as  Ludovicus  Jacob)  and 

have  no  certain  knowledge  of  his  native  country;  for  Claudine  Mareschal.  he  entered  the  Order  cf  C'ar- 

in  spite  of  his  surname,  *'of  Saxony",  he  may  weU,  melites  of  the  Old  Observance  in  his  native  to^^n,  and 

as  Echard  remarks,  have  been  bom  eiUier  in  the  Dio-  made  his  profession  11  June,  1626.     While  in  Italy 

cese  of  Cologne  or  in  that  of  Mainz,  which  then  be-  (1639)  he  took  great  interest  in  epigraph}^,  regretting 

longed  to  the  Province  of  Saxony.    He  first  joined  the  wholesale  destruction  of  inscriptions  in  the  cata- 

the  Dominicans,  passed  through  an  excellent  course  combs.    A  lasting  fruit  of  his  sojourn  in  Rome  was 

of  literary  and  tneological  studies,  and  may  have  the  completion  and  publication  of  the  "Bibliotheca 
loumt  tJie  science  of  the  spiritual  life  at  the  school  c^^^^tificia",  begun  by  Gabriel  Naudd  (1600-53,  librar- 
the  celebrated  doctors  Tamer  and  Suso,  his  contempo^^^iL^  Cardinal  Mazarin).  Though  not  free  from 
raries  and  companions  in  religion.    After  about  thif^fi^HlM^d  mistakes,  the  work  met  with  fully  deserved 

vears  spent  in  the  active  life,  he  entered  the  Charter-  succcssr^On^  his  return  to  France  he  obtained  the 

house  of  Strasburg  towards  the  year  1340.    Three  post  of  librarian  to  Cardinal  de  Retz,  and  later  on  the 

years  later  he  was  called  upon  to  govern  the  newly  dignity  of  royal  cotmcillor  and  almoner.    At  a  later 

founded  (1331)  C^rterhouse  of  Coblentz:  but  scru-  period  he  became  librariaji  to  Achille  de  Harlay,  first 

plee  of  conscience  led  him  to  resign  his  office  of  prior  president  of  the  parliamenf ,  in  whose  house  he  lived 

in  1348;  and,  having  again  become  a  simple  monk,  and  finally  died. 

first  at  Mainz  and  afterwards  at  Strasburg,  he  spent  Besides  the  work  already  mentioned,  and  some 

^e  last  thirty  years  of  his  life  in  retreat  and  prayer,  twelve  books  which  he  edited  for  their  respective 

and  died  almost  an  octogenarian,  universally  esteemed  authors,  he  left,  according  to  the  '^  Bibliotheca  Car- 

for  his  sanctity,  although  he  never  seems  to  have  been  melitana''  (II,  272),  twenty-seven  printed  works  and 


honoured  with  any  public  cult. 

Ludolph  is  one  of  the  many  writers  to  whom  the 
authorship  of  "The  Imitation  of  Jesus  Christ"^  has 
been  assigned;  and  if  history  protests  against  this,  it 
must  nevertheless  acknowledge  that  the  true  author 
of  tiiat  book  has  manifestly  borrowed  from  the  Car- 


sixty  manuscripts,  of  which  the  following  deserve 
notice:  A  relation  of  the  procession  held  17  July, 
1639,  at  the  church  of  Sts.  Sylvester  and  Martin  at 
Rome  in  honour  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmcl  (Paris, 
1639).  Catalogue  of  authors  proving  Ren^  Gros  de 
Saint^Joyre,  the  poet,  to  have  been  related  to  Pope 


ihusian.    Other  treatises  and  sermons  now  either    Clement  IV  (Lyons,  1642).    The  panegyric  of  Yen. 


lost  or  very  doubtful  have  also  been  attributed  to  him. 
Two  books,  however,  commend  him  to  posterity: 
(1^  A  "Commentary  upon  the  Psalms  ",  concise  but  ex- 
cellent for  its  method,  clearness,  and  solidity.  He 
especially  developed  the  spiritual  sense,  according  to 
the  interpretations  of  St.  Jerome,  St.  Augustme, 
Caasiodorus,  and  Peter  Lombard.  This  commentary, 
which  was  very  popular  in  Germany  in  the  Midcue 


Jeanne  de  Cambry,  of  Toumay,  Augustinian  nun 
(Paris,  1644).  He  it  was  who  published  the  first 
yearly  lists  of  printed  books,  an  undertaking  which 
speedily  found  favour  with  the  world  of  letters  as 
wedl  as  with  the  book  trade,  and  in  which  he  has  found 
numerous  imitators  down  to  the  present  time.  We 
have  from  his  pen  the  lists  of  Paris  publications  for 
1643-44  and  1645,  and  the  list  of  French  publications 


Ages,  has  pa^ed  through  numerous  editions,  of  for  1643-45.  Among  his  manuscript  notes  were  col- 
which  the  first  dates  from  1491,  and  the  last  (Mon-  lections  of  bibliographical  notices  concerning  his  order, 
iJvuiJ-0ur-Mer)  from  1891.     (2)  The  "Mta  Christ!'',    which  were  utilized  by  Martialis  a  S.  Johanne  Bap- 


LUBOSB 


417 


LUOO 


tista  (Bordeaux,  1730),  and  Villiers  de  S.  Etienne 
(Orleans,    1752). 
Bin.  Carmdit.,  II,  272-600. 

Benedict  Zimmerman. 

Lnegor,  Kabl,  burgomaster  of  Vienna,  Austrian 
political  leader  and  municipal  reformer,  b.  at  Vienna, 
24  October,  1844  v  d.  there,  10  March,  1910.  His 
father,  a  custodian  in  the  Institute  of  Technology  in 
Vienna,  was  of  a  peasant  f amilv  of  Neustadtl  in  Lower 
Austria,  his  mother,  the  daughter  of  a  Viennese  cab- 
inet maKcr.  After  completing  the  elementary  schools, 
in  1854  he  entered  the  Theresianiun,  Vienna,  from  which 
he  passed  in  1862  to  the  University  of  Vienna,  enrolling 
in  me  faculty  of  law^  taking  his  degree  four  years  later. 
After  serving  his  leeal  apprenticeship  from  1866  to 
1874,  he  opened  an  office  of  nis  own  and  soon  attained 
high  rank  in  his  profession  by  his  sure  and  quick 
judgment,  his  exceptionallv  thorough  l^al  knowledge, 
and  his  cleverness  and  eloquence  in  handling  cases 
before  the  court.  His  generosity  in  giving  ms  ser- 
vices gratuitously  to  poor  clients,  who  flocked  to  him 
in  great  numbers,  was  remarkable,  and  may  account 
largely  for  the  fact  that,  although  he  practised  law 
until  1806,  he  never  became  a  we»Bklthy  man. 

In  1872,  having  decided  upon  a  political  career,  he 
joined  an  independent  Liberal  political  organization, 
the  Citizens'  Ciub  of  the  Landstrasse,  one  of  the  dis- 
tricts, or  wards,  of  Vienna.  Liberalism,  which  had 
guided  Austria  from  aristocracy  to  democracy  in 
government,  was  at  this  period  the  one  political  creed 
uie  profession  of  which  offered  any  prospect  of  suc- 
cess m  practical  politics.  But  Liberalism  nad  come  to 
mean  economic  advancement  for  the  capitalist  at  the 
cost  of  the  small  tradesman,  the  capitalist  being 
usually  a  Jew.  The  result  was  an  appalling  materi^ 
moral  degradation  and  a  regime  of  political  corruption 
focussed  at  Vienna,  which  city  in  the  seventies  of  the 
last  century  was  the  most  backward  capital  in  Europe, 
enormously  overtaxed,  and  with  a  population  sunk  in 
a  lazy  indifference,  political,  economic,  and  religious. 
The  Jewish  Liberalism  ruled  supreme  in  city  and 
country ;  public  opinion  was  moulded  by  a  press  almost 
entirely  Jewish  and  anti-clerical;  Catholic  dogmas 
and  practices  were  ridiculed;  priests  and  religious  in- 
sult^ in  the  streets.    In  1875  Lueger  was  elected  to 


Liberal  party,  the  back-bone  of  which  was  the  imioii 
of  Christians  called  variously  the  Christian  Socialist 
Union  and,  in  Vienna  especially,  the  United  Chris- 
tians. This  union  developed  later  into  the  present 
(1910)  dominant  party  in  Austria,  the  Christian  So- 
cialists. In  1895  the  United  Christians  were  stronjg 
enough  to  elect  Lueger  burgomaster  of  Vienna,  but  his 
majority  in  the  council  was  too  small  to  be  effective 
and  he  would  not  accept.  His  party  returning  after 
the  September  elections  with  an  increased  majoritv, 
Lueger  was  once  more  elected  burgomaster,  but  lib- 
eral influence  prevented  his  confirmation  by  the  em- 
peror. The  coimcil  stubbornly  re-elected  him  and 
was  dissolved.  In  1896  he  was  again  chosen.  Not, 
however,  imtil  the  brilliant  victory  of  his  partjr,  now 
'definitely  called  the  Christian  Socialist  pa[rty,  in  the 
Reichsrat  elections  in  1897,  when  he  was  for  the  fifth 
time  chosen  bui^^omaster,  did  the  emperor  confirm 
the  choice. 

Lue^er's  subsequent  activity  was  devoted  to 
mouldmg  and  guiding  the  policy  of  the  Christian 
Socialist  party  and  to  the  re-creation  of  Vienna^  of 
which  he  remained  burgomaster  until  his  death,  his 
re-election  occurring  in  1903  and  1909.  The  political 
ideal  of  the  Christian  Socialists  is  a  German-Slav- 
Magyar  state  imder  the  Habsburg  dynasty,  f eder^  in 
plan.  Catholic  in  religion  but  justly  tolerant  of  other 
beliefs,  with  the  industrial  and  economic  advance- 
ment of  all  the  people  as  an  enduring  political  basis. 
The  triumph  of  the  party  has  conditioned  an  ever- 
increasing  revival  of  Catholic  religious  life  and  organi- 
zation  Of  every  kind.  Under  Lueger's  administration 
Vienna  was  transformed.  Nearly  trebled  in  size,  it 
became,  in  perfection  of  mimicipal  organization  and 
in  success  of  municipal  ownersnip,  a  model  to  the 
world.  In  beauty  it  is  now  imsurpassed  by  any  Euro- 
pean capital.  A  bom  leader  of  the  people,  Lueger 
joined  to  a  captivating  exterior  a  fiery  elocjuence  ta- 
pered by  a  real  Viennese  wit,  great  organizing  power, 
unsullied  loyalty  to  the  Habsburg  dyimstVj  and  unim- 
peachable integrity.  Among  all  classes  his  influence 
and  popularity  were  imbounded.  A  beautiful  char- 
acteristic was  his  tender  love  of  his  mother;  he  was 
himself  in  turn  idolized  by  children.  He  was  anti- 
Semitic  only  because  Semitism  in  Austria  was  po- 
litically synonymous  with  political  corruption  and 


the  Vienna  city  coimcil  for  one  year.     Re-elected  ijf    loppressive  capitalism.   Lueger  never  married.   Afear- 
Lill  term  of  three  years,  he  resigned  hissg^  ^     less  outspoken  Catholic,  the  defence  of  Catholic  rights 

Sas  ever  in  the  forefront  of  his  programme.  His 
leerfulness,  resignation,  and  piety  throughout  his  last 
illness  edified  the  nation.  His  funeral  was  the  most 
imposing  ever  accorded  in  Vienna  to  anyone  not  a 
royal  personage. 

Stadracz,  Dr.  KaH  Lueger,  Zehn  Jahre  BUrgermeieter  (Vi- 
enna, 1907) ;  Idem  J[)r.  Lueger'a  L^hen  und  Wirken  (Klagenfurt); 
Dublin  Review,  CXLII,  321;  Drum  in  the  Meewnger,  1906; 
Ahkrn  in  America^  III,  5, 33. 

M.  J.  Ahern. 


1876  for  a  f uU 

in  consequence  of  the  exposure  of  corrupti 
city  administration.  Having  now  become  '^SttTl^deir 
of  the  anti-corruptionist  movemen^.  he  was  again 
elected  councillor  in  1878  as  an  ixioependent  candi- 
date, and  threw  himself  heart  coid  soul  into  the  battle 
for  purity  in  the  municipal  government. 

In  1882  Lueger's  party,  called  the  Democratic  was 
joined  by  the  Keform  and  by  the  German  National 
organizations,  the  three  uniting  imder  the  name  ^ti- 
Semitic  party.  In  1885  Lueger  associated  Imnself 
with  Baron  Vogelsang,  the  eminent  social-political 
worker,  whose  influence  and  principles  had  great 
weight  in  the  formation  of  the  future  Christian  So- 
cialists. The  year  1885  witnessed,  too,  Luegcr's 
election  to  the  Reichsrat,  where,  although  the  only 
member  of  his  party  in  the  house,  he  quickly  assimied 
a  leading  position.  He  made  a  memorable  attack  on 
the  dual  settlement  between  Austria  and  Hungary, 
and  against  what  he  bitterly  called  "Judeo-Mag- 
yarism"  on  the  occasion  of  the  Aiugleich  between 
Austria  and  Hungary  in  1886.  A  renewal  of  this  at- 
tack in  1891  almost  caused  him  to  be  hounded  from 
the  house.  At  his  death  there  were  few  members  of 
the  Austrian  Reichsrat  who  did  not  share  his  views. 
In  1890  Lueger  had  been  elected  to  the  Lower  Aus- 
trian Landt^;  here  again  he  became  the  guiding 
spirit  in  the  struggle  against  Liberalism  and  oormp- 
tion.  In  municipal,  state,  and  national  polities  he 
was  now  the  leader  of  the  Anti-Semitic  and  Anii- 
IX.— 27 


Luffano.    See  Bable-Lugano,  Diocese  of. 

Logo,  Diocese  of  (Lucensis),  in  Galicia,  Spain,  a 
suffragan  of  Santiago,  said  to  have  been  founded  (by 
Agapitus)  in  Apostolic  times.  The  see  certainly  ex- 
isted in  the  fifth  century,  as  the  authentic  catalogue  of 
its  bishops  begins  with  Agrescius  (a.  d.  433),  who  is 
ranked  as  a  metropolitan;  Lugo,  however,  became  a 
suffragan  of  Braga  somewhat  later.  In  561  it  was 
restored  to  its  ancient  dignitv,  Orense,  Iria,  Astorga, 
and  Britonia  being  its  depenaent  sees.  Councils  were 
held  at  Lu£o  in  569,  572,  and  perhaps  610  (see  Baro- 
nius,  1597;  Uardouin,  Cone,  II,  373).  In  666  it  a^ain 
lost  its  metropolitan  rank.  The  see  is  now  occupied  by 
Mgr  Emmanuel  Basulto  y  Gimenez,  elected  4  Septem- 
ber, 1909,  in  succession  to  Mgr  Murua  y  L6pez;  the 
diocese  embraces  all  the  province  of  Lugo  and  part  of 
Pontovedra  and  Corufia.    It  contains  1102  parishes. 

gerujo  says  647,  infra),  1108  priests,  649  chapels,  and 
oratories.  There  are  5  religious  houses  for  mecL^^a^^ 


LUGO 


418 


Titroo 


S  convents  of  women.  The  population  is  about  366,- 
000,  practically  all  Catholics.  The  diocese  takes  its 
name  from  the  capital  of  the  province  (19,000  inhab- 
itants) which  is  situated  on  the  Rio  MiAo.  The  city  is 
surrounded  by  an  immense  Roman  wall,  36  feet  meh 
and  10  feet  broad.  It  possesses  a  fine  cathedral  dedi- 
cated to  ^t.  Froilano,  built  about  1129,  though  the 
actual  main  facade  and  towers  date  only  from  1769. 
Its  elegant  stalls  were  carved  by  Francisco  Monro 
(1624).  This  cathedral  enjoys  the  extraordinary  priv- 
ilege of  having  the  Blessed  Sacrament  perpetually 
exposed,  a  privilege  which  is  commemoratea  in  the 
annorial  bearings  of  the  town.  The  seminary  of  San 
Lorenzo,  Lugo,  with  400  students,  was  founded  in 
1591;  it  is  incorporated  with  the  University  of  Sala- 
manca. 

Perujo  and  Angulo,  Dice,  de  Cieneian  Edesidtt.,  b.  v.; 
Fl6rbe,  Espana  aacrada,  XL  (1706),  XLI,  (1708). 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Logo,  Francisco  de,  Jesuit  theologian,  b.  at 
Madrid,  1580;  d.  at Valladolid,  17  December,  1652.  He 
was  the  elder  brother  of  Cardinal  de  Lugo,  and,  like 
him,  a  distinguished  member  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
which  he  entered  at  the  novitiate  of  Salamanca  in 
1600.  In  answer  to  his  request  for  the  foreign  mis- 
nous,  he  was  sent  to  Mexico,  where,  quite  apart  from 
any  desire  of  his  own,  he  was  appointed  to  teach 
theology,  a  task  which  his  rare  talent  enabled  him  to 
perform  with  much  success.  Being  recalled  to  Spain, 
be  sailed  in  company  with  others  imder  the  protection 
of  the  Spanish  fleet:  but  unfortimately  cluring  the 
voyage  tne  Spanish  fleet  encoimtered  the  Dutch,  and 
in  the  ensuing  struggle  Francisco  de  Lugo,  although 
he  succeeded  in  saving  his  life,  could  not  save  the 
greater  part  of  his  commentary  on  the  entire  Summa 
of  St.  Thomas.  He  subsequently  taught  both  philos- 
ophy and  theology  in  Spain,  was  censor  of  books,  and 
theclogian  to  the  General  of  the  Societv  of  Jesus  at 
Rome.  Having  been  twice  rector  of  the  College  of 
Valladolid,  he  died  with  the  reputation  of  being  a 
brilliant  theologian  and  a  very  holy  man,  being  espe- 
cially remarkable  for  humiUty.  His  published  works 
are :  "  Theologia  scholastica  ;  "Decursus  prsevius  ad 
thedogiam  moralem^';  '^De  septem  Ecclesise  sacra- 
mentis,  praxim  potius  quam  speculationem  attendens 
et  intendens '' ;  "  De  sacrainentis  in  eenere ''.  - 

H.XJBTJiTt,Nomenelator  literariua^  I,  373:  soMMMiyoGKL,  Bibiy 
dslaC.deJ.,Y,75, 

J.  H.  Fisher.^ 

Logo,  John  de,  Spanish  Jesuit  and  Cardinal,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  theologians  of  modem  times,  b.  at 
Madrid  in  November,  1583,  though  he  used  to  call 
himself  "Hispalensis'*,  because  his  family  seat  was 
at  Seville;  d.  at  Rome,  29  August,  1660.,  Both  his 
father,  John  de  Lugo,  and  his  mother,  Teresa  de  Quiro- 
ga,  whose  family  name  he  bore  for  a  time,  as  was  the 
custom  for  the  second  son,  were  of  noble  birth.  Such 
was  de  Lugo^s  intellectual  precocity  that  at  the  age  of 
three  years  he  could  read  printed  or  written  books ;  at 
ten,  he  received  the  tonsure;  at  fourteen,  he  defended 
A  public  thesis  in  logic,  and  about  the  same  time  was 
ap^inted  by  Philip  II  to  an  ecclesiastical  benefice 
wmch  he  retained  till  his  solenm  profession  in  1618. 
Like  his  elder  brother  Francis,  he  was  sent  by  his 
father  to  the  University  of  Salainanca  to  study  law; 
but  Francis  having  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  where 
he  became  a  distinguished  theologian,  John  soon  de- 
sired to  imitate  him  and,  having  vainly  asked  his 
father's  permission,  in  two  letters,  he  entered  without 
it  in  1603.  After  completing  his  studies,  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  philosophy  at  Medina  del  Campo, 
m  1611,  and  later  of  theology  at  Valladolid,  where 
he  taught  for  five  years.  His  fame  as  a  professor  of 
theology  atti-acted  the  attention  of  the  General  of  the 
Jesuits/Af  utius  Vitelleschi.  and  de  Lugo  was  summoned 
to  Rome,  where  he  arrivea  early  in  June,  1621. 


The  teaching  of  de  Lugo  at  Rome  was  brilliant ;  hla 
lectures  even  before  being  printed  were  spread  by 
copyists  in  other  countries.  When  the  General  of  the 
Society  ordered  him  to  print  his  works,  he  obeyed  and 
without  help  had  the  material  for  the  first  three  vol- 
umes prepared  within  five  years  (1633,  1636,  1638). 
When  the  fourth  volume,  "De  justitia  et  jure",  was 
about  to  be  published,  his  supenocs  thought  it  proper 
that  he  should  dedicate  it  to  urban  VIII ;  de  Lugo  had 
to  present  it  himself  to  the  pope,  who  was  so  much  sur- 
prised and  delighted  by  the  theologian's  learning  and 
judgment  that  he  frequently  consulted  him,  and  in 
1643,  created  him  a  cardinal.  This  put  an  end  to  de 
Lugo's  teaching;  but  several  of  his  works  were  pub- 
lished after  1643.  As  cardinal  he  took  part  in  the 
Congregations  of  the  Holy  Office,  of  the  Council,  etc. 
and  often  had  occasion  to  place  his  learning  at  the 
service  of  the  Church.  He  die4  aged  seventy-seven, 
being  assisted  by  Cardinal  Sf  orza  Fallavicini,  one  of  his 
most  devoted  disciples,  also  a  Jesuit.  Accoixling  to  his 
wish,  he  was  buried  near  the  tomb  of  St.  Ignatius  that 
"his  heart  might  rest  where  his  treasure  was'',  as  is 
said  in  his  epitaph.  De  Lugo  was  a  man  not  only  of 
great  learning,  out  also  of  great  virtue;  obedience 
alone  induced  him  to  publish  nis  works  and  he  always 
retained  the  simplicity  and  humility  w^hich  had  led 
him  to  refuse,  but  for  the  pope's  order,  the  cardinali- 
tial  dignity;  the  fine  carriage  sent  by  Cardinal  Bar- 
berini  to  brine  him  as  a  cardinal  to  the  pope's  palace, 
he  called  his  hearse.  His  generosity  to  the  poor  was 
venr  great,  and  although  his  income  was  small,  he 
daily  distributed  among  them  bread,  money,  and  even 
remedies,  such  as  quinquina,  then  newly  discovered, 
which  the  people  at  Rome  used  for  a  time  to  call 
Li^'s  powder. 

llie  works  of  John  de  Lugo,  some  of  which  have 
never  been  printed,  cover  nearly  the  whole  field  of 
moral  and  dogmatic  theology.  The  first  volume  "  De 
Incamatione  Domini"  (Lyons,  1633),  of  which  the 
short  preface  is  well  worth  reading  to  get  an  idea  of  de 
Lugo's  method,  came  out  in  1633.  It  was  followed  by: 
"  De  sacramentis  in  genere ; "  "  De  Venerabili  Eucha- 
ristis  Sacramento  et  de  sacrosancto  Missas  Sacrificio" 
(Lyons,  1636);  "De  Virtute  et  Sacramento  poeni- 
tentise,  de  Suffragiis  et  Indulgentiis  "  (Lyons,  1638) ; 

id  "De  justitia  et  jure  "  (Lyons,  1642),  the  work  on 

'  [ch  de  Lugo's  fame  especially  rests.  In  the  com- 
of  this  important  treatise,  he  was  greatly 
'  ^'  knowleage  of  law  acquiied  in  his  younger 
days  afi^M^anca,  and  it  was  this  work  which  ne 
dedicated  and  presented  to  the  pope  in  person  and 
which  may  be  said^  have  gained  for  him  a  cardinal's 
hat.  De  Lugo  wrote  two  other  works:  "De  virtute 
fidei  divinffi^  (Lyons,  1646),  and  "Responsorum 
moralium  libri  sex"  (Lyons,  1651),  published  by  his 
former  pupil  and  friena.  Cardinal  Storxa  Pallavicini. 
In  these  six  books  de  Lugo  gives,  after  thorough  dis- 
cussion, the  solution  of  many  difficult  cases  in  moral 
theolo^;  this  work  has  a  very  high  value  both  from  a 
theoretical  and  a  practical  standpoint,  as  in  the  main 
it  consists  of  questions  proposed  to  him  for  solution 
during  long  years.  The  seventh  volume,  "  De  Deo,  de 
AngeuB,  de  Actibus  humanis  et  de  Gratia  "  (Cologne, 
1716),  was  published  over  fifty  years  after  the  author's 
death;  the  idea,  as  we  find  it  expressed  on  the  title 
page,  was  to  complete  his  printed  course  of  lectures. 
Other  works  on  theology  and  especially  on  philosophy: 
"De  Anima",  "Philosophia",  "Logica",  "De  Trini- 
tate",  "De  Visione  Dei",  etc.  are  still  preserved  in 
manuscripts  in  the  libraries  of  Madrid,  Salamanca, 
Karlsruhe,  Mechlin,  etc. 

Among  the  imprinted  works,  the  analysis  of  Ar- 
nauld's  book  "De  frequenti  Commimione"  and  the 
"Memorie  del  conclave  d'Innocenzo  X:  Riposta  al 
discoiso  .  .  .  che  le  corone  hanno  jus  d'eschiudcre  b' 
cardinali  del  Pontificato"  may  be  of  special  interest; 
they  are  the  only  controversial  works  of  de  Lugo. 


Ltroos  419  Limn 

What  ho  Intended  in  his  writings  was  not  to  give  a  re^jident  priest,  14  without  priest,  85  primary  schools 

lone  treatise,  exhaustive  from  every  point  of  view;  he  with  an  attendance  of  67<iO.    The  diocese  has  no 

wished  only  "  to  open  up  a  small  nver,  to  the  ocean",  seminary,  but  twenty-two  ecclesiastical  students  are 

without  repeating  what  others  had  said  before  him  being  trained  elsewhere.     The  city  of  Lugos  itself 

and  without  giving  a  series  of  opinions  of  previous  has  16,000  inhabitants,  1030  Uniat-Rumanians,  7440 

writers  or  fumishine  authors  and  quotations  in  num-  Latins,  4760  Orthodox    Rumanians;  the   remainder 

ber;  he  aimed  at  adding  what  he  had  found  from  his  Protestants  or  Jews.    Situated  on  the  right  bank  of 

own  reflexion  and  deep  meditation  on  each  subject,  the  Temes,  a  tributary  of  the  Danube,  in  Kras86- 

Other  important  features  of  his  theological  concep-  Szdi^ny   ooimty,   it  has  a  church  built  by  Etienne 

tions  are  the  union  he  always  maintains  between  moral  Bathory,  a  Franciscan  monastery,  and  several  other 

and  dogmatic  theology,  the  latter  being  the  support  of  objects  of  interest.    It  was  the  last  place  of  resort  of 

the  former,  and  the  same  treatnient  TOing  applied  to  the  Hungarian  Government  of  1849.    Its  trade  is  fairly 

both,  discussing  thoroughly  the  principle  on  wnich  the  important;  in  the  suburbs  are  fine  vineyards, 

main  points  of  the  doctrine  rest.     From  this  point  of  ,„^eher  in  iTu^^/er.  b.   v.  Fogaraa;  Mwumes  <:athol%ca 

«-;»«» 4^A  lao4-i;r>Aa#\^k;ciT>«»f«AA«'nA  ;iia^;f:o  Af^;ii«M>"  (Rome,  1907),  787-8;  Dteeesa  Luooshului  Shematxam  xstonc 

View  the  last  hnes  of  his  preface    De  JUStltia  et  jure    ,  \ux^^  1903).  containi  all  the  oflScial  documente  ooncemm«  the 

are  instructive.  creation  of  the  Diocese  of  Lugoe  and  detaUed  statistics. 

All    his  writings,  whether  on  dogmatic  or  moral  S.  Vailhi^. 

theology,  exhibit  two  main  qualities:  a  penetrating  .  , 

critical  mind,  sometimes  indulging  a  little  too  much        Luini,  Bernardino,  Milanese  pamter,  b.  between 

in  subtilities,  and  a  sound  judgment.    He  may  be  1470  and  1480;  d.  after  1530.   The  actual  facts  known 

ranked  among  the  best  representatives  of  the  theo-  respecting  the  life  history  of  this  delightful  painter  are 

logical  revival  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  oen-  very  few.    We  are  not  even  certain  that  his  name  was 

turies.    The  small  river  he  wished  to  open  up,  is  in-  Luim,  as  he  himself  uses  the  Latin  form  Lovinus,  and 

deed  one  of  the  most  important  which  empties  its  Vasari  calls  him  in  one  place,  del  Lupino,  and  in  another 

waters  into  the  ocean  of  theology,  so  that  m  many  di  Lupino.    As  Luini  he  has,  however,  been  generally 

dogmatic  or  moral  questions,  the  opinion  of  de  Lugo  known,  and  his  birth  is  stated  to  have  taken  place  at 

is  of  preponderating  value.    In  several  problems  he  Luino,  where  there  still  remain  certain  frescoes  of 

formed  a  system  of  his  own,  as  for  instance  about  simple  work,  said  to  have  been  amongst  his  earliest 

faith,  the  Eucharist,  the  hypostatic  union,  etc.,  and  productions.    All  we  do  know  about  him  is  that  in 

owing  to  the  thorougii  discussion  of  the  question  at  1507  he  was  a  master  with  many  commissions,  that  m 

issue,  his  opinion  is  always  to  be  taken  mto  account.  1512  he  was  worldnK  at  Chiaravalle  and  Milan,  that 

In  moral  uieology  he  put  an  end,  as  Ballerini  re-  ^e  is  referred  to  in  the  archives  of  Legnano  in  1516, 

marks,  to  seveml  disputed  points.    St.  Alphoiiflus  t^^  ^^  ^^  **  "WQirk  in  the  Great  Monasteiy  at  Milan 

de  Liguori  does  not  hesitate  to  rank  him  immediately  for  Cou^t  Bentivoglio  between  1522  and  1524,  that  he 

after  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  "post  S.  Thomam  faSfe  was  at  Saronno  in  1525,  that  in  1529  and  1530  he  was 

princeps",  and  Benedict  XIV  calls  him  "a  Udbt  of  at  work  at  Lugano  and  in  the  side  chapel  of  the  Great 

the    Church".    Two    complete   editions    of   Lugo's  Monastery  at  Milan,  and  that  he  is  said  to  have  died, 

works  were  published  at  Venice  in  1718  and  1751,  according  to  one  authority  in  1532,  and  according  to 

each  edition  containing  seven  volumes.    Another  edi-  another  m  1533,  whilst  a  manuscript  preserved  at 

tion  (Paris,  1768)  was  never  completed.    The  last  Saronno  seems  to  imply,  although  it  does  not  actu- 

edition  is  that  of  Foumials  (Paris,  1868-69),  in  seven  ally  state  it  as  a  fact,  that  Luini  was  alive  and  residing 

volumes,  to  which  an  eighth  volume  with  the  "Re-  at  that  place  in  1547.    Beyond  these  facts  everything 

sponsa  moralia"  and  the  "Indices"  was  added  in  is  conjecture-.    The  inhabitants  of  Luino  point  to  an 

1^91 .  old  house  in  an  open  space  at  the  top  of  a  steep  road  as 

HoRTER.  Nomenclaior,  III  (Innsbruck,  1907),  91 1 ;  Sommer-  his  birthplace.    They  have  called  two  of  the  streets  of 

^S^]F.^\SH^^S?^tl^  ^  ^  Campagnie  4$  JUnu.^  V  (Brussels,  the  town  after  his  name,  and  there  are  three  trades- 

1896).  176:  IX.  619;  Andradid,  y^^^'^^;^^^^;^^};^^^  men  in  the  place  bearing  the  same  name,  and  claiming 

^^^■•■1^^^^^  direct  descent  from  the  painter. 

Logos,  Diocese  op,  in  Hungary ,^£^jii!^^^Wlfcs^  The  frescoes  in  Luino  are  characteristic  of  the 
garas  and  Alba  Julia  of  the  Uniat-RujJKanian  Rite,  was  painter's  work  in  many  respects,  exemplifying  his 
erected  in  November,  1853,  with  th^  of  Armenopolis,  strange  faults  of  composition,  out  possessing  a  general 
or  Szamos-Ujvdr,  out  of  parishes  taken  away  from  sense  of  immaturity,  and  there  seems  considerable 
Fogaras  and  Grosswardein  (Najgy-Vdrad) ;  it  had  then  probability  that  the  Luino  traditions  respecting  them 
90  parishes  and  about  47,(X)0  faithful.  Its  first  bishop,  and  the  birth  of  the  painter,  are  accurate.  We  have 
Mgr  Dobraj  1854-70,  was  also  the  first  of  all  the  Aus*  no  evidence  that  he  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo.  Influ- 
tro-Hunganan  clergy  of  the  Byzantine  Rite  to  obtain  enced,  of  course,  he  was  by  the  great  painter,  and  in 
the  title  of  Doctor;  m  spite  of  countless  difficulties,  he  certain  respects — more  particularly  m  his  *' Christ 
contributed  by  his  learning  and  holy  life  to  bring  crowned  with  Thorns''  at  Milan,  and  in  certain  pic- 
several  thousand  Orthodox  back  to  Catholicism,  tures  of  the  Virgin  and  Child,  notably  those  at  Saronno 
As  his  diocese  had  no  foundation,  Mgr  Dobra  estab-  — he  comes  exceedingly  close  in  style  to  Leonardo, 
lished  the  Rudolph  foundation  for  poor  students  and  while  in  colouring,  design,  effect  of  relief,  and  depth  ot 
another  for  aged  priests  or  widowers.  After  him  feeling,  he  approaches  more  nearly  to  that  master  than 
the  diocese  was  administered  by  Mgr  John' Olteanu,  any  otner  artist  of  the  period.  His  works,  however, 
transferred  to  Grosswardein  in  1873;  Mgr  Victor  Mi-  show  a  sweetness  and  an  intense  fervour  of  devotion 
hdlyi  de  Apsia,  1874-96,  subsequently  transferred  marking  them  out  from  those  of  Leonardo.  There  is 
to  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Fogaras,  and  during  no  sign  of  the  mysterious  Leonardo  smile,  nor  of  the 
whose  episcopacy  a  diocesan  synod  was  held  in  No-  semi-pagan  quality  which  at  times  is  so  marked  in 
vember,  1882;  Mgr  Demetrias  Radu,  1896-1903,  Leonardo's  female  figures.  Luini  was  evidently  not  a 
to-day  occupying  the  See  of  Grosswardein;  finally,  philosopher  nor  a  man  of  deep  intellectual  diiscem- 
Mgr  Basil  Hosszu  the  present  bishop*  This  venr  ment,  but  one  of  sweet  disposition,  simple  mind,  and 
extensive  diocese  comprises  the  Counties  of  Krasso-  lofty  religious  belief.  He  lacked,  no  doubt,  coherence 
8z6r6ny,  Torontal,  Temes,  HunyacL  and  a  part  of  and  skill  in  composition  where  many  figures  are  r^ 
Arad;  it  contains  about  98,000  Uniat-Rumanians,  quired,  but  he  possessed  to  a  supreme  degree  the 
552,000  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite,  1,002,000  Ortho-  power  to  create  emotion,  and  to  produce  upon  those 
dox  Rumanians,  several  thousand  Protestants  and  who  looked  at  bia  pictures  the  still,  quiet,  religious 
Tews.  There  are  15  unmarried  priests,  139  married,  quahty  at  which  he  aimed.  His  earliest  fresco  work 
and  1^  widowers;  163  parishes,  149  churches  with  was  orobably  that  done  for  the  Casa  Polufij^sb. 


Ltns  a. 

MoDza,  now  to  be  seen  either  in  the  Brertt,  the  Louvre, 
or  in  one  or  two  private  collections,  one  fragroaat  onl^ 
Twwaining  at  the  villa  itseU.  Some  of  his  moet  beauti- 
ful frescoes  were  included  in  this  scheme  of  decoration. 
Probably  after  this  work  came  the  various  frescoes 
done  for  churches  and  monasteries  at  Milan,  now  to  be 
Men  in  the  Brera,  because  the  religious  houses  in  ques- 
tion have  either  been  closed  or  destroyed.  One  of  the 
most  important  ia  the  Hadonna  with  St.  Anthony  and 
St.  Barbara,  wgned  with  the  Latin  signature  and 
dated  1521. 

Another  scheme  of  decoration  he  carried  out  was 
that  for  the  Casa  Litta,  the  frescoes  from  which  ate 
now  to  be  seen  in  the  Louvre.  They  include  the 
life-«ise,  h^-lenKth  Christ,  one  of  Luini's  most  im- 
portant works.  Lees  known  than  these  works,  how- 
ever, are  those  which  Luini  did  at  Chiaravalle  near 
Ro^oredo,  executed  in  1512  and  1515,  concerning 
vluch  one  or  two  documents  have  been  recently  dis- 
covered, ^vins  us  the  stipend  paid  to  the  artist  for  the 
work.  The  largest 
fresco,  however,  of  "^^^^^ 
this  period  is  the 
magnificent  ' '  Coro- 
nation of  Our  Lord  ", 

inted  for  the  Con- 


is  by  frrsco  work  that  the  artist  will  always  be 


natem 


be  seen  in  the  Am- 
brosian  Library.  The 
document  concern- 
ing it  tells  us  dis- 
.tinctly  that  the  work 
was  commenced  on 
12  October,  1521, 
and  finished  on  22 
March,  1522— a  ver- 
itable Unir  de  Joret. 
as  the  fresco  is  oi 
huge  site,  crowded 
with  figures,  evident. 
lymoet  of  them  por- 
traits, and  contains 
in  the  figure  of  the 
Redeemer  one  of  the 
greatest  works  LuinI 
ever  produced ,  TJn- 
fortunatelv,  the  dig- 
nity of  tne  central 
figure    is  rather  di- 

nunished  by  the  statu  I'-'^iue  grandeur  of  the  six  kneel- 
ing figures  representing  the  mpmbera  of  the  confra- 
ternity who  commissioned  the  work. 

By  far  the  most  notable  work,  however,  which  Luini 
ever  executed  was  the  decoration  in  ttie  church  of  St. 
Maurice,  known  aa  the  Old  Monastery,  commenced 
for  Giovapni  Bentivoglio  and  his  wife,  and  commem- 
orative of  the  fact  that  their  daughter  took  the  veil  in 
this  church,  and  entered  the  monastery  with  which  it 
was  connected.  The  whole  of  the  nist  end  of  the 
church,  including  the  high  altar,  was  decorated  by 
Luini,  and  the  eflect  ia  superb.  He  returned  to  the 
8Une  church  in  I52S  to  aecorate  the  chapel  of  St. 
Maurice  for  Francesco  Besoui,  and  the  whole  of  the 
interior  of  this  chapel  is  oovered  with  his  exquisite 
wori^  the  Flaeellation  scene  and  the  two  frescoes  of 
St.  (^therine  oeinp  of  remarkable  beauty,  and  the 
entire  chapel  a  shrme  to  the  great  jMinter.  It  is  im- 
posnble  to  recount  here  all  Luini's  importaot  worica, 
Dut  his  frescoes  in  the  sanctuary  at  Saronno 


belongs  to  the  fresco  with  its  greater  breadth  and 
strength  and  its  lower  scheme  of  colouring.  Nothing 
in  the  fresco  work  can  be  finer  than  the  1530  lunette  at 
Ij^inano,  showing  the  Madonna,  the  Divine  Child,  and 
St.  John  the  Baptist.  Fortunately,  the  entry  in  the 
books  of  the  convent  concerning  the  payment  for  tbis 
fresco  can  still  be  seen ;  it  waa  spread  over  a  long  time, 
and  was  trifling  at  the  best.  In  that  payment  we 
have  our  last  authoritative  statement  concerning  the 
painter.  True,  Salvatori,  a  Capuchin  monk,  said  that 
m  a  convent  near  Milan  there  was  a  picture  dated 
1547,  which  Luini  commenced,  and  his  son  Aurelio 
finished,  while  Orlandi,  in  the  Ahecedario,  definitely 
states  that  the  painter  was  alive  in  1540 — to  the  Sa- 
ronno document  we  have  already  referred— but  from 
153!}  Luini  vanishes 
into  silence,  and  we 
can  only  conjecture 
Concemini;  any  later 
years.  He  was  the 
supreme  ma.iter  of 
fresco  work,  and  had 
an  exquisite  feeling 
forlovelinessof  fonn, 
with  a  deep  sense  of 
the  pathos,  sorrow, 
and  suffering  of  life. 
He  was  not  subtle 
or   profound,  his 

archaic,    as  were 
those  of  Foppa  and 


those  of  Braniantino, 
although  from  all 
three  men  he  doubt- 
less derived  impres- 
uons.  His  composi- 
tion is  not  always 
well-balanced      and 

tiiatof  Sodoma.   His 
ij^  colouring  is   neither 

"  luscious   nor   volup- 

?pe*i^\Iy  in  liis  frescoes,  quiet,  simple, 
and  at  (inips  pnle  oiul  cold,  iiut  his  pictures  invari- 
ably, like  a  note  of  music,  draw  a  corresponding  chord 
from  the  heart — a  chord  which  is,  at  the  will  of  the 
'  painter,  bright  with  joy  or  tremulous  with  sorrow 
and  grief .  He  appeals  notably  to  those  who  pray,  and 
to  those  who  weep,  and  reveals  by  hia  work  that  he 
waa  a  man  of  intense  personal  feeling,  and  had  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  mysteries  alike  of  great  joy 
and  bitter  sorrow, 

WiLUAu*ON,  Luini  (London,  IBOO);  Qauthiei.  Luini  |P»™, 
1906);  I.ccA.  Sacrid  Lomiard  Art  (Uilu.  ISST);  Obunui, 
Abradario  (Venice,  176.1):  Lohauo.  TraOala  ddV  Arlr  della 
PiUiira  (MiUn,  I684h  Rio,  De  VArt  Chraien  (Phcu,  1S74|: 
Roomi,  Slaria  d^ia  PiUura  Ilaliaiui  (Pisa,  IS17);  docuraenu 
laap«etAl  by  tha  vriter  at  Lesnano,  Luffano,  Luino,  Milan  and 

Georoe  Charles  Williaubon. 


Lake,  Gospel  ( 


Saint. — ^The  subject  will    b« 


tbeir  way  almost  as  ereat  aa  the  decontion  at  the 
Qreat  Monastery,  ana  perhaps  the  polj^tych 


tLq.- 


e  important  than  eitber  of  them,  so 
nuaptuoua  is  it  in  its  colouring  and  so  erquisite  in  its 
teUgious  feeling. 

Of  bis  other  work  in  oil,  perhaps  the  chief  and  finest 
Mbinet  picture  is  the  "  Hadonna  of  the  Rose  Hedge  ", 


Saint  Luke;  IT.  Authenticity  of  the  Gospel; 
tegrity  of  the  (joepel;  IV.  Purpose  and  Contents; 
V.  Sources  of  the  Gospel;  Synoptic  Problem;  VI. 
Saint  Luke's  Accuracy;  VII.  Lvsanias,  Tetrarch  of 
AUIene;  VIII.  Who  Spoke  the  Magnificat?  IX.  The 
Ccnsua  of  Quirinius;   X.  Saint  Luke  and  Josephus. 

I.  BiooRAFHT  or  Saint  Luke. — The  name  Imcos 
(Luke)  is  probably  an  abbreviation  from  Lucanus.  liko 


LUSK 


421 


LUSK 


Annas  from  Ananus,  ApoUos  from  ApoUoniuSi  Arte- 
mas  from  Artemidorns,  Demas  from  Demetriuisi  etc. 
(Schans,  "Evang.  des  heiligen  Lucas",  1,  2;  Light- 
foot  on  "Col.",  iv,  14;  Plummer, " St. Luke", introd.) 
The  word  Lucas  seems  to  have  been  unknown  before 
the  Christian  Era;  but  Lucanus  is  common  in  inscrip- 
tions, and  is  found  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
Qospel  in  some  Old  Latin  MSS.  (ibid.).  It  is  gener- 
ally held  that  St.  Luke  was  a  native  of  Antioch. 
Eusebius  (Hist.^  Eccl.,  Ill,  iv,  6)  has:  AovkSls  9i  t6  fdw 
yivot  &p  tQp  dv  'Arrcoxc^f,  t^ip  iwtaTi^/ifiP  larpbtf  rd 
irXcMrra  avYyeyopClts  rtp  HaCXtp,  Kal  rots  \oivois  8i  oi 
TopdpyvtrQif  dwoarhXup  &fu\pK(&t — ''Lucas  vero  domo 
Antiochenus,  arte  medicus,  oui  et  cum  Paulo  diu  con- 
junctissime  vixit,  et  cum  reliquis  Apostolis  studiose 
versatus  est."  Eusebius  has  a  clearer  statement  in 
his  "Qusestiones  Evangelic®",  IV,  i,  270:  6  di  Aovirat 
t6  iikp  y4pos  d,w6  rijf  Potifidpiis  'Ayrcox<^f  4" — "Luke 
was  by  birth  a  native  of  the  renowned  Antioch" 
(Schmiedel, "  Encore.  Bib.").  Spitta,  Schmiedel,  and 
Hamack  think  tms  is  a  quotation  from  Julius  Afri- 
can us  (first  half  of  the  third  century).  In  Codex 
Bexce  (D)  Luke  is  introduced  by  a  "we"  as  early  as 
Acts,  xi,  28;  and,  though  this  is  not  a  correct  reading, 
it  represents  a  very  ancient  tradition.  The  writer  of 
Acts  took  a  speciiu  interest  in  Antioch  and  was  well 
acquainted  with  it  (Acts,  xi,  19-27;  xiii,  1;  xiv,  18-21, 
25;  XV,  22,  23,  30,  36;  xviii,  22).  We  are  told  the 
locality  of  only  one  deacon,  "Nicolas,  a  proselyte  of 
Antioch",  vi,  5;  and  it  has  been  pointed  out  by  Plum- 
mer  that,  out  of  eight  writers  who  describe  the  Kussian 
campaign  of  1812,  only  two,  who  were  Scotchmen, 
mention  that  'the  Russian  general,  Barclay  de  Tolly, 
was  of  Scotch  extraction.  These  considerations  seem 
to  exclude  the  conjecture  of  Renan  and  Ramsay  that 
St.  Luke  was  a  native  of  Philippi. 

St.  Luke  was  not  a  Jew.  He  is  separated  by  St. 
Paul  from  those  of  the  circumcision  (Col.,  iv,  14),  and 
his  style  proves  that  he  was  a  Greek.  Hence  he  can- 
not be  identified  with  Lucius  the  prophet  of  Acts,  xiii, 
1,  nor  with  Lucius  of  Rom.,  xvi,  21.  who  was  coanatus 
of  St.  Paul.  From  this  and  the  prologue  of  the  Gospel 
it  follows  that  Epiphanius  errs  when  ne  calls  him  one 
of  the  Seventy  Disciples ;  nor  was  he  the  companion  of 
Cleophas  in  the  journey  to  Emm^us  after  the  Resur- 
rection (as  stated  bv  Theophyla^t  ancL^^e  Greek 
Menol.).  St.  Luke  had  a  great  kno^C^^^^fj^he 
Septuagint  and  of  things  Jewish,  whPP!Pim^a9ii¥Hi 
either  as  a  Jewish  proselyte  (St.  JenOTie)  or  after  he 
became  a  Christian,  through  his  close  intercourse  with 
the  Apostles  and  disciples.  BflMes  Greek,  he  had 
many  opportunities  of  acquiring  Aramaic  in  his  native 
Antioch,  the  capital  of  S^^ia.  He  was  a  physician  by 
profession,  and  St.  Paul  calls  him  ''the  most  dear 
physician"  (Col.,  iv,  14).  This  avocation  implied  a 
liberal  education,  and  his  medical  training  is  evidenced 
by  his  choice  of  medical  language.  Plummer  suggests 
that  he  may  have  studied  medicine  at  the  famous 
school  of  Tarsus,  the  rival  of  Alexandria  and  Athens, 
and  possibly  met  St.  Paul  there.  From  his  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  it  has  been 
conjectured  that  he  had  lengthened  experience  as  a 
doctor  on  board  ship.  He  travelled  a  good  deal,  and 
sends  greetings  to  the  Colossians,  which  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  he  had  visited  them. 

St.  Luke  first  appears  in  the  Acts  at  Troas  (xvi,  8 
sqq.),  where  he  meets  St.  Paul,  and,  after  the  vision, 
crossed  over  with  him  to  Europe  as  an  Evanselist, 
landine  at  Neapolis  and  going  on  to  Philippi,  **  being 
assured  that  God  had  called  us  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
them"  (note  especially  the  transition  into  first  person 
plural  at  verse  10).  He  was,  therefore,  already  an 
Evangelist.  He  was  present  at  the  conversion  of 
Lydia  and  her  companions,  and  lodged  in  her  house, 
m,  together  with  St.  Paul  and  his  companions^  was 
recognized  by  the  pythonical  spirit:  ''This  same  fol- 
lowing Paul  and  us,  cried  out,  saying:  These  men  are 


the  servants  of  the  most  high  God,  who  preach  unto 
ybu  the  way  of  salvation"  (verse  17).  He  beheld 
Paul  and  Silas  arrested,  dragged  before  the  Roman 
magistrates,  char^^ed  with  disturbing  the  city,  "  being 
Jews",  beaten  with  rods,  and  thrown  into  prison. 
Luke  and  Timothy  escapea .  probably  because  they  did 
not  look  like  Jews  (Timotny's  father  was  a  gentile). 
When  Paul  departed  from  Pnilippi,  Luke  was  left  be- 
hind, in  all  probability  to  canv  on  the  work  of  Evan- 
gelist. At  Thessalomca  the  Apostle  received  highly 
appreciated  pecuniary  aid  from  Philippi  (Phil.,  iv,  15, 
16),  doubtless  through  the  good  offices  of  St.  Luke. 
It  is  not  imlikely  that  the  latter  remained  at  Philippi 
all  the  time  that  St.  Paul  was  preaching  at  Athens  and 
Corinth,  and  while  he  was  travelling  to  Jerusalem  and 
back  to  Ephesus,  and  during  the  three  years  that  the 
Apostle  was  engaged  at  Ephesus.  When  St.  Paul  re- 
visited Macedonia,  he  agam  met  St.  Luke  at  Philippi, 
and  there  wrote  his  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 

St.  Jerome  thinks  it  is  most  likely  that  St.  Luke  is 
"  the  brother,  whose  praise  is  in  the  gospel  through  aJl 
the  churches"  (II  Cor.,  viii,  18),  and  that  he  was  one 
of  the  bearers  of  the  letter  to  Corinth.  Shortly  after- 
wards, when  St.  Paul  returned  from  Greece,  St.  Luke 
accompanied  him  from  Philippi  to  Troas,  and  with 
him  made  the  long  coastine  voyage  described  in  Acts, 
XX.  He  went  up  to  JerussJem,  was  present  at  the  up- 
roar, saw  the  attack  on  the  Apostle,  and  heard  him 
speaking  "  in  the  Hebrew  tongue"  from  the  steps  out- 
side the  fortress  Antonia  to  the  silenced  crowd.  Then 
he  witnessed  the  infuriated  Jews,  in  their  impotent 
rage,  rending  their  garments,  yelling,  and  flinging 
dust  into  the  air.  We  mav  be  sure  that  he  was  a  con- 
stant visitor  to  St.  Paul  during  the  two  years  of  the 
latter's  imprisonment  at  Csesarea.  In  that  period  he 
might  well  become  acquainted  with  the  circumstances 
of  the  death  of  Herod  Agrippa  I,  who  had  died  there 
"eaten  up  by  worms"  (<r#cwXi;jr6/9p<iin-of ) ,  and  he  was  likely 
to  be  better  uiformea  on  the  subject  than  Josephus. 
Ample  oppK)rtunities  were  given  him,  "havins  dili- 
gently attained  to  all  things  from  the  banning",  oon- 
ceming  the  Gospel  and  early  Acts,  to  write  in  order 
what  had  been  delivered  by  those  "who  from  the  be- 
ginning were  eyewitnesses  and  ministers  of  the  word" 
(Luke,  i,  2,  3).  It  is  held  bv  many  writers  that  the 
Gospel  was  written  during  tnis  time;  Ramsay  is  of 
opinion  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  then 
composed,  and  that  St.  Luke  had  a  considerable  share 
in  it.  When  Paul  appealed  to  Csesar,  Luke  and  Aris- 
tarchus  accompanied  him  from  Csesarea,  and  were  wiUi 
him  during  the  stormy  voyage  from  Crete  to  Malta. 
Thence  they  went  on  to  Rome,  where,  durins  the 
two  years  that  St.  Paul  was  kept  in  prison,  St.  Xuke 
was  frequently  at  his  side,  though  not  continuously,  as 
he  is  not  mentioned  in  the  greetings  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Philippians  (Lightfoot,  "Phil",  35).  He  was 
present  when  the  Epistles  to  the  Colossians,  Ephesians, 
and  Philemon  were  written,  and  is  mentioned  in  the 
salutations  given  in  two  of  them:  "Luke,  the  most 
dear  physician,  saluteth  you"  (Col.,  iv,  14);  "There 
salute  thee  .  .  .  Mark,  Aristarchus,  Demas^  and 
Luke  my  fellow  labourers"  (Philem.,  24).  St.  Jerome 
holds  that  it  was  during  these  two  years  Acts  was 
written. 

We  have  no  information  about  St.  Luke  during  the 
interval  between  St.  Paul's  two  Roman  imprison- 
ments, but  he  must  have  met  several  of  the  AposUee 
and  disciples  during  his  various  journeys.  He  stood 
beside  St.  Paul  in  his  last  imprisonment;  for  the 
Apostle,  writing  for  the  last  time  to  Timothy,  says: 
"1  have  fought  a  good  fight,  I  have  finished  my 
course.  .  .  .  Make  naste  to  come  to  me  ouickly.  For 
Demas  hath  left  me,  loving  this  world.  .  .  .  Only 
Luke  is  with  me"  (II  Tim.,  iv,  7-1 1) .  It  is  worthy  of 
note  that,  in  the  three  places  where  he  is  mentionea  in 
the  Epistles  (Col.,  iv,  14;  Philem.,  24;  IITim.,ivAt\ 
he  is  named  with  St,  MwVl(s.1X^.;v^  A^>*^^^i5^«» 


LUSK 


422 


LUXX 


Ehrangelist  who  was  not  an  Apostle  (Plummer) ;  and 
it  is  ctear  from  his  Gospel  that  he  was  well  acquainted 
witii  the  Gospel  acconiing  to  St.  Mark;  and  in  the 
Acts  he  knows  all  the  details  of  St.  Peter's  delivery — 
what  happened  at  the  house  of  St.  Mark's  mother,  and 
the  name  of  the  girl  who  ran  to  the  outer  door  when  St. 
Peter  knocked.  He  must  have  frequently  met  St. 
Peter,  and  may  have  assisted  him  to  draw  up  his 
First  Epistle  in  Greek,  which  affords  many  reminis- 
cences of  Luke's  style.  After  St.  Paul's  martyrdom 
practically  all  that  is  known  about  him  is  contained 
m  the  ancient  "Prefatio  vel  Areumentum  Luccb", 
dating  back  to  Julius  Africanus,  who  was  bom  about 
A.  D.  165.  This  states  that  he  was  unmarried,  that  he 
wrote  the  Gospel,  in  Achaia,  and  that  he  died  at  the 
age  of  seventy-four  in  Bithynia  (probably  a  copyist's 
error  forBoeotia),  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost.  Epi- 
phanius  has  it  that  he  preached  in  Dalmatia  (where 
there  is  a  tradition  to  tnat  effect),  Gallia  (Galatia?), 
Italy,  and  Macedonia.  As  an  Evangelist,  he  must 
have  suffered  much  for  the  Faith;  but  it  is  contro- 
verted whether  he  actually  died  a  martyr's  death.  St. 
Jerome  writes  of  him  (De  Vir.  111.,  yii):  "Sepultus  est 
Constantinopoli,  ad  quam  urbem  vigesimo  Constantii 
anno,  ossa  ejus  cum  reliquiis  Andrc^e  Apostoli  trans- 
lata  sunt  [de  Achaia?]."  St.  Luke  is  always  repre- 
sented by  the  calf  or  ox,  the  sacrificial  animal,  because 
his  Gospel  begins  with  the  account  of  Zachary.  the 
priest,  tnc  father  of  John  the  Baptist.  He  is  called  a 
painter  by  Nicephonis  Callistus  (fourteenth  century), 
and  by  the  Menology  of  Basil  II,  A-  d.  980.  A  picture 
of  the  Virgin  in  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  Rome,  is  ascribed  to 
him,  and  can  be  traced  to  a.  d.  847  It  is  probably  a 
cppv  of  that  mentioned  by  Theodore  Lector,  in  the 
rixtn  century.  This  writer  states  that  the  Empress 
Eudoxia  foimd  a  picture  of  the  Mother  of  God,  at 
Jerusalem,  which  she  sent  to  Constantinople  (see 
"Acta  SS.",  18  Oct.).  As  Plummer  observes,  it  is 
certain  that  St.  Luke  was  an  artist,  at  least  to  the  ex- 
tent that  his  eraphic  descriptions  of  the  Annimciation, 
Visitation,  Nativity,  Shepherds,  Presentation,  the 
Shepherd  and  lost  sheep,  etc.,  have  become  the  in- 
spirme  and  favourite  themes  of  Christian  painters. 

St.  Luke  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  writers  of  the 
New  Testament.  His  Gospel  is  considerably  longer 
than  St.  Matthew's;  his  two  books  are  about  as  long 
as  St.  Paul's  fourteen  Epistles;  and  Acta  exceeds  in 
length  the  Seven  Catholic  Epistles  and  the  Apocalypse. 
The  style  of  the  Gospel  is  superior  to  any  N.  T.  writ- 
ing except  Hebrews.  Renan  says  (Les  Evannles,  xiii) 
that  it  is  the  most  literary  of  the  Gospels.  St.  Luke 
is  a  painter  in  words.  "The  author  of  the  Third 
Gospel  and  of  the  Acts  is  the  most  versatile  of  all 
New  Testament  writers.  He  can  be  as  Hebraistic  as 
the  Septuagint,  and  as  free  from  Hebraisms  as  Plu- 
tarch. .  .  He  is  Hebraistic  in  describing  Hebrew 
society  and  Greek  when  describing  Greek  society" 
glummer,  introd.).  His  great  command  of  Greek 
IB  dbown  by  the  richness  of  his  vocabulary  and  the 
freedom  of  his  constructions. 

11.  Authenticity  of  the  Gospel. — A.  Internal 
Evidence. — ^The  internal  evidence  may  be  briefly 
summarized  as  follows:  The  author  of  Acts  was  a 
companion  of  Saint  Paul,  namely.  Saint  Luke;  and 
the  author  of  Acts  was  the  author  of  the  Gospel.  The 
arguments  are  given  at  length  by  Plummer,  "St. 
Luke"  in  "Int.  Crit.  Com."  (4th  ed.,  Edinburgh, 
1901);  Hamack,  "Luke  the  Physician"  (London, 
1907);  "The  Acts  of  the  Apostles"  (London,  1909); 
etc. 

(1)  The  Author  of  Acts  was  a  companion  ot 
Samt  Paul  J  namely.  Saint  Luke. — ^There  is  nothing 
more  certain  in  Biblical  criticism  than  this  proposi- 
tion. The  writer  of  the  "we"  sections  claims  to  l)e 
tt  companion  of  St.  Paul.  The  "we"  begins  at  Acts, 
xvi,  lOj  and  coiitiriuos  to  xvi,  17  (the  action  is  at 
Jfu/ippi)     It  renppcnrs  at  xx,  5  (Philippi),  ami  con- 


tinues to  xxi,  18  (Jerusalem).  It  reappears  again  at 
the  departure  for  Rome,  xxvii,  1  (Gr.  text),  and  con- 
tinues to  the  end  of  the  book. 

Plummer  argues  that  these  sections  are  by  the  same 
author  as  the  rest  of  the  Acts:  (a)  from  tne  natural 
way  in  which  they  fit  in;  fb)  from  references  to  them 
in  other  parts;  and  (c)  from  the  identity  of  style. 
The  change  of  person  seems  natural  and  true  to  the 
narrative,  but  tnere  is  no  change  of  language.  The 
characteristic  expressions  of  the  writer  run  through 
the  whole  book,  and  are  as  frequent  in  the  "  we  "  as 
in  the  other  sections.  There  is  no  change  of  style 
penseptible.  Hamack  (Luke  the  Physician,  40) 
makes  an  exhaustive  examination  of  every  word  and 
phrase  in  the  first  of  the  "we"  sections  (xvi,  10-17), 
and  shows  how  frequent  they  are  in  the  rest  of  the 
Acts  and  the  Gospel,  when  compared  with  the  other 
Gospels.  His  manner  of  dealing  with  the  first  word 
(wf)  will  indicate  his  method:  "This  temporal  ws  is 
never  found  in  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark,  but  it 
occurs  forty-eight  times  in  St.  Luke  (Gospel  and 
Acts),  and  that  in  all  parts  of  the  work."  When  he 
comes  to  the  end  of  nis  study  of  this  section,  he  is 
able  to  write:  "After  this  demonstration  those  who 
declare  that  this  passage  was  derived  from  a  source, 
and  so  was  not  composed  by  the  author  of  the  whole 
work,  take  up  a  most  diflicult  position.  What  may 
we  suppose  the  author  to  have  left  unaltered  in  tlie 
source r  Only  the  'we'.  For,  in  fact,  nothing  else 
remains.  In  regard  to  vocabulary,  syntax,  and  style, 
he  must  have  transformed  everj-thing  else  into  his 
own  language.  As  such  a  procedure  is  absolutely 
unimaginable,  we  are  simply  left  to  infer  that  the 
author  is  here  himself  speaking."  He  even  thinks  it 
improbable,  on  account  of  the  uniformity  of  style, 
that  the  author  was  copying  from  a  diary  of  his  own, 
made  at  an  earlier  penod.  After  this.  Harnack  pro- 
ceeds to  deal  with  the  remaining  "  we '  sections,  with 
like  results.  But  it  is  not  alone  in  vocabulary,  syn- 
tax, and  style,  that  this  uniformity  is  manifest.  In 
"Tne  Acts  of  the  Apostles",  Hamack  devotes  many 
pa^  to  a  detailed  consideration  of  the  manner  in 
which  chronological  data,  and  terms  dealing  w^ith 
lands,  nations,  cities,  and  houses,  are  employed 
throughout  the  Ac^,  as  well  as  the  mode  of  aealing 
with  r^rnttrjC'j^^t*" ^^"" *  and  he  everywhere  shows 
!vj£w,  Jteorship  cannot  be  denied  except 
l?i^9n  the  facts.  This  same  conclusion 
is  corroboratedlSjr  the  recurrence  of  medical  language 
in  all  parts  of  the^Acts  and  the  Gospel. 

That  the  compamol^^f  St.  Paul  wno  wrote  the  Acts 
was  St.  Luke  is  the  unanimous  voice  of  antiquity. 
His  choice  of  medical  languStge  proves  that  the  author 
was  a  physician.  Westein,  in  his  preface  to  the  Gospel 
("Novum  Test.  Graecum",  Amsterdam,  1741,  643). 
states  that  there  are  clear  indications  of  his  medical 
profession  throughout  St.  Luke's  writings;  and  in  the 
course  of  his  commentary  he  points  out  several  tech- 
nical expressions  common  to  the  Evangelist  and  the 
medical  writings  of  Galen.  These  were  brought  to- 
gether by  the  Bollandists  ("  Acta  SS.",  18  Oct.) .  In  the 
"Gentleman's  Marine"  for  June,  1841,  a  paper  ap- 
peared on  the  medical  language  of  St.  Luke.  To  tne 
instances  given  in  that  article,  Plummer  and  Hamack 
add  several  others;  but  the  great  book  on  the  subicct 
is  Hobart,  "The  Medical  Language  of  St.  Luke" 
(Dublin,  1882).  Hobart  works  right  through  the 
Gospel  and  Acts,  and  points  out  numerous  words  and 
phrases  identical  with  those  employed  by  such  medi- 
cal writers  as  Hippocrates,  Arcta?us,  Galen,  and 
Dioscorides.  A  few  are  found  in  Aristotle^  but  he  was 
a  doctor's  son.  The  words  and  phrases  cited  are 
either  peculiar  to  the  Tliird  Gospel  and  Acts,  or  are 
more  frequent  than  in  other  New  Testament  writings. 
The  argument  is  cumulative,  and  does  not  give  way 
with  its  weakest  strands.  When  doubtful  cases  and 
expressions  common  to  the  Septuagint,  are  set  aside,  a 


Lwa 


423 


LUSK 


large  number  remain  that  seem  auite  unassailable. 
Hamack  (Luke  the  Phvsician^  13)  says:  "It  is  as 
good  as  certain  from  tne  subject-matter,  and  more 
especially  from  the  style,  of  this  great  work  that  the 
author  was  a  physician  by  profession.  Of  course,  in 
making  such  a  statement  one  still  exposes  oneself  to 
the  scorn  of  the  critics,  and  yet  the  arguments' which 
are  alleged  in  its  support  are  simply  convincing.  .  .  . 
Those,  however,  who  have  studied  it  [Hobart's  book] 
carefully,  will,  I  think,  find  it  impossible  to  escape  the 
conclusion  that  the  question  here  is  not  one  of  merely 
accidental  linguistic  colouring,  but  that  this  great 
historical  work  was  composed  by  a  writer  who  was 
either  a  physician  or  was  quite  intimatelv  acquainted 
with  medical  language  and  science.  And,  indeed, 
this  conclusion  holds  good  not  only  for  the  'we'  sec- 
tions, but  for  the  wh^e  book."  Hamack  gives  the 
subject  special  treatment  in  an  appendix  of  twenty- 
two  pages.  Hawkins  and  Zahn  come  to  the  same  con- 
clusion. The  latter  observes  (Einl.,  11,  427):  "Ho- 
bart  has  proved  for  everyone  who  can  appreciate  proof 
that  the  author  of  the  Lucan  work  was  a  man  prac- 
tised in  the  scientific  language  of  Greek  medicme — 
in  short,  a  Greek  physician"  (quoted  by  Hamack,  op. 

cit.). 
In  this  connexion,  Plummer,  though  he  speaks  more 

cautiously  of  Hobart's  argument,  is  practically  in 
agreement  with  these  writers.  He  says  that  when 
Hobart's  list  has  been  well  sifted  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  words  remains.  "  The  argument",  he  goes  on  to 
say,  "is  cumulative.  Any  two  or  three  instances  of 
coincidence  with  medical  writers  may  be  explained  as 
mere  coincidences;  but  the  large  number  of  coinci- 
dences renders  their  explanation  unsatisfactory  for  all 
of  them,  especially  where  the  word  is  either  rare  in  the 
LXX,  or  not  found  there  at  all"  (64).  In  "The  Ex- 
positor" (Nov,  1909, 385  sqa.),  Mayor  says  of  Hamack's 
two  above-cited  work^"  fie  has,  in  opposition  to  the 
Tubingen  school  of  crit  ^jOjccessf ully  vindicated  for 
St.  Luke  the  authorship^T^S^e  two  canonical  books 
ascribed  to  him,  and  has  further  proved  that,  with 
some  few  omissions,  they  may  be  accepted  as  trust- 
worthy documents.  ...  I  am  glad  to  see  that  the 
English  translator  .  .  .  has  now  been  converted  bv 
Hamack's  argument,  founded  iiBj>art,  as  he  himself 
confesses,  on  the  researches  of  Euied  Ififibsi^rs,  espe- 
cially Dr.  Hobart,  Sir  W.  M.  R  JLfTKIjp^^itti  tfiyn 
Hawkins."  There  is  a  striking  JK^^^flblance  blSween 
the  prologue  of  the  Gospel  and  ^n^preface  written  by 
Dioscorides,  a  medical  writer  wbw^tudied  at  Tarsus  in 
the  first  century  (see  Blass,  "Philology  of  the  Gos- 
pels") .  The  words  with  which  Hippocrates  begins  his 
treatise  "On  Ancient  Medicine"  snould  be  noted  in 
this  connexion:  *OK6<Tot  iirtxeipriffav  xepl  IrjrptK^t  X^ir  1j 
ypd4>€iy,  K.  r.  X.  (Plummer,  4).  When  all  these  con- 
siderations are  fully  taken  into  account,  they  prove 
that  the  companion  of  St.  Paul  who  wrote  the  Acts 
(and  the  Gospel)  was  a  physician.  Now,  we  learn 
from  St.  Paul  that  he  had  such  a  companion.  Writ- 
ing to  the  Colossians  (iv,  11),  he  says:  "Luke,  the 
most  dear  physician,  saluteth  you."  He  was,  there- 
fore, with  bt.  Paul  when  he  wrote  to  the  Colossians, 
Philemon,  and  Ephesians;  and  also  when  he  wrote  the 
Second  Epistle  to  Timothy.  From  the  manner  in 
which  he  is  spoken  of,  a  long  period  of  intercourse  is 
implied. 

(2)  The  Author  of  Acts  was  the  Author  of  the  Go€h 
pel.— "This  position",  says  Plummer,  "is  so  generally 
admitted  by  critics  of  all  schools  that  not  much  time 
need  be  spent  in  discussing  it."  Hamack  may  be 
said  to  be  the  latest  prominent  convert  to  this  view, 
to  which  he  gives  elaborate  support  in  the  two  books 
above  mentioned.  He  claims  to  have  shown  that  the 
earlier  critics  went  hopelessly  astray,  and  that  the 
traditional  view  is  the  right  one.  This  opinion  is  fast 
gaining  ground  even  amongst  ultra  critics,  and  Har- 
uack  declares  that  the  others  hold  out  because  there 


exists  a  disposition  amongst  them  to  ignore  the  fact! 
that  tell  against  them,  and  he  speaks  of  "the  truly 
pitiful  history  of  the  criticism  of  tne  Acts".  Only  the 
oriefest  summary  of  the  arguments  can  be  given  here 
The  Gospel  and  Acts  are  both  dedicated  to  Theophilus, 
and  the  author  of  the  latter  work  claims  to  oe  the 
author  of  the  former  (Acts,  i,  1).  The  style  and  ar- 
rangement of  both  are  so  much  alike  that  tne  supposi- 
tion that  one  was  written  by  a  forger  in  imitation  of 
the  other  is  absolutely  excluded.  The  required  power 
of  literary  analysis  was  then  unknown;  and,  if  it  were 
possible,  we  know  of  no  writer  of  that  age  who  had  the 
wonderful  skill  necessary  to  produce  such  an  imita- 
tion. It  is  to  postulate  a  literary  miracle,  says  Plum- 
mer, to  suppose  that  one  of  the  books  was  a  forgery 
written  in  imitation  of  the  other.  Such  an  idea  would 
not  have  occurred  to  anyone;  and,  if  it  had,  he  could 
not  have  carried  it  out  with  such  marvellous  success. 
If  we  take  a  few  chapters  of  the  Gospel  and  note  down 
the  special,  peculiar,  and  characteristic  words,  phrases 
and  constmctions,  and  then  open  the  Acts  at  random, 
we  shall  find  the  same  literary  peculiarities  constantly 
recurring.  Or,  if  we  begin  with  the  Acts,  and  proceed 
conversely,  the  same  results  will  follow.  In  addition 
to  similarity,  there  are  parallels  of  description,  ar- 
rangement, and  points  of  view;  and  the  recurrence  of 
medical  language,  in  both  books,  has  been  mentioned ' 
under  the  previous  heading. 

We  should  naturally  expect  that  the  long  intercourse 
between  St.  Paiil  and  St.  Luke  would  mutually  in- 
fluence their  vocabulary,  and  their  writings  show  that 
this  was  really  the  case.  Hawkins  (Horse  Synopticse) 
and  Bebb  (Hast.,  "Diet,  of  the  Bible",  s.  v,  "Luke, 
Gospel  of)  state  that  there  are  32  words  found  only 
in  St.  Matt,  and  St.  Paul ;  22  in  St.  Mark  and  St.  Paul: 
2rin  St.  John  and  St.  Paul;  while  there  are  101  found 
only  in  St.  Luke  and  St.  Paul.  Of  the  characteristic 
words  and  phrases  which  mark  the  three  Synoptic 
Gospels  a  little  more  than  half  are  common  to  St. 
Matt,  and  St.  Paul,  less  than  half  to  St.  Mark  and  St. 
Paul,  and  two-thirds  to  St.  Luke  and  St.  Paul.  Sev- 
eral writers  have  given  examples  of  parallelism  be- 
tween the  Gospel  and  the  Pauline  Epistles.  Among 
the  most  striking  are  those  given  by  Plummer  (44), 
The  same  author  gives  long  lists  of  words  and  ex- 
pressions found  in  the  Gospel  and  Acts  and  in  St.  Paul, 
and  nowhere  else  in  the  New  Testament.  But  more 
than  this,  Eager  in  "The  Expositor"  (July  and  Au- 
gust, 1894),  in  his  attempt  to  prove  that  St.  Luke 
was  the  author  of  Hebrews,  has  drawn  attention  to 
the  remarkable  fact  that  the  Lucan  influence  on  the 
language  of  St.  Paul  is  much  more  marked  in  those 
Epistles  where  we  know  that  St.  Luke  was  his  con- 
stant companion.  Summing  up,  he  observes:  "There 
is  in  fact  sufficient  ground  for  believing  that  these 
books,  Colossians,  II  Corinthians,  the  Pastoral  Epis- 
tles, Firat  (and  to  a  leaser  extent  Second)  Peter,  pos- 
sess a  Lucan  character."  When  all  these  points  are 
taken  into    consideration,    they     afford    convincing 

Eroof  that  the  author  of  the  Gospel  and  Acts  was  St. 
luke,  the  beloved  physician,  the  companion  of  St. 
Paul,  and  this  is  fully  home  out  by  the  external 
evidence. 

B.  External  Evidence, — The  proof  in  favour  of  the 
unity  of  authorship,  derived  from  the  internal  char- 
acter of  the  two  books,  is  strengthened  when  taken 
in  connexion  with  the  external  evidence.  Every 
ancient  testimony  for  the  authenticity  of  Acts  tells 
equally  in  favour  of  the  Gospel ;  and  every  pa;ssage 
for  the  Lucan  authorship  ot  the  Gospel  gives  a  like 
support  to  the  authenticity  of  Acts.  Besides,  in 
many  places  of  the  early  Fathers  both  books  are 
ascrioed  to  St.  Luke.  The  external  evidence  can  be 
touched  upon  here  only  in  the  briefest  manner.  For 
external  evidence  in  favour  of  Acts,  see  Acts  of  the 
Apostles. 
The  many  ^^ssaj^^ss^  vcw  ^V  ^^^lws^^^^^J^iw^^^^5fi.^  >>sssw 


LUKl  424  LUSX 

Origen.  ascribing  the  books  to  St.  Luke,  are  important  from  all  four.  Westcott  shows  that  there  is  no  trace 
not  only  as  testifying  to  the  belief  of  their  own,  but  in  Justin  of  the  use  of  any  written  dociunent  on  the  life 
also  of  earlier  times.  St.  Jerome  and  Origen  were  of  Christ  except  our  Gospels.  '^He  [Justin]  tells  us 
great  travellers,  and  all  three  were  omniverous  that  Christ  was  descended  from  Abraham  through 
readers.  They  had  access  to  practically  the  whole  Jacob,  Judah,  Phares,  Jesse,  David — ^that  the  Angel 
Christian  literature  of  preceding  centuries;  but  they  Gabriel  was  sent  to  announce  His  birth  to  the  Virgin 
nowhere  hint  that  the  authorship  of  the  Gospel  (and  Maiy-*-that  it  was  in  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  of 
Acts)  was  ever  called  in  question.  This,  taken  by  Isaiah  •  .  .  that  His  parents  went  thither  [to  Bethle- 
itself,  would  be  a  stronger  argument  than  can  be  hem]  in  consequence  of  an  enrolment  under  Cyrinius — 
adduced  for  the  majority  of  classical  works.  But  we  that  as  they  could  not  find  a  lodging  in  the  village  they 
have  much  earlier  testimony.  Clement  of  Alexan-  lodged  in  a  cave  dose  by  it,  where  Christ  was  bom, 
dria  was  probably  bom  at  Athens  about  a.  d.  150.  andlaid  by  Mary  in  a  manger'',  etc.  (Westcott,  "Can- 
He  travelled  much,  and  had  for  instructors  in  on",  104).  There  is  a  constant  intermixture  in  Jus- 
the  Faith  an  Ionian,  an  Italian,  a  Syrian,  an  Egyp-  tin's  quotations  of  the  narratives  of  St.  Matthew  and 
tian,  an  Assyrian,  and  a  Hebrew  in  Palestine.  St.  Luike.  As  usual  in  apologetical  works,  such  as  the 
"  And  these  men,  preserving  the  true  tradition  of  the  apologies  of  Tatian,  Athena^ras,  Theophilus,  Tcr- 
blessed  teaching  airectly  from  Peter  and  James,  John  tullian,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Cyprian,  and  Euse- 
and  Paul,  the  holy  Apostles,  son  receiving  it  from  bins,  he  does  not  name  his  sources  because  he  was 
father,  came  by  God's  providence  even  unto  us,  to  addressing  outsiders.  He  states,  however,  that  the 
dei>osit  among  us  those  seeds  [of  tmth]  which  were  memoirs  which  were  called  Gospels  were  read  in  the 
derived  from  their  ancestors  and  the  Apostles",  churches  on  Sunday  along  with  the  writings  of  the 
(Strom.,  I,  i,  ll;cf.  Euseb.,  "Hist.  EccL* ,  V,  xi).  Prophets;  in  other  words,  they  were  placed  on  an 
He  holds  that  St.  Luke's  Gospel  was  written  before  equal  rank  with  the  Old  Testament,  in  the  ''Dia- 
that  of  St.  Mark,  and  he  uses  the  four  Gospels  just  loffue",  cv,  we  have  a'  passage  peculiar  to  St.  Luke. 
as  any  moflem  Catholic  writer.  Tertullian  was  bom  ''Jesus  as  He  cave  up  His  Spirit  uoon  the  Cross  said, 
at  Carthage,  lived  some  time  in  Rome,  and  then  re-  'Father,  into  tny  hands  I  commena  my  Spirit'  [Luke, 
turned  to  Carthage.  His  quotations  from  the  Gofr-  xxiii,  46],  even  as  I  learned  from  the  Memoirs  of  this 
pels,  when  brought  together  by  Ronsch,  cover  two  fact  also."  These  Gospels  which  were  read  ever>' 
Hundred  pages.  He  attacks  Marcion  for  mutilating  Sunday  must  be  the  same  as  our  four,  which  soon 
St.  Luke's  Gospel,  and  writes: " I  say  then  that  among  after,  in  the  time  of  Irenaeus,  were  in  such  lone  estab- 
them,  and  not  only  among  the  Apostolic  Churches,  lished  honour,  and  regarded  by  him  as  inspired  by  the 
but  amons  all  the  Churches  whicn  are  united  with  Holy  Ghost.  We  never  hear,  says  Salmon,  of  any 
them  in  Christian  fellowship,  the  Gospel  of  Luke,  revolution  dethroning  one  set  of  Gospels  and  replacing 
which  we  earnestly  defend,  has  been  maintained  them  by  another;  so  we  may  be  sure  that  the  Gospels 
from  its  firot  publication"  (Adv.  Marc.,  IV,  v).  honoured  by  the  Church  in  Justin's  day  were  the  same 

The  testimony  of  St.  Irenaeus  is  of  special  impor-  as  those  to  which  the  same  respect  was  paid  in  the  days 
tanoe.  He  was  bom  in  Asia  Minor,  where  he  heard  of  Irenseus,  not  many  years  after.  This  conclusion  is 
St.  Polycarp  jgive  his  reminiscences  of  St.  John  the  strengthenednotonhrby  the  nature  of  Justin's  quota- 
Apostle,  and  in  his  numerous  writings  he  frequently  tions,  but  by  the  evidence  afforded  by  his  pupil  Tatian, 
mentions  other  disciples  of  the  Apostles.  He  was  the  Assyrian,  who  hved  a  long  time  with  him  in  Rome, 
priest  in  Lyons  during  the  persecution  in  177,  and  was  and  afterwards  compiled  his  narmony  of  the  Gospels, 
the  bearer  of  the  letter  m  the  confessors  to  Rome,  his  famous  "  Diatessaron",  in  Syriac,  from  our  four 
His  bishop,  Pothinus,  whom  he  succeeded,  was  Gospels.  He  had  travelled  a  great  deal,  and  the  fact 
ninety  years  of  age  when  he  gained  the  crown  of  mar-  that  he  uses  only  those  shows  that  they  alone  were 
tyrdom  in  177,  and  must  have  been  bom  while  some  recognised  by  SWJustin  and  the  Catholic  Church  be- 
or  the  Apostles  and  very  many  of  their  hearers  were  tween  130''HWr  This  takes  us  back  to  the  time  when 
still  living.  St.  Irenseus.  who  was  bom  about  a.  d.  n^Miy^lhe  hearers  of  the  Apostles  and  Evangelists 
130  (some  say  much  earlier),  is,  therefore,  a  witness  weTciicill  alive ,^^^ it  is  held  by  many  scholars  that  St. 
for  tne  early  traditicm  of  Asia  Minor,  Rome,  and  Gaul.  Luke  lived  till  tomrds  the  end  of  the  first  centuiy . 
He  quotes  the  Gospels  just  as  any  modem  bishop  Ireiueus,  Clemei^,  Tatian,  Justin,  etc.,  were  in  as 
would  do ;  he  calls  them  Scripture ;  bene ves  even  in  their  good  a  position  for  forming  a  j  udgment  on  the  aut hen- 
verbal  inspiration*  shows  now  congruous  it  is  that  ticity  of  the  Gospels  as  we  are  of  knowing  who  were 
there  are  four  and  only  four  Gospels;  and  says  that  the  authors  of  Scott's  novels,  Macaulay's  essays, 
Lvike,  who  begins  with  the  priesthood  and  sacrifice  Dickens's  early  novels,  Longfellow's  poems,  no.  xc  of 
of  Zachaiy.  is  the  calf.  When  we  compare  his  quo-  '^Tracts  for  the  Times"  etc.  But  the  argument  does 
tations  with  those  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  variant  not  end  here.  Many  of  the  heretics  who  flourished 
readings  of  text  present  themselves.  There  was  al-  from  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  till  a.  d.  150 
readv  established  an  Alexandrian  type  of  text  diffei^  admitted  St.  Luke's  Gospel  as  authontative.  This 
ent  from  that  used  in  the  West.  The  Gospels  had  proves  that  it  had  ac<|uired  an  unassailable  position 
been  copied  and  recopied  so  often,  that,  through  long  before  these  heretics  broke  away  from  the  Church, 
erron  oi  copying,  etc.,  distinct  families  of  text  had  The  Apocryphal  Gospel  of  Peter,  about  a.  p.  150, 
time  to  establish  themselves.  The  Gospels  were  so  makes  use  of  our  Gospels.  About  the  same  time  the 
widespread  that  they  became  known  to  pagans.  Cel-  Gospels,  together  with  their  titles,  were  translated  into 
BUS  in  his  attack  on  the  Christian  religion  was  ac-  Latm;  and  here,  again,  we  meet  the  phenomena  of 
quainted  with  the  genealogy  in  St.  Luke's  Gospel,  and  variant  readings,  to  oe  found  in  Clement,  Irenseus,  Old 
his  quotations  show  the  same  phenomena  of  variant  Syriac,  Justin,  and  Celsus,  pointing  to  a  long  period  of 
readings.  previous  copying.    Finally,  we  may  ask,  if  the  author 

The  next  witness,  St.  Justin  Biartyr,  shows  the  posi-  of  the  two  books  were  not  St.  Luke,  who  was  he  ? 
tion  of  honour  the  Gospels  held  in  the  Church,  in  the  Hamack  (Luke  the  Physician,  2)  holds  that  as  the 
early  portion  of  the  century.  Justin  was  bom  in  Ciospel  begins  with  a  prologue  addressed  to  an  indivi- 
Palestme  about  a.  d.  105,  and  converted  in  132-135.  dual  (Theophilus)  it  must,  of  necessity,  have  contained 
In  his  "Apology"  he  speaks  of  the  memoirs  ot  the  in  its  title  the  name  of  its  author.  How  can  we  ex- 
Lord  which  are  called  Gospels,  and  which  were  writtcai  plain,  if  St.  Luke  were  not  the  author,  that  the  name 
by  Apostles  (Matthew,  John)  and  disciples  of  the  of  the  real,  and  truly  great,  writer  came  to  be  com- 
Apostles  (Mark.  Luke).  In  connexion  with  the  disci-  pletely  buried  in  oblivion,  to  make  room  for  the  name 
pies  of  the  Apostles  he  cites  the  verses  of  St.  Luke  on  of  such  a  comparatively  obscure  disciple  as  St.  Luke? 
tho Sweat  of  Bloody  and  he  baa  numerous  quotations  Apart  from  his  connexioni  as  supposed  author,  with 


LinCB 


425 


LUSK 


the  Third  Gospel  and  Acts,  he  was  no  more  prominent 
than  Aristarchus  and  Epaphras;  and  he  is  mentioned 
only  in  three  places  in  the  whole  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. If  a  false  name  were  substituted  for  the  true 
author,  some  more  prominent  individual  would  have 
b€«n  selected. 

III.  Intbgritt  op  the  Gospel. — ^Marcion  rejected 
the  first  two  chapters  and  some  shorter  passages  of  the 
Gospel;  and  it  was  at  one  time  maintained  bv  rational- 
istic writers  that  his  was  the  ori^al  Gospel  of  which 
ours  is  a  later  expansion.  This  is  now  universally  re- 
jected by  scholars.  St.  IrensBUS,  Tertullian,  and 
Epiphamus  charged  him  with  mutilating  the  Gospel; 
and  it  is  known  that  the  reasons  for  his  rejection  of 
those  portions  were  doctrinal.  He  cut  oilt  the  ac- 
count of  ihe  infancy  and  the  genealosy,  because  he 
denied  the  human  birth  of  Christ.  As  he  rejected  the 
Old  Testament  all  reference  to  it  had  to  be  excluded. 
That  the  parts  rejected  by  Marcion  belong  to  the 
Gospel  is  clear  from  their  unity  of  style  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  book.  The  characteristics  of  St. 
Luke'sistyle  run  through  the  whole  work,  but  are  more 
frequent  in  the  first  two  chapters  than  an3rwhere  else; 
and  they  are  present  in  the  other  portions  omitted  by 
Marcion.  No  writer  in  those  days  was  capable  of  suc- 
cessfully forging  such  additions.  The  first  two  chap- 
ters, etc.y  are  contained  in  all  the  MSS.  and  versions, 
and  were  known  to  Justin  Martyr  and  other  compe- 
tent witnesses.  On  the  authenticity  of  the  verses  on 
the  Bloody  Sweat,  see  Agont  of  Christ. 

IV.  Purpose  and  Contents. — ^The  Gospel  was 
written,  as  is  gathered  from  the  prologue  (i,  1-4),  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  Theophilus  (and  othei:s  like  him) 
increased  confidence  in  the  unshakable  firmness  of  the 
Christian  truths  in  which  he  had  been  instructed,  or 
*' catechized" — ^the  latter  word  being  used,  according 
to  Hamack,  in  its  technical  sense.  The  Gospel  natur- 
ally falls  into  four  divisions;  (1)  Gospel  of  the  infancy, 
roughljr  covered  by  the  Joyful  Mysteries  of  the  Rosary 
(ch.  i,  li) ;  (2)  miiustrjr  in  Galilee,  from  the  preaching 
of  John  the  Baptist  (iii,  1,  to  ix,  50);  (3)  joumeyings 
towards  Jerusalem  (ix,  61-xix,  27);  (4)  Holy  Week: 
preaching  in  and  near  Jerusalem,  Passion,  and  Resur- 
rection (xix,  28,  to  end  of  xxi v).  We  owe  a  great  deal 
to  the  industry  of  St.  Luke.  Out  of  twenty  miracles 
which  he  records  six  are  not  foimd  in  the  other  Gos- 
pels: draught  of  fishes,  widow"?!'**}'' 
with  dropsy,  ten  lepers,  Malc?*"®^ 
firmity.  He  alone  has  the  foUo^^l^,  ^.^.-w^.*  ^.^«,v^^. 
good  Samaritan,  friend  at  mid^i^^,  rich  fool,  servants 
watching,  two  debtors,  barrA  fig-tree,  chief  seats, 
great  supper,  rash  builder,  rash  king,  lost  groat,  prodi- 
gal son,  unjust  steward,  rich  man  and  Laxarus. 
unprofitable  servants,  imjust  judge,  Pharisee  ana 
publican,  pounds.  The  account  of  the  loumeys 
towards  Jerusalem  (ix,  51-xix,  27)  is  found  onlv  in 
St.  Luke;  and  he  gives  special  prominence  to  the  duty 
of  prayer. 

V.  Sources  op  the  Gospel;  Synoptic  Problem. — 
The  best  information  as  to  his  sources  is  given  by 
St.  Luke,  in  the  beginning  of  his  Gospel.  As  many 
had  written  accoimte  as  they  heard  them  from  "eye- 
witnesses and  ministers  of  the  word",  it  seemed  ^ood 
to  him  also,  having  diligently  attained  to  all  tmngs 
from  the  beginning,  to  write  an  ordered  narrative. 
He  had  two  sources  of  information,  then,  eyewitnesses 
(including  Apostles)  and  written  documents  taken 
down  from  the  words  of  eyewitnesses.  The  accuracy 
of  these  documents  he  was  in  a  position  to  test  by  his 
knowledge  of  the  character  of  the  writers,  and  by  com- 
paring them  with  the  actual  words  of  the  Apostles 
and  other  eyewitnesses. 

That  he  used  written  documents  seems  evident  on 
comparing  his  Gospel  with  the  other  two  Synoptic  Gos- 
pels, Matthew  and  Mark.  All  three  frequently  agree 
even  in  minute  details;  but  in  other  respects  there  is 
often  a  remarkable  divergence,  and  to  explain  these 


's 


ik»t^ 


phenomena  is  the  S^^noptic  Problem.  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Luke  alone  give  an  account  of  the  infancy  of 
Christ;  both  accounts  are  independent.  But  when 
they  begin  the  public  preaching  they  describe  it  in 
the  same  wav,  here  agreeing  with  St.  Mark.  When 
St.  Mark  ends,  the  two  others  again  diverge.  They 
a^pree  in  the  main  both  in  matter  and  arrangement 
within  the  limits  covered  by  St.  Mark,  whose  order 
they  generally  follow.  Frequently  all  agree  in  the 
order  of  the  narrative,  but,  where  two  agree,  Mark 
and  Luke  agree  against  the  order  of  Biatthew,  or  Mark 
and  Matthew  agree  against  the  order  of  Luke;  Mark 
is  always  in  the  majority,  and  it  is  not  proved  that 
the  other  two  ever  agree  against  the  order  followed 
by  him.  Within  the  umits  of  the  ground  covered  by 
St.  Mark,  the  two  other  Gospels  have  several  sections 
in  common  not  foimd  in  St.  Mark,  consisting  for  the 
most  part  of  discourses,  and  there  is  a  closer  resem- 
blance between  them  than  between  any  two  Gospels 
where  the  three  go  over  the  same  ground.  The  whole 
of  St.  Mark  is  practically  contained  in  the  other  two. 
St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  have  large  sections  peculiar 
to  themselves,  such  as  the  different  accoimts  of  the 
infancy,  and  the  joume3rs  towards  Jerusalem  in  St. 
Luke.  The  jMurallel  records  have  remarkable  verbal 
coincidences.  Sometimes  the  Greek  phrases  are 
identical,  sometimes  but  slightly  different,  and  again 
more  divergent.  There  are  various  theories  to  ex- 
plain the  fact  of  the  matter  and  language  common  to 
the  Evangelists.  Some  hold  that  it  is  due  to  the  oral 
teaching  of  the  Apostles,  which  soon  became  stereo- 
typed hom.  constant  repetition.  Others  hold  that 
it  IS  due  to  written  sources,  taken  down  from  siioh 
teaching.  Others,  again,  strongly  maintain  that  Mat* 
thew  and  Luke  used  Mark  or  a  written  source  ex- 
tremelv  like  it.  In  that  case,  we  have  evidence  how 
very  closely  they  kept  to  the  original.  The  agree- 
ment between  the  discourses  given  by  St.  Luke  and 
St.  Matthew  is  accounted  for.  by  some  authors,  by 
saying  that  both  embodied  tne  discourses  of  Christ 
that  had  been  collected  and  originally  written  in 
Aramaic  by  St.  Matthew.  The  long  narratives  of 
St.  Luke  not  found  in  these  two  documents  are,  it  is 
said,  accoimted  for  by  his  employment  of  what  he 
knew  to  be  other  reliable  sources,  either  oral  or  writ- 
ten. (The  question  is  concisely  but  clearly  stated  by 
Peake  "A  Critical  Introduction  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment". London,  1909,  101.  Several  other  works  on 
the  suDJect  are  given  in  the  literature  at  the  end  of 
this  article.) 

VI.  Saint  Lttke's  Accuracy. — ^Very  few  writers 
have  ever  had  their  accuracy  put  to  such  a  severe  test 
as  St.  Luke,  on  account  of  the  wide  field  covered  by 
his  writings,  and  the  consequent  liabihty  (humanly 
speaking)  of  making  mistakes;  and  on  account  of  the 
fierce  attacks  to  which  he  has  been  subjected. 

It  was  the  fashion,  during  the  nineteenth  century, 
with  German  rationalists  and  their  imitators,  to 
ridicule  the  "blunders"  of  Luke;  but  that  is  all  beinjg 
rapidly  changed  by  the  recent  progress  of  archsologi- 
cal  research.  Hamack  does  not  hesitate  to  say 
that  these  attacks  were  shameful,  and  calculated  to 
bring  discredit,  not  on  the  Evangelist,  but  upon  his 
critics;  and  Ramsay  is  but  voicing  the  opinion  of  the 
best  modem  scholars  when  he  cans  St.  Luke  a  great 
and  accurate  historian.  Very  few  have  done  so  much 
as  this  latter  writer,  in  his  numerous  works  and  in  his 
articles  in  "The  Expositor",  to  vindicate  the  extreme 
accuracv  of  St.  Luke.  Wherever  archsBology  has 
afforded  the  means  of  testing  St.  Luke's  statements, 
they  have  been  found  to  be  correct;  and  this  gives 
confidence  that  he  is  equally  reliable  where  no  such 
corroboration  is  as  yet  available.  For  some  of  the 
details  see  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  where  a  very  full 
bibliography  is  given. 

For  the  sake  of  illustration,  one  or  two  examples 
may  here  be  given: — (1)  Sergius  Paulus,  Proconsul 


426  LUXE 

in  Cyprus. — St.  Luko  says,  Acts,  xiii,  7,  that  when  St.  never  makes  a  false  step  amid  all  the  many  details  as 
Paul  visited  Cyprus  (in  the  reign  of  Claudius)  Sergius  the  scene  changes  from  city  to  city;  and  that  is  the 
Paulus  was  proconsul  (dwBdiraTot)  there.  Grotius  conclusive  proof  that  it  is  a  picture  of  real  life"  (Rani- 
asserted  that  this  was  an  abuse  of  language,  on  the  say,  op.  cit.,  238).  St.  Luke  mentions  (Acts,  xviii,  2) 
part  of  the  natives,  who  wished  to  flatter  the  governor  that  when  St.  Paul  was  at  Corinth  the  Jews  had  been 
by  calling  him  proconsul,  instead  of  propnetor  (dim-  recently  expelled  from  Rome  by  Claudius,  and  this  is 
tfTpdriryot),  which  he  really  was;  ana  that  St.  Luke  confirmed  dv  a  chance  statement  of  Suetonius.  He 
used  the  popular  appellation.  Even  Baronius  (An-  tells  us  (ibid.,  12)  that  Gallio  was  then  proconsul  in 
nales,  ad  Aim.  46)  supposed  that,  though  CVprus  was  Corinth  (the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia). 
only  a  prsetorian  province,  it  was  honoured  by  being  There  is  no  direct  evidence  that  he  was  proconsul  in 
ruled  by  the  proconsul  of  Cilicia,  who  must  have  been  Achaia,  but  his  brother  Seneca  writes  that  Gallio 
Sergius  Paulus.  But  this  is  all  a  mistake.  Cato  cap-  caught  a  fever  there,  and  went  on  a  voyage  for  his 
tured  Cyprus;  Cicero  was  proconsul  of  Cihcia  and  health.  The  description  of  the  riot  at  Epnesus  (Acts, 
Cyprus  in  52  b.  c;  Mark  Antony  gave  the  island  to  xix)  brings  together,  in  the  space  of  eighteen  verses, 
Oieopatra;  Augustus  made  it  a  prsetorian  province  an  extraordinary  amoimt  of  knowledge  of  the  city, 
in  27  B.  c,  but  in  22  b.  c.  he  transferred  it  to  the  that  is  fully  corroborated  by  numerous  inscriptions, 
senate,  and  it  became  again  a  proconsular  province,  and  representations  on  coins,  medals,  etc.,  recently 
This  latter  fact  is  not  stated  by  Strabo,  but  it  is  men-  discovered.  There  are  allusions  to  the  temple  of 
tioned  by  Dion  Cassius  (LIII).  In  Hadrian's  time  it  Diana  (one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world),  to  the 
was  once  more  under  a  proprietor,  while  under  Sev-  fact  that  Ephcsus  gloried  in  being  her  temple-sweeper, 
ems  it  was  again  administered  by  a  proconsul.  There  her  caretaker  (»€<aK6pos),  to  the  theatre  as  the  place  of 
can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  when  assembly  for  the  people,  to  the  to^^ni  clerk  (ypafifuiTcOs)^ 
St.  Paul  visited  it,  Cyprus  was  under  a  proconsul  to  the  Asiarchs,  to  sacrilegious  (UpoaOXot) ,  to  procon- 
(iwO&waros),  as  stated  by  St.  Luke.  Numerous  coins  sular  sessions,  artificers,  etc.  The  ecclesia  (the  usual 
have  been  discovered  in  Cyprus,  bearing  the  head  and  word  in  Ephesus  for  the  assembly  of  the  people)  and 
name  of  Claudius  on  one  side,  and  the  names  of  the  the  grammateus  or  town-clerk  (the  title  of  a  high 
proconsuls  of  Cyprus  on  the  other.  A  woodcut  en-  official  frequent  on  Ephesian  coins)  completely  puzzled 
graving  of  one  is  given  in  Conybeare  and  Howson's  Cornelius  a  Lapidc,  Baronius,  and  other  commcnta- 
"St.  Paul",  at  the  end  of  chapter  v.  On  the  reverse  tors,  who  imagined  the eccleaia  meant  a  synagogue,  etc. 
it  has:  EHI  KOMINOT  HPOKAOT  ANeXIIATOT:  (see  Vigouroux,  "I^  Nouveau  Testament  et  les  D6- 
KTIIPION — ^" Money  of  the  Cyprians  imder  Cominius  couvertes  Arch^logiques",  Paris,  1890). 
Proclus,  Proconsul."  The  head  of  Claudius  (with  his  (6)  The  Shipwreck. — The  account  of  the  voyage  and 
name)  is  figured  on  the  other  side.  General  Cesnola  ship'WTeck  described  in  Acts  (xxvii,  xxvii)  is  regarded 
discovered  a  long  inscription  on  a  pedestal  of  white  by  competent  authorities  on  nautical  mat  tors  as  a  mar- 
marble,  at  Solvi,  in  the  north  of  the  island,  having  the  vellous  instance  of  accurate  description  (see  Smith's 
words:  EIII  HATAOT  ANeXIIATOT — *'  Under  Paulus  classical  work  on  the  suljject,  "  Voyage  and  Shipwreck 
Proconsul."  Lightfoot,  Zochler,  Ramsay,  Knaben-  of  St.  Paul"  (4th  ed.,  London,  18^).  Blass  (Acta 
bauer.  Zahn,  and  Vigouroux  hold  that  this  was  the  Apostolorum,  186)  says:  ''Extrema  duo  ca,pita  ha- 
actual  (Seigius)  Paulus  of  Acts,  xiii,  7.  bent  descriptionem  clarissimam  itineris  maritimi  quod 

(2)  The  PoUtarchs  in  Thessalonica. — ^An  excellent  Paulus  in  Italiam  fecit:  quse  descriptio  ab  homine 
example  of  St.  Luke's  accuracy  is  afforded  by  his  state-  harum  rerum  perito  judicata  est  monumentum  om- 
ment  that  rulers  of  Thessalonica  were  called  "poH-  nium  pretiosissimum,  quae  rei  navalis  ex  tota  antic^ui- 
tardis"  (roXtrdpxoi — ^Acts,  xvii,  6,  8).  The  word  is  tate  nobis  relicta  est.  V.  Breusing,  'Die  Nautik  der 
not  found  in  the  Greek  classics;  but  there  is  a  large  Alten'  (Bremen,  1886)."  See  also  Knowling,  "The 
stone  in  the  British  Museum,  which  was  found  in  an  Acts  of  the  Apostles"  in  "Exp.  Gr.  Test."  (Ix^iidon, 
arch  in  Thessalonica,  containing  an  inscription  which  1900).                    ^^ 

is  supposed  to  date  from  the  time  of  Vespasian.   Here  Vll.  Lrsi^a^yi^IvniAiiCH  of  Abilene. — Gfrorrcr, 

we  find  the  word  used  by  St.  Luke  together  with  the  B.  BaiMwr^flilgenfeld,  Keim,  and  Holtzniaim  assert 

names  of  several  such  pohtarchs,  among  them  being  thalt*^^  J£ail«  |x;«Mtnited  a  gross  chronological  hhm- 

names  identical  with  some  of  St.  Paul's  converts:  So-  der  of  sixty  years  Sl^making  Lysanias,  the  sou  of 

pater,  Gains,  Secundus.     Burton  in  "American  Jour-  Ptolemy,  who  hved  SlflvB.  c,  and  was  put  to  death 

nal  of  Theolog>'"  (July,  1898)  has  drawn  attention  to  by  Mark  Antony,  tetrard^of  Abilene  wlien  John  the 

seventeen  inscriptions  proving  the  existence  of  poH-  Baptist  began  to  preach  (iih  1).     Strauss  says:  *'He 

tarchs  in  ancient  times.  Thirteen  were  found  in  Mace-  [Luke]  makes  rule,  30  years  after  the  birth  of  Christ,  a 

donia,  and  five  iKcre  discovered  in  Thessalonica,  dat-  certain  Lysanias,  who  had  certainly  been  slain  30 

ing  from  the  middle  of  the  first  to  the  end  of  the  eecond  years  previous  to  that    birth — a  sli'i^ht  error  of  60 

century.  years."    On  the  face  of  it,  it  is  highly  improlxable  that 

(3)  The  geographical,  municipal,  and  political  knowl-  such  a  careful  writer  as  St.  Luke  would  have  gone  out 
edge  of  St.  Luke,  when  speakipg  of  Pisidian  Antioch,  of  his  way  to  run  the  risk  of  making  sucli  a  blunder,  for 
Iconium,  Lystra,  and  DNerbe,  is  fully  borne  out  bv  the  mere  purpose  of  helping  to  fix  the  date  of  the  pub- 
recent  research  (see  Ramsay,  *'  St.  Pam  the  Traveller  ,  Uc  ministry.  Fortunately,  we  have  a  complete  rcf  u- 
and  other  references  given  in  Galatianb,  Epistlb  to  tation  supplied  by  Schttrer,  a  writer  by  no  means  over 
tee).  friendly  to  St.  Luke,  as  we  shall  see  when  treating  of 

(4)  He  is  equally  sure  when  speaking  of  Philippi,  the  Census  of  Quirinius.  Ptolemy  Menna'us  was  King 
a  Roman  colony,  where  the  duumviri  were  called  of  the  I tureans( whose  kingdom  embraced  the  Lebanon 
"pnetors"  (trrpta^fYol — ^Acts,  xvi,  20,  35),  a  lofty  title  and  plain  of  Massvas  with  the  capital  Chalcis,  between 
wnich  duumviri  assumed  in  Capua  and  elsewhere,  as  the  Lebanon  and  Anti- Lebanon)  from  85-40  b.  c. 
we  learn  from  Cicero  and  Horace  (Sat.,  I,  v,  34).  They  His  territories  extended  on  the  east  towards  Damascus, 
also  had  hctors  (papBovxoi),  after  the  manner  of  real  and  on  the  south  embraced  Panias,  and  part,  at  leant, 
pnstors.  of  Galilee.     Lysanias  the  older  succeeded  his  father 

(5)  His  references  to  Ephesus,  Athens,  Corinth,  are  Ptolemy  about  40  b.  c.  (Josephus,  "  Ant.",  XI\',  xii, 
altogether  in  keeping  with  everything  that  is  now  3;"Bel.Jud.",  I,  xiii,  1),  and  is  sty  led  by  Dion  Cassius 
known  of  these  cities.  Take  a  single  instance:  "In  "King  of  the  Itureans"  (XLIX,  32).  After  reigning 
Ephesus  St.  Paul  taught  in  the  school  of  Tyrannus,  about  four  or  five  years  he  was  put  to  death  by  Mark 
in  the  city  of  Socrates  ne  discussed  moral  questions  in  Antony,  at  the  instigation  of  Cleopatra,  who  received 
the  market-place.  How  incongruous  it  would  seem  a  large  portion  of  his  territory  (Josephus ,"  Ant.",  XV, 
if  the  methods  were  transposed!    But  the  narrative  iv,  1;  "Bel.  Jud.",  I,  xxii,  3;  Dion  Cassius.  op.  cit.); 


LUXS 


427 


LUXS 


A3  the  latter  and  Porphyry  call  him  "kuig'\  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  coins  Ix^ring  the  superscription, 
"  Lysanias  tetrarch  and  high  priest  '*  belong  to  him,  for 
there  were  one  or  more  later  princes  called  Lysanias. 
After  his  death  his  kingdom  was  gradually  divided  up 
into  at  least  four  districts,  and  the  three  principal  ones 
were  certainly  not  called  after  him.  A  certain  Zeno- 
dorus  took  on  lease  the  possessions  of  Lysanias,  23 
B.  c,  but  Trachonitis  was  soon  taken  from  him  and 
given  to  Herod.  On  the  death  of  Zenodonis  in  20 
B.  c,  Ulatha  and  Panias,  the  territories  over  which  he 
ruled,  were  given  by  Augustus  to  Herod.  This  is 
called  the  tetrarchy  of  Zenodorus  by  Dion  Cassius. 
"  It  seems  therefore  that  Zenodorus,  after  the  death  of 
Lysanias,  had  received  on  rent  a  portion  of  his  territory 
from  Cleopatra,  and  that  after  Cleopatra's  death  ihJk 
'  rented'  aomain,  subject  to  tribute,  was  continued  to 
him  with  the  title  of  tetrarch ''  (SchOrer,  I,  II,  app.,  333, 
i) .  Mention  is  made  on  a  monument,  at  HeliopoUs.  of 
*'  Zenodorus,  son  of  the  tetrarch  Lysanias  ".  It  has 
been  generally  supposed  that  this  is  the  Zenodorus 

i'ust  mentioned,  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  first 
jysanias  was  ever  called  tetrarch.  It  is  proved  from 
the  inscriptions  that  there  was  a  genealogical  con- 
nexion between  the  families  of  Lysanias  and  Zeno- 
dorus, and  the  same  name  may  have  been  often 
repeated  in  the  family.  Coins  for  32,  30,  and  25  b.  c, 
belonging  to  our  Zenodorus,  have  the  superscription, 
"Zenodorus  tetrarch  and  high  priest.  After  the 
death  of  Herod  the  Great  a  portion  of  the  tetrarchv 
of  Zenodorus  went  to  Herod's  son,  Philip  (Jos., "  Ant.  , 
XVII,  xi,  4),  referred  to  b;^  St.  Luke,  "Plulip  being 
tetrarch  of  Iturea"  (Luke,  lii,  1). 

Another  tetrarchv  slic^  ofif  from  the  dominions  of 
Zenodorus  lay  to  tne  east  between  Chalcis  and  Da- 
mascus, and  went  by  the  name  of  Abila  or  Abilene. 
Abila  is  frequently  spoken  of  b}r  Josephusas  a  tet- 
rarchy, and  m  *' Ant.  ,  XVIII,  vi,  10,  he  calls  it  tiie 
"tetrarchv  of  Lysanias".  Claudius,  in  a.  d.  41,  con- 
ferred "  Abila  of  Lysanias"  on  Agrippa  I  (Ant.,  XIX, 
V,  1).  In  A.  D.  53,  Agrippa  II  obtained  Abila,  "which 
last  had  been  the  tetrarcny  of  Lysanias"  (Ant.,  XX., 
vii,  1).  "From  these  passages  we  see  that  the  tet- 
rarchy of  Abila  had  belonged  previously  to  a.  d.  37 
to  a  certain  Lysanias,  and  seeit^^hat  Josephus  no- 
where previously  makes  any  )iiBtiD{6  ot  if  another 
Lvsanias,  except  the  contempotoalk^JlllilittDy  and 
Cleopatra,  40-36  b.  c.  . . .  criticti 
in  various  ways  to  show  thawRre  had  not  after- 
wards been  any  other,  and  piat  the  tetrarchy  of 
Abilene  had  its  name  from  tlie  older  Lysanias.  But 
this  is  impossible"  (Schilrer,  337).  Lysanias  I  inher- 
ited the  Iturean  empire  of  his  father  Ptolemy,  of 
which  Abila  was  but  a  small  and  very  obscure  por- 
tion. Calchis  in  Coele-Syria  was  the  capita  of^his 
kingdom,  not  Abila  in  Abilene.  He  reigned  only 
about  four  years  and  was  a  comparatively  obscure 
individual  when  compared  with  his  father  Ptolemy, 
or  his  successor  Zenodorus,  both  of  whom  reigned 
many  years.  There  is  no  reason  why  any  portion 
of  his  kingdom  should  have  been  called  after  his  name 
rather  than  theirs;  and  it  is  hiehlv  improbable  that 
Josephus  speaks  of  Abilene  as  callca  after  him  seventy 
years  after  his  death.  As  Lysanias  I  was  king  over 
the  whole  region,  one  small  portion  of  it  could  not  be 
called  his  tetrarchy  or  kingdom,  as  is  done  by  Josephus 
(Bel.  Jud.,  II,  xii,  8).  "It  must  therefore  be  as- 
sumed as  certain  that  at  a  later  date  the  district  of 
Abilene  had  been  severed  from  the  kingdom  of  Cal- 
chis, and  had  been  governed  by  a  younger  Lysanias 
as  tetrarch"  (SchUrer,  337).  The  existence  of  such  a 
late  Lysanias  is  shown  by  an  inscription  found  at 
Abila,  containing  the  statement  that  a  certain  Nym- 
phaios,  the  freedmian  of  Lysanias,  built  a  street  and 
erected  a  temple  in  the  time  of  the  "August  Emper- 
ors". Augusti  (Z€/3(MToO  in  the  plural  was  never 
used  before  the  death  of  Augustus,  a.  d.  14.    The 


first  contemporary  Sc^curro/  were  Tiberius  and  hia 
mother  Livia,  i.  e.  at  a  time  fifty  years  after  the  first 
Lysanias.  An  inscription  at  HeliopoUs,  in  the  same 
region,  makes  it  probable  that  there  were  several 
pnnces  of  this  name.  "The  Evangelist  Luke  is 
thoroughly  correct  when  he  assumes  (iii,  1)  that  in 
the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius  there  was  a  Lysanias 
tetrarch  of  Abilene"  (Schiirer.  op.  cit.,  where  fuU 
literature  is  given;  Vigouroux,  op.  cit). 

VIII.  Who  Spoke  the  Magnificat? — ^Lately  aa 
attempt  has  been  made  to  ascribe  the  Magnificat  to 
Elizabeth  instead  of  to  the  Blessed  Virgin.  All  the 
early  Fathers,  all  the  Greek  MSS.,  all  the  versiona, 
aU  the  Latin  MSS.  (except  three)  have  the  reading  in 
Luke,  i,  46:  Kal  eJirev  Maptd/i — Et  ait  Maria  [And  Mary 
said]:  MagwUicat  anima  mea  Dominunif  ete.  Three 
Old  Latin  lifSS.  (the  earliest  dating  from  the  end  of 
the  fourth  cent.),  a,  b,  1  (called  rhe  by  Westcott  ana 
Hort),  have  Et  ait  Elisabeth,  These  tend  to  such 
close  agreement  that  their  combined  evidence  is  single 
rather  than  threefold.  They  are  full  of  gross  blunders 
and  palpable  corruptions,  and  the  attempt  to  pit 
their  evidence  against  the  many  thousands  of  Greek, 
Latin,  and  other  MSS.,  is  anything  but  scientific. 
If  the  evidence  were  reversed.  Catholics  would  be 
held  up  to  ridicule  if  they  ascribed  the  Magnificat  to 
Maiy.  The  three  MSS.  gain  little  or  no  support  from 
the  internal  evidence  of  the  passage.  The  Magnificat 
is  a  cento  from  the  song  of  Anna  (I  Kings,  li),  the 
Psalms,  and  other  places  of  the  Old  Testament.  If  it 
were  spoken  by  Elizabeth  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
portion  of  Anna's  sone  that  was  most  appUcable  to 
her  is  omitted:  "The  barren  hath  borne  many:  aad 
she  that  had  many  children  is  weakened."  See,  on 
this  subject,  Emmet  in  "The  Expositor"  (Dec.,  1909); 
Bernard,  ibid.  (March,  1907);  and  the  exhaustive 
works  of  two  Catholic  writers:  Ladeuze,  "Revue 
d'histoireeccl^iasticiue"  (Louvain,  Oct.,  1903);  Bar- 
denhewer,  "Maria  Verkundigung"  (Freiburg,  1905). 

IX.  The  Census  of  Quiriniub. — ^No  portion  of  the 
New  Testament  has  been  so  fiercely  attacked  as 
Luke,  ii,  1-5.  Schiirer  has  brought  together,  under 
six  heads,  a  formidable  array  of  all  the  objections 
that  can  be  urged  against  it.  There  is  not  space  to 
refute  them  here;  but  Ramsay  in  his  "Was  Christ 
bom  in  Bethlehem?"  has  shown  that  they  all  fall  to 
the  groimd: — 

(1)  St.  Luke  does  not  assert  that  a  census  took 
place  all  over  the  Roman  Empire  before  the  death  of 
Herod,  but  that  a  decision  emanated  from  Augustus 
that  regular  census  were  to  be  made.  Whether  they 
were  carried  out  in  general,  or  not,  was  no  concern  oi 
St.  Luke's.  If  history  does  not  prove  the  existence 
of  such  a  decree  it  certainly  proves  nothing  against  it. 
It  was  thought  for  a  lone  time  that  the  system  of  In- 
dictions  was  inaugurated  under  the  early  Roman  eaoor 
perors;  it  is  now  known  that  they  owe  their  origin  to 
Constantine  the  Great  (the  first  taking  place  mteen 
years  after  his  victory  of  312),  and  this  m  spite  of  the 
fact  tliat  history  knew  nothing  of  the  matter.  Keor 
yon  holds  that  it  is  very  probable  that  Pope  Damasus 
ordered  the  Vulgate  to  be  regarded  as  the  only  author- 
itative edition  of  the  Latin  Bible;  but  it  would  be 
difficult  to  prove  it  historically.  If  "history  knows 
nothing"  ot  the  census  in  PoJestine  before  4  b.  c, 
neither  did  it  know  anything  of  the  fact  that  under  the 
Romans  in  Egypt  regular  personal  census  were  held 
every  fourteen  years,  at  least  from  a.  d.  20  till  the 
time  of  Constantine.  Many  of  these  census  papers 
have  been  discovered,  and  they  were  called  iiroypa^til, 
the  name  used  by  St.  Luke.  They  were  made  without 
any  reference  to  property  or  taxation.  The  head  of 
the  household  gave  his  name  and  age,  the  name  and 
age  of  his  wife,  children,  and  slaves.  He  mentioned 
how  many  were  included  in  the  previous  census,  and 
how  many  bom  since  that  time.  Valuation  returoB 
were  made  every  year.    The  fourteen.  Ti^assf  ^g:^^^*. 


LUSS  428  LULE 


Quirinius  et  le  Reoensement  de  S.  Luc  *'  (Rome,  1897). 
Vigouroux,  "Le  N.  T.  et  lea  D^couvertes  Modemes" 


did  not  originAte  in  Egypt  (they  had  a  different  s^rs- 
tem  before  19  b.  c),  out  most  probably  owed  its 

origin  to  Augustus,  8  b.  c,  the  fourteenth  year  of  his  (Paris,  1890),  has  a  good  deal  of  us^ul  information. 

triSunUia  potestas,  which  was  a  ^reat  year  in  Rome,  it  has  been  suggested  that  Quirinius  is  a  copyist's 

and  is  called  the  Year  I  in  some  mscriptions.    Apart  error  for  Quintilius  (Varus). 

from  St.  Luke  and  Josephus,  history  is  eqxially  igno-  X.  Saint  Luke  and  Jobephus. — ^The  attempt  to 

rant  of  the  second  enrolling  in  Palestine,  a.  d.  6.    So  prove  that  St.  Luke  used  Josephus  (but  inaccurately) 

many  discoveries  about  ancient  times,  concerning  nas  completely  broken  down.     Belser  successfuily 

which  history  has  been  silent,  have  been  made  during  refutes  Ivrenkel  in  "Theol.   Quartalschrift",   1895, 

the  last  thirty  years  that  it  is  surprising  modem  au-  1896.    The  differences  can  be  explained  only  on  the 

thors  should  brush  aside  a  statement  of  St.  Luke's,  supposition    of   entire    independence.    The    resem- 

a  respectable  first  century  writer,  with  a  mere  appeal  blances  are  sufficiently  accounted  for  by  the  use  of  the 

to  the  silence  of  history  on  the  matter.  Septuagint  and  the  common  literary  Greek  of  the 

(2)  The  first  census  in  Palestine,  as  described  by  time  by  both.  See  Bebb  and  Headlam  in  Hast., 
St.  Luke,  was  not  made  according  to  Roman,  but  "Diet,  of  the  Bible",  s.  vv.  "Luke,  Gospel  of"  and 
Jewish,  metiiods.  St.  Luke,  who  travelled  so  much,  "Acts  of  the  Apostles",  respectively.  ScnQrer  (Zeit. 
could  not  be  ignorant  of  the  Roman  system,  and  his  far  W.  Th.,  1876)  brushes  aside  the  opinion  that  St. 
deecription  deliberately  excludes  it.  The  Romans  Luke  read  Josephus.  When  Acts  is  compared  with 
did  not  run  counter  to  ihe  feelings  of  provincials  more  the  Septuagint  and  Josephus,  there  is  convincing  evi- 
than  they  could  help.  Jews,  who  were  proud  of  being  dence  that  Josephus  was  not  the  source  from  which 
able  to  prove  their  descent,  would  have  no  objection  the  writer  of  Acts  derived  his  knowledge  of  Jewish 
to  the  enrolling  describea  in  Luke,  ii.  Schtirer's  history.  There  are  nimierous  verbal  ana  other  coin- 
aiguments  are  vitiated  throughout  bv  the  supposition  cidences  with  the  Septuagint  (Cross  in  "  Expository 
that  the  census  mentioned  by  St.  Luke  couldi^be  made  Times",  XI,  538,  against  Schmiedel  and  the  exploded 
only  for  taxation  purposes.  His  discussion  of  im-  author  of  "Sup.  Religion").  St.  Luke  did  not  get 
penal  taxation  is  learned  but  beside  the  mark  (cf.  the  his  names  from  Josephus,  as  contended  by  this  last 
practice  in  Egypt).  It  was  to  the  advantage  of  writer,  thereby  making  the  whole  history  a  concoction. 
Aiiffustus  to  know  the  number  of  possible  enemies  in  Wright  in  his  "Some  New  Test.  Problems"  gives  the 
Pakstine,  in  case  of  revolt.                                          ^  names  of  fifty  persons  mentioned  in  St.  Luke's  Gospel. 

(3)  King  Herod  was  not  as  independent  as  he  is  Thirty-two  are  common  to  the  other  two  Synoptics, 
described  for  controversial  purposes.  A  few  years  and  therefore  not  taken  from  Josephus.  Only  five  of 
before  Herod's  death  Augustus  wrote  to  him.    Jo^  the  remaining  eighteen  are  found  in  him,  namely. 

Augustus  Csesar,  Tiberius,  Lysanias,  Quirinius,  ana 


Annas.  As  Annas  is  always  called  Ananus  in  Josephus, 
the  name  was  evidently  not  taken  from  him.     This  is 


B^hus,  "Ant.",  XVI,  ix,  3,  has:  "Caesar  [Augustus] 
•  .  .  grew  very  angry,  and  wrote  to  Herod  sharply. 
T^  sum  of  h^  epistle  was  this,  that  whereas  of  old  he 

used  him  as  a  friend,  he  should  now  use  him  as  his  corroborated  by  the  way  the  Gospel  speaks  of  Caiphas. 

subject."    It  was  after  this  that  Herod  was  asked  to  St.  Luke's  employment  of  the  otner  four  names 

number  his  people.    That  some  such  enrolling  took  shows  no  connexion  with  the  Jewish  historian.    The 

place  we  gatner  from  a  passing  remark  of  Josephus,  mention  of  numerous  countries,  cities,  and  islands  in 

"Ant.",  A VII,  ii,  4,  "  Accordingly,  when  all  the  peo-  Acts  shows  complete  independence  of  the  latter  writer. 

1^  of  ^e  Jews  gave  assurance  of  their  good  Will  to  St.  Luke's  preface  bears  a  much  closer  resemblance  to 

OBsar  [Augustus],  and  to  the  kinf^'s  [Herod's]  govern-  those  of  Greek  medical  writers  than  to  that  of  Jose- 

ment,  these  very  men  [the  Pharisees]  did  not  swear,  phus.    The  absurdity  of  concluding  that  St.  Luke 

being  above  six  thousand."    The  best  scholars  think  must  necessarily  be  wrong  when  not  in  agreement 

thqr  were  asked  to  swear  allegiance  to  Augustus.    ^  witih  Josephus  is  apparent  when  we  remember  the 

(4)  It  is  said  there  was  no  room  for  Quirinius,  in  frequent  intTadietions  and  blunders  in  the  latter 

fyiia,  before  the  death  of  Herod  in  4  b.  c.    C.  Sentius  writeL^g^^^v 

Gn^Ts^x^ — %llt;-r^  thi  best  critical  commentaries,  in  Eng- 
lish, is  that  hyPhXQ^iaM'm  Int.  Cril.  Com.  (Edinbunsh,  1906). 


8aturmnus  was  governor  there  from  9-6  B.  c;  and  .              «-rn.i      •    w  .  ^  .  ry      .r^^   t      u  .rv.^^ 

Aiii«i4ii;iiQ  Vi^rtta    frratt  Ann    fill  itftAr  fhft  dpAth  of  li»l>,  la  that  by  FLiA^fAOOim  JtU.  CrU.  Com.  (Edmburgh,  1906). 

UuintUlUS  Varus,  from  b  B.  C.  tUI  alter  tne  aeatn  OI  ^  fJnrt-rate  CathoUc  cofimentaiy  is  Schanz.  Commcntar  iiber 

Herod.    But  m  turbulent  provinces  there  were  some-  ^^  Evangel,  d.  h.  Luawlffobingen,  1883)— cf.  also  Maldona- 

times  two  Roman  officials  of  equal  standing.     In  the  tub,  Knabenbaubr.  Fiijjdn,  McEvilly.  Ward  (London. 

tbne  of  Caligula  the  administration  of  Africa  was  18|7^j^Wiuoht.  TA*  (7o*pete  ^►-G'nMA  (Ix>ndon,  i900)Mc/a  5^^ 

<UTided  in  such  a  way  that  the  military  power,  with  AuTHEimcmr.— Plummkr,  op.  cit.;  Harnack,  Lvke  the 

the  foreign  policy,  was  under  the  control  of  the  Ueu-  Phyincian;  Idem,  The  Acts  of  the  Apottles  (tr.  London,  1907, 

tenant  of  the  emperor,  who  could  be  called  a  In^t^^  i!^^i^c}^SS:^?*{:tSf^^^ 

5r^T^  o Y  T    1    \    *^i.»i    xu    •   i.>v 1  ..iy»:.w,  ^.^.1.^  1.»Ja«  8UcnasLoRNELT;jACQUiER,iV.  Tew.,  H  (Fans,  1906);  Belsek; 

(bb  m  St.  Luke),  while  the  mtemal  affairs  were  under  2ahn,  etc.;  WEaroorr,  The  Canon  of  the  New  Test.  (London! 

the  ordinary  proconsul.     The  same  position  was  held  1906);  Liobtfoot.  Eaeaue  on  Supernatural  Religion  (London. 

by  Vespasian  when  he  conducted  the  war  in  Palestine,  {^^^^882?"*       ^^^^  Language  of  Sl  Luke  (Dublin  and 

Which  belonged  to  the  province  of  Sjrria— a  province  Sources:  Synoptic  Problem.— Buonaocorm,  CrUica  Lit- 

COVemed  by  an  officer  of  equal  rank.    Josephus  speaks  tenma  (Bologn&,  1905);  Peaks,  Critical  Introd.  to  the  N.  Tent. 

of  VolumniUS  as  being  KaUrapos  In^^^,  together  with  (L«mdon,  10^);  Webtcott.  Introd.  to  Ih^  Study  of  the  GoMvelB 

5?    T  vj  w«****^  €»  ^.^^   ^      a7Il:«   fna  «    J?  \ .  «<T«k*«M»  (London*  1881);  Salmon,  op.  ett.;  Idem,  The  Human  Elenimt  %n 

C.  Sentius  SaturmnUS,   m   Syria  (9-6  B.  C.):      Ihere  IheChepeU  (London,  lOOT);  Rubhbrooke,  Synopticon  (London 

,         .         ,^   i.  _-    «_x • ^_j   ir^i V „        « ,  •  Oxford,  1909);  Idem  in 


Wright,  op.  cit. 

Paul  tne  Traveller,  and 
Galattans,  Kpistle 


ZZVii,  1,  2.     Corbulo  commanded  the  armies  of  Syria  to  the;  Idem,  Woe  Chritt  Bom  in  BethUhemf  (3rd  ed.,  London, 

•gunst  the  ParthiiinB,  while  Q^tua  ««d  Gall™  iggf);  ^^f"  ^.o^TlrA^.Tei.""^'' fi'SV^r'^.f ^fo^^^^ 

were  successively  governors  of  Sjma.      Inougn  Jo-  ^aHe.  1890) ;Knowlino.  XcU  in  rxpo«tor'«GrwA  T^ar.  (Lon- 

Bephus  speaks  of  Gallus,  he  knows  nothing  of  Corbulo;  don,  1900).    See  Aero  or  the  ApoexLEs. 

but  he  was  there  nevertheless  (Mommsen,  "Rbm.  C.  Aherne. 

Gesch.",  V,  382i.    A  similar  position  to  that  of  Cor-  j^^^^^   ^g^^      Blessed.      See   William   Filbt, 

bulo  must  have  been  held  by  Quinmus  for  a  few  years  gu^uu, 

between  7  and  4  b  c 

The  best  treatment  of  the  subject  is  that  by  Ramsay  L11I6  Indiazui.— A  name  which  has  given  rise  to 

**Was  Christ  Bom  in  Bethlehem?"    See  also  the  valu-  considerable   confusion   and   dispute   in   Ai^entine 

able  essays  of  two  Catholic  writers:  Marucchi  in  "II  ethnology,  owing  to  the  fact,  now  established,  that  it 

BeiMarione"  (Rome,  1897);  Bour,  "L'Insoription  de  was  applied  at  differeat  periods  to  two  very  different 


peoples,  neither  of  which  now  exists  under  that  name, 
while  the  vocabulary  which  could  settle  the  affinitj;  of 
the  earlier  tribe  is  now  tost.  The  name  itself,  meaning 
"inhabitants",  convey^B  no  ethnic  siniiflcance,  being 
a  term  applied  indiscriminately  bv  the  invading  HA- 
taeo  from  the  East  to  the  tribes  which  they  found  al- 
ready in  occupancy  of  the  country. 

The  Lul£  of  the  earlier  period  appear  to  have  been 
the  tribe  more  definitely  known  under  their  Quichua 
name  of  Cacana,  "mountaineere",  occupying  the  hill 
ranges  of  the  upper  Salodo  Kiver  in  the  provinces  of 
Catamarca  and  Western  Tucunuui,  Argentina.  They 
were  of  the  stock  of  the  Calchaqui,  the  southemmOBt 
tributaries  of  the  historic  Quichua  of  Peru,  from  whom 
they  had  absorbed  a  high  dEsree  of  aboriginal  culture. 
Owing  to  their  relations  with  the  Quichua  on  the  one 
hand  and  with  the  neighbouring  Toconot4  (also  Touo- 
cot^),  or  Matard,  on  the  other  hand,  they  were  fa^ 
miliar  also  witb  those  languages  as  well  as  with  their 
own,  afoct  which  has  served  much  to  increase  the  con- 
fusion. By  the  Jesuit  missionary  Alonso  Bircena 
(or  Barsana)  the  LM  (Cacana)  were  gathered,  in 
1589,  into  a  mission  settlement  on  the  Salado,  near 
the  Spanish  town  of  Talavera  or  Bateco.  The  Ha- 
tar4,  or  Tooonot^,  were  evangelised  at  the  same  time. 
Here,  within  the  followiuK  twenty  years,  they  were 
visited  also  hy  St.  Francis  Solano.  In  1692  the  region 
was  devastated  by  a  terrible  earthquake  which  de- 
Str^od  tjie  towns  of  £!ateeo  and  Concepcidn,  together 
wiUi  the  missions,  in  consequence  of  which  the  terror- 
stricken  neophyt«e  fled  into  the  forests  of  the  great 
C^aco  wilderness  north  of  the  Salado,  and  became  lost 
to  knowledge,  while  the  grammar  and  vocabulary 
which  Father  Bircena  had  composed  of  the  Toconot^ 
language  disappeared  likewise. 

'HieLiil^of  tne  lutcrperiod  are  better  known,  being 
the  principal  of  a  group  of  cognate  tribes  constituting 
the  Lulean  stock,  formerly  ranging  over  the  central 
and  west«m  Cbaco  renon  in  Aigentlna,  chiefly  be- 
tween the  Salado  and  the  Vermejo,  in  the  Province  of 
Salta.  Although  the  classification  of  the  Argentine 
dialects  is  still  mcomplete  and  in  dispute,  the  follow- 
ing existent  or  extinct  tribes  seem  to  come  within  the 
Lulean  Einguistic  group:  LuM  proper  (so  called  by  the 
Mfttaco),  calling  themselves  PeU,  "men",  and  be- 
lieved by  Hervaa  to  be  the  Oristin^  of  the  earliest 
missionary  period;  Toconot^,  called  MakarA  hy  the 
Quichua,  and  incorrectly  identified  by  Machoni  with 
^e  Mdtaco  of  anotiier  stock;  Isistini;  Toijuistin^; 
Chulupf,  Cbunupf  or  Cinipf ;  Vilelo,  called  Quiatiu  by 
the  Mdtaco,  witn  sub'tribea  Guamaica  ana  Tequete^; 
Omoampa,  with  sub-tribes  lya  and  Yeconoampa; 
Juri ;  Pasain^. 

In  general  the  Lulean  tribes  were  l>elow  medium 
stature,  pedestrian  in  tiabit,  peaceful  and  unwarlike, 
except  in  self-defense,  hving  partly  by  hunting  and 
partly  by  agriculture,  contrasting  strongly  with  the 
athletic  and  predatory  equestrian  tribes  of  the  eastern 
Chaco  represented  by  the  Abipone  and  Mitaco.  The 
Still  wild  Chulupf  of  the  Pilcomayo,  however,  ro- 
semble  the  latter  tribes  in  ph>-sique  and  warUke  char- 
acter. In  consequence  of  the  ceaseless  inroads  of  the 
wild  Chaco  tribes  upon  the  Spanish  settlements.  Gov- 
ernor Urizar,  about  the  year  1710,  led  Sfainst  them 
a  strong  expedition  from  Tucuman  which  for  a  time 
brought  to  submisai  on  those  sa  voges  who  were  unable  to 
escape  beyond  liia  reach.  As  one  result,  the  Lul^  were, 
in  1711,  gathered  into  a  mission  called  San  Estjban, 
at  Miraflorca  on  the  Salado,  about  one  hundred  miles 
below  Salta,  under  the  charge  of  the  Jesuit  Father 
Antonio  Machoni.  Machoni  nrepsj^  a  grammar  and 
dictionary  of  their  language  (Madrid,  1732),  for  which 
reason  it  is  sometimes  luiown  as  the  "  Lu]£  of  Ma- 
choni ",  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Cacana  Luld  of  the 
earlier  period.  Son  Jos^,  or  Petoca,  was  established 
among  the  Vilelo  in  1735.  In  consequence  of  the 
inroads  of  the  wild  tribes,  these  uisskme  w^e  Uaa- 


!0  LULLT 

porarily  abandoned,  but  were  re-established  in  1751- 
52.  In  1751  the  cognate  Isistini  and  Toquistin^  wen 
gathered  into  the  new  mission  of  San  Juan  Bautista 

atVolhuena,  a  few  miles  lower  down  the  Salado  Hi  ver. 
In  1763  Nuestra  Seilora  del  Buen  Consejo,  or  Ortc^, 
was  eetabUshed  for  the  Omoam^  and  their  sub- 
tribes,  and  Nuestra  SeiJora  de  la  Columna,  or  Mae*- 
Sillo,  for  the  Fasain^,  both  on  the  SaUdo  below  ICra- 
ores,  and  all  five  being  within  the  province  of  Salta. 
In  1767,  just  before  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  t^ 
five  missions  of  the  cognate  Lulean  tribes  had  a  pop«i- 
lation  of  2346  Indians,  almost  all  Cbristians,  Ber^d  bjr 
eleven  priests,  among  them  being  Father  Job6  lorn, 
autiior  of  a  history  ot  the  Chooo. 

Notwithstanding  the  civihzing  eSorts  of  the  mi^ 
sionaries,  the  Lul£  shared  in  the  general  and  swift  de- 
chne  of  the  native  tribes  consequent  upon  the  advent 
of  the  whites,  resulting  in  repeated  visitations  of  ttio 
smallpox  scourge — previously  unknown — the  whole- 
sale raids  of  Portuguese  slave-hunters  (Afamelucos) ,  and 
the  oppressions  olthe forced-labour syetem  under tiia 
Spaniards.  The  mission  Indians  were  the  special 
prey  both  of  the  slave-huntois  and  of  the  predatory 
wild  tribes.    On  the  withdrawal  of  the  Jesuits,  toe 


slavery  fled  into  the  forests.  At  present  the  comate 
Lulean  tribes  are  representod  chieflv  by  some  vUelD 
living  among  the  M&taco  on  the  miadle  Vermejo  and 
by  the  unciviiized  Chulupf  on  the  Pilcomayo. 

Brimtoh,  Amenatn  Rati  (N«ir  York.  IBBl):  DoBRiiHOFm, 
.4ftiponej,tr.,  Ill  (London.  1822);  Hehvas,  CoMivo  ite  to*  Im- 
evni,  I  (Mndrid.  leoo)  (pmic[pal  authority):  PAOt.LaPbda 
(New  York,  lSW)i  Qviytno.  La  Lengua  Vilda  a  ChMlapt  lai 
othar  piip«n  in  Boletin  dd  ImtitMio  Qiognifico  AroaOmo,  XVI- 
XVU  (Buenos  Ai™,  ISflS-M).  JaMEB   Moonbt. 

Lully,  Jean-Baftibte,  composer,  b.  near  Florence 
in  1633;  d.  at  Paris,  22  March,  1687.  He  was 
brought  to  France  when  quite  a  child  by  Mile  da 
Montpensier,  Having  great  natural  gifts  as  a  vio- 
linist, he  w 


lets,  and  was  appointed  composer  to  the  Idn^ 
and  music  master  to  the  royal  family.  After  his 
marriage  in  1662,  he  became  on  very  intimate 
terms  with  Moli^,  with  whom  he  collaborated 
in  ballets  until  1671.  A  clever  diplomatist  and 
thorough  courtier,  he  completely  won  the  ro^ol 
favour,  and  in  March,  1672,  he  succeeded  in  oustmg 
Abbi  Perrin  from  the  directorship  of  the  Academy 
of  Music,  Thenceforward  his  success  as  founder  M 
modern  French  apeia  was  unquestioned,  althou^ 
Combert,  in  1671,  paved  the  way.  From  1672  to 
1686  Lully  produrad  twenty  operas,  showing  himself 
a  master  of  various  styles.  His  "Isis",  "Thtefa", 
"Annide",  and  "Atyv"  are  eXKii;g«iciaiiREB.^«^r^ 


LULLT  4'i 

atie  work,  and  he  not  only  improved  recitative  but 
invented  the  FreDch  overture.  Nor  did  he  concen- 
trate hie  abilities  wholly  on  the  stage:  he  wrote  much 
church  muaic.  As  an  artiat  he  was  in  the  firet  rank, 
though  as  a  man  his  ethical  code  was  not  of  the  strict^ 
wL  Hie  death  was  cauecd  while  conducting  a  "Te 
Deum"  to  celebrate  the  king's  recovery,  as,  when 
beatiugtime,  he  struck  his  foot  inadvertently,  causing 
an  afascesB  which  proved  fatal.  At  his  decease  he  left 
four  houses,  and  property  valued  at  £14,000,  and  he 
occupied  the  coveted  post  of  Secri'lairt  du  Roi,  as  well 
as  Svrintendant  to  IjOuis  XIV. 

Fens,  Biognphit  Univmtlli  da  tfiuiciVni  (Psru,  ISaO- 
IBM):  EiTNEH,  Quetlm  teruton  (I^jiiiK,  1000-1804);  Ohovb. 
Did.  a/  Mwnr.  new  ed.  (Loadon,  IWflT:  LcR.  HIary  of  Optra 


LoU;,  Raymond.  See  Raymond  Lullv. 

lamBn  Ohrlati,  the  versicle  chnntedby  the  deacon 
on  Holy  Saturday  as  he  lights  the  triple  candle.  After 
the  new  fiie  has  been  blessed  outside  the  church  a 
light  is  taken  from  it  by  an  acolyte.  The  procession 
then  moves  up  the  church,  the  deucon  in  a  whit« 
dalinatic  corr^-inK  the  triple  candle.  Three  timeit  the 
procession  stops,  the  deacon  lights  one  of  the  candles 
uom  the  taper  and  sings,  "Lumen  Christi",  on  one 
note  (fa),  dropping  a  minor  third  (to  re)  on  the  last 
syllable.  The  choir  answers,  "Deo  gratias",  to  the 
ume  tone.  Each  time  it  is  sung  at  a  higher  pitch. 
As  it  is  Bimg,  all  genuflect.  Arrived  .it  the  alt.ir,  the 
deacon  begins  the  blessing  of  the  Piischal  Candle 
{ExuUet).  Themcaningof  this  rite  is  obvious;  alight 
miut  be  brought  from  the  new  fire  to  the  Paschal 
Candle;  out  of  this  the  ceremony  grew  and  attracted 
to  itself  symbolic  meaning,  as  usual.  The  triple  candle 
wasat  first,  no  doubt,  merely  a  precaution  agninst  the 
light  blowing  out  on  the  way.  At  one  time  there  were 
only  two  lights.  The  Sarum  Consuetudinary  (about 
the  year  1210)  says:  "  I.et  the  candle  upon  the  reed  be 
lighted,  and  let  another  candle  be  lighted  at  the  same 
time,  8o  that  the  canille  upon  the  reed  can  be  rekindled 
if  itdiould  chance  to  be  blown  out"  (Thuislon,  "Lent 
and  Holy  Week",  418).  A  miniature  of  the  eleventh 
century  shows  the  Paschal  Candle  being  lighted  from 
a  double  taper  (ibid.,  419).  The  triple  candle  appears 
fint  in  the  twelfth  and  fourteenth  Roman  Ordines 
(P.  L.,  LXXVIII.  1076,  1218),  about  the  twelfth 
oentury.  Father  Thuiston  sug^eKts  a  possible  con- 
nexion between  it  and  the  old  custom  of  procuring  tlic 
new  fire  on  three  successive  days  (p.  41li).  But  pre- 
caution against  the  light  blowing  out  account.s  for 
several  candles,  and  the  inevitable  mystic  symbolism 


U  LUMIVARE 

with  which  we  find  the  root  of  the  passages  and  cham- 
bers of  the  Catacombs  occasionally  pierced  for  the 
admission  of  light  and  air.  These  cnimney-like  open- 
ing have  in  many  cases  a  considerable  thickness  of 
soil  to  traverse  before  they  reach  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  They  generally  broaden  out  betc)W,  but  con- 
tract towards  the  summit,  being  sometimex  circular 
but  more  frequently  square  in  section.  As  a  rule  they 
reach  down  lo  the  second  or  lower  story  of  the  cata- 
comb, passing  through  the  lirst.  tiomelmies  tliey  are 
so  contrived  as  to  give  light  to  two'or  even  more 
chambers  at  once,  or  to  a  chamber  and  gallery  to- 
gether. 

Of  the  existence  of  these  light^shafts  we  have  hiBtor< 
ical  as  well  as  arehceological  evidence.  For  example, 
St.  Jerome,  in  a  well-known  passage,  writes  of  his 


experience  in  Rome  when  he  was  a  boy,  about  a.  d. 
360.  "I  used",  he  says,  "every  Sunday,  in  company 
with  other  i>oys  of  my  own  age  and  tastes,  to  visit  the 
toiniis  of  the  Apostles  and  martyrs  and  to  go  into  the 
crj-pta exc.ivat«l  therein  thebowclsuf  Iheearth.  The 
walls  on  either  side  as  you  enter  are  full  of  the  Irodies 
of  the  dead,  and  the  whole  place  is  so  dark  ns  (o  ri'cidl 
the  words  of  the  prophet, '  let  them  go  down  alive  into 
Hades'.  Here  and  there  a  little  light  admitic<l  from 
above  suffices  to  give  a  momentiirv  relief  to  ( lie  horror 
of  darkness"  (In  I'jech.,  Ix).  This  "littte  hglit"  un- 
doubteilly  was  admit t I'd  through  the  Ivmhmn'n. 
Again,  less  tlian  half  a  century  later  we  have  tin- (est i- 
monj-  of  the  poet  I'rudentius,  whose  language  is  mure 
cxphcit.  "Not  fur  from  the  city  walls",  lie  informs 
UN,  ''among  the  well-trimnie<l  orchards  there  lies  a 
crj-pl  buried  in  darksome  pits.  Into  its  secret  rece.-ises 
a  Bleep  path  with  winding  stairs  directs  one,  even 
though  Ihe  turnings  shut  out  the  light.  The  light  of 
day,  indeed,  comes  in  through  the  doorwav,  and 
illuminates  the  threshold  <tf  the  portico;  and  w)ien,  as 
you  advance  further,  the  darkness  as  of  night  seems  to 
get  more  and  more  obscure  throughout  the  mazes  of 
the  cavern,  there  occur  at  intervals  apertures  cut  in 
the  roof  which  convey  the  bright  radiance  of  the  sun 
down  into  the  cave.  Although  the  recessea,  winding 
at  randiim  this  way  and  that,  form  narrow  chamliers 
with  darksome  g.illeries,  yet  a  considentble  quantity 
of  hght  finds  its  way  through  the  piercc<l  vaulting 
down  into  the  hollow  bowels  of  the  mountain.  And 
thus  throughout  (he  subterranean  crypt  it  if  possible 
lo  perceive  the  brightness  and  enjoy  the  ligh(  of  tlio 
alisent  sun"  (Prudentius,  Peristeph.,  xi).  Although 
the  word  lutnirmre  itself  is  not  employed  by  either  of 
these  writers,  it  is  not  a  term  of- modern  coinage.  In 
the  Cemetery'  of  St.  Callistus  we  have  a  rather  famous 
inscription  set  up  by  the  Deacon  Severus  which  begins 
thus: — 

Cubiculum  duplex  cum  arcosolils  et  luminare 

.„ > JusHu  jiiiiw  sui  Marcellini  di.icomu  isle 

Angular  tuminarium)  is  tlie  name  applied  to  tlie  shafla  Hevenis  lecit  manajonen  in  pace  quietam  .  .  . 


(Bationaie,  VI,  SO),  docs  not  mention  the  triple  can- 
dle. In  the  Sanim  Kite  only  one  candle  was  lighted. 
While  it  was  carried  in  procession  to  the  I'aBcbal 
Candle,  a  hymn,  "Inventor  rutili  dux  bone  luminis", 
waa  sung  by  two  cantors,  the  choir  answering  the  first 
verse  after  each  of  the  others  ("Missale  Sarum", 
Burntisland,  1861-83,  337).  In  the  Mozarabic  Rite 
*bB  bishop  lightB  and  blesses  one  candle;  while  it  is 
fiTOu^ht  to  the  altar  an  antiphon,  "  Lumen  venim 
illumtnaus  omnem  hominem  ,  etc.,  is  sung  (Mieaale 
Mixturo,  P.  L.,  LXXXV,  459),  At  Milan,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  Exultct  a  subdeacon  goes  out  and  brings 
back  a  candle  lit  from  the  new  fiie  without  any  further 
eeiemonv.  He  hands  this  to  the  deacon,  who  lights 
the  Pascual  Candle  (and  two  others)  from  it,  and  then 
goes  on  with  the  Exultet  (Missale  AmbroHianum, 
editio  tjTiica,  Milan,  1902,  Rcpertorium  at  end  of  the 
book,  p.  40). 

TmmfTon,  Ltm  and  Holy  Wrrk  (London.  Ifi041.  414-17. 

Auriax  Fortf-scue. 


LUMBCt 


431 


Linu 


(The  Deacon  Severus  made  this  double  oubiculum, 
with  its  arcosoli^  and  luminare  by  order  of  his  Pope 
Blaroellinus  as  a  quiet  abode  in  peace  for  himself  and 
his  family.)  Pope  Maroellinus  hved  from  a.  d.  206  to 
308,  and  we  may  be  fairly  sure  that  the  date  of  this 
construction  preceded  the  Diocletian  persecution  of 
303.  Again,  m  the  crypt  of  St.  Eusebius  in  the  same 
Cemetery  ot  Callistus  was  discovered  an  inscriptioa 
in  these  terms: — 

Fortunius  et  Matrona  se  vivis  fecerunt  bisomiun  ad 
luminare 

(Fortunius  and  Matrona  constructed  this  double 
tomb  for  themselves  in  their  lifetime  beside  the  light- 
shaft).  This  is  how  De  Rossi  (Roma  Sotterranea,  II, 
162;  Illy  109)  reads  the  lettering  on  the  broken  slab, 
and,  though  several  of  the  other  words  are  wanting 
and  are  supplied  by  him  conjecturally,  the  lasty  vis., 
luminare,  is  perfectly  unmistakable. 

The  majonty  of  the  luminaria  as  we  find  them  exist- 
ing in  the  Catacombs  to-day  were  constructed  after 
the  age  of  persecution  was  over,  during  the  course  of 
the  fourth  and  early  fifth  century,  when  the  tide  of 
devotion  still  set  strongly  towards  the  Catacombs  as 
the  favourite  burying-places  of  the  Christian  popula- 
tion of  the  city,  but  tnere  were  also  other  luminaria 
of  earlier  date.  ^  Occasionally  the  Acts  of  the  Martyrs 
speak  of  poor  victims  being  thrown  down  these  aper- 
tures and  stoned  by  the  pagans.  (See  Acts  of  Marcel- 
Unus  and  Petrus  in  A.  SS.,  2  June,  n.  10.)  At  the  later 
period  the  existence  of  a  large  and  well-constructed 
light^hafi  constitutes  a  tolerably  safe  presumption 
that  the  chamber  into  which  it  opened  contained  the 
last  resting-place  of  martyrs  specially  honoured  by 
popular  de  votion.  The  fact  that  these  tombs  attracted 
a  concourse  of  people  made  it  desirable,  when  the  need 
for  secrecy  had  passed  away,  that  more  provision 
should  be  made  for  lighting  the  chamber.  A  large 
shaft  was  accordingly  constructed  communicating 
with  the  outer  air,  and  a  certain  amoimt  of  decoration 
in  the  way  of  frescoes  was  often  applied  to  it  internally. 
On  the  other  hand  these  orifices  upon  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  unless  they  were  protected  by  a  pampet 
and  constantly  looked  after,  became  the  channels  by 
which  soil  and  rubbish  of  all  kinds  were  washed  into 
the  chambers  below.  In  some  cases  this  accumulation 
of  earth  and  sand  has  protected  and  hidden  that  por- 
tion of  the  catacomb  which'  is  verticalljr  underneath 
and  thus  rescued  many  precious  memorials  from  the 
ill-considered  attentions,  or  outrages,  of  earlier  ex- 
plorers. De  Rossi  (Rom.  Sott.,  Ill,  423)  has  left  an 
interesting  account  of  his  patient  opening-up  of  the 
luminare  which  was  the  only  means  of  access  to  the 
original  burial-chamber  of  St.  Cecilia.  Often,  again, 
when  churches  were  built  over  portions  of  the  6ita- 
combs,  as  in  the  time  of  Pope  Damasus  or  earlier,  it 
would  seem  that  a  sort  of  luminare  or  fenestra  was 
made,  through  which  it  was  possible  for  the  devout 
worshippers  in  the  church  above  to  look  down  into  the 
crypt  where  the  martyr  was  buried.  A  story  told  by 
St.  Gregory  of  Tours  about  the  crypt  of  Sts.  Chry- 
santhiis  and  Darius  (De  Glor.  Mart.,  37)  seems  dearly 
to  illustrate  some  such  arrangement. 

(The  Crypt  of  St.  Cecilia,  with  its  large  luniinare, 
will  be  found  figured  among  the  illustrations  in  the 
article  Catacombs,  Roman.) 

De  Waal  in  Kraus.  Real  Encyclovadie,  XI  (Freibuxg,  1886), 
345-^7;  Maruochi.  EUmenU  d: ArctUologU,  II  (Rome,  1002), 
158  aad  pasnim:  North  cote  and  Brownlow,  Roma  Softer' 
ranea,  I  (2Qd  ed.,  London,  1870),  0-10,  340-350  and  passim: 
De  Rossi,  Roma  Sotterranea,  III  (Rome,  1876),  423  sq.  And 
of.  bibliography  to  the  arUcles  Cemeteries;  Catacoicbs. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Luxnmi  Indians  (abbreviated  from  Nuglummi, 
about  equivalent  to  "people",  the  name  iised  by 
themselves),  the  principal  one  of  more  than  twenty 
small  Salishan  tribes  originally  holding  the  lower 
shores,  islands,  and  eastern  nintcrliuid  of  Puget  Sound, 


Waahinston;  bv  the  Treaty  of  Pomt  Elliott  (1855), 
gathered  upon  nve  reservations  within  the  same  terri- 
tory under  the  Jurisdiction  of  Tulalip  Agency.  The 
Lummi  occupied  several  villages  about  the  mouth  of 
Lummi  river,  Whatcom  County.  Their  lan^ajge  is  the 
same  as  that  spoken,  with  dialectic  vanations,  by 
the  Samish  and  Klalam  to  the  south,  the  Semiamu  on 
the  north,  in  British  Columbia,  and  the  Songiah, 
Sanetch,  and  Sooke  of  Vancouver  Island,  B.  C.  To- 
gether with  the  other  tribes  of  the  Tulalip  Agency, 
they  have  been  entirely  Christianized  througn  the 
labours  of  the  Rev.  Casimir  Chirouse  and  later  Oblatee 
beginning  about  1850.  In  1909  the  Indians  upon  the 
Lummi  reservation,  including  several  smaller  bands, 
numbered  altogether  435  souls,  a  decrease  of  one* 
half  in  forty  years.    (See  Tulalip.) 

James  Moonst. 

Lumper,  Gottfried,  Benedictine  patristic  writer, 
b.  6  Feb.,  1747,  at  Fussen  in  Bavaria;  d.  8 March,  1800 
(Hefele  says  1801),  at  the  Abbey  of  St.  Geoi^ge  at  Bil- 
lingcn  in  the  Black  Forest.  At  an  early  age  he  com- 
menced his  education  at  the  abbey  school,  received  in 
the  course  of  time  the  habit  of  the  order,  made  his 
solemn  profession  in  1764,  and  was  ordained  priest  in 
1771.  After  this  he  never  left  the  monastery  except 
for  occasional  assistance  in  the  sacred  ministry.  He 
was  appointed  director  of  the  gymnasium,  and  pro- 
fessor of  church  history  and  dogmatic  theology.  Later 
he  was  made  prior  of  his  monastery.  He  was  a  man  of 
irreproachable  character,  whom  nothing  could  move 
from  the  path  of  duty,  and  at  the  same  time  possessed 
profound  learning  and  untiring  diligence.  All  his 
spare  time  he  employed  in  the  study  of  early  Chris- 
tian literature,  and  Catholic  Cermany  owes  him  grate- 
ful remembrance  esi^ecially  for  his  great  work,  ^'His- 
toria  theologico-eritica  de  vita,  scriptis  atque  doo- 
trina  SS.  Pat  rum  alionimciue  scriptorum  eccl.  trium 
priorum  sseculorum  ",  whicn  he  published  in  thirteen 
volumes  at  Augsburg  between  1783  and  1789.  Of  less 
importance  are  his  smaller  works:  A  translation  of 
**  Historia  religionis  in  usum  prtelectioniun  catholica- 
rum  "  of  Matthew  SchrOckh,  of  which  two  editions  ap- 
peared at  Augsburg  in  1788  and  1790;  also  the  two 
works  in  German,  *'Die  r5misch-kath.  hi.  Messe  in 
dcutscher  Sprache  ".with  various  additional  prayere 
(Ulm,  1784),  and  "Der  Christ  in  der  Fasten,  d.  L  die 
Fasten-Evangelia  nach  dem  Buchstaben  und  sitt- 
lichen  Sinne  ''^(Ulm,  1 786) .  He  also  gave  valuable  as- 
sistance in  the  publication  of  the  periodical  "Nova 

Bibliotheoa  Eccl.  Friburgensis  ". 

KlCpfbl,  Nearotog,  aodal.  et  amtc,  Ut.  (Freibuiv,  1809),  p. 
250;  AUgem,  deuL  Bioff..  XIX,  835;  Hbfelb  in  Kircherdex^  B.  v.; 
HusTER,  NomencUUor,  III  (Innsbruck,  1895),  341. 

FnANas  Mebshman. 

Luna,  Pedro  de,  antipope  under  the  name  of 
Benedict  XIII,  b.  at  Illueca,  Ara^on,  1328;  d.  at  the 
Pefiiscola,  near  Valencia,  Spain,  either  29  Nov.,  1422, 
or  23  May,  1423.  He  was  elected  28  Sept.,  1394, 
deposed  at  the  Council  of  Constance  26  July,  1417. 
Pedro  Martini  bdonged  to  the  family  of  de  Luna;  he 
studied  law  at  Montpellier,  where  he  obtained  his 
doctor^s  degree,  and  later  taught  canon  law  at  that 
university.  On  30  Dec.,  1375,  Gregory  XI  made  him 
cardinal  deacon  of  S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin.  The  pope 
was  attracted  to  him  by  his  noble  lineage,  his  austere 
life,  and  great  learning,  as  well  as  by  his  untiring 
energy  and  great  prudence.  Cardinal  Pedro  de  Luna 
returned  to  Rome  with  Gregory  XI,  after  whose  death 
in  1378  he  took  part  in  the  conclave  which  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Romans,  and  which  elected  Urban  VI, 
for  whom  he  voted.  He  showed  great  coiu^e  at  the 
unexpected  attack  upon  the  coneLave,  and  would  not 
take  flight,  declaring  "Even  if  I  must  die,  I  will  fall 
here".  He  was  among  the  first  cardinals  to  return  to 
the  Vatican  on  9  April,  in  order  to  continue  the  eleo* 
tion  of  Urban  VI.   At  first  be  d\&^A»R«c5  vs^^^^^v^^^^n 


Lini4  432  LUMA 

took  rides  for  this  pope  (Valois, "  La  France  et  le  grand  the  French  court  met  with  mater  success  at  the  for- 
schisme  d'occident",  1, 72-74).  About  24  June,  1378,  eign  courts.  However,  neither  the  pope  of  Rome  nor 
he  joined  the  other  non-Italian  ciurdinals  at  Aiiagni,  the  pope  of  Avignon  would  consent  to  this  way,  so 
where  he  became  convinced  of  the  invalidity  of  the  that  the  schism  remained  as  heretofore,  while  general 
vote  for  Urban*  VI.  He  took  part  in  the  election  of  discontent  reigned  in  all  Christian  countries.  An  em- 
Rob^  of  Geneva  (Clement  VI^  at  Fondi  on  20  Sept.,  bassy  undertaken  by  Pierre  d'Ailly,  Bishop  of  Cam- 
1378,  and  became  a  zealous  adherent  of  this  antipope  brai,  to  Benedict,  by  order  of  Charles  VI  of  France, 
wfaoee  legality  he  energetically  defended,  and  to  whom  and  Wenceslaus  of  Germany,  accomplished  nothing. 
he  rendered  sreat  service.  In  May,  1398,  a  third  assembly  of  the  French  clergy 

Clement  VII  sent  him  as  legate  to  Spain  for  the  took  place,  and  they  resolved  to  withdraw  from  the 

Kingdoms  of  Castile,  Aragon,  Navarre,  and  Portugal,  obedience  of  Benedict.   This  resolution  was  published 

in  order  to  win  them  over  to  the  obedience  of  the  27  July,  1398,  and  immediately  took  effect.    On  1 

Avignon  pope.    Owing  to  his  powerful  relations,  his  Sept.,  two  royal  conmiissioners  publicly  announced 

influence  in  the  Province  of  Aragon  was  very  great,  the  withdrawal  of  the  obedience  at  Villeneuve,  near 

In  1393  Clement  VII  appointed  him  legate  to  France,  Avienon,  inviting  all  the  French  clergy  to  leave  Bene- 

Brabant,  Flanders,  Scotland.  England,  and  Ireland,  diet  s  curia,  under  penalty  of  the  forfeiture  of  their 

As  such  he  stayed  principally  in  Paris,  but  he  did  benefices  in  France.  ^  Also  those  who  were  not  French 

not  confine  his  activities  to  those  countries   that  lost  their  benefices  in  France  if  they  still  remained 

belonged  to  the  Avignon  obedience.     He  did  not  with  the  pope  at  Avignon.     On  2  Sept.  seventeen 

then  oppose  the  union;  on  the  contrary,  he  famil-  cardinals  left  Avignon  and  took  up  their  abode  at 

larized  himself  with  the  endeavours  of  the  Univer-  Villeneuve,  on  French  territ»r}'.    They  sent  an  envoy 

rity  of  Paris,  which  strove  to  suppress  the  schism,  to  Benedict,  summoning  him  to  agree  to  the  via  ce^ 

in  consequence  of  which,  on  his  return  to  the  Curia  stonia.    But  he  declared  that  he  would  rather  suffer 

at  Avignon,  a  coolness  arose  between  Clement  VII  death.    Then  ei/jhteen  cardinals  left  him  and  with- 

and  himself.    When  the  latter  died,  16  Sept.,  1394,  drew  their  obedience;  only  five  cardinals  remained 

Pedro  de  Luna  was  unanimously  chosen,  28  Sept.,  to  faithful  to  him. 

succeed  him.    His  desire  to  put  an  end  to  the  schism,        Geoffroy  Boucicout  occupied  Avignon  with  troops, 

even  if  he  had  to  renounce  the  papal  dignity  (via  and  besieged  the  pope  in  his  p^ce,  out  failed  to  take 

ceaHonis)  was  a  strong  inducement  for  the  cardinals  the  papal  fortress  by  storm.     Benedict  was  at  last 

of  the  Avignon  obedience  to  unite  their  votes  in  his  obliged  to  treat  with  his  enemies;  in  an  understanding 

favour.    After  his  election  he  solenmly  renewed  his  with  his  cardinals  he  pledged  himself  to  renounce  the 

promises  given  during  the  conclave,  to  work  for  the  papacy  if  the  Roman  pope  would  do  likewise.    Never- 

re-establishment  of  unity,  and  if  necessary  to  renounce  theless  on  9  May,  1399,  the  pope  had  a  notar>',  in  the 

the  papacv  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  schism.    As  presence  of  two  witnesses,  draw  up  a  protest  oppos- 

he  was  only  a  deacon,  he  was  made  a  priest  on  3  Oct.,  ing  these  stipidations  as  obtained  from  him  by  force, 

and  on  11  Oct.  was  consecrated  bishop  and  enthroned  w£uch  proceedings  he  repeated  later  on.   The  negotia- 

as  pope.    He  took  the  name  of  Benedict  XIII.  tions  as  to  the  custodians  of  the  pope  in  his  palace  at 

The  choice  of  Cardinal  de  Luna  was  welcomed  by  Avignon  were  long  drawn  out,  owing  to  Benedict's 

theFrenchcourt,  and  by  the  University  of  Paris;  they  clever  policy;  at  laat  Louis  of  Orleans  was  chosen. 

hoped  that  the  new  pope,  who  was  much  esteemed  be-  Meanwnile  a  change  took  place  in  the  public  opinion 

cause  of  his  austere  life  and  personal  ability,  would  by  in  favour  of  the  pope  who  was  considered  to  be  ill- 

his  own  efforts  restore  Church  unity.    Nevertheless  used.  Advances  were  made  between  the  latter  and  the 

Benedict  XIII  sought  to  preserve  entire  freedom  of  cardinals,  and  many  theologians,  among  them  Gerson 

action  in  his  relations  with  the  King  of  France  and  the  and  Nicholas  de  Clemanges,  began  to  attack  as  unlaw- 

University  of  Paris.    The  assembly  of  the  French  ful  the  aforesaid  withdrawal  of  the  French  obedience. 

clenpr  wluch  took  place  3  Feb.,  1395,  and  lasted  until  The  negotiations  which  France  had  carried  on  with  the 

18  Feb.,  in  order  to  confer  on  a  means  of  putting  an  different  princes  in  order  to  end  the  schism  met  with  no 

end  to  the  schism,  agreed  that  the  only  way  was  for  success.    On  12  March,  1403,  Benedict  secretly  took 

hotb.  popes  to  abdicate  (via  cessionis),  and  the  French  flight  from  Avignon,  and  reached  territory  belonging 

court  behoved  it  could  arbitrarily  put  this  expedient  to  Louis  II  of  Anjou,  where  he  was  safe.    Avignon 

in  practice.    A  brilliant  embassy,  headed  bv  three  of  immediately  submitted  again  to  him,  and  his  cardinals 

the  most  powerful  French  princes,  brought  this  resolu-  likewise  recognized  him,  so  that  in  a  short  time  bis 

tion  to  Benedict  XIII,  ana  sought  to  gain  his  consent,  obedience  was  re-estabhshed  in  the  whole  of  France. 
But  the  pope  obstinately  opposed  it,  in  spite  of  the        Benedict  XIII  now  renewed  the  interrupted  ncgo- 

fact  that  the  cardinals  sidea  with  the  embassy.    He  tiations  with  the  Roman  pope,  and  in  1404  sent  four 

insisted  that  personal  negotiations  between  both  popes  envoys  to  Rome,  to  suggest  to  Boniface  IX  that  some 

was  the  best  course  to  pursue  (via  discussionis)^  and  safe  spot  should  be  chosen  for  a  meeting  between  the 

tenaciously  clung  to  his  opinion.    Upon  which  the  two  pcmes  and  both  colleges  of  carclinals,  and  thus  b^ 

French  court  and  the  University  of  Pans  sought  to  win  mutual  agreement  put  an  end  to  the  schism.   To  t  liis 

over  the  secular  princes  to  the  support  of  the  via  proposition  Boniface  would  not  listen.    After  the  lat- 

ceBsionis,    But  the  different  embassies  of  the  year  ter's  death  (1  Oct.,  1404)  Benedict's  envoys  continued 

12^  met  with  Uttle  success.     Meanwhile  Benedict  to  parley  with  the  Roman  cardinals.    THese  however 

XIII  sought  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  the  Roman  on  17  Oct.,  elected  Innocent  VTI,  who  also  declined 

po]3e  Boniface  IX.     Ambassadors  were  sent  from  any  further  negotiations.    Meanwhile  Benedict  XIII 

Avignon  to  Rome  and  vice  versa;  but  Boniface  IX  was  trying  to  strengthen  his  position  through  exten- 

refused  to  entertain  the  idea  of  resigning,  being  as  sion  of  his  obedience.    In  May,  1405,  he  went  to 

finnly  convinced  as  Benedict  that  he  was  the  legiti-  Genoa,  in  order  to  enter  into  new  negotiations  with 

mate  pope.  Innocent  VII,  but  apain  without  results.    Benedict 

The  Avignon  pope  had  possessions  in  Italy,  which  understood  how  to  ^in  new  adherents,  and  now  hope<l 

he  held  on  to  with  all  his  power;  seeking  not  only  to  with  their  aid  to  drive  his  adversary  from  Rome  and 

prejudice  the  kings  ^nd  princes  of  Scotland,  Castile,  thus  keep  the  field  as  the  only  ]iope.   However,  hisposi- 

A&a  Aragon  who  l^longea  to  his  obedience  against  the  tion  in  Italy  again  became  critical.     While  his  a  ttitudo 

action  of  the  French  court-,  but  to  win  them  oyer  to  in  France  caused  great  dissatisfaction,  partly  because 

his  own  cause;  he  also  tried  to  win  back  the  King  of  of  his  taxation  of  benefices,  and  partly  because  of  his 

France.    Another  assembly  of  the  French  clergy  met  indifference  to  the  restoration  of  ecclesiastical  unity; 

16  Aug.,  1396.    They  again  dcK^ided  in  favour  of  the  also  because  of  his  departure  from  Avignon.    He  rV- 

Al>dicationof  both  popes;  this  time  the  ambasaadon  of  turned  to  Marseilles  by  way  oi  Nice,  and  declared 


J.VMD                                433  LITHD 

Umaelf  leadjr  to  aaoemble  a  ootmcil  of  the  Avisncm  Land  [Luhda;  LoKDimtjy  (Lomdinuu)  Ooibobom 

obfxlieaoe.    Another  usembl/  of  the  French  t&Tgy  (Scanobuu,  Scakdinorttu  w  Danoruk)]  Jn  the  LU 

took  plaoe  at  the  end  of  1406;  thev  wished  to  revtJce  of  MalmSbua — knciant  Catnolio  diocese.    The  dty  is 

the  pope's  right  to  tax  the  French  benefices.  Though  now  the  capital  of  the  former  Danish  province  Sluuuie 

Benedict  waa  severely  censured,  he  also  found  lealous  (Scania),  and  is  situated  oa  an  elevated  nooded  site 

partisans.    But  no  palpable  results  were  obtained.  in  a  fertile  country,  about  eight  miles  from  the  Sound 

When  Innocent  VII  died,  6  Nov.,   1406,  it  was  and  twenty-four  miles  east  of  Copenhagen.     It  hoi 

tL<^>ed,  in  case  a  new  pope  was  not  chosen  at  Rome,  a  university  with  a  large  Ubruy  contaJiiing  about 

that  Benedict  would  at  last  fulfil  his  promise  of  abdi-  200,000  volumes,  and  over  2,000  manuscripts,  a  high 

_.; — i n  the  way  for  a  new  and  unanimous  school,  and  a  school  of  languages,  arts,  and  sciences. 


election;  but  as  t^  gave  only  evasive  answers  to  such  astronomical  observatory,  T)otanical  gardens,  histor- 

suggestions,  Gregory  XII  was  chosen  pope  30  Nov.,  ical  museum,  several  hospitals,  insane  asylum,  im- 

atRome.    The  tatter  wrote  immediately  to  Benedict,  portant  industries,  brewenee,  and  numerous  factories 

and  amiounoed  that  he  was  ready  to  abdicate  on  lorthemanufactureof  cloth,  linen,  leather,  hardware, 

condition  that  Benedict  would  do  Kkewise,  and  that  bricks, and tJles.   ItisnowaProtestantsee.  Itasuperb 

afterwards  the  cardinals  of  Avignon  would  unite  with  Romanesque  cathedral  (its  crypt  dates  from  the  elev- 

"     e  of  Rome  for  a  unanimous  papal  election.    Bene-  enth  or  twelfth  century)  was  restored  in  1833--78.     "* 


diet  replied  31  Jan.,  1407,  acceptm^  the  proporition.    the  other  numerous  medieval  churches  (31  parish,  9 
Further  endeavours  were  now  made,  m  oraer  to  induce    monastic  churches)  there  now  remains  only  St.  PetOT'a 


planned  at  Savona  between  Benedict  and  Gregory,  from  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century. 

But  It  never  took  place.  Benedict,  indeed,  arrived  at  Saints' churchwaa  built  in  1888-1891.  The  city  has  touf 
Savona,  24  Sept.,  but  Gregory  did  not  appear.  The  large  pubhc  squares  and  many  small  irregular  streets, 
positioa  of  the  Avignon  pope  grew  worse;  on  23  Nov..  the  names  of  which  occasionally  recall  the  Catholic 
1407,  his  principal  protector  in  France,  Louis  at  past.  Of  especial  interest  are  the  cathedral  square 
Orleans,  the  king's  brother,  was  murdered.  Thepc^  and  the  adjoining  "Lundagaard",  so  called  after  ths 
no  longer  received  any  revenues  from  French  bene-  former  royal  castle  which  stood  there,  its  ancient 
fiees,  and  when  he  wrote  a  threatening  letter  to  King  tower  alone  remaining.  In  the  Middle  Ages  Lund 
Charles  VI,  the  tatter  tore  it  up.  On  25  Hay,  1408,'  was  famous  as  the  principal  city  of  the  norm  (nwfro- 
the  king  declared  that  France  was  neutral  towards  potig  Dania,  caput  ipnua  re^t).  Through  the  cen- 
both  papal  pretenders.  Soon  a  number  of  cardinals  tunes  (1172,  1234,  12S3,  1287,  IS78,  1711)  the  city 
belonging  to  both  obediences  met  for  the  purpose  at  suffered  much  from  Tire  and  the  devastations  of  war; 
convening  a  universal  coundl  (see  Pisa,  Council  or),  the  kings  in  their  quarrels  with  the  archbishop  ex- 
Benedict  XllI  fled  to  Roussillon,  and  on  his  side  called  hibiting  the  temper  of  Vandals.  In  1452  Lund  was 
a  councilatPerpignanwhichopened  oa21  Nov., 1408.  destroyed  by  the  Swedish  kin^,  Charles  Knutsaon, 
Both  popes  were  deposed  at  the  Council  of  Pisa.  The  and  never  recovered  from  this  disaster.  Tlie  city  d»- 
delegation  that  Benedict  sent  thither  arrived  too  late,  clined  steadily  from  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation 
In  spite  of  this,  the  Avignon  pope  was  still  reconiiiod  and  had  well  ni^h  lost  all  its  importance  when  by  the 
by  Scotland,  Aragon,  Castile,  and  the  Island  of  Sicily,  Treaty  of  Roakilde  (165S)  Denmark  was  obliged  to 
The  territory  ^  Avignon  was  seited  in  1411  for  the  cede  the  Provinces  of  Sksane,  Halland,  and  Blekinge 
Pisan  pope  (Alexander  V).  Since  1408  Benedict  had  to  Sweden.  Even  the  establishment  (1066)  and  en- 
resided  at  Perpignan.  Emperor  Sigismundwent  there,  dowment  of  a  university  (1668)  did  not  raise  Lund  to 
19  Sept.,  1415,  from  the  Council  of  Constance,  in  order  its  former  infiuentJaJ  position.  In  the  beginning  tA 
to  urge  the  abdication  of  Benedict,  but  without  avail,  the  eight«enth  century  the  population  had  decreased 
Later  it  was  decided  to  hold  a  conference  at  Narboime  to  six  hundred  and  eighty  souls;  thenceforth  it  grew 
in  Dec.,  1415,  between  the  representatives  of  thoee  slowly  until  towards  the  end  of  the  century  it  num- 
countries  who  until  then  had  acknowledged  Bene-  bcred  three  thousand  souls.  In  the  nineteenth  oen- 
diet,  for  the  purpose  of  withdrawing  their  obedience  tury  trade,  commerce  and  industries  jp^atty  increased, 
on  account  of  his  obstinacy.  Thereupon,  Benedict  and  the  population  grew  from  8,385  m  1858,  to  19,464 
retired  to  the  castle  of  Pefiiscola  (near  Valencia,  in  in  1908,  nearly  alLLutherane. 

Spain)  which  belonged  to  his  family.    An  embassy  to         Hibtorx. — Lund  brings  us  back  to  the  heathen  and 

him  from  the  Council  of  Constance  failed  to  soften  bis  fabulous  period  of  Scandinavia.    Nothing  autbentio 

stubbornness,  and  he  was  deposed  by  the  council  36  is  known  about  the  origin  of  the  city  but  it  is  certain 

July,  1417.    He  never  submitted  to  the  decision  of  the  that  as  early  as  the  ninth  century  Lund  was  a  plaoe 

council,  but  continued  to  consider  himself  the  only  of  great  commereial  importance.    The  insignificant 

legitimate  pope,  and  compared  Peiliscola  to  Noah  s  stream  Hajeaa  which  now  flows  near  Lund  and  emp- 

Ark.    Four  cardinals  who  remained  with  him,  later  ties  into  the  Lomma  Ba^  in  the  south-west  was  for 

acknowledged  &Iartin  V  as  rightful  pope.    B^edict  one  thousand  years  navigable  by  large  vessels.    The 

maintained  thaC  in  1418  one  S  the  tatter's  ambassa-  name  Lund  (a  tunall  wood  or  grove)  is  derived  from  ft 

dors  had  tried  to  poison  him.    The  date  of  Pedro  de  heathen  sacrificial  grove  which  lay  to  the  east  of  the 

Luna's  death  has  never  been  ascertained.    It  is  diffl-  city,  and  where  the  deities  of  the  North,  Odin,  Thar, 

cult  to  decide  between  29  Nov.,  1422,  and  33  Hay,  Fnma,  were  honoured.     Lund  is  first  mentioned  in 

1423;    the  date  generally  given  [1424]  is  incorrect,  the  Icelandic  saga,  which  tells  us  that  the  city,  eut- 

His  few  adherents  gave  mm  a  sucoessor,  MuSos,  who  rounded  by  a  wooden  rampart,  was  plundered  and 

e —  ,; 'lued  the  schism,   Pedro  ae  Luna  wroto  burnt  in  940  by  the  Vikings.     "The  converaion  of  the 


n  law  ("Dec<xiciIio  gene-  North  to  Christianity  was  Degun  a  century  earlier  by 
rB!i";"Denovoschismate")editedonlyinpart(Ehrle  Archbishop  Ebbo  of  Reims  and  St.  Anschar,  Arch- 
in  "Archiv  fUr  Literatur- und  Kirchengescfaiohte  dea  bishop  of  Hamburg-Bremen,  his  successor  in  this 
Mittela Iters  ",  VII,  515  sqq.).  apostolic  work;  both  worked  here  personally  and  also 
Baloie.  Vila  papamn  Afmianrnriam  (Pfttia,  Ifl03);  de  sent  missionaries.  But  the  results  were  neither  nota- 
4^f'^'v'''*""f",i>'^'^"""",JC?!'^"  ''".'"■  ^"''^''''  ble  nor  lasting,  at  least  in  Sweden.  Heathenism  was 
aSiS^'ii  ?j:i^^im]]i^r3-/LuJS'J"^  •>"»  ^^y  uprooted,  and  in  many  places  was  strong 

KinkmauAitlilt  da  MiUtlaUirrt.  V,  387-402).    Idiu.  Neue  enough  to  prevent  the  bmlding  of  churches  and  the 

Mattrialin  lurpacAiMtP^,  T*/"?"  ''^itr"*,"*^'*^  ■  foundation  ot  sees.     The  missionaries  succeeded  only 

F™' «  rf  ii7rV!^ilS^-!l!^%7MXrtitoi'^^l: m^}SiM  '^. •I"*'*"',  where  they  eatabUshed  the  sees  of  Sohle*. 

■ee  bibliugrsptiy.  Constahce,  Couhcil  or.  '  wig,  Ribe,  and  Aarhus  (946)  as  suffragans  of  I^g-- 

J.  P.  KnwcH.  bwg-Brenwa.    Ibwa&w^i  >xg>&^~'£C:£|^%^«>^''>^^'**^ 

IX.— 28  


LUHD  434  LUHD 

kfl^  (960-1014)  and  his  son  Canute  (Knud)  tho  Great  owing  to  the  new  ecclesiastical  autonomy  and  inde^ 
(1014-1035)  that  Christianity  made  any  headway  in  pendence  of  the  Scandinavian  countries,  formeriy 
Denmark.  They  reiifned  over  England  also,  hence  under  the  Archbishop  of  Hamburg-Bremen.  By 
the  growing  English  mfluence  in  reli^on,  education,  several  papal  Bulls  missionary  work  m  the  heathen 
and  conmierce.  Svend  obtained  English  missionaries  North  had  been  originally  assigned  to  the  Archbishop 
for  Skaane,  among  them  was  Gotebald(d.  about  1021),  of  Hamburg-Bremen,  also  the  jurisdiction  over  those 
first  Bishop  of  Roskilde.  Besides  other  religious  countries  when  converted  to  Christianity.  Later, 
houses  and  monasteries  in  Denmark  Svend  erected  however,  several  sees  were  created  in  Denmark  which 
also  the  first  church  in  Lund,  and  dedicated  it  to  the  had  already  endeavoured  to  estabhsh  a  direct  union 
Blessed  Trinity.  During  his  reign  the  See  of  Odense  with  Rome  and  to  do  away  with  a  foreign  and  trouble- 
was  established  on  the  Island  of  FOnen  (988).  some  intermediary  authority.  This  was  all  the  more 
Canute  did  still  more  for  the  Scandinavian  countries,  reasonable  from  the  moment  that  the  Bremen  prel- 
especially  for  the  development  of  Lund;  he  encouraj^ed  ates^  as  worldly  princes,  began  tc  be  occupied  with 
industries  and  trade  and  erected  at  Lund  the  ^rst  affau^  of  State  to  the  neglect  of  their  duties  as  spir- 
mint  in  Scandinavia.  Perhaps  Adam  of  Bremen  was  itual  shepherds.  They  undertook  to  consecrate  their 
right  when  he  said:  "Cuius  (sc.  Sconise)  metropolis  dependent  suffragan  bishops,  or  at  least  reserved  to 
civitasLundonaquam  victor  AngliaeChnudBritannicae  themselves  the  right  of  ratification  of  those  bishops 
Londonse   aemulam  jussit   esse"    (Pertz,  "Monum.  when  named  bv  the  king. 

Germ.",  VII,  371),  i.  e..  Canute  desired  to  make  Scan-        For  Denmark  the  danger  wa^  imminent  that  the  pow- 

dinavian  Lund  the  rival  of  English  London.    At  least  he  erful  Bremen  Metropolitan  might  misuse  his  influence 

laid  the  foundation  for  the  growing  importance  of  Lund  and  by  interference  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  coim- 

as  the  medieval  metropolis  of  Scandinavia.     In  later  try  endanger  its  political  Uberty  and  independence, 

centuries  Lund  was  a^ain  a  royal  residence  and  even  Canute   had  already  planned  the  establishment  of 

more  important  than  Koskilde  and  Ringsted.     Canute  a  Scandinavian   church  province;    but  it  was  only 

VI  celebrated  at  Lund  in  1 1 77  his  marriage  with  Ilenrj'  under  his  successor  Svend  Estridaen  ("  cuius  industria 

the  Lion's  daughter,  Gertrude  of  Saxony;  Waldemar  Dania  in  octo  eniscopatus  divisa  est"^  Langebek, 

the  Victorious  was  crowned  there  in  1202  and  it  was  "Script,  rer.  dan. '.  Ill,  444)  that  negotiations  were 

there  in  1409  that  took  place  the  marriage  between  begun  at  Rome.     Adalbert  of  Bremen  opposed  the  in- 

Eric  of  Pomerania  and  Philippa  of  England.     Soon  dependence  of  these  northern  sees,  except  on  condition 

alsoit  became  a  place  of  great  ecclesiastical  importance,  that  his  own  metropolitan  see  were  promoted  to  the 

.  The  first  Bishop  of  Lund  was  Bernard,  who  liad  Ixjcn  dignity  of  a  patriarchate  over  the  whole  North.  After 
for  five  years  in  Iceland  and  was  sent  by  Canute  to  the  death  of  Adalbert  (1072)  his  successor  Liemar 
Lund  in  1022.  Canute  also  filled  other  sees  in  Den-  sided  with  Henry  IV  in  the  Investitures  conflict  and 
mark  with  men  who  had  been  consecrated  bishops  in  Gregory  VII  invited  Iving  Svend  to  resume  the  former 
England,  in  violation  of  the  right  of  the  Metropolitan  negotiations.  Svend  died^  however,  about  1075  and 
of  Uambui^;  therefore  when  Gerbrand,  consecrated  the  Northern  Church  question  rested  for  some  time  till 
Bishop  of  Roskilde  at  Canterbury,  repaired- to  Den-  EricEjegod,thesecondsucoessorofSt.Canute,  tookup 
mark,  he  was  seized  by  Archbishop  Unvan  of  Ham-  the  affair  anew  and  brought  it  to  a  close.  Apparently, 
burg-Bremen  and  set  free  only  on  submitting  to  tho  at  the  Svnod  of  Bari  in  which  Anselm  of  Canterbury 
archbishop  as  his  metropolitan  (1022).  The  king  now  also  took  part,  Eric  obtained  from  LJrban  II  two  re- 
saw  that  he  was  oblige<l  to  recognize  the  privileges  of  quests:  the  establishment  of  an  archbishopric,  and  the 
the  Archbishop  of  Hamburg-Bremen,  and  in  this  he  canonization  of  his  brother  Canute.  Under  Paschal 
was  followed  by  the  Kings  of  Sweden  and  Norway.  II  (1100)  the  efforts  of  Eric  were  crowned  with  suc- 
Adam  of  Bremen  concluded  from  this  that  the  su-  oess,  and  the  canonization  of  Canute  was  solemnized 
premacy  of  the  See  of  Hamburg  was  respected  as  a  in  Odense,  all  the  bishops  of  the  country  being  pres- 
matter  of  fact  in  all  Scandinavian  countries;  every  ent.  Shortly  after  this  Eric  died  in  the  Island  of 
Danish,  Swedish,  and  Norwegian  bishop,  he  says,  was  C3rprus  (1103),  while  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
obliged  to  report  to  Archbishop  Libentius  II  (1020-  liand.  At  the  same  time  Cardinal  Alberich  repaired 
32)  the  progress  of  Christianity  in  their  respective  to  Denmark  as  papal  legate  to  select  an  appropriate 
countries  (Pertz,  "Monum.  Germ.",  VII,  328).  see  for  the  new  metropolitan.  His  choice  fell  on  Lund, 
Lund,  however,  was  not  properly  a  see  until  Svend  and  the  local  bishop,  Asger  (Adzer),  a  friend  of  Anselm 
Estridsen^  the  successor  of  Canute,  separated  Skaane  of  Canterbury^  receivetl  the  pallium  and  the  archi- 
ecclesiastically  from  Roskilde  (1048)  and  created  two  episcopal  dignity  (1104).  In  this  way  the  Northern 
sees,  liund  and  Dalby.  After  the  death  of  the  un-  Cnurcn  was  freed  from  its  dependence  on  Bremen- 
worthy  bishop,  Henry  of  Lund,  Dalby  and  Lund  were  Hamburg.  Adalbero  of  Bremen,  after  the  Concordat 
united  (1060)  but  there  still  remained  at  Dalby  a  col-  of  Worms  (1128),  was  very  anxious  to  revive  the  old 
lege  of  reguLir  canons  with  a  provost.  The  Province  metropolitan  rights  in  their  plenitude,  and  for  this 
of  Skaane  must  have  numl)ered  at  that  time  about  purpose  did  not  shrink  from  forging  papal  Bulls. 
three  himdred  churches  (Pertz, "  Monum.  Germ.",  VII,  iSnperor  Lothair  III,  in  the  hope  ot  gaining  politi- 
370).  The  building  of  a  new  stone  cathedral  which  callv  by  the  civil  war  which  in  the  meanwhile  had 
was  to  he  dedicated  to  St.  Lawrence  was  zealouslv  broken  out  inDenmark,  supported  at  Rome  Ada  Ibero's 
f urthered  by  the  saint  Iv  King  Canute  (1086).  Through  request.  In  fact  Innocent  II  restored  the  authority 
richly  endowed  foundations  he  sought  to  maintain  of  the  Archbishop  of  Bremen  over  all  the  northern 
God's  service  worthily,  and  can  therefore  rightlv  be  sees,  as  is  shown  by  several  contemporary  letters  to 
called  the  founder  of  the  cathedral.  His  deed  of  gift  Adalbero,  to  Archbishop  Asger,  and  to  the  Kings  of 
for  this  (21  May,  1085)  was  done  apparentlv  on  the  Sweden  and  Denmark.  Asger,  however,  held  fast  to 
occasion  of  the  consecration  of  the  church  and  is  liis  rights,  encouraged  by  his  nephew  Eskil,  then 
the  oldest  extant  Danish  royal  deed  on  record  in  the  provost  of  the  cathedral  of  Lund,  w-ho  sent  Hermann, 
original.  a  canon  of  Lund,  and  a  Rhinelander,  to  Rome  where 
Later  donations  were  so  numerous  that  the  cathe-  he  defended  successfully  the  rights  of  the  Metronolitun 
dral  became  the  richest  church  in  the  North.  Lund  of  Lund  guaranteed  fully  to  him  thirty  years  Wf ore. 
was  also  the  foremost-,  though  one  of  the  most  re-  This  ended  for  all  time  tlie  ambitious  plans  of  doniina- 
cent,  sees  in  the  Scandinavian  Church,  only  Viborg  tion  long  cherished  by  the  Prelate  of  Bremen;  the 
and  BOrglum  in  Jutland  being  later  foundations  lofty  dream  of  a  Patriarchate  of  the  North  toppled; 
(1065).  (Contemporaneously  there  ))epan  for  Den-  even  the  authority  of  a  Frederick  Ha rbarossa  (U/iS) 
mark  ;jjj  epoch  of  great  prosperity,  which  is  still  the  could  not  revive  it.     Later  Hermann  became  Bishop  of 

natlonuJ  pride.     This  prosperous  development  was  Schleswig;  he  is  buried  in  the  crypt  of  the  cathedral  at 


LUNETTE 


435 


LUHSTTB 


Lund.  In  1134  Asgcr  was  confirmed  in  his  dignity  by 
Innocent  II,  through  the  papal  legate  Cardinal  Mar- 
tin. In  1139  his  successor  Eskil  (q.  v.)  held  at  Lund 
the  first  Northern  National  Council  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Cardinal  Theodignus.  The  high  altar  of  the 
cathedral  was  solemnly  consecrated  by  Eskil  in  1145, 
making  in  all  with  those  of  the  crypt  sixty-four  conse- 
crated altars.  When  in  1152  a  separate  ecclesiastical 
province  was  established  at  Tronohjem  (Nidaros)  for 
Is'orway  with  bishops  of  the  Faroe  Islands,  Iceland, 
and  Greenland  as  suffragans,  the  Archbishop  of  Luna 
received  the  honour  of  papal  legate  with  the  title  of 
Primate  of  Denmark  and  Sweden,  Under  Eskil's 
reign  the  ecclesiastical  law  of  Skaane  (1162)  and  Zee- 
land  (1171)  was  codified,  numerous  monasteries 
founded  and  the  Archbishopric  of  Upsala  established 
(1164).  After  the  conauest  of  Rugen  (1169)  the  See 
of  Roskilde  was  divided  and  the  jurisdiction  of  Limd 
was  enlarged.  Later  the  North  German  sees  of  Lil- 
beck,  Hatzeburg,  Schwerin,  and  Cammin  were  added 
to  Lund  as  suffragans. 

Under  Archbishops  Absalon  (1177-1201)  (q.  v.), 
and  Andreas  Sunesdn,  1201-23,  Lund  was  at  the 
zenith  of  its  power.  Absalon  was  equally  prominent 
as  prince  of  the  Church  and  as  statesman  and  con- 
tinues to  he  reckoned  one  of  the  most  prominent  men 
of  medieval  Denmark.  Both  he  and  Eskill  encour- 
aged monastic  life  and  were  patrons  of  the  arts  and 
sciences.  During  his  reign  the  famous  historian  Saxo 
Gramma ticus  was  provost  of  Roskilde  (1208).  Ab- 
salon rendered  service  to  the  Church  by  strict  disci- 
pUne  and  the  introduction  of  celibacy  among  the 
clergy.  His  successor  Andreas  was  a  zealous  and 
saintly  man  highly  educated  and  the  most  learned 
medieval  theologian  of  Denmark.  The  epic  "Hexa- 
(jmeron"  and  several  hymns  testify  to  his  gifts  as  a 
classical  scholar.  He  took  part  personally  in  the 
crusades  against  the  heathens  m  Livonia  and  Esthonia 
and  established  three  new  suffragan  sees  in  Reval, 
Leal,  and  Virland  which  were  lost  by  the  sale  of  Es- 
thonia to  the  Teutonic  Order  (1346).  Under  him  the 
first  Dominican  monastery  was  established  in  Lund 
(1221).  He  was  probably  present  at  the  Lateran 
Council  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  only  Dane  who 
ever  received  a  cardinal's  hat.  He  ilied  in  1228  after 
he  had  resigned  about  1223  on  account  of  ill-health;  it 
has  been  suggested  on  account  of  leprosy. 

The  second  half  of  this  century  was  saddened  by 
weary  strifes  between  the  archbishops  and  Kings 
Christopher  I  and  Eric  Mcnved.  Archbishops  Jacob 
Erlandsen  and  Jens  Grand  were  cruelly  imprisoned 
and  the  country  fell  under  an  interdict.  Jens  Grand 
escaped  from  his  prison  to  Rome  and  Boniface  VIII 
removed  the  interdict  from  Lund.  The  archbishop 
lived  several  years  in  Paris,  received  in  1307  the  See  of 
Bremen  and  died  at  Avignon,  1326.  The  disorders  of 
the  time  were  responsible  for  the  decline  of  Lund  in 
secular  and  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The  Province  of 
Skaane  passed  (1332-1360)  to  Sweden,  was  recon- 
quered and  was  definitely  lost  by  the  Peace  of  Rc»- 
kilde  (1658).  At  the  same  time  the  Archbishop  of 
Lund's  influence  disappeared  for  the  Archbishop  of  Up- 
sala assumed  complete  authority  over  Lund,  thereby 
depriving  the  dignity  of  Primate  of  Sweden  of  all 
meaning.  During  the  time  just  preceding  the  Refor- 
mation church  affairs  were  in  a  very  bad  way  in  Den- 
mark. Archbishop  Birger  (1519)  rendered  valuable 
service  1  )y  having  the  "Missale  lun dense' ^  the  "Breviar- 
ium  ccclesiaj  lundcnsis",  the^Statuta  pro vincialia " 
as  well  as  the  "  Historia  danica"  of  Saxo  Grammaticus 
printed  at  Paris.  After  his  death  there  were  com- 
plications and  dissensions  between  Christian  II  and 
the  cathedral  chapter.  The  originally  elected  Aage 
Sparre  who  was  withdrawn  to  favour  tfie  king's  choice, 
Jiirgen  8kodl)org,  succeeded  (1523)  in  occup>dng  the 
archiepiscopal  chair  but  resigned  in  1532,  powerless 
to  stay  the  advances  of  the  Reformation.    The  last 


Catholic  archbishop,  Torben  Bills,  who,  however,  was 

never  consecrated,  was  imprisoned  by  command  of 

Christian  III  in  1536,  church  property  was  confiscated 

by  the  crown,  and  the  Reformation  was  established. 

A  superintendent  took  the  place  of  the  archbishop 

and  tne  incumbent  has  had  the  title  of  bishop  since  the 

incorporation  with  Sweden  in  1658. 

Eight  years  later,  Charles  X  founded  a  university, 

solemnly  opened  in  1668.    In  1676  the  Danes  gave 

bloody  battle  near  Limd  and  made  in  1709  ano^er 

fruitless  attempt  to  reconquer  Skaane.    Charles  VII 

made  Lund  his  head-quarters  after  his  return  from 

Turkey  in  1716-1718.    In  the  course  of  its  existence 

the  university  has  been  threatened  in  several  ways, 

but  since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  it 

has  not  been  imperilled.    It  comprises  four  faculties 

and  received  in  1878-82  the  gift  of  a  new  building  from 

the  State.    In  1908  there  were  about  one  hundred 

professors  stationed  there,  the  number  of  students 

being  three  hundred  and  twenty-two.    A  new  library 

was  built  m  1907.    The  famous  poet,  Esaias  Tegn^, 

lived  there  several  years  (1812-24)  as  professor  of 

esthetics  and  Greek  and  died  in  1846  as  Bishop  of 

Vexio. 

Langebek,  Scriptorea  rerum  danicarum,  I-VII  (Copenha|[eBi« 
1772-02);  Necrologium  Lundenae,  III,  422-73;  Liber  dameua 
lundmnn.  III,  473;  III,  473-579;  IV.  26-68;  SaxonU  Oram" 
matiei  historia  Danicat  ed.  M()ller  (Copenhugen,  1839); 
Pertz,  Mag,  Adami  Gesta  hammerdfurgensia  ecclesio!  PonUfieum, 
in  Mon.  Germ,  hint.,  VII  (Hanover,  1846),  267-^92;  Sommb- 
LI  US,  De  initiis  archiepiaeopatna  lundenaia  (Lund,  1767);  Neu- 
mann, De  fatia  Primaiua  lundenaia  (Ck>penhacen,  1799) ;  Thriob* 
De  bremiake  Erkebiakoppera  Be^nxbelaer  for  at  vedligeholde  dem 
Hdjhed  over  den  nordiake  Kirke  (Copenhagen,  1S45) ;  Cawalun. 
Lunda  Stifta Herdaminnetl  (Lund.  1854),  1-15;  Beruno,  Luna 
(Lund.  1859-68);  Joroensen,  Den  nordiake  Kirkea  Orundlmih 
qelae  og  /orate  Udvikling,  I,  III  (Copenhagen,  1862);  AHLBNixra* 
Sverige.  Geografiak,  Topqgrafiak,  atatiatiak  Beakri/ning,  I  (Stook- 
holm.  Upsali,  100S>,  261-83:  HuiTTELnr,  Danmarka  Rigia 
Krimike,  I,  II  (Copenhagen,  1652):  Oernhjelm,  Hiatorica  Sve- 
onum  Gothorumgue  eccleaiaatica  libri  quatuor  priorea  (Stock- 
holm, 1689);  Pontoppidan,  Annalea  eccUaia  danica.  I-IV 
(Copenhagen,  174 1 ,  sq.) ;    iSuRic,  Hiatorie  af  Danmarkt  II-XIV 


von  Uanemar/c  una  isorxvegen  ^L<eipzig,  lodl;;  keuterdahl, 
Svenaka  kyrkana  hifiorie  (till  1633),  I-IV  (Lund,  1836-66); 
Lappknberg,  Hamburaiadie  UrkunderUtuch  (Hombuiig,  1842J: 
Helveo,  Den  danake  Kirkea  Hialorie  til  Refonnationen  I,  II 
(C!openhagen,  1862);  JOroensen,  Hiatoridte  Afhandlinger^  I 
(Copenhagen,  1828),  5-58,  86-179,  202-234;  Olrik,  Konge  og 
Prctateatand  (Copenhagen,  1898);  Idem,  Den  eaULAe  Danmark*' 
krimike  (0>penhagen,  1898). 

Philipp  von  Kettenbuhq. 

Lunette,  known  in  Germany  as  the  lunula  and 
also  as  the  melchisedech,  is  a  crescent-shaped  clip 
made  of  gold  or  of  silver-gilt  which  is  used  for  holding 
the  Host  in  an  upright  position  when  exposed  in  the 
monstrance.  The  crescent  wliich  holds  the  Host  is 
securely  attached  to  a  small  stand  or  frame  and  the 
receptacle  of  the  monstrance  is  usually  provided  with  a 
{px>ovo  into  which  the  stand  fits  so  as  to  be  held  firmly 
m  its  place.  Most  commonly,  however,  nowadays  as  a 
precaution  against  accidents,  the  Host  is  not  merely 
fixed  between  twocresc«ntrshaped  strips  of  metal  but 
is  enclosed  in  a  pyx  with  two  glass  faces  and  this 
pyx  is  itself  inserted  bodily  into  the  receptacle  of  the 
monstrance.  The  lunette  was  certainly  in  use  before 
the  Reformation  and  it  is  to  be  found  in  many  of  the 
monstrances  of  the  fifteenth  century  which  are  still  pre- 
served to  us  (see  the  list  in  Otte-Wemicke,  "Hand- 
buch",  I,  243).  Already  in  1591  Jakob  Muller  in  his 
"  Kirchengeschmuck"  gives  a  detailed  description  of 
the  lunette,  or  "monlein",  and  points  out  the  desira- 
bility that  the  two  strips  of  metal  that  form  the  clip 
shoidd  be  separable  so  as  to  permit  of  their  being 
tlioroughly  purifietl  when  the  Host  is  changed.  If  a 
glass  pyx  is  used  it  ought  to  be  possible  so  to  fix  the 
Host  that  it  does  not  remain  in  contact  with  the  glass 
(Decree  of  S.  Cong,  of  Rit^s,  4  Feb.,  1871). 

Sen  HOD  in  KirchenUxikon,  s.  v.  MonslranM;  Ottb-Webnicb^ 
Handburh  der  kirchliehen  Kunt^-Arrftfiologie,  I  (T/eipzig,  1883), 
240- 4:  liAiiBiEU  de  Montm'Lt,  Traits  pr'ttiquf  lie  I'ameubie- 
inftif  ih<  erli-^f*.  1  n'arw.  1S7"S),  X'il-3;  Mf  ixkk,  Kirchtmife' 
fdimuck  ^Munich,  1  jUI;,  30.  HeubIuKC  Xwv^-'iasrtvs^a.m 


LUNI-aARZAKA-BRnOllATO  436  LUPUS 

Loni-Sanana-Bnignato,    Diocese    of,    in    the  10  religious  houses  of  men,  and  25  of  women,  6  schools 

province  of  Genoa.    Luni  (originally  Luna)  was  an  for  boys  and  8  forjprls,  and  a  Catholic  periodical. 

Etruscan  city,  but  was  seized  by  the  Ligurians.     At         CAFPBLLmrn,  U  Chiete  dTItaUa  (Venice,  1857),  XIII:  Pro- 

aa  uncertain  «iate  it  was  token  by  the  Romans  under  SSii'r25!rXiS(JSS.~  (cJi.^  ^""^ 

DomitiusCalvmus.  In  177  b.c,  and  under  the  Second  U.  Benigni. 

Trimnvirate,  Roman  colonies  were  established  there. 

The  port,  though  far  from  the  city  (the  modern  port  of        Lupna  (Servatus  Lupus,  Loup),  Abbot  of  Fer- 

Spesia),  was  very  important  even  in  antiqmty,  and  rfdres,  French  Benedictine  writer,  b.  in  the  Diocese 

the  marble  of  Luna,  known  to^y  as  Carrara  marble,  of  Sens,  about  805;  d.  about  862.    He  assumed  the 

was  veiy  renowned.     In  the  fiftii  century  Luna  was  surname  of  Servatus  in  commemoration  of  bis  miracu- 

»cked  by  the  Vandals,  and  m  650  by  the  Lombards,  lous  escape  from  danger  either  in  a  serious  illness  or  on 

From  the  ninth  century  onwards  it  suffered  the  depre-  the  battlefield.    He  began  his  education  at  Ferri^res 

dations  of  the  Saracens,  the  last  tune  m  1016  under  under  Aldric  and  completed  it  at  Fulda  under  Ra- 

Mocehit,  who,  however,  was  conquered  the  same  year  banus  Maurus.    During  his  residence  at  Fulda  (c.  830- 

(8  June)  by  the  Genoese  and  Pisan  fleets.    The  city  35)  he  became  an  intimate  friend  and  disciple  of  the 

never  recovered,  however,  and  m  1058  the  inhabitants  learned  Emhard.     Even  before  he  returned  to  his  na- 

cmigrated  to  the  modem  Sarzana.     Rmns  are  stiU  tive  land  he  had  become  favourably  known  at  court 

visible  of  an  amphitheatre,  a  semicircular  theatre,  a  and  was  especially  esteemed  by  the  Empress  Judith, 

circus,  and  an  aquanum.     Numerous  sixth  century  in-  the  second  wife  of  Louis  the  Pious.  To  her  and  her  son 

scnptions,  some  of  which  are  Oinstian.  have  been  found  Charles  the  Bald,  whose  political  interests  he  always 

at  Luni.     The  sole  record  of  its  ancient  importance  defended,  he  owed  his  nomination  as  Abbot  of  Fer- 

survives  m  the  name  of  Lumgiana.    Sarzana  (sup-  n^^ros  (22  November,  840).    Subsequently  he  took  a 

posed  to  be  dcnyed  from  Semana)  is  a  smaU  city  on  prominent  part  in  contemporary  political  and  eccle- 

the  nrfit  bank  of  the  River  Magrw,  nearly  four  miles  siastical  events,  even  assuming  active  command  on  the 

from  the  8^.     It  is  first  mentioned  in  963.    The  tem-  battlefield  several  tunes.    During  the  war  between 

poral  junsdiction  of  Sar^a  was  vested  m  the  bishops  Charles  the  Bald  and  Pepin  of  Aquitaine  he  was  cap- 

of  Luni,  though  it  was  often  cont^ted  by  the  Malas-  tured  and  held  prisoner  for  a  short  time  (844).    The 

pina  marquesses.     Later  it  passed  to  the  Pisans  and  game  year  he  was  sent  to  Burgundy  to  cany  out  the 

to  the  Genoese.    In  1353  a  congress  of  princes  and  monastic  reforms  decreed  by  the  Synod  of  Germigny 

representatives  of  the  republics  of  Italy  was  held  at  (843),  and  attended  the  Council  of  Vemeuil  on  the 

Sarzana.     In  the  Middle  Ag^  it  was  an  important  oise,  the  Acts  of  which  have  been  written  by  him. 

stoategic  point;  the  walls  and  bastions  are  still  visible.  He  was  also  present  at  several  other  councils,  notably 

while  the  citadel,  which  was  erected  in  1263  bv  the  that  of  Soissons  in  853,  and  played  an  important  part 

Pisans  and  destroved  and  rebuilt  by  Lorenzo  de  Medici  in  the  contemporary  controversy  regarding  predesti- 

(1488)  and  by  C^les  VIII  (1496),  serves  to-day  as  a  nation.    He  believed  in  a  twofold  predestination,  not 

prison.    The  cathedral  was  built  after  1200,  and  was  indeed  in  the  sense  that  God  predestined  some  men  to 

aevenU  timCT  restored  (1355, 1474,  and  in  1664  by  Car-  damnation,  but  that  he  foreknew  the  sins  of  men  and 

dbnalCa^dnm).     It  con  tains  picture  ^^  foreordained  consequent  punishment.     The  closing 

Fie^lla  (called     II  Sarzana  ),  BaJletti  (Coronation  of  yeara  of  the  life  of  Lupus  were  saddened  by  the  threats 

Fredenck  III),  and  sculptures  by  Baratta.  The  ceiling  ened  devastation  of  his  monastery  by  the  invading 

m  carved  wood  is  the  work  of  Pietro  Giambelli.     In  a  Normans.   He  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  medieval 

precious  rehquary  is  preserved  a  lacnmatory  in  which,  literary  history,  being  one  of  the  most  cultured  and 

according  to  a  pious  legend,  Nicodemus  collected  some  refined  men  of  the  ninth  century.   His  letters,  of  which 

drops  of  the  Blood  of  Christ.    The  arehives  of  the  we  possess  132,  are  distinguished  for  literary  elegance 

cathedral  contain  the  precious  '*Codex  Pallavicinus  ",  and  valuable  historical  information.    As  a  hagiogra- 

a  collection  of  notarial  documents  and  deeds  made  in  pher  he  has  left  us  a  "Life  of  St.  Maximin  ",  Bishop  of 

1226  by  Bishop  Guglielmo  Pallavicino.    The  church  trier  (d.  349)  and  a  "Life  of  St.  WiglM?rt'',  Abbot  of 

of  S.  Francesco  is  also  important.  Fritzlar  in  Hesse  (d.  747).    In  the  controversv  on  prc- 

The  episcopal  see  dates  at  least  from  the  fifth  century,  destination  he  wrote  his  "De  tribus  quwstionibus^',  a 

In  the  sixth  century  St.  Tercntius  and  St.  Venantius,  work  which  treated  of  the  threefold  question  of  free 

a  friend  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  flourished.     Under  will,  predestination,  and  the  universality  of  redemp- 

Bishop  Felerandus  the  above-mentioned  relic  of  the  tion.  To  illustrate  the  teaching  of  the  Church  on  these 

Blood  of  Christ  is  said  to  have  l^een  brought  to  Luni.  topics  he  brought  t<^ther  pertinent  passages  from 

St.  Ceccardus  (892)  was  murdered  by  barbarians,  the  Fathers  in  his  "<%llectaneum  de  tribus  quaestio- 

When  Luni  was  abandoned,  the  episcopal  see  was  fixed  nibus." 

at  Sarzana,  then  at  Sarzanello,  and  finallv  at  Castel-        The  fint  complete  scientifie  edition  of  the  works  of  Lupus 

nuovo.     In  1202  Innocent  III  transferred  the  see  to  ^^•■l«*>lfefe?U^y.5^^P^^^*™'i.?^*^^T®'^'A^^^^»  roprint 

SM«na  Gualtiero  being  the  bishop     In  1306  Dante  &^.^rf&^ip*!tS~f>SS;.:^nitB?rS„?VK 

went  to  Sarzana,  and  succeeded  m  setthng  a  dispute  Li/«  if  Si.  Maxtmin,  ibid..  Script.  Rer.  Merov.  (ed.  Krusch), 

between  Bishop  Antonio  Camulla  and  the  Marquess  ni  (Hanover.  18W),  74-83:  Ljr«  of  St.  Wva^^  i^..  Scrips 

lff«1«<i*v;«iA       'Tk^k  rkrwk4-'«>  arxi^ttw^  \>M^m^  ;»oy%:~wl  a  f <>«r  toTtt  (ed.  HoLDBR-Eoowi)t  XV  (Hanovef,  1887),  3« -43.  Seoabo 

Malaspina.    Tne  poet  s  sojourn  here  inspired  a  few  spbotte.  Biographic dB%AUf  Serrate Lupu»  (iutisbon.  188O); 

"  temne    of  the  "  Lh  vine  Comedy  ".     In  1 355  (Jharles  Lkyillain ,  EtuJk  rar  U»  UUrt»  <f«  Loup  de  Ferrih-e*  m  Biblioth. 


and  the  church  of  S.  Maria  delle  Grazie.    Other  illus-  N.  A.  Weber. 
trious  bishop  were  Cardinal  Simone  Pasqua  (1561); 

Giovanni  Selvaco  (1590),  the  founder  of  the  seminair;  Lupna  (Wolf).  Christian,  historian,  b.  at  Ypres 

Giulio  Cesare  Lomellino  (1757),  the  reformer  of  the  (Flanders),  23  Julv,  1612;   d.  at  Louvain,  10  July, 

diocese;  Vincenzo  M.  Maggioli  (1795),  put  to  flight  by  1681.    He  ioined  the  Auffustinian  Order  at  the  age  of 

tito  Jacobins.    In  1787  the  Diocese  of  PontremoTi.  and  fifteen,  ana  on  the  completion  of  his  studies,  was  ap- 

in  1821  that  of  Massa  Ducale  were  separated  from  Luni-  pointed  lecturer  in  theolcgv,  to  the  younger  members 

Sarzana,  but  the  Diocese  of  Brugnato,  separated  from  of  the  order  at  Ck>lofi;ne.   While  occupying  this  position 

Limi  by  Innocent  II  in  1133,  was  added  in  1822.    The  he  won  the  confidence  of  the  nuncio,  Fabio  Chigi, 

diocese  of  Luni-Sarzana  is  directly  subject  to  the  afterwards  Alexander  VII.    In  1640  Lupus  was  ap- 

Holy  See,  but  Brugnato  is  a  suffragan  of  G«ioa;  the  pointed  professor  of  theology  at  Louvain,  but,  owing 

united  diocese  has  107  parishes  with  165,000  souls,  to  his  zeal  for  the  teaching  of  St.  Augustine,  was  su6- 


LtlSATXA 


437 


LirSSY 


pected  of  Jansenism.  The  nuncio  at  Brussels  acciised 
mm  of  it,  and  would  not  permit  the  University  oV 
Louvain  to  confer  a  doctors  degree  upon  him;  only 
after  the  pope's  mediation  was  it  given  to  him.  When 
the  accusation  was  renewed,  Alexander  VII  called  him 
to  Rome,  where  for  the  next  five  years  he  devoted 
himself  under  papal  protection  to  the  study  of  ecclesi- 
astical history.  He  returned  to  Louvain  in  1660,  and 
was  elected  provincial  of  the  Belgian  province;  in 
1667  he  returned  to  Rome,  accompanied  by  several 
professors  of  the  theological  facul^  of  Louvain,  to 
obtain  tiie  censure  of  a  number  of  erroneous  moral 
doctrines.  Innocent  XI  condemned  sixt^-five  of  the 
propositions  denounced  by  him.  On  his  return  to 
Louvain  he  was  appointed  r^us  professor  of  the- 
ology, the  first  time  a  religious  had  ever  held  this  office. 
His  writing  were  published  in  thirteen  parts,  the  first 
twelve  at  Venice,  1724-1729,  in  six  folio  volumes,  the 
thirteenth  at  Bologna,  in  1742.  The  first  six  under 
the  title  ''Synodorum  generalium  et  provincialium 
statuta  et  canones  cum  notis  et  historicis  disserta- 
tionibus''  (1665-1673)  contain  a  detailed  history  of 
the  councils,  with  many  learned  dissertations.  The 
seventh  part  contains:  ''Ad  Ephesinmn  concilium 
variorum  patrum  epistolas,  item  commonitorium 
Coelestini  papte,  titulos  decretorum  Hilarii  papse'' 
(Louvain,  1682).  He  also  wrote  critical  replies  to 
Quesnel,  Boileau,  and  Gerbais.  His  writing^,  how- 
ever, are  mostly  collections  of  historical  materials, 
usually  but  little  elaborated  by  him. 
HuRTER,  Nomenclatar,  II  (1893)*  514-521. 

Patricius  Schlaoer. 
Lnsatla.    See  Saxony,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

Lusdnius  (Nachtgall),  OmiAR,  an  Alsatian 
Humanist,  b.  at  Strasburg,  1487;  d.  at  Freibuig,  1537. 
After  receiving  instruction  at  Strasburg  from  Jacob 
Wimppheling,  he  went  in  1508  to  Paris,  where  he 
studied  Latin  under  Faustus  Andrelini  and  Greek 
under  Hieronymus  Aleander.  He  then  studied  canon 
law  at  Louvain,  Padua,  and  Vienna,  and  in  the  last  city 
music  also  under  Wolfgane  Grefineer.  Subsequently, 
he  travelled  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  returning  to 
Strasburg  in  1514.  Here  he  became  associated  with 
Wimppheling  and  Sebastian  Brant  and  mingled  in 
literary  circles.  In  1515  he  was  appointed  organist  at 
the  church  of  St.  Thomas,  and  also  received  a  vicar- 
iate, as  he  was  a  priest.  In  addition  he  taught  both  in 
the  school  of  the  Knights  Hospitallers  and  in  the  cathe- 
dral school.  He  spread  in  Strasburs  his  own  enthu- 
siasm for  the  Greek  language  and  literature,  and 
published  Greek  manuals,  collections  of  examples,  and 
an  edition  of  Lucian  with  a  translation.  In  1515  he 
also  published  a  book  on  the  elements  of  music  (Insti- 
tutiones  musics),  and  in  1516  issued  a  revised  edition 
of  the  ''Rosella''  of  Baptista  Trovamala's  compen- 
dium of  cases  of  conscience.  The  most  important  of 
his  later  works  are:  (1)  an  edition  (1518)  of  the  Com- 
mentary on  the  Pauline  Epistles,  then  ascribed  to 
Bishop  Haimo  of  Halberstadt.  In  the  introduction 
Luscinius  condemns  Scholasticism  and  champions  the 
study  of  the  Bible;  (2)  an  exposition  and  translation 
of  the  Psalms  (1524) ;  (3)  a  harmony  of  the  Goepeb  in 
Latin  and  German  (1523-25) ;  (4)  the  dialogue  "  Grun- 
nius  sophista''  (1522),  a  defence  of  Humanistic 
studies;  (5)  a  collection  of  anecdotes  called  ''Loci  ac 
sales  mire  festivi "  (1524),  written  chiefly  for  scholarly 
circles  and  intended  rather  to  entertam  than  to  b!e 
satirical.  It  contains  extracts  from  Greek  and  Roman 
authors,  quotations  from  the  Bible  and  the  Fathers 
of  the  Church,  and  moral  applications  which  consort 
but  ill  with  the  many  coarse  jests. 

Luscinius  went  to  Italy  and  there  received  the  de- 
gree of  Doctor  of  Law.  Iii  1520  he  lost  his  position  at 
St.  Thomas's,  and  failed  to  obtain  a  prebend  which  he 
had  expected,  but  he  was  soon  made  a  canon  of  St. 
Stephen's  at  Strasburg.   In  1523  he  w^it  to  Aug»buig, 


and  there  became  a  teacher  of  the  Bible  and  of  Greek 
at  the  monastery  of  St.  Ulrich.  Although  a  aealouB 
Humanist  and  an  opponent  of  Scholasticism,  Luscinius 
did  not  become  a  supporter  of  the  Reformation.  For 
a  time,  however,  he  certainly  seems  to  have  been 
friendly  to  it.  and  to  have  approved  of  the  doctrine  of 
salvation  by  taith  alone.  But  disputes,  which  he  held 
to  be  specious  quibbling  over  words,  were  distasteful 
to  him,  and  thus  at  the  beginning  he  avoided  taking 
sides.  After  1525,  however,  he  was  regarded  as  a  reli- 
able adherent  of  the  ancient  Church.  The  Fugeer 
made  him  preacher  at  the  church  of  St.  Moriz,  andne 
became  the  most  important  champion  of  Catholicism 
at  Augsbuig,  his  sermons  arousing  the  ill-will  ol  tJie 
Evangelical  party.  In  1528,  after  he  had  repeatedly 
callea  the  Evangelical  preachers  heretics,  he  was  ar- 
rested and  confined  to  his  own  house.  In  1529  he  was 
made  cathedral  preacher  at  Freiburg  im  Breisgau. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  wished  to  enter  the 
Carthusian  monastery  near  Freiburg,  but  he  was  pre- 
vented by  death.  Luscinii^  was  a  very  talented  and 
versatile  man — theologian,  jurist,  musician,  and  a 
widely  known  scholar  in  "the  three  languages". 
f  ScHMiiyr.  Hitl.  litUraire de  VAUace,  II  (Paris.  1879).  174-208, 
412-8,  where  a  list  of  his  33  publications  and  editions  is  jnvea; 
GcioER  in  Atkfem.  deutsche  Biogr.,  XIX  (Leipzig,  1884),  065-7; 
Knepper,  Dcm  SchiU-  u.  UrUerrxchtsweaen  in  EUcus  (Strasbuig, 
1905),  passim;  Schb6der,  Beiir&ge  turn  Leberubilde  Dr,  Ottmar 
NaehigaUB  in  Hidtyr.  Jahrb.  der  OdrresgeaelUchaft,  XIV  (1893). 
83-106;  Roth,  Auoaburga  RefomuUionageseh.  1617-SO  (2xid 
ed.,  Munich.  1901),  16.  130-2. 306-9. 

Klemens  LOffleb. 

Lusij^an,  Jean-Baptiste-Alphonse,  a  French- 
Canadian  writer,  b.  at  St-Denis  on  the  Richelieu,  P. 
Q.,  27  September,  1843;  d.  5  January,  1893;  son  of 
Jean-Baptiste  Lusisnan,  a  merchant,  and  On^sime 
Masse.  He  was  educated  at  St-Hyacinthe  CoUegei 
and  studied  theology  there  and  at  Montreal  Seminary. 
Judging  after  three  vears  that  he  was  not  called  to  tne 
Church,  he  studied  law  at  St-Hyacinthe  and  at  LaviJ 
University,  Quebec,  and  practised  in  the  former  city 
for  a  few  years.  He  contnbuted  to  several  newspapens 
and  was  chief  editor  (1865-^)  of  "Le  Pays^',  the 
principal  organ  of  the  French-Canadian  Liberal  party 
at  the  time,  a  paper  the  attitude  of  which  in  poutico- 
religious  questions,  notably  the  so-caUed  undue  influ- 
ence of  the  clergy  in  politics,  was  frequently  at 
variance  with  the  views  of  ecclesiastical  authority. 
Lusisnan  published  (1872),  as  a  continuation  of  a 
simiuir  wonc  by  Judge  Ramsay,  a  '^  Digest  of  Reported 
cases";  "Coups  d'ceil  et  coups  de  plume"  ^1884). 
He  was  an  ardent  patriot  and  a  thorough  student  of 
the  French  tongue,  ever  jsealous  b)r  his  criticism  and 
b^  his  example  to  preserve  its  purity.  All  his  Cana- 
dian contemporaries  looked  upon  him  as  a  master  of 
the  language,  his  lexicographical  erudition  being  un- 
rivalled in  Canada.  All  the  delicacies  and  intricacies 
of  French  grammar  and  phraseology  were  familiar  to 
him.  His  style,  remarkably  deft  and  fluent,  would 
have  given  him  a  foremost  rank  had  he  been  placed  in 
a  more  favourable  field.  He  was  elected  (1885)  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada. 

Maclkan  Rose.  CucUmedia  of  Canadian  Biography  (Toro&tOb 
1886);  A  la  nUmoireaAlphonae  Ltuignan  (Montreal.  1892).. 

Lionel  Lindsay. 

Lussy.  Melchior,  statesman,  b.  at  Stans,  Canton  of 
Unterwalden,  Switzerland,  1529;  d.  there  14  Nov., 
1606.  Even  in  his  youth  he  filled  various  offices,  took 
part  in  the  campaigns  of  1557  and  1573,  and  was  after- 
wards ten  times  high  bailiff  of  his  native  canton.  He 
was  often  an  emissary  of  the  Confederacy  at  Stans,  as 
well  as  in  France,  Spain,  etc.  In  particular  he  repre- 
sented, along  with  Abbot  Joachim  Eichhom  of  Ein- 
siedehi,  the  Catholic  cantons  of  Switzerland  at  the 
Council  of  Trent.  He  arrived  there  16  March,  1562, 
and  stayed  till  June,  1563.  He  promised  on  oath,  in 
the  name  of  the  Catholic  confederates,  to  adopt  and 
maintain  the  decisions  and  regulations  of  tK^^  ^jCi^s)sS&k. 


LUST 


438 


IiUTHEB 


Always  mindful  of  this  and  filled  with  zoal  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  Church's  condition,  he  was  from 
thttt  time  tirelessly  engaged  in  bringing  about  the  full 
accomplishment  of  the  council's  decrees  in  Switzer- 
land. Already  in  1564  he  resolutely  made  himself 
responsible  for  them;  and  afterwards  he  never  lost 
sight  of  these  matters,  and  never  failed  to  raise  a 
warning  voice.  Lussy  was  a  friend  of  St.  Charles 
Borromco,  with  whom  he  had  much  correspondence, 
and  who  also  invited  him  in  1570  to  Stans.  Lussy 
lealously  arranged  the  establishment  of  a  papal  nun- 
ciature to  Switzerland,  and  when  Bishof)  Giovaimi 
Francesco  Borromeo  of  Vercelli  arrived  in  1579  as 
nuncio  and  visitator,  Lussy  \ngorously  supported  him. 
He  aJso  always  gave  hesjrty  support  to  subsequent 
nuncios.  In  1583  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem, 
of  which  he  published  an  account.  Lussy  founded  the 
Cftpuchin  monastery  at  Stans.  After  1596  he  retired 
from  active  office  and  piously  prepared  himself  for  death. 

Mater,  Dot  Konxil  von  Tritnt  und  die  Gegenreformation  in 
derSehveiz,  II  (Stans,  1903).  295  sq.;  Feller,  RitterM.  Luavy 
(Stans,  1908-09).  ' 

F.  G.  Maykr. 

Last,  the  inordinate  craving  for,  or  indulgence  of, 
the  carnal  pleasure  which  is  experienced  in  the  human 
organs  of  generation.  The  wron^ulness  of  lust  is 
reducible  to  this:  that  venereal  satisfaction  is  sought 
for  either  outside  of  wedlock  or,  at  any  rate,  in  a  man- 
ner which  is  contrary  to  the  laws  that  govern  marital 
intercourse.  Every  such  criminal  indulgence  is  a 
mortal  sin,  provided,  of  course,  it  l)e  voluntary  in 
itself  and  fully  delilwrate.  This  is  the  testimony  of 
St.  Paul  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Gala tians,  v,  19:  "  Now 
the  works  of  the  flesh  are  manifest,  which  are  fornica- 
tion, uncleanness,  immodesty,  luxury,  ...  Of  the 
which  I  foretell  you,  as  I  have  foretold  to  you,  that 
they  who  do  such  things  shall  not  obtain  the  kingdom 
of  God."  Moreover,  iJF  it  be  true  that  the  gravity  of 
the  oflences  may  be  measured  by  the  liarm  they  work 
to  the  individual  or  the  community,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  lust  has  in  this  respect  a  gravity  all  its 
own.  Transgressions  against  virtues  other  than  purity 
frequently  admit  of  a  minor  degree  of  malice,  and  are 
accounted  venial.  Impurity  has  the  evil  distinction 
that,  whenever  there  is  a  direct  conscious  surrender  to 
any  of  its  phases  the  guilt  incurred  is  always  grievous. 
This  judgment,  however,  needs  niodifying'when  there 
18  question  of  some  impure  gratification  for  which  a 
person  is  responsible,  not  immediately,  but  l)ecause  he 
Dad  posited  its  cause,  and  to  which  he  has  not  delil)er- 
ately  consent<*d.  The  act  naay  then  be  only  venially 
sinful.  For  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  its 
wickedness  much  will  depend  upon  the  apprehended 
proximate  danger  of  givmg  way  on  the  part  of  the 
agent,  as  well  as  upon  the  known  capacity  of  the  thing 
done  to  bring  about  venereal  pleasure.  This  teaching 
applies  to  external  and  internal  sins  alike:  ''Whoso- 
ever shall  look  on  a  woman  to  lust  after  her,  hath 
alnNMly  committed  adultery  with  her  in  his  heart'' 
(Matt.,  V,  28) .  However  the  case  may  stand  as  to  the 
extent  of  the  obligation  under  which  one  lies  to  refrain 
in  certain  circumstances  from  actions  whose  net  result 
18  to  excite  the  passions,  moralists  are  at  one  as  to  the 
counsel  they  give.  They  all  emphasize  the  perils  of 
the  situation,  and  point  out  the  practical  dangers  of  a 
failure  to  refrain.  It  matters  not  that  there  is  not,  as 
ife  suppose,  any  initial  sinful  intent.    The  sheerest 

Snidence  and  most  rudimentary  self-knowledge  alike 
emand  abstinence,  where  possible,  from  things  which, 
though  not  grievously  ban  in  themselves,  yet  easily 
fan  into  flame  the  unKoly  fire  which  may  be  smoulder- 
ing^ but  is  not  extinct. 

Lust  is  said  to  l)e  a  capital  sin.  The  reason  is 
obvious.  The  pleasure  which  this  vice  has  as  its 
object  is  at  once  so  attractive  and  connatural  to 
human  nature  as  to  whet  keenly  a  man's  desire,  and 
so  lead  him  into  the  commission  of  many  other  dis- 


onlers  in  the  pursuit  of  it.  Theologians  ordinarily 
distinguish  varioas  forms  of  lust  in  so  far  as  it  is  a 
consummated  external  sin,  e.  g.,  fornication,  adultery, 
incest,  criminal  assault,  abduction,  and  sodomy.  E:ich 
of  these  has  its  own  specific  miilice — a  fact  to  be  borne 
in  mind  for  purposes  of  safeguarding  the  integrity  of 
sacramental  confession. 

RxcKABY.  The  Moral  Teachino  of  St.  Tkoman  (London.  1896); 
Slater,  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1908);  Ballekini,  Opua 
Theologicum  Morale  (Prato.  1899). 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

Lather,  Martin,  leader  of  the  great  religious  revolt 
of  the  sixteenth  century  in  Germany,  b.  at  Ei8lel)en, 
10  November,  1483;  d.  at  Eisleben,  18  February, 
IFAQ.  His  father,  Hans  Luther,  was  a  miner,  a  rugged, 
stem,  irascible  character.  In  the  opinion  of  many  of 
his  biographers,  it  was  an  exhibition  of  uncontrolled 
rage,  an  evident  congenital  inheritance  transmitted  to 
his  eldest  son,  that  compelled  liim  to  flee  from  Mohra, 
the  family  seat,  to  escape  the  penalty  or  odium  of 
homicide.  This,  though  first  charged  by  Wicelius,  a 
convert  from  Lutheranism  has  found  admission  into 
Protestant  history  and  tradition  (May hew,  "German 
Life  and  Manners  in  Saxony",  I,  London,  1865, 7-113; 
Bottcher,  "Germania  Sacra",  1874,  174;  Thierisch, 
"  Luther,  Gustav  Adolf  u.  Maximilian  I  von  Bavem  ", 
Nordlingen,  1869,  165;  Schenkel,  "Martin  Luther", 
Berlin,  1870,  7;  Thou,  "Schloss  Wartburg",  Gotha, 
1792, 133;  Kat\  Luther,  " Geschichtliche  Notizen  ul>er 
M.  Luther's  Vorfahren",  Wittenberg,  1869,  30;  Ort- 
mann,  "Miihra,  Der  Stammort  D.  M.  Luthers", 
Salzung,  1S44;  Bayne,  "Martin  Luther",  I,  London, 
1887,92;  in  explanation:  Kostlin,"Stud.  u.  Kritik.", 
1871,24-31;  Kiistlin-Kawerau,  "Martin  Luther",  I, 
Berlin,  I9a3,  15;  *Am.  Cath.  Quart.,  Jan.,  1910. 
"Was  Luther's  Father  a  Homicide?",  also  publishccl 
in  pamphlet  form;  *Histor.  polit.  Blatter,  CXX, 
415-25).  His  mother,  Margaret  Ziegler,  is  spoken 
of  by  Melanchthon  as  conspicuous  for  "modesty, 
the  fear  of  God,  and  prayert ulness "  ("Corpus  Re- 
formatorum",  ed.  Bret  Schneider,  VI,  Halle,  1834, 
156) .  Extreme  simplicity  and  inflexible  severit  v  char- 
acterized their  home  life,  so  that  the  joys  of  childhood 
were  virtually  unknown  to  him.  His  father  once  lx?at 
him  so  mercilessly  that  he  ran  away  from  home  and 
was  so  "embittered  a^inst  him,  that  he  liad  to  win 
me  to  himself  again  "  (Tischreden,  Frankfort,  1567,  fol. 
314  a).  His  mother,  "on  account  of  an  insignificant 
nut,  beat  me  till  the  blood  flowed,  and  it  was  this 
liarshness  and  severity  of  the  life  I  led  with  them  that 
forced  me  sul)«e(iuently  to  run  away  to  a  monastery 
and  become  a  monk  "  (ibid . ) .  The  same  cruelty  was  the 
experience  of  his  earliest  school-days,  when  in  one 
morning  he  was  punished  no  less  than  fiftetm  times 
(Kroker,  "Luthers  Tischreden",  Leipzig,  1903,  627). 
The  meagre  data  of  his  life  at  this  period  make  it  a 
work  ol  difficulty  to  reconstruct  his  childhood.  His 
schooling  at  Mansfeld,  whither  his  parents  had  re- 
turned, was  uneventful.  He  attendea  a  Liitin  school, 
in  which  the  Ten  Commandments,  "Child's  Belief", 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Latin  grammar  of  Donatus 
were  taught,  and  which  he  learned  "  industriously  and 
Quickly"  (>Iathesius, " Historien  ...  I).  Martin  Lu- 
thers', Nuremberg,  1588,  fol.  3  a).  In  his  fourteenth 
year  (1497)  he  entered  a  school  at  Magdeburg,  where, 
in  the  words  of  his  first  biographer,  like  many  children 
"  of  honourable  and  well-to-do  parents,  he  sang  and 
begged  for  bread— T>an«m  propter  Deum"  (Mathesius, 
op.  cit.).  In  his  fifteenth  year  we  find  him  at  Eise- 
nach. At  eighteen  (1501)  he  entered  the  University 
of  Erfurt,  with  a  view  to  studying  jurispnidence  at  the 
request  of  his  father.  In  1502  he  rectnved  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Philoeoph  v.  being  the  thirteenth  among 
fifty-seven  candidates.  On  Epiphany  (6  Jan.^  1505), 
he  was  advanced  to  the  master's  degree,  being  sec- 
ond among  seventeen  applicants.  His  philosophical 
studies  were  no  doubt  made  under  Jodocus  Trutvetter 


LOTHXR 


43d 


LUTHSK 


von   Euenach,   then   rector   of   tbo   university,   and  nuide  ciirpfut  nriiPiircii,  foHtnt'ing  Duvanu  (Brvnr),  a 

Bartholomaus   Amoldi   von  Udngen  (q.  v.).    Tbe  pupil  lA  Luther,  goeu  u  Htep  further,  collinK  tliix  im- 

former  waa  pre-eminently  the  Doclor  Er/oTdi^rtsig,  and  known  friend  Alexius,  and  ascrilieit  Ium  dcutli  U>  a 

Btood  without  an  admitted  rival  in  Germany.    Luther  thunderbolt  (SecLendorf,  "  Ausfiihrltchc  UiHtorie  des 

addresses  him  in  a  letter  (1518)  as  not  only  "tbe  first  Lutherthunis",Leipii(i,  1714,nl).  D'Aubign^ chusges 

theologian  ahd  philosopher  ",  but  also  the  first  of  con-  this  Alexiua  into  .\lexi8  and  has  him  0EsiisGinat«d  at 

temporary  dialecticians ('KaTOpechultfl,  "DieUniver-  Erfurt  (D'Aubign*,  "History  ot  the  Reformation", 

aitflt  Erfurt",  I,  Trier,  1858,  43).     Usingen  was  an  NewYork,B.d.,I,186).Oerger("VomjungenLuther", 

Augustinian  friar,  and  second  only  to  Trutvetter  in  Erfurt,  1899,  27-41}  has  proved  the  existence  of  this 

learning,  but  sutpaasing  him  in  literary  productivity  friend,  his  name  of  Alexius  or  Alexis,  hia  death  by 

(ibid.).    Although  the  tone  of  the  university, especially  lishtmng  or  aasassination,  a  mere  legend,  destitute  M 

that  of  the  students^,  waa  prouounoedly,  ev^  enthuBi-  aU  historical  verification.     KOstLin-Kuwcrau  (I,  45) 

astically,  humanistic,   and   although  Erfurt  led   the  states  that  returning  from  bis"  Mansfeld  home  he  was 

movement  in  Gemiany,  and  in  its  theologicat  t«n-  overtaken  by  a  terrible  storm,  with  an  alarming  light- 

dencies  was  supposedly  "modem",  nevertheless  "it  ning  flash  and   thunderbolt.     Terrified   and    over- 

nowise  showed  a  depreciation  <rf  the  currently  pre-  whelmed  he  cries  out:  'Help,  St.  Anna,  I  will  be  a 

vailing  [Scholastic)  syst^"  '"'"    "'^'--  ■ "--- 


(ibid.,I,  37).  Luther  him- 
self, in  spite  of  an  acquaint- 
ance with  some  of  the 
moving  spirits  of  human- 
ism, seems  not  to  have  been 
appreciably  affected  by  it, 
hved  on  its  outer  fringe, 
and  never  qualified  to  enter 
its  "poetic     circle. 

Luther's  sudden  and  un- 
expected en 


1505.  The  motives  that 
prompted  the  step  are  vari- 
ous, contUcting.and  tbe  sub- 
Sct  of  considerable  debate, 
e  himseif  alleges,  as  above 
stated,  that  the  brutality 
of  his  home  and  school  life 
drove  him  into  the  monas- 
tery. Hausrath,  his  latest 
biographer  and  one  of  the 
most  scholarly  Luther  spe- 
cialists, unreservedly  in- 
clines to  this  belief.  The 
"  house  at  Mansfeld  rather 
repelled  than  attracted 
him"  (Beard,  "Martin  Lu- 
ther and  the  Germ.  Kef.", 
London,  1889,  140),  and  to 
"  the  question 'Why  did  Lu- 
ther go  into  themonastery  7' 
the  reply  that  Luther  him- 
self gives  is  the  most  satis- 
factory" (Hausrath,  "  Lu- 
thers  Leben",  I,  Berlin, 
1904,  2,  22).  He  liimselt 
again,  in  a  letter  to  his 
flit  tier,  in  explanation  of 
his  defection  from  tbe 
old  Church,  writes,  "when 


tory  of  the  change  is  far  less 
easy  to  narrate.  We  have 
DO  direct  contemporary 
evidence  on  which  to  rely; 
while   Luther's  own  remi- 


chietiy  depend,  are  neces- 
sarily coloured  by  his  lat«r 
experiences  and  feelingi" 
(Beard,  op.  cit.,  146). 

Of  Luther's  monastic 
hfe  we  have  little  authentic 
information,  and  that  ia 
based  on  his  own  utterances,  ^ 
which  his  biographers 
frankly  admit  are  highly 
exsiggc  rated,  frequently 
contradictory,  and  com- 
monly misleading.  Thusthe 
alleged  custom  by  which  he  ' 
WOM  forced  to  chan^  hia 
baptismal  name  Martin  into 
the  monastic  came  Augus- 
tine, a  proceeding  he  de- 
zes  as  "wicked"  and 
iltgious",      certainly 


bad    ] 


:  the 


Augustinian  Order  (Oei 
op.  cit.,  75;  Kolde,  "' 
deutscbe  Augustiner  C^- 


I    V 


His  accidental  dis- 
covery in  the  Erfurt  mon- 
astery library  of  the  Bible, 
"  a  book  he  had  never  seen 
in  his  life"  (Mathesius,  op. 
cit.,fol.  5a),orLutber'8a»- 
sertion  that  he  hod  "never 
Been  a  Bible  uiitil  he  was 
twenty  yearsofage"  (t«u- 
terbach,  "  Tagebuch", 
-       .  .  Dresden,  1872,  36),  or  his 

terror-Btncken  and  overwhelmed  by  tbe  fear     stillmoreemphaticdecIarationthatwheDCarlstadtwaa 


mpending  death,  I  made  an  involuntary  ajid 
forced  vow  "  (De  Wetle, "  Dr.  Martin  Luthers  Briefe  ", 
II,  Berlin,  1825.  101).  Various  explanations  are 
given  of  this  episode.  Melanchthon  ascribes  his 
step  to  a  deep  melancholy,  which  attained  a  critical 

Eoint  "when  at  one  time  lie  lost  one  of  bis  conirades 
y  an  accidental  death"  (Corp.  Ref.,  VI,  156).    Cocb- 
licus.  Luther's  opponent,  relates  "  that  at  one  time  he 
was  so  frightened  in  a  field,  at  a  thunderbolt,  as 
commonly  reported,  or  was  in  such  anguish  at  the  loss     lays  especial  stress 

of  a  companion,  who  was  killed  in  the  storm,  that  in  a     "  read  the  Scripture  .  .._    . 

short  time  to  the  amazement  of  many  persons  he  !eamitfervently"("ConBtitutione80rdiniBFratr.'Eie- 
sought  admission  to  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine"  mit.  Sti  Augustini',  Rome,  1551,  cap.  xvii)  At  this 
(•Cochlitus,  "HistoriaD.  M.Luther8",Dimngen,  1571,  very  time  Biblical  studies  were  in  a  flourishing  condi- 
2).  Mathesius,  his  first  biographer,  attributes  it  to  the  tion  at  the  university,  so  that  its  historian  states  that 
fatal  "stablang  of  a  friend  and  a  terrible  storm  with  a  "  it  is  astonishing  to  meet  such  a  great  number  of 
thunder  clap"  (op.  cit.,  fol.  4  b).    Seckendoff,  who     Biblical  commentaries,  which  force  us  Ijj  conclude.  <k^> 


promoted  to  the  doctorate  "  he  had  as  yet  never  seen  a 
Bible  and  I  alone  in  the  Erfurt  monastery  read  the 
Bible"  (Bindseil,  "  D.  Martini  Luthori  Colloquia",  II, 
1863-66,  240),  which,  taken  in  their  literal  sense,  are 
not  only  contrary  to  demonstrable  facts,  but  have 
perpetuated  misconception,  bear  the  stamp  of  im- 
probability written  in  such  obtrusive  characters  on 
their  face,  that  it  ia  hard,  on  an  honest  assumption,  to 
account  for  their  longevity.  Tbe  Augustinian  rule 
1  the  monition  tliat  the  iio«oo 
(siduously,  hear  it  dcvoully,  and 


LQTHEB 


440 


LUTHER 


there  was  an  active  study  of  Holy  Writ"  (♦Kamp- 
Bchulte,  op.  cit.,  I,  22).  Protestant  writers  of  repute 
have  abandoned  the  legend  altogether  (K5hler,  *^Ka- 
tholizismus u.  Reformation",  Giessen,  1905;  Walther, 
**  Die  deutschen  Bibelilbersetzungen  des  Mittelalters/' 
Brunswick,  1892;  Geffken,  ''Der  Bilderkatechismus 
des  fOnfzehnten  Jahrhunderts ",  Leipzig,  1855; 
Grimm,  ''Kurzgefasste  Gesch.  der  luther.  BibelQber- 
setzung",  Jena,  1884;  Thudichum,  ''Die  deutsche 
Reformation",  I,  Leipzig,  1907,  225-235;  "Cam- 
bridge History:  The  Reformation",  II,  164;  Dob- 
BchQtz,  "Der  deutsche  Rundschau"  CIV,  61-75; 
Maurenbrecher,  "Studien  u.  Skizzen",  221;  Kolde, 
op.  cit.,  161;  Kropatscheck,  "Das  Schriftprincip  der 
luther.  Kirche",  163  sq.).  Parenthetical  mention 
must  be  made  of  the  tact  that  the  denunciation 
heaped  on  Luther's  novice-master  b^  Mathesius, 
Ratzeberger,  and  Jiirgens,  and  copied  with  uncritical 
docility  by  their  transcribers — ^for  subjecting  him 
to  the  most  abject  menial  duties  and  treating  him 
with  outrageous  indignitv — rests  on  no  evidence. 
These  writers  are  "evidently  led  by  hearsav,  and  fol- 
low the  early  legendary  stories  that  have  been  spun 
about  the  person  of  the  reformer"  (Oerger,  op.  cit., 
80).  The  nameless  novice-master,  whom  even  Lu- 
ther designates  as  "an  excellent  num,  and  without 
doubt  even  under  the  damned  cowl,  a  true  Christian" 
(Beard,  op.  cit.,  151),  must  "have  been  a  worthy 
representative  of  his  order"  (Oerger,  dp.  cit.). 

Luther  was  ordained  to  the  priestnood  in  1507. 
The  precise  date  is  uncertain.  A  strange  oversight, 
runnm^  through  three  centuries,  placed  the  date  of 
his  ordmation  and  first  Mass  on  the  same  day,  2  May, 
an  impossible  coincidence.  KostUn,  who  repeated  it 
(Luther's  Leben,  1, 1883, 6^)  drops  the  date  altogether 
in  his  latest  edition.  Oerger  (op.  cit.,  90)  fixes  on  27 
February.  This  allows  the  unprecedented  interval  of 
more  than  two  months  to  elapse  oetween  the  ordination 
and  first  Mass.  Could  he  have  deferred  his  first  Mass 
on  account  of  the  morbid  scrupulosity,  which  played 

jnich  a  part  in  the  later  periods  of  his  monastic  life? 

'*'  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  Luther's  monastic 
career  thus  far  was  exemplary,  tranquil,  happy;  his 
heart  at  rest,  his  mind  undisturbed,  his  soul  at  peace. 
The  metaphysical  disquisitions,  psychological  disser- 
tations, pietistic  maundering  about  his  interior  con- 
flicts, his  theological  wrestlings,  his  torturing  ascet- 
icism, his  chafing  under  monastic  conditions,  can 
have  little  more  than  an  academic,  possibly  a  psycho- 

«  pathic  value.  Thev  lack  all  basis  of  verinable  data. 
unfortunately  Lutner  himself  in  his  self-revelation 
can  hardly  be  taken  as  a  safe  guide.  Moreover,  with 
an  array  of  evidence,  thoroughness  of  research,  full- 
ness of  knowledge,  and  unrivalled  mastery  of  monas- 
ticism.  scholasticism,  and  mysticism,  Denifle  has  re- 
moved it  from  the  domain  of  debatable  ground  to  that 
of  verifiable  certainty  (*Lutheru.  Luthorthum,  Mainz, 
1904).  "  What  Adolf  Hausrath  has  done  in  an  essay 
for  the  Protestant  side,  was  accentuated  and  con- 
toned  with  all  possible  penetration  by  Denifle;  the 
voung  Luther  according  to  his  self-revelation  is  un- 
historical;  he  was  not  the  discontented  Augustinian, 
nagged  by  the  monastic  life,  perpetually  tortured  by 
his  conscience,  fasting,  praying,  mortified,  and  ema- 
ciated— no,  he  was  happy  in  the  monastery,  he  found 
peace  there,  to  which  ne  turned  his  back  only  later" 
(Kdhler,  op.  cit.,  68-69). 

During  the  winter  of  1508-1509  he  was  sent  to  the 
University  of  Wittenbei^,  then  in  its  infancy  ^founded 
2  July,  1502),  with  an  enrolment  of  one  hundred  and 
seventy-nine  students.  The  town  itself  w^as  a  poor 
insignificant  place,  with  but  three  hundred  and  nfty- 
six  taxable  properties,  and  accredited  the  most  bibu- 
lous town  of  the  most  bibulous  province  (Saxony)  of 
Germany  (Beard,  op.  cit.,  168).  While  teaching  phi- 
losophy and  dialectics  he  also  continued  his  theoiO|;- 
ical  studies.    On  9  March,  1509,  under  the  deanship 


of  Staupitz,  he  became  Baccalaureus  Biblicus  in  the 
theoloflpcal  course,  as  a  stepping-stone  to  the  doctor- 
ate.    His  recall  to  Erfurt  occurred  the  same  year. 

His  mission  to  Rome,  extending  over  an  estimated 
period  of  five  months,   one  of  wmch  he  spent  in  the 
city  of  Rome,  which  played  so  important  a  part  in  his 
early  biographies,  and  even  now  is  far  from  a  negli- 
gible factor  in  Reformation  research,  occurred  in  151 1 , 
or,  as  some  contend,  1510.     Its  true  object  has  thus 
far  baffled  all  satisfactory  investigation.     Mathesius 
makes  him  go  from  Wittenberg  on  "monastic  busi- 
ness";  Melanchthon  attributes  it  to  a  "monkish 
squabble";  Cochlseus,  and  he  is  in  the  main  followed 
by  Catholic  investigators,  makes  him  appear  as  the 
delegated  representative  of  seven  allied  Augustinian 
inonasteries  to  voice  a  protest  against  some  innova- 
tions of  Staupitz,  but  as  deserting  his  clients  and  siding 
with  Staupitz  (♦Paulus  in  "  Histor.  Jahresbuch  ",  XVI, 
73;  XXII,  110-113;  XXIV,  72-74;  ♦"Hist.  pol.  Blat- 
ter", CXLII,  738).    Protestants  say  he  was  sent  to 
Rome  as  the  advocate  of  Staupitz  (Kosthn-Kawerau,  I, 
89-05;  Kawerau^"Von  Luther's  Romfahrt",  Halle, 
1901;  Else,  "Luther's  Reise  nach  Rom",  Breslau, 
1889;  Hausrath,  "Martin  Luther's  Romfahrt",  Beriiu, 
1894^.    Luther  himself  expressly  states  that  it  was  a 
pilgrimage  in  fulfilment  ot  a  vow  to  make  a  general 
confession  in  the  Eternal  City  (Bindseil,  "Colloquia", 
III,  169;  Jtligens,  "Luther  von  seiner  Geburt",  II, 
Leipzig,  1846, 271).    The  outcome  of  the  mission,  fike 
its  object,  still  remains  shrouded  in  mystery  (Kolde, 
op.  cit.,  241).     What  was  the  effect  of  this  Roman  visit 
on  his  spiritual  life  or  theological  thought?    Did 
"this  visit  turn  his  reverence  for  Rome  into  loathing"? 
Did  he  find  it  "a  sink  of  iniquitv,  its  priests  infidels, 
the  papal  courtiers  men  of  shsmaeless  lives?  "  (Lindsav, 
"Luther  and  the  German  Reformation",  New  York, 
1900).    "He  returned  from  Rome  as  strong  in  the 
faith  as  he  went  to  visit  it.     In  a  certain  sense  his  so- 
journ in  Rome  even  strengthened  his  religious  con- 
victions" (Hausratii,  op.  cit.,  98).    "In  his  letters  of 
those  years  he  never  mentions  having  been  in  Rome. 
In  his  conference  with  Cardinal  Cajetan,  in  his  dispu- 
tations with  Dr.  Eck,  in  his  letters  to  Pope  Leo,  nay, 
in  his  tremendous  broadside  of  invective  and  accusa- 
tion against  all  thinss  Romish,  in  his  '  Address  to  the 
German  Nation  ana  Nobility',  there  occurs  not  one 
unmistakable  reference  to  his  having  been  in  Rome. 
By  every  rule  of  evidence  we  are  bound  to  hold  that 
when  the  most  furious  assailant  Rome  has  ever  known 
described  from  a  distance  of  ten  years  upwards  the  in- 
cidents of  a  journey  through  Italy  to  Home,  the  few 
touches  of  light  in  his  picture  are  more  trustworthy 
than  its  black  breadths  of  shade"  (Bayne,  "Martin 
Luther",  I,  234).     His  whole  Roman  experience  as 
exprened  in  later  life  is  open  to  question.    "  We  can 
reuly  cjuestion  the  importance  attached  to  remarks 
which  in  a  great  measure  date  from  the  last  years  of 
his  life,  when  he  was  really  a  changed  man.'    Much 
that  he  relates  as  personal  experience  is  manifestly  the 
product  of  an  easily  explained  self-delusion  "  (Haus- 
rath, op.  cit.,  79).    One  of  the  incidents  of  the  Roman 
mission,  which  at  one  time  was  considered  a  pivotal 
point  in  his  career,  and  was  calculated  to  impart  an 
inspirational  character  to  the  leading  doctrine  of  the 
Reformation,  and  is  still  detailed  by  his  biographers, 
was  his  supposed  experience  while  climbing  the  Scala 
Santa.    According  to  it  (Kostlin  -  Kawerau,  I,  98, 
749),  while  Luther  was  in  the  act  of  climbing  the  stairs 
on  his  knees,  the  thought  suddenly  flashed  through 
his  mind:  "The  just  shall  live  by  faith",  whereupon 
he    immediately  discontinued   his   pious   devotion. 
The  story  rests  on  an  autograph  insertion  of  his  son 
Paul  in  a  Bible,  now  in  possession  of  the  librar>'  of 
Rudolstadt.    In  it  he  claims  that  his  father  told  him 
the  incident.    Its  historic  value  may  be  gauged  by  the 
considerations  that  it  is  the  personal  recollections  of  an 
immature  lad  (b.  28  Jan.,  1533)  recorded  twenty  years 


LUTHIB  441  LXJTHU 

after  the  event,  to  which  neither  his  father,  his  early  for  five  weeks  at  one  time,  but  threatened  to  drive  him 
biographers,  nor  his  table  companions  before  whom  into  insanity  fSeckendort,  op.  cit..  I,  fol.  21  b).  The 
it  is  claimed  the  remark  was  made,  allude,  though  it    prescribed  and  regulated  ascetical  exercises  were  ar- 


the  (theological)  attitude  of  the  Reformer  back  into  of  singularity  in  his  communit^r.  Like  every  victim  of 
the  days  of  his  monastic  faith  "(Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  48).  scrupulosity,  he  saw  nothing  in  himself  but  wicked- 
Having  acquitted  himself  with  evident  success,  and  ness  and  corruption.  God  was  the  minister  of  wrath 
in  a  manner  to  please  both  parties,  Luther  retiuned  to  and  vengeance.  His  sorrow  for  sin  was^  devoid  of 
Wittenberg  in  1512,  and  received  the  appointment  of  humble  charity  and  childlike  confidence  in  the  par- 
sub-prior.  His  academic  promotions  followed  in  quick  doning  mercy  of  God  and  Jesus  Christ.  This  anger  of 
succession.  On  4  October  he  was  made  licentiate,  God,  which  pursued  him  like  his  shadow,  could  only  be 
and  on  19  October,  under  the  deanship  of  Carlstadt —  averted  by  his  own  righteousness ",  by.the  ''efficacy 
successively  friend,  rival,  and  enemy — he  was  ad-  of  servile  works".  Such  an  attitude  of  mind  was 
vanced  to  the  doctorate,  being  then  in  his  thirtieth  necessarily  followed  by  hopeless  discouragement  and 
year.  On  22  October  be  was  formally  admitted  to  the  sullen  despondency,  creating  a  condition  of  soul  in 
senate  of  the  faculty  of  theology,  and  received  the  which  he  actually  *'  hated  God  and  was  angry  at  him", 
appointment  as  lecturer  on  the  Bible  in  1513.  His  blasphemed  God,  and  deplored  that  he  was  ever  bom 
further  appointment  as  district  vicar  in  1515  made  (Jurgens,  op.  cit.,  I,  577-585).  This  abnormal  con- 
him  the  official  representative  of  the  vicar-general  in  dition  produced  a  brooding  melancholy,  physical. 
Saxony  and  Thuringia.  His  duties  were  manifold  mental,  and  spiritual  depression,  which  later,  by  a 
and  1^  li^e  busy.  Little  time  was  left  for  intellectual  strange  process  of  reasoning,  he  ascribed  to  the  teach^ 
pursuits,  and  the  increasing  irregularity  in  the  perform-  ing  of  the  Church  concerning  good  works,  while  all  the 
ance  of  nis  religious  duties  could  only  bode  ill  for  his  time  he  was  living  in  direct  and  absolute  opposition  to 
future.  He  himself  teUs  us  that  he  needed  two  secre-  its  doctrinal  teaching  and  disciplinary  code, 
taries  or  chancellors,  wrote  letters  all  dav,  preached  at  Of  course  this  self-willed  positiveness  and  hypochon- 
table,  also  in  the  monastery  and  parochial  churches,  driac  asceticism,  as  usuallV  happens  in  cases  of  mor- 
was  superintendent  of  studies,  and  as  vicar  of  the  bidly  scrupulous  natures,  f  ouna  no  relief  in  the  sacra- 
order  had  as  much  to  do  as  eleven  priors;  he  lectured  ments.  His  general  confessions  at  Erfurt  and  Rome 
on  the  Psalms  and  St.  Paul,  besides  the  demand  made  did  not  touch  the  root  of  the  evil.  His  whole  being  was 
on  his  economic  resourcefulness  in  managing  a  monas-  wrought  up  to  such  an  acute  tension  that  he  actually  re- 
tery  of  twenty-two  priests,  tweWe  young  men,  in  all  gretted  his  parents  were  not  deadL  that  he  might  avail 
fort^-one  inmates  (De  Wctte,  op.  cit.,  I,  41).  His  himself  of  tne  facilities  Rome  afforded  to  save  them 
official  letters  breathe  a  deep  solicitude  for  the  waver-  from  purgatory.  For  religion's  sake  he  was  ready  to 
ing,  gentle  sympathy  for  the  fallen;  they  show  pro-  become  "  the  most  brutal  murderer", — "  to  kill  all  who 
found  touches  of  religious  feeling  and  rare  practical  even  by  syllable  refused  submission  to  the  pope" 
sense,  though  not  unmarred  with  counsels  that  have  (Sllmmuiche  Werke.XXXX,  Erlangcn,  284).  Such  a 
unorthodox  tendencies.  The  plague  which  afflicted  tense  and  neurotic  physical  condition  demanded  a  re- 
Wittenberg  in  1516  found  him  courageously  at  his  action,  and,  as  frequently  occurs  in  analogous  cases,  it 
post,  which,  in  spite  of  the  concern  of  his  friends,  he  went  to  the  diametric  extreme.  The  undue  importance 
would  not  abandon.  he  had  placed  on  his  own  strength  in  the  spiritual  pro- 
But  in  Luther's  spiritual  life  significant,  if  not  omi-  cess  of  justificatioiu  he  now  peremptorily  and  com- 
nous,  changes  were  likewise  discernible.  Whether  pletely  rejected.  He  convinced  himself  that  man.  as  a 
he  entered  "  the  monastery  and  deserted  the  world  to  conseauence  of  original  sin,  was  totally  depraved,  desti- 
fiee  from  despair"  (JOrgens,  op.  cit.,  I,  522)  and  did  tuteot  free  will,  that  all  works,  even  thougn  directed  to- 
not  find  the  coveted  peace;  whether  the  expressed  ap-  wards  the  good,  were  nothing  more  than  an  outgrowth 
prehensions  of  his  father  that  the  **  call  from  heaven  '.  of  his  corrupted  will,  and  in  the  judgments  of  God  in 
to  the  monastic  life  might  be  ''a  satanic  delusion'  reality  mortal  sins.  Man  can  be  saved  by  faith  alone, 
stirred  up  thoughts  of  doubt;  whether  his  sudden,  Our  faith  in  Christ  makes  His  merits  our  possession, 
violent  resolve  was  the  result  of  one  of  those  **  sporadic  envelopes  us  in  the  garb  of  righteousness,  which  our 
overmastering  torpors  which  interrupt  the  circulatory  guilt  and  sinfulness  hide,  and  supplies  in  abimdance 
system  or  indicate  arterial  convulsion"  (Hausrath,  every  defect  of  human  righteousness.  "Be  a  sinner 
"  Luthers  Leben".  I,  22),  a  heritage  of  his  depressing  and  sin  on  bravely,  but  have  stronger  faith  and  rejoice 
childhood,  and  a  cnronic  condition  that  clung  to  him  to  in  Christ,  who  is  the  victor  of  sin,  death,  and  the  world. 
the  end  of  his  life ;  or  whether  deeper  studies,  for  which  Do  not  for  a  moment  imagine  that  this  life  is  the  abid- 
he  had  little  or  no  time,  created  doubts  that  would  not  ing  place  of  justice:  sin  must  be  committed.  To  you 
be  solved  and  aroused  a  conscience  that  would  not  be  it  ought  to  be  sufficient  that  you  acknowledge  the 
stilled,  it  is  evident  that  his  vocation,  if  it  ever  existed.  Lamb  that  takes  away  the  sins  of  the  world,  the  sin 
was  in  jeopardy,  that  the  morbid  interior  conflict  cannot  tear  you  away  irom  him,  even  though  you  corn- 
marked  a  drifting  from  old  moorings,  and  that  the  very  mit  adultery  a  hundred  times  a  day  and  commit  as 
remedies  adopted  to  re-establish  peace  all  the  more  many  murders"  (Enders^  " Brief wechsel",  III,  208). 
effectually  banished  it.  This  condition  of  morbidity  The  new  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  now  in  its 
finally  developed  into  formal  scrupulosity.  Lifrao-  inchoate  stage,  gradusJly  developed,  and  was  finally 
lions  of  the  rules,  breaches  of  discipline,  distorted  fixed  by  Luther  as  one  of  the  central  doctrines  of 
ascetic  practices  followed  in  auick  succession  and  with  Christianity.  The  epoch-making  event  connected 
increasing  gravity;  these,  followed  by  spasmodic,  con-  with  the  publication  of  the  papal  Bull  of  Indulgences 
vulsive  reactions^  made  Ufe  an  agony.  The  solemn  in  Germany,  which  was  that  of  Julius  II  renewed  in 
obligation  of  reciting  the  daily  Office,  an  obligation  adaptable  form  by  Leo  X,  to  raise  funds  for  the  con- 
binding  imder  the  penalty  of  mortal  sin,  was  neglected  struction  of  St.  Peter's  Church  in  Rome,  brought  his 
to  allow  more  ample  time  for  study,  with  the  result  spiritual  difficulties  to  a  crisis, 
that  the  Breviary  was  abandoned  for  weeks.  Then  in  Albert  of  Brandenburg  was  heavily  involved  in  debt, 
paroxysmal  remorse  Luther  would  lock  himself  into  not,  as  Protestant  and  Catholic  historians  relate,  on  ac- 
his  cell  and  by  one  retroactive  act  make  amends  for  all  count  of  his  pallium  ('"Pastor,  ^'History  of  the  Popes  ", 
he  neglected;  he  would  abstain  from  all  food  and  drink,  VII,  19CK3.  330),  but  to  pay  a  bribe  to  an  imknown 
torture  himself  by  harrowing  mortifications,  to  an  ex-  agent  in  Home,  to  buy  off  a  rival,  in  order  tba^^Sssa 
tent  that  not  only  made  him  the  victim  of  insomnia  archbishop  mi^^ht  ^uyyj  ^  ^^Jwra&x-^  ^  ^-^^^^^as^^a^- 


LTTTHSB 


442 


LTTTHEB 


offices.  For  this  payment,  which  smacked  of  simony, 
though  the  Protestant  historian,  Kalkoff  ("Archiv. 
fQr  Reform.  Geschichte",  1, 381),  claims  such  a  charge 
to  be  untenable,  the  pope  would  allow  an  indemnity, 
which  in  this  case  took  the  form  of  an  indulgence 
(Kawerau,**Stud.u.Kritik",  1898,  584-85;  Kalkoff, 
op.  cit.;  *  Schulte,  "  Die  Fugger  in  Rom.",  Leipzig,  I, 
1904 ,  93 , 1 40) .  By  this  ignoble  business  aim  ngement 
with  Rome,  a  financial  transaction  unw^orthy  of  both 
pope  and  archbishop,  the  revenue  should  be  partitioned 
m  equal  halves  to  each,  besides  a  bonus  of  10,000  gold 
ducats,  which  should  fall  to  the  share  of  Rome.  John 
Tetzcl,  a  Dominican  monk  with  an  impreasive  per- 
sonality, a  gift  of  popular  oratory,  and  the  repute  of  a 
successful  indulgence  preacher,  was  chosen  by  the 
archbishop  as  general-subcommissar}'.  History  pre- 
sents few  characters  more  unfortunate  and  pathetic 
than  Tetzel.  Among  his  contemporaries  the  victim  of 
the  most  corrosive  ridicule,  eveiy  foul  c4iarge  laid  at 
his  door,  every  blasphemous  uttemnce  placed  in  his 
mouth,  a  veritable  literature  of  fiction  and  fable  built 
about  his  personality,  in  modern  history  held  up  as 
the  proverbial  mountebank  and  oily  harlequin,  denied 
even  the  support  and  sympathy  of  his  own  allies — 
Tetzel  had  to  await  the  light  of  modem  critical  scru- 
tiny, not  only  for  a  moral  rehabilitation,  but  also  for 
vindication  as  a  soundly  trained  theologian  and  a 
monk  of  irreproachable  deportment  (*Paulus, "  Johann 
Tetzel",  Mainz,  1899;  *Ilormann,  "Johann  Tetzel", 
Frankfort,  1882;  *Grdne,  "Tetzel  und  Luther",  Soest, 
1860).  It  was  his  preaching  at  JQterbog  and  Zerbst, 
towns  adjoining  Wittenberg,  that  drew  hearers  from 
there,  who  in  turn  presented  themselves  to  Luther  for 
confession,  that  made  him  take  the  step  he  had  in 
contemplation  for  more  than  a  year.  It  is  not  denied 
that  a  doctrine  like  that  of  indulgences,  which  in  some 
aspects  was  still  a  disputable  subject  in  the  schools, 
was  open  to  misunderstanding  and  misconception  by 
the  laity;  that  the  preachers  in  the  heat  of  rnetorical 
enthusiasm  fell  into  exaggerated  statements,  or  that 
the  financial  considerations  attached,  though  not  of  an 
obligatory  character,  led  to  abuse  and  scandal  (*Jans- 
sen,  "Geschichte  des  deutsch.  Volkes",  II,  Freiburg, 
1892,  78;  *"IIist.  Jahresbuch",  XII,  320. 321).  The 
opposition  to  indulgences,  not  to  the  doctrine — which 
remains  the  same  to  this  day — but  to  the  mercantile 
methods  pursued  in  preaching  them,  was  not  new  or 
silent.  Duke  George  of  Saxony  prohibited  them  in 
his  territory,  and  Cardinal  Ximenes,  as  early  as  1513, 
forbade  them  in  Spain  (Ranke.  "  Deutsche  Gesch.  im 
Zeit.  der  Reformation",  I,  Berlin,  1839, 307). 

On  31  October,  1517,  the  vigil  of  All  Saints*,  Luther 
affixed  to  the  castle  church  door,  which  served  ti»  the 
"  black-lx)ard  "  of  the  university,  on  which  all  notices 
of  disputations  and  high  academic  functions  were  dis- 
played (Beard,  op.  cit.,  213),  his  Ninety-five  Theses. 
The  act  was  not  an  open  declaration  of  war,  but 
simply  an  academic  challenge  to  a  disputation.  "  Such 
disputations  w^ere  regarded  in  the  universities  of  the 
Miadle  Ages  partly  as  a  recognized  means  of  defining 
and  elucidating  truth,  partly  as  a  kind  of  mental 
eymnastie  apt  to  train  and  quicken  the  faculties  of  the 
disputants.  It  was  not  understood  that  a  man  was 
always  ready  to  adopt  in  sol)er  earnest  propositions 
which  he  was  willing  to  defend  in  the  academic  arena; 
and  in  like  manner  a  rising  disputant  might  attack 
orthodox  positions,  without  enclangering  hi-*  reputa- 
tion for  orthodoxy"  (Beanl,  op.  cit.).  The  same  day 
he  sent  a  copy  of  the  Theses  with  an  explanatory  letter 
to  the  archbishop.  The  latter  in  turn  submitted  them 
to  his  councillors  at  Aschaffenburg  (*Pa.'*tor,  op.  cit., 
242)  and  to  the  professora  of  the  University  of  Alainz. 
The  councillors  (*Pastor,  op.  cit.)  were  of  the  unani- 
mous opinion  that  they  were  of  an  heretical  character, 
and  that  proceeriings  "against  the  Wittenberg  Augus- 
tinian  should  Iw  taken.  Tliis  report,  with  a  copy  of 
£&e  Tbejses,  was  then  transmitted  to  the  pope.    It  will 


thus  be  seen  that  the  first  judicial  procedure  against 
Luther  did  not  emanate  from  Tetzel.  His  weapons 
were  to  be  literary. 

Tetzel,  more  readily  than  some  of  the  contemporary 
brilliant  theologians,  divined  the  revolutionary  import 
of  the  Theses,  which  while  ostensibly  aimed  at  the 
abuse  of  indiilgences,  were  a  covert  attack  on  the 
whole  penitential  system  of  the  Church  and  struck  at 
the  veiy  root  of  ecclesiastical  authority.  Luther's 
Theses  impress  the  reader  "  as  thrown  together,  some- 
what in  haste",  rather  than  showing  'carefully  di- 
gested thought,  and  deliberate  theological  intention  " ; 
they  "bear  him  one  moment  into  the  audacity  of 
rebellion  and  then  carry  him  back  to  the  obedience  of 
conformity"  (Bcaid,  218,  219).  Tetzel's  anti-theses 
were  maintained  partly  in  a  disputation  for  the  doc- 
torate at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  (20  Jan.,  1518),  and 
issued  with  others  in  an  unnumbered  list,  and  are 
commonly  known  as  the  One  Hundred  and  Six  Theses. 
Tliey,  however,  did  not  have  Tetzel  for  their  author, 
but  were  promptly  and  rightfully  attributed  to  Conrad 
AV  impina,  his  teacher  at  Leipzig.  That  this  fact  argues 
no  imorance  of  theology  or  unfamiliarity  with  Latin 
on  tbe  part  of  Tetzel.  as  has  been  generally  assumed, 
is  frankly  admitted  by  Protestant  writers  (Lammer, 
"Die  vortridentinische  katholische  Theologie".  Ber- 
lin, 1858,  8).  It  was  simply  a  legitimate  custom 
pursued  in  academic  circles,  as  we  know  from  Melanch- 
thon  himself  (Hausleiter,  "Aus  der  Schule  Melanch- 
thons",  Griefswald,  1897,  5;  Beard,  op.  cit.,  224). 
Tetzel's  Theses — for  he  assumed  all  res|)onsibility — 
opposed  to  Luther's  innovations  the  traditional  teach- 
ing of  the  (.-hurch;  b«t  it  must  be  admitted  that  they 
at  times  gave  an  imcompromising,  even  dogmatic, 
sanction  to  mere  theological  opinions,  that  were  hardly 
consonant  with  the  most  accurate  scholarship.  At 
Wittenberg  they  created  wild  excitement,  and  an  un- 
fortunate hawKer  who  offered  them  for  sale,  was 
mobbed  by  the  students,  and  his  stock  of  about  eight 
hundred  copies  publicly  burned  in  the  market  square 
— a  proceeding  that  met  with  Luther's  disapproval. 
The  plea  then  made,  and  still  repeated,  that  it  was 
done  in  retaliation  for  Tetzel  burning  Luther's  Theses, 
is  admittedly  incorrect,  in  spite  of  tne  fact  that  it  has 
Melanchthon  as  sponsor  (Beard,  op.  cit.,  225,  note; 
♦Paulus,  op.  cit.,  52).  Instead  of  replying  to  Tetzel, 
Luther  carried  the  controversy  from  the  academic 
arena  to  the  public  forum  by  issuing  in  popular  ver- 
nacular form  his  "  Sermon  on  Indulgences  and  Grace  ". 
It  was  really  a  tract,  where  the  sermon  form  was  aban- 
doned and -twenty  propositions  laid  down.  At  the 
same  time  his  Latin  defence  of  the  Theses,  the  "  Reso- 
lutiones  ",  was  well  under  way.  In  it«  finished  form, 
it  was  sent  to  his  ordinary,  Bishop  Scultetus  of  Bran- 
denburg, who  counselled  silence  and  abstention  from 
all  further  publications  for  the  present.  I^uther's 
acouiescence  was  that  of  the  true  monk:  "  I  am  ready, 
ana  will  rather  obey  than  perform  miracles  in  my 
justification"  (Kfistlin-Kawerau,  I,  170). 

At  this  staeB  a  new  source  of  contention  arose. 
Johann  Ekjk,  Vice-Chancel  lor  of  the  University  of 
Ingolstadt,  by  common  consent  acknowledged  as  one 
of  the  foremost  theological  scholars  of  his  day,  en- 
dowed with  rare  dialectic  skill  and  phenomenal  mem- 
ory, all  of  which  Luther  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  I,  100) 
candidly  admitted  before  the  I..eipzig  disputation  took 
place,  innocently  became  invoh'ed  in  the  controversy. 
At  the  request  of  Bishop  von  Kyb,  of  Eichstiitt,  he 
subjected  the  Theses  to  a  cla*<er  study,  singled  out 
eighteen  of  them  as  concealing  the  germ  of  the  Hussite 
heresy,  violating  Christian  charity,  subverting  the 
order  of  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchv,  and  breeding 
sedition.  These  "Obelisci"  ("olx^lisks",  the  old 
printer's  device  for  not  ing  doul)tf ul  or  spurious  pa.s- 
sages)  were  submitted  to  the  bishop  in  manuscript 
form,  passed  around  among  intimates,  and  not  in- 
tended for  publication.    In  one  of  their  transcribed 


LUTHER  443  LUTHBB 

forms,  thev  reached  Luther  and  wrought  him  up  to  adjust  the  theological  difficulties.  But  the  audiences 
a  high  pitch  of  indignation.  Eck  in  a  letter  of  explana-  were  doomed  to  failure.  Cajetan  came  to  adjudicate, 
tion  sought  to  mollify  the  ruffled  tempers  of  Carlstadt  Luther  to  defend ;  the  former  demanded  submission^ 
and  Lutner  and  in  courteous,  urgent  tones  begged  the  latter  laimched  out  into  remonstrance;  the  one 
them  to  refrain  from  public  disputation  either  by  showed  a  spirit  of  mediating  patience,  the  other  mis- 
lecture  of  print  (Ldscher,  ''Reformations  Acta",  II,  took  it  for  apprehensive  fear;  the  prisoner  at  the  bar 
Leipzig,  1723,  64-65;  De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  I,  125).  In  could  not  refrain  from  bandying  words  with  the  judge 
spite  of  the  fact  that  Carlstadt  forestalled  Luther,  the  on  the  bench.  The  l^ate,  with  the  reputation  of  "  the 
latter  gave  out  his  "  Asterisci''  (10  Au^.,  1518).  This  most  renowned  and  easily  the  first  tneologian  of  his 
skirmish  led  to  the  Leipzig  Disputation.  Sylvester  age  "t  could  not  fail  to  be  shocked  at  the  rude,  discour- 
Prierias,  like  Tetzel,  a  Dommican  friar,  domestic  theo-  teous,  bawline  tone  of  the  friar,  and  having  exhausted 
logian  of  the  Court  of  Rome,  in  his  official  capacity  as  all  his  efforts,  ne  dismissed  him  with  the  injunction  not 
Censor  Librorum  of  Rome,  next  submitted  his  report  to  call  again  until  he  recanted.  Fiction  and  myth  nad 
"  In  prsraumtuoeas  M.  Lutheri  Conclusiones  Dialo-  a  wide  sweep  in  dealing  with  this  meeting  and  have 
gus  '*.  In  it  he  maintained  the  absolute  supremacy  of  woven  such  an  inextricable  web  of  ot»curity  about  it 
the  pope,  in  terms  not  altogether  free  from  exaggera-  that  we  must  follow  either  the  highly  coloured  narra- 
tion, especially  stretching  his  theory  to  an  unwarrant-  tive  of  Luther  and  his  friends,  or  be  guided  by  tbs 
able  pomt  in  dealing  with  indulgences.  This  evoked  more  trustworthy  criterion  of  lexical  conjecture. 
Luther's  "Responsio  ad  Silv.  Pnerietatis  Dial(^m".  The  papal  Brief  to  Cajetan  (23  Aug.),  which  was 
Hoogst  raten,  whose  merciless  lampooning  in  the  Epis-  handed  to  Luther  at  Nuremberg  on  his  way  home,  in 
tolsB  Obscurorum  Virorum"  was  still  a  living  m^m-  which  the  pope,  contrary  to  all  canonical  precedents, 
ory,  likewise  entered  the  fray  in  defence  of  papal  pre-  demands  the  most  summary  action  in  regard  to  the 
rogatives,  only  to  be  dismissed  by  Luther's  *  Scheaam  uncondemned  and  unexcommunicated  '*  child  of  in- 
contra  Hochstratanum",  the  flippancy  and  vulgarity  iquity",  asks  the  aid  of  the  emperor,  in  the  event  of 
of  which  one  of  Luther's  most  ardent  students  apolo-  Luther's  refusal  to  appear  in  Rome,  to  place  him  under 
getically  characterizes  as  being  "  in  tone  with  the  pre-  forcible  arrest,  was  no  doubt  written  in  Germany,  and 
vailing  taste  of  the  time  and  circumstances,  but  not  to  is  an  evident  forgery  (Beard,  op.  cit.,  257-258 ;  Hanke. 
be  commended  as  worthy  of  imitation  "  (Ldscher,  op.  "  Deutsche  Gesch.",  VI,  97-98).  Like  all  forged  papal 
cit.,  II,  325).  documents,  it  still  shows  a  surprising  vitality,  ana  is 

Before  the  "  Dialoeus  "  of  Prierias  reached  Germany,  found  in  every  biography  of  Luther, 
a  papal  citation  reached  Luther  (7  Aug.)  to  appear  in        Luther's  return  to  Wittenberg  occurred  on  the  anni- 

person  within  sixty  davs  in  Rome  for  a  hearing.    He  versary  of  his  nailing  the  Theses  to  the  castle  church 

at  once  took  refuge  in  the  excuse  that  such  a  trip  could  door  (31  Oct.,  1518).     All  efforts  towards  a  recanta- 

not  be  undertaken  without  endangering  his  life;   he  tion  having  failed,  and  now  assured  of  the  sympathy 

sought  influence  to  secure  the  refusal  of  a  safe-conduct  and  support  of  the  temporal  princes,  he  followed  his 

through  the  electorate  and  brought  pressure  to  bear  appeal  to  the  pope  by  a  new  appeal  to  an  oecumenical 

on  the  Emperor  Maximilian  and  Elector  Frederick  to  council  (28  Nov.,  1518),  which,  as  will  be  seen  later,  he 

have  the  hearing  and  judges  appointed  in  Germany,  again,  denying  the  authority  of  both,  followed  by  an 

The  university  sent  letters  to  Rome  and  to  the  nuncio  appeal  to  the  Bible. 

Miltitz  sustaining  the  plea  of  "infirm  health"  and        The  appointment  of  Karl  von  Miltitz,  the  young 

vouching  for  his  orthodoxy  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  1, 131).  Saxon  nobleman  in  minor  orders,  sent  as  nuncio  to  de- 

His  literary  activity  continued  unabated.    His  '*  Reso-  liver  the  Golden  Rose  to  the  Elector  Frederick,  was 

lutiones  ",  which  were  already  completed,  he  also  sent  unfortunate  and  abortive.     The  Golden  Rose  was  not 

to  the  pope  (30  May) .    The  letter  accompanying  them  offered  as  a  sop  to  secure  the  good  graces  of  the  elector, 

breathes  the  most  loyal  expression  of  confidence  and  but  in  response  to  prolonged  and  importunate  agita- 

trust  in  the  Holy  See,  and  is  couched  in  such  terms  of  tion  on  his  part  to  get  it  (Hiusrath,  **  Luther  ",  1, 276). 

abject  subserviency  and  fulsome  adulation  (De  Wette,  Miltitz  not  only  l£K;ked  prudence  and  tact,  but  in  his 

op.  cit.,  119-122),  that  its  sincerity  and  frankness,  fol-  frequent  drinking-bouts  lost  all  sense  of  diplomatic 

lowed  as  it  was  by  such  an  almost  instantaneous  revul-  reticence;  by  continually  borrowing  from  LuthCT's 

sion,  is  instinctively  questioned.   IMoreover  before  this  friends  he  prnced  himself  in  a  position  only  to  inspire 

letter  had  been  written  his  anticipatory  action  in  contempt.     It  is  true  that  his  unauthorized  overtures 

preaching  his  "Sermon  on  the  Power  of  Excommuni-  drew  from  Luther  an  act,  which  if  it  "is  no  reoanta- 

cation  "  (16  May),  in  which  it  is  contended  that  visible  tion,  is  at  least  remarkably  like  one"  (Beard,  op.  cit., 

union  with  the  Church  is  not  broken  by  excommimica-  274).     In  it  he  promised :  (1)  to  observe  silence  if  his 

tion,  but  by  sin  alone,  only  strengthens  the  surmise  of  assailants  did  the  same;   (2)  complete  submission  to 

a  lack  of  good  faith.    The  inflammatory  character  of  the  pope;  (3)  to  publish  a  plain  statement  to  the  public 

this  sermon  was  fully  acknowledged  by  himself  (De  advocating  loyalty  to  the  Church;    (4)  to  place  the 

Wette,  op.  cit.,  I,  130).  whole  vexatious  cause  in  the  hands  of  a  delegated 

Influential  intervention  had  the  effect  of  having  the  bishop.  The  whole  transaction  closed  with  a  ban- 
hearing  fixed  during  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  which  was  quet,  an  embrace,  tears  of  joy,  and  a  kiss  of  peace — 
called  to  effect  an  alliance  between  the  Holy  See,  the  only  to  be  disregarded  and  ridiculed  afterwards  by 
Emperor  Maximilian,  and  King  Christian  of  Norway,  Luther.  The  nuncio's  treatment  of  Tetzel  was  severe 
Denmark,  and  Sweden,  in  the  war  against  the  Turks,  and  unjust.  When  the  sick  and  ailing  man  could 
In  the  oflicial  instructions  calling  the  Diet,  the  name  not  come  to  him  on  account  of  the  heatedj)ublic  senti- 
or  cause  of  Luther  does  not  figure.  ment  against  him,  Miltitz  on  his  visit  to  Leipzig  sum- 

The  papal  legate,  Cajetan,  and  Luther  met  face  to  moned  him  to  a  meeting,  in  which  he  overwhelmed 
face  for  the  first  time  at  Augsburg  on  11  Oct.  Cajetan  him  with  reproaches  and  charges,  stigmatized  him  as 
(b.  1470)  was  "one  of  the  most  remarkable  figures  the  originator  of  the  whole  unfortunate  affair,  threat- 
woven  into  the  history  of  the  Reformation  on  the  ened  the  displeasure  of  the  pope,  and  no  doubt  has- 
Roman  side  ...  a  man  of  erudition  and  blameless  tened  the  impending  death  of  Tetzel  (11  Aug.,  1519). 
life  "  (WeizsScker) ;  he  was  doctor  of  philosophy  and  While  the  preliminaries  of  the  Leipzig  Disputation 
theology  before  he  was  twenty-one.  at  this  early  age  were  pending,  a  true  insight  into  Luther's  real  atti- 
filling  chairs  with  distinction  in  botn  sciences  at  some  tude  towarcts  the  papacy,  the  subject  which  would 
of  the  leading  universities;  in  humanistic  studies  he  form  the  main  thesis  of  discussion,  can  best  be  gleaned 
was  so  well  versed  as  to  enter  the  dialectic  arena  from  his  own  letters.  On  3  March,  1519,  he  writes 
against  Pico  dolla  Mirandola  when  only  twenty-four.  Leo  X:  "Before  God  and  all  his  croatu.^^.^ \  V«»k^ 
Surely  no  better  qualified  man  could  be  detailed  to  testimony  that  I  \«\^Vftx  ^\^  ^^'^\\^,\\«^  ^^  ^^>cc^ 


LUTHSB 


444 


LUTHSB 


to  touch  or  by  intrigue  undermine  the  authority  of 
the  Roman  Church  and  that  of  your  hoUness" 
(De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  I,  234).  Two  days  later  (5 
March)  he  wntes  to  Spalatin:  "It  was  never  my  in- 
tention to  revolt  from  the  Ronuui  Apostolic  chair" 
(De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  1, 236).  Ten  days  later  (13  March) 
he  writes  to  the  same:  "I  am  at  a  loss  to  know 
whether  the  pope  be  antichrist  or  his  apostle''  (De 
Wette,  op.cit.,  I,  239).  A  month  before  this  (20 
Feb.)  he  thanks  Scheurl  for  sending  him  the  foul 
"Dialogue  of  JuUus  and  St.  Peter",  a  most  poisonous 
attack  on  the  papacy,  saying  he  is  sorely  tempted  to 
issue  it  in  the  vernacular  to  the  public  (De  Wette,  op. 
dt.,  I,  230).  "To  prove  Luther's  consistency — ^to 
vindicate  his  conduct  at  all  points,  as  faultless  both  in 
veracity  and  courage — under  those  circumstances, 
may  be  left  to  m3rth-making  simpletons  "  (Bayne,  op. 
cit^I,  457). 

The  I^ipzig  disputation  was  an  important  factor  in 
fixing  the  alignment  of  both  disputants,  and  forcing 
Luther's  theolo^cal  evolution.  It  was  an  outgrowth 
of  the  "Obelisci"  and  "  Asterisci",  which  was  taken 
up  l^  Carlstadt  during  Luther's  absence  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1518.  It  was  precipitated  by  the  latter,  and 
certainly  not  solicited  or  sought  after  by  Eck.  Every 
obstacle  was  placed  in  the  way  of  its  taking  place, 
onlv  to  be  bruished  aside.  The  Bishops  of  Merseburg 
and  Brandenbiu^  issued  their  official  mhibitions;  the 
theological  faculty  of  the  Leipzig  University  sent  a 
letter  of  protest  to  Luther  not  to  m^dle  in  an  affai  r  that 
was  purely  Carbtadt's,  and  another  to  Duke  Georee 
to  prohibit  it  (Seidemann,  "Leipziger  Disputation  ', 
Dresden  and  Leipzig,  1843,  126).  Scheurl,  then  an 
intimate  of  Luther's,  tried  to  dissuade  him  from  the 
meeting;  Eck,  in  terms  pacific  and  dignified,  replied 
to  Caristadt's  offensive,  and  Luthers  pugnacious 
letters,  in  fruitless  endeavour  to  avert  all  public  con- 
troversy either  in  print  or  lecture  (Loscher,  op.  cit.,  II, 
64r-65);  Luther  himself,  pledged  and  forbidden  all 
public  discourse  or  print,  oeg^d  Duke  Frederick  to 
make  an  endeavour  to  bring  about  the  meeting  (De 
Wette,  op.  cit.,  I,  175)  at  the  same  time  that  he 
perBonally  appealed  to  Duke  Geoi^e  for  permission  to 
allow  it,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  had  al- 
readv  given  the  theses  against  Eck  to  the  public.  In 
the  face  of  such  indent  pressure  Eck  could  not  fail  to 
accept  the  challenge.  Even  at  this  stage  Eck  and 
Carlstadt  were  to  1^  the  accredited  coml^tants,  and 
the  formal  admission  of  Luther  into  the  disputation 
was  only  determined  upon  when  the  disputants  were 
actually  at  Leipzig. 

The  disputation  on  Eck's  twelve,  subsequently 
thirteen,  theses,  was  opened  with  much  parade  and 
ceremony  on  27  June,  and  the  university  atUa  being 
too  small,  was  conducted  at  the  Pleissenburg  Castle. 
The  wordy  battle  was  between  Carlstadt  and  Eck  on 
the  subject  of  Divine  grace  and  human  free  will.  As  is 
well  known,  it  ended  in  the  former's  hiuniliating  dis- 
comfiture. Luther  and  Eck's  discussion,  4  July,  was 
on  pApal  supremacy.  The  former,  though  gifted  with 
a  brilliant  readiness  of  speech,  lacked — and  his  warm- 
est admirers  admit  it — the  quiet  composure,  curbed 
Belf-restraint,  and  imruffled  temper  of  a  good  dispu- 
tant. The  result  was  that  the  imperturbable  serenity 
and  unerring  confidence  of  Eck  had  an  exasperating 
effect  on  him.  He  was  "  querulous  and  censorious ' , 
"arbitrary  and  bitter"  (Mosellanus),  which  hardly 
contributed  to  the  advantage  of  his  cause,  either  in 
aigumentation  or  with  his  hearers.  Papal  supremacy 
was  denied  by  him,  because  it  found  no  warrant  in 
Holy  Writ  or  in  Divine  right.  Eck's  comments  on  the 
"pestilential "  errors  of  Wiclif  and  Hus condenmed  by 
tlie  Council  of  Constance  was  met  by  the  reply,  that, 
80  far  as  the  position  of  the  Hussites  was  concerned, 
thare  were  among  them  many  who  were  "  very  Chris- 
tian and  evangelical ".  Eck  took  his  antagonist  to 
/aedt  forp)sic'\ng  the  individual  in  a  position  to  under- 


stand the  Bible  better  than  the  popes,  councils,  doc- 
tors, and  universities,  and  in  pressing  his  argument 
closer,  assenting  that  the  condemned  Bohemians  would 
not  hesitate  to  hail  him  as  their  patron,  elicited  the 
ungentle  remonstrance  "that  is  a  shameless  lie".  Eck, 
undisturbed  and  with  the  instinct  of  the  trained  de- 
bater, drove  his  antagonist  still  further,  until  he  finall v 
admitted  the  fallibuity  of  an  oecumenical  council, 
upon  which  he  closed  the  discussion  with  the  laconic 
rema^:  "If  you  believe  a  legitimately  assembled 
council  can  err  and  has  erred,  then  you  are  to  me  as  a 
heathen  and  pubUcan"  (Kostlin-Kawcrau,  op.  cit.,  I, 
243-60).  This  was  15  July.  Luther  returned  sullen 
and  crestfallen  to  Wittenberg,  from  what  had  proved 
to  him  an  inglorious  tournament  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  I, 
284-89;  290-306;  "Lutheri  0pp.  Lat.;  Eri.",  Ill,  487; 
Scheurl.  "Briefbuch",  II,  Potsdam,  1867,  92). 

The  disastrous  outcome  of  the  disputation  (Mauren- 
brecher,  "Gesch.  der  Kath.  Reform",  Nordlingen, 
1880,  171;  Kohler,  "Denifles  Luther''  9)  drove 
him  to  reckless,  desperate  measures.  He  did  not 
scruple,  at  this  stage,  to  league  himself  with  the  most 
radical  elements  of  national  humanism  and  freeboot- 
ing  knighthood,  who  in  their  revolutionarv  propa- 
ganda hailed  him  as  a  most  valuable  ally.  His  com- 
rades in  arms  now  were  Ulrich  von  Hutten  and  Franz 
von  Sickingen,  with  the  motley  horde  of  satellites 
usually  found  in  the  train  of  such  leadership.  With 
Melanchthon,  himself  a  humanist,  as  an  intermediary, 
a  secret  correspondence  was  opened  with  Hutten 
(De  Wette,  I,  451)^  and  to  all  appearances  Sickingen 
was  directly  or  indirectly  in  frequent  communication 
(op.  cit.,  I,  451,  460).  Hutten,  though  a  man  of  un- 
common talent  and  literary  brilliancy,  was^  never- 
theless, a  moral  degenerate,  without  conscience  or 
character  (Maurenbrecher,  "Geschichte  der  katho- 
lisch.  Reformation",  199;  Menzel,  "Neuere  Gesch. 
der  Deutschen",  II,  Breslau,  1826,  255;  Paulsen, 
"  Gesch.  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts  ",  Leipzig,  1885,  51 ; 
Vorreiter.  "Luthers  Ringen  mit  den  anti-christl. 
Prindp.  aer  Revolution  ",  Halle,  1860, 55) .  Sickingen. 
the  prmce  of  condoUierif  was  a  sordid  mercenarv  ana 
political  marplot,  whose  daring  deeds  and  murderous 
atrocities  form  a  part  of  German  legendary  lore.  With 
his  three  impregnable  fastnesses,  Ebemburg,  Land- 
stuhl,  and  Hohenburg,  with  their  adventurous  sol- 
diery, fleet-footed  cavabry,  and  primed  artillery,  "  who 
took  to  robbery  as  to  a  trade  and  considered  it  rather 
an  honour  to  be  likened  to  wolves"  (Cambridge  Hist., 
II,  154),  a  menace  to  the  very  empire,  he  was  a  most 
useful  adjunct.  With  Luther  thev  had  little  in  com- 
mon, for  Doth  were  impervious  to  all  religious  impulses, 
unless  it  was  their  deadly  hatred  of  the  pope,  and  the 
confiscation  of  church  property  and  land  (op.  cit., 
155).  The  disaffection  among  the  knights  was  par- 
ticularlv  acute.  The  flourishing  condition  of  industry 
made  the  agrarian  interests  of  the  small  landowners 
suffer;  the  new  methods  of  warfare  diminished  their 
political  importance;  the  adoption  of  the  Roman  law 
while  it  strengthened  the  territorial  lords,  threatened 
to  reduce  the  lower  nobility  to  a  condition  of  serfdom. 
A  change,  even  though  it  involved  revolution,  was 
desired,  and  Luther  and  his  movement  were  welcomed 
as  the  psychological  man  $md  cause.  Hutten  offered 
his  pen,  a^ofmidabte  weapon:  Sickingen  his  fortress, 
a  haven  of  safety;  the  tormer  assured  him  of  the 
enthusiastic  support  of  the  national  humanists,  the 
latter  "bade  him  stand  firm  and  offered  to  encircle 
him  with  .  .  .  swords"  (Bayne,  op.cit.,  II,  59).  The 
attack  would  be  made  on  the  ecclesiastical  princes,  as 
opposed  to  Lutheran  doctrines  and  knightly  privileges. 
In  the  meantime  Luther  was  saturating  himself  with 
published  and  unpublished  humanistic  anti-clerical 
literature  so  effectually  that  his  passionate  hatred  of 
Rome  and  the  pope,  his  genesis  of  Antichrist,  his 
contemptuous  scorn  for  his  theological  opponents,  his 
effusive  professions  of  patriotism,  his  acquisition  of 


LtrraiK 


445 


LUtHEB 


the  literary  amenitiesr  of  the  *'  Epistolse  Obscurorum 
Virorum",  even  the  bodily  absorption  of  Hutten's 
arguments,  not  to  allude  to  other  conspicuous  ear- 
marks of  his  intercourse  and  association  with  the 
humanistic-political  agitators,  can  be  unerringly 
traced  here  (Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  I,  341 ;  Kampschulte, 
op.  dt.f  II,  73-105) .  It  was  while  living  in  the  atmos- 
pnere  surcharged  with  these  influences,  that  he  issued 
his  first  epochal  manifesto,  '' Address  to  the  German 
Nobility  .  It  is  in  **  its  form  an  imitation  of  Hutten's 
circular  letter  to  the  emperor  and  German  nobility ". 
and  the  greater  part  of  its  contents  is  an  abstract  ot 
Hutten's  "Vadiscus  or  Roman  Trinity",  from  his 
''Lament  and  Exhortation",  and  from  his  letters  to 
the  Elector  Frederick  of  Saxony  (Meiners,  "Lebens- 
beschreib.  berQhmter  Mftnner.",  Zurich,  III,  1797, 
371).  This  seems  to  be  admitted  by  competent 
Lutheran  specialists  (Maurenbrecher,  "Studien  u. 
Skizzen",  Leipzig,  1874,  254;  Werckhagen,  "Luther 
u.  Hutten  ",  Wittenberg,  1888. 44-87 ;  Kolde, "  Luthcrs 
Stellung  zu  Konzil  u.  lurche ' ,  69;  Benrath,  "  An  den 
christl.  Adel  deutsch.  Nation",  No.  4,  "Schrift  fttr 
Reform.  Gesch.",  1884).  He  steps  from  the  arena  of 
academic  gravity  and  verbal  precision  to  the  forum 
of  the  public  in  "an  invective  of  dazzling  rhetoric". 
He  addresses  the  masses:  his  language  is  that  of  the 
populace;  his  theolo^cal  attitude  is  abandoned;  his 
sweeping  eloquence  fairly  carries  the  emotional  nature 
of  his  hearers — while  even  calm,  critical  reason  stands 
aghast,  dumbfounded;  he  becomes  the  hieratic  intex^ 
preter,  the  articulate  voice  of  latent  slumbering 
national  aspirations.  In  one  impassioned  outburst, 
he  cuts  from  all  his  Catholic  moorings — the  merest 
trace  left  seeming  to  intensify  his  fury.  Church  and 
State,  religion  and  politics,  ecclesiastical  reform  and 
social  advancement,  are  handled  with  a  flaming,  peer- 
less oratory.  He  speaks  with  reckless  audacity;  he 
acts  with  breathless  daring.  War  and  revolution  do 
not  make  him  quail — has  he  not  the  pledged  support 
of  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  Franz  von  Sickmgen,  Sylvester 
von  Schaumburg?  Is  not  the  first  the  revolutionary 
master  spirit  of  his  a^e — cannot  the  second  make  even 
an  emperor  bow  to  his  terms?  The  "  gospel ",  he  now 
sees  "  cannot  be  introduced  without  tumult,  scandal, 
and  rebellion";  "the  word  of  God  is  a  sword,  a  war, 
a  destruction,  a  scandal,  a  ruin,  a  poison  "  (De  Wette. 
op.  cit.,  I,  417).  As  for  pope,  cardinals,  bishops,  "ana 
the  whole  brood  of  Roman  Sodom ",  why  not  attack 
it  "  with  every  sort  of  weapon  and  wash  our  hands  in 
its  blood"  (Walch,  XVIII.  245). 

Luther  the  reformer  haa  become  Luther  the  revo- 
lutionary; the  religious  agitation  had  become  a  po- 
litical rebellion  (Maurenbrecher,  op.  cit.,  155,  394; 
Treitschke, "  Preussische  Jahrbttcher  ",  LII,  476;  Paul- 
sen, op.  cit.,  173;  Weizsackef, "  G6ttingen  Gelehrt.  An- 
zeigen",  1881,  846;  Droysen,  "Gesch.  der  preuss. 
Politik",  I,  145,  178;  Barkhausen,  "Gesch.  der 
Philosophic",  III,  258;  Hansen,  "Sind  wir  noch 
Lutheraner",  Copenhagen,  1885,  9, 10,  13,  86;  "Ath- 
enaeum ",  2  Feb.,  1884, 146 ; "  Academv  ",26  Jan.,  1884, 
54;  Creighton,  "Hist,  of  the  Papacy**'  Vl,  1891, 169; 
Bayne,  op.  cit.,  II,  165;  "  Cambridge  Hist.",  II,  166). 
Luther  s  theological  attitude  at  this  time,  as  far  as 
a  formulated  cohesion  can  be  deduced,  was  as  follows: 
The  Bible  is  the  only  source  of  faith;  it  contains  the 
plenary  inspiration  of  God;  ite  reading  is  invested 
with  a  quasi-sacramental  character.  Human  nature 
has  been  totally  corrupted  by  original  sin,  and  man, 
accordingly,  is  deprived  of  free  will.  Whatever  he 
does,  be  it  good  or  dp d,  is  not  his  own  work,  but  God's. 
Faitn  alone  can  work  justification,  and  man  is  saved 
by  confidently  believing  that  God  will  pardon  him. 
Tiiis  faith  not  only  includes  a  full  pardon  of  sin,  but 
also  an  unconditional  release  from  its  penalties.  The 
hierarchy  and  priesthood  are  not  Divmely  instituted 
or  necessary,  and  ceremonial  or  exterior  worship  is  not 
essential  or  useful.   Ecclesiastical  vestments,  pilgrim- 


ages, mortifications,  monastic  vows,  prayers  for  the 
dead ,  intercession  of  saints,  avail  the  soul  nothing.  All 
sacraments,  with  the  exception  of  baptism.  Holy  Eu- 
charist, and  penance,  are  reiected,  but  their  absence 
may  be  supplied  by  faith.  Tne  priesthood  is  universal ; 
every  Christian  may  assume  it.  A  body  of  specially 
trained  and  ordained  men  to  dispense  the  mysteries 
of  God  is  needless  and  a  usurpation.  There  is  no 
visible  Church  or  one  specifically  established  by  God 
whereby  men  may  work  out  their  salvation.  The 
emperor  is  appealed  to  in  his  three  primary  pamph* 
lets,  to  destroy  the  power  of  the  pope,  to  confiscate 
for  his  own  use  all  ecclesiastical  property,  to  abolish 
ecclesiastical  feasts,  fasts,  and  holidays,  to  do  away 
with  Masses  for  the  dead.  etc.  In  his  "Babylonian 
Captivity"^  particularly,  ne  tries  to  arouse  national 
feeling  against  the  papacy,  and  appeals  to  the  lower 
appetite  of  the  crowd  by  laying  down  a  sensualized 
code  of  matrimonial  ethics,  little  removed  from  pagan- 
ism, which  "  again  came  to  the  front  during  the  French 
Revolution"  (Hagen,  "Deutsche  literar.  u.  religidse 
Verhaltnisse ''  II,  Erlangen,  1843,  235).  His  third 
manifesto,  "On  the  Fre^om  of  a  Christian  Man", 
more  moderate  in  tone,  though  uncompromisingly 
radical,  he  sent  to  the  pope. 

In  April,  1520,  Eck  appeared  in  Rome,  with  the 
German  works,  containing  most  of  these  doctrines, 
translated  into  Latin.  They  were  submitted  and  dis- 
cussed with  patient  care  and  critical  calmness.  Some 
members  of  the  four  consistories,  held  between  21  May 
and  1  June,  counselled  gentleness  and  forbearance,  but 
those  demanding  summary  procedure  prevailed.  The 
Bull  of  excommunication,  "Exsurge  Domine",  was 
accordingly  drawn  up  15  July.  It  formally  ccm- 
demned  forty-one  propositions  drawn  from  his  writ- 
ings, ordered  the  destruction  of  the  books  containing 
the  errors,  and  summoned  Luther  himself  to  recant 
within  sixty  days  or  receive  the  full  penalty  of  ecclesi- 
astical punishment.  Three  dajrs  later  (18  July)  Eck 
was  appointed  papal  prothonotary  with  the  commis- 
sion to  publish  tne  Bull  in  Germany.  The  appointment 
of  Eck  was  both  unwise  and  imprudent.  Luther's 
attitude  towards  him  was  that  of  implacable  perscmal 
hatred;  the  dislike  of  him  among  the  humanists  was 
decidedly  virulent;  his  unpopularity  among  many 
Catholics  was  also  well  known.  Moreover,  his  personal 
feelings,  as  the  relentless  antagonist  of  Luther,  could 
hardly  be  effaced,  so  that  a  cause  which  demand^  the 
most  untrammelled  exereise.  of  judicial  impartiality 
and  Christian  charity  would  haitily  find  its  best  ex- 
ponent in  a  man  in  whom  individual  triumph  would 
supersede  the  pure  love  of  justice.  Eck  saw  this,  and 
accepted  the  duty  only  under  compulsicm  (Wiedmann^ 
op.  cit.,  153).  His  arrival  in  Germany  was  signaliiea 
by  an  outburst  of  popular  protest  and  academic  re- 
sentment, which  the  national  humaniste  and  friends 
of  Luther  lost  no  time  in  fanning  to  a  fierce  flame. 
He  was  barely  allowed  to  publish  the  Bull  in  Meissen 
r21  Sept.),  Mersebur^  (25  Sept.),  and  Brandenburg 
(29  Sept.),  and  a  resistance  almost  uniform  greeted 
him  in  all  other  parts  of  Germany.  He  was  subjected  to 
personal  affronte,  mob  violence.  The  Bull  itself  became 
the  object  of  shocking  indignities.  Only  after  protracted 
delays  could  even  the  bishops  be  induced  to  show  it 
any  deference.  The  crowmng  dishonour  awaited  it 
at  Wittenberg  (Stud.  u.  Krit.,  1901,  460),  where  (10 
Dec),  in  response  to  a  call  issued  by  Melanchthon,  the 
university  students  assembled  at  the  Elster  Gate,  and 
amid  the  jeering  chant  of  "Te  Deum  laudamus",  and 
"  Requiem  setemam  ",  interspersed  with  ribald  drink- 
ing songs,  Luther  in  person  consigned  it  to  the  flames. 
The  Bull  seemingly  affected  him  little.  It  only 
drove  him  to  further  extremes  and  gave  a  new  momen- 
tum to  the  revolutionary  agitation.  As  far  back  as  10 
July,  when  the  Bull  was  only  under  discussion,  ke 
scornfully  defied  it.  ''As  for  me,  the  die  is  cast:  I 
despise  iJike  the  favour  and  fury  of  Baiba\  ^^ks^^^sK 


LUTHER 


446 


LUTHfiB 


wish  to  1)0  rccoiicilod  with  her,  or  over  to  hold  any 
communion  with  her.  Let  her  condemn  and  bum 
my  books;  I,  in  turn,  unless  I  can  find  no  fire,  will  con- 
d^nn  and  publicly  bum  the  whole  pontifical  law,  that 
swamp  of  neresies"  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  I,  466). 

The  next  step,  the  enforcement  of  the  provisions  of 
the  Bull,  was  the  duty  of  the  civil  power.  Tnis  was  done, 
in  the  face  of  vehement  opposition  now  manifesting  it- 
self, at  the  Diet  of  Worms,  wnen  the  young  newly-crowned 
Charles  V  was  for  the  first  time  to  meet  the  assem- 
bled German  Estates  in  solemn  deliberation.  Charles, 
though  not  to  be  ranked  with  the  greatest  characters 
of  histoi^,  was  *'an  honourable  Christian  gentleman, 
striving  in  spite  of  physical  defect,  moral  temptations, 
and  political  impossibihties,  to  do  his  duty  in  that 
state  of  life  to  which  an  unkind  Providence  had  called 
him  "  (Armstrong,  **  The  Emperor  Charles  V  ",  II,  Lon- 
don, 1902,  383).  Great  and  momentous  questions, 
national  and  religious,  social  and  economic,  were  to 
be  submitted  for  consideration — but  that  of  Luther 
easily  became  paramount.  The  pope  sent  two  legates 
to  represent  him — Marino  Camcioli,  to  whom  the 

Solitical  problems  were  entrusted,  and  Jerome  Alean- 
er,  who  should  grapple  with  the  more  pressing  re- 
ligious one.  Aleander  was  a  man  of  brilliant,  even 
phenomenal,  intellectual  and  linguistic  endowments 
(Hausrath,  "Aleander  u.  Luther",  Berlin,  1897,  49), 
*'a  man  of  the  world  almost  modem  in  his  progressive 
ideas"  (Armstrong,  op.  cit.,  1, 61),  a  trained  statesman, 
not  altogether  free  from  the ''  zeal  and  cunning  "  which 
at  times  enter  the  game  of  diplomacy.  Like  his 
staunch  supporter,  the  Elector  George  of  Saxony,  he 
was  not  only  open-minded  enough  to  admit  the  de- 
plorable corruption  of  the  Church,  the  grasping  cu- 
pidity of  Roman  curial  procedure,  the  cold  commer- 
cialism and  deep-seated  immorality  that  infected  many 
of  the  clerg>',  but,  like  him,  he  was  courageous  enough 
to  denounce  them  with  freedom  and  point  to  the  pope 
himself.  His  problem,  by  the  singular  turn  of  events, 
was  to  become  the  gravest  that  confronted  not  only  the 
Diet,  but  Christendom  itself.  Its  solution  or  failure 
was  to  be  pregnant  with  a  fate  that  involved  Church 
and  State,  and  would  guide  the  course  of  the  world's 
history.  Germany  was  living  on  a  politico-religious 
volcano.  All  walks  of  life  wore  in  a  convulsive  state 
of  unrest  that  boded  ill  for  Church  and  State.  Luther 
by  his  inflammatory  denunciation  of  pope  and  clergy 
let  loose  a  veritable  hurricane  of  fierce,  uncontrollable 
racial  and  religious  hatr^,  which  was  to  spend  itself 
in  the  bloodshed  of  the  Peasants'  War  and  tne  orgies  of 
the  Sack  of  Rome;  his  adroit  juxtaposition  of  the  rela- 
tive powers  and  wealth  of  the  temporal  and  spiritual 
estates  fostered  jealousy  and  fed  avarice;  the  chican- 
ery of  the  revolutionary  propagandists  and  pamph- 
leteering poetasters  lit  up  tne  nation  with  rhetori- 
cal fireworks,  in  which  seoition  and  impiety,  artfully 
garbed  in  Biblical  phraseology  and  sanctimonious 
platitudes,  posed  as  *' evangelical "  liberUrand  pure 
patriotism;  the  restive  peasants,  victims  of  oppression 
and  poverty,  after  futile  sporadic  uprisings,  lapsed 
into  stifled  but  sullen  and  resentful  malcontents;  the 
tmredressed  wrongs  of  the  burghers  and  labourers  in 
tJ^e  populous  cities  clamoured  for  a  change,  and  the 
viotuns  were  prepared  to  adopt  any  method  to  shake 
off  disabilities  daily  l)ecoming  more  irksome;  the  in- 
creasing expense  of  living,  the  decreasing  economic  ad- 
vancement, goaded  the  impecunious  knights  to  desper- 
ation, their  very  lives  since  1495  being  nothing  more 
tlum  a  struggle  for  existence  (Maurenbrecher,  '*Stu- 
dien  u.  Skizzen",  246);  the  territorial  lords  cast  en- 
vious eyes  on  the  teeming  fields  of  the  monasteries  and 
the  princely  ostentation  of  church  dignitaries,  and  did 
not  scruple  in  the  vision  of  a  future  German  autonomy 
to  treat  even  the  "Spanish"  sovereign  with  dictato- 
rial arrogance  or  tolerant  complacency.  The  city  of 
Worms  iti^'lf  was  within  the  grasp  of  a  reign  of  lawless- 
ness, debauchery,  and  murder  (^Janssen,  op.  cit.,  11, 


162).  From  the  bristling  Ebemburg,  Sickiugen's 
lair,  only  six  miles  from  the  city,  Huttcn  was  hurling 
his  truculent  philippics,  threatening  with  outrage  and 
death  the  legate  (wnom  he  had  failed  to  waylay),  the 
spiritual  princes  and  church  dignitaries,  not  sparing 
even  the  emperor,  whose  pension  as  a  bribe  to  silence 
had  hardly  Wsen  received.  Germany  was  in  a  rei^  of 
terror;  consternation  seemed  to  paralyze  all  mmds. 
A  fatal  blow  was  to  be  struck  at  the  clergy,  it  was 
whispered,  and  then  the  famished  knights  would 
scramble  for  their  property.  Over  all  loomed  the 
formidable  apparition  of  Sickingcn.  He  was  in  Ale- 
ander's  opinion  "sole  king  in  Germany  now;  for  he  has 
a  following,  when  and  as  large  as  he  wishes.  The 
emperor  is  improtccted,  the  princes  are  inactive;  the 
prelates  quake  with  fear.  Sickingcn  at  the  moment  is 
the  terror  of  Germany  before  whom  all  quail "  (Brie- 
ger,  "Aleander  u.  Luther",  Gotha,  1884,  125).  "If 
a  proper  leader  could  be  found,  the  elements  of  revolu- 
tion were  already  at  hand,  and  only  awaited  the  sigpal 
for  an  outbreak     (Maurenbrecher,  op.  cit.,  246). 

Such  was  the  critical  national  and  local  ferment, 
when  Luther  at  the  psychological  moment  was  pro- 
jected into  the  foreground  by  the  Diet  ot  W^orms, 
where  "the  devils  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses  were 
rather  friendly  .  .  .  than  otherwise"  (Cambridge 
Hist.y  II,  147),  to  appear  as  the  champion  against 
Roman  corruption,  which  in  the  prevailing  frenzy  be- 
came the  expression  of  national  patriotism.  "  He  was 
the  hero  of  the  hour  solely  because  he  stood  for  the 
national  opposition  to  Rome"  (ibid..  148;  cf.  Strobel, 
"Leben  Tnomas  Miinzers ",  Nuremoerg,  1795,  166). 
His  first  hearing  Ijefore  the  Diet  (17  April)  found  him 
not  precisely  in  the  most  confident  mood.  Acknowl- 
edging his  works,  he  met  the  further  request  that  he 
recall  them  by  a  timid  reply,  "in  tones  so  subdued 
that  they  could  hardly  be  heard  with  distinctness  in 
his  vicinity ' ' ,  that  he  be  gi  ven  time  for  reflection .  His 
assurance  did  not  fail  him  at  the  second  hearing  (18 
April)  when  his  expected  steadfastness  asserted  itself, 
and  Ins  refusal  was  uttered  with  steady  compK)sure  and 
firm  voice,  in  Latin  and  German,  that,  unless  convinced 
of  his  errors  by  the  Scriptures  or  plain  reason,  he 
would  not  recant.  *  *  I  neitner  can  nor  will  recant  any- 
thing, for  it  is  neither  safe  nor  right  to  act  against 
one's  conscience  ",  adding  in  German — "  God  help  me, 
Amen."  The  emperor  took  action  the  next  day  (19 
April)  by  personally  writing  to  the  Kstates,  that  true 
to  the  traditions  of  his  Catholic  forefathers,  he  placed 
his  faith  in  the  Christian  doctrine  and  the  Roman 
Church,  in  the  Fathers,  in  the  councils  representing 
Christendom,  rather  than  in  the  teaching  of  an  in- 
dividual monk,  and  orders  Luther's  departure.  "The 
word  which  I  pledged  him",  he  concludes,  "and  the 
promised  safe-conduct  he  will  receive.  Be  assured,  he 
will  return  unmolested  whence  he  came"  (Forst^mann, 
"  Neues  Urkundenbuch",  I,  Hamburg,  1842,  75).  All 
further  negotiations  undertaken  in  the  meantime  to 
bring  about  an  adjustment  having  failed,  Luther 
was  ordered  to  return,  but  forbidden  to  preach  or 
publish  while  on  the  way.  The  edict,  drafted  (8 
May)  was  signed  26  May,  but  was  only  to  be  promul- 
gated after  the  expiration  of  the  time  allowed  in  the 
safe-conduct.  It  placed  Luther  under  the  ban  of  the 
enipire  and  ordered  the  destruction  of  his  writings. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  state  that  the  historicity  of 
Luther's  famed  declaration  before  the  assembled  Diet, 
"  Here  I  stand.  I  can  not  do  otherwise.  So  help  me, 
God.  Amen  ",  has  been  successfully  challenged  and 
rendered  inadmissible  by  Protestant  researches.  Its 
retention  in  some  of  the  larger  biographies  and  his- 
tories, seldom  if  ever  without  laborious  qualification, 
can  only  be  ascribed  to  the  deathless  vitality  of  a 
sacred  fiction  or  an  al>sence  of  historical  rectitude  on 
the  part  of  the  writer  (Burkhardt,  "  Theologische 
Studien  und  Kritiken",  1869,  517-531;  Archiv  ftir 
Refonnationsgeschichte,  VI, 248;  Elter,  "Luther und 


LOTHXB 


447 


LUTHER 


der  Wormser  Reichstag",  Bonn,  1885,  67-72;  Mau- 
renbrecher,  *'Geschichte  der  katholisch.  Reforma- 
tion'*, I,  398;  Wrede,  **  Deutsche  Rcicbsakten  unter 
Kaiser  Karl  V",  II,  Gotha,  1896,  555,  note;  Kalkofif, 
"Die  Depeschen  des  N.  Aleander,"  Halle,  1897,  174, 
note  2;  Kostlin-Kawerau,  op.  cit.,  I,  419;  Kolde, 
"Luther  in  Worms",  Municn,  1897,  21;  Hausrath, 
* '  Aleander  und  Luther  ",  27 1 .  The  latter  three  make 
only  tacit  admissions). 

He  left  Worms  26  April,  for  Wittenberg,  in  the 
custody  of  a  party  consistmg  mainly,  if  not  altogether, 
of  personal  friends.  By  a  secret  agreement,  of  which 
he  was  fully  cognizant  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  I,  588-89), 
being  apprised  of  it  the  night  before  his  departure  by 
the  Elector  Frederick,  though  he  was  unaware  of  his 
actual  destination,  he  was  ambushed  by  friendly  hands 
in  the  night  of  4  May,  and  spirited  to  the  Castle  of 
Wartburg,  near  Eisenach. 

The  year's  sojourn  in  the  Wartburg  marks  a  new  and 
decisive  period  in  his  life  and  career.  Left  to  the 
seclusion  of  his  own  thoughts  and  reflections,  undis- 
turbed by  the  excitement  of  political  and  polemical 
agitation,  he  became  the  victim  of  an  interior  struggle 
that  made  him  writhe  in  the  throes  of  racking  anxiety, 
distressing  doubts  and  agonizing  reproaches  of  con- 
science. With  a  directness  that  knew  no  escape,  he 
was  now  confronted  by  the  poignant  doubts  aroused 
by  his  headlong  course :  was  he  justified  in  his  bold  and 
unprecedented  action;  were  not  his  innovations  dia- 
metrically opposed  to  the  history  and  experience  of 
spiritual  and  human  order  as  it  prevailed  from  Apos- 
tolic times;  was  he,  "he  alone",  the  chosen  vessel  sin- 
gled out  in  preference  to  all  the  saints  of  Christendom 
to  inaugurate  these  radical  changes;  was  he  not  re- 
sponsible for  the  social  and  pohtical  upheaval,  the 
rupture  of  Christian  unity  and  charity,  and  the  conse- 
quent ruin  of  immortal  souls  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  II,  2, 
10, 16, 17,  22,  23)  ?  To  this  was  added  an  irrepressible 
outbreak  of  sensuality  which  assailed  him  with  un- 
bridled fury  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  II,  22),  a  fury  that 
was  all  the  more  fierce  on  account  of  the  absence  of 
the  approved  weapons  of  spiritual  defence  (*  Deniflc, 
op.  cit.,  I,  377),  as  well  as  the  intensifying  stimulus 
of  his  imprudent  gratification  of  his  appetite  for  eat- 
ing and  drinking.  And,  in  addition  to  this  horror, 
his  temptations,  moral  and  spiritual,  became  vivicl 
realities;  satanic  manifestations  were  frequent  and 
alarming;  nor  did  they  consist  in  mere  verbal  encoun- 
ter but  in  personal  collision.  His  disputation  with* 
Satan  on  the  Mass  (Walch,  XIX,  1489-1490),  has 
become  historical.  His  life  as  Juncker  George,  his 
neglect  of  the  old  monastic  dietetic  restrictions,  racked 
his  body  in  paroxysms  of  pain,  "which  did  not  fail  to 
give  colour  to  the  tone  of  his  polemical  writings" 
(Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  I,  476),  nor  sweeten  the  acerbity 
of  his  temper,  nor  soften  the  coarseness  of  his  speech. 
However,  many  writers  regard  his  satanic  manifesta- 
tions as  pure  delusions  (*  Denifie- Weiss,  "  Luther  u. 
Luthertum",  II,  1909,  215  sq.). 

It  was  while  he  was  in  these  sinister  moods  that  his 
friends  usually  were  in  expectant  dread  that  the  flood 
of  his  exhaiistiess  abuse  and  unparalleled  scurrility 
would  dash  itself  against  the  papacy,  Church,  and 
monasticism.  "  I  will  curse  ana  scold  the  scoundrels 
until  I  go  to  my  grave,  and  never  shall  they  hear  a 
civil  word  from  me.  I  will  toll  them  to  their  graves 
with  thunder  and  lightning.  For  I  am  unable  to  pray 
without  at  the  same  time  cursing.  If  I  am  prompted 
to  say: '  hallowed  be  Thy  name  \  I  must  add:  *  cursed, 
damned,  outraged  be  the  name  of  papists'.  If  I  am 
prompted  to  say:  *Thy  Kingdom  come',  I  must  per- 
force add:  'cureed,  damned^  destroyed  must  be  the 
papacy  \  Indeed  I  pray  thus  orally  every  day  and  in 
my  heart  without  intermission  "  (S&mmtl.  W.,  XXV, 
108).  Need  we  be  surprised  that  one- of  his  old  ad- 
mirers, whose  name  figured  with  his  on  the  original 
Bull   of   excommunication,  concludee  that  Luther 


"with  his  shameless,  ungovoniable  tongue,  must  liave 
lapsed  into  insanity  or  been  inspirecl  by  the  Evil 
Spirit"  (Pirkheimer,  ap.  *D6llinger,  ''Die  Reforma- 
tion", Ratisbon,  I,  1846-48,  533-34)? 

While  at  the  Wartburg,  he  published  his  tract  "  On 
Confession",  which  cut  deeper  into  the  mutilated 
sacramental  system  he  retained  by  lopping  off  pen- 
ance. This  he  dedicated  to  Franz  von  bickingen. 
His  replies  to  Latomus  of  Louvain  and  Emser,  his  old 
antagom'st,  and  to  the  theological  faculty  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris,  are  characterized  by  his  proverbial 
spleen  and  discourtesy.  Of  the  writings  of  nis  antag- 
onists he  invariably  "makes  an  arbitrary  caricature 
and  he  belabours  them  in  blind  rage  ...  he  hurls  at 
them  the  most  passionate  replies  (Lange,  "Martin 
liUther,  ein  religioses  Characterbild ",  Berlin,  1870, 
109) .  His  reply  to  the  papal  Bull  "  In  ccena  Domini ", 
written  in  colloquial  German,  appeak  to  the  grossest 
sense  of  humour  and  sacrilegious  banter. 

His  chief  distinction  while  at  the  Wartburg,  and  one 
that  will  always  be  inseparably  connected  with  his 
name,  was  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
German.  The  invention  of  printing  gave  a  vigourous 
impetus  to  the  multiplication  of  copies  of  the  Bible, 
so  that  fourteen  editions  and  reprints  of  German  trans- 
lations from  1466  to  1522  are  known  to  have  existed. 
But  their  antiquated  language,  their  uncritical  revi- 
sion, and  their  puerile  glosses,  hardly  contributed  to 
their  circulation.  To  Luther  the  vernacular  Bible 
became  a  necessary  adjunct,  an  indispensable  neces- 
sity. His  subversion  of  the  spiritual  order,  abolition 
of  ecclesiastical  science,  rejection  of  the  sacraments, 
suppression  of  ceremonies,  degradation  of  Christian 
art,  demanded  a  substitute,  and  a  more  available  one 
than  the  "undefiled  Word  of  God",  in  association 
with  "evangelical  preaching"  could  hardly  be  found. 
In  less  than  three  months  the  first  copy  of  the  trans- 
lated New  Testament  was  ready  for  the  press.  As- 
sisted by  Melanchthon,  Spalatin,  and  otners  whose 
services  he  found  of  use,  with  the  Greek  version  of 
Erasmus  as  a  basis,  with  notes  and  comments  chained 
with  polemical  animus  and  woodcuts  of  an  offensively 
vulgar  character  supplie<l  by  Cmnach,  and  sold  for  a 
trivial  sum,  it  was  issued  at  Wittenlxirg  in  September. 
Its  spread  Wiis  so  rapid  that  a  second  edition  was 
called  for  as  early  as  December.  Its  linguistic  merits 
were  indisputable;  its  influence  on  national  literature 
most  potent.  Like  all  his  writings  in  German,  it  was 
the  speech  of  the  people ;  it  struck  the  popular  taste 
and  charmed  the  national  ear.  It  unfolded  the  afflu- 
ence, clarity,  and  vigour  of  the  German  tongue  in  a 
manner  and  with  a  result  that  stands  almost  without 
a  parallel  in  the  history  of  German  literature  (Pietsch, 
"M.  Luther  u.  die  hochdeutsche  Sprache",  JBreslau, 
1883;  Kluge,  "Von  Luther  bis  Lessing",  Strasburg, 
1888;  Franks,  **Grundzuge  der  Schriftsprache 
Luthers",  G6rlitz,  1888).  That  he  is  the  creator  of 
the  new  High  German  literary  language  is  hardly  in 
harmony  with  the  facts  and  researches  ofmodem  philo- 
logical science  (*Janssen,  II,  530-75).  While  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  philologist  it  is  worthy  of  the 
highest  commendation,  theologically  it  failed  in  the  es- 
sential elements  of  a  faithful  translation .  By  attribution 
and  suppression,  mistranslation  and  wanton  garbling, 
he  made  it  the  medium  of  attacking  the  old  Church,  and 
vindicating  his  individual  doctrines  (*D6llinger,  op. 
cit..  Ill,  139-73;  "Cambridge  Hist.",  II,  164-65). 

A  book  that  helped  to  depopulate  the  sanctuary  and 
monastery  in  Germany,  one  that  Luther  himself  con- 
fessed to  be  his  most  unassailable  pronouncement,  one 
that  Melanchthon  hailed  as  a  work  of  rare  learning, 
and  which  many  Reformation  specialists  pronounce, 
both  as  to  contents  and  results,  his  most  important 
work,  had  its  origin  in  the  Wartburg.  It  was  his 
"  Opinion  on  Monastic  Orders  ".  Dashed  off  at  white 
heat  and  expressed  with  that  whirlwind  impetuosity 
that  made  him  so  powerful  a  leader,  it  made  thAVssAsJk 


LVTHXE 


448 


LUTUER 


proclamation  of  a  new  code  of  ethics:  that  concupi- 
scence is  invincible,  the  sensual  instincts  irrepressible, 
the  gratification  of  sexual  propensities  as  natural  and 
inexorable  as  the  performance  of  any  of  the  physio- 
logical necessities  of  our  beine.  It  was  a  trumpet  call 
to  priest,  monk,  and  nun  to  oreak  their  vows  of  chas- 
tity and  enter  matrimony.  The  ''impossibility"  of 
successful  resistance  to  our  natural  sensual  passions 
was  drawn  with  such  dazzling  rhetorical  fascination 
that  the  salvation  of  the  soul,  the  health  of  the  body, 
demanded  an  instant  abrogation  of  the  laws  of  celi- 
bacy. Vows  were  made  to  Satan,  not  to  God;  the 
devil's  law  was  absolutely  renounced  by  taking  a  wife 
or  husband.  The  consequences  of  sucn  a  mond  code 
were  immediate  and  eeneral.  They  are  evident  from 
the  stinging  rebuke  of  his  old  master,  Staupitz,  less, 
than  a  year  after  its  promulgation,  that  the  most 
vociferous  advocates  ot  his  old  pupil  were  the  fre- 
quenters of  notorious  houses,  not  synonymous  with  a 
high  type  of  decency  (Enders,  op.  cit..  Ill,  406).  To 
us  the  whole  treatise  would  have  nothing  more  than 
an  archaic  interest  were  it  not  that  it  inspired  the 
most  notable  contribution  to  Reformation  history 
written  in  modem  times,  Denifle's  ''Luther  una 
Lutherthum  "  (Mainz.  1904) .  In  it  Luther's  doctrines, 
writings,  and  sayings  have  been  subjected  to  so  search- 
ing an  analysis,  his  historical  inaccuracies  have  been 
proved  so  flagrant,  his  conception  of  monasticism  such 
a  caricature,  nis  knowledge  of  Scholasticism  so  super- 
ficial ,  his  misrepresentation  of  medieval  theology  so  un- 
blushing, his  interpretation  of  mysticism  so  erroneous, 
and  this  with  such  a  merciless  circumstantial  mastery 
of  detail,  as  to  cast  the  shadow  of  doubt  on  the  whole 
fabric  of  Reformation  history. 

In  the  middle  of  the  summer  of  this  year  (4 
Aug.)  he  sent  his  reply  to  the  "Defence  of  the  Seven 
Sacraments  "  by  King  Henry  VIII.  Its  <mly  claim  to 
attention  is  its  tone  of  proverbial  coarseness  and  scur- 
rility. The  king  is  not  only  an  "impudent  liar",  but 
is  delueed  with  a  torrent  of  foul  abuse,  and  every 
unworthy  motive  is  attributed  to  him  (Walch,  XIX, 
295-346) .  It  meant,  as  events  proved,  in  spite  of  Lu- 
ther's tardy  and  sycophantic  apologies,  the  loss  of  Eng- 
land to  the  German  Reformation  movement  (PlancE, 
"Gesch.  des  protest.  I^hrbegriflfs",  II,  Leipzig,  1783, 
102;  Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II,  71;  Thudichum.  op.  cit., 
1, 238) .  About  this  time  he  issued  in  Latin  ana  German 
his  broadside, "  Against  the  falsely  called  spiritual  state 
of  Pope  and  Bishops",  in  which  his  vocabulary  of* 
vituperation  attains  a  height  equalled  only  ^himself, 
and  then  on  but  one  or  two  occasions.  Seemingly 
aware  of  the  incendiary  character  of  his  langua^,  he 
tauntingly  asks:  "But  they  say,  'there  is  fear  that  a 
rebellion  may  arise  against  the  spiritual  Estate'. 
Then  the  reply  is '  Is  it  just  that  souls  are  slaughtered 
eternally,  that  these  moimtebanks  mav  disport  them- 
selves quiethr '?  It  were  better  that  all  bishops  should 
be  muraered,  and  all  religious  foundations  and  monas- 
teries razed  to  the  ground,  than  that  one  soul  ediould 
Krish,  not  to  Bpe&  of  all  the  souls  ruined  by  these 
)ckheads and  manikins"  (S&mmtl.W.,XXVin,  148). 

During  his  absence  at  the  Wartbure  (3  Apr.,  1521- 
6  March,  1522)  the  storm  centre  of  the  reform  agita- 
tion veered  to  Wittenberg,  where  Carlstadt  took  up 
the  reins  of  leadership,  aided  and  abetted  by  Melanch- 
thon  and  the  Augustinian  Friars.  In  the  narrative  of 
conventional  Reformation  history  Carlstadt  is  made 
the  scapegoat  for  all  the  wild  excesses  that  swept  over 
Wittenberg  at  this  time;  even  in  more  critical  nistory 
he  is  painted  as  a  marplot,  whose  officious  meddline 
almost  wrecked  the  work  of  the  Reformation.  Still, 
in  the  hands  of  cold  scientific  Protestant  investigators, 
his  character  and  work  have  of  late  undeigone  an 
astounding  rehabilitation,  one  that  calls  for  a  re- 
appraisement  of  all  historical  values  in  which  he 
figures.  He  appears  not  only  as  a  man  of  "  extensiye 
learning,  fearless  intrepidity  .  .  .  glowing  enthusiasm 


for  the  truth  "  (Thudichum,  op.  cit.,  1, 178),  but  as  the 
actual  pathbr^dcer  for  Luther,  whom  he  anticipated 
in  some  of  his  most  salient  doctrines  and  audacious 
innovations.  Thus,  for  example,  this  new  appraisal 
establishes  the  facts:  that  as  early  as  13  April,  1517, 
he  published  his  152  theses  against  indulgences;  that 
on  21  June,  1521,  he  advocated  and  defended  the  ri^ht 
of  priests  to  many,  and  shocked  Luther  by  includmg 
monks;  that  on  22  July.  1521,  he  c^ed  for  the  re- 
moval of  all  pictures  ana  statuary  in  sanctuary  and 
church ;  that  on  13  May,  1521,  he  made  pulDlic  protest 
against  the  reservation  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  the 
elevation  of  ^e  Host,  and  denounced  the  withholding 
of  the  Chalice  from  the  laity;  that  so  early  as  1  March, 
1521,  while  Luther  was  still  in  Wittenberg,  he  in- 
veighed a^iinst  prayers  for  the  dead  and  demanded 
that  Mass  oe  said  in  the  vernacular  German  (Barge, 
"Andreas  Bodenstein  von  Karlstadt",  Leipzig,  1905, 
I-II,  passim;  Thudichum,  op.  cit.,  I,  178-83;  Bar^e, 
"  Frtthprotestant.  Gemeindechristentum '\  Leipzig, 
1909).  While  in  this  new  valuation  he  still  retains 
the  character  of  a  disputatious,  puritanical  polemist, 
erratic  in  conduct,  surly  in  manner,  irascible  in  tem- 
per, biting  in  speech,  it  invests  him  with  a  shrinking 
reluctance  to  aaopt  any  action  however  radical  with- 
out the  approval  of  the  congregation  or  its  accredited 
representatives.  In  the  lignt  of  the  same  researches, 
it  was  the  mild  and  gentle  Melanchthon  who  prodded 
on  Carlstadt  until  he  found  himself  the  vortex  of  the 
impending  disorder  and  riot.  "  We  must  begin  some- 
time ",  he  expostulates,  "  or  nothing  will  be  done.  He 
who  puts  his  hand  to  the  plough  should  not  look  back  " 
(Ba^ge,  op.  cit.,  I,  323). 

The  floodgates  once  opened,  the  deluge  followed. 
On  9  October,  1521,  thirty-nine  out  of  the  forty  Augus- 
tinian Friars  formally  declared  their  refusal  to  sav  pri- 
vate Mass  any  longer;  Zwilluig,  one  of  the  most  rabid  of 
them,  denounced  the  Mass  as  a  devilish  institution; 
Justus  Jonas  stigmatized  Masses  for  the  dead  as  sacri- 
legious pestilences  of  the  soul;  Communion  under  two 
kmds  was publidy  administered.  Thirteen  friars  (12 
Nov.)  doned  their  habits,  and  with  tumultuous 
demonstrations  fled  from  the  monastery,  with  fifteen 
more  in  their  immediate  wake;  those  remaining  loyal 
were  subjected  to  ill-treatment  and  insult  by  an  in- 
furiated rabble  1^  by  Zwilling;  mobs  prevented  the 
saying  of  Mass;  on  4  Dec.,  forty  students,  amid 
derisive  cheers,  entered  the  Franciscan  monastery  and 
demolished  the  altars;  the  windows  of  the  house  of  the 
resident  canons  were  smashed,  and  it  was  threatened 
with  pillage.  It  was  clear  that  these  excesses,  uncon- 
trolled by  the  civil  power,  unrestrained  by  the  religious 
leaders^  were  symptomatic  of  social  and  religious 
revolution.  Luther,  who  in  the  meantime  paid  a 
surreptitious  visit  to  Wittenberg  (between  4  and  9 
Dec.),  had  no  words  o£  disapproval  for  these  proceed- 


9  Dec., 'Ilpleases  me  immensely  (Enders,  op.  cit..  Ill, 
253).  The  collapse  and  disintegration  of  religious  life 
kept  on  apace.  At  a  chapter  of  Augustinian  Friars 
held  at  Wittenberg,  6  Jan.^  1522,  six  resolutions,  no 
doubt  inspired  bv  Luther  himself  (Reindell,  "  Doktor 
Wenseslaus  Linck  " .  I,  Leipzig,  1902, 162) ,  were  unani- 
mously adopted,  wnich  aimai  at  the  subversion  of 
the  whole  monastic  system:  five  days  later  the  Augus- 
tinians  removed  all  altars  but  one  from  their  church, 
and  burnt  the  pictures  and  holy  oils.  On  19  Jan., 
Carlstadt,  now  forty-one  years  of  age,  married  a  young 
giri  of  fifteen,  an  act  that  called  forth  the  hearty  en- 
dorsement of  Luther  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  II,  123);  on 
9  or  10  Feb.,  Justus  Jonas,  and  about  the  same  time 
J<^nn  Lange,  prior  of  the  Augustinian  monastery  at 
Erfurt,  followea  his  example.  On  Christmas  Day 
(1521)  Carlstadt  ."in  civilian  dress,  without  any  vest- 
ment",  ascended  the  pulpit,  preached  the  "evangeli- 


LUTBIE                             449  LUTHBB 

flal  liberty"  of  taking  Communion  under  two  kinds,  tolerated  no  rival,  brooked  no  contradiction.    Thia 

held  up  confession  and  absolution  to  derision,  and  was  constantly  in  evidence,  but  now  comes  into  ob- 

railed  against  fasting  as  an  unscriptural  imposition,  trusive  eminence  in  his  hectoring  course  pursued  to 

He  next  proceeded  to  the  altar  and  said  Mass  in  Ger-  drag  Erasmus,  whom  he  long  watched  with  jealous  eye, 

man.  omitting  all  that  refened  to  its  sacrificial  charae-  into  the  controversial  arena  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  II. 

ter,  left  out  the  Elevation  of  the  Host,  and  in  condu-  199^201,  352-353).    Erasmus,  like  all  devotees  ot 

sion  extended  a  general  invitation  to  all  to  approach  humanistic  learning,  lovers  of  peace  and  friends  of  re- 

and  receive  the  Lord's  Supper,  by  individually  taking  ligion,  was  in  full  and  accordant  sympathy  with  Luther 

the  Hosts  in  their  hands  and  drinking  from  the  Chalice,  when  he  first  sounded  the  note  of  reform  (Stichart, 

The  advent  of  the  three  Zwickau  prophets  (27  Dec),  "Erasmus  yon  Rotterdam",  Leipzig,  1870,  308-326). 

with  their  communistic  ideas,  direct  personal  commu-  But  the  bristling,  imgoverned  character  of  his  apo^ 

nicaticm  with  God,  extreme  subjectivism  in  Bible  inter-  dictic  assertions,  the  bitterness  and  brutality  of  nis 

pretation,  all  of  which  impressed  Melanchthon  forci-  ^leech,  his  alliance  with  the  conscienceless  politi(»U 

bly  (''Corp.  Ref .",  1, 513, 514,515,534;  Barge,  op.  cit.^  I,  radicalism  of  the  nation,  created  an  instinctive  repul- 

401),  only  added  fuel  to  the  already  fiercely  Dummg  sion,  which,  when  he  saw  that  the  whole  movement 

flame.    The^  came  to  consult  Lutbier,  and  with  ^ood  "  from  its  very  beginning;  was  a  national  rebellion,  a 

reason,  for  "  it  was  he  who  taught  the  universal  pnest-  mutiny  of  the  German  spirit  and  consciousness  against 

hood  of  all  Christians,  which  authorized  every  man  to  Italian  despotism"  (Thudichum,  op.  cit.,  I,  304;  Sti- 

preach;  it  was  he  who  announced  the  full  liberty  of  all  chart,  op.  cit.,  351-382)  he,  timorous  by  nature,  vacil- 


the  sacraments,  especially  baptism,  and  accordingly  lating  in  spirit,  eschewing  all  controversy,  shrinkingly 

they  were  justified  m  rejecting  infant  baptism"  (Thu-  retired  to  his  studies.    Popular  with  popes,  honoured 

dichum,  op.  cit.,  1. 220).    That  they  associated  with  by  kings,  extravagantly  extolled  by  humanists,  re- 

Carbtadt  mtimately  at  this  time  is  doubtful;  that  he  spected  h}[  Luther's  most  intimate  friends,  he  was  in 

fully  subscribed  to  their  teachings  improbable,  if  not  spite  of  ms  pronounced  rationalistic  proclivities,  hia 

impossible  (Barge,  op.  cit.,  I,  402).  withering  contempt  for  monks,  and  wnat  was  a  con- 

What  brought  Luther  in  such  hot  haste  to  Witten-  vertible  term.  Scholasticism,  unquestionably  the  fore- 
berg?  The  character  given  Carlstadt  as  an  instigator  most  man  of  learning  in  his  day.  His  satiric  writings, 
of  rebellion,  the  leader  of  the  devastating  '*  iconoclas-  which  according  to  Kant,  did  more  good  to  the  worki 
tic  movement",  has  been  found  exaggerated  and  un*  than  the  combined  speculations  of  all  metaphysicians 
true  in  spite  of  its  universal  adoption  (Barge,  op.  cit.,  and  which  in  the  minds  of  his  contemporaries  laid  the 
Ij  398-405;  ''Corp.  Ref.",  1, 545, 553;  Thudichum,  op.  egg  which  Luther  hatched — gave  him  a  great  vogue 
cit.,  Ij  193,  who  Drands  it  ''as  a  shameless  lie");  the  in  all  walks  of  life.  Such  a  man's  convictions  were 
assertion  that  Lu ther  was  requested  to  come  to  Witten-  naturally  supposed  to  run  in  the  same  channel  as 
berg  by  the  town  council  or  congregation,  is  dismissed  Luther's — and  if  his  co-operation,  in  spite  of  alluring 
as  "  untenable"  (Thudichum,  op.  cit.,  1, 197).  Nor  was  overtures,  failed  to  be  secured — his  neutrality  was  at 
he  summoned  by  the  elector, ''although  the  elector  had  all  hazards  to  be  won.  Prompted  by  Luther's  oppo* 
misgivinf^s  about  his  return,  and  inferentially  did  not  nents,  still  more  goaded  by  Luther's  militant  attitude, 
consider  it  necessary,  so  far  as  the  matter  of  bringing  if  not  formal  challenge,  he  not  only  refused  the  per- 
the  reformatory  zeal  of  the  Wittenbergers  into  the  sonal  request  to  refrain  from  all  participation  in  the 
bounds  of  moderation  was  concerned ;  he  did  not  for-  movement,  and  become  a  mere  passive  "  spectator  of 
bid  Luther  to  return,  but  expressly  permitted  it"  the  tragedj^"  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  II,  498-501;  En- 
(Thudichum,  op.  cit.,  I,  199;  Bar>Ee,  op.  cit.,  I,  435).  ders,  op.  cit.,  IV,  319-323),  but  came  before  the 
Did  perhaps  information  from  Wittenberg  portend  public  with  his  Latin  treatise  "  On  Free  Will".  In  it 
the  ascenclancy  of  Carlstadt.  or  w^as  there  cause  for  ne  would  investigate  the  testimony  afforded  by  the 
alarm  in  the  propaganda  oi  the  Zwickau  prophets  Old  and  New  Testament  as  to  man's  "  free  will' ,  and 
(Barge,  op. cit.,  1. 434-35)?  At  all  events  on  3  March,  to  establish  the  result,  that  in  spite  of  the  profound. 
Luther  on  horscoack,  in  the  costume  of  a  horseman,  thought  of  philosopher  or  searchmg  erudition  of  theo- 
with  buckled  sword,  full  grown  beard,  and  long  hair,  logian,  the  subject  is  still  enshrouded  in  obscurity^  and 
issued  from  the  Wartburg.  Before  his  arrival  at  that  its  ultimate  solution  could  only  be  looked  for  in 
Wittqnberg,  he  resumed  his  monastic  habit  and  ton-  the  fulness  of  light  diffused  by  the  Divine  Vision.  It 
sure,  and  as  a  fully  groomed  monk  he  entered  the  was  a  purely  scholastic  question  involving  philosophy 
deserted  monastery.  He  lost  no  time  in  preaching  on  cal  and  exegetioal  problems,  which  were  then,  as  they 
eight  consecutive  davs  (9-17  March)  sermons  mostly  are  now,  arguable  points  in  the  schools.  In  no  single 
in  contravention  of  Carlstadt's  innovations,  every  one  point  does  it  antagonise  Luther  in  his  war  with  Rome 
of  which,  as  is  well  known,  he  subsequentl^r  adopted.  CThudichum,  <^.  cit.,  I,  313).  The  work  received  a 
The  Lorci's  Supper  again  became  the  Mass;  It  is  sung  in  wide  circulation  and  general  acceptance.  Melandn 
Latin,  at  the  high  altar,  in  rubrical  vestments,  though  thon  writes  approvingly  of  it  to  the  author  and  Spala- 
all  allusions  to  a  sacrifice  are  expunged;  the  elevation  tin  (Corp.  Rei.,  I,  675, 673-^674).  After  the  lapse  of  a 
is  retained ;  the  Host  is  exposed  in  the  monstrance;  year  Luther  gave  his  reply  in  Latin  "  On  the  Servitude 
the  adoration  of  the  congregation  is  invited.  Com-  of  the  Will".  Luther  'never  in  his  whole  life  had  a 
muni  on  under  one  kind  is  administered  at  the  high  purely  scientific  object  in  view,  least  of  all  in  thia 
altar — but  under  two  kinds  is  allowed  at  aside  altar,  writing"  (Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II,  75).  It  consists  of 
The  sermons  characterized  by  a  moderation  seldom  "a  torrent  of  the  grossest  abuse  of  Erasmus"  (Thudi- 
found  in  Luther,  exercised  the  thrall  of  his  accustomed  chum,  op.  cit.,  I,  315;  Walch,  op.  cit.,  XVIII,  2049-* 
elociuence, — but  proved  abortive.  Popular  sentiment,  2482 — gives  it  in  German  translation), — and  evokes 
intimidate!  and  suppressed,  favoured  C-arlstadt.  The  the  lament  of  the  hounded  humanist,  that  he,  tbe 
feud  l)ctween  Luther  and  Carlstadt  was  on, — and  it  lover  of  peace  and  quiet,  must  now  turn  gladiator  and 
showed  the  former  "glaringly  in  his  most  repellent  do  battle  with  "wild  beasts"  (Stichart,  op.  cit.,  370). 
form"  (Barge,  I,  op.  cit.,  VI),  and  was  only  to  end  His  pen  portraiture  of  Luther  and  his  controversial 
when  the  latter,  exiled  and  impoverished  through  methods,  ^ven  in  his  two  rejoinders,  are  masterly,  and 
Luther's  machinations,  went  to  eternity  accompanied  even  to  this  day  find  a  general  recognition  on  the  part 
by  Luther's  customary  benediction  on  his  enemies.  of  all  unbiassed  students.     His  sententious  characteri- 

Liither  had  one  prominent  trait  of  character,  which  zation  that  where  "  Lutheranism  flourishes  the  sciences 

in  the  consensus  of  those  who  have  made  him  a  special  perish"^  that  its  adherents  then,  were  men  "with  but 

stud}^,   overshadowed  all  others.    It  was  an  over-  two  objects  at  heart,  money  and  women",  and  that 

weening  confidence  and  unbending  will,  buttressed  by  the  "  Gospel  which  relaxes  the  reins"  and  allows  eyery* 

an  inflexible  dogmatism.    He  recognized  no  superior,  one  to  do  as  he  pleases  (Epist.  1006,  London,  1901-04) 
IX.— 29 


450  LUTHSB 

Amply  proves  that  something  more  deep  than  Luther's  44;  "  S&nmitl.  W.'S  XXIV,  287-294).  His  advice  was 

contentiousness  (Stichart.  op.  cit.,  380)  made  him  an  literally  followed.     The  process  of  repression  was 

alien  to  the  movement.    Nor  did  Luther's  subsequent  frightful.    The  encounters  were  more  in  the  character 

efforts  to  re-establish  amicable  relations  with  Erasmus,  of  massacres  than  battles.   The  undisciplined  peasants 

to  which  the  latter  alludes  in  a  letter  (11  April,  1526),  wil^  their  rude  farming  Implements  as  weapons,  were 

meet  with  anything  further  than  a  curt  refusal.  slaughtered  like  cattle  in  the  shtunbles.    More  than 

The  times  were  pregnant  with  momentous  events  1000  monasteries  and  castles  were  levelled  to  the 

for  the  movement.   The  humanists  one  after  the  other  eround,  hundreds  of  villages  were  laid  in  ashes,  the 

dropped  out  of  the  fray.     Mutianus  Rufus,  Crotus  harvests  of  the  nation  destroyed,  and  100,000  killed. 

Rubianus,  Beatus  Rhenanus,  Bonifacius  Amerbach,  The  fact  that  one  commander  alone  boasted  that  **  he 

Sebastian  Brant,  Jacob  Wimpheting,  who  played  so  hanged  40  evangelical  preachers  and  executed  11,000 

prominent  apart  in  the  battle  of  the  Obscure  Men.  revolutionists  and  heretics"   (Keim,  *' Schwabische 

now  formally  returned  to  the  allegiance  of  the  Ola  Reformations  Geschichte'',  Stuttgart,  1855,  46),  and 

Church  (Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II,  68,  88).    Ulrich  Zasius,  that  history  with  hardly  a  dissentmg  voice  fastens  the 

of  Freiburg,  and  Chnstoph  Scheurl,  of  Nilmbei^,  the  origin  of  this  war  on  Luther,  fully  shows  where  its 

two  most  illustrious  jurists  of  Germany,  early  friends  source  and  responsibiUt^r  lay  (Schreckenbach,  op.  cit., 

and  supporters  of  Luther,  with  the  statesmen's  pre-  5,  44:  Thudichum,  op.  cit.,  II,  1-64;  Bezold,  ''Ucsch. 

vision  cietected  the  political  complexion  of  affairs,  der  deutsch.  Reform.",  Berlin,  1890,  447;   Maurcn- 

could  not  fail  to  notice  the  growing  relidous  anarchy,  brecher,  "Gesch.  der  kath.  Reform.",  I,  527;   See- 

and,  hearing  the  distant  nmiblings  of  the  Feasants' War,  bohm,  *'The  Protestant  Revolution",  London,  1894, 

abandoned  his  cause.   The  former  found  his  preaching  148;  Bavne,  op.  cit.,  II,  264;  Creighton,  **  Hist,  of  the 

mixed  with  deadlv  poison  for  the  German  people,  the  Papacy' ,  VI,  303-305;  Bax,  "The  Peasants'  War  in 

latter  pronounced  Wittenberg  a  sink  of  error,  a  hot-  Germany",  London,  1899,  278-279;    Beard,  "The 

house    of    heresy   (Ke^stlin-Kawerau,    I,    652-653).  Reformation",  London,  1883,  199-200;    Armstrong, 

Sickingen's  last  raid  on  the  Archbishop  of  Trier  (27  "The  Emperor  Charles  V",  I,  207,  215;  "Cambridge 

Aug.,  1522)  proved  disastrous  to  his  cause  and  fatal  to  Modem  Hist.",  II,  192-194;    Planck,  "Gesch.  des 

himself.    Deserted  by  his  confederates,  overpowered  protest.  Lehrbegriffs",   II,   176-177;  Bar^e,  "Karl- 

by  his  assailants,  his  lair — the  fastness  Landstuhl —  statt",  II,   357;    Idem,    "FrOhprotestantisches  Ge- 

f^  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  Sickingen  him-  meindechnstentum  .  .  .",  332-335). 
self  horribly  wounded  died  after  barely  signing  its        While  Germany  was  drenched  in  blood,  its  people 

capitulation  (30  Aug.,  1523).    Hutten,  forsi3cen  and  paralyzed  with  horror,  the  cry  of  the  widow  and  wail 

soutary,  in  poverty  and  neglect,  fell  a  victim  to  his  of  the  orphan  heard  throughout  the  land,  Luther  then 

protracted  debauchery  (Aug.,  1523)  at  the  early  age  of  in  his  fortynsecond  year  was  spending  his  honeymoon 

thirty-five.    The  loss  siistained  by  these  detections  withCatharine  von  Bora,  then  twenty-six  (married  13 

and  deaths  was  incalculable  for  Luther,  especially  at  June,  1525),  a  Bemardine  nun  who  had  abandoned 

one  of  the  most  critical  periods  in  German  nistoiy.  her  convent.    He  was  regaling  his  friends  with  some 

The  peasant  outbreaks,  which  in  milder  forms  were  coldblooded  witticisms  a^ut  tne  horrible  catastrophe 
previously  easily  controlled,  now  assumed  a  magnitude  (De  Wette,  op.  cit..  Ill,  1)  uttering  confessions  of  self- 
and  acuteness  that  threatened  the  national  life  of  Ger-  reproach  and  shame  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  3),  and 
many.  The  primary  causes  that  now  brought  on  the  ^ving  circimistantial  details  of  his  connubial  bliss 
predicted  and  inevitable  conflict  (Cambridge  Hist.,  II,  irreproducible  in  English  (De  Wette,  op.  cit..  Ill,  18). 
174)  were  the  excessive  luxury  and  inordinate  love  of  Melanchthon's  famous  Greek  letter  to  his  bosom  friend 
pleasure  in  all  stations  of  life,  the  lust  of  money  on  the  Camerarius,  16  June,  1525  f^'Kirsch,  "Melanchthons 
utat  of  the  nobility  and  wealthy  merchants,  the  un-  Brief  an  Camerarius",  Mainz,  1900)  on  the  subject, 
bushing  extortions  of  commercial  corporations,  the  reflected  his  personal  feelings,  which  no  doubt  were 
artificial  advance  in  prices  and  adulteration  of  the  shared  by  most  of  the  bridegroom's  sincere  friends, 
necessities  of  life,  the  decay  of  trade  and  stagnation  of  This  step,  in  conjimction  with  the  Peasants'  War, 
industiy  resulting  from  the  dissolution  of  guilds,  above  marked  the  point  of  demarcation  in  Luther's  career 
aU,  the  long  endured  oppression  and  daily  increasing  and  the  movement  he  controlled.  "The  springtide  of 
destitution  of  the  peasantry,  who  were  the  main  su^  the  Reformation,  had  lost  its  bloom.  Luther  no  lon- 
ferers  in  the  unbroken  wars  and  feuds  that  rent  aild  ger  advanced,  as  in  the  first  seven  years  of  his  acfi  vity, 
devastated  Germany  for  more  than  a  century.  A  fire  from  success  to  success  .  .  .  The  plot  of  a  complete 
of  repressed  rebellion  and  infectious  unrest  burned  overthrow  of  Roman  supremacy  m  Germany,  by  a 
throughout  the  nation.  This  smouldering  fire  Luther  torrential  popular  uprising,  proved  a  chimera '  (Haus* 
fanned  to  a  fierce  flame  by  his  turbulent  and  incen-  rath,  op.  cit.,  II,  62).  Until  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
diary  writings,  which  were  read  with  avidity  by  all,  social  revolution,  no  prince  or  ruler,  had  so  far  given 
and  by  none  more  voraciously  than  the  peasant,  who  his  formal  adhesion  to  the  new  doctrines.  Even  the 
k)okea  upon  "the  son  of  a  peasant"  not  only  as  an  Elector  Frederick  (d.  5  May,  1525),  whose  irresolution 
emancipator  from  Roman  impositions,  but  the  pre-  allowed  them  imhampered  sway,  did  not,  as  yet  sepa- 
eursor  of  social  advancement.  "  His  invectives  poured  rate  from  the  Church.  The  radically  democratic  drift 
oil  on  the  flames  of  revolt"  (Cambridge  Hist.,  II,  193).  of  Luther's  whole  agitation,  his  contemptuous  allu- 
True,  when  too  late  to  lay  the  storm  he  issued  his  "Ex-  sions  to  the  Grerman  princes,  "generally  the  biggest 
kortation  to  Peace  ",  but  it  stands  in  inexplicable  and  fools  and  worst  scoundrels  on  earth  "  (W  alch,  op.  cit., 
ineffaceable  contradiction  to  his  second,  unexampled  X,  460-464),  were  hardly  calculated  to  curry  favour  or 
blast  "  Against  the  murderous  and  robbing  rabble  of  win  allegiance.  The  reading  of  such  explosive  pro- 
Peasants".  In  this  he  entirely  changes  front, "  dipped  nouncements  as  that  of  1523  "  On  the  Secular  Power  " 
his  pen  in  blood"  (Lang,  180),  and  "calls  upon  (Walch,  op.  cit.,  XXII,  59-105)  or  his  disingenuous 
the  princes  to  slaughter  the  offending  peasants  like  "Exhortation  to  Peace"  in  1525  (Idem,  op.  cit., 
mad  dogs,  to  stab,  strangle  and  slay  as  best  one  can,  XXIV,  257-286),  especially  in  the  light  of  the  events 
and  holds  out  as  a  reward  the  promise  of  heaven.  The  which  had  just  transpired,  impressed  them  as  breath- 
few  sentences  in  which  allusions  to  sympathy  and  ing  the  spirit  of  insubordination,  if  not  insurrection. 
mercy  for  the  vanquished  are  contained,  are  relegated  Luther,  although  the  mightiest  voice  that  ever  spoke 
to  the  background.  What  an  astounding  illusion  lay  in  the  German  language,  was  a  vox  etpraterea  mhil" 
in  the  fact,  that  Luther  had  the  hardihood  to  offer  as  (Cambridge  Hist.,  II,  162),  for  it  is  acunitted  that  he 
apology  for  his  terrible  manifesto,  that  God  com-  possessed  none  of  the  constructive  qualifications  of 
manded  him  to  speak  in  such  a  strain!"  (Schracken-  statesmanship,  and  proverbially  lacked  theppidential 
bach,  "Luther  u.  der  B^uemkrieg",Qldenbuig,  1895,  attribute  of  cons&Btency.    His  championship  of  the 


LITTHXE                              451  LtJTBXB 

*' masses  seeins  to  have  been  limited  to  thoae  occasions  sterili^  which  marked  Germany  during  the  Utter 
when  he  saw  in  them  a  useful  weapon  to  hold  over  the  part  of  the  sixteenth  cefntury ''  (ibid.)»  and  just  as 
headsof  his  enemies ''(ibid.,  193).  The  tragic  failure  of  naturally  we  find  "as  many  new  Churches  as  there 
the  Peasants'  War  now  makes  him  underso  an  abrupt  were  pnndpAlities  or  republics  "  (Menzel,  op.  cit. ,  739). 
transition,  and  this  at  a  moment  when  wey  stood  m  A  tneological  event,  the  first  of  any  r^  magnitude, 
helpless  discomfiture  and  pitiful  weakness,  the  especial  that  had  a  marked  influence  in  shapmg  the  destiny  <h 
objects  of  counsel  and  sympathv  (Meniel,  **  Gescn.  der  the  reform  movement,  even  more  than  the  Peasants' 
Deutschen",  581).  He  and  Melanchthon,  now  pro-  War,  was  caused  by  tne  brooding  discontent  aroused 
claim  for  the  first  time  the  hitherto  unknown  doctrine  by  Luther's  peremptory  condemnation  and  suppres- 
of  the  unlimited  power  of  the  ruler  over  the  subject;  sioq  of  every  umovation,  doctrinal  or  disciplinary,  that 
demand  unquestioning  submission  to  authority:  was  not  in  tne  fullest  accord  with  his.  Tnis  weakness 
preach  and  formallv  teach  the  spirit  of  servility  ana  of  character  was  well-known  to  his  admirers  then,  as  it 
d^potism  (Tliudichum,  op.  cit.,  II,  60-61;  fieard,  isfully  admitted  now  (Planck,  op.  cit.,  II.  131).  Carl- 
'^  The  Reformation  ",  101).  The  object  lesson  which  stadt,  who  by  a  strange  irony,  was  forbidden  to  preach 
was  to  bring  the  enforcement  of  the  full  rigour  of  the  or  publish  in  Saxony,  from  whom  a  recantation  was 
law  to  the  attention  of  the  princes  was  the  Peasants'  forced  (Thudichum,  op.  dt.,  11^  68-69),  and  who  was 
War.  The  masses  were  to  be  laden  down  with  burdens  exiled  from  his  home  for  his  opmions — ^to  the  enforce- 
to  curb  their  refractoriness;  the  poor  man  was  to  be  ment  of  all  which  disabilities  Luther  personally  gave 
*'  forced  and  driven,  as  we  force  and  drive  pigs  or  wild  his  attention — now  contumeliously  set  them  at  de- 
cattle "  (S&mmtl.  W.,  XV,  276).  Meluichthon  found  fiance.  What  degree  of  culpability  there  was  between 
the  (Annans  such  ''a  wild,  incorrigible,  bloodthirsty  Luther  doing  the  same  with  even  greater  recklessness 
people"  (CoTD.  Ref.,  VII,  432-433)  that  their  liberties  and  audadty  while  under  the  ban  of  the  Empire, — or 
should  by  all  means  be  abridged  and  more  drastic  CarLstadt  domg  it  tentatively  while  imder  the  ban  of  a 
severity  measured  out  (Cambridge  Hist.',  II,  193).  territorial  lord,  did  not  seem  to  have  caused  any 
The  same  autocratic  power  was  not  to  be  confined  to  suspicion  of  incon^ruitv.  However,  Carlstadt  pre- 
mere  political  concerns,  but  the  "Gospel"  was  to  be-  cipitated  a  contention  that  shook  the  whole  reform 
come  the  instrument  of  the  princes  to  extend  it  into  fabric  to  its  very  centre.  The  controversy  was  the 
the  domain  of  religious  affairs.  first  decisive  conflict  that  changed  the  separatists' 
Luther  by  the  creation  of  his  "  universal  priesthood  camp  into  an  internecine  Imttleground  of  hostile  com- 
bf  all  Christians",  by  delegating  the  auuiority  "to  batants.  The  casxis  belli  was  the  doctrine  of  the 
judge  a}\  doctrines"  to  the  "Christian  assembly  or  Eucharist.  Carlstadt  in  his  two  treatises  (26  Feb.  and 
congregation",  by  empowering  it  to  appoint  or  dis-  16  March,  1525),  after  assailing  "the  new  Pope",  gave 
miss  teacher  or  preacher,  sought  the  overthrow  of  the  an  exhaustive  statement  of  his  doctrine  <^  tne  Lcra's 
old  Catholic  order.  It  did  not  strike  him,  that  to  ea-  Supper  (see  Barge,  "Karlstadt",  II,  144-296;  Thu- 
tablish  a  new Church,to  ground  an  ecclesiastical  orj^ani-  dicnum,  op.  dt.,  II,  65-68;  Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II,  198r- 
zation  on  so  precarious  and  volatile  a  basis,  was  m  its  201).  The  literal  interpretation  of  the  institutional 
very  nature  impossible  (Maurenbrecher,  "Studien  u.  woids  of  Christ  "this  is  my  body"  is  rejected,  the 
Skizzen",  334-336).  The  seeds  of  inevitable  anarchy  bodily  presence  flatly  denied.  Luther's  doctrine  of 
lay  dormant  in  such  principles.  Momentarily  this  was  consubstantiation,  that  the  body  is  in,  with,  and  under 
clear  to  himself,  when  at  this  very  time  (1525)  he  does  the  bread,  was  to  nim  devoid  of  all  Scriptural  support, 
not  hesitate  to  make  the  confession,  that  there  are  Scripture  neither  says  the  bread  "Ib"  my  body,  nor 
"  nearly  as  many  sects  as  there  are  heads"  (De  Wette,  "  in  the  bread  is  my  bodv,  in  fact  it  says  nothing 
op.  cit..  Ill,  61).  This  anarchvin  faith  was  concomit-  about  bread  whatever.  The  demonstrative  pronoun 
ant  with  the  decay  of  spiritual,  charitable,  and  educa-  "  this",  does  not  refer  to  the  bread  at  aU,  but  to  the 
tional  activities.  Of  this  we  have  a  fairly  staggering  body  of  Christ,  present  at  the  table.  When  Jesus  said 
array  of  evidence  from  Luther  himself  (BeiEird,  op.  cit.,  "  this  is  my  boay",  He  pointed  to  Himself,  and  said 
145;  "^Dollin^er,"  Die  Reformation  ",1,280-348).  The  "this  body  shall  be  offered  up,  this  blood  shall  be  shed, 
whole  situation  was  such,  that  imperative  necessity  for  you."  The  words  "  take  and  eat"  refer  to  the  prof- 
forced  the  leaders  of  the  reform  movement  to  invoke  fered  bread, — ^the  words  "  this  is  my  body"  to  the  cxxl  v 
the  aid  of  the  temporal  power.  Thus  "the  whole  of  Jesus.  He  goes  further,  and  maintains  that  "this  is' 
Reformation  was  a  triumph  of  the  temporal  power  reallymeans"  this  signifies".  Aoc(»xlingly  grace  shoukl 
over  the  spiritual.  Luther  nimself,  to  escape  anarchy,  be  sought  in  Christ  crucified,  not  in  the  sacrament, 
placed  all  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  princes"  Among  all  the  arguments  advanced  none  proved  more 
(Menzel,  op.  cit.,  623).  This  aid  was  all  tne  more  embarrassing  than  the  deictic  "this  is".  It  was  the 
readily  given,  since  there  was  placed  at  the  disposition  insistence  on  the  identical  interpretation  of  "this" 
of  the  temporal  power  the  vast  possessions  of  the  old  referring  to  the  present  Christ,  that  Luther  used  as  his 
Church,  and  only  involved  the  pledge,  to  accept  the  most  dendiing  argument  in  setting  aside  the  primacy 
new  opinions  and  introduce  them  as  a  state  or  territo-  of  the  pope  (Matt.,  xvi,  18)  at  the  Leipzig  Disputa- 
rial  religion.  The  Free  dtiea  could  not  resist  the  lure  tion  (Ldseher,  "Reformations  Acta  ,  III,  369; 
of  the  same  advances.  They  meant  the  exemption  Hausrath,  "Luthers  Leben",  II,  200).  Carlstadt's 
from  all  taxes  to  bishops  and  ecclesiastical  corpora-  writings  were  prohibited,  with  the  result  that  Saxony, 
tions,  the  alienation  of  chureh  property,  the  suspen-  as  well  as  Strasburg,  Basle,  and  now  Zurich  forbade 
sion  of  episcopal  authority,  and  its  trieinsfer  to  the  their  sale  and  drculation.  This  brought  the  leader  of 
temporal  power.  Here  we  find  the  foimdation  of  the  the  Swiss  reform  movement.  Zwingli,  into  the  fray,  as 
national  enactment  of  the  Diet  of  Au^pBburg,  1A65,  the  apologist  of  Carlstadt,  tne  advocate  of  free  speech 
"  eternally  branded  with  the  curse  of  history"  (Men-  and  unfettered  thought,  and  ipao  facto  Luther's  adver- 
zel,  op.  cit.,  615)  embodied  in  the  axiom  Cujua  ffffio,  sary. 

ejus  religiOf  the  religion  of  the  country  is  determined  'The  reform  movement  now  presented  the  speo- 
by  the  religion  of  its  ruler,  "a  foundation  which  was  tade  of  Rome's  two  most  formidable  opponents, 
but  the  consequence  of  Luther's  well-known  politics"  the  two  most  masterful  minds  and  authoritative  ex- 
(Idem,  loc.  cit.).  Freedom  of  religion  became  the  ponents  of  contemporary  separatistic  thought,  meet- 
monopoly  of  the  ruling  princes,  it  made  Geimany  ing  in  open  conflict,  with  the  Lord's  Supper  as  the 
"little  more  than  a  geographical  name,  and  a  vague  gage  of  war.  Zwingli  shared  Carlstadt's  doctrines  in 
one  withal"  (Cambridge  Hist.,  II,  142);  naturSly  the  main,  with  some  further  divergencies,  that  need  no 
"serfdom  lingered  there  longer  than  in  any  civiliied  amplification  here.  But  what  gave  a  mystic,  semi- 
country  save  Russia"  (ibid.,  191),  and  was  "one  of  inspiraticmal  importance  to  his  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
the  causes  of  the  national  weakness  and  inteUeotual  Supper,  was  the  account  he  gave  ol  V2t&&<^^«SSN5tN^^6^&^%s^ 


LUTHEE 


452 


LUTBXE 


dMibto  oonoeming  the  institutional  words  finding  their 
restful  solution  in  a  dream.  Unlike  Luther  at  the 
Wartburg,  he  did  not  remember  whether  this  appari- 
tion was  in  black  or  white  [Monitor  iste  ater  an  aUma 
fiierit  nikU  memini  (P4anck,  op.  cit.,  II,  256)].  Whether 
Xutber  followed  his  own  custom  of  never  reading 
tiirough  "  the  books  that  the  enemies  of  truth  have 
written  against  me"  (Morikofer,  ''Ulrich  Zwingli". 
n,  Leipzig,  1869,  205),  whether  there  was  a  tinge  of 
jealousy  "  that  the  Swiss  were  anxious  to  be  the  most 
prominent''  in  the  reform  movement,  the  mere  fact 
that  Zwingli  was  a  confederate  of  Carlstadt  and  had 
an  unfortunately  dubious  dream,  afforded  subject 
matter  enough  for  Luther  to  displav  his  accustomed 
dialectic  methods  at  their  best.  A  "scientific  dis- 
cussion was  not  to  be  conducted  with  Luther^  since  he 
attributed  every  disagreement  with  his  doctnne  to  the 
devil"  (Hausrath).  This  poisoned  the  controversy  at 
its  source,  because,  ''with  the  devil  he  would  make  no 
truce"  (Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II,  188-223).  That  the 
^es  of  the  masses  were  turning  from  Wittenberg  to 
Zurich,  was  only  confirmatory  evidence  of  devilish 
delusion.  Luther's  replies  to  Zwingli 's  unorthodox 
private  letter  to  Alber  (16  Nov.,  1524)  and  his  nettling 
treatises  came  in  1527  (Walch,  op.  cit.,  XX,  950-1118) 
and  1528  (Idem,  op.  cit.,  1118-1386).  They  showed 
that  ''the  injustice  and  barbarity  of  his  polemics" 
(Hiumack,  "Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengeschicnte",  III, 
Freiburg,  1890,  733)  was  not  reserved  for  the  pope, 
monks,  or  religious  vows.  "In  causticity  and  con- 
tempt of  his  opponent  [they]  surpassed  aU  he  had  ever 
written", "  they  were  the  utterances  of  a  sick  man,  who 
had  lost  all  self-control".  The  politics  of  Satan  and 
the  artful  machinations  of  the  Prince  of  Evil  are 
traced  in  a  chronological  order  from  the  heretical  in- 
cursions into  the  primitive  Chureh  to  Carlstadt,  (Eco- 
lampadius,  and  Zwingli.  It  was  these  three  satanic 
agencies  that  raised  the  issue  of  the  Lord's  Supper  to 
frustrate  the  work  of  the  "  recovered  Gospel' .  The 
professions  of  love  and  peace  held  out  by  the  Swiss,  he 
curses  to  the  pit  of  hell,  for  they  are  patricides  and 
matricides.  '^Furious  the  reply  can  no  longer  be 
called,  it  is  disgraceful  in  the  manner  in  which  it  drags 
the  holiest  representations  of  his  opponents  throu^ 
the  mire."  Indiscriminate  and  opprobrious  epithets 
of  pig,  dog,  fanatic,  senseless  ass, "  go  to  your  pigsty  and 
lollin  your  filth"  ("Sftmmtl.  W/',XXX,  68;  Hausrath, 
op.  cit.,  II,  218;  Thudichum,  op.  cit.,  II,  79;  Lange, 
''M.  Luther",  216-249)  are  some  of  the  polemical 
coruscations  that  illuminate  this  reply.  Yet,  in  few 
of  his  polemical  writings  do  we  find  more  conspicuous 
glimpses  of  a  soimdness  of  theological  knowledge, 
appositeness  of  illustration^  familiarity  with  the 
Fathers,  reverence  for  tradition — remnants  of  his  old 
training — than  in  this  document,  which  caused  sorrow 
and  consternation  throughout  the  whole  reform  camp. 
I'The  hand  which  had  pulled  down  the  Roman  Chureh 
in  Germany  made  the  first  rent  in  the  Chureh  which 
was  to  take  its  place"  (Cambridge  History,  II,  209). 

The  attempt  made  by  the  Landgrave  Philip,  to 
bring  the  contending  forces  together  and  effect  a 
compromise  at  the  Marburg  Colloquy,  1-3  Oct.,  1529 
(Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II,  229-256;  Sohirrmacher, "  Briefe 
u.  Acten  .  .  .  Religiongespr&che  zu  Marburg",  Gotha, 
1876;  M6rikofer, "  Zwingfi",  II,  226-246)  was  doomed 
to  failure  before  its  convocation.  Luther's  iron  will 
refused  to  ^eld  to  any  concession,  his  parting  sahitti/- 
ti<xi  to  Zwingli,  "your  spirit  is  not  our  spirit"  (De 
Wette,  op.  cit.,  IV,  28)  left  no  further  hope  of  negotia- 
tions^  and  the  brand  he  aflixed  on  this  antagonist  and 
his  disciples  as  "  not  only  liars,  but  the  very  incarna- 
tion of  lying,  deceit,  and  hjrpocrisy"  (Idem,  op.  cit.) 
dosed  the  opening  chapter  of  a  possible  reunion. 
Zwingli  returned  to  Zunch  to  meet  his  death  on  the 
battlefield  of  Kappel  (11  October,  1531).  The  dam- 
nation Luther  meted  out  to  him  in  life  "  accompanied 
his  hated  rival  also  in  death"  (Mdrikofer,  op.  dt.,  11, 


420;  Mensel,  II,  420).  The  next  union  of  the  two  re« 
form  wings  was  when  they  became  brothers  in  arms 
against  Rome  in  the  Thirty  Years  War. 

While  occupied  with  his  manifold  pressing  duties, 
all  of  them  performed  with  indefatigable  zeal  and  con- 
suming energy,  alarmed  at  the  excesses  attending  the 
upheaval  of  social  and  ecclesiastical  fife,  his  reform 
movement  generally  viewed  from  its  more  destructive 
side,  he  did  not  neglect  the  constructive  elements  de- 
signed to  give  cohesion  and  permanency  to  his  task. 
These  again  showed  his  intuitional  apprehension  of 
the  racial  susceptibilities  of  the  people  and  his  oppor- 
tune political  sagacity  in  enlistmg  the  forces  of  the 
princes.  His  appeal  for  schools  and  education  ("  An 
die  Bargermeister  und  Rathsherren",  1524;  "S^m- 
mtl.  W.'\  XXIV,  168-199)  was  to  counteract  the  in- 
tellectual chaos  created  by  the  suppression  and  deser- 
tion of  the  monastic  and  chureh  schools  (*Schulmann, 
"Die  Volksschule  vor  und  nach  Luther",  Trier,  1903; 
♦DdlUnger,  "Die  Ref.",  I,  425^49);  his  invitation  to 
the  congregation  to  sing  in  the  vernacular  German  in 
the  liturgical  services  ("SammlunggeistlicherGesftnge 
u.  Psahnen",  1524;  '^Sftmmtl.  W.",  LVI,  291-366) 
in  spite  of  the  record  of  more  thafi  1400  vernacular 
hymns  before  the  Reformation  (Wackemagel,  "Das 
deutsche  Kirchenlied",  Leipzig,  1867,  II,  1-1168) 
proved  a  masterstroke  and  gave  him  a  most  potent 
adjimct  to  his  preaching;  the  Latin  Mass,  which  he  re- 
tamed,  more  to  chagrin  Carlstadt  (Lang,  151)  than  for 
any  otner  accountable  reason,  he  now  abandoned,  with 
many  excisions  and  modifications  for  the  German 
("Deutsche  Messe  u.  Ordnungdes  Gotteadienstes",  1526; 
"Sftmmtl.  W.",.XXII,  226-244).  Still  more  impor- 
tant and  far-reaching  was  the  plan  which  Melanchthon, 
under  his  supervision,  drew  up  to  supply  a  workable 
regulative  machinery  for  the  new  Church  ("Unter- 
rioht  der  Visitatoren  u.  die  Pfarrherren  im  Kurfiirst- 
lichen  Sachsen",  1527).  To  introduce  this  effectively 
"  the  evangelical  princes  with  their  territorial  powera 
stept  in"  (Kastlin-Kawerau,  op.  cit.,  II,  24).  The 
Elector  of  Saxony  especially  showed  a  disposition  to 
act  in  a  summary,  drastic  manner,  which  met  with 
Luther's  full  approval.  "  Not  only  were  priests,  who 
would  not  conform,  to  lose  their  benefices,  but  recalci- 
trant laymen,  who  after  instruction  were  still  obsti- 
nate, had  a  time  allowed  within  which  they  were  to  sell 
their  property  and  then  leave  the  country"  (Beard, 
op.  cit.,  177).  The  civil  power  was  invoked  to  decide 
controversies  among  preachers,  and  to  put  down 
theological  discussion  with  the  secular  arm  (Corp. 
Ref«  1, 819).  The  publication  of  a  popular  catechism 
[" Kleiner  Katechismus",  1529(Sammtl.  W.,XXI,5- 
25);  "Grosser  Katechismus"^  1529  (op.  cit., 20-155)] 
in  simple  idiomatic,  colloquial  German,  had  an  in- 
fluence, in  spite  of  the  many  Catholic  catecnetical  works 
already  in  existence  ('^'Moufang,  "  Katholische  Kathe- 
chismen  des  Sechzehnten  Jahrhunderts  in  deutscher 
Sprache",  Maims,  1881;  ♦Janssen,  op.  cit.,  I,  42-52) 
iD&t  can  hardly  be  over-estimated. 

The  menacing  religious  war,  between  the  adherents 
of  the  "  Gospel"  and  the  fictitious  Catholic  League  (15 
May,  Breslau),  ostensibly  formed  to  exterminate  the 
Protestants,  which  with  a  suspicious  precipitancy  on 
the  part  of  its  leader,  Landgrave  Philip,  had  actually 
gone  to  a  formal  declaration  of  war  (15  May,  1528), 
was  fortunately  averted.  It  proved  to  be  based  on  a 
rather  clumsily  forged  document  of  Otto  von  Pack,  a 
member  of  Duke  George's  chancery.  Luther,  who 
first  shrank  from  war  and  counselled  peace,  by  one  of 
those  characteristic  reactions  "now  that  peace  had 
been  established,  began  a  war  in  real  earnest  about  the 
League"  (Planck,  op.  cit.,  II,  434)  in  whose  existence, 
in  spite  of  unquestionable  exposure,  he  still  firmly  be- 
lieved (* Janssen,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  128-130,  note). 

The  Diet  of  Spe/er  ^1  Feb.-22  April,  1529),  pre- 
sided over  by  Kmg  Ferdinand,  as  the  emperor's 
deputy,  like  that  held  in  the  same  city  three  years 


453 


LXJTBBB 


•arlier,  aimed  at  a  religious  compromise.  The  two 
"Propositions"  or  "Instructions  (Waldi,  op.  oit., 
XVI,  31^-323)  submitted,  were  expected  to  accom- 
plish this.  Tbe  decree  allowed  the  Lutheran  Estates 
the  practice  and  reform  of  the  new  religion  within 
their  territorial  boundaries,  but  claimed  the  same 
rights  for  those  who  should  continue  to  adhere  to  the 
Catholic  Church.  Melanchthon  expressed  his  satisfac- 
tion with  this  and  declared  that  tney  would  work  no 
hardship  for  them,  but  even  "protect  us  more  than  the 
decrees  of  the  earUer  Diet"  (opeyer,  1526;  Corp.  Ref., 
I,  1059).  But  an  acceptance,  much  less  an  effective 
submission  to  the  decrees,  was  not  to  be  entertained 
at  this  juncture,  and  five  princes  most  affected,  on  19 
April,  handed  in  a  protestation  which  Melanchthon  in 
alarm  called  "a  terrible  affair"  (Corp.  Ref.,  1, 1060). 
This  protest  has  become  historic,  since  it  gave  the 
specific  nomenclature  Protestant  to  the  whole  opposi- 
tional movement  to  the  Catholic  Church.  "  The  Diet 
of  Speyer  inaugurates  the  actual  division  of  the  Ger- 
man Nation"  (^Janssen,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  51). 

In  spite  of  the  successful  Hungarian  invasion  of  the 
Turks,  political  affairs,  by  the  reconciliation  of  pope 
and  emperor  (Barcelona,  29  June,  1529) ,  the  peace  with 
Francis  I  (Cambrai,  5  Aug.,  1529),  shaped  tnemselves 
so  happily,  that  Charles  V  was  crowned  emperor  by 
his  wnilom  enem^^,  Clement  VII  (Bologna,  24  Feb., 
1 530) .  However,  in  Germany,  affairs  were  still  irritant 
and  menacing.  To  the  hostility  of  Catholics  and  Prot- 
estants was  now  added  the  acrimonious  quarrel  be- 
tween the  latter  and  the  Zwin^ians;  the  late  Diet  of 
Speyer  was  inoperative^  practically  a  dead  letter,  the 
Protestant  princes  pnvily  and  publicly  showed  a 
spirit  that  was  not  far  removed  from  open  rebellion. 
Charles  again  sought  to  bring  about  religious  peace 
and  harmony  by  taking  tl^  tangled  skein  into  his  own 
hands.  He  accordingly  summoned  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg, which  assembled  in  1530  (8  April-19  November), 
presided  over  it  in  person,  arranged  to  have  the  disaf- 
fected religious  parties  meet,  calmly  discuss  and  sub- 
mit their  differences,  and  by  a  compromise  or  arbitra- 
tion, re-establish  peace.  Luther  being  under  the  ban 
of  the  Empire,  for  "certain  reasons"  (De  Wette,  op. 
cit.,  Ill,  368)  did  not  make  his  appearance,  but  was 
harboured  in  the  fortress  of  Coburg,  about  four  days 
journey  distant.  Here  he  was  in  constant  touch  and 
confidential  relations  with  Melanchthon  and  other 
Protestant  leaders.  It  was  Melanchthon  who.  under 
the  dominant  influence  of  Luther  and  availing  himself 
of  the  previously  accepted  Articles  of  Marburg  (5  Oct., 
1529),  Schwabach  (16  Oct.,  1529),  Torgau  (20  March, 
1530),  and  the  Lar^  Catechism,  drew  up  the  first 
authoritative  profession  of  the  Lutneran  Church.  This 
religious  charter  was  the  Au^burg  Confession  (Cotj/ss- 
810  Avgustana^y  the  symbolical  book  of  Lutheranism. 

In  its  original  form  it  met  with  Luther's  full 
endorsement  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  IV,  17).  It  consists 
of  an  introduction,  or  preamble,  and  is  in  two  parts. 
The  first',  consisting  of  twenty-one  Articles,  gives  an 
exposition  of  the  principal  doctrines  of  the  Protestant 
creed,  and  aims  at  an  amicable  adjustment;  the  sec- 
ond, consisting  of  seven  Articles,  deals  with  "  abuses", 
and  concerning  these  there  is  a  "difference".  The 
Confession  as  a  whole  is  irenic  ((>orp.  Ref.,  II,  122) 
and  is  more  of  an  invitation  to  union  than  a  provoca- 
tion to  disunion.  Its  tone  is  dignified,  moderate,  uid 
pacific.  But  it  allows  its  insinuating  coooessions  to 
carry  it  so  far  into  the  boundaries  of  the  vague  and 
indefinite  as  to  leave  a  lurking  suspicion  of  artifice. 
Doctrinal  differences,  fundamental  and  irreconcilable, 
are  pared  down  or  slurred  over  to  an  almost  irreducible 
degree  (Hamack,  "  Dogmengesch.",  Ill,  584-585; 
Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II,  273-274;  Ranke,  op.  dt.,  Ill, 
244-245;  ♦Ddllinger,  "Die  Reform.",  Ill,  277-296). 
No  one  was  better  qualified  by  temper  or  training  to 
clothe  the  blunt,  apodictic  phraseology  of  Luther  in 
the  engaging  vesture  of  truth  than  MelanohthoQ.  The 


Articles  on  original  fin,  justification  b}[  faith  alooe. 
and  free  will — ^though  perplexinglv  sinoilar  in  sound 
and  terminology,  lack  the  ring  of  the  true  Catholic 
metal.  Again,  many  of  the  conceded  points,  some  of 
them  of  a  surprising  and  startling  cnaracter,  even 
abstracting  from  their  suspected  ambiguity,  were  in 
such  diametric  conflict  with  the  past  teaching  and 
preaching  of  the  petitioners,  even  m  contradiction  to 
their  written  and  oral  communications  passing  at  the 
veiy  moment  of  deliberation,  as  to  cast  suspicion  on 
the  whole  work.  That  these  suspicions  were  not  un- 
founded was  ampler  proved  by  tne  aftermath  of  the 
Diet.  The  correction  of  the  so-called  abuses  dealt 
with  in  Part  II  under  the  headings:  Communion 
under  both  kinds,  the  marriage' of  priests,  the  Mass,  * 
compulsory  confession,  distinction  ot  meats  and  tradi- 
tion^ monastic  vows,  and  the  authority  of  bishops,  for 
obvious  reasons,  was  not  entertain^,  much  less  agreed 
to.  Melanchth(Hi's  advances  for  still  further  conces- 
sions were  promptly  and  peremptorily  rejected  by  Lu- 
ther (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  IV,  52, 54) .  The  ^*  Confession  " 
was  read  at  a  public  session  of  the  Diet  (25  June)  in 
German  and  liitin,  was  handed  to  the  emperor,  who 
in  turn  submitted  it  to  twenty  Catholic  theologians, 
including  Luther^s  old  antagonists  £ck,  Cochlsus, 
Usingen,  and  Wimpina,  for  examination  and  ref uta- 
tion.  The  first  reply,  on  account  of  its  prolixity,  and 
bitter  and  irritating  tone,  was  guickly  rejected,  nor 
did  the  emperor  allow  the  "  Confutation  of  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  "  to  be  read  before  the  Diet  (3  Aug.) 
imtfi  it  had  been  pruned  and  softened  down  by  no  kos 
than  five  revisions.  Melanchthon's  "  Apology  for  the 
Augsburg  Confession",  which  was  in  the  nature  of  a 
reply  to  the  "Confutation",  and  which  passes  as  of 
equal  official  authority  as  the  "Confession"  itself 
("Realencyclqp.  Protest.  Theol.  u.  Kirche",  Leipzig, 
1897,  II,  249 ;  Winckehnann,  "Der  Schmalkald.  Bund  ", 
Strasburg,  1892,  197-204),  was  not  accepted  by  the 
emperor.  All  further  attempts  at  a  favourable  out- 
come proving  unavailing,  the  imperial  edict  condemn- 
ing the  Protestant  contention  was  published  (22  Sept.). 
It  allowed  the  leaders  until  15  April,  1532,  for  recon- 
sideration (Kolde.  "Die  Augsburg.  Konfession", 
Gotha,  1896;  Plitt,  "Einleitung  ...  die  Augus- 
tana  ",  Erlangen,  1867 ;  ROckert,  "  Luthers  Verhiiltniss 
8.  Augsb.  Bekentniss",  Jena,  1854 ;  Hcppe,  "  Die  Kon- 
fess.  Entwickol.  der  altprot.  Kirch.  Deutschlands ", 
Marburg,  1854;  Kalinich,  "Luther  u.  die  Augsb. 
Konfession",  Leipzig,  1861;  Knaake,  "Luthers  An- 
theil  .  .  .  der  Au^.  Konfession",  Berlin,  1863; 
*Pastor, "  Die  kirchuche  Reunionsbestreb. ",  Freiburg, 
1879,  17-90;  Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II,  257-332;  Thudi- 
chum,  op.  cit.,  II,  315-333;  ^Janssen,  op. cit.,  Ill,  173- 
220;  Schaff,  "Creeds  of  Christendom",  I-III,  New 
York,  1887;  "Cambridge  Hist.",  II,  211-224;  Arm- 
strong, op.  cit.,  I,  232-259). 

The  recess  was  read  (13  Oct.)  to  the  Catholic 
Estates,  who  at  the  same  time  formed  the  Catholic 
League.  To  the  Protestants  it  was  read  11  Nov.,  who 
rejected  it  and  formed  the  Smalkaldic  League  (29 
March,  1531),  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  of 
all  Lutherans.  The  Zwinglians  were  not  admitted. 
Luther,  who  returned  to  Wittenberg  in  a  state  of  great 
irritation  at  the  outcome  of  the  Diet,  was  now  invoked 
to  prepare  the  public  mind  for  the  position  assumed  by 
the  princes,  wnich  at  first  blush  looked  suspiciously 
like  downright  rebellion.  He  did  this  in  one  of  his 
paroxysmal  rages,  one  of  those  ruthless  outpourings 
when  calm  deliberation,  religious  charitv,  politick 
prudence^  social  amenities  are  openly  and  flagrantly 
set  at  denance.  The  three  popular  publications  were: 
"Warning  to  his  dear  German  People"  (Walch,  op. 
cit..  XVI,  1950-2016),  "Glosses  on  the  putative  Im- 
perial Edict"  (Idem,  op.  cit.,  2017-2062),  and,  far 
outstripping  these,  "Letter  against  the  Assassin  at 
Dresden"  (Idem,  op.  cit.,  2062-2086),  which  his  chief 
biographer  characterises  as  "  onft  ^  ^»Vfc  ^aa>5Ji^  ^mm-^^^ 


LDTHSR 


454 


LDTHSR 


and  Tiolent  of  his  writines"  (Ktetlin-Kaweraii,  op. 
oit.,  II,  252).  All  of  them,  particularly  the  last,  indis- 
putably established  his  controversial  methods  as  being 
^'literally  and  wholly  without  decorum,  conscience, 
taste  or  fear"  (Mosley/' Historical  Essays",  London, 
1892,  I,  375-378).  His  mad  onslau^t  on  Duke 
George  of  Saxony,  "the  Assassin  of  Dresden",  whom 
history  proclaims  ''the  most  honest  and  consistent 
character  of  his  age"  (Armstrong,  op.  cit.,  I,  325), 
"  one  of  the  most  estimable  Princes  of  nis  age  "  (Cam- 
bridge Hist.,  II,  237),  was  a  source  of  mortification  to 
his  friends,  a  shock  to  the  sensibilities  of  every  honest 
man,  and  has  since  kept  his  apologists  busy  at  vain 
attempts  at  vindication.  The  projected  alliance  with 
Francis  I,  Charles's  deadly  enemy,  met  with  favour. 
Its  patriotic  aspects  need  not  be  dwelt  upon.  Henrv 
VIII  of  England,  who  was  now  deeply  concerned  with 
the  proceedings  of  his  divorce  trom  Catharine  of 
Anigon,  was  approached  less  successfully  (Gairdner, 
"Lollaniy  and  the  Reform,  in  England",  London, 
1008,  I,  315-316).  The  opinion  about  the  divorce, 
asked  from  the  universities,  also  reached  that  of  Wit- 
tenberg, where  Robert  Barnes,  an  English  Augustinian 
friar  who  had  deserted  his  monastery,  brought  every 
influence  to  bear  to  make  it  favourable.  The  opinion 
was  enthusiastically  endorsed  by  Melanchthon  (Corp. 
Ref.,  II,  520,  552),  Osiander,  and  (Ecolampadius. 
Luther  also  in  an  exhaustive  brief  maintained  that 
''before  he  would  permit  a  divorce,  he  would  rather 
that  the  king  took  unto  himself  another  queen  "  (De 
Wette,  op.  cit.,  IV,  296).  However,  the  memorable 
theological  passage  at  arms  the  kin^  had  had  with 
Luther,  the  latter's  subsequent  cringmg  apology,  left 
such  a  feeling  of  aversion,  if  not  contempt,  in  the  soul 
of  his  rival  reformer,  that  the  invitation  was  to  all 
Intents  ignored.  ^ 

In  the  beginning  of  1534,  Luther  after  twelve  years 
of  intermittent  labour,  completed  and  published  m  six 
parts  his  German  tnmslation  of  the  entire  Bible. 

For  years  the  matter  of  a  general  council  had  been 
agitated  in  ecclesiastical  circles.  Charles  V  constantly 
appealed  for  it,  the  Augsburg  Confession  emphatically 
demanded  it,  and  now  the  accession  of  Paul  III  (13 
Oct.,  1534),  who  succeeded  Clement  VII  (d.  25  Sept., 
1534),  gave  the  movement  an  impetus,  that  for  once 
made  it  loom  up  as  a  realizable  accomplishment.  The 
pope  sanctioned  it,  on  condition  that  the  Protestants 
would  abide  by  its  decisions  and  submit  their  credenda 
in  concise,  intelligible  form.  With  a  view  of  ascertain- 
ing the  tone  of  feeling  at  the  German  Courts,  he  sent 
Vergerius  there  as  legate.  He,  in  order  to  make  the 
study  of  the  situation  as  thorough  as  possible,  did  not 
hesitate,  while  passing  through  Wittenberg  on  his  way 
to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  to  meet  Luther  in  per- 
son (7  Nov.,  1535).  His  description  of  the  jauntilv 
groomed  reformer  "  in  holiday  attire,  in  a  vest  of  dark 
oalmet,  sleeves  with  gaudy  atlas  cuffs  .  .  .  coat  of 
serge  lined  with  fox  pelts  .  .  .  several  rings  on  his 
fingers,  a  massive  gold  chain  about  his  neck  "  (KOstlin- 
Kawerau,  op.  cit.,  II,  370-376;  Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II, 
665),  shows  him  in  a  somewhat  unusual  Kght.  The 
presence  of  the  man  who  would  reform  the  ancient 
Church  decked  out  in  so  foppish  a  manner,  made  an 
impression  on  the  mind  of  tne  legate  that  can  readily 
be  conjectured .  Aware  of  Luther's  disputatious  cluiiv 
acter,  he  dexterously  escaped  discussion,  by  disclaim- 
ing all  profound  knowledge  of  theology^  and  diverted 
the  interview  into  the  commonplace.  Luther  treated 
the  interview  as  a  comedy,  a  view  no  doubt  more 
fully  shared  b^r  the  keen-witted  Italian  (Sixt. "  Petnis 
Paulus  Vergerius",  Brunswick,  1855,  36-45). 

The  question  was  raised  as  to  what  participation  the 
Protestants  should  assume  in  the  council,  which  had 
been  announced  to  meet  at  Mantua.  After  consider- 
able discussion  Luther  was  commissioned  to  draw  up  a 
document,  giving  a  summary  of  their  doctrines  and 
cspjnions.    This  he  did,  after  which  the  report  was  sub- 


mitted to  the  favourable  consideration  of  the  elector 
and  a  specially  appointed  body  of  theologians.  It 
contained  the  Articles  of  Smalkald  (1537;  Walch, 
op.  cit.,  XVI,  2326-2390)  ''a  real  oppositional  record 
against  the  Roman  Church"  (Guericke),  eventually 
incorporated  in  the  ''Concordienformel"  and  accepted 
as  a  symbolical  book.  It  is  on  the  whole  such  a 
brusque  rejection  and  coarse  philippic  against  the 

S»pe  as  "Antichrist ",  that  we  need  not  marvel  that 
elanchthon  shrank  from   affixing  his  unqualified 
signature  to  it  (Walch,  op.  cit.,  XVI,  2366). 

Luther's  serious  illness  during  the  Smalkaldic  Con- 
vention, threatened  a  fatal  termination  to  his  activi- 
ties, but  the  prospect  of  death  in  no  way  seemed  to 
mellow  his  feelings  towards  the  papacy.  It  was  when 
supposedly  on  the  brink  of  eternity  (24  Feb.,  1537) 
that  he  expressed  the  desire  to  one  of  the  elector's 
chamberlains  to  have  his  epitaph  written:  "Pestis 
eram  vivus,  moriens  ero  mors  tua.  Papa"  Hiving  I  was 
a  pest  to  thee,  O  Pope,  dying  I  will  bo  thy  death  (Kost- 
Un-Kawerau,  op.  cit.,  II,  389)].  True,  the  historicity 
of  this  epitaph  is  not  in  chronological  a^precment  with 
the  narrative  of  Mathesius,  who  maintains  he  heard  it 
in  the  house  of  Spalatin,  9  Jan.,  1531  (Kostlin-Kawe- 
rau,  op.  cit.,  II,  244),  or  with  the  identical  words  found 
in  his  '^  Address  to  the  Clergy  assembled  at  the  Augs- 
burg Diet"  (7  Jan.,  1530;  "  Skmmtl.  W.",  XXIV,  369), 
in  which  he  hurled  back  the  gibes  flung  at  the  priests 
who  had  enrolled  under  his  banner  and  married. 
Nevertheless  it  is  in  full  consonance  with  the  parting 
b^iediction  the  invalid  gave  from  his  wagon  to  his 
assembled  friends  when  about  to  start  on  his  home- 
ward journey:  "May  the  Lord  fill  you  with  His  bless- 
ings and  with  hatred  of  the  pope''  (Kostlin-Kawerau, 
op.  cit.,  II, 390),  and  the  veroatim  sentiments  chalked 
on  the  wall  of  his  chamber,  the  ni^ht  before  his  death 
(Ratseberger, "Luther  u.  seine  Zeit'',  Jena,  1850, 137) . 
Needless  to  add,  the  Protestant  Estates  refused  the 
invitation  to  the  coimcil,  and  herein  we  have  the  first 
public  and  positive  renunciation  of  the  papacv. 

"  What  Luther  claimed  for  himself  against  Catholic 
authority,  he  refused  to  Carlstadt  and  refused  to 
Zwingli.  He  failed  to  see  that  their  position  was 
exactly  as  his  own,  with  a  difference  of  result,  which 
indeed  was  all  the  difiference  in  the  world  to  him" 
(Tulloch,  "Leaders  of  the  Reformation",  Edinburgh 
and  London,  1883,  171).  This  was  never  more  mani- 
fest than  in  the  interminable  SSacramentarian  warfare. 
Bucer,  on  whom  the  weight  of  leadership  fell,  after 
Zwingli's  death,  which  was  followed  shortly  by  that  of 
(Ecolampadius  (24  Nov.,  1531),  was  unremitting  m 
bringing  about  a  reunion,  or  at  least  an  understanding 
on  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  main  point  of  cleavage  be- 
tween the  Swiss  and  German  Protestants.  Not  only 
religiously,  but  politically,  would  this  mean  a  step  to- 
waras  the  progress  of  Zwinglianism.  At  its  formation 
tiie  Swiss  Protestants  were  not  admitted  to  the 
Smalkaldic  League  (29  March,  1531);  its  term  of  six 
years  was  about  to  expire  (29  March,  1537)  and  they 
now  renewed  their  overtures.  Luther,  who  all  the 
time  could  not  conceal  his  opposition  to  the  Zwing- 
lians  (Hausrath.  op.  cit.,  II,  353-363;  De  Wette,  op. 
cit.,  IV,  207-208,  222-223,  224,  235-236).  even  going 
to  the  extent  of  directing  and  begging  Duke  Albrccht 
of  Prussia,  not  to  tolerate  any  of  Munzer's  or  Zwingli 's 
adherents  in  his  territory  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  IV.  349), 
finally  yielded  to  the  assembling  of  a  peace  conference. 
Knowing  their  predicament,  he  used  the  covert  threat 
of  an  exclusion  from  the  league  as  a  persuasive  to 
chrive  them  to  the  acceptance  of  his  views  (Thudichum, 
op.  cit.,  II,  485).  This  conference  which,  owing  to  his 
sickness,  was  held  in  his  own  house  at  Wittenberg,  was 
attended  by  eleven  theologians  of  Zwinglian  proclivi- 
ties and  seven  Lutherans.  It  resulted  in  the  theolog- 
ical compromise,  reunion  it  can  hardly  be  called, 
known  as  the  Concord  of  Wittenberg  (21-29  Mav, 
1636;  Walch,  op.  cit.,  XVII,  2629-2532).    The  re- 


455 


monstrants,  technically  waiving  the  points  of  differ- 
ence, Bubecribed  to  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  infant  baptism,  and  absolution.  That  the 
Zwinglian  theologians  *'who  subscribed  to  the  Con- 
cord and  declared  its  contents  true  and  Scriptural, 
dropped  their  former  convictions  and  were  trans- 
formed into  devqut  Lutherans,  no  one  who  was  ac- 
ouainted  with  these  men  more  intimately'  can  believe" 
(rhudichum,  op.  cit.,  II,  489).  They  simply  vielded 
to  the  unbending  determination  of  Luther,  ana  "sub- 
scribed to  escape  the  hostility  of  the  Elector  John 
Frederick  who  was  absolutelv  Luther's  creature,  and 
not  to  forfeit  the  protection  of  the  Smalkaldic  League; 
they  submitted  to  the  inevitable  to  escape  still  ereater 
dangers"  (Idem,  op.  cit.).  As  for  Luther,  the  poor, 
wretohed  Concord"  as  he  desiniates  it,  received  nttle 
recognition  from  him.  In  1539,  he  coupled  the  names 
of  Nestorius  and  Zwingli  (Sftmmtl.  W.,  XXV,  314)  in 
a  way  that  gave  deep  offence  at  Zurich  (Kolde,  **  Aiia- 
lecta^',  344).  At  Wittenberg,  Zwingli  and  (Ecolam- 
padius  beca^me  convertible  terms  for  heretics  (Sfimmtl. 
W.,  XXXV,  46),  and  with  Luther's  taunting  remark 
that ' '  he  would  pray  and  teach  against  them  until  the 
end  of  his  days'^  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  V,  687),  the  rup- 
ture was  again  completed. 

The  internal  controversies  of  the  Lutheran  Church, 
which  were  to  shatter  its  disjointed  imity  with  the 
force  of  an  explosive  eruption  after  his  death,  and 
which  now  only  his  daimtless  courage,  powerful  will, 
and  imperious  personality  held  witmn  the  limits  of 
murmuring  restraint,  were  cropping  out  on  all  sides, 
found  their  way  into  Wittenberg,  and  affected  even 
his  bosom  friends.  Though  unity  was  out  of  the 
question,  an  appearance  of  uniformity  had  at  all 
hazards  to  be  maintained.  Cordatus,  Schenck,  Agri- 
cola,  all  veterans  in  the  cause  of  reform,  lapsed  into  doc- 
trinal aberrations  that  caused  him  much  uneasiness. 
The  fact  that  Melanchthon,  his  most  devoted  and  loyal 
friend,  was  under  a  cloud  of  suspicion  for  enterts^- 
ing  heterodox  views,  though  not  as  yet  fully  shared  by 
him,  caused  him  no  little  irritation  and  sorrow  (Kostr- 
lin-Kawerau,  op.  cit.  II,  445-473).  But  all  these 
domestic  broils  were  trivial  and  lost  sight  of,  when 
compared  to  one  of  the  most  critical  problems  that 
thus  far  confronted  the  new  Church,  which  was  sud- 
denly sprung  upon  its  leaders,  focussing  more  espe- 
cially on  its  nierophant.  This  was  the  double  mar- 
riage of  Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse. 

Philip  the  Magnanimous  (b.  23  Nov.,  1504)  was 
married  before  his  twentieth  year  to  Christina,  daiu^- 
ter  of  Duke  George  of  Saxony,  who  was  then  in  her 
eighteenth  year.  He  had  the  reputation  qf  bdng 
'*  the  most  immoral  of  princelines' ,  who  ruined  him- 
self, in  the  language  of  his  court  theologians,  by  ''unre- 
strained and  promiscuous  debaucherv  (Kolde, "  Ana- 
lecta",  354).  He  himself  admits  that  he  could  not 
remain  faithful  to  his  wife  for  three  consecutive  weeks 
(Lenz,  "  Brief wechsel  .  .  .  Philippe  und  Bucer", 
Leipzig,  1880-1887, 1,  361).  The  malignant  attack  of 
venereal  disease,  which  compelled  a  temporary  cessa- 
tion of  his  profligacy,  also  directed  his  thoughts  to  a 
more  ordinate  gratification  of  his  passions.  His 
affections  were  already  directed  to  Margaret  von  der 
Saal,  a  seventeen  year  old  lady-in-waiting,  and  he  con- 
cluded to  avail  himself  of  Luther's  advice  to  enter  a 
double  marriage.  Christina  was  "a  woman  of  excel- 
lent qualities  and  noble  mind,  to  whom,  in  excuse  of 
his  infidelities,  he  [Philip]  ascribed  all  sorts  of  bodily 
infirmities  and  offensive  habits"  (Schmidt,  *'  Melanch- 
thon," 367).  She  had  borne  him  seven  children.  The 
mother  of  Margaret  would  only  entertain  the  proposi- 
tion of  her  daughter  becoming  PhiUp's  ''second  wife" 
on  condition  that  she,  her  brother,  PhiUp's  wife, 
Luther,  Melanchthon,  and  Bucer,  or  at  least,  two 
prominent  theologians  be  present  at  the  marriage, 
Bucer  was  entrusted  with  the  mission  of  securing  we 
ooDsent  of  Luther,  Melanchthon,  and  the  Saxon  piinoe*. 


In  this  he  was  eminently  successful.  All  was  to  be 
done  under  the  veil  of  the  profoundest  secrecy.  This 
secrecy  Bucer  enjoined  on  the  landgrave  again  and 
again,  even  when  on  his  journey  to  Wittenberg  (3 
Dec.,  1539)  that  ''all  might  redound  to  the  glory  of 
God"  (Lenz,  op.  cit.,  I,  119).  Luther's  position 
on  the  question  was  fully  known  to  him.  Hie 
latter's  imfailinff  opportunism  in  turn  grasped  the 
situation  at  a  gumee.  It  was  a  question  of  expedi- 
ency and  necessity  more  than  propriety  and  legality. 
If  the  simultaneous  polygamy  were  permitted,  it 
would  prove  an  imprecedented  act  in  tne  history  of 
Christendom;  it  would,  moreover,  affix  on  Philip  the 
brand  of  a  most  heinous  crime,  punishable  under 
recent  legislation  with  death  by  beheading.  If  re- 
fused, it  threatened  the  defection  of  the  landgrave, 
and  would  prove  a  calamity  beyond  reckoning  to  the 
Protestant  cause  (Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II,  398). 

Evidently  in  an  embarrassing  quandary,  Luther  and 
Melanchthon  filed  their  joint  opinion  (10  Dec.,  1530). 
After  expressing  gratification  at  the  landgrave's  last 
recovery,  **  for  the  poor,  miserable  Church  of  Christ  is 
small  and  forlorn,  and  stands  in  need  of  truly  devout 
lords  and  rulers  ",  it  goes  on  to  say  that  a  general  law 
that  a  *'  man  may  have  more  than  one  wife'  could  not 
be  handed  down,  but  that  a  dispensation  could  be 
granted.  All  knowledge  of  the  dispensation  and  the 
marriage  should  be  buried  from  the  public  in  deadlv 
silence.  ''All  gossip  on  the  subject  is  to  be  ignorecL 
as  kmg  as  we  are  ri^t  in  conscience,  and  this  we  hold 
is  right",  for  "what  is  permitted  in  the  Mosaic  law,  is 
not  forbidden  in  the  (jospel"  (De  Wette-Seidemann,  VI. 
239-244;  "Corp.  Ref.",  Ill,  856-863).  ThenuUity  and 
impossibility  of  the  second  marriage  while  the  legality 
of  the  first  remained  untouched  was  not  mentioned  or 
hinted  at.  His  wife,  assured  bv  her  spiritual  director 
"that  it  was  not  contrary  to  the  law  of  God"  (Corp. 
Ref.,  Ill,  884),  gave  her  consent,  though  on  her  aeatn- 
bed  she  confessed  to  her  son  that  her  consent  was 
feloniously  wrung  from  her  (Rommel,  "Gesch.  von 
Hessen",  GotharKassel,  1852-1858,  V,  20-21).  In 
return  Philip  pledged  his  princelv  word  that  she  would 
be  "the  first  and  supreme  wife  and  that  his  matri- 
m«nial  obligations  "would  be  rendered  her  with  more 
devotion  than  before".  The  children  of  Christina 
"should  be  considered  the  sole  princes  of  Hesse" 
(Rommel,  op.  cit.).  After  the  arrangement  had  al- 
ready been  completed,  a  daughter  was  bom  to  Chria- 
tina,  13  Feb.,  1540  (Rockwell,  * '  Die  Doppelehe  Phillip's 
von  Hessen",  Marburg,  1904, 32).    The  marriage  took 

£lace  (4  March,  1540)  in  the  presence  of  Bucer, 
Lelanchthon,  and  the  court  preacher  Melander  who 
performed  the  ceremony.  Melander  was  "a  bluff 
agitator,  surly,  with  a  most  unsavoury  moral  reputa- 
tion" (Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II,  397),  one  of  his  moral 
derelictions  being  the  fact  that  he  had  three  living 
wives,  having  dei^rted  two  without  going  through  the 
formality  of  a  legal  separation  (Idem,  op.  cit.,  II,  396). 
Philip  lived  with  both  wives,  both  of  whom  bore  him 
children,  the  landgravine  two  sons  and  a  daughter, 
and  Margaret  six  sons  (Mensel,  "  Neuere  Geschichte 
der  Deutschen",  II,  191).  How  can  this  "darkest 
stain"  (Bezold)  on  the  history  of  the  German  Refor- 
mation be  accounted  for?  Was  it  "poUtics,  bibli- 
dsm,  distorted  vision,  precipitancy,  fear  of  the  near 
approaching  Diet  [Ratisbon]  that  played  such  a 
role  in  the  sinful  downfall  of  Luther?'  (Hausrath,  op. 
cit.,  II,  400) .  Or  was  it  the  logical  sequence  of  premises 
he  had  maintained  for  vears  in  speech  and  print 
("  0pp.  Lat.  "  Erlangen,  V,  95, 100;  De  Wette,  op.  cit., 
II,  459;  IV,  241,  296;  VI,  243),  not  to  touch  upon 
the  ethics  of  that  extraordinary  sermon  on  marriage 
(Sammtl.W.,  XX  57-86)?  He  himself  writes  defiantly 
that  he  "is  not  ashamed  of  his  opinion"  (Lauterbaoh, 
op.  cit.,  198).  The  marriage  in  spite  of  all  precautions, 
injunctions,  and  pledges  of  secrecy  leaked  out,  caused 
a  nftt?ny?ftl  sensation  and  soandal^  a3xd«i^\s^\&s:S*Q£s^%sw 


LITTHIE 


456 


LUTHER 


extensive  correspondence  between  all  intiinately  con- 
cerned, to  neutralise  the  effect  on  the  public  mind. 
Melanchthon  "nearly  died  of  shame,  but  Luther 
wished  to  brazen  the  matter  out  with  a  lie"  (Cam- 
bridge Hist.,  II,  241).  The  secret  "yea"  must  "for  the 
sake  of  the  Christian  church  remain  a  public  nay" 
(De  Wette-Seidemann,  op.  cit.,  VI,  263).  "What 
harm  would  there  be,  if  a  man  to  accomplish  better 
things  and  for  the  sake  of  the  Christian  Cnurch,  does 
tell  a  good  thumping  lie"  (Lenz,  " Brief wech8el"|  I, 
382;  Aolde,  "Analecta",  356),  was  his  extenuating 
plea  before  the  Hessian  counsellors  assembled  at 
l^senach  (1540),  a  sentiment  which  students  familiar 
with  his  words  and  actions  will  remember  is  in  full 
agreement  with  much  of  his  policy  and  many  of  his 
assertions.  "  We  are  convinced,  that  the  papacy  is  the 
Beat  of  the  real  and  actual  Antichrist,  ana  believe  that 
against  its  deceit  and  iniauity  everything  is  permitted 
for  the  salvation  of  souls"  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  1, 478). 

Charles  V  involved  in  a  triple  war,  with  a  depleted 
excheciuer,  with  a  record  of  discouraging  endeavours 
to  establish  religious  peace  in  Germany,  found  what  he 
thought  was  a  gleam  of  hope  in  the  concession  half- 
heartedly made  by  the  Smalkaldie  assembly  of  Prot- 
estant theologians  (1540),  in  which  they  would  allow 
episcopal  jursidiction  provided  the  bishops  would 
tolerate  the  new  religion  ("  Corp.  Ref .",  Ill,  188).  In- 
dulging this  fond,  but  delusive  expectation,  he  con- 
vened a  religious  colloquy  to  meet  at  Speyer  (6  June, 
1540).  The  tone  of  the  Protestant  reply  to  the  invrta- 
tion  left  little  prospect  of  an  agreement.  The  deadly 
epidemic  raging  at  Speyer  compelled  its  transference 
to  Hagenau,  wnence  after  two  months  of  desultory 
and  ineffectual  debate  (1  June-28  July),  it  adjourned 
to  Worms  (28  Oct.).  Luther  from  the  banning  had 
no  confidence  in  it,  it  "would  be  a  loss  of  time,  a  waste 
of  money,  and  a  neglect  of  all  home  duties  "  (De  Wette, 
op.  cit.,  V,  308).  It  proved  an  endless  and  barren 
word-tilting  of  theologians,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  tlmt  after  three  months  constant  parleying, 
an  agreement  was  reached  on  but  one  point,  and  that 
Immacled  with  so  many  conditions,  as  to  make  it 
absolutely  valueless  (^Pastor, "  Die  Kirchl.  Reunions- 
bestrebungen  ",217).  The  emperor's  relegation  of  the 
poUoquy  to  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  (5  April-22  May), 
in^ch  he,  as  well  as  the  papal  legate  uontarini,  at- 
tended in  person,  met  with  the  same  unhappy  result. 
Melanchthon,  reputed  to  favour  reimion,  was  placed 
by  the  elector.  John  Frederick,  under  a  strict  police 
surveillance,  during  which  he  was  neither  allowed 
private  interviews,  private  visits,  or  even  private 
walks  ("Ck)rp.  Ref.^  IV,  123-132;  Schmidt,  "Me- 
lanehthon",  385;  Hausrath,  op.  cit.,  II,  410).  The 
elector,  as  well  as  King  Francis  I,  fearine  the  political 
ascendancy  of  the  emperor,  placed  every  oarrier  in  the 
way  of  compromise  (^Pastor,  op.  cit.,  251),  and  when 
the  rejected  articles  were  submitted  by  a  special  Prot- 
estant embassy  to  Luther,  the  former  not  only  warned 
him  by  letter  against  their  acceptance,  but  rushed  in 
hot  haste  to  Wittenberg,  to  throw  the  fuU  weight  of 
his  personal  influence  into  the  frustration  of  all  plans 
of  peace. 

Luther's  life  and  career  were  drawing  to  a  close. 
His  marriage  to  Catharine  von  Bora,  was  on  the  whole, 
as  far  as  we  can  infer  from  his  own  confession  and  pub- 
lic appearances,  a  happy  one.  The  Au^ustinian  mon- 
astcr\',  which  was  given  to  him  after  his  marriage  by 
ihe  elector,  became  his  homestead.  Here  six  children 
were  bom  to  them:  John  (7  Jime,  1526),  Elizabeth 
(10  Dec.,  1527;  d.  3  Aug.,  1528),  Magdalen  (4  May, 
1629),  Martin  (9  Nov.,  1531),  and  Paul  (28  Jan.,  1533), 
and  Maiyaret  (17  Dec. ,  1 534) .  Catharine  proved  to  be 
a  plain,  frugal,  domestic  housewife;  her  interest  in  her 
fowls,  piggerj',  fish-pond,  vegetable  ^rden,  home- 
brewery,  wore  deeper  and  more  absorbmg  than  in  the 
most  gijBcantic  undertakings  of  her  husmmd.  Occa- 
jEtosoJ  bickerings  with  her  neighbours  and  the  enlist- 


ment of  her  husband's  intervention  in  personal  inter- 
ests and  biases,  were  frequent  enough  to  engage  the 
tongue  of  public  censure.  She  died  at  Torgau  (20  Dec. , 
1552)  in  comparative  obscurity,  poverty,  and  neglect 
(Hoffmann,  '^'Catharina  von  Bera",  Leipzig,  1845, 
126-138;  Kroker,  "Katharina  von  Bora",  Leipzig, 
s.  d.,  117, 250-264),  having  found  Wittenbere  cold  and 
xmsympathetic  to  the  reformer's  fainily.  This  he  had 
predicted, — ^"  after  my  death  the  four  elements  in  Wit- 
tenbeiv  will  not  tolerate  you  after  all."  Luther's 
ruggedhealth  began  to  show  marks  of  depleting  vital- 
ity and  imchecked  inroads  of  disease.  Prolonged 
attacks  of  dyspepsia,  nervous  headaches,  chronic  ^n- 
ular  kidney  disease,  gout,  sciatic  rheumatism,  middle 
ear  abscesses,  above  all  vertigo  and  gall  stone  colic 
were  intermittent  or  chronic  ailments  that  gradually 
made  him  the  typical  embodiment  of  a  supersensi- 
tively  nervous,  prematurely  old  man  (Kuchenmeister, 
"Luthers  Krankengesch.",  Leipzig,  1881).  These 
physical  impairments  were  further  aggravated  by  his 
notorious  disregard  of  all  ordinary  dietetic  or  hygienic 
restrictions.  Even  prescinding  from  his  congenital 
heritage  of  inflanmiaole  irascibihty  and  uncontrolla- 
ble rage,  besetting  infirmities  that  grew  deeper  and 
more  acute  with  age,  his  phvsical  condition  in  itself 
would  measurably  account  for  his  increasing  irrita- 
tion, passionate  outbreaks,  and  hounding  suspicions, 
which  in  his  closing  days  became  a  problem  more  of 
pathological  or  psychopathic  interest,  than  biographic 
or  historical  importance. 

It  was  this  "terrible  temper"  (Boehm)  which 
brought  on  the  tragedv  of  ahenation,  that  drove  from 
him  his  most  devoted  friends  and  zealous  co-labourers. 
Every  contradiction  set  him  ablaze  (Ranke,  op.  cit., 
II,  408-415).  ;* Hardly  one  of  us",  is  the  lament  of 
one  of  his  votaries,  "  can  escape  Luther's  anger  and  hi.s 
public  scourging"  (Corp.  Ref.,  V,  314).  Carlstadt 
parted  with  him  in  1522,  aft^r  what  tlireatened  to  be 
a  personal  encounter  (Walch,  op.  cit.,  XV,  2423); 
Melanchthon  in  plaintive  tones  speaks  of  his  passion- 
ate violence,  self-will,  and  tyranny,  and  does  not  mince 
words  in  confessing  the  humiliation  of  his  ignoble 
servitude  ("Corp.  Ref.",  III.  594;  VI,  879);   Bucer, 

Srompted  by  political  and  diplomatic  motives,  pru- 
ently  accepts  the  inevitable  "just  as  the  Ix)rd  be- 
stowed him  on  us";  ZwingU  "has  become  a  pagan, 
(Ecolampadius  .  .  .  and  the  other  heretics  have  in- 
devilled,  through-devilled,  over-devilled  corrupt  hearts 
and  lying  mouths,  and  no  one  should  pray  for  them  ", 
all  of  them  "were  brought  to  their  death  by  the  fiery 
darts  and  spears  of  the  devil"  (Walch,  op.  cit.,  XX, 
223) ;  Calvin  and  the  Reformed  are  also  the  possessors 
of  "in-devilled,  over-deiilled,  and  through-devilled 
hearts";  Schurf,  the  eminent  jurist,  was  changed 
from  an  ally  to  an  opponent,  with  a  brutality  that 
defies  all  explanation  or  apology;  Agricola  fell  a  prey 
to  a  repugnance  that  time  did  not  soften;  Schwenk- 
feld,  AmSdorf,  Cordatus,  all  incurred  his  ill  will, 
forfeited  his  friendship,  and  became  the  butt  of 
his  stinging  speech.  "The  liUther,  who  from  a  dis- 
tance was  still  honoured  as  the  hero  and  leader  of  the 
new  church,  was  only  tolerated  at  its  centre  in  con- 
sideration of  his  past  ser\nces"  (Ranke,  op.  cit.,  II, 
421).  The  zealous  band  of  men,  who  once  clustered 
about  their  standard-bearer,  dwindled  to  an  insignifi- 
cant few,  insif^ificant  in  number,  intellectuality,  and 
personal  prestige.  A  sense  of  isolation  nailed  the  days 
of  his  decline.  It  not  alone  affected  his  disposition, 
but  played  the  most  astonishing  pranks  with  his 
memory.  The  oftener  he  details  to  his  table  com- 
panions, the  faithful  chroniclers  who  gave  us  his 
"Tischreden",  the  horrors  of  the  papacy,  the  more 
starless  does  the  night  of  his  monastic  life  appear. 
"  The  picture  of  his  youth  grows  darker  and  darker.  He 
finally  becomes  a  msrth  to  himself.  Not  only  do  dates 
shift  themselves,  but  also  facts.  When  the  old  man 
drvps  into  telling  tales,  the  past  atUins  the  plasticity 


LQTBXB  457  LOTHlB 

of  wax.    He  ascribes  the  aame  words  protniseuously  mann),  were  isaued  the  nine  celebrated  caricatures  of 

now  to  this,  now  to  that  friend  or^emj'"  (Hauar»th,  Ibe  pope  by  Lucae  Cranach,  with  eipowtory  verses  hg 

op.cit.,  11,432).  Luther.    These  "the  coarsest  drswings  that  the  hi»- 

It  was  this  period  that  gave  birth  Ut  the  incredi-  tory  of  caricature  of  all  times  has  ewr  produced" 

bilities,  exaggerations,  diBton ions,  contradictions,  in-  (Lange,  "Der  Papstesel",  Gitttingen,  1891,  89),  were 

consistencies,  that  moke  his  later  writing  an  inextri-  soinexpressibl^vilethatacommonimpulseof  decency 

cable  w^b  to  untangle  and  for  three  hundred  years  dem&nded  their  sununaiy  suppression  by  his  friends, 
have  supplied   uncritical    historiography   with   the        His  last  act  was,  as  he  predicted  and  prated  for,  an 

cork-and-bull  fables  which  unfortunately  have  been  attack  on  the  papacy.    Summoned  to  Eisleben,  his 

accepted   on   their  face   vaJue    (Idem,   op.  cit.,   II,  native  place,  a  short  time  after,  to  act  as  an  arbiter  in 

430-449).    Again  the  dire  results  of  the  Heformation  a  contention  between  the  brothers  Aibtecht  and  Geb- 

causedblm"unspeakableBolicitudeand  grief".    The  hard  von  Monsfeld,  death  came  with  unexpected 

sober  contemplation  of  the  incurable  inner  wounds  of  speed,  but  not  suddenly,  and  he  depBrt«d  tliis  lifs 

the  new  Church,  the  ceaseless  quarrels  of  the  preachers,  aitout  three  o'clock  in  the  morning  ISFebruary.  1546, 

thegallingdespotismof  the  Unnporal  rulers,  the  ^w-  in  the  presence  of  a  njimber  of  friends   ('Paulus, 

ingcontemptfortheclergy, theservilitytothepnnces,  "Luthers  Lebensende",  Freiburg,  1899,  96).    Tl» 

Dude  him  fairly  writhe  in  an^ish.    Above  all  the  dis-  body  was  taken  to  Wittenberg  for  mterment,  and  was 

integration  of  moral  and  social  Ufe,  the  epidemic  raV-  buned  on  tl^  22  Feb.,  in  the  castle  church,  where 

ages  of  vice  and  immorality,  and  that  in  the  very  it  now  lies  with  that  of  Melanchthon. 
cndle  of  the  Reformation,  even  in  his  very  household        in  Uiu  uticls  th«  dutlou  an  nuinly  from  Frotcstut 

(Kostlin-Kawerau,  op.  cit,,  II,  595),  nearly  drove  him  suthoiitiea.    C»tholic»uUKiritiB«iireindic«t(idbyan««l«tiik.» 

frantic.    '■  We  live  in  Sodom  and  Babylon,  affairs  are  ,^t""(n'iS°X^^aa™lslS'«'tX°'^^^^ 

growing  daily  worse",  is  his  lament  (De  Wette,  op.  oadTLatio;  li)  Jt^fid.  (ISSS^lsaS),  lafol.  vols'.;  SGenuin. 

cit,,  V,  722),     In  the  whole  Wittenberg  district,  with  4Lntin  a-upulemenWry vola,(Eiileb«i.lSM-lS65):  (3).4«™- 

its  two  cities  and  fifteen  pamehial  village,,  he  can  find  ^JriS^^fri'i^l^iSl;  A'^&tmT^E4%'?^ 

only  one  peasant  and  not  more,  who  exhorts  his  i7ss>,  3*  quBrto  toIb,,  tr.  into  Gennwi,  edited,  und  pul)lisliid 

domestics  to  the  Word  of  God  and  the  catechism,  the  byj,  G.  Walch.    a  reprint  olUii*  edition,  in  oouncotpubii™- 

"Tagchuch",  113,  114,  135;  *rWllmger,  "Die  Refor-  iota,  in  Germttni  Opera  atatticalMim.  31  vol..;  Opera  latina 

mation",  I,  293-438).    Twice  be  was  on  the  verge  of  tarii  ormmmtt,  7  voi».    Thu  aeries  inciudwEHoEiui,  Br.  JKai^ 

deserting  this  "'Sodom",   having  commiseioneJ  his  'l^jd^^.'^^y^^^t^x'-y^^T'^i^'S^f^-/  --'■'•" 

wife  {28  July,  1545)  to  seU  all  their  effects  (De  Wette,  ^    1SS3-  in  ™         ''      '"^      ■'     ' 

op.  cit.,  V,  753).    It  required  the  combined  efforts  of  vol.  XXXVI. 

the  university,  Bugenhogen,  Melanchthon,  and  the  .hJIJ:^^L  ^'n^SS^  f'^^iin'S-Rot^;  ^"fu*  r^-£i 

,  1      I  r     \y^    L  1.-        -    J  /T^.._.i-  bmaathfriAm  u.  Hatenkm  (uerlin.  laJ5-6aJ,  0  vols.:    Uuni- 

burgomoster  to  make  mm  change  bis  nund  (Koetlin~  baudt.   L^heri  Bnefaaht^  (Leipiii,  ISae). 
[(aweraii,  op.  cit.,  II,  607).    And  again  in  December,         TABi.ET.u[;Z.KtA*r'»7'ail«raltinIm.£-<»i.flft,(100ai,l-18, 

only  the  powerful  intervention  ot  the  elector  prevented  i"  '^"S'?"?' jS^  ?Fi'w^"T'Sii  'V^J^"!';    ik^T 

him  carrj-iHK  out  his  design   (Burkhardt,   "Luthera  tort.  1587. 1568. 15«i):F0BBTEi«ANHiuid  BiNDBtii,.Ti«Ji™fcB, 

Briefwcchsel",475-476;482).    Then  again  came  those  ew.  (Betlm.   l»44-184a).  4  vols,:    Latin   tr.    (Lem^,    1S«3- 

„ul.lorturi„B™ult.olth.D.«l    which  H.  "no  KVblSSi.uf  (S.-iS?);  &.tS;±S-afi5; 

rest  for  even  a  single  day    .     His  nightly  encountera  [Qotha.  1^2);  Kbokkh.  Uahtn  Tiichrtden  (LeipiiH,  1903), 

"exhausted  and  martyred  him  to  an  intensity,  that  he  «''*'  Mathaiua;    WomiBicB.   Taorbuch   us3s>   (Dreeden, 

was  barely  able  to  gasp  or  take  breath".    Of  all  the  {fjo  'a^.^h'  amrthtaSSi^tSl^      "'"" 
a33aults"none  were  more  severe  or  greater  than  about         Broompni:  ThobicgraphiMOf  MatAHCHTHOH.MATHEains, 

my  preaching,  the  thought  coming  to  me;  All  this  R*TTEBiHQBH.Ki)it,Ucii:RT,aFi™iirT,I.iDr>KRHoacjPnzBn, 

confusion  was  caused  by  you"  (Sftmmtl.  W.,  LIX,  ^,i?i*"%h,''E^'"ri..i^i^™;il!^'*^^/™'h!^lnv  h?^ 

f^r.a      TV     AS    ao      tr.o    iru\      «ii      rt¥T     ArvA\       r^-'  pToLong  the  UBt.  have  been  aupeneded,  and  can  hardly  be  ao- 

296;    LX,  45-46;     108-109,     111;    LXII,  494).      His  cepted  on  their  ungupported  atatfuneota      The  more  mixtani 

last  sermon  in  Wittenberg  (17  Jan.,  1546)  is  in  a  vein  biograpliiea  ot  Koloe,  Morfin  LiMtr  (Gotha.  1884-1893),  2 

nt   rlHTinnilsncv  nnrl  Hnanair        "TTmin/     Hmnlronni™*  vol*.;  the  last  edition  ot  KaarUN,  MOrtin  Luarr.atin  Lrbm  H. 

oi  tiesponaency  ana  aespair.        usury,  arunitennew,  ,„.„,  sdiriften  tBeriin.  1903)^2  ™ia.,  edited  by  K^naKAD; 

adultery,    murder,    assassination,    oil    these    can    be  Haobhath,    LiOhert   Libtn    (BerUn.  19CM),  2    voLa..  sro  Uw 

noticed,  and  the  world  understands  them  to  be  sins,  axmt  importoot.     The  Kfiatlin-Kawerau  li/e  is  miperbiy  docu- 

but  the  devil's  bride,  reason,  that  pert  prostitute  SrtW«i%^wh  iD^.™r»™S^av.id^tht?'prtS 

struts  in,  and  will  be  clever  and  means  what  she  says,  imtortiinately  ia  d«titul«  of  all  ctlationi      The  norka  ol  (ba 

that  it  is  the  Holy  Ghost"  (op.  cit.,  XVI,  142-148).  Tiibin«en  profwmr  TBOoionxPH,   Die  Relnrmatim  lsn-ISS7 

Thn  soTiiD  itav  )id  nona  tho  nBthotir  Unoa  "T  am    nlil  (LeipiU,  1907-1909},  2  voU.,  oC  BtMat,  Andrnu  Bodemlrm  toit 

ine  same  aayne  pens  tne  patiieiic  anes    i  am  old,  ^„Y^  {Lfflp.tz,  190S).  2  vols,,  and  the  Uitar'a  FrtApn- 

decrepit,  indolent,   weoir,   cold,   and  now  have  the  latoHliidia  GmtvuiiehTtlmtim  in  WiUenbtn,  <,.  OHanamU 

sight  of  but  one  eye"  (De  Wette,  op.  cit.,  V,  778),  tLep'ia.  19l»).  are  indiipoiuble  in  the  Tisht  ot  recent  »■ 

Nevertheless  peace  was  not  his.  '^T''^i  JPv  ^h^*".  ^1i„T«H",?1'?v^if^JiSfl?-,i^'' 

■r.  ..r    ■      .1  ■  r  i_    J  I  *     ^  p  '8  dpcidediy  the  b»t.     Unfottunately  it  mmauu  an  uncDm' 

It  was  while  in  this  agony  of  body  and  torture  of  pleted  fragment,  and  only  reacha  lSi2i  Lihobai.  LvlJitr  and 

mind,  that  his  unsurpassable  and  irreproducible  coarse-  ''^  Grmnan  ntlomtainm  CSev  York.  1900).  ia  Bophomorio  and 

ness  attained  its  culrninating  point  of  virtuosity  in  his  S™^([S:ov..Sm-.^'5  X^rXZhR.,"^Vj^ 

antl-SemitlC  and  untipapal  pamphlets.        Against  the  UnL^aher  [London.  1887).  2  vols,,  a  a  briUianl  literary  parfonu- 

Jews  and  their  Lies"  was  followed  in  quick  succession  luwe,  but  Kbtoncallj-  o(  no  acoounl;   Jacobs.  Mnrtm  hvlKir, 

by  Us  even  more  frenzied  fusillade  'l  On  the  Schem  J^uTent"^^  ^™  "tte°  cS^V'^^tiSd'^T'^'o^l^SE 

Hamphoras"  (1542)  and  "Against  the  Papacy  estab-  •ULKHBBRo,'"EvBiiB,etc.,thDmh  iiseful  in  part,  ean  hnidlyb* 

iished  bv  the  Devil"  (1545),      Here,  especiallv  in  the  '■a-lied  tme  biographiea.     However,  no  butter  life  ot  Luthw 

Utto  ,11  coherent  th™ht  and  uttjr.n«  i,  lmri«l  in  a  SiU"«'rFS.S"SB,.r  SiirSjiS'!?'^ 

torrential  deluge  of  vituperation     for  which  no  pen,  loruaj  ikt  Grnrvm  Pcoplt  (St.  Loub,  1898—1,    The  portrai- 

muchlesBaprintingpressshouldhaveeverbecnfound"  'n™  "f  iwuin  aapecu  and  jjerioda  of  Ludier  •  lite  by  •Dan- 

(Menvpl    nr.  fit     II  '1^91       HijimnBtnrv  in  hia  rhnnrn  rLC.  Lfillicr  u.  L-ulAertti%m  (Maim,  lB04),n.  ed.  Wriss  (Mnlni, 

tiuennel,  op.  cit.,  ii,.i&ii).     MiBmastepr   n  his  ohowiii  igoj-iooo;  mipplementwV  vol.'ll,  •  Waisa  (Main.,  1909): 

method  of  controversy  remamed  unchallenged.     His  ' UBsiTi.t.  Du  abtmilandudim  SiAriliatuUgrrUt  Lvihrr  ai^r 

friends  had   "a  feeling  d  sorrow.      His  scolding  re-  Jutiitia  Dei  md  JutHfitalio  (Maim,  1905);    losii.  LiUifr,  in 

mainrf  "J.™er«l,  but  .I.0  ™no.i«d"  (Ruk.,  op.  SSS!lSfc;S,$Si&aSa.iSS;,iS 

Cit.,  II,  421).      Accompanying  this  last  volcamc  enip-  iboo);  •DOLUNOsa.  Dw  aifannalion  (R«li.bon,  184«-ia4a)  3 

tion,  as  a  sort  of  illustrated  commentary  "that  the  vola.,  alill  remairu  an  unanaweiwl  and  unaniwamble  arraien- 

nnixmnn    mon      nrhn  ID    iiTialilli   tn    mirl      mow    aiui    on.)  meUt  of  Lulherand  hia  WOflt.     The  dataphfid  ar*'-!— "' •"■■—"- 

common  man   wno  is  uname  to  reaa,  may  see  and  ^^^  Paui,d«,  piobabiv  th.  n.«t  mnmtt^nt  ■ 

understand  what  he  thought  oi  the  papacy    (FOrsI^-  Ketonnatlon  tdstoiii 


LtrrHSRANISM 


458 


LUTHSaANISM 


tppeared,  and  continue  to  appear  in  various  Gennan  magaslnes 
and  publicati<»i8.  are  iA  a  most  scholarly  character. 

Ca.  Maurbnbrxchbr,  Zur  LtUheriiteratur  in  Studien  u.  Skit- 
Wtn,  205-238;  LtUher  and  hit  Protestant  Bioffraphers  in  Am. 
Cath,  Quart.  Rev,  (1901).  682-601.  H.   G.   GanBS. 

Lntheranism,  the  religious  belief  held  by  the  old- 
est and  in  Europe  the  most  numerous  of  the  Prot- 
estant sects,  foiuded  by  the  Wittenberg  reformer, 
Martin  Luther.  The  term  Lutheran  was  first  used  by 
his  opponents  during  the  Leipzig  Disputation  in  1519, 
and  afterwards  became  imivereally  prevalent.  Lu- 
ther prefened  the  designation  "  Evangelical ",  and  to- 
day the  usual  title  of  the  sect  is  ''Evangelical  Lu- 
theran Church".  In  Germany,  where  the  Lutherans 
and  the  Reformed  have  united  (since  1817),  the  name 
Lutheran  has  been  abandoned,  and  the  state  Church 
is  styled  the  Evangelical  or  the  Evangelical  United. 

I.  DisTiNcnvB  TEAcmNGs. — In  doctrine  official 
Lutheranism  is  part  of  what  is  called  orthodox  Prot- 
estantism, since  it  agrees  with  the  Catholic  and  the 
Greek  Churches  in  accepting  the  authority  of  the 
Scriptures  and  of  the  three  most  ancient  creeds  (the 
Apostles'  Creed,  the  Nicene  Creed,  and  the  Atha- 
nasian  Creed).  Besides  these  formulse  of  belief,  Lu- 
theranism acknowledges  six  specific  confessions  which 
distinguish  it  from  other  churches:  (1)  the  unaltered 
Au^burg  Confession  (1530),  (2)  the  Apology  of  the 
Auipburg  Confession  (1531),  (3)  Luther's  Large  Cate- 
chism (1529),  (4)  Luther's  Catechism  for  Children 
(1629),  (5)  the  Articles  of  Smalkald  (1537),  and  (8) 
the  Form  of  Concord  (1577).  These  nine  symbolical 
books  (including  the  three  Creeds)  constitute  what  is 
known  as  the '"Book  of  Concord",  which  was  first 

Sublished  at  Dresden  in  1580  by  order  of  Elector 
.ugustus  of  Saxony  (see  Faith,  Protestant  Con- 
fessions of).  In  these  confessions  the  Scriptiu^s  are 
declared  to  be  the  only  rule  of  faith.  The  extent  of 
the  Canon  is  not  defined,  but  the  bibles  in  common  use 
among  Lutherans  have  been  generally  the  same  as 
those  of  other  Protestant  denominations  (see  Canon 
OF  THE  Holy  Scriptures).  The  symbols  and  the 
other  writings  not  contained  in  Scripture  do  not  pos- 
sess decisive  authority,  but  merely  show  how  the 
Scriptures  were  understood  and  explained  at  partic- 
ular times  by  the  leading  theologians  (Form  of  Con- 
cord). The  chief  tenet  of  the  Lutheran  creed,  that 
which  Luther  called  "  the  article  of  the  standing  and 
faUing  Chureh",  has  reference  to  the  justification  of 
sinful  man.  Original  sin  is  explained  as  a  positive 
and  total  depravity  of  human  nature,  which  renders 
all  the  acts  of  the  unjustified,  even  those  of  civil 
righteousness,  sinful  and  displeasing  to  God.  Justifi- 
cation, which  is  not  an  internal  change^  but  an  exter- 
nal, forensic  declaration  by  which  God  imputes  to  the 
creature  the  righteousness  of  Christ,  comes  only  by 
faith,  which  is  the  confidence  that  one  is  reconciled  to 
God  through  Christ.  Good  works  are  necessary  as  an 
exercise  of  faith,  and  are  rewarded,  not  by  justifica- 
tion (which  they  presuppose),  but  oy  the  fulfilment 
of  the  Divine  promises  (Apology  Aug.  Conf .). 

Other  distinctive  doctrines  oi  the  Lutheran  Church 
are:  (1)  consubstantiation  (although  the  symbols  do 
not  use  this  term),  i.  e.  the  real,  corporeal  presence 
of  Christ's  Body  and  Blood  during  the  celebration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  in,  with,  and  under  the  substance 
of  bread  and  wine,  in  a  union  which  is  not  hypostatic, 
nor  of  mixture,  nor  of  local  inclusion,  but  entirely 
transcendent  and  mysterious;  (2)  the  omnipresence 
of  the  Body  of  Christ,  which  is  differently  explained 
by  the  commentators  of  the  Svmbolical  Books.  Since 
the  official  formulae  of  faith  claim  no  decisive  author- 
ity for  themselves,  and  on  many  points  are  far  from 
harmonious,  the  utmost  diversity  of  opinion  prevails 
among  Lutnerans.  Every  shade  of  oelief  may  be 
found  among  them,  from  the  orthodox,  who  holcl  fast 
to  the  confessions,  to  the  semi-infidel  theologians,  who 
deny  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures. 


II.  History. — Lutheranism  dates  from  31  Octo- 
ber, 1517,  when  Luther  affixed  his  theses  to  the 
church  door  of  the  castle  of  Wittenberg.  Although  he 
did  not  break  with  the  Catholic  Church  until  three 
vears  later,  he  had  already  come  substantially  to  his 
later  views  on  the  plan  of  salvation.  The  new  teach- 
ings, howeverMmderwent  a  great  change  after  Luther's 
return  from  Wartburg  (1521).  Before  he  died  (18 
Feb.,  1546),  his  teacfings  had  been  propagated  in 
many  states  of  Germany^in  Poland,  in  the  Baltic 
Provinces,  in  Hungary,  'Transylvania,  the  Nether- 
lands, Denmark,  and  Scandinavia.  From  these  Eu- 
ropean countries  Lutheranism  has  been  carried  by 
emigration  to  the  New  World,  and  in  the  United  States 
it  ranks  among  the  leading  Protestant  denominations. 

(1)  The  Lutherans  in  Germany. — (a)  First  Period: 
From  the  appearance   of  Luther's  Theses  to  the 
adoption  of  the  Formula  of  Concord  (1517-80). — 
Favoured  by  the  civil  rulers,  Lutheranism  spread  rap- 
idly in  Northern  Germany.    After  the  Diet  of  Speyer 
(1526)  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  other  princes  estab- 
lished Lutheran  state  Churches.    An  alliance  between 
these  princes  was  concluded   at   Torgau   in    1526, 
and  again  at  Smalkald  in  1531.     The   Protestant 
League  was  continually  increased  by  the  accession  of 
other  states,  and  a  religious  war  broke  out  in  1546, 
which  resulted  in  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  ( 1 555) .   'This 
treaty  provided  that  the  Lutherans  should  retajn 
permanently  what  they  then  possessed,  but  that  all 
officials  of  ecclesiastical  estates,  who  from  that  time 
forth  should  go  over  to  Protestantism,  would  be  de- 
posed and  replaced  by  Catholics.    Tnis  latter  pro- 
vision, known  as  the     Reservatum  Ecclesiasticum  ", 
was  very  unsatisfactory  to  the  Protestants,  and  its 
constant  violation  was  one  of  the  causes  that  lead  up 
to  the  Thirty  Years  War  (1618-48).    At  the  time  of 
the  Peace  of  Augsburg  Lutherans  predominated  in  the 
north  of  Germany,  while  the  ZwingUans  or  Reformed 
were  very  numerous  in  the  south.    Austria,  Bavaria, 
and  the  territories  subject  to  spiritual  lords  were  Cath- 
olic, although  many  of  these  afterwards  bMecame  Prot- 
estant.   Several  attempts  were  made  to  effect  a  re- 
union.   In  1534  Pope  Paul  III  invited  the  Protestants 
to  a  general  council.    Emperor  Charles  V  arranged 
conferences  between  Catholic  and  Lutheran  theolo- 
gians in  1541, 1546,  and  1547.    His  successor.  Ferdi- 
nand I  (1556-^),  and  many  private  individuals,  such 
as  the  Lutheran  Frederick  Staphylus  and  Father 
Contzen,  laboured  much  for  the  same  end.    All  these 
efforts,  however,  proved  fruitless.    Melanchthon,  Cm- 
sius,  and  other  Lutheran  theologians  made  formal 
proposals  of  union  to  the  Greek  Church  (1559,  1574, 
1578),  but  nothing  came  of  their  overtures.    From 
the  beginning  bitter  hostility  existed  between  the  Lu- 
therans and  the  Reformed.   This  first  appeared  in  the 
Sacramentarian   controversy   between   Luther   and 
Zwingli  (1524).    They  met  m  conference  at  Marburg 
in  1529,  but  came  to  no  agreement.    The  hopes  of 
union  created  by  the  compromise  formula  of  1536, 
known  as  the  Concordia  WittenbergensiSy  proved  de- 
lusive.   Luther  continued  to  make  war  on  the  Zwing- 
lians  imtil  his  death.    The    Sacramentarian  strife 
was  renewed  in  1549,  when  the  Zwiuglians  accepted 
Calvin's  view  of  the  Real  Presence.    'The  foUoiivers  of 
Mebmchthon,  who  favoured  Calvin's  doctrine  (Phil- 
ippists,  Crypto-Calvinists),  were  abo  furiously  de- 
nounced by  the  orthodox  Lutherans.    During  these 
controversies  the  state  Church  of  the  Palatinate, 
where  Philippism  predominated,  changed  from  the 
Lutheran  to  tne  Reformed  faith  ( 1 560) .    From  the  be- 
ginning Lutheranism  was  torn  by  doctrinal  disputes, 
carried  on  with  the  utmost  violence  and  passion. 
They  had  reference  to  the  questions  of  sin  and  grace, 

i'ustification  by  faith,  the  use  of  good  works,  the 
jord's  Supper,  and  tne  Person  and  work  of  Christ. 
The  bitterest  controversy  was  the  Crypto-Calvinistic. 
To  effect  hannony  the  Form  of  Concora,  the  last  of  the 


LUTHXBAMI8K 


4fid 


LUTHUUBnSM 


Lutheran  symboLs,  was  drawn  up  in  1577,  and  ac- 
cepted by  the  majority  of  the  state  Ghurohes.  The 
document  was  written  in  a  conciliatory  spirit,  but  it 
secured  the  triumph  of  the  orthodox  party. 

(b)  Second  Period:  From  the  Aaoption  of  the 
Form  of  Concord  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Pietistic 
Movement  (158Q-1689). — During  this  period  LuUier- 
anism  was  engaged  in  bitter  polemics  with  its  neigh- 
bours in  Germany.  Out  of  these  religious  discords 
grew  the  horrors  of  the  Thirty  Years  War,  which  led 
many  persons  to  desire  better  relations  between  the 
churches.  A ' '  charitable  colloquy ' '  was  held  at  Thorn 
in  1645  by  Catholic,  Lutheran,  and  Calvinist  theolo- 
gians, but  nothing  was  accomplished.  The  proposal 
of  the  Lutheran  professor,  Georse  Calixtus,  that  the 
confessions  ors^nize  into  one  church  with  the  con- 
sensus of  the  tirst  five  centuries  as  a  common  basis 
(Syncretism),  aroused  a  storm  of  indignation,  and,  by 
way  of  protest,  a  creed  was  accepted  by  the  Saxon 
universities  which  expressed  the  views  of  the  most 
radic^  school  of  Lutneran  orthodoxy  (1655).  The 
Lutheran  theologians  of  this  period  imitated  the  dis- 
orderly arrangement  of  Melanchthon's  *'Loci  Theo- 
logici",  but  in  spirit  they  were  with  few  exceptions 
loyal  supporters  of  the  Form  of  Concord.  Although 
the  writings  of  Luther  abound  with  diatribes  against 
the  speculative  sciences,  his  followers  early  perceived 
the  necessity  of  philosophy  for  controversial  purposes. 
Melanchthon  developea  a  system  of  Aristoteleanism, 
and  it  was  not  long  before  the  Scholastic  method, 
which  Luther  had  so  cordially  detested,  was  us^  by 
the  Evangelical  theologians,  although  the  new  Scho- 
lasticism was  utterly  different  from  the  genuine  sys- 
tem. Lutheran  dogmatics  became  a  maze  of  refined 
subtleties,  and  mere  logomachv  was  considered  the 
chief  duty  of  the  theologian.  The  result  was  a  fanati- 
cal orthodoxy,  whose  only  activity  was  heresy-hunting 
and  barren  controversv.  New  attempts  were  made  to 
unite  the  Evangelical  Churches.  Conferences  were 
held  in  1586, 1631,  and  1661 ;  a  plan  of  union  was  pro- 
posed by  the  Heidelberg  professor  Pareus  (1615);  the 
Reformed  Synod  of  Ch^nton  (1631)  voted  to  admit 
Lutheran  sponsors  in  baptism .  But  again  the  doctrine 
of  the  Lord  s  Supper  proved  an  obstacle,  as  the  Luther- 
ans would  agree  to  no  union  that  was  not  based  upon 
perfect  dogmatic  consensus.  By  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia (16&)  the  concessions  which  had  been  made  to 
the  Lutherans  in  1555  were  extended  to  the  Reformed. 

(c)  Third  Period:  From  the  Beginning  of  the  Pie- 
tistic Movement  to  the  Evangelical  Imion  (168d- 
1817). — Pietism,  which  was  a  reaction  against  the  cold 
and  dreary  formalism  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  orig- 
inated with  Philip  Spener  (1635-1705).  In  sermons 
and  writings  he  asserted  the  claims  of  personal  hoU- 
ness,  and  in  1670,  while  dean  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  he  began  to  hold  little  reunions  called  collegia 
pietcUis  (whence  the  name  Pietist),  in  which  devotional 
passages  of  the  Scriptures  were  explained  and  pious 
conversation  carried  on  by  those  present.  His  fol- 
lower, August  Francke,  founded  in  1604  the  Univer- 
sity of  H£ule,  which  became  a  stronghold  of  Pietism. 
The  strict  Lutherans  accused  the  Pietists  of  heresy,  a 
charge  which  was  vigorously  denied,  although  in  {act 
the  new  school  differed  from  the  orthodox  not  only  in 
practice,  but  also  in  doctrine.  The  first  enthusiasm  of 
the  Pietists  soon  degenerated  into  fanaticism,  and 
they  rapidly  lost  favour.  Pietism  had  exercised  a 
beneficial  influence,  but  it  was  followed  by  the  Ration- 
alistic movement,  a  more  radical  reaction  against 
orthodoxy,  which  effected  within  the  Lutheran,  as  in 
other  Protestant  communions,  manv  apostasies  from 
Christian  belief.  The  philosophy  of  the  day  and  the 
national  literature,  then  ardently  cultivated,  had 
gradually  undermined  the  faith  of  all  classes  of  the 
people.  The  leaders  in  the  Church  adiusted  themselves 
to  tne  new  conditions,  and  soon  theological  chairs  and 
the  pulpits  were  filled  by  mm  who  re]pMled  not  only 


the  dogmatic  teaching  of  the  Symbolical  Books,  but 
every  supernatural  element  of  religion.  A  notable 
exception  to  this  growing  infideUty  was  the  sect  of 
Hermhuters  or  United  Brethren,  founded  in  1722  by 
Count  von  Zinzendorf ,  a  follower  of  the  Pietistic 
school  (see  Bohemian  Brbthben).  The  critical  state 
of  their  churches  caused  many  Protestants  to  long  for 
a  union  between  the  Lutherans  and  the  Reformed. 
The  royal  house  of  Prussia  laboured  to  accomplish  a 
union,  but  all  plans  were  frustrated  by  the  opposition 
of  the  theologians.  There  were  for  a  time  prospects  of 
a  reconciliation  of  the  Hanoverian  Lutherans  with  the 
Cathohc  Church.  Negotiations  were  carried  on  be- 
tween the  Catholic  Bisnop  Spinola  and  the  Lutheran 
representative  Molanus  (1691).  A  controversy  on  the 
points  at  issue  followed  between  Bossuet  and  Leitmifl 
(1692-1701),  but  no  agreement  was  reached. 

(d)  Fourth  Period:  From  the  Evangelical  Union 
(1817)  to  the  Present. — ^The  chief  events  in  the  Luth* 
eran  Churches  in  Germany  during  the  nineteenth 
century  were  the  Evangelical  Union  and  the  revival 
of  orthodoxy.  During  the  celebration  of  the  tercen- 
tenary of  the  Reformation  in  1817,  efforts  were  made 
in  Prussia  to  unite  Lutherans  and  Reformed.  Fred- 
erick William  III  recommended  the  use  of  a  common 
Utui^  by  the  two  churches,  and  this  proposal  grad- 
ually won  acceptance.  There  was  much  opposition, 
however,  to  tne  service-book  published  by  royal 
authority  in  1822.  John  Scheibel,  deacon  in  Breslau, 
refused  to  accept  it,  and,  being  deposed  from  oflice, 
founded  a  separatist  sect  known  as  the  *'01d  Luther* 
ans"  (1830).  The  Government  used  very  oppressive 
measures  against  these  nonconformists,  but  in  1845 
the  new  king,  Frederick  William  IV,  recognized  them 
as  an  independent  Lutheran  sect.  In  1860  the  Old 
Lutherans  were  greatly  reduced  in  numbers  by  the 
defection  of  Pastor  Diedrich,  who  oiganized  the  inde- 
pendent Immanuel  Synod.  There  were  also  separatist 
movements  outside  of  Silesia.  Free  Lutheran  Churches 
were  established  by  dissenters  in  Hesse,  Hanover, 
Baden,  and  Saxony.  A  supematuralist  movement, 
which  defended  the  Divinely  inspired  character  of  the 
Bible,  started  a  reaction  against  the  principle  of  ra- 
tionalism in  theology.  The  centenary  lubilees  of  1817 
and  the  following  years,  which  recalled  the  early  days 
of  Lutheranism,  brought  with  them  a  revival  of  former 
orthodoxv.  The  theological  faculties  of  several  uni- 
versities became  strictly  Lutheran  in  their  teachings. 
Since  then  there  has  been  a  persistent  and  bitter  strug- 
gle between  rationalistic  and  Evangelical  tendencies 
m  the  United  and  Free  Churches. 

(2)  The  Lutherans  in  Denmark  and  Scandinavia, — 
(a)  Denmark. — By  the  Union  of  CJalmar  (1397), 
Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark  became  a  united  kuij^ 
dom  under  the  King  of  Denmark.  The  despotic  Chris- 
tian II  (1513-23)  endeavoured  to  introduce  the 
Reformation,  but  was  overthrown  bv  his  barons. 
Frederick  I  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  his  successor, 
op^ly  prof^teed  Lutheranism  in  1526.  At  the  Diet 
of  Odense  (1527)  he  obtained  a  measure  which  guar^ 
anteed  equal  rights  to  his  coreligionists,  and  two  years 
later  he  proclaimed  Lutheranism  the  only  true  reU- 

S'on.  Under  his  successor.  Christian  III  (1533-59). 
le  Catholic  bishops  were  deprived  of  their  sees,  ana 
the  Lutheran  Church  of  Denmark  was  organized  with 
the  king  as  supreme  bishop.  The  Diet  of  Copenhagen 
(1546)  enacted  penal  laws,  which  deprived  Catholics 
of  civil  rights  and  forbade  priests  to  remain  in  Dcai- 
mark  under  pain  of  death.  The  opposition  of  Iceland 
to  the  new  religion  was  put  down  by  force  (1550). 
German  rationalism  was  propagated  in  Denmark  fay 
Clausen.  Among  its  opponents  was  Grundtvig,  leader 
of  the  Grundtvigian  movement  0824),  which  advo- 
cated the  acceptance  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  as  the  sole 
rule  of  faith.  Freedom  of  religious  worship  was 
granted  in  1849. 

(b)  Norway,  which  was  united  wvtK  ^^^Kssasa^K. 


LUTHl&AMISM 


460 


LUTH1RANI8M 


eame  Lutheran  during  the  re^pis  of  Frederick  I  and 
Omstian  III.  Rationalism,  mtroduced  from  Den- 
mark, made  great  progress  in  Norway.  It  was  op- 
poeea  by  Hauge  and  by  Norwegian  followers  of 
Qrundtvig.  A  Free  Apostolic  Churcn  was  founded  bv 
Adolph  Lammers  about  1850,  but  later  reunited  with 
ibe  state  church.  Norway  passed  laws  of  toleration 
in  1845,  but  still  excludes  the  Jesuits. 

(c)  Sweden  was  freed  from  the  Danish  yoke  by 
Guistavus  Vasa  in  1521,  and  two  years  later  the 
liberator  was  chosen  king.  Almost  from  the  outset  of 
hiB  reign  he  showed  himself  favourable  to  Lutherans, 
and  by  cunning  and  violence  succeeded  in  introducing 
the  new  religion  into  his  kingdom.  In  1529  the  Refor- 
mation was  formally  estabQshed  by  the  Assembly  of 
&ebro,  and  in  1544  the  ancient  Faith  was  put  under 
the  ban'6f  the  law.  The  reign  of  Eric  XI V  (1560-8) 
was  marked  by  violent  conflicts  between  the  Luther- 
ans and  the  Cal vinists.  The  latter  party  was  favoured 
hy  ibe  king,  and  their  defeat  in  1568  was  followed  by 
^c's  detlm)nement.  His  successor,  John  III  (1568- 
92),  conferred  with  Gre^oiy  XIII  on  a  reimion  of 
Sweden  with  the  Cathohc  Church,  but,  as  the  pope 
oould  not  grant  all  the  concessions  demanded  by  the 
Idng,  the  negotiations  were  unsuccessful.  The  next 
king,  Sigismund  (1592-1604),  was  a  Catholic,  but,  as 
he  fived  in  Poland  (of  which  he  was  king  from  1587), 
the  Government  of  Sweden  was  administered  by  his 
uncle  Duke  Charles  of  Sudermanland,  a  zealous  Luth- 
eran, who  used  the  power  at  his  command  to  secure 
his  proclamation  as  King  Charles  IX  in  the  Assembly 
of  Nordkoeping  (1604).  The  successor  of  Charles  was 
the  famous  general  and  statesman,  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  (1611-32).  For  the  nart  he  took  in  the  Thirty 
Years  War,  he  is  venerated  by  Lutherans  as  the  reli- 
gious hero  of  their  Church,  but  it  is  now  admitted  that 
reasons  of  state  led  Gustavus  into  that  conflict.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  only  daughter  Christina,  who 
became  a  Catholic  and  abdicatea  in  1654.  By  a  law 
of  1686  all  persons  in  the  kingdom  were  required  under 
severe  penalties  to  conform  to  the  state  Church.  A 
law  pa^ed  in  1726  against  religious  conventicles  was 
rigidly  enforced  against  the  Swedish  Pietists  (Ldaare) 
from  1803  till  its  repeal  in  1853.   The  law  against  reU- 

e'ous  dissidents  was  not  removed  from  the  statute 
M)ks  till  1873.  The  Swedish  Church  is  entirely  con- 
tndled  by  ^e  state,  and  the  strict  orthodoxy  which 
was  enforced  prevented  at  first  any  serious  inroads  of 
RationaJism.  But  since  1866  there  has  formed  within 
the  state  Chm-ch  a  *' progressive  partv'',  whose  pur- 
pose is  to  abandon  all  symbols  and  to  laicize  the 
church.  The  two  universities  of  Upsala  and  Lund  are 
ortjiodox.  The  Grand  Duchy  of  Finland,  formerly 
united  to  Sweden,  but  now  (since  1809)  a  Province  of 
Russia,  maintains  Lutheranism  as  the  national 
Church. 

^3)  Lutheranism  in  Other  Countries  of  Europe, — (a) 
P<Maiid. — Lutheranism  was  introduced  into  Poland 
during  the  reign  of  Sigismimd  I  (1501-48)  by  young 
men  who  had  made  their  studies  at  Wittenberg.  The 
new  teachings  were  opposed  by  the  king,  but  had  the 
powerful  support  of  tne  nobility.  From  Danzig  they 
spread  to  the  cities  of  Thorn  and  Elbing,  and,  during 
tne  reign  of  Sigismund  II  (1548-72),  steadily  gained 
eround.  A  union  symbol  was  drawn  up  and  sizned 
by  thie  Protestants  at  Sandomir  in  1570,  and  three 
years  later  they  concluded  a  religious  peace  with  the 
Catholics,  in  which  it  was  agreed  that  all  parties 
should  enjov  equal  civil  rights.  The  peace  was  not 
lasting,  and  dining  two  centuries  there  was  almost 
continual  religious  strife  which  finally  led  to  the  down- 
fall of  the  kingdom.  With  the  connivance  of  Poland, 
Lutheranism  was  established  in  the  territories  of  the 
Teutonic  Order,  East  Prussia  (1525),  Livonia  (1539), 
and  Courland  (1561). 

(b)  Hungary,  Transylvania  and  Silesia. — ^Theteach- 
ingp  of  Luther  were  first  propagated  in  these  countries 


durihjg  the  reifli  of  King  Louis  II  of  Hungary  and  Bohe* 
mia  (1516-26;.  The  king  was  strongly  opposed  to 
religious  innovation,  but  after  his  death  civil  discords 
enabled  the  new  doctrine  to  gain  headway.  In  Silesia 
Lutheranism  was  protected  by  the  dukes,  and  in  1524 
it  was  established  in  Breslau,  the  capital,  by  the 
municipal  council.  Freedom  bf  worship  was  granted 
in  Transylvania  in  1545,  and  in  Hungary  in  1606. 
The  Lutherans  were  soon  involved  in  quarrels  with 
the  Calvinists.  The  German  element  among  the 
Protestants  favoured  the  Augsburg  Confession,  but 
the  Reformed  faith  had  more  adherents  among  the 
Hungarians  and  Czechs.  In  Silesia  the  Lutherans 
then^dives  were  divided  on  the  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion and  the  Eucharist.  Caspar  Schwenkfeld  (d. 
1561),  one  of  the  earliest  disciples  of  Luther,  assailed 
his  master's  doctrine  on  these  points,  and  as  early  as 
1528  Schwenkfeldianism  had  many  adherents  among 
Lutherans.  The  memory  of  Schwenkfeld  is  still  held 
in  veneration  in  Silesia  and  in  some  Lutheran  com- 
munities of  Pennsylvania.  Lutheranism  made  some 
gains  in  the  hereaitary  states  of  Austria  and  in  Bo- 
hemia during  the  reigns  of  Ferdinand  I  (1556-64)  and 
Bfaximilian  II  (1564-76).  The  Lutherans  of  Bo- 
hemia rebelled  against  the  imperial  authority  in  1618, 
but  were  defeated,  and  the  Catholic  Faith  was  pre- 
served in  the  Hapsburg  dominions.  (See  Aubtro- 
HuNGARiAN  Monarchy;  Hungary.) 

(c)  Holland  was  one  of  the  first  countries  to  receive 
the  doctrines  of  Luther.  Emperor  Charles  V,  anxious 
to  avert  the  disorders  which  foUowed  the  Reformation 
in  Germany,  used  great  severity  asainst  those  who 
prop>ajKated  Lutheranism  in  the  Netherlands.  His 
son,  Philip  II  of  Spain  (1556-98),  was  still  more  rig- 
orous. Tne  measures  he  employed  were  often  des- 
potic and  unjust,  and  the  people  rose  in  a  rebellion 
(1568),  by  which  Holland  was  lost  to  Spain.  Mean- 
while the  relations  between  the  Lutherans  and  Cal- 
vinists were  anything  but  cordial.  The  Reformed 
party  gradually  gained  the  ascendancy,  and,  when 
the  republic  was  established,  their  political  suprem- 
acy enabled  them  to  subject  the  Lutherans  to  many 
annoying  restrictions.  The  Dutch  Lutherans  fell  a 
prey  to  Rationalism  in  the  eighteenth  century.  A 
number  of  the  churches  and  pastors  separated  from 
the  main  body  to  adhere  more  closely  to  the  Augsbui^ 
Confession.  The  liberal  party  has  a  theological  semi- 
nary (founded  in  1816)  at  Amsterdam,  while  the 
orthodox  provide  for  theological  training  by  lectures 
in  ^e  university  of  the  same  city. 

(4)  Lutherans  in  America. — (a)  Period  of  Founda- 
tion (1624-1742). — Lutherans  were  among  the  ear- 
liest European  settlers  on  this  continent.  Their  first 
representatives  came  from  Holland  to  the  Dutch  col- 
ony of  New  Netherlands  about  1624.  Under  Governor 
Stuyvesant  they  were  obliged  to  conform  to  the  Re- 
formed services,  but  freedom  of  worship  was  obtained 
when  New  Amsterdam  (New  York)  was  captured  by 
the  English  in  1664.  The  second  distinct  body  of 
Lutherans  in  America  arrived  from  Sweden  in  1637. 
Two  years  later  they  had  a  minister  and  organized  at 
Fort  Christina  (now  Wilmington,  Delaware),  the  first 
Lutheran  congregation  in  the  New  World.  After 
1771  the  Swedes  of  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania  dis- 
solved their  union  with  the  Mother  CJhurch  of  Sweden. 
As  they  had  no  English-speaking  ministers,  they  chose 
their  pastors  from  the  Episcopalian  Church.  Since 
1846  tnese  congregations  nave  declared  full  commun- 
ion with  the  Episco(MJians.  The  first  colony  of  Ger- 
man Lutherans  was  from  the  Palatinate.  They  ar- 
rived in  1693  and  founded  German  town,  now  a  part  of 
Philadelphia.  During  the  eighteenth  century  large 
numbers  of  Lutheran  emigrants  from  Alsace,  the 
Palatinate,  and  WOrtemberg  settled  along  the  Hudson 
Riv^r.  Gn  the  Atlantic  coast,  in  New  Jersey,  Vir- 
ginia, North  and  South  Carolina,  were  many  isolated 
groups  of  German  Lutherans.    A  colony  of  Lutherans 


LUTHERAHIBM 


461 


LUTHSKAnsBI 


from  Salzburg  founded  the  settlement  of  Ebeneser, 
Georna.  in  1734.  In  Eastern  Pennsylvania  about 
30,000  German  Lutherans  had  settled  l>efore  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth  century.  Three  of  their  congre- 
^tions  applied  to  Europe  for  ministers,  and  Count 
Zimsendorf  became  pastor  in  Philadelphia  in  1741. 

(b)  Period  of  OrMiization  (1742-87)  .—In  1742 
Rev.  Henry  Muhlenberg,  a  Hanoverian,  who  is  re- 
garded as  the  patriarch  of  American  Lutheranism,  ar- 
rived in  Philadelphia  and  succeeded  Zinzendorf  in  the 
pastorate.  Durine  the  forty-five  years  of  his  min- 
istry in  America,  Muhlenberg  presided  over  widely 
separated  congregations  and  erected  many  churches. 
He  began  the  work  of  oivanisation  among  the  Lu- 
therans of  America  by  the  foundation  of  ^e  ^rnod  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1748.     He  also  prepared  the  con- 

fregational  constitution  of  St.  Micnaers  Church, 
Philadelphia,  which  became  the  model  of  similar 
constitutions  throughout  the  country.  His  son.  Rev. 
Frederick  Muhlenberg,  afterwards  speaker  in  the  first 
House  of  Representatives,  was  ^e  originator  of  the 
Ministerium  of  New  York,  the  second  S3rnod  in  Amer- 
ica (1773). 

(c)  Period  of  Deterioration  (1787-1817).— Muhlen- 
berg and  the  other  German  pastors  of  his  time  were 
graduates  of  the  University  of  Halle.  The  generation 
that  succeeded  them  had  made  their  studies  in  the 
same  institution.  But  the  Pietism  of  the  founders  of 
Halle  had  now  made  way  for  the  destructive  criti- 
cism of  Semler.  The  result  was  soon  manifest  in  the 
indifferentism  of  the  American  Churches,  llie  Penn- 
sylvania Ministerium  eliminated  all  confessional  tests 
in  its  constitution  of  1792.  The  New  York  ministe- 
rium, led  by  Dr.  Frederick  Quitman,'  a  decided  Ration- 
alist, substituted  for  the  older  Lutheran  catechisms 
and  hymn-books  works  that  were  more  conformable 
to  the  prevailing  theology.    The  agenda,  or  service- 

^  book  adopted  by  the  Pennsylvania  Lutherans  in  1818, 
was  a  departure  from  the  old  type  of  service  and  the 
expression  of  new  doctrinal  stanoards.  The  transition 
from  the  use  of  German  to  English  caused  splits  in 
many  congregations,  the  German  partv  bitterly  op- 
posing the  introduction  of  English  in  the  churcn  ser- 
vices. They  even  felt  that  they  had  more  in  common 
with  the  German-speaking  Reformed  than  with  the 
English-speaking  Lutherans,  and  some  of  them  ad- 
vocated an  Evangelical  Union  such  as  was  then  pro- 
posed in  Prussia. 

(d)  Period  of  Revival  and  Expansion  (1817-60).— 
To  prevent  the  threatened  disintegration,  a  union  of 
all  tne  Lutheran  synods  in  America  was  proposed.  ^ 
1820  the  General  Synod  was  oiganised  at  Hagerstown. 
Pennsylvania,  but  a  few  of  the  district  synods  stooa 
aloof.  The  new  organisation  was  regarded  with  sus- 
picion by  many,  and  in  1823  the  mother  synod  of 
Pennsylvania  itself  withdrew  from  the  general  body. 
From  the  beginning  there  was  a  considerable  element 
within  the  General  Synod  which  favoured  doctrinal 
compromise  with  the  Reformed  Church.  To  strengthen 
the  conservative  party,  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  re- 
turned to  the  General  Synod  in  1853.  Meanwhile 
the  Greneral  Synod  had  established  the  theological 
seminary  at  Gettysburg,  Penn^lvania  (1^),  and 
societies  for  home  and  forei^  missions.  In  the  West 
several  ecclesiastical  oiganizations  were  formed  by 
Lutheran  emi^nts  from  Saxony,  Prussia,  Bavaria, 
and  the  Scandinavian  countries.  The  Mifflouri  Synod 
was  founded  by  Rev.  Carl  Walther  in  1847,  and  the 
same  year  opened  a  theological  seminary  at  St.  Louis. 
A  band  of  Old  Lutherans,  who  resisted  the  PnuBian 
union,  emimted  from  SuEony  in  1839,  and  two  srears 
later  founded  the  Buffalo  Synod.  At  first  a  miion 
between  the  Missouri  and  the  Buffalo  synods  was  ex- 
pected, but  instead  their  leaders  were  soon  engaged  in 
doctrinal  controversies  which  extended  over  many 
years.  In  1854  a  party  within  the  Missouri  §ynod, 
dissatisfied  with  what  it  regarded  as  the  extreme  <xm- 


gregationalism  of  that  body  and  its  denial  of  open 
ouestions  in  theology,  seceded  and  fonned  the  lows 
erynod  with  its  theological  seminary  at  Dubuque. 
Ever  since  there  has  been  conflict  between  these  two 
synods.  Travelling  preachers  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Ministerium  founded  in  Ohio  a  conference  in  con- 
nexion with  the  mother  s3rnod  in  1805.  This  confer- 
ence was  reorganized  in  1818  into  a  synod  which  since 
1833  has  been  known  as  the  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio. 
The  earliest  synods  formed  by  Scandinavian  emi- 
grants were:  (1)  the  Norwegian  Hauge  Synod  (1846), 
(2)  the  Norw^an  Synod  (1853),  and  (3)  the  Scandi- 
navian Augustana  Synod  (1860),  all  in  the  states  of  the 
Middle  West. 

(e)  Period  of  Reorganization  (since  1860). — At  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War  the  General  Synod  num- 
bered two-thirds  of  the  Lutherans  in  the  United 
States,  and  hopes  were  entertained  that  soon  all 
the  organizations  would  be  unit^  in  one  body. 
These  anticipations,  however,  were  doomed  to  ds^ 
appointment.  In  1863  the  General  Synod  lost  the 
five  southern  district  83rnods,  which  withdrew  and 
formed  the  ''General  Synod  of  the  Confederate 
States '\  A  more  serious  break  in  the  General  Sjmod 
occurred  three  years  later.  The  disagreements  be- 
tween the  liberal  and  the  conservative  elements  in  that 
body  had  not  abated  with  time.  In  1864  ^e  Minis- 
terium of  Pennsylvania  established  in  Philadelphia  a 
new  seminary,  thereby  greatly  reducing  the  attend- 
ance at  the  Gettysburg  seminary  of  the  Ueneral  Synod. 
At  the  next  convention  (1866)  it  was  declm^  that  the 
Pennsylvania  Synod  was  no  longer  in  practical  union 
with  the  General  Synod.  The  Pennsylvania  Minis- 
terium at  once  sent  out  an  invitation  to  all  American 
and  Canadian  synods  to  join  with  it  in  forming  a  new 
general  body.  In  response  to  this  invitation  a  ood- 
vention  assembled  at  Reading  the  same  year,  and 
thirteen  synods  were  consolidated  into  the  ''General 
Council".  With  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  tbe 
Southern  Lutherans  might  have  returned  to  fellow- 
ship with  their  Northern  brethren,  but  the  contro- 
versy between  the  Northern  synods  determined  them 
to  perpetuate  their  own  organization.  In  1886  they 
reorganized  their  general  body,  taking  the  name  of  the 
"United  Synod  in  the  South",  and  stating  their  doc- 
trinal position,  which  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  of 
the  General  Council.  A  fourth  general  body  was 
formed  in  1872,  the  "Synodical  Conference",  at 
present  the  strongest  organization  among  the  Lu- 
theran Churehes  of  America.  It  takes  as  ito  basis  the 
Formula  of  Concord  of  1580,  and  comprises  the  Mis- 
souri and  other  Western  synods.  A  controversy  on 
predestination  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  the  Ohio 
Synod  in  1881,  and  of  the  Norw^an  Synod  in  1884. 
Tnere  are  still  many  independent  synods  not  affiliated 
with  any  of  the  several  oiganizations.  Tlius  iibe  Lu- 
therans of  the  Imited  States  are  divided  into  various 
conflicting  bodies,  each  claiming  to  be  a  truer  expo- 
nent of  Lutheranism  than  the  others.  The  memlwr- 
ship  of  the  four  principal  organizations  is  almost 
exclusively  of  German  descent.  The  main  cause  Of 
separation  is  diversity  of  opinion  regarding  the  impor- 
tance or  the  interpretation  of  the  official  confessicms. 

ni.  Organization  and  Worship. — In  Uie  early 
days  of  the  Reformation  the  prevalent  form  of  gov- 
ernment was  tiiat known  as  the  episcopal,  which  trans- 
ferred the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  to  the  civil  ruler. 
It  was  followed  by  the  territorial  system,  which  recog- 
nized the  sovereign  as  head  of  the  church,  in  virtue  of 
his  office,  both  in  administiative  and  doctrinal  mat-  • 
ters.  The  oolleffial  eystdm  of  Pfaff  (1719)  asserts  the 
sovereignty  and  independence  of  the  congregation, 
which  may,  however,  delegate  its  authority  to  the 
State.  In  the  Lutheran  state  Churehes  the  secular 
power  is  in  fact  the  supreme  authority.  The  praotieal 
determination  of  religious  questions  rests  with  |ihe 
natioxial  legislatiire,  or  with  a  <»w&>&tfii6oQBs^  ^<^^^sm^ 


LUTHXBAHISM 


462 


LUTHS&AVISM 


members  jure  appointed  by  the  g^vermnent.  No  Di- 
vinely constituted  hierarchy  is  reoognixedi  and  in 
orders  all  the  clergy  are  considered  as  equals.  The  Lu- 
theran bishops  of  Sweden  and  Denmark,  like  the 
"general  superintendents''  of  Germany,  are  govern- 
ment officials  entrusted  with  the  oversight  of  me  pas- 
tors and  congregations.  In  Holland  and  the  United 
States,  as  among  the  Free  Churches  of  Germany,  the 
form  of  oiganization  is  synodical,  a  system  of  church 
polity  which  in  its  main  features  has  been  derived 
from  the  Reformed  Church.  According  to  this  pl^i, 
purely  congregational  matters  are  decided  by  the  vote 
of  the  congregation,  either  directly  or  through  the 
church  council.  In  the  United  States  the  church 
ooimcil  consists  of  the  pastor  and  his  lay  assistants, 
the  elders  and  deacons,  all  chosen  by  the  congres^. 
tion.  Affairs  of  more  general  importance  and  dis- 
puted questions  are  settled  by  the  district  synod, 
composed  of  lay  and  clerical  delegates  representing 
Buch  congregations  as  have  accepted  a  mutual  congre- 
gational compact.  The  congr^ations  composing  a 
district  synod  may  unite  with  other  district  synods  to 
form  a  more  general  body.  The  powers  of  a  general 
oiganization  of  this  kind,  in  relation  to  the  belies  of 
wmch  it  is  composed,  are  not,  however,  in  all  cases  the 
same.  The  constitution  of  the  Old  Lutheran  Church 
in  Germany  makes  its  General  Synod  the  last  court  of 
appeal  and  its  decisions  bindmg.  In  the  United 
States  a  different  conception  prev^ls,  and  in  most  in- 
stances the  general  assemblies  are  regarded  simply  as 
advisory  conferences  whose  decisions  require  the  rati- 
fication of  the  particular  organizations  represented. 

Lutheran  pubUc  worship  is  based  on  the  service- 
book  which  Luther  published  in  1523  and  1526.  He 
retained  the  first  part  of  the  Mass,  but  abolished  the 
Offertory,  Canon,  and  all  the  forms  of  sacrifice.  The 
niain  Lutheran  service  is  still  known  as  "the  Mass'* 
in  Scandinavian  coimtries.  The  singing  of  hynms  be- 
came a  prominent  part  of  the  new  service.  Many 
Catholic  sequences  were  retained,  and  other  sacred 
sones  were  borrowed  from  the  old  German  poets. 
Luther  himself  wrote  hymns,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  he  is  really  the  author  of  any  of  the  melodies 
that  are  usually  ascribed  to  him.  Luther  wished  to 
retain  the  Elevation  and  the  use  of  the  Latin  language, 
but  these  have  been  abandoned.  The  Collect,  Epistte, 
and  Gospel  vary  according  to  the  Sundays  of  the  year. 
The  Creed  is  followed  by  a  sermon  on  the  Scripture 
lesson  of  the  day.  which  is  the  principal  part  of  the 
service.  Ordinarily  the  Lord's  Supper  is  administered 
only  a  few  times  during  the  year.  It  is  preceded, 
sometimes  the  day  before,  by  the  service  of  public 
confession  and  absolution,  which  consists  in  the  prom- 
ise of  amendment  made  by  the  intending  communi- 
cants, and  the  declaration  of  the  minister  that  such  as 
are  truly  penitent  are  forgiven.  Only  two  sacraments 
are  recognized  by  Lutherans,  Baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper;  but  Confirmation,  Ordination,  and  C<xifes- 
non  as  just  described  are  regarded  as  sacred  rites. 
There  are  also  ceremonies  prescribed  for  marriage  and 
burial.  Christmas.  Easter,  Pentecost,  the  feast  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles,  the  Commemoration  of  the  Reforma- 
tion (31  Oct.)  are  observed  with  religious  services. 
Pictures  are  permitted  in  the  churches,  and  in  Den- 
mark vestments  and  light^  candles  are  used  at  the 
communion  service.  The  first  complete  ritual  or 
agenda  was  that  prepared  for  the  Duchy  of  Prussia  in 
1625.  There  is  no  uniform  liturgy  for  the  churches. 
In  the  United  Evangelical  Church  of  Germany  the 
agenda  of  Frederick  William  III  (1817)  is  the  official 
form.  The  services  of  the  American  Lutherans  were 
for  many  years  chiefly  extemporaneous,  but  since  1888 
a  common  service  based  on  the  liturgies  of  the  six- 
teenth century  has  been  used  by  almost  all  English- 
i^peaking  Lutherans  in  this  country.  It  includes,  be- 
sides the  main  service,  matins  and  vespers. 

IV.  Vabious  Lutheran  Activituds. — (1)  Foreign 


MiaiioM  and  BenevoUni  OrganuaUons. — ^Foreign  mis- 
sionary activity  has  never  been  a  very  prominent 
diaracteristic  of  the  Luthenm  Church.  Its  pioneer 
missionaries  went  from  the  University  of  Halle  to  the 
East  Indies  (Tanquebar)  at  the  invitation  of  Fred- 
erick IV  of  Denmark  in  1705.  During  the  eighteenth 
oentuiy  Halle  sent  about  sixty  missionaries  to  Tanque- 
bar. In  later  years  the  mission  was  supplied  by  the 
Leipzig  Lutheran  Mission.  Another  Danish  mission 
was  tfa^t  of  Pastor  Hans  Eg^e  among  the  Green- 
landers  in  1721.  During  the  nineteenth  century  sev- 
eral societies  for  foreign  missions  were  founded:  the 
Beriin  Mission  Society  (1824),  the  Evangelical  Lu- 
theran Missionary  Association  of  Leipzig  (1836),  the 
Hermansburg  Society  (1854),  and  a  number  of  similar 
organisations  in  the  Scandinavian  countries.  In  the 
United  States  a  German  Foreign  Missionary  Society 
was  founded  in  1837.  The  first  Lutheran  missionary 
from  the  United  States  was  Dr.  Heyer,  who  was  sent 
to  India  in  1841.  At  present  missions  to  the  heathen 
in  Oceania,  India,  and  East  Africa,  are  maintained 
under  the  auspices  of  various  American  synods.  The 
sisterhood,  known  as  the  Lutheran  Deaconesses,  was 
founded  by  Pastor  Fliedner  at  Kaiserwerth  in  1833, 
its  objects  being  the  care  of  the  sick,  instruction,  etc. 
They  are  now  very  numerous  in  some  parts  of  Ger- 
many. They  were  introduced  in  the  United  States 
in  1849. 

(2)  Sacred  Learning  and  Education. — ^The  study  of 
exe^tics,  church  history,  and  theology  has  been  much 
cultivated  by  Lutheran  scholars.  Among  the  exegetes 
the  following  are  well  known:  Solomon  Glassius  (Phi- 
lologia  Sacra,  1623);  Sebastian  Schmid  (d.  1696), 
translator  and  commentator;  John  H.  Michaelis 
(Bibha  Hebraica,  1720);  John  A.  Bengel  (Gnomon 
Novi  Testamenti,  1752) ;  Havemick  (d.  1845),  Heg&- 
tenberg  (d.  1869),  and  Delitzsch  (d.  1890),  commen- 
tators. Among  the  more  important  church  historians 
may  be  mentioned:  Mosheim  (d.  1755),  sometimes 
cidled  the  "Father  of  Modem  Church  History", 
Schrockle  (d.  1808),  Neander  (d.  1850),  Kurtz  (d. 
1890).  Haae  (d.  1890).  The  "Magdeburg  Centuries" 
(1559)  of  Fladus  lUyricus  and  his  associates,  the  firet 
church  history  written  by  Protestants,  is  very  biased 
and  has  no  historical  value.  Numerous  dogmatic 
works  have  been  written  by  Lutheran  theologians. 
Among  the  dogmaticians  most  esteemed  b}r  Lutherans 
are:  Melanchthon,  whose  "Loci  Theologici"  (1521) 
was  the  first  Lutheran  theology;  Martin  Chemmtz  (d. 
1586)  and  John  Gerhard  (d.  1637),  the  two  ablest 
Lutheran  theologians;  Calovius  (d.  1686),  champion 
of  the  strictest  Lutheran  orthodoxy;  Quenstedt  (d. 
1688)^  Hollaz(d.  1713);  Luthardt  (d.  1902) ;  Henry 
Schmid,  whose  dogmatic  theology  (1st  ed.,  1843)  in 
its  En^ish  translation  has  been  much  used  in  the 
United  States.  The  Lutheran  Church  still  produces 
many  dogmatic  works,  but  very  few  of  the  modem 
divines  hold  strictly  to  the  old  formula;  of  faith. 

The  Lutheran  Churches  deserve  great  credit  for  the 
importance  they  have  always  attached  to  religious 
instruction,  not  ovly  in  their  many  universities,  but 
also  and  especiallv  in  the  schools  of  elementary  in- 
struction. In  Lutheran  countries  the  education  of  the 
children  is  supervised  by  the  religious  authorities, 
since  Lutherans  act  on  the  principle  that  religious 
training  is  the  most  important  part  of  education .  The 
catechism.  Biblical  study,  and  church  music  have  a 

Prominent  part  in  the  everyday  instruction.  In  the 
fnited  States  the  parochial  school  has  been  developed 
with  great  success  among  the  congregations  that  still 
use  the  German  and  Scandinavian  languages.  The 
Lutherans  of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois  co-operated  with 
the  Catholics  in  1890  in  an  organized  resistance 
against  legislation  which  would  have  proved  injurious 
to  the  parochial  schools. 

V.  Influence  op  Rattonausbc  in  the  Lutheran 
CHUBCHS8.-r-The  popular  faith  had  been  overthrown 


LUTOXiF 


483 


in  the  eighteenth  century  by  the  philosophy  of  Wolff 
(d.  1754)  and  the  criticism  of  Semler  (d.  1791).  The 
principle  of  the  supremacy  of  reason  was  used  to  tear 
down  belief  in  the  inspired  character  of  Holy  Writ. 
The  literature  and  philosophy  of  the  time  show  how 
n^eat  a  blow  was  dealt  to  orthodox  Lutheranism. 
Theology,  now  become  the  handmaid  of  philosophy, 
eagerlv  accepted  amid  the  prevailing  doubt  and  nega- 
tion the  system  of  Kant  (d.  1804),  which  made  the 
essence  of  reUgion  and  the  whole  value  of  Scripture 
consist  in  the  teaching  of  the  morality  of  reason  or 
natural  ethics.  Against  this  rationalistic  theologv 
there  arose  about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  two  reactionary  movements — Supernatural- 
ism,  which  declared  in  favour  of  the  undivided  su- 
premacy of  faith,  and  the  system  of  Schleicrmacher 
(d.  1834),  which  made  sentiment  or  the  feelings  of  the 
heart  the  criterion  of  religious  truth.  The  teachings 
of  Schleiermacher  recast  the  existing  theology,  and 
gave  it  the  bent  which  it  afterwards  followed.  A  still 
more  thoroughgoing  rationalism  appeared  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Hegelian  Strauss  (d.  1874)  and  of  the 
Tubingen  school,  which  aimed  at  the  utter  destruction 
of  the  Divine  basis  of  Christian  faith  by  explaining  all 
that  is  supernatural  in  Scripture  as  merely  natural  or 
mythical.  These  bold  attacks  were  met  by  many  able 
scnolars,  and  they  have  long  since  been  discredited. 
Since  the  days  of  Strauss  and  Bauer  (d.  1860),  the 
method  known  as  Higher  Criticism  (see  Criticism, 
Biblical)  has  found  favour  in  Germany,  both  with 
the  rationalistic  and  the  orthodox  Protestant.  Much 
that  is  of  permanent  value  as  an  aid  to  the  scientific 
study  of  the  Bible  has  been  accomplished,  but  at  the 
same  time  Rationalism  has  been  making  constant 
gains,  not  only  in  the  universities,  but  also  amongst 
the  masses.  The  strictly  confessional  theology  of  the 
orthodox  revival  (1817),  the  neo-Lutheran  movement, 
whose  leanings  toward  the  Catholic  Faith  gave  it  the 
name  of  German  Puseyism,  the  Compromise  Theology, 
which  endeavoured  to  reconcile  behevcrs  and  Ration- 
alists— all  these  more  or  less  conservative  systems  are 
now  to  a  great  extent  superseded  by  the  modem  or 
free  theology,  represented  by  Pfleiderer  (d.  1906), 
Wilhelm  Hermann,  Trdltsch,  Hamack,  Weinel,  and 
others,  which  teaches  a  religion  without  creed  or 
dogma.  In  Germany,  especially  in  the  cities,  the 
Evangelical  faith  has  lost  its  influence  not  only  with 
the  people,  but  in  ^reat  part  with  the  preachers  them- 
selves. The  same  is  true  to  some  extent  in  the  Scan- 
dinavian countries,  where  Rationalism  is  making  in- 
roads on  Lutheran  orthodoxy.  In  the  United  States 
the  Lutherans  have  been  more  conservative,  and  thus 
far  have  preserved  more  of  their  confessional  spirit. 

VI.  Statistics. — ^The  number  of  Lutherans  in  the 
world  is  about  fifty  millions,  a  membership  which  far 
exceeds  that  of  any  other  Protestant  denomination. 
The  chief  Lutheran  coiutry  to-day,  as  from  the  begin- 
ning, is  Germany.  In  1905  the  Evangelicals  (Luther- 
ans and  Reformed)  in  the  German  Empire  numbered 
37,646,852.  The  membership  of  the  Lutheran  churches 
in  other  European  countries  is  as  follows:  Sweden 
(1900),  5,972,792;  Russia,  chiefly  in  Finland  and  the 
Baltic  Provinces  (1905),  3,572,653;  Denmark  (1901), 
2,400,000;  Norway  (1900),  2,197.318;  Hungary 
(1906),  1.288,942.  Austria  and  Holland  have  about 
494 ,000  and  1 1 0,000  Lutherans  respectively.  Accord- 
ing to  a  bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  tiie  U.  S.  Census  the 
total  membership  of  the  24  Lutheran  bodies  in  the 
Unite<l  States  in  1906  was  2,112,494,  with  7841  min- 
isters, 11,194  church  edifices,  and  church  property 
valued  at  $74,826,389.  Dr.  H.  K.  Carroll's  statistics 
of  the  Churches  ot  the  United  States  for  1909  credits 
the  Lutherans  with  2,173,047  communicants. 

I.  Jacobs.  The  Book  of  Concord  (Philadelphia.  1893);  Scbait. 
The  Creeds  of  Chrittendom  (6th  etl..  New  York,  1890),  I,  II; 
ScHMiD,  Dort.  Theol.  ofBvang.Luih.  Church  (PhiUdclphia,  1889). 

II.  For  the  history  of  Lutheranism  in  Europe  consult  the 
bibliographies  under  the  religious  histoiy  of  the  yarknu  oowi- 


tnes.  For  the  histoxy  of  Lutberaniam  in  the  United  Stottf: 
Jacobs,  History  of  the  Evanq.  LtUheran  Church  in  the  U.  S,  (New 
York.  1893)  in  American  Chweh  History  Seriee,  IV  (with  eztes- 
sivebiblloc.);  WoLF,The  LtUheran*  in  America  (New  York,  1889). 
III.  2.  HoKN.  OutUnea  of  Li$wraiea  (Philadelphia.  1890). 

V.  Hurst,  Hist,  of  Rationalism  (New  York,  1865):  Vxoou- 
Roux,  Les  Litres  Saints  el  la  Critique  Ratumaliste^  II  (Pails* 
1886),  311-566. 

VI.  XtrcAitcAef/oArfrucA  (published  at  Gatersloh);  Luthmtm 
Church  Annual;  Lutheran  Year  Book.       J.  A.  McHuGH.     ^ 

Ltltolf ,  Alots,  ecclesiastical  historian,  b.  23  July, 
1824,  in  Gettnau  near  Willisau  (Switzerland);  d.  at 
Lucerne,  8  April,  1879.  He  made  his  early  studies  at 
the  Jesuit  College  of  Schwyz,  and  at  the  Lyceum  at 
Lucerne,  where  he  became  an  enthusiastic  student  of 
history.  But  as  the  political  situation  at  that  time 
did  not  permit  of  serious  study,  Latolf ,  with  a  number 
of  students  of  like  youthful  ardour,  placed  themselves 
in  1847  at  the  disposal  of  their  country.  For  a  tima 
Lfttolf  was  employed  as  private  secretary  at  Lucerne, 
and  also  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  the  Sonderbuna 
army  into  the  Canton  of  Ticino.  From  1847  to  1849 
he  studied  theology  and  history  at  Freiburg  in  Baden 
and  at  Mum'ch,  and  in  1850  was  ordained  priest  at 
Solothum.  After  serving  on  the  mission  for  a  time,  he 
taught  history  from  1852  to  1856  at  the  Catholic  can- 
tonal school  of  St.  Gall.  On  the  suppression  of  this 
school,  Lutolf  became  parish  priest  at  Lucerne.  In 
1864  he  was  appointed  vlcercgent  of  the  clerical  semi* 
nary  at  Solothum,  in  1858  professor  of  church  history, 
and  shortly  afterwards  canon  of  St.  Leodegar's  chap- 
ter at  Lucerne.  In  1859  he  began  to  publish  his 
investigations  made  at  St.  Gall.  The  most  im- 
portant arc  '*  Sagen,  Gebrauche  und  Legenden  aus  den 
tUnf  Orten"  (Lucerne,  1865)  and  "  Glaubensboten  der 
•Schweiz  vor  St.  Gallus"  (Lucerne,  1870),  a  valuable 
contribution  to  the  ancient  history  of  Switzeriuid. 
His  *'  Leben  und  Bekenntnisse  des  I.  L.  S.  SchiflFmann" 
(Lucerne,  1861)  is  a  creditable  memorial  to  his  former 
master.  Father  Schiffman;  the  book  also  contains 
important  information  about  the  famous  pedagogue, 
Bishop  Sailer,  and  his  school  in  Switzerland.  He  also 
has  a  work  on  the  historian  Kopp,  **  Jos.  Ant.  Kopp  als 
Professor,  Dichter,  Staatsmann  und  Histonker" 
(Lucerne,  1868).  The  latter  had  shortly  before  his 
death  given  him  his  historical  manuscripts,  and  com- 
missioned him  to  complete  his  partly  nnished  work, 

''Geschichte  der  eidgenOssischen  BOnde". 
Schmidt,  Erinnenmgsn  an  Dr.  Al.  LQtolf  (Lucerne.  1880). 

Patricius  Schlageb. 

Lutik,  Zhitomir,  and  Kamenati,  Diocesb  of 
(LucEOBiENSis,  Zytomuuensis,  XT  Camenecensis), 
in  Little  Russia.  Its  present  territoiy  extends  over 
the  Governments  (provinces)  of  Volhynia,  Kieff,  and 
Podolia.  Originally  it  formed  three  separate  dioceses, 
but  they  were  eventually  united,  through  successful 
Russian  pressure  upon  the  Holy  See,  intended  to  pro- 
mote governmental  authority  over  the  Catholic  Church 
in  Russia.  The  jsee  is  theoretically  governed  by  the 
diocesan  bishop,  w^ho  resides  at  Zhitomir,  assisted  by 
three  auxiliary  bishops,  for  the  cities  of  Lutzk,  Zhito- 
mir, and  Kien;  but  at  present  two  are  vacant. 

Originally  this  portion  of  Russia  was  entirely  of  the 
Greek  Rite,  but  with  the  conquest  of  Volhynia  and 
Podolia  bv  the  Lithuanians  in  1320,  and  the  Later  con- 
ouest  ana  union  of  Lithuania  bv  the  Poles  in  1560, 
tne  Latin  Rite  became  well  established,  and  accord- 
ingly Latin  bishoprics  were  founded.  Lutzk,  in  the 
western  part  of  Volhynia,  is  perhaps  the  oldest  one; 
it  is  said  to  have  been  foimded  in  1358,  but  the  se^  was 
then  placed  further  west  at  Vladimir.  In  1428  Bishop 
Andrew  Plawka  transferred  the  see  to  Lutzk,  then  one 
of  the  principal  cities  of  Volhynia.  This  occasioned 
some  confusion  in  1439  at  the  Council  of  Florence, 
when  the  Bidbop  of  Lutzk  (Luck  in  Polish)  was  di- 
rected to  give  up  the  name  Lueensis  and  to  write  his 
diocese  Luceoriensis,  to  distinguish  him  from,  tlw^^ 
Bishop  of  Lugp.  S\x^T^rnj«saiiL«'swa^\s«^  " 


464 


in  this  diocese:  in  1607,  1621.  1641,  1684,  1720,  and 
.1726;  and  in  the  eighteenth  century  it  had  183 
•churches.  The  city  of  Lutsk  itself  0>e8  back  to  the 
time  of  Vladimir  the  Great  in  1000.  It  was  made  the 
see  of  an  Orthodox  bishop  in  1288,  and  it  was  Cyril 
Terletzki,  Exarch  and  Bishop  of  Lutzk,  who  afiBxed 
the  first  s^nature  to  the  act  of  union  at  the  Synod  of 
Biest  on  24  June,  1590,  and  who  went  to  Rome  to 
make  his  profession  of  union.  In  1350  Lutzk  was 
taken  by  the  Lithuanians,  and  became  a  flourishing 
city.  It  was  afterwards  annexed  to  Poland,  and  in 
1600  the  Jews  took  possession  of  the  city  and  have 
ever  since  held  it.  At  present  it  has  19,000  inhabi- 
tants, of  whom  12,000  are  Jews.  Volhynia  was  an- 
nexed to  Russia  in  1792,  at  the  Second  Partition  of 
Poland,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Diocese  of  Lutzk  was 
suppressed.  It  remained  however  a  Greek  Catholic 
diocese  until  1839.  Under  Emperor  Paul  I  in  1798 
the  Diocese  of  Lutzk  was  restored,  and  embraces  the 
whole  of  the  Province  of  Volhynia,  although  Zhitomir, 
the  capital  city,  lies  at  the  eastern  border,  near  the 
Province  of  Kieff.  The  see  has  been  kept  vacant  for 
long  intervals  during  the  past  centunr.  The  statistics 
of  &e  Diocese  of  Lutzk  (1909)  are:  Catholics,  279.157 
(Orthodox,  2,106,960);  secular  priests,  84;  regulars, 
6;  parish  churches,  81. 

Zhitomir  is  situated  on  the  River  Teterev,  about  ten 
miles  from  the  frontier  of  the  Government  of  Kieff. 
It  is  ^id  to  have  been  founded  by  Zhitomir,  one  of  the 
followers  of  Rurik.  In  the  thirteenth  centurv  it  was 
taken  by  the  Tatars  and  was  afterwards  subject  to 
Lithuania  and  Poland.  It  was  annexed  to  Russia  in 
1778.  The  city  now  has  a  population  of  65,000.  The 
Diocese  of  Zhitomir  is  really  that  of  Kieff.  Whep 
Kieff  and  Zhitomir  were  annexed  to  Russia,  the  Cath- 
olic diocese  was  suppressed,  and  the  Bishop  of  Kieff 
was  expelled,  but  in  1798  when  Pius  VI,  in  the  Bull 
"Maximis  undique  press!'*,  re-established  the  Diocese 
of  Kieff,  it  was  transferred  by  the  request  of  the  Rus- 
sian authorities  to  Zhitomir,  and  then  later  united  to 
Lutzk,  in  order  that  no  Latin  bishop  should  dispute 
the  See  of  Kieff  with  the  Orthodox  bishop.  Theoret- 
ically, an  auxiliary  bishop  may- reside  at  Kieff,  but 
none  has  been  allowed  for  many  decades.  The  dioc- 
esan bishop  of  the  united  sees  resides  at  Zhitomir. 
'Hie  present  (1909)  statistics  for  the  Diocese  of  Zhito- 
mir, which  includes  a  slight  strip  of  Volhynia  and  the 
whole  of  the  Government  of  Kieff,  are:  Catholics, 
220,893  (Orthodox,  2,988,694),  with  one  regular  and 
105  secular  clergy,  70  parish  churches,  and  one  semi- 
nary. The  Latin  Bishopric  of  Kieff  is  first  mentioned 
in  1321,  just  after  the  Lithuanians  conquered  this  part 
of  Little  Russia,  when  Pope  John  XaII  made  Hein- 
rich  von  Porvalle,  a  Dominican,  its  first  Hshop.  The 
next  bishop  was  Jacob,  also  a  Dominican.  Naturally 
the  earlier  Xatin  bishops  of  Kieff  were  travelling  mis- 
sionary bishops,  establishing  churches  and  ecclesias- 
tical institutions  of  the  Latin  Rite  throughout  the 
land.  Clement  (d.  1473)  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
Latin  bishop  to  fix  his  see  permanently  within  the  city 
of  Kieff,  where  he  built  a  cathedral.  In  the  previous 
century  the  Dominicans  had  built  a  fine  monastery  in 
the  lower  portion  of  Kieff  called  Podol,  which  was  for 
a  long  time  the  finest  Roman  church  in  that  part  of 
Russia.  Bishop  Alexander  Sokolowsky  (1613-1645) 
had  great  success  in  establishingLatin  churches,  and 
in  1640  established  a  deanery  atTchernigoff .  In  1626 
Bishop  John  Osga  commenced  to  build  an  additional 
cathedral  in  Zhitomir,  which  was  consecrattod  by  his 
successor  Gaetan  Soltyk  in  1751,  and  it  is  the  present 
cathedral.  Two  provmcial  fi^ods  were  held  in  this 
diocese:  one  in  1640  at  Kieff,  and  the  other  in  1762 
in  Zhitomir. 

The  city  of  Kieff,  "the  mother  of  all  the  cities  of 
Russia",  is  really  the  cnuile  of  Christianity  in  the 
Bussian  Empire.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
ISii  3Dd  his  PT0t]i^T9  Sbcbek  and  Khbriv,  who  w^re 


Poli^ni,  the  forefathers  of  the  modem  Poles;  and  was 
taken  in  conquest  by  the  followers  of  Rurik  in  their 
search  for  a  southern  kingdom.  Oleg,  the  successor  of 
Rurik,  came  to  Kieff  in  882  and  made  it  his  capital. 
St.  Olga  was  here  converted  to  Christianity,  although 
she  was  baptised  in  Constantinople.  Later,  her  suc- 
cessor St.  Vladimir,  on  his  conversion  to  Christianitjr, 
married  Anna^  the  sister  of  the  Greek  emperors,  Basil 
and  Constantme,  and  on  his  return  from  Constanti- 
nople in  988  actiyelv  set  about  the  conversion  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Kieff,  who  threw  their  heathen  idols, 
Perun  and  the  others,  into  the  Dnieper  and  were  bap- 
tised as  Christians,  thus  founding  the  first  Christian 
community  within  the  present  confines  of  Russia. 
Kieff  became  under  him  and  his  successors  the  great 
capital  of  Russia;  it  possessed  the  first  Christian 
church,  the  first  Christian  school,  and  the  first  library 
in  Russia.  It  passed  through  great  vicissitudes;  for 
three  hundred  and  seventynsix  years  it  was  an  inde- 
pendent Russian  city,  for  eighty  years  it  was  subject 
to  the  Tatars  and  Mongols,  for  two  hundred  and  f wty- 
nine  years  it  belonged  to  the  Lithuanian  Principality, 
and  for  ninety-eight  years  it  w^as  a  part  of  the  King- 
dom of  Poland.  It  was  finally  annexed  to  the  present 
Russian  Empire  in  1667.  Under  the  Lithuanian  rule 
it  rose  to  great  prosperity,  and  obtained  the  Magde- 
b\urp;  rights  of  a  free  city  in  1499,  which  it  enjcnred 
until  they  were  abolished  in  1835.  Naturally  Kieff 
became  the  see  of  the  first  Christian  bishop  in  Russia. 
Michael,  who  baptized  Vladimir,  'was  sent  as  the  chief 
missionary  to  the  Russians,  and  became  the  first  Met- 
ropolitan of  Kieff  (988-992) .  His  successors,  Leontius, 
Jonn  I,  and  Theopempt,  were  also  Greeks,  but  in  1051 
Hilarion,  the  first  Russian  bishop,  was  advanced  to 
the  dignity  of  metropolitan,  with  seven  bishops  under 
him.  In  1240  the  Tatars  took  the  city  of  Kieff,  pil- 
laged it,  and  established  Moslem  rule  in  one  of  the 
great  shrines  of  Christendom.  The  taking  of  Kieff  by 
the  Tatars  drove  the  Russians  northwai^s  and  cast- 
wards;  in  1316  the  Metropolitan  of  Kieff  changed  his 
see  to  Moscow,  and  thereafter  the  Church  of  Russia 
was  ruled  from  that  city.  In  1414,  after  the  change 
of  the  metropolitan  see  to  Moscow,  the  seven  Russian 
bishops  of  the  south  chose  a  new  Metropolitan  of  Kieff, 
who  ruled  over  these  southern  dioceses.  Thus  the 
Russian  Church  was  divided  into  two  great  jurisdic- 
tions: Moscow  and  Kieff.  Kieff,  being  of  the  Greek 
Rite,  was  naturally  dependent  upon  Constantinople, 
the  Church  of  its  origin,  and  gradually  followed  it  into 
schism.  Yet  for  a  long  time  after  the  break  between 
Rome  and  Constantinople  it  remained  in  unity  with 
the  Holy  See.  The  first  four  metropolitans  of  Kieff 
were  Catholics  and  in  union  with  Home.  Hilarion 
embraced  schismatic  \'iews  strongly  tinctured  with  na- 
tionalism, but  his  successor  George  was  in  correspond- 
ence with  Pope  Gregory  VII,  while  Ephraem  (1090- 
1096)  was  the  Metropolitan  of  Kieff  who  established  in 
Russia  the  feast  of  the  translation  of  the  relics  of  St. 
Nicholas  (9  May)  w^hich  was  instituted  bv  Pope  Urban 
II,  but  which  was  indignantly  rejected  ty  the  Greeks 
of  Constantinople  and  the  Eaist .  During  the  following 
century  the  metropolitans  of  Kieff  followed  the  schism 
more  closely,  yet  three  or  four  of  them  remained  in 
close  relation  with  the  Holy  See.  Maximus  (1283- 
1305)  was  a  Catholic  metropolitan,  Cyprian  (1389;- 
1406)  also  had  close  relations  with  the  Roman  authori- 
ties, while  Gregory  I  (1416-1419)  was  strongly  inclined 
towards  imion  with  Rome.  From  1438  to  1442  the 
Council  of  Florence  was  held  for  the  reunion  of  Chris- 
tendom. Isidore,  Metropolitan  of  Kieff  (1437-1448), 
with  five  other  Russian  bishops,  attended  the  council, 
signed  the  act  of  union^nd  became  one  of  its  greatest 
advocates.  Gregory  11  (1458-1472),  his  successor, 
was  consecrated  m  Rome  in  the  presence  of  Pope  Pius 
II.  and  was  also  an  earnest  supporter  of  the  union. 
Misael  (1474-1477)  and  Simeon  (1477-1188)  were 
also  Catholics.    Joseph  II  (1498-1517)  likewise  ad- 


LUXKBDURO 


465 


LUZEBSBURO 


hered  to  the  union,  and  ^as  nicknamed  "  the  Latin  '* 
by  the  Moscow  Ortnodox  Greeks.  Then  followed  sev- 
eral metropoUtans  who  renounced  the  union  and  ad- 
hered to  the  schism,  until  the  time  of  Michael  Ragosa 
(1588-1599),  who  took  a  definite  stand  for  union  with 
Rome,  and  who  signed  the  act  of  union  of  2  December. 
1 594 ,  addressed  to  the  Holy  See.  It  was  consummatea 
the  following  year,  and  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic 
Church  thus  constituted  has  ever  since  been  in  union 
with  Rome.  Then  follows  a  line  of  Catholic  metropoli- 
tans of  Kieff  of  the  Greek  Rite:  Hypatius  (1600- 
1613),  Joseph  IV  (1614-1637),  and  Raphael  (1637- 
1641).  Then  came  the  great  champion  of  Russian 
Orthodoxy,  the  Metropolitan  Peter  Mogila,  who  f ou^t 
the  union  and  turned  the  Russians  awa]^  from  the 
Holy  See,  and  who  strove  to  undo  the  entire  work  of 
the  united  Churches.  His  task  was  finally  acoomr 
plished  within  the  confines  of  Russia  by  his  successors 
after  the  annexation  of  Kieff  in  1667  to  the  Russian 
Empire  by  means  of  the  successive  forced  "  reunions" 
of  the  Greek  Catholics  to  the  Russian  Orthodox 
Church  (see  Russia).  The  city  of  Kieff  (250,000  in- 
habitants) is  beautifully  situated  upon  the  River 
Dnieper,  and  is  divided  naturally  and  historically  into 
three  parts:  Petchersk^  or  the  city  of  the  grotto-caves; 
Podol,  or  the  plain,  which  is  now  the  commercial  part; 
and  Staro-KieflF,  or  old  KiefT,  upon  the  heights  over- 
looking the  river.  The  early  monks  who  brought 
Christianity  to  Kieff  were  hermits  dwelling  in  the 
caves  on  the  hill-sides.  Subsequent! v  these  ¥rere  en- 
larged and  others  were  made,  like  the  catacombs  at 
Rome.  The  great  Petchersky  monasterv  is  situated 
above  one  of  the  series  of  caves,  while  the  church  of 
the  Exaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross  stands  above  the 
entrance  to  the  grottoes  of  St.  Anthony,  which  are  a 
series  of  catacombs  dating  back  to  1100,  when  the 
monk  Anthony  came  from  Mount  Athos  to  Kieff.  In 
these  catacombs  the  remains  of  the  monks  are  en- 
shrined, and  there  are  numerous  altars  on  which  Mass 
according  to  the  Greek  Rite  is  said  every  day.  The 
grottoes  of  St.  Theodosius  are  somewhat  similar.  On 
a  hill  fronting  the  Dnieper  is  a  huge  bronze  statue  of  St. 
Vladimir,  who  brought  Christianity  to  his  subjects  at 
Kieff.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia,  built  in  1037  by 
Jaroslav,  is  a  building  remarkable  for  its  mosaics  and 
ancient  frescoes  in  the  Byzantine  style,  some  of  which 
date  back  to  the  eleventh  century.  As  a  counterfoil 
to  this  there  is  the  cathedral  of  St.  Vladimir,  built  at 
the  end  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy,  containing  a  mag- 
nificent interior  riohlv  decorated  m  the  modem  Russo- 
Greek  style  by  the  best  Russian  artists.  There  are 
two  Roman  Catholic  churches  and  one  Greek  Catholic 
church  in  Kieff. 

Kamcnetz,  usually  called  Kamenetz-Podolski  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  Kamenetz-Litevsk,  is  the  capital  of 
the  Government  of  Podolia  and  lies  in  a  beautiful 
situation  upon  the  River  Smotrich  near  the  extreme 
western  border  of  the  Russian  Empire,  only  a  few 
miles  from  the  Austrian  frontier.  It  goes  back  to  the 
thirteenth  century.  1 1  grew  to  considerable  importance 
under  the  Polish  conquest.  The  Turks  held  it  for 
twenty-seven  years,  but  the  Poles  recaptured  it  in 
1699.  It  was  annexed  to  Russia  at  the  Second  Parti- 
tion of  Poland  in  1793.  Kamenctz  is  mentioned  to- 
gether with  Kieff  as  a  Latin  bishopric  in  1373.  The 
first  Bishop  of  Kamenetz  was  Wiluam,  a  Dominican 
(1375),  and  the  second  was  Roskosius  (1398).  Alex- 
ander, Bishop  of  Kamenetz  (1411),  and  his  successor 
Zbigniew  (1413)  promoted  the  idea  of  union  with  the 
Greeks.  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  comprised  the 
principal  Latin  clergy  of  the  time,  and  in  tne  follow- 
mg  century  the  Jesmts  were  also  introduced.  When 
the  Latin  hierarchv  was  re-established  in  Russia  by 
Pius  VI  in  December,  1798,  Kamenetz  was  made  a 
separate  diocese,  comprising  the  whole  of  Podolia. 
In  that  same  year  it  was  also  created  an  Orthodox  see 
by  t^e  Russian  Government,  unditr  the  title  of  Podo- 
IX.— 30 


lia  and  Bratslav.  In  1815  it  was  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Lutzk  and  Zhitomir,  and 
on  3  June,  1866,  it  was  entirely  abolished  as  a  separate 
diocese,  and  annexed  directly  to  Lutzk  and  Zhitomir. 
The  city  of  Kamenetz  itself  has  about  45,000  inhabi- 
tants, of  whom  one-fifth  are  Catholics.  The  statistics 
for  the  annexed  diocese  of  Kamenetz  (1909)  are: 
Catholics,  317,235  (Orthodox,  2,359,630);  secular 
priests.  111,  regulars,  3;  parish  churches^  96.  In  the 
whole  of  the  three  united  dioceses  the  religious  orders 
have  been  killed  off  by  the  simple  process  of  not  allow- 
ing any  new  candidates  to  enter,  while  the  secular 
priesthood  thrives  with  extreme  difficulty  because 
only  natives  and  Russian  subjects  are  permitted  to 
enter  the  seminary  or  to  take  charge  of  parishes. 
Catholic  schools  and  charitable  institutions  are  prac- 
tically non-existent,  owing  to  the  restrictions  of  the 
Russian  authorities. 

RoHRBACHER,  Htstotre  Univeraelle  de  VEglxM  (I^ons,  1872), 
XI,  XII;  Peless,  QeaehidOe  der  Union,  I  (Vienna,  1878); 
ToLflToi,  Romaniam  in  Rtuaia  (London,  1874).  very  anti-Catb- 
olic;  Pravo^vniya  Encyclopedia,  X  (St.  Peteraburg,  1909); 
Lescceur,  UBgliw  Catholiqtte  et  le  Gouvemement  Ruaw  (Para, 
1903);  Urban.  SUUyaka  katolicytmu  v>  panatwie  romvAim 
(Krakow,  1906);    Battanoier,  Annuaire  PonUfieaU   (Paris, 

1®10).  Andrew  J.  Shifman. 

Luxemburg,  the  small  renmant  of  the  old  duchv  of 
this  name  and  since  11  May,  1867,  an  independent 
neutral  grand  duchy,  comprising  998  so.  miles  of 
territory,  lying  principally  between  49*  27'  and 
5(y  12'  N.  lat.,  and  5<>  45'  and  6*»  32'  E.  long.  It  is 
bounded  by  Belgium  on  the  west,  Prussia  on  the  east, 
Lorraine  and  (for  a  short  distance)  France  on  the  south. 
It  is  well  wooded,  having  over  190  sq.  miles  of  forest, 
and  well  watered  (Mosefle,  Sure,  Our,  and  Alzett,  the 
first  two  being  navigable  to  a  greater  or  less  extent); 
it  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  about  1000  feet  above 
the  sea  level,  is  mountainous  and  possesses  a  temper- 
ate healthy  climate.  The  arable  lands,  including  al- 
most half  the  country,  vield  abundant  crops  of  grain, 
and  splendid  pastures  feed  niuncrous  herds  of  cattle 
and  horses.  The  vine  produces  annuallv  more  than 
1,300,000  gallons  of  wine  and  the  fruit  harvest  is  no 
less  generous.  There  is  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  fine 
building-stone.  Especially  important  are  the  exten- 
sive beds  of  excellent  iron  ore  (10,000  acres),  which  are 
extensively  worked.  Trades  and  industries  flourish, 
thanks  to  the  fine  network  of  roads  and  railways.  The 
population,  which  numbers  about  250,000  souls,  is 
almost  entirely  of  Germanic  origin  and  a  dialect  is 
in  use  which  sugjgesta  the  German  of  the  Palatinate. 
In  one  or  two  oustricts  onlv  WaUoon  is  spoken.  In 
administration  and  justice,  French  predominates.  In 
the  churches  and  schools,  sermons  and  instructions 
are  given  in  High  German. 

Amiost  all  of  Luxemburg  is  Catholic.  Only  in 
the  capital  citv  and  in  the  industrial  centres  (Esoh, 
Dudehngen,  uififerdingen,  Rodingen,  Rimmelingen) 
there  are  Protestant  communities  whose  entire  mem- 
bership scarcely  numbers  3000.  Nevertheless  they 
enjoy  the  same  rights  as  the  hundred-times  more 
numerous  native  inhabitants.  Of  Jews  there  are 
only  about  1200,  but  their  number  is  increasing.  The 
Catholics  have  had  a  bishop  of  their  ovm  to  preside 
over  them  since  1870  (officially  recognized  in  1873). 
Orif^inall^^  Luxemburg  belonged  to  various  sees 
(Tner,  Li^ge,  Metz,  Kieims,  Verdun,  (IJologne),  from 
1795  to  1801  it  belonged  to  Mctz,  then  to  Namur. 
From  1840-70  it  was  a  vicariate  Apostolic;  in  that 
year  it  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  bishopric,  the  first 
bishop  being  Nicholas  Adames.  Since  1883  his  suc- 
cessor Joseph  Koppes  has  been  assisted  by  a  chapter  of 
nine  dignitaries  (cathedral  provost  and  eight  canons) 
in  the  administration  of  the  diocese.  The  former 
Jesuit  church  of  Our  Blessed  Lady  in  the  city  of 
Luxemburg  is  the  present  cathedral.  Parochial  duties 
are  performed  by  260  priests  with  2(X)  additional  cha^^ 
laina  asaisted  by  regulac  cUt^  ^  ^s&^c^s&^i  ^^^t^^ssc^^. 


LUXXUBUBO 


The  diocese  bIso  poBsesseH  several  institutions  for 
the  sick  and  for  educational  purposes,  and  for  those 
preparing  to  enter  the  priesthood  there  is  a  semi- 
nary in  the  capital.  For  higher  education  there 
is  in  the  same  city  a  flourishing  athenteum  in  which 
the  more  advanced  classes  give  the  usual  univer- 
sity instruction;  o'mnasia  and  similar  institutions 
enst  in  Diekirch,  Echtemach,  et«.  Common  school 
education  haa  been  oblieatory  since  1881.  The 
schools  (700,  with  32,000  children)  are  non-sectarian 
and  priests  are  allowed  merely  to  give  religious  in- 
struction. Children  may  begin  their  secondary  educa- 
tion only  at  the  age  of  twelve  years.  The  line  which 
in  most  states  divides  the  educated  from  the  non- 
educated  has  been  in  this  way  bridged  over,  and  social 


distinctions  arc  less  marked  in  Luxembui^  than  else- 
where. Of  Catholic  organisations  we  will  mention 
here  only  the  Bonifatius-Verein,  which  since  its  es- 
tablishment in  1850  has  collected  200,000  marks 
which  has  been  almost  entirely  handed  over  to  Ger- 
man mission  stations.  The  riEhts  of  the  Church  and 
Hut  people  have  been  upheld  (since  1847)  by  the 
rolendidly  conducted  journal  "Luxemburger  Wort  "■. 
JUlong  Uie  lesser  newspapers  the  "  Hoselseitung," 
which  appears  in  Grevenmacher,  has  a  large  circula- 
tion. The  editors  of  the  well-known  periodicals 
"Btimmen  aus  Maria  Lasch"  and  "Die  Katholischen 
Uissionen"  (Fathers  Frick  and  Huonder,  S.J.)  direct 
them  from  Luxemburg. 

The  grand  duchy  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  the 
eovereiRntv  being  vested  in  the  House  of  Nassau,  the 
eo-callcd  Walramic  line,  according  to  the  law  of 
primogeniture.  As  the  present  grand  duke,  William, 
baa  no  son  by  his  marriage  with  Maria  Anna  of  Bra- 
gansa,  the  crown  will  re\-ert  on  his  death  {according  to 
the  law  of  1907)  to  his  eldest  daughter,  who  likelier 
sisters  belongs  to  the  Catholic  Church.  The  parlia- 
ment consists  of  51  members  elected  for  six  years, 
Ulrt  of  which  is  chosen  every  three  years.  The 
Government  consists  of  a  president  (minister)  and 
three  directors  general,  and  is  responsible  to  theCham- 
ber,  but  submits  bills  only  after  obtaining  the  opin- 
ions of  fifteen  councillors  of  state,  nan^  by  the 


LUXUCBUBQ 


muneB.  Justice  is  administered  by  a  supreme  court, 
two  circuit  courts  and  a  criminal  court  in  every  canton. 
The  armed  force  (one  company  of  volunteers,  one  com- 
pany of  gendarmes)  is  concerned  merely  with  the  mun- 
t«nance  of  order.  The  financial  system  (modelled  on 
the  French  both  as  to  the  coins  and  the  weights  and 
measures)  is  in  flourishing  condition.  The  national 
debt  is  small.  Receipts  and  expenditures  balance,  bo 
that  there  is  no  lack  of  means  for  promotion  of  culture. 
The  national  tnlours  are  red,  white,  and  blue.  There 
are  several  orders,  the  most  widely  distributed  being 
theOrderoftheCrownofOak(6classes,2medals).  The 
capital  of  the  grand  duchy,  ajso  tslled  LuxembuK,  is 
very  ancient,  and  was  formerly  stronrly  fortified,  but 
is  now  dismantled,  and  beautifully  laid  out.  It  is  rich 
in  fine  ecclesiastical  and  secular  buildings  (churches, 
castles,  government  buildings,  etc.),  as  well  as  in 
scientific  institutions  and  industrial  pluitfl.  It  has 
over  25,000  inhabitants.  Among  the  other  towns 
that  of  Echtemach  is  interesting  for  its  primitive 
basilica,  which  contains  the  tomb  of  the  Frisian 
apostle,  St.  Willibrord.  The  procession  that  takes 
place  annually  is  luiioue  and  is  the  last  of  the 

Springing  processions  ,  the  origin  of  which  seems 
doubtful. 

The  first  written  account  of  this  country  and  people 
is  found  in  the  fifth  book  of  Cs^sar's  "Commentariide 
Bello  Gallico".  On  the  Lower  Moselle  and  its  tribu- 
taries dwelt  at  that  time  (53  b.  c.)  the  powerful  race  of 
the  Treviri,  who,  in  alliance  with  the  people  under 
their  protection  (for  example  the  Eburones  under 
Ambiorix),  at  firat  gave  the  Romans  great  trouble,' but 
tbev  were  soon  compelled  to  yield  to  superior  numberv 
andgraduallyattainedtbehighestciviluation.  Under 
Emperor  Constantine  (323-337)  Trier  (Augusta  Tn- 
virorum)  became  the  capital  of  the  province  Belgica 
prima,  and  later  the  residence  <rf  the  prefects  of  Gaul. 
The  Christian  Faith  was  introduced  at  a  very  early 
period.  Since  316  the  town  was  the  see  of  a  Dishop. 
As  more  than  half  ai  the  subsequent  Duchy  of  Lor- 
reine  belonged  for  centuries  to  the  Diocese  of  Trier,  it 
is  a  logical  conclusion  that  the  Christianization  of  the 
Ardennes  proceeded  principally  from  there.  During 
the  Germanic  migration  the  north-eastern  provinces 
<rf  the  Roman  Empire  suffered  greatly.  Devastated 
and  depopulated,  they  were  occupied  by  the  victori- 
ous Franks.  In  the  division  of  Charlemagne's  em- 
pire (843)  the  provinces  in  question  fell  to  the  share 
of  the  Emperor  Lothair.  In  the  middle  of  the 
tenth  century  (963?)  the  feudal  lord,  Siegfried,  who 
held  rich  possessions  in  the  Forest  of  Ardennes, 
acquired  the  Castcllum  Lticihni  (supposed  to  have 
been  built  by  the  Romans)  with  tne  lands  in  its 
vicinity,  and  styled  himself  Graf  von  LUtselburg. 
From  the  mamage  of  this  pe&i  and  good  man  de- 
scended Empress  Saint  Cumgunde,  wife  f^  Henry  II, 
the  Saint. 

The  last  of  Siegfried's  male  descendants,  Conrad  II, 
died  alwut  1126.  His  dominions  passed  first  to  the 
counts  of  Namur  and  subsequently  to  Ermesinde,  who 
reined  from  II96  to  1247.  She  was  especially  noted 
for  the  impulse  she  gave  to  religious  life  by  the  foun- 
dation of  monasteries.  Her  son  and  successor,  Henry 
V  (1247-81), showed  the  influence  of  his  noble  mother. 
He  took  part  in  Saint  Louis's  crusade  against  Tunis. 
His  successOT,  Henry  VI,  remained  until  nearly  1288 
at  war  near  Woringen.  His  wife,  Beatrice,  had  borne 
him  two  sons,  both  of  whc»n  attained  the  highest 
honours  and  excellence:  Baldwin,  afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  Trier,  and  Henry,  who  obtained  the  Roman 
imperial  crown  as  Henry  VII  (1309).  The  advance- 
ment of  the  reigning  tamily  brou^t  no  advantage  to 
the  country,  as  the  counts  wandered  farther  and 
farther  from  home,  and  concerned  themselves  only 
with  the  affaits  of  tha  Empire  or  the  Kingdom  of  Bo- 


LUXXXriL 


467 


LUZEUIL 


hernia.  They  endeavoured  to  compensate  for  this  in 
a  measure  by  raising  Luxemburg  to  a  duchy,  but  could 
not  prevent  part  of  it  from  crumbling  away  and  the 
whofe  (1444)  falling  to  Burgimdy  by  conquest.  From 
the  House  of  Valois,  which  became  extinct  on  the 
death  of  Charles  the  Bold,  in  1477,  the  country  passed 
to  Austria,  and  was  subject  to  the  Spanish  Habsburgs 
(155^1714);  then  to  the  German  Habsburgs  (1714- 
95),  and  finally  to  the  French  (until  1814).  The  last 
rule  was  attended  with  pernicious  results,  e^secially  as 
regards  religion  and  morals,  the  brutalities  of  the 
French  to  the  Chmt;h  and  her  servants  left  sad 
memories.  Even  the  worship  of  the  goddess  of  rea- 
s(Hi  prevailed  for  a  time  in  place  of  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion. 

After  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon,  better  times  be- 
gan for  Luxemburg.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  decided 
that  as  an  appendage  of  the  newly  created  Kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands  with  the  rank  of  grand  duchy^  it  should 
become  a  part  of  the  German  Confederation.  The 
Belgian  revolution  of  1830  soon  exercised  a  momen- 
tous influence  on  the  territorial  stability  of  the  country. 
The  entire  western  (Walloon)  part  (larger  in  extent, 
but  more  sparsely  populated  and  less  fertile  than  the 
remainder)  was  separated  from  the  German  Confeder- 
ation and  annexed  to  the  new  Belgian  Kin^om.  The 
King  of  Holland  established  a  regency  m  the  part 
which  remained  to  him  (only  under  personal  union) 
and  in  1842  as  Lord  of  Luxemburg  joined  the  German 
Zollverein,  Until  1866  the  country  enjoyed  quiet  aiid 
increasing  prosperity.  The  garrisoning  of  the  city 
and  castle  of  Luxemburg  by  Prussian  &ooi>8  for  the 
first  time  introduced  Protestants  into  the  grand 
duchy.  After  the  Prussian  victories  in  Bohemia 
(1866)  and  the  foundation  of  the  North  German  Con- 
federation, Luxemburg  was  drawn  into  the  political 
whirlpool.  Napoleon  III  thought  of  annexing  the 
little  country  and  the  King  of  Holland  declared  him- 
self ready  to  discuss  the  matter.  Even  Bismarck 
favoured  the  plan.  But  when  the  German  nation  de- 
clared unanimously  against  it,  and  the  danger  of  a 
Franco-German  war  became  imminent,  i&  great 
powers  interfered  and  regulated  the  "LuxembuiK 
Question"  at  a  conference  assembled  in  London,  which 
decreed  that  the  fortress  of  Luxemburg  should  be 
abandoned  and  dismantled  and  the  **  country  declared 
neutral  and  under  the  protection  of  Europe  ".  Lux- 
emburg, however,  remained  a  member  of  the  German 
Zollverein.  On  the  death  of  William  III  of  Holland, 
Luxemburg  passed,  as  the  result  of  a  family  agree- 
ment made  by  the  two  Nassovian  houses  in  1783,  to 
the  Nassau  Walram  branch.  The  old  Duke  of  Nas- 
sau, Adolf,  who  had  l)ecn  deposed  in  1866  by  Prussia, 
assume<l  the  regency  on  23  iNovember,  1890,  as  grand 
duke.  It  has  l)een  settled  in  detail  that  in  case  his 
son  and  successor  leaves  no  male  heir,  the  crown  will 
descend  to  the  eldest  daughter. 

PiKKNNB,  Bibliooraphie  de  VhiM.  de  Bdgimte  .  .  .  ju^fli*tn 
I8S0  (Ghent,  1902) ;  Moliniek,  Lea  source*  de  VhisUnre  de  France 
(Paris,  1901  aqq.);  8oh6tteh,  Geach.  dea  Ltixemburger  Landea 
(Luxemburg,   1882);    Glaxsknkk,  Le  orand-duchi  de  Lwcetn- 


quantenoAre  _ 

1892);  VAN  nuK  Eltz,  Aua  Luxemburga  V ergangenheit  und 
(iegenwaH  (Trior,  1891);  Himly,  Hiat.  de  La  Jummiion  territoriale, 
dea  ekUa  de  V Europe  cerUrale  (Paris,  1894);  Lavishk  and  Ram- 
baud,  Hiatoire  ginertUe,  X  (Paris.  189S),  334,  367;  Klrin- 
CLAUSK,  Hiatoire  de  Bourifogne  (Paris,  1909);  Kuppcrt,  Lea  Utia 
et  reglementa  aur  Vorganiaation  polUiguet  jttdiciaire  tt  {Mdminia- 
Iraiive  du  Grand-Duchii  de  Luxembottrg  (LuxemburR,  1885); 
Bertholet,  HiM.  eccl'8.  et  civile  du  duchf  dt  L.  (Luxembuig, 
1741-3);  Peters  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.;  HKBiiE.NB-KoHLSCHiiiiyr, 
Protest.  TaachenhucJi  (Leipsig,  1905);  Makciial,  La  ttculjuture 
et  lea  chefa^ctuvre  de  Vorfi-vrerie  belgea  (Bmsoels,  1895);  Beis- 
8KL,  Geach.  der  Marienveraehrung  in  Deutachland  wdhrtnd  dea 
MiUelaltera  (Freiburg.  1909);  Kefter,  Kath.  Lit.  Kal.  CEmea, 
1910);  Ders.  Handhuch  der  kath,  Preaae  (EBsen,  1910):  Klkff- 
NER-WoKER,  Der  Bonifaiiu'*verein  (Paden>om,  1899):  Eyschbn, 
Staatarecht  dea  Groaaherxogthuma  1*.  in  Handhuch  dea  i'§.  RediU 
(Freiburg.  1890).  ^ 

Plus  WlTXMAim.. 


Luzeuil,  Abbey  of,  situated  in  the  Department 
of  Haute-8a6ne  in  Franche-Comt<5,  in  the  Diocese  of 
Besan^on.  It  was  founded  in  585  by  the  great  Irish 
monk,  St.  Columbanus,  on  the  ruins  of  the  Gallo- 
Roman  castle  of  Luxovium,  about  eight  miles  from 
Aunigray.  It  was  dedicated  to  St.  Peter  and  soon  be- 
came the  most  important  and  flourishing  monastery 
in  Gaul.  The  community  was  so  large,  that  choir 
followed  choir  in  the  chanting  of  the  Office,  and  here 
for  the  first  time  was  heard  the  laus  perennis,  or  un- 
ceasing psalmody,  which  went  on  day  and  night. 
Whether  St.  Columbanus  gave  this  monaster}r  and 
others  dependent  on  it  an  oral  or  a  written  rule  is  un- 
certain. We  know  it  to  have  been  borrowed  mostly 
from  that  observed  in  the  great  Irish  monasteries. 
But  for  many  reasons  this  rule  was  not  destined  to 
prevail  for  long.  St.  Columbanus  had  all  the  force 
and  impetuosity  of  the  ardent  Irish  temperament, 
great  powers  of  physical  endurance,  intellectual  and 
moral  strength.  He  seems  to  have  lacked  the  discre- 
tion of  St.  Benedict.  His  rule,  moreover,  did  not  leg- 
islate concerning  the  abbot's  election,  his  relations 
with  his  monks,  and  the  appointment  of  monastic 
officials  with  delegated  power.  For  long  the  two  rules 
were  observed  together,  St.  Benedict's  supplying  what 
was  lacking  in  the  other,  but  by  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century  the  rule  of  St.  Columbanus  had  given  way  to 
what  had  then  become  the  great  monastic  code  of  the 
West.  Driven  into  exile  by  King  Thierry  and  his 
grandmother  Queen  Brunehaut,  St.  Columbanus  was 
succeeded  as  abbot  by  St.  Eustace  whom  he  had  placed 
oyer  the  schools  oi  Luxeuil.  During  the  abbacy  of 
St.  Eustace  and  that  of  his  successor  St.  Waldebert, 
these  schools  grew  to  great  fame.  There  came  to 
them  many  of  the  young  nobles  of  Gaul,  and  youths 
from  such  cities  as  Autun,  Strasburg,  and  Lyons. 
They  sent  forth  many  who  l^ec^me  great  bishops  in 
Gaul  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  to  Luxeuil  is 
largely  due  the  conversion  and  renewal  of  the  Bur- 
gundian  empire.    It  would  be  difficult  to  give  an  ade- 

2uate  account  of  the  monastic  colonization  for  which 
lUxeuU  was  responsible.  Among  its  affiliations  were 
such  great  houses  as  Bobbio,  between  Milan  and 
Genoa,  of  which  St.  Columbanus  himself  became  ab- 
bot, and  the  monasteries  of  Saint- Val^ry  and  Remire- 
mont.  To  Luxeuil  came  such  monks  as  Conon,  Ab- 
bot of  L^rins,  before  setting  about  the  reform  of  his 
somewhat  degenerated  monks,  and  St.  Wandrille  and 
St.  Philibert  who  founded  respectively  the  Abbeys  of 
Fontenelle  and  Jumi^ges  in  Normandy,  and  s|)ent  years 
in  studying  the  rule  observed  in  monasteries  which 
derived  their  origin  from  Luxeuil. 

In  731  the  Vandals  in  their  destructive  career  of  con- 
quest through  western  Gaul,  took  possession  of  Luxeuil 
and  massacred  most  of  the  community.  The  few 
survivors  rebuilt  the  abbey,  and  later,  under  the 
government  oi  the  eighteenth  abbot,  St.  Ansegisus,  it 
appeared  as  if  it  were  about  to  recover  its  former  great- 
ness and  prosperity.  He  received  the  abbey  from 
Louis  le  D^bonnaire,  restored  the  church  and  monastic 
buildings,  and  reformed  discipline.  Many  were  the 
privile^s  and  exemptions  accorded  by  popes  and 
sovereigns  of  France,  but  as  time  went  on,  it  had  also 
to  contend  with  much  tribulation  and  misfortune. 
Such  were  tlie  incursions  of  the  Normans  and  other 
savage  hordes,  which  were  accompanied  by  the  usual 
pillage  and  destruction.  But  it  was  not  till  the  fif- 
teenth century  that  the  worst  evil  of  all  came,  namely 
the  institution  of  commendatory  Abbots  of  Luxeml 
and  the  sure  and  swift  decline  of  monastic  discipline 
consequent  thereon.  But  this  state  of  things  came  to 
an  end  in  1634.  The  commendatory'  abbots  ceased, 
and  Luxeuil  was  joined  to  the  reformed  congre^tioQ 
of  Saint  -  Vamie .  From  the  report  of  the  "  Commission 
des  R^gulicrs",  drawn  up  in  1768,  the  community  ap- 
pears to  have  been  numerous  and  flourishing,  and 
discipUne  well  kept.    At  the  Ftwwsfe.  ^^iN^i«s&i«s5>.'"^3fc 


LDXOB 


LTIKIATI 


mooks  were  dispersed ;  but  the  abbey  ohureh,  built  in  held  it  until  the  coming  of  Pompey  to  Judea  (I  HmL, 

the  purest  French  Gothic  of  the  fourteenth  eentuir,  xi,  34,  67;  Joeephua,  "Antiquities",  Xlv,  x,  6). 

was  not  destroyed;  neither  were  the  cloister*  and  eon-  Julius  CaeArin  48  b.  c.  gave  Lydda  to  the  Jews,  but 

ventual  buildings.    Until  the  passing  of  the  recent  Casaius  in  44  sold  the  inhabitants,  who  two  years  later 

laws  against  the  Church  in  France  these  building  were  set  at  liberty  by  Antony   (Joeephus,  "Jewiah 

were  being  used  as  a  grand  s^truiire  for  the  Diocese  of  War",  I,  xi,  2;  "  Antii^uities",  XIV,  lii,  2-6).-  The 

Besan90n.     They  are  now  either  empty  or  turned  to  city  also  experienced  civil  ware  and  the  revolt  of  the 

some  secular  use.     The  church  itself  haa  fi"  ' — ' ' ..  .,      -n.  .. 

used  as  the  parish  church  of  Luxeuil. 

Gallia  ChriHiatia  XV.  ISeO:  Besbe.  Let  Jtf « 
FrWKc  (Psni,   1B06I:    Lbcistse.  Abbauu  n 


IS  for  long  been     Jews  against  the  Romans  in  the  first  century  of  our 


1    und   KoBBmoatioiiBn,   I    (Ptdt ,  — 

T,  Quid  Luxovienta  monachi  dudpjdi  S.  Coium^n 
ngulan  monatUriorvm  contuUTiiU  (Faris,  ISOSi. 

Urbak  Butlis. 

LnzoT.    See  Thebes,  Diocese  ow. 

Lwow.    See  Lsubbrg,  Diocese  of. 

I^copoUs,  a  titular  » 
of  Aiitinoe.  As  Siout  o 
in  Egyptian  history. 
After  &o  fall  of  the 
afarth  dynasty,  its 
princes,  freed  from 
the  supremacy  of 
Memphis,     bore    ol- 


"e  Christians  in  this  locality  from  the  first,  and  St. 

Peter,  having  come  to  visit  them,  there  cured  the 

paralytic  Eneas  (Acts,  ix,  32-6).    The  earliest  known 

bishop  is  Aetius,  a  friend  of  Arius;  the  episcopal  title 

of  Lydda  has  existed  since  that  time  in  the  Greek 

Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem.    In  December,  415,  acoun- 

cil  was  held  here  which  absolved  the  heretic  Pelagiua, 

at  the  same  tinie  condemning  his  errors.     Lydda  has 

c  in  Thebais  Prima,  suffragan     been  sumamed  Georgiopolis  m  honour  of  the  martyr 

Siaout  it  played  a  minor  r61e     St.  George,  who  is  said  to  have  been   a   native  of 

1^^,^  this  town.     The   pil- 

\V^^  ^im    TheodoaiuB    is 

ll^.ll  the  6rBt  to  mention 

(about  630)  the  tomb 
of  the  martyr.  A 
magnificent  church, 
erected  above  this 
tomb,  was  rebuilt  ^ 
the  Crusaders,  and 
partly  restored  in 
modem  times  by  the 
Greeks,  to  whom  the 
sanctuary  belongs. 
On  the  arrival  of  toe 
Crusadetfi  in  1099 
Lydda  became  the 
seat  of  a  Latin  see, 
many  of  whose  titu- 
lars are  known.  At 
present  the  city  con- 
tains 6800  inhabi- 
tants, of  whom  4800 
arc  Mussulmans,  2000  - 
schismatic  Greeks. 
and  a  few  Protes- 
tants. The  CathoUcs 
have  a  parish  of  2S0 
faithful  in  the  neigh- 
bouring  town  of 
ItamlA. 


cleopolis  or  Thebes. 
The  principal  object 
of  worship  was  the 
jackal  Apouaitou, 
whence  the  Greek 
Lycopolis,  or  city  of 
tiie  wolf.  It  subse- 
quently became  the 
oapital  of  the  Prinei- 
piuity  of  Terebinthos, 
and  mter  of  the  nome 
of  that  name.  Among 
the  ancient  bishops 
of  Lycopolis  (Le- 
quien,  "  Cniens  Chris- 
tianus".  II,  697) 
were  Alexander,  au- 
thor of  a  treatise 
against  the  Mani- 
C^ans;  Heletius, 
author  of  the  (Egyp- 
tian) Meletian  schism, - 

and  opponent  of  Peter  of  Alexandria;  Volusianus, 
who  attended  the  Council  of  Nictea  in  325,  and  others. 
It  is  now  the  see  of  a  Coptic  schismatic  bishop. 
TTieodosius  the  Great  threatened  to  destroy  the 
town  after  a  fratricidal  war,  and  it  was  savef*  — '" 
by  the  intervention  of  St.  John  of  Lycopoli.,  .  ._ 
of  its  most  celebrated  citizens.  Flotinus,  the  third- 
century  neo-Platomc  philosopher,  was  bom  at  Siout. 
Under  the  Arabs  the  town  was  very  prosperous, 
became  the  capital  of  Said,  and  the  rendezvous 
of  caravans  for  Darfur.  It  also  possessed  a  flour- 
ishing slave  market.     To-day  it  is  the  capital  of 


DiKTiplion  dc    la    Patatin 
lucu    lu   uraiiu.     uuc      — ,  OewA-dM  ;11(1  Fottu,  I  audi 

,d  it  was  save/ only    «*  <*«  J"  iK«*  »■ '■ 


_.^:  II  (1901),  196; 
r  Judie,  I.  323-34; 
,  panm;  Vioooaocv, 

S.  VAILBfc. 


Lydgate,  John,  b.  at  Lydgato,  Suffolk,  about  1370; 
d.  probably  about  1450.  He  entered  the  Benedictine 
abbey  at  Bury  when  fifteen  and  may  have  lieen  edu- 
cated! earlier  at  the  school  of  the  Benedictine  monks 

^  _...   _  __ __^ there  and  have  been  afterwards  at  the  Benedictine 

province,  numbers  40,000  inhabitants,  a  tew  trf  whom     house  of  studies  at  Oxford.     It  is  possible,  as  Bale 


are  Catholics,  and  is  chie9y  noted  for 
Arabian  cemetery,  and  its  ancient  necropolis. 

AutuNLiTi.Lagiotpiipliitde  I'Eouple  h  V(poa\u  cople  <P«ria, 
1893),  462-3:  JotHMB,  L'EavpIt  (Faru),  422-6. 

8.  VAiMfe. 

I^dda,  a  titular  see  of  Paleetina  Prima  in  the 
Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem.    The  town  was  formariy 
called  Lod,  and  was  founded  by  Samad  of  the  tribe    * 
Benjamin  (I  Par.,  viii,  12).    Some  of  '     "  '    ' ' 
were  taken  in  captivity  to  Babylon,  an 
rotumed  later  (I  Esd-   "   ""'"-■ 


asserts,  that  he  studied  at  both  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 

and  it  is  fairly  certain  that  he  travelled  in FraDce,and 

perhapsinltaiy.   He  was  ordained  priest  in  1397.  Bale 

(Soriptonim  Summarium)  says  he  opened  a  school 

for  sons  of  the  oobility  probably  in  the  monastery  of 

Bury.    His  verses  seem  to  have  been  much  in  request 

by  noble  lords  and  ladies,  and  having  been  court  poet 

ha  wrote  a  ballad  for  the  coronation  of  Henry  VI. 

For  eleven  years  (1423-1434)  he  was  prior  of  Hatfield 

inhabitants    Broadoak,  but  is  said  not  to  have  busied  himself  much 

of  them    with  his  duties  there.    He  then  returned  to  Bury.    At 

rewards  for  his  poetry 


About  the  middle  of  the  second  century  b.  c,  the  city    some  land  and  a  pension.    Many  of  these  details  of  his 
— -lagjvenbytbekingsofSyriatotbeludiabeee.wbo    cai^eer  can  only  be  vaguely  asserted,  but  his  poetic 


LYnia 


469 


LYnm 


work  is  not  vague.  It  is  certain  that  he  was  a  learned 
and  industrious  poet  who  wrote  much  verse  on  varied 
subject-matter.  His  poetry,  however,  though  inter- 
esting from  other  points  of  view  than  the  poetical, 
never  rises  much  above  mediocrity.  A  blight  seemed 
at  that  period  to  have  fallen  upon  poetry  in  England, 
though  m  Scotland  the  Chaucerian  tradition  was  fol- 
low^ still  with  dignity  and  force.  The  writings  of 
Lydffate  are  very  numerous.  Ritson,  in  his  "Biblio- 
graphica  Poetica",  numbers  251  poems,  some  of  them 
of  enormous  length,  such  as  the  Troy  Book  of  30,000 
lines.  It  is  fairly  certain,  too,  that  much  of  what  he 
wrote  has  been  lost.  A  eood  deal  of  his  existing  work 
is  still  in  MS.  He  is  said  to  have  written  one  piece  of 
prose — an  account  of  Csesar's  wars  and  death.  Most 
modem  critics  agree  as  to  the  general  mediocrity  of  his 
work,  but  Lydgate  has  not  wanted  admirers  in  the 
past  such  as  Chatterton,  who  imitated  him,  and  Gray, 
who  was  impressed  by  the  carefulness  of  his  phrase- 
ology and  the  smootnness  of  his  verse.  Among  his 
poetical  compositions  may  be  mentioned: — 

"  Falls  or  Princes,"  "  Troy  Book  ",  "  Story  of 
Thebes",  narrative  poems;  "The  Life  of  Our  Lady" 
and  "The  Dance  of  Death",  devotionalpoems;  "The 
Temple  of  Glass",  and  imitations  of  Cnauccr.  The 
well-Kiiown  poem  of  "  London  Lackpenny  ",  which  has 
been  for  long  reckoned  as  Lydgate's,  is  now  almost 
certainlv  proved  not  to  be  by  him. 

Lee  in^J^tc*.  Nat.  Biog.  0.  v.  (London,  1909);  Schick.,  Prefitee 
to  the  Temple  ofGlaea  in  Eaxiy  English  Text  Soc.  Series  (Lon- 
don, 19 — );  Mac^'katken.  The  Lydgate  Canon  m  Philolooieal 
Soe.  Traneaeliona  (Ix>ndon,  1908);  Saintsbury  in  Cambridge 
Hid,  Eng.  LU.,  voL  II,  art.  I^ydgate  (Cambridse.  1908.) 

K.  M7  Warren. 

Lying,  as  defined  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  is  a 
statement  at  variance  with  the  mind.  This  definition 
is  more  accurate  than  most  others  which  are  current. 
Thus  a  recent  authority  defines  a  lie  as  a  false  state- 
ment made  with  the  intention  of  deceiving.  But  it  is 
possible  to  lie  without  making  a  false  statement  and 
without  any  intention  of  decei\'in^.  For  if  a  man 
makes  a  statement  which  he  thinks  is  false,  but  which 
in  reality  is  true  he  certainly  lies  inasmuch  as  he  in« 
tends  to  say  what  is  false,  and  although  a  well-known 
liar  may  have  no  intention  of  deceiving  others — for  he 
knows  that  no  one  believes  a  word  he  says — yet  if  he 
speaks  at  variance  with  his  mind  he  does  not  cease 
to  He.  FoUowing  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Thomas, 
CathoUc  divines  and  ethical  writers  commonlv  make 
a  distinction  between  (1)  injurious,  or  hurtful,  (2) 
officious,  and  (3)  jocose  lies.  Jocose  lies  are  told  for 
the  purpose  of  affording  amusement.  Of  course  what 
is  said  merely  and  obviously  in  joke  cannot  be  a  lie: 
in  order  to  have  any  malice  in  it,  what  is  said  must  be 
naturaUy  capable  of  deceiving  others  and  must  be  said 
with  the  intention  of  saying  what  is  false.  An  offi- 
cious, or  w^hite,  lie  is  such  that  it  does  nobody  any  in- 
jury:  it  is  a  lie  of  excuse,  or  a  lie  told  to  benefit 
somebody.    An  in j  urious  lie  is  one  which  does  harm. 

It  has  always  been  admitted  that  the  (juestion  of 
lying  creates  great  difficulties  for  the  morabst.  From 
the  dawn  of  ethical  speculation  there  have  been  two 
different  opinions  on  the  question  as  to  whether  lying 
is  ever  permissible  Aristotle,  in  his  *'  Ethics  ",  seems 
to  hold  that  it  is  never  allowable  to  tell  a  lie,  while 
Plato,  in  his  '*  Republic  *\  is  more  accommodating;  he 
allows  doctors  and  statesmen  to  lie  occasionally  for  the 
good  of  their  patients  and  for  the  common  weaL 
Modem  philosophers  are  divided  in  the  same  way. 
Kant  allowed  a  lie  under  no  circumstance.  Paulw^ 
and  most  modem  non-Catholic  writers  admit  the  law- 
fulness of  the  lie  of  necessity.  Lideed  the  pragmatic 
tendency  of  the  day,  which  denies  that  there  is  such  a 
thing  as  absolute  truth,  and  measures  the  mondity  of 
actions  by  their  effect  on  society  and  on  the  individual, 
would  seem  to  open  wide  the  gates  to  all  but  injurious 
Ues.    But  even  on  the  ground  of  pragmatism  it  is  well 


for  us  to  bear  in  mind  that  white  lies  are  apt  to  prepare 
the  way  for  others  of  a  darker  hue.  Tnere  is  some 
difference  of  opinion  among  the  Fathers  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  Oripen  quotes  Plato  and  approves  of 
his  doctrine  on  this  point  (Stromata,  VI).  He  says 
that  a  man  who  is  under  the  necessity  of  lying  should 
diligentlv  consider  the  matter  so  as  not  to  exceed. 
He  shoufd  gulp  the  lie  as  a  sick  man  does  his  medicine. 
He  should  be  guided  by  the  example  of  Judith,  Esther, 
and  Jacob.  If  he  exceed,  he  will  oe  judged  the  enemy 
of  Him  who  said,  "  I  am  the  Truth  ".  St.  John  Chry- 
sostom  held  that  it  is  lawful  to  deceive  others  for  their 
benefit,  and  Cassian  taught  that  we  may  sometimes  lie 
as  we  take  medicine,  driven  to  it  by  sheer  necessity. 

St.  Augustine,  however,  took  the  opposite  side,  and 
wrote  two  short  treatises  to  prove  that  it  is  never  law- 
ful to  tell  a  lie.  His  doctrine  on  this  point  has  been 
generally  followed  in  the  Western  Church,  and  it  has 
been  defended  as  the  common  opinion  by  the  School- 
men, and  by  modem  divines.  It  rests  in  the  first 
pku^  on  Holy  Scripture.  In  places  almost  innumer- 
able Holy  Scripture  seems  to  condemn  lying  as  abso- 
lutely and  unreservedly  as  it  condemns  murder  and 
fornication.  Innocent  III  gives  expression  in  one  of 
his  decretals  to  this  interpretation,  when  he  says  that 
Holy  Scripture  forbids  us  to  lie  even  to  save  a  man's 
life.  If,  then,  we  allow  the  lie  of  necessity,  there 
seems  to  be  no  reason  from  the  theological  point  of 
view  for  not  allowing  occasional  murder  and  fornica- 
tion when  these  crimes  would  procure  great  temporal 
advantage;  the  absolute  character  of  the  moral  law 
will  be  undermined,  it  will  be  reduced  to  a  matter  of 
mere  expediency.  The  chief  argument  from  reason 
which  St.  Thomas  and  other  theologians  have  used  to 

Erove  their  doctrine  is  drawn  from  the  nature  of  truth, 
lying  is  opposed  to  the  virtue  of  truth  or  veracity. 
Truth  consists  in  a  correspondence  between  the  thing 
signified  and  the  signification  of  it.  Man  has  the 
power  as  a  reasonable  and  social  being  of  manifesting 
nis  thoughts  to  his  fellow-men.  Right  order  demands 
that  in  doing  this  he  should  be  truthful.  If  the  ex- 
ternal manifestation  is  at  variance  with  the  inward 
thought,  the  result  is  a  want  of  right  order,  a  mon- 
strosity in  nature,  a  machine  which  is  out  of  gear, 
whose  parts  do  not  work  together  liarmoniously.  As 
we  are  dealing  with  something  which  belongs  to  the 
moral  order  and  with  virtue,  the  want  of  right  order, 
which  is  of  the  essence  of  a  lie,  has  a  special  moral  turpi- 
tude of  its  own.  There  is  precisely  the  same  malice  in 
hypocrisy,  and  in  this  vice  we  see  the  moral  turpitude 
more  dearly.  A  hsrpocrite  pretends  to  have  a  good 
quality  which  he  knows  that  he  does  not  possess. 
There  is  the  same  want  of  correspondence  between  the 
mind  and  the  external  expression  of  it  that  constitutes 
the  essence  of  a  lie.  The  turpitude  and  malice  of  hy- 
pocrisy are  obvious  to  everyoody.  If  it  is  more  diffi- 
cult to  realise  the  malice  of  a  lie,  the  partial  reason,  at 
least,  may  be  because  we  are  more  familiar  with  it* 
Truth  is  primarily  a  self-regarding  virtue:  it  is  some- 
thing which  man  owes  to  his  own  rational  nature,  and 
no  one  who  has  any  regard  for  his  own  dignity  and 
self-respect  will  be  guilty  of  the  turpitude  of  a  he.  As 
the  hypocrite  is  justly  detested  and  despised,  so  should 
the  liar  be.  As  no  honest  man  would  consent  to  play 
the  hypocrite,  so  no  honest  man  will  ever  be  guilty 
of  a  he. 

The  absolute  malice  of  l^ing  is  also  shown  from  the 
evil  consequences  which  it  has  for  society.  These  are 
evident  enough  in  lies  which  injuriously  affect  the 
rights  and  reputations  of  others.  But  mutual  confi- 
dence, intercourse,  and  friendship,  which  are  of  suoh 
great  importance  lor  society,  suner  much  even  from 
officious  and  jocose  lying.  In  this,  as  in  other  monl 
questions,  in  order  to  see  clearly  the  moral  quality  of 
an  action  we  must  consider  what  the  effect  would  be  if 
the  action  in  question  were  regarded  as  perfectly  ri^t 
and  were  commonly  practised.    Applying  tibi&  iMdw^ 


LTINO 


470 


LYINO 


we  can  see  what  mistrust,  suspicion,  and  utter  want  of 
confidence  in  others  would  be  the  result  of  promiscuous 
lying,  even  in  those  cases  where  positive  mjury  is  not 
inflicted.  Moreover,  when  a  habit  of  untruthfulness 
has  been  contracted,  it  is  practicailv  impossible  to 
restrict  its  vagaries  to  matters  which  are  harmless: 
interest  and  habit  alike  inevitably  lead  to  the  violation 
of  truth  to  the  detriment  of  others.  And  so  it  would 
seem  that,  although  injury  to  others  was  excluded 
from  officious  and  jocose  hes  by  definition,  yet  in  the 
concrete  there  is  no  sort  of  lie  which  is  not  injurious  to 
somebody.  But  if  the  common  teaching  of  Catholic 
theology  on  this  point  be  admitted,  and  we  grant  that 
lying  is  always  wrong,  it  follows  that  we  are  never 
justified  in  telling  a  lie,  for  we  may  not  do  evil  that 
good  may  come:  the  end  does  not  justify  the  means. 
What  means,  then,  have  we  for  protecting  secrets  and 
defending  ourselves  from  the  impertinent  prying  of  the 
inquisitive?  What  are  we  to  say  when  a  dying  man 
asks  a  question,  and  we  know  that  if  we  tell  him  the 
truth  it  will  kill  him  outright?  We  must  say  some- 
thing, if  his  life  is  to  be  preserved:  he  would  at  once 
detect  the  meaning  of  silence  on  our  part.  The  great 
difficulty  of  the  question  of  lying  consists  in  findmg  a 
satisfactory  answer  to  such  questions  as  these. 

St.  Augustine  held  that  tne  naked  truth  must  be 
told  whatever  the  consequences  may  be.  He  directs 
that  in  difficult  cases  silence  should  be  observed  if 
possible.  If  silence  would  be  equivalent  to  giving  a 
sick  man  unwelcome  news  that  would  kill  him.  it  is 
better,  he  says,  that  the  body  of  the  sick  man  snould 
perish  rather  than  the  soul  of  the  liar.  Besides  this 
one,  he  puts  another  case  which  became  classical  in  the 
schools.  If  a  man  is  hid  in  your  house,  and  his  life  is 
sought  bv  murderers,  and  they  come  and  ask  you 
whether  he  is  in  the  house,  you  may  say  that  you 
know  where  he  is,  but  will  not  tell:  you  may  not  deny 
that  he  is  there.  The  Scholastics,  while  accepting  the 
teaching  of  St.  Augustine  on  the  absolute  and  intrinsic 
malice  of  a  lie,  modified  his  teaching  on  the  point  which 
we  are  discussing.  It  is  interesting  to  read  what  St. 
Raymund  of  Pennafort  wrote  on  the  subject  in  his 
"Summa",  published  before  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  He  says  that  most  doctors  agree 
with  St.  Augustine,  but  that  others  say  that  one  should 
tell  a  lie  in  such  cases.  Then  he  gives  his  own  opinion, 
speaking  with  hesitation  and  under  correction.  The 
owner  of  the  house  where  the  man  lies  concealed,  on 
being  asked  whether  he  is  there,  should  as  far  as  pos- 
sible say  nothing.  If  silence  would  be  equivalent  to 
betrayal  of  the  secret,  then  he  should  turn  the  ques- 
tion aside  by  asking  another — How  should  I  know? — 
or  something  of  that  sort.  Or,  says  St.  Raymund^  he 
may  make  use  of  an  expression  with  a  double  meanmg, 
an  equivocation,  such  as:  Non  est  hie,  id  est,  Non 
comedit  hie — or  something  like  that.  An  infinite  num- 
ber of  examples  induced  him  to  permit  such  equivoca- 
tions, he  says.  Jacob,  Esau,  Abraham,  Jehu,  and  the 
Archangel  Raphael  made  use  of  them.  Or,  he  adds, 
you  may  say  sunply  that  the  owner  of  the  house  ought 
to  deny  that  the  man  is  there,  and,  if  his  conscience 
tells  him  that  this  is  the  proper  answer  to  give,  then 
he  will  not  go  against  his  conscience,  and  so  he  will 
not  sin.  Nor  is  this  direction  contrary  to  what  Au- 
gustine teaches,  for  if  he  gives  that  answer  he  will  not 
fie,  for  he  will  not  speak  against  his  mind  ("  Summa  ", 
Kb.I,  "DeMendacio"). 

The  gloss  on  the  chapter,  "Ne  quis"  (causa  xxii, 
q,  2)  of  the  Decretum  of  Gratian,  which  reproduces  the 
common  teacliing  of  the  schools  at  the  time,  adopts 
the  opinion  of  St.  Raymund,  with  the  added  reason 
that  it  is  allowable  to  deceive  an  enemy.  Lest  the 
doctrine  should  be  unduly  extended  to  cases  to  which 
it  does  not  apply,  the  gloss  warns  the  student  that  a 
witness  who  is  bound  to  speak  the  naked  truth  may 
not  use  equivocation.  When  the  doctrine  of  equivo- 
cation had  once  been  introduced  into  the  schools  it 


was  difficult  to  keep  it  within  proper  bounds.  It  had  , 
been  introduced  in  order  to  furnish  a  way  of  escape 
from  serious  difficulties  for  those  who  held  that  it  was 
never  allowed  to  tell  a  lie.  The  seal  of  confession  and 
other  secrets  had  to  be  preserved,  this  was  a  means  of 
fulfilling  those  necessary  duties  without  telling  a  lie. 
Some,  however,  unduly  stretched  the  doctrine.  They 
taught  that  a  man  did  not  tell  a  he  who  denied  that  he 
had  done  something  which  in  truth  he  had  done,  if  he 
meant  that  he  had  not  done  it  in  some  other  way,  or 
at  some  other  time,  than  he  had  done  it.  A  servant, 
for  example,  who  had  broken  a  window  in  his  master's 
house,  on  being  asked  by  his  master  whether  he  had 
broken  it,  might  without  lying  assert  that  he  had  not 
done  so,  if  he  meant  thereby  that  he  had  not  broken 
it  last  year,  or  with  a  hatchet.  It  has  been  reckoned 
that  as  many  as  fifty  authors  taught  this  doctrine,  and 
among  them  were  some  of  the  greatest  weight,  whose 
works  are  classical.  There  were  of  course  many  others 
who  rejected  such  equivocations,  and  who  taught  that 
they  were  nothing  but  lies,  as  indeed  they  are.  The 
German  Jesuit,  Laymann,  who  died  in  the  year  1625, 
was  of  this  number.  He  refuted  the  arguments  on 
which  the  false  doctrine  was  based  and  conclusively 
proved  the  contrary.  His  adversaries  asserted  that 
such  a  statement  was  not  a  lie,  inasmuch  as  it  was  not 
at  variance  with  the  mind  of  the  speaker.  Laymann 
saw  no  force  in  this  argument;  the  man  knew  that  he 
had  broken  the  window,  and  nevertheless  he  said  he 
had  not  done  it;  there  was  an  evident  contradiction 
between  his  assertion  and  his  thought.  The  words 
used  meant  that  he  had  not  done  it;  there  were  no 
external  circumstances  of  any  sort,  no  use  or  custom 
which  permitted  of  their  being  understood  in  any  but 
the  obvious  sense.  They  could  only  be  understood  in 
that  obvious  sense,  and  tnat  was  their  only  true  mean- 
ing.  As  it  was  at  variance  with  the  knowledge  of  the 
speaker,  the  statement  was  a  lie.  Laymann  explains 
tnat  he  did  not  wish  to  reject  all  mental  reservations. 
Sometimes  a  statement  receives  a  social  meaning 
from  use  and  custom,  or  from  the  special  circumstances 
in  which  a  man  is  placed,  or  from  the  mere  fact  that  he 
holds  a  position  of  trust.  When  a  man  bids  the  ser- 
vant say  that  he  is  not  at  home,  common  use  enables 
any  man  of  sense  to  interpret  the  phrase  correctly. 
When  a  prisoner  pleads  "  Not  guilty  '*  in  a  court  of 
justice,  aU  concerned  understand  what  is  meant.  When 
a  statesman,  or  a  doctor,  or  a  lawyer  is  asked  imperti- 
nent questions  about  what  he  cannot  make  known 
without  a  breach  of  trust,  he  simply  says,  "  I  don't 
know",  and  the  assertion  is  true,  it  receives  the  special 
meaning  from  the  position  of  the  speaker:  "  I  have  no 
communicable  knowledge  on  the  point."  The  same 
is  true  of  anybody  who  has  secrets  to  keep,  and  who  is 
unwarrantably  questioned  about  them.  Prudent  men 
only  speak  al>out  what  they  should  speak  about,  and 
what  they  say  should  be  understood  with  that  reserva- 
tion. Catholic  writers  call  statements  like  the  fore- 
going mental  reservations,  and  they  qualify  them  as 
wide  mental  reservations  in  order  to  distinguish  them 
from  strict  mental  reservations.  These  latter  are 
equivocations  whose  true  sense  is  determined  solely  by 
the  mind  of  the  speaker,  and  by  no  external  circum- 
stance or  common  usage.  They  were  condemned  as 
lies  by  the  Holy  See  on  2  March,  1679.  Since  that 
time  they  have  oeen  rejected  as  unlawful  by  all  Cath- 
olic writers.  It  should  be  observed  that  when  a  wide 
mental  reservation  is  employed  the  simple  truth  is 
told,  there  is  no  statement  at  variance  witn  the  mind. 
For  not  merely  the  words  actually  used  in  a  statement 
mus^  be  considered,  when  we  desire  to  understand  its 
meaning,  and  to  get  at  the  true  mind  of  the  speaker. 
Circumstances  of  place,  time,  person,  and  manner 
form  part  of  the  statement  ana  external  expression*  of 
the  thought.  The  words,  "I  am  not  guilty",  derive 
the  special  meaning  which  they  have  in  the  mouth  of  a 
prisoner  on  his  trial  from  the  circumstances  in  wliich 


LYMOB                                471  LYNDWOOD 

he  is  placed.  It  is  a  true  statement  of  fact  whether  in  Owen  Roe  O'Neill.  The  date  at  which  he  became 
reality  he  be  guilty  or  not.  This  must  be  imderstood  archdeacon  of  Tuam  is  uncertain.  Driven  from  Gal- 
of  all  mental  restrictions  which  are  lawful.  The  virtue  way  after  the  capture  of  the  city  by  the  Puritans  in 
of  truth  requires  that,  imless  there  is  some  special  1652,  he  lived  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  exile  in 
reason  to  the  contrary,  one  who  speaks  to  another  France.  During  these  years  he  wrote  a  biography  of 
should  speak  frankly  and  openly,  in  such  a  way  that  his  uncle  Dr.  Kuwan,  Bishop  of  Killala,  and  a  work 
he  will  be  understood  by  the  person  addressed.  It  is  called  "Alithonologia",  givmg  an  account  of  the 
not  lawful  to  use  mental  reservations  without  good  Anglo-Irish  under  Elizaoeth.  But  his  greatest  work 
reason.  According  to  the  common  teaching  of  St.  is  "Cambrensis  Eversus",  published  in  1662.  Writ- 
Thomas  and  other  divines,  the  hurtful  lie  is  a  mortal  ten  in  vigorous  Latin  and  characterized  by  great 
sin,  but  merely  officious  and  jocose  lies  are  of  their  leamingand  research,  its  declared  objectwas  to  expose 
own  nature  venial.  the  calumnies  of  Gerald  Barry  about  Ireland,  and 
The  doctrine  which  has  been  expounded  above  re-  without  doubt  L3mch  completely  vindicates  his  coun- 
produces  the  common  and  universally  accepted  teach-  try  "against  the  aspersions  of  her  slanderer." 
mg  of  the  Catholic  schools  throughout  the  Middle  ,  f^?"»J''«r»*»«  ,Sf7fV«»,S^«v^^^  (Dublin,  1848);  Wabb, 
Ages  until  recent  tunes.  From  the  middle  of  the  (Bd^i^lg^)!^^^*  ^^®^^'  H^"^»  ^"'^  ^/  ^'^'^ 
eighteenth  century  onwards  a  few  discordant  voices  *  *  E.  A.  D'Alton. 
have  been  heard  from  time  to  time.  Some  of  these,  as 

Van  der  Velden  and  a  few  French  and  Bel^an  writers,  Lyndwood,  William,  Bishop  of  St.  David's  and  the 

while  admittmg  that  m  general  a  lie  is  mtrinsically  greatest  of  Enghsh  canonists,  b.  about  1375;   d.  in 

wrong,  yet  argued  that  there  are  exceptions  to  the  1446.    He  had  a  distinguished  ecclesiastical  career, 

r^®*,*^®/*'^  .^V^^¥^^*"?^^^^"^^7^®^^^?*it®?  being  appointed  "Official"  of  the    Archbishop  of 

in  self-defence  it  is  lawful  to  tell  a  lie.    Others  wished  Canterbury  (i.  e.  his  principal  adviser  and  representar 

to  change  the  received  definition  of  a  he.    A  recent  ti ve  in  matters  of  ecclesiastical  law)  in  1414,  and  Dean 

writer  m  the  Pans  series,  ''Science  et  Rehgion   ,  wishes  of  the  Arches  in  1426,  while  holding  at  the  same  time 

to  add  to  the  common  definition  some  such  words  as  several  important  benefices  and  prebends.    In  1434  he 

*  made  to  one  who  has  a  nght  to  the  truth".    So  that  ^^g  niade  Archdeacon  of  Stow  in  the  Diocese  of  Lin- 

a  false  statement  Imowingly  made  to  one  who  has  not  coin,  and  in  1442,  after  an  earnest  recommendation 

a  nght  to  the  truth  will  not  be  a  he.    This,  however,  from  King  Henry  VI  himself,  he  was  promoted  by  the 

seems  to  ignore  the  malice  which  a  he  has  m  itself,  hke  pope  to  the  vacant  See  of  St.  David's.    During  these 

hypocnsy,  and  to  denve  it  solely  from  the  social  con-  years  many  other  matters  besides  the  study  of  canon 

sequence  of  lying.     Most  of  these  wnters  who  attack  Ja^  had  occupied  Lyndwood's  attention.    He  had  been 

the  common  opinion  show  that  they  have  very  imper-  closely  associated  with  Archbishop  Henry  Chichele  in 

fectly  grasped  its  true  meamng.    At  any  rate  they  his  proceedings  against  the  Lollards.     He  had  also 

have  made  little  or  no  impression  on  the  common  several  times  acted  as  the  chosen  representative  of  the 

teaching  of  the  Catholic  schools.  Enghsh  clergy  in  their  discussions  with  the  Crown  over 

(S^  also  Mental  Reservation.)  subsidies,  but  more  especially  he  had  repeatedly  been 

Summa  (Rome,  1603):  Latmann,  ^heologia  moralU  (Munich  sent  abroad  upon  diplomatic  missions-^,  g.,  to  FortU- 

1634);  Newman,  Apologia,  Appendix  8  (London,  1864);  Wat-  gal,  France,  the  Netherlands,  etc. — besides  actmg  as 


FEi^ERT.  Disaertatian  awr  u  MeMonge  (Brugw.  iMMi);  Slatm.  the  king^s  proctor  at  the  Council  of  Basle  in  1433  and 

A  Manual  of  Moral  Theoloffy,  I  (New  York,  1908);  and  the  ♦«!,;«««  ^zLr^.^:^^^*  ^««4.  „«  »,w.^4.:»4.^.  :«  Aw-on<^«%«* 

moraliata  genemlly.  taking  a  promment  part  as  negotiator  m  arranging 

T.  Slateb.  political  and  commercial  treaties     Despite  the  fact 

that  so  much  of  L3nidwood's  energies  were  spent  upon 
Ljmch,  John,  historian,  b.  at  Galway,  Ireland,  purely  secular  concerns  nothing  seems  ever  to  have 
1599;  d.  in  France,  1673^  was  the  son  of  Alexander  been  said  a^nst  his  moral  or  religious  character.  He 
Lynch,  who  kept  a  classical  school  at  Galway.  In  was  buried  m  the  crj'pt  of  St.  Stephen's,  Westminster, 
such  repute  was  this  school  held  that  there  were  no  where  his  body  was  found  in  1852,  wrapped  in  a  cere- 
less  than  12(X)  students,  nor  were  they  confined  to  cloth  and  almost  without  signs  of  corruption. 
Connaught  alone  but  came  from  every  province  in  Lyndwood,  however,  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his 
Ireland.  For  a  Catholic  to  keep  a  public  school  in  great  commentary  upon  the  ecclesiastical  decrees 
those  days  was  a  serious  offence,  and  when  Ussher  enacted  in  English  provincial  councils  under  the  presi- 
visited  Galway  in  16152  calling  Lvnch  before  him  he  dency  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury.  This  elabo- 
severely  reprimanded  him.  compelled  him  to  close  his  rate  work,  commonly  known  as  the  *'Provinciale'*, 
school  at  once,  and  boimd  him  under  heavy  bail  not  follows  the  arrangement  of  the  titles  of  the  Decretals 
to  reopen  it.  Young  Lvnch  received  his  early  educa-  of  Gregory  IX  in  the  "Corpus  Juris  ",  and  forms  a  com- 
tion  from  his  father  and  from  him  imbibed  his  love  of  plete  gloss  upon  all  that  English  l^islation  witii 
classical  leamii^.  Feeling  a  call  to  the  priesthood  which,  in  view  of  special  needs  and  local  conditions, 
he  left  Galway  for  France,  pursued  his  studies  under  it  was  found  necessary  here,  as  elsewhere,  to  supple- 
the  Jesuits  there,  in  due  time  was  ordained  priest,  and  ment  the  common  law  (jus  commune)  of  the  Church, 
returned  to  his  native  town  in  1622.  He  established  Lyndwood's  gloss  affords  a  faithful  picture  of  the 
a  classical  school,  which  like  his  father's  was  attended  views  accepted  among  the  English  clergy  of  his  day 
by  many  students.  Penal  legislation  compelled  hkn  upon  all  sorts  of  subjects.  In  particular,  the  much 
to  exercise  his  ministry  by  stealth,  and  to  say  Mass  vexed  question  of  the  attitude  of  the  Ecdesia  Anglir 
in  secret  places  and  private  houses.  But  after  1042  cana  towards  the  jurisdiction  claimed  by  the  popes 
the  churches  were  ojien  and  he  was  free  to  say  Mass  there  finds  its  complete  solution.  Prof.  F.  W.  Maii- 
in  public,  and  exercise  his  ministry  in  the  hght  of  land  some  years  ago  produced  a  profound  sensation  by 
day.  More  of  a  scholar  and  of  a  student  than  of  a  appealing  to  Lyndwood  against  the  pet  historical  fig- 
politician.  Lynch  took  no  prominent  part  in  the  stirring  ment  of  modem  Anglicans,  that  the  "Canon  Law  of 
events  of  the  next  ten  years.  His  opinions  however  Rome,  though  always  regarded  as  of  great  authority 
were  well  known.  Like  so  many  others  of  the  Anslo-  in  England,  was  not  held  to  be  binding  on  the  English 
Irish,  though  he  abhorred  the  penal  laws  against Iub  ecclesiastical  courts"  (Ene.  Hist.  Rev.,  1896,  p.  446). 
creed  and  had  suffered  from  them,  he  was  loyal  to  How  successfully  Maitland,  armed  with  the  irrefraga- 
England.  He  therefore  condemned  the  rebeluon  of  ble  evidmce  which  Lyndwood  supplies,  has  demol- 
1641,  viewed  with  no  enthusiasm  the  Catholie  Con-  i^ed  lliis  legend,  may  be  proved  by  a  reference  to  one 
federation,  approved  of  the  cessation  of  1643  and  of  of  the  most  authoritative  legal  works  of  recent  date, 
the  peace  of  1646  and  1648,  and  entirely  disapproved  vii.,  "The  Laws  of  England"  edited  by  Lord  Chw- 
of  the  pohcy  of  the  nuncio  and  of  tne  oonouet  of  cellor  Halsbury  (vol.  XI,  1910,  p.  377).    *'In.  ig«ftr 


LTOKS 


472 


LTOm 


Reformation  times '\  we  there  read,  "no  dignitary  of 
the  Church,  no  archbishop,  or  bishop  could  repeal  or 
vary  the  Papal  decrees";  and,  after  quoting  Lynd- 
wood's  explicit  statement  to  this  effect,  the  account 
continues:  ''Much  of  the  Canon  Law  set  forth  in 
archiepiscopal  constitutions  is  merely  a  repetition  of 
the  Papal  canons,  and  passed  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing them  better  known  in  remote  localities;  part  was 
ttJ^a  vires,  and  the  rest  consisted  of  local  regulations 
which  were  only  valid  in  so  far  as  they  did  not  contra- 
vene the  'jus  commune',  i.  e.  the  Roman  Canon 
Law." 

Lyndwood's  great  work  was  frequently  reprinted  in 
the  early  years  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  the  best 

edition  is  that  produced  at  Oxford  in  1679. 

Rioo  in  Did.  of  Nat.  Btog.,  a.  v.  Lyndwood;  Mattland, 
Roman  Canon  Law  in  the  Church  of  England  (London,  1898) ; 
Arehctoloffia,  XXXLV  (London,)  406  sq.;  Thurston  in  Am. 
Cath.  Q.  (April.  1899),  120-141:  Galante.  L'Efficaeia  del 
Diritto  Canonico  in  InghiUerra  in  Melanges  Federico  Ciccaglimu} 
(Catania,  1909). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

I^yonSy  Archdiocese  of  (Lugdunensis),  com- 
prises the  Departments  of  the  Rh6ne  (except  the  Can- 
ton of  Villeurbanne,  which  belongs  to  the  Diocese  of 
Grenoble)  and  of  the  Loire.  The  Concordat  of  1801 
assigned  as  the  boundaries  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Lyons 
the  Departments  of  the  Rh6ne,  the  Loire,  and  the  Ain 
and  as  suffra^ms  the  Dioceses  of  Mende,  Grenoble,  and 
Chamb^iy.  The  Archbishop  of  Lyons  was  authorised 
by  Letters  Apostolic  of  29  November,  1801,  to  unite 
with  his  title  the  titles  of  the  suppressed  metropolitan 
Sees  of  Vienne  and  Embrun  (see  Grenoble;  Gap). 
In  1822  the  Department  of  Ain  was  separated  from  the 
/^"chdiocese  of  Lyons  to  form  the  Diocese  of  Belley; 
the  title  of  the  suppressed  church  of  Embrun  was  trans- 
feired  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Aix,  and  the  Archdiocese 
of  Lyons  and  Vienne  had  henceforth  as  suffragans 
Langres,  Autun,  Dijon,  St.  Claude,  and  Grenoble. 

History, — It  appears  to  have  been  proved  by  Mgr  Du- 
chesne, despite  tne  local  traditions  of  many  Churches, 
that  in  all  three  parts  of  Gaul  in  the  second  century 
there  was  but  a  single  organized  Church,  that  of  Lyons. 
The  "Deacon  of  Vienne^',  martyred  at  Lyons  during 
the  persecution  of  177,  was  probably  a  deacon  instidled 
at  vienne  by  the  ecclesiastical  authority  of  Lyons. 
The  confluence  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Sa6ne,  where 
sixty  Gallic  tribes  had  erected  the  famous  altar  to 
Rome  and  Augustus,  was  also  the  centre  from  which 
C^stianity  was  gradually  propagated  throughout 
Gaul.  The  presence  at  Lyons  of  numerous  Asiastic 
Christians  and  their  almost  daily  communications 
with  the  Orient  were  likely  to  arouse  the  susceptibili- 
ties of  the  Gallo-Romans.  A  persecution  arose  under 
Marcus  Aurelius.  Its  victims  at  Lyons  numbered 
forty-eight,  half  of  them  of  Greek  origin,  half  Gallo- 
Roman,  among  others  St.  Blandina  (q.  v.),  and  St. 
Pothinus,  first  Bishop  of  Lyons,  sent  to  Gaul  by  St. 
Polycarp  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century. 
The  legend  according  to  which  he  was  sent  by  St.  Cle- 
ment dates  from  the  twelfth  century  and  is  without 
foundation.  The  letter  addressed  to  the  Christians  of 
Asia  and  Phrygia  in  the  name  of  the  faithful  of  Vienne 
and  Lyons,  and  relating  the  persecution  of  177,  is  con- 
sidered by  Ernest  Renan  as  one  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary documents  possessed  by  any  literature;  it  is 
the  baptismal  certificate  of  Christianity  in  France. 
The  successor  of  St.  Pothinus  was  the  illustrious  St. 
Irenaeus  (q.  v.),  177-202. 

The  discovery  on  the  Hill  of  St.  Sebastian  of  ruins 
of  a  naumachia  capable  of  being  transformed  into  an 
amphitheatre,  andf  of  some  fragments  of  inscriptions 
app>arently  belonging  to  an  altar  of  Augustus,  has  led 
several  archseologiste  to  believe  that  the  martyrs  of 
Lyons  suffered  death  on  this  hill.  Very  ancient  tra- 
dition, however,  represents  the  church  of  Ainay  as 
erected  at  the  place  of  their  martyrdom.  The  cr3rpt 
of  St.  Pothinus,  under  the  choir  of  the  church  of  bt. 


Nisier  was  destroyed  in  1884.  But  there  are  still  re- 
vered at  Lyons  tne  prison  cell  of  St.  Pothinus,  where 
Anne  of  Austria,  Louis  XIV,  and  Pius  VII  came  to 
pray,  and  the  crypt  of  St.  Irensus  built  at  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century  by  St.  Patiens,  which  contains  the 
body  of  St.  Irensus.  There  are  numerous  funerary 
inscriptions  of  primitive  Christianity  in  Lyons;  the 
earliest  dates  from  the  year  334.  In  the  second  and 
third  centuries  the  See  of  Lyons  enjoyed  great  renown 
throughout  Gaul,  witness  the  local  legends  of  Besan- 
5on  (q.  v.)  and  of  several  other  cities  relative  to  the 
missionaries  sent  out  by  St.  Irensus.  Faustinus, 
bishop  in  the  second  half  of  the  third  century,  wi:pte 
to  St.  Cyprian  and  Pope  Stephen  I,  in  254,  regarding 
the  Novatian  tendencies  of  Marcian,  Bishop  of  Aries. 
But  when  Diocletian  by  the  new  provincial  organi- 
zation had  taken  away  from  Lyons  its  position  as 
metropolis  of  the  three  Gauls,  the  prestige  of  Lyons 
diminished  for  a  time. 

^  At  the  end  of  the  empire  and  during  the  Merovin- 
fldan  period  several  saints  are  coimted  among  the 
Bishops  of  Lyons:  St.  Justus  (374-381)  who  died  in  a 
monastery  in  the  Thebaid  and  was  renowned  for  the 
orthodoxy  of  his  doctrine  in  the  struggle  against  Arian- 
ism  (the  church  of  the  Machabees,  whither  his  body 
was  brought,  was  as  early  as  the  fifth  century  a  place 
of  pilgrimage  imder  the  name  of  the  collegiate  church 
of  St.  Justus),  St.  Alpinus  and  St.  Martin  (disciple 
of  St.  Martin  of  Tours;  end  of  fourth  century);  St. 
Antiochus  (400-410);    St.  Elpidius  (410-422);    St. 
Sicarius  (422-33);  St.  Eucherius  (c.  433-50),  a  monk 
of  L^rins  and  the  author  of  homilies,  from  whom 
doubtless  dates  the  foundation  at  Lyons  of  the  "her- 
mitages'' of  which  more  will   be   said  below;    St. 
Patiens  (456-08)  who  successfully  combated  the  fam- 
ine and  Arianism,  and  whom  Sidonius  ApoUinarus 
praised  in  a  poem;  St.  Lupioinus  (491-94);  St.  Rusti- 
cus  (494-501);   St.  Stephanus  (d.  before  515),  who 
with  St.  Avitus  of  Vienne,  convoked  a  council  at 
Lyons  for  the  conversion  of  the  Arians;   St.  Viven- 
tiolus  (515-523),  who  in  517  presided  with  St.  Avitus 
at  the  Council  of  Epaone;  St.  Lupus,  a  monk,  after- 
wards bishop  (538-42),  probably  the  first  archbishop, 
who  when  signing  in  438  the  Council  of  Orleans 
added  the  title  of  *'metropolitanus";  St.  Sardot  or 
Sacerdos  (549-542),  who  presided  in  549  at  the  Council 
of  Orleans,  and  who  obtained  from  King  Childebert 
the  foundation  of  the  general  hospital;  St.  Nicetius  or 
Nisier  (552-73),  who  received  from  the  pope  the  title 
of  patriarch,  and  whose  tomb  was  honoured  by  mira- 
cles.   The  prestige  of  St.  Nicetius  was  lasting;   his 
successor  St.  Priscus  (573-588)  bore  the  title  of  patri- 
arch, and  brought  the  council  of  585  to  decide  that 
national  synods  should  be  convened  every  three  years 
at  the  instance  of  the  patriarch  and  of  the  king;  St. 
JStherius  (588-603),  who  was  a  correspondent  of  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  and  who  perhaps  consecrated  St. 
Augustine,  the  Apostle  of  Encland;  St.  Aredius  (603- 
615);  St.  Annemundus  or  Cnamond  (c.  650),  friend 
of  St.  Wilfrid,  godfather  of  Clotaire  III,  put  to  death 
by  Ebroin  together  with  his  brother^  and  patron  of  the 
town  of  Saint-Chamond;  St.  Genesius  or  Genes  (660- 
679  or  680),  Benedictine  Abbot  of  Fontenelle,  grand 
almoner  and  minister  of  Queen  Bathilde:  St.  Lam- 
bertus  (c.  680-690),  also  Abbot  of  Fontenelle. 

At  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  Lyons  was  the  capital 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Burgundy,  out  after  534  it  passed 
under  the  domination  of  the  kings  of  France.  Rav- 
aged by  the  Saracens  in  725,  the  city  was  restored 
through  thejiberality  of  Charlemagne  who  established 
a  rich  library  in  the  monastery  of  lie  Barbe.  In  the 
time  of  St.  Patiens  and  the  priest  Constans  (d.  488)  the 
school  of  Lyons  was  famous;  Sidonius  ApoUinaris 
was  educated  there.  The  letter  of  Leidrade  to 
Charlemagne  (807)  shows  the  care  taken  by  the  em- 
peror for  the  restoration  of  learning  in  Lyons.  With 
the  aid  of  the  deacon  Florus  he  made  the  school  so 


LYONS 


proBperoua  that  in  the  t«nth  century „ . 

went  thither  to  atudy.  Under  Charlemsigne  and 
his  immediate  successois,  the  Bishops  of  Lyons,  whose 
ascendancy  was  attested  bv  the  number  of  councils 
over  which  tliey  were  called  to  preside,  played  an  im- 
portant theological  part.  Adoptionism  had  no  more 
active  enemies  than  Leidrade  (7QS-S14)  and  Ago- 
bard  (814-840).  When  Feliit  of  Urge!  continued  re- 
bellious to  the  condemnations  pronounced  against 
Adoptionism  from  791-799  by  the  Councils  of  Ciutad, 
Friuli,  Ratisbon,  Frankfort,  and  Rome,  Charlems^e 
conceived  the  idea  of  sending  to  Urgcl  with  Nebridius, 
Bishop  of  Narbonne,  and  St.  Benedict,  abbot  of  the 
monastery  of  Aniane,  Archbishop  Leidrade,  a  native 
of  Nuremberg  and  Charlemagne's  libiarian.  They 
preached  against  Adoptionism  in  Spain,  conducted 
Felix  in  799  to  the  Council  of  Aachen,  where  he  seemed 
to  submit  to  the  arguments  of  Alcujn,  and  then  brought 
him  back  to  his  diocese.  But  the  submissjon  of  F^x 
was  not  complete;  Agobard,  "Chorepiscopus"  of  Lyons, 
convicted  him  anew  of  Adoptionism  in  a  secret  confer- 
ence, and  when  Felix  died  in  815  there  was  found 
among  his  papers  a  treatise  in  which  he  professed 
Adoptionism.  Then  Agobard,  who  had  became  Arch' 
bishop  of  Lyons  in  814  after  Leidrade'a  retirement  to 
the  monastery  of  St.  M^dard  of  Soissons,  composed  a 
long  treatise  which  completed  the  ruin  of  that  hereey. 
J^^bard  displayed  great  activity  as  a  pastor  and  a 
publicist  in  his  opposition  to  the  Jews  and  to  various 
superstitions.  llis  rooted  hatred  for  all  superstition 
led  him  in  his  treatise  on  images  into  certain  expres- 
sions which  savoured  of  Iconoclosm.  The  five  his- 
torical treatises  which  he  wrot«  in  833  to  justify  the 
deposition  of  Louis  the  Pious,  who  had  been  his  bene- 
factor, are  a  stain  on  his  life.  Louis  the  Pious  having 
bwn  re.otored  to  power,  caused  Agobard  to  be  deposed 
in  835  by  the  Covineii  of  Thionvillo,  but  three  years 
Inter  gave  him  back  his  sec,  in  which  he  died  in  840. 
During  the  exile  of  Agobard  the  See  of  Lyons  had  berai 
for  a  short  time  administered  by  Amalarius  of  Meti, 
whom  Ihp  deacon  Florua  charged  with  heretical  opin- 
ions regarding  the  "  triforme  corpus  Chri.itti ",  and  who 
took  part  in  the  contro\'ersiea  with  Gottschalk  on  the 
Hubject  of  predestination.  Amolon  (841-852)  and  St. 
Bemy  (852-75)  continued  the  struggle  against  the  hereey 
of  Gottschalk.  St.  Remy  presided  over  the  Council 
of  Valence,  which  condemned  this  heresy,  and  also 
was  engaged  in  strife  with  Hincm&r,  From  879-1032 
Lyons  formed  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Provence  and 
aftcrwanlsofthesecond  Kingdom  of  Burgundy.  When 


Lyons  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Safins  became, 
at  least  nominally,  an  imperial  city,  FinaJly  Arch- 
bishop Burchani,  brother  of  Rudolph,  claimed  rights 
of  sovereignty  over  Lyons  aa  inherited  from  his 
mother,  Mathilde  of  France;  in  this  way  the  govern- 
ment of  Lyons  instead  of  being  exercised  by  the  dis- 
tant emperor,  became  a  matter  of  dispute  between  the 
counts  who  claimed  the  inheritance  and  the  successive 
archbishops. 

Lyons  attracted  the  att«ntion  of  Cardinal  Hilde- 
brand,  who  held  a  council  there  in  1055  aeainst  the 
simoniacal  bishops.  In  1076,  as  Gregory  VlL  ho  de- 
posed Archbishop  Humbert  (1063-78)  for  simony. 
Saint  Gebuin  (Jubinus),  who  succeeded  numbert  was 
the  confidant  of  Gregory  VII  and  contributed  to  the 
reform  of  the  Church  by  the  two  councils  of  1080  and 
1082.  at  which  were  excommunicated  Manasaea  of 
Reims,  Fulk  of  Anjou,  and  the  monks  of  Marmoutiers. 
!!  under  the  epiHCopat«  of  Saint  Gebuin  that 


Tours,  and  Sens,  which  primacy  was  specially 
firmed  by  Callistua  II,  despite  the  letter  written  to  him 
in  irJ6  bv  I.,ouls  VI  in  favour  of  the  church  of  Sens, 
Aa  far  as  it  regarded  the  Province  of  Rtraen  tUs  letter 


3:  LTOHa 

was  later  suppresaed  by  a  decree  of  the  king's  council 
in  1703,  at  the  request  of  Colbert,  Arclibishop  of 
Rouen.  Hugh  (1081-1100),  the  successor  of  St.  Ge- 
buin, the  friend  of  St.  Anselm,  and  for  a  while  legate  of 
Gregory  VII  in  France  and  Burgundy,  hod  diflerences 
lat«ronwithVictorIli,  who  excommunicated  him  for 
a  time,  also  with  Paschal  II,  The  latter  pope  carae  to 
Lyons  in  1106,  consecrated  the  basilica  oF  Ainay,  and 
dedicated  one  of  its  altars  in  honour  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception.  The  Feast  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception was  solemnized  at  Lyons  about  1 128,  perhaps 
at  the  instance  of  St.  Anselm  of  Canterbury,  and  St. 
Bernard  wrote  to  the  canons  of  Lyons  to  complain 
that  they  should  have  instituted  a  feast  without  eon- 


Tn  Cathidbai,  or  Baint^i 


suiting  the  pope.  As  soon  as  Thomas  d  Becket,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  had  been  proclaimed  Blessed 
(1 173),  his  cult  was  instituted  at  Lyons.  Lyonsof  the 
twelfth  century  thus  haw  a  glorious  place  in  the  history 
of  Catholic  liturgy  and  even  of  dogma,  but  the  twelfth 
century  was  also  marked  by  the  hereay  of  Peter  Waldo 
and  the  Waldenaea,  the  Poor  Men  of  Lyons,  who  were 
opposed  by  Jean  de  Bell^me  (U81-1193),  and  by  an 
important  change  in  the  political  situation  of  Vbe 
archbishops. 

In  1157  Frederick  Barbaroasa  confirmed  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  Archbishopsof  Lyons;  thenceforth  there 
was  a  lively  contest  between  them  and  the  counts.  An 
arbitration  effected  by  the  pope  in  1107  had  110  result, 
but  by  the  treaty  of  1173  Guy.  Count  of  Forez,  ceded 
to  the  canons  of  the  primatial  church  of  St.  John  his 
title  of  count  of  Lyons  and  his  temporal  autliority. 
Then  came  the  erowth  of  the  Commune,  more  iiclated 
in  Lyons  than  m  many  other  cities,  but  in  1193  the 
archbishop  bod  to  make  some  con ceiusion  to  the  citizens. 
The  thirteenth  century,  was  a  period  of  conflict.  Three 
times,  in  1207. 1369,  and  1290,  grave  troubles  brokeout 
between  the  partisans  of  the  archbishop  who  dwelt  in 
the  chateau  of  Pierre  Seiic,  tho.sc  of  the  count-canons, 
who  lived  in  a  separate  quarter  near  the  cathednl, 
and  those  of  the  townstollc.  Gregory  X  attempted, 
but  without  success,  t«  restore  peace  bv  two  Acts,  2 
April,  1273,  aud  11  Nov.,  127-1.    Ttekswe-'^-'^'^'**' 


LYONS 


474 


LYONS 


were  always  inclined  to  side  with  the  commune;  after 
the  siege  of  Lyons  by  Louis  X  (1310)  the  treaty  of  10 
April,  1312,  definitively  attached  Lyons  to  the  King- 
dom of  France,  but,  until  the  beginning  of  the  fif  teenm 
century  the  Church  of  Lyons  was  allowed  to  coin  its 
own  money. 

If  the  thirteenth  century  had  imperilled  the  politi- 
cal sovereignty  of  the  archbishops,  it  had  on  the  other 
hand  made  Lyons  a  kind  of  second  Rome.  Gregory 
X  was  a  former  canon  of  Lyons,  while  Innocent  V, 
as  Peter  of  Tarantaise,  was  Archbishop  of  Lyons  from 
1272  to  1273.  The  violence  of  the  Hohenstai^en  to- 
wards the  Holy  See  forced  Innocent  IV  and  Gregory 
X  to  seek  refuge  at  Lyons  and  to  hold  there  two  general 
councils  (see  Lyons,  Councils  of).  A  free  and  inde- 
pendent city  of  the  Kingdom  of  France  as  well  as  of 
the  Holy  Empire,  located  in  a  central  position  between 
Italy,  Spain,  France,  England,  and  Germany,  Lyons 
possessed  in  the  thirteenth  century  important  monas- 
teries which  naturally  sheltered  distingiiished  guests 
and  their  numerous  followers.  For  several  years 
Innocent  IV  dwelt  there  with  his  court  in  the  buildings 
of  the  chapter  of  Saint  Justus.  Local  tradition  re- 
lates that  it  was  on  seeing  the  red  hat  of  the  canons  of 
Lyons  that  the  courtiers  of  Innocent  IV  conceived  the 
idea  of  obtaining  from  the  Council  of  Lyons  its  decree 
that  the  cardinals  should  henceforth  wear  red  hats. 
The  sojourn  of  Innocent  IV  at  Lyons  was  marked  by 
numerous  works  of  public  utility,  to  which  the  pope 
gave  vigorous  encouragement.  He  granted  indul- 
gences to  the  faithful  who  should  assist  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  bridge  over  the  Rhdne,  replacing  that 
destroyed  about  llOO  by  the  passage  of  tne  troops  of 
Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  on  their  way  to  the  Crusade. 
Tlie  building  of  the  churches  of  St.  John  and  St. 
Justus  was  pushed  forward  with  activity;  he  sent  dele- 
gates even  to  England  to  solicit  alms  for  this  purpose 
and  he  consecrated  the  hieh  altar  in  both  churches. 
At  Lyons  were  crowned  Cfement  V  (1305)  and  John 
XXII  (1310);  at  Lyons  in  1449  the  antipoi)e  Felix 
V  renounced' the  tiara;  there,  too,  was  held  in  1512, 
without  any  definite  conclusion,  the  last  session 
of  tiie  schismatical  Council  of  Fisa  against  Julius 
II.  In  1560  the  Calvinists  took  Lyons  by  sur- 
prise, but  the)r  were  driven  out  by  Antoine  d^bon, 
Abbot  of  Savigny  and  later  Archbishop  of  Ly^ons. 
Again  masters  of  Lyons  in  1562  they  were  driven 
thence  by  the  Mar^cnaJ  de  Vieuville.  At  the  command 
of  the  famous  Baron  des  Adrets  they  committed 
numerous  acts  of  violence  in  the  region  of  Montbrison. 
It  was  at  Lyons  that  Henry  IV,  tne  converted  Cal- 
vinist  king,  married  Marie  de  Medicis  (9  December, 
1600). 

The  principal  Archbishops  of  Lyons  during  the 
modem  perioa  were:  Guy  III  d'Auverene,  Cardinal  de 
Bologne  (1340-1342),  who  as  a  diplomat  rendered 
great  service  to  the  Holy  See;  Cardinal  Jean  de  Lor- 
raine (1537-1539);  Hippolyte  d'Este,  Cardinal  of 
Ferrara  (1539-1550),  whom  Francis  I  named  protec- 
tor of  the  crown  of  France  at  the  court  of  Paul  III,  and 
a  patron  of  scholars;  Cardinal  Francois  de  Toumon 
(1550-1562),  who  negotiated  several  times  between 
Francis  I  and  Charles  V,  combated  the  Reformation 
and  founded  the  College  de  Toumon,  which  the 
Jesuits  later  made  one  of  the  most  celebrated  educa- 
tional establishments  of  the  kingdom;  Antoine  d'Al- 
bon  (1562-1574),  editor  of  Ruiinus  and  Ausonius; 
Pierre  d'Epinac  (1573-1599),  active  auxiliary  of  the 
League;  Cardinal  Alphonse  Louis  du  Plessis  de  Riche- 
lieu (1628-1653),  brother  of  the  minister  of  Louis  XIII; 
Cardinal  de  Tencin  (1740-1758);  Antoine  de  Mon- 
tazet  (1758-1788),  a  prelate  of  Jansenist  tendencies, 
whose  liturgical  works  will  be  referred  to  later,  and 
who  had  piiblishcd  for  his  seminary  by  the  Oratorian 
Joseph  Valla,  six  volumes  of  "  Institutiones  theolo- 
gicai '  known  as  **Th6ologie  de  Lyon",  and  spread 
throughout  Italy  by  Scipio  Ricci  until  condemned  by 


the  Index  in  1792;  Marbeuf  (1788-1799),  who  died  in 
exile  at  Ltibeck  in  1799  and  whose  vicar-general 
Castillon  was  beheaded  at  Lyons  in  1794;  ^toine 
Adrien  Lamourette  (1742-1794),  deputy  to  the  Con- 
stitutional Assembly,  who  brought  about  by  a  curious 
speech  (7  July,  1792)  an  understanding  between  all 
parties,  to  which  was  given  the  jesting  name  of  **  Rai- 
ser Lamourette",  and  who  was  constitutional  Bishop 
of  Lyons  from  27  March,  1791,  to  11  January,  1794, 
the  date  of  his  death  on  the  scaffold.  Among  the  arch- 
Inshops  subsequent  to  the  Concordat  must  be  men- 
tionea:  Joseph  Fesch  (q.  v.)  under  whose  episco- 
pate Pius  VII  twice  visited  Lyons,  in  Nov.,  1804,  and 
April,  1805,  and  in  1822  the  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Faith  was  founded;  Maurice  de  Bonald 
(184(>-1870),8on  of  the  philosopher;  Ginoulhiac  (1870- 
1875),  known  by  his  "  Histoire  du  dogme  catholique 
pendant  les  trois  premiers  sidcles  *\ 

Chapters  and  Colleges. — At  the  end  of  the  old  regime 
the  pnmatial  chapter  consisted  of  32  canons,  each  able 
to  prove  32  degrees  of  miUtary  nobihty;  each  of  these 
canons  bore  the  title  of  Count  of  Lyons.  The  Chapter 
of  Lyons  has  the  honour  of  numbering  amon^  its 
canons  four  popes  (Innocent  IV,  Gregory  X,  Boniface 
VIII,  and  Clement  V),  20  cardinals,  20  archbishops, 
more  than  80  bishops,  and  finally  3  persons  of  officially 
recognised  sanctity,  St.  Ismidon  of  Sassenage,  later 
Bisl^p  of  Die  (d.  about  1116),  Blessed  Louis  Aleman 
(q.  V.)  and  Blessed  Frangois  d'Estaing,  later  Bishop  of 
liodez  (d.  in  1501).  The  city  of  Lyons  numbered  5 
collegiate  churches  and  the  diocese  14  others.  There 
were  4  chapters  of  noble  canonesses.  The  Jesuits  had 
at  Lyons  the  Collie  de  la  Trinity,  founded  in  1527  by 
a  lay  confraternity  which  ceded  it  to  them  in  1565,  the 
Colfege  Notre  Dame,  foimded  in  1630,  a  house  of  pro- 
bation, a  professed  nouse,  and  other  colleges  in  the 
diocese.  Convents  were  perhaps  more  numerous  here 
than  in  any  other  part  of  France.  The  Petites  Ecoles 
founded  in  1670  by  D4mia,  a  priest  of  Bourg,  contrib- 
uted much  to  primary  instruction  at  Lyons.  Since  the 
law  of  1875  concerning  higher  education  Lyons  pos- 
sesses Catholic  faculties  of  theology,  letters,  sciences, 
and  law. 

Principal  Saints. — The  Diocese  of  Lyons  honours  as 
saints:  St.  Epipodius  and  his  companion  St.  Alexan- 
der, probably  martyrs  under  Marcus  Aurelius;  the 
priest  St.  Pere^nus  (third  century);  St.  Baldonor 
(Galmier),  a  native  of  Aveizieux,  at  first  a  locksmith, 
whose  piety  was  remarked  by  the  bishop,  St.  Viven- 
tiolus;  ne  became  a  cleric  at  the  Abbey  of  St.  Justus, 
then  subdeacon,  and  died  about  760;  the  thermal  re- 
sort of  "AqufiB  Segest»  *\  in  whose  church  Viven^iolus 
met  him,  has  taken  the  name  of  St.  Galmier;  St.  Via- 
tor (d.  about  390),  who  followed  the  Bishop,  St.  Jus- 
tus, to  the  Thebaid;  Sts.  Romanus  and  Lupicinus 
(fifth  century),  natives  of  the  Diocese  of  Lyons 
who  lived  as  solitaries  within  the  present  territory  of 
the  Diocese  of  St.  Claude;  St.  Consortia,  d.  about  578, 
who  according  to  a  l^end,  criticized  by  Tillemont, 
was  a  daughter  of  St.  Eucherius;  St.  Rambert,  soldier 
and  martyr  in  the  seventh  centurj',  patron  of  the  town 
of  the  same  name;  Blessed  Jean  Pierre  N^l,  b.  in  1832 
at  Ste  Catherine  sur  Riverie,  martyred  at  Kay-Tcheou 
in  1862. 

Among  the  natives  of  Lyons  must  be  mentioned 
Sidonius  Apollinaris  (430-489);  Abb^  Morellet,  ht- 
terateur  (1727-1819);  the  Christian  philosopher  Bal- 
lanohe  (1776-1847);  the  religious  painter  nippolyte 
Flandrin  (1809-1864) ;  Puvis  de  Chavannes,  painter  of 
the  hfe  of  Ste  Genevieve  (1824-1898).  The  diocese  of 
Lyons  is  also  the  birthplace  of  the  Jesuit  P^rc  Coton 
(1564-1626),  confessor  of  Henry  IV  and  a  native  of 
Ndronde,  and  Abbd  Terray,  controller  general  of  fi- 
nance under  Louis  XVI,  a  native  of  Boen  (1715- 
1778).  Gerson,  whose  old  age  was  spent  at  Lyons  in 
the  cloister  of  St.  Paul,  where  he  instructed  poor  chil- 
dren, died  there  in  1429.    St,  Francis  de  Sales  died  at 


LTOm  41 

Ljrotu,  28  Deoonber,  1622.  The  Curt  Colombet  de 
St.  Amour  was  celebrated  at  St.  Etienne  ia  the  seven> 
teentb  century  for  the  cenerMity  with  which  he 
founded  the  HAtel-Dieu  (Uie  chanty  hospital) ,  alao 
free  schools,  and  fed  the  workmen  during  the  famine 
of  1693. 


were  distinctive  of  the  ascetical  life  of  Christian  Lyons 
in  the  Middle  Ages;  these  were  cells  in  which  persons 
diut  themselves  up  for  life  after  four  yean  of  trial. 
The  system  of  hermitafes  aloox  the  lines  described  by 
GrimalaiuB  and  Olbredus  in  the  ninth  century  floar- 
ished  especially  from  the  eleventh  to  the  thirteenth 
century,  sad  disappeared  completely  in  the  sixteenth. 
These  hermitaees  were  the  private  property  of  a 
neighbmirin^  church  or  monastery,  which  installed 
therein  for  life  a  male  or  female  recluse.  The  general 
almshouse  of  Lyons,  or  chant;  hospital,  was  founded 
in  1632  oifter  the  great  famine  of  1531  under  the  super- 
vision of  eight  administrators  chosen  from  amon^  tbe 
more  important  citisena.  The  institution  of  the  jubt' 
lee  of  8t  Nizier  datee  beyond  a  doubt  to  the  stav  of 
Innocent  IV  at  Lyons.  This  jubilee,  which  had  all 
the  privileges  of  the  secular  jubilees  of  Rome,  was  cele- 
brated each  time  that  Low  Thursday,  the  feast  of  St. 
Niiier,  coincided  with  2  April,  i.  e.  whenever  the  feast 

ater  itael* 
paschal  cycle, 
lime  this  coincidence  oocurred,  the  feast  of  St.  Niner 
was  not  celebrated.  But  the  cathedral  of  St.  John 
also  enjoys  a  great  jubilee  each  time  that  the  feast  of 
St.  John,  the  Baptist,  coincides  with  Corpus  Christi, 
that  is,  whenever  the  feast  of  Corpus  Chiisti  falls  on  24 
June.  It  is  certain  that  in  1451  the  coincidence  of 
these  two  Feasts  was  celebrated  with  specisJ  splendour 
by  the  population  of  Lyons,  then  emei^nff  from  the 
troubles  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War,  but  tnere  is  no 
document  to  prove  that  the  jubilee  indulgence  existed 
at  that  date.  However,  Lyonnese  tradition  places  the 
first  great  jubilee  in  1451 ;  the  four  subsequent  jubilees 
took  place  in  1546,  1666,  1734  and  1886. 
Liturgy. — Some  authors  have  held  that  the  Gaili( 


Duchesne  considers  that  during  the  two  centuries 
after  Emperor  Constantine  tbe  prestige  of  the  Church 
of  Lyons  was  not  such  that  it  could  dictate  a  htuigy 
across  the  Pyrenees,  the  Channel  and  the  Alpe,  and 
lure  from  Rtunui  influence  half  the  Churches  of  Italy. 
In  his  opinion  it  was  not  Lyons,  but  Milan,  which  was 
the  centre  of  the  diffusion  of  the  Qallican  Liturgy. 
Under  Leidrade  and  Agobard  the  CSiurch  of  Lyons, 
although  fulfilling  the  task  of  purifying  its  Ututgical 
texts  exacted  by  the  Holy  See,  upheld  its  own  tradi- 
tions. "  Among  the  Churches  of  France",  wrote  St. 
Bernard  to  the  canons  of  Lyons,  "that  of  Lyons  has 
hitherto  had  ascendancy  over  all  the  others,  as  much 
for  the  diniity  of  its  see  as  for  its  praiseworthy  insti- 
tutions. It  is  especially  in  the  Divine  Office  that  ^s 
judicious  Church  has  never  readily  acquiesced  in  un- 
expected and  sudden  novelties,  and  has  never  sub- 
mitted to  be  tsjniahed  by  innovations  which  are  be- 
coming only  to  youth".  In  the  Beventeenth  century 
Cardinal  Bona,  in  his  treatise  "Dedivinapsalmodia, 
renders  similar  homage  tfl  the  Church  of  Lyons.  But 
in  the  eighteenth  century  Bishop  Montaset,  contniy 
to  the  Bull  of  Pius  V  on  the  Breviary,  changed  tlie 
text  of  the  Breviary  and  the  Hissal,  from  which  there 
resulted  a  whole  oentury  of  troubles  for  the  Church  of 
Lyons.  The  efforts  of  Pius  IX  and  Cardinal  Bonald 
to  suppress  thetnnovations  of  HODtaset  provoked  gteftt 
resistance  on  the  part  of  tbe  eanons,  who  fearM  an 
attempt  against  the  tradiUonal  Ljonneae  ceremonies. 
This  culminated  in  1861  in  a  prot^  on  the  pajrt  of  the 
clergy  and  the  laity,  as  much  with  regard  to  the  civil 
pow^aslotheVfttioai).   IlntUr,  on  4  Feb.,  ISM,  «t 


5  LTom 

a  reception  of  the  perish  priests  of  Lyons,  Pius  IX  de- 
clared his  displeasure  at  this  agitation  and  assured 
them  that  nothing  should  be  changed  in  the  ancient. 
Lyonnese  ceremonies;  by  a  Brief  of  17  March,  1864,  he 
ordered  the  progressive  introduction  of  the  Roman 
Breviary  ana  lussal  in  the  diocese.  The  primatial 
church  of  Lyons  adopted  them  for  public  services  8 
December,  1869.  One  of  tiie  most  touching  rites  of 
the  ancient  Gallican  liturgy,  retained  by  the  Church  of 
Lyons,  is  tbe  blessing  of  the  people  by  the  bishop  at 
the  moment  of  Communion. 

Churches. — The  cathedra]  of  St.  John,  b^un  in  tbe 
twelfth  century  on  the  ruins  of  a  sixth  centut?  church. 


NoTBa-Duu  DB  FocKVikacs,  IirONS 

was  completed  in  1476;  worthy  of  note  are  the  two 
crosses  to  right  and  left  of  the  altar,  preserved  sinoa 
the  council  of  1274  as  a  symbol  of  the  union  of  t^ 
churches,  and  tbe  Bourbon  chapel,  built  by  Cardinal 
,de  Bourbon  and  his  brother  Pierre  de  Bourbon,  son 
in-law  of  Louis  XI,  a  masterpiece  of  fifteenth  centufy 
sculpture.  The  church  of  Ainay,  dating  from  the 
tentli  and  eleventh  centuries,  is  of  the  Bysantine  style. 
The  doorway  of  St.  NiEieHs  [fifteenth  oentury)  was 
carved  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  Philibert  Delorme. 
The  coUc^ate  church  of  St.  John  Baptist  at  St.  Qia- 
mond,  now  destroyed,  presented  a  smgular  arrange- 
ment; the  belfry  was  situated  beiow  the  church,  to 
which  those  coming  from  the  city  could  only  gain  ao 
cess  by  climbing  two  hundred  steps;  the  roof  »rf  the 
church  served  as  pavement  for  tbe  courtyard  of  tiie 
fortress,  the  circuit  of  which  might  be  made  in  a  car> 

Pilarimaget.—The  chief  pilgrimages  of  the  diocese 
are  Notre  Dame  de  Fourvi^res,  a  sanctuary  dating 
from  tbe  time  of  St.  Pothinus,  on  the  site  of  a  temfde 
of  Venus.  In  1643  the  people  of  Lyons  consecrated 
themselves  to  Notre  Dame  de  Fourvi^res  and  pledged 
themselves  to  a  solemn  procession  on  8  September  of 
each  year;  the  new  basilica  of  FourviSres,  consecrated 
in  1896,  attracts  numerous  pilgrims.  Notre  Dame  de 
Benoite-Vaux  at  Saint-Btienne,  a  i2\1^icadet.^.cs<a:ii»i^ 


LT0N8 


476 


LTOMB 


in  1849  by  the  Marists  who  had  been  miraculously 
preserved  from  a  flood;  Notre  Dame  de  Valfleury,  near 
Saint  Chamond,  a  pilgrimage  dating  from  the  eighth 
century  and  re-estabushed  in  1629  after  a  plf^e; 
Notre  Dame  de  Vemayj  near  Roanne. 

Religious  Congregations. — In  1901,  before  the  appli- 
cation of  the  Airaociations  Law  to  congregations  the 
Diocese  of  Lyons  possessed  Capuchins,  Jesuits,  Camil- 
Hans,  Dominicans,  Carmelites,  Oblates  of  Mary  Im- 
maculate, Redemptorists,  Sulpicians,  Clerics  of  St.  Via- 
tor, and  three  great  orders  native  to  the  diocese:  (1) 
ITie  Marists,  founded  by  Ven.  Colin  and  approved  by 
Gregory  XVI  in  1836;  they  had  their  mother-house  at 
Lyons,  which  governed  a  number  of  establishments 
in  England,  Ireland,  Belgium,  Spain,  America,  New 
Zealand,  and  Australia,  and  they  were  chained  with 
the  Vicariates  Apostolic  of  New  Caledonia  (since 
1847),  of  Central  Oceanica  (since  1842),  Fiji  (since 
1844),  Samoa,  and  the  Prefecture  ApostoUc  of  the 
Solomon  Islands.  (2)  The  African  missionaries  (Mis- 
donnaires  d'Afrique),  an  association  of  secular  priests 
founded  in  1856  by  Mgr  de  Marion-Bresillao  and 
charged  with  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Benin  (1860), 
with  the  five  Prefectures  ApostoUc  of  Ivory  Coast 
0895),  Gold  Coast  (1879),  Nigeria  (1884),  Dahomey 
(1882),  and  the  Delta  of  the  Nile.  This  congregation 
has  two  Apostolic  schools,  at  Clermont-Ferrand  and 
at  Cork,  Ireland;  and  two  mieparatory  schools  at 
Nantes  and  Keer-Maestricht,  Holland.  (3)  The  Lit- 
tle Brothers  of  Mary,  founded  2  Januarv,  1817  by 
Ven.  Marcellin  Champa^at,  vicar  at  Valla,  d.  1840. 
The  mother-house  at  Samt  Genis-Laval,  near  Lyons, 
governs  7000  members,  14  novitiates,  25  juniorates, 
and  about  800  schools,  either  elementary,  agricultural 
or  secondary,  in  France,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Spain, 
Great  Britain,  Italy,  Switzerland,  Tmrkey,  Canada, 
Mexico,  Brazil,  the  United  States,  Colombia,  Egypt, 
Cap  Haitien,  Seychelles,  Syria,  i^rabia,  China,  Austra- 
liiL  New  2iealand,  New  Caledonia,  Central  Oceanica. 

The  Brothers  of  St.  John  of  God  have  their  mother- 
house  for  France  at  Lyons.  The  Society  of  the  Priests 
of  St.  Iremeus  is  engaged  in  teaching  and  giving  dio- 
oesan  missions^  In  1901  the  Diocese  of  Lyons  had  a 
diocesan  "grand  s^nunaire''  and  a  university  semi- 
nary at  Lyons,  a  seminary  of  philosophy  at  Alix  and 
five  "  petits  s^minaires  "  at  St.  Jean  de  Lyon,  Dueme, 
St.  Jcxiard,  Vemidres,  and  Montbrison;  the  first  of 
these  was  founded  under  Charlemagne. 

The  female  congregations  native  to  the  Diocese  of 
Lyons  are  numerous ;  the  following  deserve  special  men- 
tion :  The  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  de  Fourvidres,  founded 
1732  at  Usson,  for  teaching  and  nursing,  with  the 
mother-house  at  Lyons;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Charles, 
founded  1680  by  the  Abb6  D^mia,  teaching  and  nurs- 
ing, with  mother-house  at  Lyons;  the  Religious  of  the  ^ 
Perpetual  Adoration  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  ' 
Blanr,  founded  1820  by  the  Cur6  Ribier,  with  their 
mother-house  at  Lajarasse;  the  Religious  of  the  Five 
Wounds  of  Our  Lord,  founded  at  Lyons  in  1886  as  a 
contemplative,  nursing,  and  teaching  order,  which 
has  houses  in  Canada;  the  Sisters  of  the  Child  Jesus, 
teaching,  with  their  mother-house  at  Claveisolles,  the 
origin  of  which  dates  from  the  opening  of  a  little  school 
in  1830  by  Josephine  du  Sablon;  the  Franciscan  Sis- 
ters of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  founded  in  1836 
by  Mother  Moyne  for  the  care  of  incurables  with 
mother-house  at  Lyons;  the  Reli^ous  of  Jesus-Mary, 
a  teaching  congregation,  founded  m  1818  by  the  priest 
Andr6  Coindre  and  Claudine  Thevenet,  whose  mother- 
house  installed  at  Lyons  governs  a  number  of  houses 
abroad;  the  Ladies  of  Nazareth,  teaching,  founded  in 
1822  at  Montmirail  (Mame)  by  the  Duchesse  de  La 
Rochefoucauld  Doudeauville,  whose  mother-house  re- 
moved to  Oullins  in  1854  governs  several  establish- 
ments in  Palestine  and  at  London;  the  Religious  of 
Our  Lady  of  Missions,  founded  at  Lyons  in  1861  for  the 
missions  of  Oceanica;  the  abbey  of  the  Benedictines  of 


the  Holy  Heart  of  Mary,  founded  1804,  the  first  house 
of  this  conmgation  to  be  restored  after  the  Revolu- 
tton;  the  Religious  of  the  Holy  Family,  founded  in 
1825  by  the  Cur6  of  St.  Bruno  les  Chartreux  for  mis- 
sion work  among  workmen;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi,  founded  in  1838  by  pious  working  women  for 
education  and  nursing,  with  mother-house  at  Lyons; 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  founded  1620  at  Puy,  by 
Bishop  Maupas,  reconstituted  in  1807  in  the  Diocese 
of  Lyons  for  hospital  and  teaching  work,  with  mother- 
house  at  Lyons,  also  sends  subjects  to  the  missions  of 
Armenia  and  America. 

Statistics. — At  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  religious  congregations  maintained  in  the  Diocese 
of  Lyons  2  maternity  hospitals,  3  da}r  nurseries,  193 
nurseries,  2  children's  hospitals,  9  hospitals  for  incura- 
bles, 1  asylum  for  blind  ^Is,  4  asylums  for  deaf  mutes, 
5  boys'  orphanages,  49  girls'  orphanages,  4  workrooms, 
3  inaustrial  schools,  2  schools  of  apprentices,  5  institu- 
tions for  the  rescue  of  young  women,  1  house  of  cor- 
rection for  young  women,  1  house  of  correction  for 
boySj  3  institutions  for  the  reform  of  adults,  61 
hospitals,  infirmaries,  or  asylums  for  the  aged,  19 
houses  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  homes,  2  homes 
for  convalescents,  5  houses  of  retreat,  2  insane  asylums. 
In  1908,  three  years  after  the  Separation  Law  w^nt 
into  effect,  the  Archdiocese  of  Lyons  had  1,464,665 
inhabitants,  74  parishes,  595  branch  churches,  585 
vioariates 

OtUlia  Christiana  (nova)  IV  (1728).  1-211.  indrum.  1-40; 
DucHESNB,  Fades  Epiacopaux,  I,  38-59;  II.  156-73;  Fisquet, 
La  France  pontificale:  Lyon  (Paris.  186S);  Charlety,  Hidoire 
de  Lyon  (Lyons.  1903);  Condamine.  Le  premier  bereeau  de 
rApodolai  lyonnaia  Hdela  propagation  de  la  fox:  la  prison  de  8L 
Pothin  (Lvons.  1890) ;  Hirschfeld.  Zur  Qeschichte  des  Chridenr 
thums  in  Luadunum  vor  Constantin  in  Sitzungab.  A  kademie  Wis- 
senst^ften  (Berlin.  1895),  381-409;  Leblant.  Inscriptions  ehrf» 
tiennes  de  la  OatUe,  3  vob.  (Paris.  1856.  1865,  1892);  Mabtin, 
Conciles  et  btUlaires  du  dioctse  de  Lyon  (Lyons.  19()5);  Idem, 
Hidoire  des  iqlises  et  des  ehapdles  de  Lyon  (Lyons,  1909); 
Mbtnib,  Orands  souvenirs  de  Ciglise  de  Lyon  (Lvons.  1886); 
FoBRSTBR.  Drei  Erzbisehdfe  vor  tausend  Jahrhundertem:  Aqo' 
bardits  voh  Lyon  (Gutersloh.  1874);  Martin.  Vnc  manifestalton 
thSologique  de  Valise  de  Lyon;  Vadoptionisnie  d  les  arcnevfques 
Leidraa  d  Agobard  (University  Catnolique,  1898);  Bernard, 
L'iglise  de  Lyon  d  VimmacuUe  Conception  (Lyons.  1877);  Per- 
RIN.  La  culture  des  lettres  d  les  dablissements  dindruction  h 
Lyon  [Memoires  de  VAcademie  des  Sciences,  Bdles  lettres  d 
Arts  de  Lyon  (1893)];  Guioub.  Recherches  sur  les  reduseries  de 
Lyon,  leur  origine,  leur  nombre  d  le  genre  de  vie  des  rectus  (Lyons, 
1887);  Idem.  CaHulaire  des  fiefs  de  Vfglise  de  Lyon  1175-1621 
(Lyons,  1893) ;  Sachet.  Le  grand  jubiU  siculaire  de  S.  Jean  de 
Lyon  (Lyons.  1886);  Begule.  Monographic  de  la  cathfdraU  de 
Lyon,  (1880);  Briqhtman.  Liturgies,  Eastern  and  Western 
(OiBford,  1896);  Duchesne.  Origines  du  culte  chrdien,  (a  study 
of  Christian  liturgy  prior  to  Charlemagne)  (2  ed.  Paris,  1898): 
tr.  McClurb  (London,  1906);  Bouix.  La  hturgie  de  Lyon  au 
point  de  vue  de  Vhidoire  d  du  droit  in  Revue  des  sciences  eccUsv- 
adiaues  VI  (1862);  Pothier,  Le  chant  de  Viglise  de  Lyon  du 
Vin  au  XVIII  eiede  in  Revue  de  VAH  Chrdien  XV  (1881); 
CMmonial  Romain  Lyonnais,  published  by  order  of  the  arch- 
bishop (Lyons,  1897);  Bbybsac,  Les  prMis  de  Fourviirss, 
(Lyons,  1908);  Cheyaubr,  Topo-bibl.  (1788-93). 

Georges  Goyau. 

hyonB,  Councils  of. — Previous  to  1313  the  Abb^ 
Martin  counts  no  less  than  twenty-eight  S3rnods  or 
councils  held  at  Lyons  or  at  Anse  near  Lyons.    The 

Eretended  colloquy  between  the  Catholic  and  Arian 
ishops  of  Biirgundy,  said  to  have  been  held  in  499, 
is  regarded,  since  the  researches  of  Julien  Ilavet,  as 
apochryphal.  This  article  deals  only  with  the  two 
general  councils  of  1245  and  1275. 

I.  (General  Council  op  1245.  —  Innocent  IV, 
threatened  by  Emperor  Frederick  II,  arrived  at  Lyons 
2  December,  1244,  and  early  in  1245  summoned  the 
bishops  and  princes  to  the  council.  The  chronicle  of 
St.  Peter  of  Erfurt  states  that  two  hundred  and  fifty 
prelates  responded;  the  annalist  Mencon  speaks  of 
three  patriarchs,  three  hundred  bishops,  and  numerous 
prelates.  The  Abb<^  Martin  without  deciding  between 
these  figures  has  succeeded  in  recovering  to  a  cer- 
tainty the  names  of  one  hundred  assistants,  prelates 
or  lords,  of  whom  thirty-eight  were  from  France, 
thirty  from  Italy,  eleven  from  Germany  or  the  coun* 


LTOm  477  LTOMb 

tries  of  the  North,  eight  from  England,  five  from  council  were  James  I,  King  of  Aragon,  the  ambas- 

Spain,   five  from  the  Latin   Orient.    Baldwin  II,  sadors  of  the  Kin^  of  France  and  Elngland,  the 

Latin  Einperor  of  Constantinople,  Raymond  VII.  ambassadors  of  the  Emperor  Michael  Palffiolegus 

Count  of  Toulouse,  Raymond  Berenger  IV,  Count  ot  and  the  Greek  clergy,  the  ambassadors  of  the  Khan 

Provence,  Albert  Rezats,  Latin  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  of  the  Tatars.     The  conquest  of  the  Holy  Land 

Berthold,   Patriarch   of    Aquileia,    Nicholas,   Latin  and. the  union  of  the  Chiu'ches  were  the  two  ideas 

Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  came  to  the  council^  for  the  realization  of  which  Gregory  X  had  convoked 

which  opened  28  June  at  Saint-Jean.    After  the ''  Vem  the  council. 

Creator^*  and  the  litanies.   Innocent  IV  preached        (1)     The  CrtMCkfe.— ^Despite  the  protest  of  Richard 

his  famous  sermon  on  the  five  wounds  of  the  Church  of  Mapham,  dean  of  Lincoln,  he  obtained  that  during 

from  the  text  "Secundum  multitudinem  dolorum  six  years  for  the  benefit  of  the  crusade  a  tithe  of  all 

meorum  in  corde  meo,  consolationes  tusB  ketifica-  the  oenefices  of  Christendom  should  go  to  the  pope^ 

verunt  animam  meam  *\    He  enumerated  his  five  but  when  James  I,  King  of  Aragon,  wished  to  organise 

sorrows:  (1)  the  bad  conduct  of  prelates  and  faitb-  the  expedition  at  once  the  representatives  of  the 

ful;  (2)  the  insolence  of  the  Saracens;  (3)  the  Greek  Templars  opposed  the  project,  and  a  decision  was 

Schism;  (4)  the  cruelties  of  the  Tatars  in  Hungary:  postponed.    Ambassadors   of   the  Khan  of  Tataiy 

(5)  the  persecution  of  the  Emperor  Frederick;   ana  arrived  at  Lyons,  4  July,  to  treat  with  Gregory  A, 

he  caused  to  be  read  the  privilege  granted  to  Pope  who  desired  that  during  the  war  against  IsUm  the 

Honorius  III  by  Frederick  when  the  latter  was  as  Tatars  should  leave  the  Christians  in  peace.    Two  of 

yet  only  King  of  the  Romans.    Thaddeus  of  Suessa,  the  ambassadors  were  solemnly  baptized  16  July. 
Frederick's  ambassador,  arose,  attempted  to  make        (2)     Union  of  the  ChurckBS.-^regory  X  had  pre- 

excuses  for  the  emperor,  and  cited  numerous  plots  pared  for  the  imion  by  sending  in  1273  an  embassy  to 

against  the  emperor  which,  he  said,  had  been  insti-  Constantinople  to  Michael  Palseol^us  and  b^  indu* 

gated  by  the  Church.     On  29  June  at  the  request  of  cing  Charles,  Kin^  of  Sicily,  and  Philip,  Latm  Em- 

the  procurators  of  the  Kings  of  France  and  England,  peror  of  Constantmople,  to  moderate  their  political 

Innocent  IV  granted  Thaddeus  a  delay  of  ten  days  ambitions.     On  24  June,  1274,  there  arrived  at  L^ons 

for  the  arrival  of  the  emperor.  as  representatives  of  PaUeologus,  Gennanus,  Patriarch 

At  the  second  session  (5  Jidy)  the  Bishop  of  Calvi  of  Constantinople^  Theophanes,   Bishop  of  Niccea, 

and  a  Spanish  archbishop  attacked  the  emperor's  Georgius  Acropohta,   senator  and  great  logothete, 

manner  of  life  and  his  plots  against  the  Cnurch;  Nicholas   Panaretus,    president  of  the    ward-robe, 

again  Thaddeus  spoke  in  his  behalf  and  asked  a  delav  Berrho^ota,  chief  interpreter,  and  Georgius  Zinuchi. 

for  his  arrival.    Despite  the  advice  of  numerous  prel-  The  letter  from  Palseologus  which  they  presented 

ates  Innocent  (9  July)  decided  to  postpone  the  third  had  been  written  in  the  name  of  fifty  archbishops 

session  until  the  seventeenth.    On  the  seventeenth  and  five  hundred  bishops  or  s3mods.    On  29  Jime, 

Frederick  had   not  come.    Baldwin  II,   Raymond  the  feast  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  Gregory  X  cele- 

yil,  and  Berthold,  Patriarch  of  Aquileia,  interceded  brated  Mass  in  the  church  of  St.  John^  the  Epistle, 

in  vain  for  him;    Thaddeus  in  his  master's  name  Gospel,  and  Creed  were  read  or  sung  m  Latin  ana 

appealed  to  a  future  pope  and  a  more  general  council;  Greek,  the  article  ''qui  a  pa  ire  filioque  procedit "  was 

Innocent  pronounced  the  deposition  of  Frederick,  sung  three  times  by  the  Greeks.     On  6  Jul^,  after  a 

caused  it  to  be  signed  by  one  hundred  and  fifty  sermon  by  Peter  of  Tarentaise  and  the  pubhc  reading 

bishops  and  charged  the  Dominicans  and  Francis-  of  the  letter  of  Palffiologus,  Geomus  AcropoUta  and 

cans  with  its  publication  everywhere.    But  the  pope  the  other  ambassadors  promised  fidelity  to  the  Latin 

lacked  the  material  means  to  execute    this  decree;  Church,  abjured   twenty-six  propositions  which  it 

the  Count  of  Savoy  refused  to  allow  an  army  sent  denied,  and  promised  the  protection  of  the  emperor 

by  the  pope  against  the  emperor  to  pass  through  his  to  the  Christians  of  the  Holy  Land.     Gregory  A  in- 

territory,  and  for  a  time  it  was  feared  that  Frederick  toned  the  *'Te  Deum",  spoke  on  the  text  *'  Desiderio 

would  attack  Innocent  at  Lyons.    The  Council  of  desideravi  hoc  pascha  manducare  vobiscum ",  and  on 

Lyons  took  several  other  purely  religious  measures;  28  July  wrote  joyful  letters  to  Michael,  to  his  son 

it  obliged  the  Cistercians  to  pay  tithes,  approved  the  Andronicus,    and    forty-one    metropoHtans.    Three 

Rule  of  the  Order  of  Grandmont,  decided  the  institu-  letters  dated  February,  1274,  written  to  the  pope  by 

tion  of  the  octave  of  the  Nativity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Michael  and  Andronicus,  in  which  they  recognized  his 

prescribed  that  henceforth  cajxiinals  should  wear  a  supremacy,  exist  as  proofs  of  the  emperor's  good 

red  hat,  and  lastly  prepared  thirty-ei^t  constitu-  faith,  despite  the  efforts  to  throw  douot  on  it  by 

tions  which  were  later  inserted  by  Boniface  VIII  in  means  of  a  letter  of  Innocent  V  (1276^  which  seems 

his  Decretals,  the  most  important  of  which,  received  to  point  to  the  conclusion  that  Georgius  Acropolita, 

with  protests  by  the  envoys  of  the  English  clergy,  who  at  the  council  had  promised  fidelitv  to  the  Koman 

decreed  a  levy  of  a  twentieth  on  every  benefice  for  Church,  had  not  been  expressly  authorized  by  the 

three  years  for  the  reUef  of  the  Holy  Land  (Constitu-  einperor. 

tion  "  Afllicti  corde")  and  a  levy  for  the  benefit  of  the        The  Council  of  Lyons  dealt  also  with  the  reform  of 

Latin  Empire  of  Constantinople  of  half  the  revenue  the  Church,  in  view  of  which  Gregory  X  in  1273  had 

of  benefices  whose  titulars  dia  not  reside  therein  for  addressed  questions  to  the  bishops  and  asked  of 

at  least  six  months  of  the  yeaf  (Constitution  ''Arduis  Hubert  de  Romans,  the  former  general  of  the  Friars 

mens  occupata  negotiis").  Preachers,  a  certain  programme  for  discussion  and  of 

II.    General    Council    op    1274. — ^The    second  John  of  Vercelli,  the  new  general  of  the  order,  a  draft 

Council  of  Lyons  was  one  of  the  most  largely  attended  of  formal  constitutions.     Henri  of  GOlder,  Bishop  of 

of  conciliar  assemblies,  there  being  present  five  hun-  Li^^  Frederick,  Abbot  of  St.  Paul  without  the  Walls, 

dred  bishops,  sixty  abbots,  more  than  a  thousand  the  Bishops  of  Rhodes  and  of  WUrzburg  were  deposed 

prelates  or  procurators.     Gregory  X,  who  presided,  for  unworthiness,  and  certain  mendicant  ordere  were 

had  been  a  canon  of  Lyons;  Peter  of  Tarentaise,  who  suppressed.    The  council  warmly  approved  the  two 

assisted  as  Csurdinal-Bishop  of  C^tia,  had  been  Arch-  orders  of  St.  Dominic  and  St.  Francis.    Fearing  the 

bishop  of  Lyons.     It  opened  7  May,  1274,  in  the  opposition  of  the  King  of  Spain  who  had  in  his  king- 

churcii  of  St.  John.    There  were  five  other  sessions  dom  three  religious  military;  orders,  the  idea  was 

(18  May,  7  June,  6  July,  16  July,  17  July).    At  the  abandoned  of  forming  all  military  orders  into  one. 

second  session  uregory  X  owing  to  the  excessive  Gregory  X,  to  avoid  a  repetition  of  the  too  lengthy 

numbers  rejected  the  proxies  of  clutpters,  abbots,  and  vacancies  of  the  papal  see,  caused  it  to  be  decided  that 

unmitred  priors,  except  those  who  had  been  sum-  the  cardinals  should  not  leave  the  conclave  till  the 

moned  by  name.    Among  those  who  attended  the  pope  had  been  elected.    This  constitution  ^hink. 


LTBBJl 


478 


LTinUL 


inflicted  certain  material  privations  on  the  cardinals 
if  the  election  was  too  long  delayed,  waS  suspended 
in  1276  by  Adrian  V,  and  a  few  months  later  revoked 
by  John  XXI,  but  was  re-established  later  in  many 
of  its  articles,  and  is  even  yet  the  basis  of  legislation 
on  the  conclaves.  Lastly,  the  Council  of  Lyons  dealt 
with  the  vacancy  of  the  imperial  throne.  James  I 
of  Aragon  pretended  to  it;  Gregory  X  removed  him 
and  on  6  June  Rudolph  I  was  proclaimed  King  of  the 
Romans  and  future  emperor.  Such  was  the  work 
of  the  coimcil  during  which  died  the  two  greatest 
doctors  of  the  Middle  Aces.  St.  Thomas  Aquinas, 
summoned  by  the  pope,  died  at  Frosinone  (7  March, 
1274)  on  his  wajr  to  Lyons.  St.  Bonaventure,  after 
important  interviews  at  the  Council  with  the  Greek 
ambassadors,  died  15  Jul^r,  at  Lyons,  and  was 
praised  by  Peter  of  Tarentaise,  the  future  Innocent 
V,  in  a  touching  funeral  sermon. 

Martin.  BuUaire  et  ConeUet  de  Lyon  (Lyon,  1906)  (excellent) ; 
Mansi.  CoU.  Conciliorum,  XXIII,  606-82,  XXIV,  37-136; 
HBrsLB,  HxHory  of  Christian  Councils,  tr.  Clark:  Havbt, 
Biblioth^que  de  VEcoU  des  Charles,  XLVI.  1885,  233-60;  Bxr- 
OSH,  Riffisitres  d*InnocerU  /K  (in  oounie  of  publication);  Gux- 
BAUD  AND  Cadisr,  BSffi^Tss  de  Grigoire  X  d,  Jean  XX J  (in  ooune 
of  pubUcation). 

Georqes  Gotau. 

Lyrba,  a  titular  see  of  Pamphylia  Prima,  known  by 
its  coins  and  the  mention  made  of  it  by  Dionysius, 
Berieg.  868,  Ptolemy,  V,  5, 8,  and  Hierocles.  Its  exact 
situation  is  not  known,  nor  its  histor]^ ;  it  may  be  the 
modem  small  town  of  Seidi  Shehir.  in  the  vilayet  of 
Konia.  The  "  Notitise  episcopatuum  mentions  Lyrba 
as  an  episcopal  see,  suffragan  of  Side  up  to  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries.  Two  of  its  bishops  are 
known:  Caius,  who  attended  the  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople, 381,  and  Taurianus  at  Ephesus,  431  (Le  Quieh, 
"Onens  christianus ",  I,  1009);  Zeuxius  was  not 
Bishop  of  Lyrba,  as  Le  Quien  states,  but  of  Syedra. 

S.  PfemiDES. 

Lsrsias,  a  titular  see  of  Phrygia  Salutaris,  men- 
tioned by  Strabo,  XII,  576,  Pliny,  V,  29^  Ptolemy,  V, 
2,  23,  Hierocles,  and  the  "Notitiae  episcopatuum", 
probably  founded  by  Antiochus  the  Great  about  200 
B.  c.  Some  of  its  coins  are  still  extant.  Ramsay 
(Cities  and  Bishoprics  of  Phrygia,  754)  traces  its 


original  site  from  still  existing  ruins  between  the 
villages  of  Oinan  and  Aresli  in  the  plain  of  Oinan,  a 
little  north-east  of  Lake  Egerdir,  m  the  vilayet  of 
Konia.  Lequien  (Oiiens  christianus,  I,  845)  names 
three  bishops  of  Lysias  suffragans  of  Synnada:  The- 
agenes,  present  at  the  Council  of  Sardica,  344;  Philip, 
at  Chalcedon  451;  and  Constantine,  at  Constanti- 
nqple,  879.  S.  PirrRioKS. 

I^yster,  John.    See  Achonbt,  Diocese  of. 

Lystra,  a  titular  see  in  the  Province  of  Lvcaonia, 
suffragan  of  Iconium.  On  his  first  visit  to  this  town 
St.  Paul  healed  a  lame  man,  upon  which  the  populace, 
filled  with  enthiffiiasm,  wished  to  offer  sacrifice  to  him 
and  to  Barnabas,  whom  they  mistook  respectively  for 
Jupiter  and  Mercury.  The  two  Apostles  restrained 
them  with  difficulty.  These  same  people,  stirred  up 
by  Jews  from  Iconium,  afterwards  stoned  St.  P&ul 
(Acts,  xiv,  6-19:  II  Tim.,  iii,  11).  On  at  least  two 
other  occasions  the  Apostle  returned  to  this  city  (Acts, 
xiv,  20;  xvi,  1-3),  established  there  a  Christian  com- 
munity, and  converted  his  future  disciple  Timothy, 
the  son  of  a  Jewish  mother  and  a  pagan  father.  The 
Jews  were  imdoubtedly  numerous,  though  they  had 
no  s3magogue.  Pliny  (Historia  Naturalis,  V,  42), 
places  Lystra  in  Galatia,  Ptolemy  (V,  4)  locates  it  in 
Isauria,  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  in  Lycaonia. 
The  Viilgate  (Acts,  xxvii,  5)  also  mentions  it,  but  the 
reference  is  really  to  Myra  in  Lycia.  Some  coins  have 
beesi  found  there  belonging  to  a  Roman  colony 
foimded  by  Augustus  at  Lystra  "Colonia  Julia  Felix 
Gemina  Lystra''.  The  exact  site  of  the  town  has 
been  discovered  at  Khatum  Ser&I,  twelve  miles  south 
of  Iconium;  it  is  marked  by  some  ruins  on  a  hill 
about  one  mile  north  of  the  modern  village.  Lequien. 
(Oriens  Christ.,  I,  1073-76)  mentions  five  bishops  of 
Ljrstra  between  the  fourth  and  the  ninth  centuries, 
one  of  whom,  Eubulus,  about  630  refuted  Athanasius, 
the  Jacobite  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 

Stbrrbt,  The  Wolfe  Expedition  to  Asia  Minor  fBoeton,  1888), 
142,  219;  Lbakb,  Jovamal  of  a  Tour  in  Asia  Minor  (London, 
1824),  101,  103;  Ramsat,  The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire 
(London.  1894),  47-54;  Idem,  St.  Paul  the  Travdler,  and  the 
Roman  Citizen  (London,  1895),  114-9;  Blass,  Ada  Apostolorwn 
(GOttingen,  1895),  159-61;  Bkusubr  in  Vxo.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible, 
8.  V.  Ljjletre, 

S.  VailhI:. 


M 

1,  Friedsicr  Bbbhabd  Cbbistian,  profes-        MuiMcht.    Bee  Likan,  Diocese  of 
•or  of  law,  b.  24  Sept.,  1823,  at  Wismar  (Hecklen-        »,.vii        t         t>      j-  .■  ,     ,    ,    „ 

burg):  d.  6  April,  1900,  at  ivUten  near  Innsbnick        ""Jlon,  Jean,  BenedicUne  monk  of  the  Congre- 

(Tyrol).     After  completing  the   humanities  in  his  ^t-on  <rf  S^J-Maur,  b.  at  Samt-Pierremont,  between 

native  dty,  he  studieS  jurisprudenoe  at  Jena,  Beriin,  ""jf'*^^''^*'  ""^  v      ,  i^^^"^  .H? "^"i^-V"  ^'^™' 

Kiel,  and  :ftoetock,  b«4me,  in  1849,  an  advlxsate  ii;  P?^'  23  November  1632;  d.  at  Pans.  27  Deeejnber, 

the  Wt  named  place,  and  took  hia  degree  at  the  uni-  i™'-   /^*v*^-T-    t^'i!"''*  °J  ^J'^"^?  Ma''?"'"'.  » 

veraity  there  in  TsSl.    He  wm  active  E  the  constitu-  P«««»°t  who  died  m  1692  aged  101   aad  of  hia  wife, 

tional  conflict  of  1848  between  the  Grand  Duke  of  i.^f^  bufinn,  dejoended,  through  her  mother  a  famr 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and  the  Diet,  defended  the  ''y'  V°"\  "  '"^"'  "^  ^«  .««'Kaeura  of  Samt^Pierre- 

rights  of  the  repreaentativet  in  three  pamphlets,  and,  '°'™*j    Jean  was  a  precocious  chid,  and  easily  sur- 

wrSi  Frans  von  Florencourt,  founded  the  anti-revolu^  P?^  *»*  ^°°^  companions  m  Uieu-  studies,  while 

tionar3^  "  Norddeutscher  Korrespondent"'.     Shortly  awple^nt  disposition  made  him  a  general  favounle. 
after  his  graduation  he  became  a  convert  to  the  Catb-       .      tne     age     ol 

die  Faith,  and,  realising  that,  as  a  Catholic,  he  was  "^fi  **  '".^  f^"' 

not  eligible  for  public  office  in  his  native  place,  betook  ^  T-  ,T      '  ,^^ 

himself  to  Bonn,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  aca-  "npilion,    then 

demic  leaching.    The  work  by  means  of  which  he  ^™7  P^^st  at   . 

proved  his  great  teaching  ability,  "Der  Primal  dea  _u  _  l    ^• 

Bischofs  von  Rom  und  dw  alten  Patriarehalkirchen"  5^"?""  ^^  ^ 

(Bonn,  1853)  dealt  with  the  two  important  questions:  ^f^*'      , 
whether  the  Roman  primacy  existed  in  the  firat  cen-        ru(iim«ni 
turies,  and  whether  the  much-discussed  sixth  canon 
of  the  Council  of  Niraea  bears  witness  to  the  primacy. 

This  work  won  immediale  recognition  among  scholars,  ,  ,- 

and  Count  Thun  invited  him  to  Festh  in  1855  as  pro-  ™     continue 

fewff  extraordinaniu  of  Roman  Law.    A  few  months  ^'■"'•^-      '" 
later  he  was  given  a  professorship  of  Roman  and  canon 
law  at  Innsbruck,  one  at  Grai  in  1860,  and  one  in  1871 
at  Vienna,  where,  until  he  was  pensioned  in  1894,  he 
attracted  many  pupils. 

In  1873  he  became  a  member  of  the  Vienna  Acad-  ■,       i, 

emy  ot  Sciences,  in  1885  a  life  member  of  the  Upper  H"''''?''iV^'   ^ 

House,  and  from  1882  tiU  1897  was  a  member  of  the  u™d,  half  as  pupil. 

Supreme  Court  of  the  Empire.  During  the  Vatican  ih"  "^^i™  J5 
Council  he  adhered  to  DOUinger,  but  was  '  '  "  iMiao  n 
---  «  an  Old  Catholic,  and  in  1882  explicitb 


rudiments  ",  and 
from  whom  Ite 
received  a  dona- 
tion to  enable  him 


studies.  In  1644 
Jean  was  sent  to 
the  College  des 
Bona  Enfanta  at 
Reims.  Here,  while 
itudying    at    the 


aU 


utterances  in  favour  of  that  sect.   Incited  by    ^iw  Ttiit™*™?^"^^""™!!!^?^!!!:?^'^^^ 


Savigny's  important  work  on  the  history  of  Roman  ^'es^patron.mlfiSO, procured  himadmissL. 

taw  m  the  Middle  Ages,  Maassen  began  a  history  of  "^  diocesan  ^minary,  where  he  remained  tor  three 

r-anoniawonthesai^h'nes.    But  of  this  woric,  which  X^J?'    IiJ653,  however,  the  scandalous  conduct  and 

«a8  to  have  numbered  five  volumes,  he  published  only  feath  of  the  iwclc   who  had   befriended   him  m^ 

the  first,  "  Geschichte  der  <>uellen  und^der  Literatii  J'"..^«*''S V^  -'"{f ,  ^""j^'  priesthood  distasteful 

des  kanonisehen  Reehts  imlbendiande  bis  .urn  Aus-  t^T'^^  ^^Ti'^'J.^l^ i'■^!^^„T?:  ..^«^ 


gang  des  Mittelalleis"  (Gra*,  1870).    Several  of  bis  l!!L'''^  ^^°?^\  J^^v    [t'^"''»2'?  ^^  August    he 

articles  in  the  Reports  (Sitein^sberifAte)  of  the  Vienna  ^"P*  "  P°^^^  ">  f^,^^^  "IS*:^.?'  "*  J'^""*: 

,„„j -ere    practically    complements    of    this  This  house  had,  sin«  1627,  belonged  to  the  reformed 

"Neiii  Kapitel  Qber  treie  Kirehe  uod  »«""**,  Congregation    (see   Maubistb,   Congrboa- 


Academ; 
Gewisaenfreiheit' 


(Grax,  1876)  is  written  ii 


TioiJ  or).  He  was  clothed  on  5  September,  and,  after 


Prussian  Kulturkampf.    An  amplification  of  the  first  1™.'    "» devotion  to  th.  ,    ^      ,_,  - 

chapter  appeared  un&er  the  title:  "  Ueber  die  GrQnde  "'t*"^^.  **  "^T^'l  '^^  s^F^at  that  hia  supenoi. 

des  KarapfS^iwischen  dem  heidnischen  Staate  und  entrusted  hun  mth  the  direction  and  teachmg  of  the 

demChristentum"  (Vienna,  1882).    In  many  respects  "o"^-     But  the  eagerness  with  which  he  endeav- 


Pseudoisidoratudien"  (Vienna,  1885)  is  a^-  «"™?  *°  f"'^'  \^^'^  T^  ^T  '^?  J"^  *f^»f' 

tion  of  his  masterpiece.    He  alio  edited  in  mas-  '^^  «™"":   he  began  to  suffer  from  violent  head- 

teriy  style  one   volumS  of  the   great   "Monumenta  a^  and  ajxin  became  incapable  even  of  recitmg  hu 

GeiiianL  Historiea:  Leges",  III   fHar  ^'*-    Tnlfi.W  h,- -,™r,r.r,  ,„  .-- 


being_the"Concilia(eviMerovmgensis".  NotCT^orthy, 
also,  is  his  "Zwei  Synoden  unterChilderio  II"  (Grai, 
1867).  Maassen  often  displayed  in  politics  an  aggres- 
sive activity.  He  was  an  adherent  of  the  so-called 
Federaiismut,  and  strove  energetically  tor  the  foniai- 
tion  of  a  Catholic  Conservative  party 
where  he  belonged  for  a  time  to  the  Diet. 

HMariKhn  JaArhvch,  XXI  (Honleb,  1900).  eaO-i2:   Bii 
trafhUctuiJaliriMh,  V  (BtrUn,  1M3).  242-14. 

pATRICnn  ScHLAOEB. 


Office.  In  1656,  his  superiors,  in  the  hope  tbat  entire 
rest  might  restore  hia  health,  sent  him  to  Nogent, 
whence  in  July,  1958,  he  was  transferred  to  the  fa- 
mous Abbey  of  Corbie.  Here,  as  at  Nogent  he  occu- 
pied his  time  in  the  study  of  antiquities,  while  holding 

lively  the  offices  of  porter,  of  depofUarius,  and 

irer.  He  was  ordained  at  Amiens  in  1690.  T' 
tranquil  life  restored  his  health  and,  in  166.'1,  he  w,„ 
tron^erred  to  the  Abbey  of  St--Denis,  where  he  becanw 
treasurer.  But  his  superiors  had  already  noticed 
his  great  giftA  and,  in  1994,  at  the  request  of  Doio. 


MABHION  480  MABUXOH 

D'Achiry  (q.  v.),  he  was  removed  to  the  Abbey  of  prelate  the  king,  ia  1685,  required  Mabilloa  to  make 

St-Germain-des-Prts,  where    he    remained  for  the  a  tour  through  the  libraries  of  Italy  for  the  purpoao 

rest  of  his  life.  erf  acquiring  books  and  manuscripts  for  the  Royal 

When   Mabillon   Erst   entered    its   precincts,    the  Libraiy.    More  than  3000  rare  and  valuable  volumes 

commendatory   abbot   was   Jolm   Casimir,   King  of  were   procured.     During   his   travels   Mabillon   waa 

Poland,  an  eccentric  person  whose  irregular  life  had  everywhere  received  with  the  utmost  honour.    Soob 

but  little  effect  on  his  aliliey;   the  claustral  prior  was  after  his  return  he  began  his  famous  controversy  with 

Dom  Ignatius  Philibert,  and  D'Achi?ry  was  custodian  De  Ranc^,  Abbot  of  La  Trappe,  who  had  denied  that 

of  i\a  wonderful  library.    The  society  to  which  the  it  was  lawful  for  monks  to  devote  themselves  to  study 

young  monk   was    introduced   at  St-Germain   was,  rather  than  to  manual  labour.   Mabillon's"  Traits  dea 

perhaps,  the  most   learned   of   its  time  in  Europe,  ^tudos  monaatiqvies"  (1691)   was  a  noble  defence  t£ 

Every  week,  on  Sundays  after  Vespers,  there  met  in  monastic  learning  and  laid  down  the  lines  that  it 

D'AcWry'sroomagroupof  savants  that  included  men  idioukl  follow.   De  Itanc^  replied,  and  Mabillon  wsa 

likeDuCange,  Baluze,d'nerbe!ot,Cotelier,Henaudot,  forced  to  publish  further  "RiiflexionB  sur  la  Rfiponse 

Fleury,  Lamy,  Pagi,  Tillemont.     Mabillon  soon  be-  de  M,  TAbbf  de  la  Trappe"  (1692).    De  Rancti  would 

came  a  brilliant  member  of  this  group  o(  noted  work-  have   carried   the  dispute  further,   but   Cardinal  ie 

ers.    D'Ach£ry  had  asked  for  him  to  help  him  in  his  Camus  interfered,  and  tlie  general  opinion  seems  to 

projected  "Lives  of  thfe  Benedictine  Saints",  but  the  have  been  that  both  parties  to  the  dispute  were  really 

first  work  entrusted  to  his  care  was  that  of  editing  the  in  substantial  agreement;  Mabillon  beinfj  an  instanoe 

works  of  St.  Bernard.     This  was  published  within  '^  -" — ' —  ■I'.—.t:^-,  - — i.: — .■>  — ;ti. 1 — : —  i 

,  three  years  (1667),  and  was  at  once  recognized  as  a 
masterly  edition.  Meanwhile  Mabillon  had  been  ar- 
ranging the  materials  already  brought  together  by  

D'Ach^ry,  and  the  first  volume  of  the  "  Acta  Sancto-        In  1698  a  storm  n 

rum,  O.S.B."  was  published  in  1668.    A  second  vol-  cation  by  Mabillon,  under  the  name  of  "Euaebius 

ume  appeared  the  following  year,  a  third  in  1S72.  Romanus",  of  a  protest  against  the  superstitious  ven- 

The  scnolarly  conscientiousness  and  critical  methods  eration  of  the  relics  of  "unknown  saints"  from  the 

(rf  Mabillon  were  a  source  of  scandal  to  some  of  his  less  catacombs.    This  work  was  denounced  to  the  Holy 

instructed  fellow-monks,  and  in  1677  a  petition,  vio-  Office,  and  Mabillon  was  compelled  to  explain  and 

lently  attacking  the  "Acta  Sanctorum  O.S.B. ",  was  modify  certain  passages.   InlTOOaroseanotnerstorm. 

presented  to  the  general  chapter  of  the  congregation,  The  Maurists,  mspite  of  the  difficulties  arising  from 

demanding  the  suppression  of  the  work  (as  harmful  to  the  current  controversies  on  Jansenism,  bad  deter- 

ibe  interests  of  Benedictinism)  and  an  apology  from  mined  to  publish  a  critical  edition  of  St.  Augustine, 

its  author.     Mabillon  defended   himself  with   such  To  the  last  volume  of  this  edition  Itfabillon  was  re- 

bumility  combined  with  firmness  and  learning  that  quired  to  furnish  a  preface,  defending  the  methods 

all  oppDsitionwas  overcome,  and  he  was  encouraged  to  and  critical  conclusions  of  it«  editors.    His  first  draft 

oontinue.    Meanwhile,  in  1672,  he  had  already  made  was  submitted  to  various  critics,  and,  after  receiving 

the  first  of  those  "literary  journeys"  (this  time  into  their  annotations,  was  rewritten  and  sent  to  Bossuet 

FlanderB),in  search  of  documents  and  materials  for  his  for  his  opinion.    It  was  largely  amended  by  Bossuet 

work,  that  were  so  marked  a  feature  of  the  latter  half  and  returned  to  Mabillon  to  be  rewritten.    The  result 

of  his  life,  and  which  had  such  fruitful  results  for  his-  is  the  "  Preface  "  of  the  eleventh  volume  as  we  now 

tory  and  liturgy.    In  1075  was  published  the  first  of  have  it.    Mabillon  now  relireJ  to  Normandy  to  avoid 

four  volumes  til  "Vetera  Analecta"  in  which  he  col-  the  clamour  that,  as  he  expected,  was  aroused  by  its 

lected  the  fruito  of  his  travels  and  some  shorter  works  publication.    But  the  Holy  See  supported  the  Maur- 

of  historical  importance.  ists,  and  though  the  extremists  eudeavouretl  to  tax 

But  1675  saw  also  the  occasion  of  his  greatest  work,  the  more  moderate  with  heresy  they  were  silenced  by 

To  the  second  volume  of  the  "Acta  SS."  for  April  the  supreme  authority.    Mabillon  did  not  lack  ene- 

Daniel  Papebroch  had  prefixed  a  "Propylteum  an-  '     '        ''  '  ..i...i_j 

tiquarium  ,  which  was  really  a  first  attempt  to  for- 
mulate rules  for  the  discernment  of  spunous  from  -        „  ,     „ 

genuine  documents.    Therein  he  had  instanced  as  his  hfe  drew  to  a  close,  ail  men  came  to  recognize  his 

spurious  some  famous  charters  in  the  Abbey  of  St-  genius  and  integrity.    In  1701  the  king  appointed  him 

Denis.    Mabillon  was  appointed  to  draw  up  a  defence  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  new  Academic  Royale 

of  these  documents,  ana  he  made  his  defence  the  occa-  des  Inscriptions.    Two  years  later  appeared  the  first 

■ion  of  a  statement  of  the  true  principles  of  doeumen-  volume  of  the"  Annales  O.S.B.",  on  which  he  had 

tary  criticism.      This  is  the  volume,  "De  re  diplo-  been  engaged  since  1693.    He  lived  to  see  but  four 

matica"  (1681),  a  treatise  so  masterly  that  it  remains  volumes  published.    In  1707,  as  he  was  on  his  way  to 

to-day  the  foundation  of  the  science  of  diplomatics.  Chelles.  he  fell  sick.    He  was  carried  back  to  Paris  and 

Papebroch   himself   readily   admitted   that   he    had  after  three  weeks'  illness,  on  27  Decemlior,  having 

been  confuted  by  this  treatise,  though  an  attempt  was  beard   Mass  at  midnight  and   received   Holy  Com- 

made  some  time  later  by  Germon  to  disprove  Mabil-  munion,  he  died.    He  was  buried  in  the  Lady  chapel 

Ion's  theory,  thereby  provoking  a  reply  from  Mabillon  at  St-Germain,     At  the  Revolution  in  1768,  when  the 

in  his  "Supplementum"  of  1704.    Tiie  admiration  ex-  iWy  chapel  of  St-Germain  was  destroyed,  the  simple 

ei(«d  amongst  tlie  learned  by  Mabillon's  great  book  tomb  of  the  great  historian  was  removed  tothegaraen 

was  widespread.    Colbert  offered  its  author  a  pension  of  the  Mus^  des  Petits-.\ugustins,    At  the  Restora- 

of  2000  livres,  which  Mabillon  declined,  while  request-  tion,  however,  it  was  carried   back  to  St-Gemiain, 

ing  Colbert's  continued  protection  for  his  monasteiv.  where  it  still  remains  behind  the  high  altar. 
In  16S3  Mabillon  was  sent  by  Colbert  into  Burgundy         An  alomt  complete  liit  oF  Mahillon's  norks  wiil  be  fouod  in 

to  examine  certain  ancient  documents  relative  to  the  DbLah.,  B>6l»(fc(i.«<ir.^m™inHdf  fciConBrL-^iDndf  5din(- 

TO-.1  h.»;   .nd  i„  1»  h.  .a.  «nt  with  Dom  S.^.S^^i^h'Si^iuoi^SiTAl^S^IS 

Hiehel  Germain,  at  the  king  s  expense,  on  a  journey  i^aiins  to  U^biUon  will  be  found  ia  Mtianact  ttiiuc\untna 
throughout  Switzerland  and  Germany  in  seareh  of  '  pl^ly^ft|^>.;™n'o^  JuS-crnirnaiVidf  ^7mnri<Vi A/ir^iVI,^^^^ 

maten'als  for  the  histon-  of  the  Churei  or  of  France.  i?S!'„-^X^^\l^™;^l1S":'fl^i.";,r,7.'J  M^?; 

Dunng  this  expedition,  which  took  five  months  to  Mabillon  in  D<J>lin  fi™™.  (Bopwnibrr,  iS40i;    lii  kukbk, 

accomplish,  Colbert  died  and  was  succeeded  as  min-  MabiJion n laBiUiweia  /imj*  MaiiUon.n'  (Pari*.  iW)  <- 

to  by  Le  Mi.;.  Archblahop  ol  Heim.,  who  .l.o  'i' SSt~^uSsi^\?X'nmr^"TJ£Xlt 

gnatiy  admired  Mabillon.    At  the  instance  of  this  t><i\Bniidt  Km      ""'  "'      '  ■"- ~    "    "  


MABnOOION 


481 


MAOAO 


MahitUm  el  la  aocUU  de  Vabbaye  de  Sainl/Jermttin-^eB'Prfe, 
ieeJrl707  (Paris,  1888);  Didio,  La  QuerelU  d§  MabiUtm  ti  de 
VahbS  De  Rand  (Amiens.  1892) ;  Jadart,  Dom  Jean  MabiUon 
iteSi-1707)  In  Trav.  de  VAcad.  de  Reims,  LXTV  (Reims,  1877- 
8).  49-324;  Kckula,  Die  Mauriner  Aueoahe  dee  Ati^uaUnue  in 
SiUunaeberiehU  dee  Kais.  Akad.  der  Wieeenech.  in  Wten,  CXXI, 
CXXII,  CXXVIL  CXXXVIII  (Vienna,  1890-8);  Laubmann 
in  Hbrzoo  and  Hauck,  Real-encyklopddiet  s.  v.;  Pes,  BMia- 
theea  BenedieUno-Mauriana,  I  (AugsburK;  1716),  98-217; 
Ruin  ANT.  i46r^  delaviede  Dom  Jean  MabxlUm  (PAris,  1709); 
Tabsin,  Hietoire  LitUraire  de  la  Congriqation  de  Saint-Maur 
(Brussels,  1770),  205-209;  Weiss  m  mzchaud,  Biographie 
UnivereeUe,  a.  v. 

Leslie  A.  St.  L.  Toke. 

Mabinogion,  a  collection  of  medieval  Welsh  tales  in 
prose.  The  word  is  a  derivation  of  mab,  "son"^ 
rnabinogy  "a  student  in  the  bardie  caste",  mabinogi 
(pi.  mabinogion),  "a  tale  belonging  to  the  mabinog's 
repertoire'*.  The  Mabinogion  are  found  in  the  " Red 
Book  of  Hergest",  a  large  fourteenth-century  manu- 
script kept  at  Jesus  College,  Oxford.  The  stories  were 
probably  drawn  up  in  their  present  shape  towards  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century,  but  the  legends  themselves 
are  of  much  greater  antiauity,  some  belonging  even  to 
the  more  distant  past  ot  Celtic  jpaffanism  and  to  the 
period  of  (jaelo-Breton  unity.  (Jnly  four  of  the  tales 
m  the  collections  are  properly  called  Mabinogion,  but 
the  name  is  commonly  given  to  the  others  as  well. 
The  •*  Four  Branches  of  the  Mabinogi"  (i.  e.  the  Mab- 
inogion strictly  so  called),  consisting  of  "Pwyll", 
"Branwen",  "Manawyddan",  and"Math",  belong  to 
the  earliest  Welsh  cycle  and  have  preserved,  though  in 
a  lat<^  and  degraded  form,  a  large  amount  of  the  my- 
thology of  the  British  Celts.  In  the  "  Four  Branches" 
there  is  no  mention  of  Arthur.  Besides  these  four 
tales,  the  Mabinogion  includes  two  from  romantic 
British  history,  two  more  interesting  ones  ("Rhona- 
bwy's  Dream ^'  and  "Kulhwch  and  Olwen"),  "Talie- 
sin",  and,  finally,  three  tales:  "Owen  and  Lunet", 
"Gereint  and  Enid",  "Peredur  ab  Evrawc",  which, 
though  clearly  of  Anglo-Norman  origin  and  showing  a 
marked  kinship  with  certain  medieval  French  tales, 
were  undoubtedly  worked  on  a  Celtic  background.  It 
was  formerly  believed  that  the  Mabinogion  were  noth- 
ing more  than  children's  stories,  but  it  is  now  known 
that  they  were  intended  for  a  more  serious  purpose 
and  were  written  by  some  professional  man  of  letters, 
whose  name  we  do  not  know,  who  pieced  them 
together  out  of  already  existing  material.  They  are 
admirable  examples  of  story-telling  and  are  of  the 
greatest  interest  to  the  student  of  romantic  literature 
and  Oltic  mythology. 

The  Welsh  text  has  been  printed  in  a  diplomatic 
edition,  "The  Red  Book  of  Hergest",  by  J.  Rhys  and 
J.  Gwenogfryn  Evans  (Oxford,  1887),  also  in  the  three- 
volume  ^ition  (with  English  translation)  by  Lady 
Charlotte  Guest  (Llandovery,  1849);  the  translation 
alone  appeared  in  an  edition  of  1879.  Lady  Guest's 
translation  has  been  re-edited  with  valuable  notes  by 
Alfred  Nutt  (London,  1902).  This  is  the  most  con- 
venient translation ;  the  fullest  translation  is  in  French 
by  J.  Loth,  "Cours  de  litt^rature  celtigue",  vols.  Ill 
and  IV  (Paris,  1889).  The  study  by  I.  B.  John, "  Pop- 
ular Studies  in  Mythology,  Romance  and  Folklore", 
no.  11,  1901,  is  an  excellent  introduction  to  the  sub- 
ject. 

Joseph  Dunn. 

Macao,  Diocese  of  (Macaoensis),  suffragan  of 
Goa,  founded  23  January,  1575,  by  the  Bull,  ''Super 
Specula  Militantis  Ecclesiae  ",  of  Gregory  XIII,  with 
its  see  in  the  Portuguese  settlement  of  Macao  (or 
Macau),  on  the  island  of  Heung-Shan,  adjacent  to  the 
coast  of  the  Chinese  Province  of  Kwang-tung  (see 
China,  Map) .  The  name  b>[  which  this  settlement  nas 
long  been  currently  Imown  is  supposed  to  be  of  Chi- 
nese origin,  compounded  of  Ma,  the  name  of  a  lo^ 
divinity,  and  gau,  "harbour";  for  this  native  name 
the  Portufoiese  vainlv  attempted  to  substitute  the 
IX.— 31 


more  Christian,  but  more  unwieldiv,  form,  "ACidade 
do  Santo  Nome  de  Deus  de  Macau  ".  The  commercial 
prosperity  of  Macao,  once  very  considerable,  has  been 
almost  extinguished  in  modem  times  by  the  rival 
British  settlement  of  Hong  Kong,  planted,  about  40 
miles  to  the  east,  in  the  vear  1842.  The  ecclesiastical 
lurisdiction  of  Macao,  taken  from  the  earlier  Diocese  of 
Malacca,  at  first  included  the  whole  of  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese  Empires.  This  vast  territory  was  reduced  by 
the  creation  (1588)  of  the  Diocese  of  Funay  for  Japan, 
and  in  1676,  after  the  Dioceses  of  Peking  and  Nan- 
king and  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Tonking  had  been 
created,  the  jurisdiction  of  Macao  did  not  extend 
beyond  the  Chinese  Provinces  of  Kwang-Si  and 
Kwang-Tung.  This  territory  has  since  been  still  more 
curtailed,  while  the  jurisdiction  of  the  see  has  been 
extended  in  Malaysia  and  Further  India.  The  present 
effective  jurisdiction  of  Macao  comprises  (1)  the  city  of 
Macao  and  some  small  islands  adjacent  to  it;  (2)  the 
District  of  Heung-Shan  and  part  of  that  of  San  Ui; 
(3)  the  Prefecture  of  Shiu-Hen^  (twelve  districts): 
(4;  part  of  the  Christian  populations  of  Malac<^  aixi 
Singapore;  (5)  all  the  Portuguese  part  of  the  island 
of  Timor. 

At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  Christianity  was 
making  rapid  progress  at  Macao,  which  city  had  be- 
come an  important  centre  of  missionary  activity  in  the 
Far  East,  llere  the  Jesuits,  the  pioneers  in  this  field, 
established  the  two  great  cvUeges  of  St.  Paul  and  St. 
Joseph;  the  former — famous  in  missionary  annals  as 
"  a  seminar}'  of  martyrs  " — ^was  the  principal  college  of 
the  Province  of  Japan;  the  latter,  of  the  Vice- 
Province  of  China.  The  Franciscan  and  Dominican 
friars,  the  Poor  Clares,  and  the  Augustinians  soon  had 
convents  at  Macao,  the  last-named  founding  the  her- 
mitage of  Nossa  Senhora  da  Penha  (Our  Lady  of  the 
Peak) .  Other  churches  dating  from  this  golden  age  of 
religion  in  Macao  are  the  Cathedral,  the  Santa  Casa  de 
Misericord ia,  the  hermitage  of  Nossa  Senhora  de  Guia, 
the  sanctuary  of  St.  James  at  the  mouth  of  the  har- 
bour, and  the  parish  churches  of  St.  Anthony  and  St. 
Lawrence.  A  severe  blow  was  dealt  to  missionary 
enterprise  in  these  regions  by  the  Portuguese  expulsion 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus  (1762),  in  spite  of  which,  how- 
everj  and  in  the  face  of  bitter  persecutions,  the  Chinese 
missions,  of  which  Macao  had  been  the  original  point 
of  departure,  still  numbered  some  100,000  Christians 
at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Since  that  pe- 
riod the  Portuguese  Government  while  continuing  its 
padroadOf  or  patronage  of  the  Church,  in  the  Asiatic 
possessions  of  Portugal,  has  at  various  times  adopted 
a  policy  hostile  to  the  religious  orders  in  general,  wnieh 
have  been,  in  consequence^  expelled  from  Macao,  as 
from  other  Portuguese  temtory  (see  Pombal,  Sebas- 
TiXo  Jos^  DE  Carvalho,  Marques  de;  Portugal). 

Of  the  twenty-one  bishops  of  this  see,  perhaps  toe 
most  distinguished  was  the  first,  Melchior  M.  Cameiro, 
who  was  also  one  of  the  eariiest  fathers  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus.  He  had  been  confessor  to  St.  Ignatius  I^oy- 
ola,  rector  of  the  college  of  Evora,  and,  after  holding 
several  other  important  posts  in  his  order,  was  made 
titular  Bishop  of  Nicsa.  coadjutor  to  the  Patriarch  of 
Ethiopia,  and  (1566)  administrator  of  the  missions  of 
C^na  and  Japan.  He  occupied  the  See  of  Macao  from 
its  foundation,  in  1575,  to  1583,  during  which  period 
he  establishea  the  Santa  Casa  de  Misericordia,  the 
hospital  of  St.  Raphael,  and  the  leper-house  (k  St. 
Lazarus.  Among  his  successors,  Dom  Jofto  do  Caaal 
(1690-1736),  who  lived  ninety  years  and  occupied  the 
See  of  Macao  for  half  his  lifetime,  assisted  in  the 
events  which  led  up  to  the  visit  of  Toumon,  the  papal 
legate,  and  his  death  at  Macao  (see  Benedict  XiV; 
China,  The  Question  of  Riiee;  Riccr^  Matthew). 
Bishop  Francisco  Chacim  (1805-28),  a  Franciscan, 
founded  at  Macao  several  important  charitable  institu- 
tions, reformed  the  capitular  statutes  of  the  see,  and 
made  a  collection  of  its  valuable  dnfi^aBSd«^3^.  ^^^ 


iSAOAxrm 


482 


MAdAftnni 


cathedral  was  rebuilt  and  consecrated  b;)r  Bishop 
Jeron3rmo  d&  Matta  (1S45-59),  who  also  founded  a 
convent  for  the  education  of  girls  and  committed  the 
diocesan  seminary'  to  the  care  of  the  Jesuits.  Manuel 
B.  de  S.  Ennes,  Fellow  of  the  University  of  Coimbra, 
Bishop  of  Macao  from  1874  to  1883,  was  noted  in  his 
time  for  the  doctoral  thesis  in  which  he  refuted  the 
soeptieEd  Christology  of  Friedrich  Strauss;  it  was  his 
task  to  execute  the  Letter  Apostolic,  "  Universis  Orbis 
Ecclesiis  " ,  giving  new  boundaries  to  the  diocese.  This 
bishop  did  much  for  the  missions  in  the  island  of 
Timor,  as  did  also  his  successor,  Jos^  M.  de  Carvalho 
(1897-1902),  who  divided  that  mission  into  two  vica- 
riates, one  of  which  was  entrusted  to  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  The  present  (twenty-first)  Bishop  of  Macao. 
Dom  J.  P.  d'Azevedo  e  Castro,  formerly  vioe-rector  ot 
the  seminary  of  Angra,  was  installed  in  1902.  During 
his  incumbency  of  the  see.  the  change  of  territory  be- 
tween his  diocese  and  tne  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
Kwang-Tung,  ordered  by  the  pope,  has  been  accom- 

Slished  in  spite  of  serious  difficulties;  the  Franciscan 
[issionary  Sisters  of  Mary  have  been  placed  in  charge 
of  the  convent  of  St.  Rose  of  Lima,  the  CoUegio  de 
Perse  veranda  has  been  founded  for  homeless  women, 
under  the  Canossian  Sisters  (who  have  also  opened  a 
school  for  girls  at  Malacca),  and  an  industrial  school 
fm*  Chinese  boys  has  been  opened  by  the  fathers  of  the 
Salesian  Society. 

With  an  aggregate  population  of  about  8,000,000, 
of  whom  only  about  50,000  are  Christians,  the  spiritual 
activities  of  this  diocese  necessarily  take  the  form,  to  a 
great  extent,  of  preaching  to  the  heathen.  In  the  city 
of  Macao,  which  is  divided  into  three  parishes,  the 
diocesan  seminary,  under  the  direction  of  Jesuit 
fathers,  educates  some  120  ecclesiastics,  Portuguese 
and  natives.  The  Society  of  Jesus  and  the  Salesian 
Society  are  the  only  religious  institutes  for  men  now 

il910)  established  in  the  diocese;  religious  institutes 
or  women  are  represented  by  the  Franciscan  and 
Canossian  Sisters,  the  total  number  of  sisters  being 
about  100.  There  are  at  present  70  priests  in  the  dio- 
cese, including,  besides  Europeans,  a  certain  number  of 
Eurasians,  Chinese,  and  even  natives  of  India.  In 
Macao  itself  the  race  most  largely  represented  is  still 
the  Chinese;  in  Malacca  and  Singapore^  also^  many 
Chinese  are  still  to  be  found  side  by  side  with  the 
native  Malays  and  the  other  races,  including  Euro- 
peans, collected  in  those  great  commercial  centres. 
The  missionaries  in  Timor  have  to  deal,  mainly,  with 
two  races,  the  Malay  and  the  Papuan.  The  full- 
blooded  Malay  is  usuall^^  a  Mohammedan,  and  is  rarely 
converted  to  Christianity;  the  Papuan  is  far  more 
tractable  in  this  direction.  A  serious  difficulty  for  the 
missionaries  is  the  vast  number  of  languages  and 
dialects  spoken  in  Timor.  The  Catholic  being  the  state 
religion  of  Portugal,  the  prisons  and  the  five  govern- 
ment hospitals  at  Macao  and  in  Portuguese  Timor  are 
idl  open  to  the  ministrations  of  Catholic  priests  and 
sisters;  three  of  these  hospitals  have  chaplains  of  their 
own.  The  government  also  maintains  on  the  islands 
of  Coloane  and  Dom  Jodo,  near  Macao,  two  leper- 
houses,  which  are  frequently  visited  by  missionaries 
and  .sisters. 

Besides  the  " League  of  Suffrages",  to  aid  the  souls 
of  those  who  have  departed  this  life  in  the  service  of 
the  missions,  numerous  pious  associations  flourish  in 
the  diocese — the  Sodality  of  Our  Lady,  for  students; 
the  Sodality  of  Our  Lad}r  of  Sorrows,  for  married 
women;  the  Confraternities  of  the  Holy  Rosary, 
Nossa  Senhora  dos  Remedies,  the  Immaculate  Con- 
eeption,  St.  Anthony,  and  0  Senhor  dos  Passos;  the 
Third  Order  of  St.  Francis.  The  Apostle^hip  of  Prayer 
has  been  canonically  erected  and  is  busily  engaged  at 
Macao  and  in  many  of  the  missions.  Lastly,  the  pious 
association  of  the  Bread  of  St.  Anthony  is  devoted  to 
relieving  the  sufTerings  of  the  poor. 

Jo£o  Pauuno  d'Azeveix)  b  Castbo. 


Macftrios.  Saint,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  (212-^). 
The  date  of  Macarius's  accession  to  the  episcopate  la 
foimd  in  St.  Jerome's  version  of  Eusebius's  "Chron- 
icle" (ann.  Abr.  2330).  His  death  must  have  been 
before  the  council  at  Tyre,  in  335,  at  which  his  suc- 
cessor, Maximus,  was  apparently  one  of  the  bishops 
present.  Macarius  was  one  of  the  bishops  to  whom 
St.  Alexander  of  Alexandria  wrote  warning  them 
a^nst  Anus  (Epiph.,  "Haer.",  LXIX,  iv).  The 
vigour  of  his  opposition  to  the  new  heresy  is  shown 
by  the  abusive  manner  in  which  Arius  speaks  of  him 
in  his  letter  to  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  (Theodoret, 
*'H.  E.",  I,  4).  He  was  present  at  the  Council  of 
Nicffia,  and  two  conjectures  as  to  the  part  he  played 
there  are  worth  mentioning.  The  first  is  that  there 
was  a  passage  of  arms  between  him  and  his  metro- 
politan, Eusebius  of  Cssarea,  concerning  the  rights 
of  their  respective  sees.  The  seventh  canon  of  the 
council — **  As  custom  and  ancient  tradition  show  that 
the  bishop  of  iEHa  [Jerusalem]  ought  to  be  honoured, 
he  shall  have  precedence;  without  prejudice,  however, 
to  the  dignity  which  belongs  to  tne  Metropolis'' — by 
its  vagueness  suggests  that  it  was  the  result  of  a 
drawn  battle.  The  second  conjecture  is  that  Ma- 
carius, together  with  Eustathius  of  Antioch,  had  a 
good  deal  to  do  with  the  drafting  of  the  Creed  finally 
adopted  by  the  Council  of  Nicsa.  For  the  grouncis 
of  this  conjecture  (expressions  in  the  Creed  recalling 
those  of  Jerusalem  and  Antioch)  the  reader  may 
consult  Hort,  "Two  Dissertations",  etc.,  58  sqq.; 
Hamack,  '^Dogniengesch.",  II  (3rd  edition),*  231; 
Kattenbusch,  ''Das  Apost.  Symbol."  (See  index  in 
vol.  II.) 

From  conjectures  we  may  turn  to  fiction.  In  the 
"History  of  the  Council  of  Nicsea"  attributed  to 
Gelasius  of  Cyzicus  there  are  a  niunber  of  imaginary 
disputations  between  Fathers  of  the  Council  and 
philosophers  in  the  pay  of  Arius.  In  one  of  these  dis- 
putes where  Macarius  is  spokesman  for  the  bishops  he 
defends  the  Descent  into  Hell.  This,  in  view  of  the 
Question  whether  the  Despent  into  Hell  was  found  in 
tne  Jerusalem  Creed ^  is  interesting^  especially  as  in 
other  respects  Macarius's  language  is  made  conform- 
able to  that  Creed  (cf  Hahn,  "Symbole".  133).  Ma- 
carius's  name  appears  first  among  those  ot  the  bishops 
of  Palestine  who  subscribed  to  the  Council  of  Nicsea; 
that  of  Eusebius  comes  fifth.  St.  Athanasius,  in  his 
encyclical  letter  to  the  bishops  of  Egypt  and  Libya, 
places  the  name  of  Macarius  (who  had  been  long  dead 
at  that  time)  among  those  of  bishops  renowned  for 
their  orthodoxy.  Sosomen  (H.  E.,  II,  20)  narrates 
that  Macarius  appointed  Maximus,  who  afterwards 
succeeded  him.  Bishop  of  Lydda,  and  that  the  ap- 
pointment did  not  take  effect  because  the  people  of 
Jerusalem  refused  to  part  with  Maximus.  He  also 
gives  another  version  of  the  story,  to  the  effect  that 
Macarius  himself  changed  his  mmd,  fearing  that,  if 
Maximus  was  out  of  the  way,  an  unorthodox  bishop 
would  be  appointed  to  succeed  him  (Macarius). 
Tillemont  (M6m.  Eccl^s.,  VI,  741)  discredits  this 
story  (1)  because  Macarius  by  so  acting  would  have 
contravened  the  seventh  canon  of  Niccea;  (2)  because 
Aetius,  who  at  the  time  of  the  council  was  Bishop  of 
Lydda,  was  certainly  alive  in  331,  and  very  probably 
in  349.  Of  course,  if  Aetius  outlived  Macarius,  the 
story  breaks  down;  but  if  he  died  shortly  after  331,  it 
seems  plausible  enough.  The  fact  that  Macarius  was 
then  nearing  his  end  would  explain  the  reluctance, 
whether  on  his  part  or  that  of  his  flock,  to  be  deprivea 
of  Maximus.  Tillemont's  first  objection  carries  no 
weight.  The  seventh  canon  was  too  vague  to  secure 
from  an  orthodox  bishop  like  Macarius  very  strict  views 
as  to  the  metropolitan  rights  of  a  Semi-Arian  like 
Eusebius.  St.  Theophanes  (d.  818)  in  his  "  Chronog- 
raphy"  makes  Constantine,  at  the  end  of  the  Council 
of  Nicaea,  order  Macarius  to  search  for  the  sites  of  the 
Resurrection  and  the  Passion,  and  the  True  Cross.   It 


UAQAxan 


483 


MAOAEIUS 


is  likely  enough  that  this  is  what  happened,  for  exca- 
vations were  begun  very  soon  after  the  council,  and, 
it  would  seem,  under  the  superintendence  of  Macarius. 
The  huge  mound  and  stonework  with  the  temple  of 
Venus  on  the  top,  which  in  the  time  of  Hadrian  had 
been  piled  up  over  theHolySepulchre,  were  demolished, 
and  ''when  the  original  surface  of  the  ground  appeared, 
forthwith,  contrary  to  all  expectation,  the  hallowed 
moniunent  of  our  Saviour's  resurrection  was  dis- 
covered" (Euseb.,  Vit.  Const.,  Ill,  28).  On  hearing 
the  news  Constantine  wrote  to  Macarius  giving  lavish 
orders  for  the  erection  of  a  church  on  the  site  (Euseb., 
lb.,  Ill,  30;  Theodoret,  H.  E.,  I,  16).  Later  on,  he 
wrote  another  letter  "  To  Macarius  and  the  rest  of  the 
Bishops  of  Palestine  "  ordering  a  church  to  be  built  at 
Mambre,  which  also  had  been  defile  by  a  pagan  shrine. 
Eusebius.  though  he  gives  the  superscription  as  above, 
speaks  oi  this  letter  as  ''addressed  to  me'\  thinking 
pMerhaps  of  his  metropolitan  dignity  (Vit.  Const.,  Ill, 
51-53).  Churches  were  also  built  on  the  sites  of  the 
Nativity  and  Ascension. 

(For  the  story  of  the  finding  of  the  True  Cross  see 
Cross  and  Crucifix,  I,  4.) 

Ada  83.,  10  March;  Venabljcs  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog.,  s.  v. 

Francis  J.  Bacchus. 

MacariiiB  Magnes,  a  Christian  apologist  of  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century.  Some  authorities  regard  the 
words  Macarius  Magnes  as  two  proper  names,  while 
others  interpret  them  to  mean  either  the  Blessed 
Magnes  or  Macarius  the  Magnesian,  but  he  is  almost 
generally  considered  identical  with  Macarius,  Bishop 
of  Magnesia,  who  at  the  "Synod  of  the  Oak"  (Chal- 
cedon,  403),  accused  He*acudes,  Bishop  of  Ephesus, 
of  Origenism.  He  is  the  author  of  a  work  called 
"Apocritica",  purporting  to  be  an  accoimt  of  a  dis- 
pute between  Macarius  and  a  pagan  philosopher,  who 
attacks  or  ridicules  passages  from  the  New  Testament. 
There  are  also  extant  fragments  of  an  exposition  of 
Genesis  which  are  ascribed  to  Macarius.  Four  hun- 
dred years  after  the  **  Apocritica"  was  written  it  was 
made  use  of  by  the  Iconoclasts  to  defend  their  doc- 
trines. This  caused  an  account  of  it  to  be  written  by 
Nicephorus  (see  **Spicilegium  Solesmense",  I,  305), 
who  until  then  had  evidently  never  heard  of  Macarius 
and  only  secured  the  work  with  great  difficulty.  It 
developed  that  the  passage  quoted  by  the  Icono- 
clasts had  been  distorted  to  serve  their  ends,  Macarius 
having  had  in  mind  onlv  heathen  idolatry. 

Sul^quent  to  this  Macarius  was  aeain  forgotten 
until  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  ^en  the  Jesuit 
Turrianus  quoted  from  a  copy  of  the  "  Apocritica  " 
which  he  had  found  in  St.  Mark's  Library,  Venice,  his 
quotations  being  directed  gainst  the  Protestant  doc- 
trines concerning  the  Holy  Eucharist,  etc.  When  this 
copy  was  sought  it  had  disappeared  from  St.  Mark's, 
and  it  was  only  in  1867  that  it  was  found  at  Athens. 
Blondel,  a  member  of  the  French  school  at  Athens, 
prepared  it  for  publication,  but  he  died  prematurely, 
and  it  was  published  at  Paris  in  1876  oy  Blenders 
friend,  Foucart.  In  1877  Duchesne  published  a  dis- 
sertation on  Macarius,  to  which  he  added  the  text  of 

Macarius's  Homilies  on  Genesis. 

Salmon  in  Did.  Christ.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Bardenhewbr,  Po^rol- 
ogu,  tr.  SuAHAN  (St.  Louis,  1908);  Idem  in  Kirchenlex.,  a.  v.; 
Duchesne,  De  Mcuxirio  Magnde  d  scriptis  ejus  (Paris,  1877); 
Bernard,  Macarius  Magnes  in  Journal  ofTheol.  Studies  (1901). 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

Macarius  of  Antioch»  Patriarch,  deposed  in  681. 
Macarius's  dignity  seems  to  have  been  a  purely  hono« 
rary  one,  for  his  patriarchate  lay  under  tne  dominion 
of  the  Saracens,  and  he  himself  resided  at  Constanti- 
nople.  Nothing  is  known  of  him  before  the  Sixth 
General  Councifwhich  deposed  him  on  account  of  his 
MonotheUtism,  and  after  the  council  he  disappeared 
in  a  Roman  monastery.  But  he  has  left  his  mark  on 
ecclesiastical  history  by  bringing  about  the  condem* 


nation  of  Honorius.    In  the  first  session  of  the  counc3 
the  Roman  legates  delivered  an  address,  in  the  course 
of  which  they  spoke  of  four  successive  patriarchs  of 
Constantinople  and  others  as  having  "disturbed  the 
peace  of  the  world  by  new  and  unorthodox  expres- 
sions".   Macarius  retorted,  "  We  did  not  publish  new 
expressions  but  what  we  have  received  from  the  holy 
and  Gccumenical  synods  and  from  holy  approved 
fathers".    He  then  went  through  the  namesgiven  by 
the  legates,  adding  to  them  that  of  Pope  Honorius. 
In  this  and  the  following   session   Macarius   came 
to  grief  over  a  passage  from  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria 
and  St.  Leo,  in  which,  after  the  manner  of  a  man  who 
sees  everything  through  coloured  glasses,  he  tried  to 
find  Monothelitism.    In  the  third  session  some  docu- 
ments which  he  produced  as  emanating  from  Mennas 
and  Pope  Vigilius  were  found  to  be  forgeries,  surrepti- 
tiously introduced  into  the  Acts  of  the  fifth  general 
council.    In  the  fifth  and  sixth  sessions  he  and  his 
adherents  produced  three  volumes  of  patristic  testi- 
monies which  were  sealed  up  for  examination  later  on. 
In  the  eighth  session  he  read  his  ecthesiSf  or  "profes- 
sion of  faith",  in  which  the  authority  of  Honorius  was 
appealed  to  on  behalf  of  Monothelitism.    In  answer  to 
questions  put  to  him  by  the  emperor  he  declared  that 
he  wotild  rather  be  cut  to  pieces  and  thrown  into  the 
sea  than  admit  the  doctrine  of  two  wills  or  operations. 
In  this  same  session  and  the  following  one  his  patristic 
testimonies  were  found  to  be  hopelessly  garbled.    He 
was  formally  deposed  at  the  close  of  the  ninth  session. 
But  Macarius  had  left  the  council  more  work  to  do. 
The  papal  legates  seemed  determined  that  Monothe- 
litism shotild  be  disposed  of  once  and  for  all,  so,  when 
at  the  eleventh  session  the  emperor  inquired  if  there 
was  any  further  business,  they  answered  that  there 
were  some  further  writings  presented  by  Macarius  and 
one  of  his  disciples  still  awaiting  examination.  Among 
these  documents  was  the  first  letter  of  Honorius  to 
Sergius.    The  legates,  apparently  without  any  reluct- 
ance, accepted  the  necessity  of  condemning  Honorius. 
They  must  have  felt  that  any  other  course  of  action 
would  leave  the  door  open  for  a  revival  of  Monothe- 
litism.   Their  conduct  in  this  respect  is  the  more 
noteworthy  because  the  Sixth  General  Council  acted 
throughout  on  the  assumption  that  (it  is  no  anachron-  • 
ism  to  use  the  language  of  the  Vatician  Council)  the 
doctrinal  definitions  ot  the  Roman  Pontiff  were  wre- 
formable.    The  council  had  not  met  to  deHberate  but 
to  bring  about  submission  to  the  epistle  of  Pope  St. 
Agatho — an  uncompromising  assertion  of  papal  in- 
fallibility— addressed  to  it  (see  Hamack,  "  Dogmen- 
gesch.",  II,  408;  2nd  edition).    At  the  close  of  the 
council  Macarius  and  five  others  were  sent  to  Rome 
to  be  dealt  with  by  the  pope.    This  was  done  at  the 
request  of  the  council  ana  not,  as  Hefele  makes  it 
appear,  at  the  request  of  Macarius  and  his  adherents 
(History  of  Councils,  V,  179;  Eng.  trans.).    Macarius 
and  three  others  who  still  held  out  were  confined  in 
different  monasteries   (see  Liber  Pontif.,   Leo  II). 
Later  on  Benedict  II  tried  for  thirty  days  to  persuade 
Macarius  to  recant.    This  attempt  was  quoted  in  the 
first  session  of  the  Seventh  General  Ck>uncil  as  a  prece- 
dent for  the  restoration  of  bishops  who  had  fallen  from 
the  Faith.    Baronius  gives  reasons  for  supposing  that 
Benedict's  purpose  was  to  restore  Macarius  to  his 
patriarchal  dignity,  the  patriarch  who  had  succc^^ 
nim  having  just  died  (Annales,  ann.  685).     Before 
taking  leave  of  Macarius  we  may  call  attention  to  the 
profession  of  faith  in  the  Eucharist,  in  his  "  Ecthesis", 
which  is,  perhaps,  the  earliest  instance  of  a  reference 
to  ihia  doctrine  in  a  formal  creed.    To  Macarius  the 
Eucharist  was  a  palmary  argument  against  Nestorian- 
ism.    The  flesh  and  blood  of  which  we  partake  in  the 
Eucharist  is  not  mere  flesh  and  blood,  else  how  would 
it  be  life-giving?   It  is  life-giving  because  it  is  the  own 
flesh  and  blood  of  the  Word,  which  being  God  is  by 
nature  life.    Macarius  develops  this  ar<cam.ewt  >a^% 


McAVLST 


484 


MacOAETBT 


manner  which  shows  how  shadowy  was  the  line  which 
eeparated  the  Monothelite  from  the  Monophysite. 
(See  HoNORius  I;  Constantinople,  Councils  op,  A. 

III.) 

See  the  Acta  of  the  Sixth  General  Council  in  Hardouin, 
ConciUa,  III;  Manbi,  XI;  Hefele,  History  of  Church  CounciU, 
V  (Eng.  trans.) ;  Chapman,  The  Condemnation  of  Pope  Honoriua^ 
reprinted  from  Dublin  Review,  July,  1906  (January,  1907),  by 
the  English  Catholic  Truth  Society. 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 

McAuley,  Catherine.    See  Merct,  Sisters  of. 

McOabe,  Edward,  cardinal,  b.  in  Dublin,  1816;  d.  at 
Kingstown,  11  Feb.,  1885;  he  was  the  son  of  poor  par- 
ent^ educated  at  Father  Doyle's  school  on  tne  Quays 
and  at  Maynooth  College,  and  was  ordained  priest  in 
1839.  After  his  ordination  he  served  successively  as  cu- 
rate in  Clontarf  and  at  the  pro-cathedral,  Marlbiorough 
St.  in  Dublin;  and  such  was  the  zeal  and  energy  he  dis- 
played, joined  to  intellectual  capabilities  far  beyond 
the  ordinary,  that  he  was  selected,  in  1854,  for  the  See 
of  Grahamstown  in  South  Africa.  He  was  reluctant, 
however,  to  take  upon  himself  the  burden  of  the  ep)is- 
copate  in  an  unknown  land,  and  in  1856  became  parish 
pnest  of  St.  Nicholas  Without,  in  Dublin.  In  1865  he 
was  transferred  to  the  more  important  parish  of  Kings- 
town, and  became  a  member  of  the  chapter  and  vicar- 
general.  For  the  twelve  following  jrears  his  was  the 
ordinary  life  of  a  zealous,  hard-working  pastor,  ambi- 
tious of  nothing  but  to  serve  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
needs  of  his  people.  Cardinal  Cullen  had  always  held 
him  in  the  nighest  esteem,  and  when,  in  1877,  the 
burden  of  years  compelled  him  to  seek  assistance  he 
selected  Dr.  McCabe,  who  was  in  due  course  conse- 
crated titular  Bishop  of  Gadara.  The  following  year 
Cardinal  Cullen  died,  and  in  1879  Dr.  McCabe  became 
Archbishop  of  Dublin.  Three  years  later  he  received 
the  cardinal's  hat.  These  were  troubled  times  in  Ire- 
land, the  years  of  the  Land  League  and  of  the  National 
League,  of  violent  agitation  and  savage  coercion,  when 
secret  societies  were  strong  in  Dublin,  and  the  Pha?nix 
Park  murders  and  many  others  of  less  note  were  com- 
naitted.  Like  his  predecessor,  Cardinal  McCabe  had  a 
distrust  of  popular  movements.  Brought  up  in  the 
city,  he  was  unacc|uainted  ^th  agrarian  conditions  and 
unaole  to  appreciate  the  wron^  which  the  Irish  ten- 
ants suffered,  and  he  too  readily  identified  with  the 
political  movement  under  Pamell  and  Davitt  the 
many  outrages  committed  by  the  people.  In  pas- 
torals and  public  speeches  he  rangea  himself  against 
agitation  and  on  the  side  of  government  and  law,  with 
the  result  that  Nationalist  newspapers  and  public  men 
attacked  him  as  a  "Castle"  bishop,  who  favoured 
coercion  and  was  an  enemy  of  the  people.  His  life 
was  threatened  and  for  a  time  he  was  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  police. 

The  Times  SLadThe  Freeman's  Journal,  12  Feb.,  1885;  Davftt, 
FaU  of  Feudalism  (London,  1904). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Maccabees.    See  Machabees. 

MacOaghwell  (Cavellus),  Hugh,  archbishop  and 
theologian,  b.  at  Saul,  Co.  Down,  1571;  d.  22  Sept., 
1626.     He  received  his  earliest  education  in  his  native 

Slace  and  then  passed  to  a  famous  school  in  the  Isle  of 
[an.  On  his  return  to  Ireland  he  was  selected  by 
Hugh,  Prince  of  Tyrone,  as  tutor  to  his  sons  Henry  and 
Hugh.  He  was  sent  by  the  prince  as  special  messen- 
ger to  the  Court  of  Spain  to  solicit  aid  for  the  Ulster 
forces.  During  his  stav  at  Salamanca,  where  the 
Court  then  resided,  he  frequented  the  schools  of  the 
university  and  took  doctor's  degrees  in  divinity.  Soon 
afterwards  he  gave  up  all  worldlv  greatness  to  enter  the 
Franciscan  order.  He  enjoyecl  a  ^at  reputation  sa 
a  theologian,  and  his  commentaries  on  John  Duns 
Scotus  were  held  in  high  repute.  Vemulaeus  sajrs 
that  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  virtues  and  that  his 
holiness  of  life  and  profound  learning  made  him  the 
jBirade  of  his  time.    It  was  principally  due  to  his 


m&t  influence  at  the  Spanish  Court  that  the  Iri^ 
Franciscan  College  of  St.  Anthony  was  founded  at 
Louvain.    After  his  entry  into  the  order,  Hugh  taught 
for  some  time  in  the  University  of  Salamanca,  tli^n  he 
was  appointed  superior  and  lecturer  at  St.  Anthony's, 
Louvam.    Among  his  pupils  were  John  Colgan,  Pat- 
rick Fleming,  Hugh  Ward,  Anthony  Hickey,  etc.    He 
was  summoned  to  Rome  to  lecture  in  the  convent  of 
Aracoeli;  but  his  energies- were  not  limit^  to  his  work 
as  professor.    He  was  employed  by  the  pope  on 
several  commissions.    He  gave  substantial  help  to 
Father  Luke  Wadding  in  founding  and  developing  St. 
Isidore's  and  the  Ludovisi  colleges  for  Irish  students. 
On  17  March.  1626,  Urban  VIII,  passing  over  all  the 
other    candidates,    nominated    Hugh    MacCaghwell 
Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  Primate  of  all  Ireland; 
the  consecration  took  place  on  7  June^  in  the  church 
of  St.  Isidore.    Thomas  Walsh,  Archbishop  of  Cashel, 
was  consecrated  at  the  same  time.    The  consecrating 
prelate  was  Gabriel,  Cardinal  de  Trejo,  a  great  friend 
of  the  Irish.     His  health  had  been  much  weakened  by 
his  manifold  duties  and  the  great  austerities  he  prac- 
tised.    In  making  the  visitations  of  the  provinces  of 
the  order  he  always  travelled  on  foot,  and  passed 
much  time  in  prayer  and  fasting.     While  making 
preparation  for  nis  departure  for  his  arduous  mission 
ne  was  seized  with  fever  and  died.     He  was  buried  in 
the  church  of  St.  Isidore,  and  his  friend  Don  John 
O'Neill,  Earl  of  Tyrone,  had  a  monument  placed  over 
his  grave.     Nicolaus  Vemulaeus  delivered  an  oration 
before  the  university  commemorating  the  virtues  and 
learning  of  the  archbishop,  which  was  published  at 
Cologne,  1657. 

MacCaghwell's  principal  works  are:  "Scoti  Com- 
mentaria  in  quatuor  litros  Sententiarum",  2  vols., 
folio,  Antwerp,  1620  (to  this  work  is  prefixed  a  life  of 
Scotus) ;  "  Scoti  Commentaria  seu  Reportata  Parisien- 
sia";  "QusEstiones  quodlibetales";  **Quffistiones  in 
libros  de  anima";  *' Quajstiones  in  metaphysicam" ; 
etc.  He  also  wrot43  a  work  in  Irish,  which  was  printed 
at  the  Irish  press  in  the  college  of  St.  Anthony,  Lou- 
vain, in  1018.  entitled  "Scathaiu  sacramuinthe  iia 
Aithrighe",  that  is,  "The  Mirror  of  the  Sacmment 
of  Penance  ". 

Wadding -Sbarale A,  Scriptores  Ord.  Mtn.  (Rome,  1806); 
Joannes  a  S.  Ant.,  Bibliotheca  Univ.  Franciscana  (Madrid, 
1732);  Vernuljkus,  Acad.  Lovaniensis;  Idem,  Rhetorum  Coll. 
Parcensis  (Cologne,  1657);  Wabb's  works,  ed.  Hariub  (Dublin. 
1764);  O'Reilly,  Irish  Writers  (Dublin,  1820);  Stdart,  Hist, 
o/  Armagh;  Rbnehan,  Collections  on  Irish  Cath.  //wtorw  (Dub- 
lin, 1861);  MoRAN,  Spicilegium  Ossoriense,  Ist  series;  Brady, 
Episcopal  Succession  xn  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland  (Rome, 
1876) ;  Bbenan,  Ecclesiastical  Historu  of  Ireland  CDublin,  1866) ; 
Meehan,  Irish  Hierarchy  in  the  17th  Century  (Dublin,  1877); 
Webb,  Compendium  of  Irish  Biography  (Dublin,  1878).  Many 
important  aoouments  and  letteis  relating  to  Hugh  MacCagh- 
well are  presorved  in  the  archives  of  the  Franciscan  convent, 

Dublin.  Gregory  Cleary. 

MacOarthy,  Denib  Florence,  well-known  Irish 
poet  of  the  nineteenth  century,  b.  in  Lower  O'Connell 
Street,  Dublm,  26  May,  1817;  d.  at  Blackrock,  Dub- 
lin, 7  April,  1882.  His  early  life,  before  he  devoted 
himself  to  literary  pursuits,  calls  for  little  remark. 
From  a  learned  priest,  who  had  spent  much  time  in  . 
Spain,  he  acquired  that  intimate  knowledge  of  Span- 
isn,  which  he  was  later  to  turn  to  such  good  advan- 
tage. In  April,  1834,  before  he  was  yet  seventeen,  he 
contributed  his  first  verses  to  the  "Dublin  Satirist". 
He  was  one  of  that  brilliant  coterie  of  writers  whose 
utterances  through  the  "Nation"  influenced  so  pow- 
erfully the  Irish  people  in  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. In  this  organ,  started  by  Charles  Gavan  Duffy 
in  1842,  appeared  over  the  pseudonym  of  Desmond 
most  of  his  patriotic  verse.  In  1846  he  was  called  to 
the  Irish  bar,  but  never  practised.  In  the  same  year 
he  edited  "The  Poets  and  Dramatists  of  Ireland", 
which  he  prefaced  with  an  essay  on  the  early  history 
and  religion  of  his  countrymen.  He  also  edited  about 
this  time  "The  Book  of  Irish  Ballads"  (by  varioua 


McOABTHT 


485 


MoOLOSKiT 


&uthc»«),  with  an  introductory  essay  from  his  pen 
on  ballad  poetry  in  general.  In  1850  appeared  his 
"  Ballads,  roems,  and  Lyrics ",  original  and  trans- 
lated. His  attention  was  first  directed  to  Oalderon 
by  a  passage  in  one  of  Shelley's  essa^rs,  and  thencefor- 
ward the  interpretation  of  the  "  Spanish  Shakespeare  " 
claimed  the  greater  psirt  of  his  attention.  The  first 
volume  of  his  translations,  containing  six  plskyBf  ap- 
peared in  1853,  and  was  followed  by  further  instal- 
ments in  1861,  1867,  1870,  and  1873.  His  version  of 
"  Daybreak  in  Capacabana  "  was  completed  only  a  few 
months  before  his  death.  Until  1864  he  resid^  prin- 
cipally on  Killiney  Hill,  overlooking  Dublin  Bay.  The 
delicate  health  of  some  members  of  his  family  then 
rendering  a  change  of  climate  imperative,  he  paid  a 
prolonged  visit  to  the  Continent^  and  on  his  return 
settled  in  London,  where  he  published,  in  addition  to 
his  translations,  "Shelley's  Early  Life",  which  con- 
tains an  interesting  account  of  that  poet's  visit  to 
Dublin  in  1812.  He  had  already  for  some  months 
resettled  in  his  native  land,  when  death  overtook  him 
»n  Good  Friday,  1882. 

His  poems  are  distinguished  by  a  noble  sense  of  har- 
mony and  an  exquisite  sympathv  with  natural  beauty. 
One  of  the  most  gracef \J  of  Irish  lyrists,  he  is  entirely 
free  from  the  morbidity  and  fantastic  sentiment  so 
much  affected  by  modem  poets.  Such  poems  as  "  The 
Bridal  of  the  Year",  "Summer  Longmgs",  and  his 
long  narrative  poem.  "The  Voyage  of  St.  Brendan", 
seem  with  the  ye&rs  out  to  increase  in  general  esteem. 
The  last-mentioned,  in  which  a  beautiful  paraphrase 
of  the  "Ave  Maris  Stella"  is  inserted  as  tne  evening 
song  of  the  sailors,  is  not  more  clearly  characterized 
by  its  fine  poetic  insight  than  by  that  earnest  religious 
feeling  which  marked  its  author  throughout  life.  But 
it  is  by  his  incomparable  version  of  Calderon  that  he 
has  most  surely  won  a  permanent  place  in  English 
letters.  For  this  task-^-always  beset  with  extreme 
difficulties — of  transferring  the  poetry  of  one  language 
into  the  poetry  of  another  without  mutilating  the 
spirit  or  form  of  the  original,  he  was  qualified  by  the 
sympathy  of  his  countrymen  with  the  Catholic  spirit 
of  the  Latin  races,  and  especially  with  Spain  as  the 
mythical  cradle  of  the  Irish  race.  His  success  is  suffi- 
ciently testified  by  Ticknor,  who  declares  in  his  "  His- 
tory of  Spanish  Literature"  that  our  author  "has 
succeeded  in  giving  a  faithful  idea  of  what  is  grandest 
and  most  effective  in  his  [sc.  Calderon 's]  genius  .  .  . 
to  a  degree  which  I  had  previously  thought  impossible. 
Nothing,  I  think,  in  the  English  language  will  give  us 
so  true  an  impression  of  what  is  most  characteristic  of 
the  Spanish  cframa.  and  of  Spanish  poetry  generally". 

Freeman's  Journal  (Dublin.  10  April,  1882);  Nation  (DubUn, 
15  April.  1882);  Read,  CabinH  of  Irish  Literature,  IV,  154; 
O'DoNOGHUE,  Poets  of  Ireland  (Dublin),  140;  Clerks  in  Dublin 
Review,  XL  (1883),  260-93. 

Thomas  Kennedy. 
McCarthy,  Edward  J.    See  Halifax,  Abcudio- 

CESE   OF. 

MftcOarthy,  Nicholas  Tuite,  called  the  Abb^ 
de  L^vignac,  b.  in  Dublin  on  19  May,  1769;  d.  at 
Ann^cy,  Savoy,  3  May,  1833.  He  was  the  second 
son  of  Count  Justin  MacCarthy,  by  Mary  Winefrid 
Tuite,  daughter  of  Nicholas  Tuite.  Chamberlain  to 
the  King  of  Denmark.  At  the  age  of  four  he  was  taken 
by  his  parents  to  Toulouse,  where,  disgusted  with 
English  law  as  administered  in  Ireland,  they  took  up 
their  permanent  abode.  Later  he  was  sent  to  the 
College  du  Plessis  in  Paris.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he 
received  tonsure  at  the  seminary  of  St-Magloire.  He 
had  nearly  completed  his  course  of  theological  studies 
at  the  Sorbonne  when  the  Revolution  forced  him  to 
leave.  He  retired  to  Toulouse.  His  ordination  to 
priesthood  was  j)ostponed  until  his  forty-fifth  vear 
(1814),  partly  owing  to  the  Revolution,  and  partly  to 
a  weakness  of  the  loins  which  rendered  it  imposBible 
for  him  to  stand  for  any  considerable  tim^.    Having 


sufficiently  recovered  from  this  infirmity,  he  entered 
the  seminary  of  Ohamb^ry,  in  Savoy,  in  1S13,  and  was 
ordained  to  priesthood  in  June,  1814.  Toulouse  was 
the  scene  of  his  first  missionary  labours.  In  a  short 
time  he  became  famous  as  a  preacher.  In  1817  he  was 
offered  the  Bishopric  of  Montauban,  which  he  refused. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1818,  and  made  his 
simple  vows  two  years  later.  He  was  reserved  exclu* 
sively  for  preaching.  So  noted  was  his  talent  in  this 
respect  that  he  was  ap{>ointed  during  his  novitiate  to 
preach  the  Advent  Station  before  the  Court  of  France. 
The  fame  of  his  preaching  spread  throughout  the  king« 
dom,  and  accordingly  he  was  invited  to  preach  in  all 
the  principal  cities  of  the  countrv,  as  well  as  in  Swit- 
zerland. He  was  admitted  to  the  solemn  profession 
of  the  order  in  1828.  The  Revolution  of  1830  led  him 
to  retire  to  Savoy,  whence  he  was  summoned  to  Rome, 
arriving  in  October  of  the  same  vear.  While  in  Rome 
he  preached  every  Sunday  before  the  most  distin- 
guished personages  there.  After  a  short  time,  how- 
ever, his  health,'  never  robust,  became  greatly  im- 
mired;  but  not  even  this  lessened  his  spiritual  zeal. 
On  leaving  Rome  he  settled  in  Turin,  at  a  college  ol 
his  order.  At  the  request  of  the  King  of  Sardima — 
whose  brother  Charles  Emmanuel  was  a  novice  in  the 
Society  of  Jesus — the  Abb4  MacCarthy  conducted  a 
retreat  for  the  Brigade  of  Savoy,  and  did  much  good 
amongst  the  military,  his  time  oeing  completely  de- 
voted to  the  pulpit  and  confessional.  He  preached 
the  Lenten  course  of  sermons  at  Ann^cy,  but  beings 
soon  afterwards  taken  ill,  expired  there,  in  the  bishop'c 
palace,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral.  As  a 
preacher,  he  was  in  eloquence  inferior  only  to  such 
men  as  Bossuet  and  Massillon;  but  whilst  they  spoke 
principally  for  a  special  class  of  hearers,  the  Abb^ 
MacCarthy's  sermons  are  for  all  countries  and  for  all 
time,  and  are  to  \:>e  regarded  even  at  the  present  day, 
for  depth  of  thought,  for  piety,  and  for  practical  appli- 
cation, as  among  the  best  contributions  to  homuetio 
literature. 

Dkplace,  Biographical  Sketch  prefixed  to  Sermons  (Lyom, 
1834) ;  Mahonet,  Biographical  Notice  to  tr.  of  Sermons  (DubUnf 
1848);  Dictionary  of  htatxorwil  Biography  (London.  1803). 

P.  A.  Beecher. 

McOloskey,  John,  fourth  Bishop  and  second  Arch- 
bishop of  New  York,  and  first  Amencan  Cardinal,  bom 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  20  March,  1810;  died  in  New  York, 
10  October,  1885.  His  parents,  Patrick  McCloskey 
and  Elizabeth  (Hassen),  natives  of  Dungiven,  Co. 
Deny,  Ireland,  came  to  America  in  1808,  soon  after 
their  marriage.  John  McCloskey  was  sent  to  the 
leading  classical  school  in  New  York  kept  by  Thomas 
Brady,  father  of  James  T.  and  Judge  John  R.  Brady. 
In  1822  he  entered  Mt.  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmits- 
burg,  Md.  Here  under  the  care  of  two  French  priests, 
Dubois  and  Brut4,  he  passed  the  next  twelve  years. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral, 
New  York,  12  January,  1834,  the  first  native  of  New 
York  State  to  enter  the  secular  priesthood.  His 
studious  temperament,  his  thorough  and  elegant  cul- 
ture, and  gentle  bearing  destined  him  for  the  profes- 
sor's chair.  In  February,  1834,  he  was  named  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  the  new  college  just  opened  at 
Nyack-on-the-Hudson.  At  this  early  period  he  gave 
promise,  afterwards  so  fully  realized,  of  being  an  elo- 

3uent  and  graceful  pulpit  orator.  The  college  was 
estroyed  by  fire  in  its  nrst  year. 
'This  accid.ent  and  the  desire  of  Father  McCloskey  to 
build  up  by  travel  a  much  impaired  constitution,  as 
well  as  an  ambition  to  pursue  a  higher  course  of  rcsad- 
ing  in  Rome,  determined  him  to  visit  Europe.  He 
saBed  from  New  York  3  November,  1834,  for  Havre, 
and  reached  Rome,  8  February,  1835.  A  carefully 
kept  diary  of  the  incidents  of  the  journey  tells  of  a  man 
of  Keen  observation  and  calm  practical  judgment  of 
men  and  institutions.  He  was  fortunate  in  bearing 
with  him  letters  of  introduction  to  e(Q\x^Ri^^JoRi^«6»^«ss|J 


McOLOSKEY 


186 


McOLOSKET 


ecclesiastics  of  the  Eternal  City,  which  brought  him 
into  personal  relations  with  men  ^ho  were  making 
history.  Amongst  his  lifelong  friends  were  Cardinals 
Fesch  and  Weld,  and  others  who  were  raised  to  the 

Eurple  later,  as  Monsignori  Keisach,  Angelo  Mai, 
[ezzofanti,  Wiseman,  and  Dr.  Cnllen.  He  saw  much 
of  the  young  P6re  Lacordaire  during  this  time,  for 
whom  he  formed  a  warm  friendship.  His  delicate 
health  would  not  permit  him  to  enter  any  of  the  col- 
leges, but  he  took  rooms  in  the  Convent  of  the  Thea- 
tines  at  S.  Andrea  della  Valle  and  entered  as  a  student 
of  the  Gregorian  University  under  the  Jesuits.  Here 
he  had  as  professors  men  like  Perrone  and  Manera 
and  others  worthy  to  sit  in  the  chairs  of  Bellarmine 
and  Suarez.  His  health  did  not  prevent  hard  study, 
as  he  has  left  reams  of  written  notes  and  comments 
on  class  lectures  and  the  monuments  of  Rome  during 
ihe  two  years  of  his  stay  in  the  centre  of  the  Christian 
world.  From  these  manuscripts  one  sees  that  no 
influence  of  that  "city  of  the  soul''  failed  to  leave  its 
impression  on  him;  its  Christian  monuments  and 
pagan  ruins,  its  city  and  country  life,  the  influence  of 
foreigners  on  the  people  of  Italv — not  always  for  good 
— ^he  has  left  iudiciotisly  noted  in  letters  and  diaries. 
"Each  day",  he  writes  in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  "affords 
new  sources  of  pleasure  and  an  intellectual  banquet,  of 
which  one  can  never  partake  to  satiety.  .  .  .  Oh, 
what  cannot  one  enjoy  who  comes  to  this  great  classic 
and  holy  city  with  a  mind  prepared  to  appreciate 
its  historic  and  religious  charms!''  The  balance  of 
three  years  of  absence  he  passed  in  travel  through 
Italy,  Germany,  Belgium,  France,  England,  and  Ire- 
land. 

In  Rome  his  love  for  and  devotion  to  the  Holy  See 
was  deepened  and  became  a  cult  of  his  after  years. 
As  an  Ainerican  he  was  naturally  broad  and  capable 
of  taking  a  wide  view  of  peoples  and  institutions.  This 
was  balanced  by  the  events  of  the  time  and  made  him 
the  conservative  force  he  proved  to  be  later  on.  A  spirit 
of  renewed  loyalty  to  the  Church  was  strongly  moving 
European  centres  of  thought.  Lacordaire  had  in  1835 
begun  his  Notre  Dame  "Conferences",  which  com- 
manded the  attention  of  all  France  and  drew  around 
his  pulpit  the  sceptical  youth  of  Paris;  Dr.  Wiseman, 
as  rector  of  the  English  College  in  Rome,  was  giving 
his  "Lectures  on  the  connexion  between  Science  and 
Revealed  Religion",  which  gained  him  the  ear  of  all 
England;  DolTinger  bv  the  first  and  second  parts  of 
his  "History  of  the  Church",  Gorres  by  his  "Chris- 
tian Mysticism",  and  Mohler  by  his  "Symbolism" 
had  begun  to  fix  the  attention  of  Germany  on  the 
power  of  the  Church  to  hold  men  of  ability.  The  Cath- 
olic Movement  under  Newman  had  be^un  at  Oxford; 
Montalembert  had  succeeded  in  forming  a  Catholic 

SLrty  in  France  with  himself  as  president.  Father 
cCloskey's  intimate  knowledge  of  all  these  forces, 
focussed  as  they  were  in  the  Eternal  City,  gave  him 
ever  after  a  broader  and  more  intelligent  interest  in 
the  affairs  of  the  Church,  especially  in  Europe,  and 
made  his  forecast  of  things  singularly  accurate  m  after 
life.  These  advantages  were  enjoyed  by  few  other 
American  cler^nien  of  his  time,  so  that,  on  his  return 
to  his  native  diocese  in  the  autumn  of  1837,  his  posi- 
tion was  determined.  Although  only  twenty-seven 
and  without  any  experience  in  administration,  he  was 
placed  in  charge,  as  pastor,  of  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant parishes  of  tne  diocese,  St.  Joseph's,  Sixth 
Avenue,  New  York.  Hero  was  one  of  the  strongholds 
of  what  was  known  as  "  Trusteeism  ",  a  form  of  church 
government  which  made  bishop  and  pastor  subordi- 
nate in  all  matters  not  purely  spiritual  to  the  laity. 
Father  McCloskey  now  found  a  field  for  the  exercise  of 
a  marked  featiu^  of  the  man — self-control,  the  key  to 
the  successful  control  of  others  with  the  minimum  of 
friction  which  distinguished  him  all  through  his  life. 
The  trustees  of  St.  Joseph's  refused  to  receive  him, 
tlemanding  a  pastor  of  their  choice.    The  pews  were 


riven  up.  "  Sunday  after  Sunday  for  nine  months  did 
preach  when  there  were  not  a  dozen  persons  between 
pulpit  and  porch  in  the  centre  aisle  ",  said  the  cardinal 
m  telling  of  those  early  days.  The  trustees  refused  to 
pay  him  any  salary,  and,  unwilUng  to  beUeve  that  he 
was  the  writer  of  Ins  forcible  and  eloquent  sermons^ 
said  they  were  composed  by  an  older  and  abler  priest. 
To  all  this  he  paid  no  heed,  never  even  making  a  pass- 
ing allusion  to  it  from  the  pulpit.  '  *  Father  MdDloskey 
wul  not  fight,  but  he  will  conquer",  said  an  old  college 
companion  at  the  time.  He  did  overcome  by  that 
"charity  which  seeketh  not  its  own";  his  opponents 
became  his  best  supporters,  and  he  was  wont  to  say 
in  his  old  age  that  the.  years  that  followed  in  St. 
Joseph's  were  the  happiest  of  his  life. 

In  1841  Father  McCloskey  was  appointed  hy  Bishop 
Huffhes  first  president  of  St.  John's  College,  Fordham, 
still  retaining  charge  of  St.  Joseph's,  to  which  he  re- 
turned in  1842  after  organizing  the  new  college.  At 
the  petition  of  Bishop  Hughes  for  an  assistant  in 
his  advancing  years,  Gregory  XVI  appointed  Father 
McCloskcjy,  and  on  10  March,  1844,  he  was  consecrated 
titular  Bishop  of  Axiere  and  Coadjutor  of  New  York 
with  the  right  of  succession.  During  the  three  years 
that  followed,  the  young  bishop  lent  efficient  aid  to  the 
head  of  the  diocese  in  making  the  visitations  of  the 
vast  territory  then  comprising  the  whole  State  of  New 
York  and  most  of  New  Jersey.  The  steady  ^wth  of 
the  Church  in  this  territory  called  for  a  division  of  the 
diocese,  and  the  two  new  sees  of  Albany  and  Buffalo 
were  erected,  to  the  former  of  which  Bishop  McCloskey 
was  transferred  21  May,  1847.  Here  his  great  life- 
work  began,  for  which  he  was  well  prepared  by  his 
priestly  zeal  and  scholarship,  his  eloquence  and  suc- 
cessful experience  in  administration.  It  was  no  small 
work  to  organize  a  diocese  of  30,000  square  miles  in 
extent,  containing  less  than  25  churches  and  34  priests, 
2  orphan  asylums  and  2  free  schools  (Shea,  voL  4,  p. 
126;  and  "  Cath.  Ahnan.",  1848).  The  Catholics,  scat- 
tered and  poor,  numbered  60,000.  After  seventeen 
years  of  his  administration  of  Albany  he  left  behind  as 
a  result  a  noble  cathedral,  eighty-four  priests,  one  hun- 
dred and  thirteen  churches,  eight  chapels,  forty-four 
minor  stations,  eighty-five  missionaries,  three  acade- 
mies for  boys,  one  for  girls,  six  orphan  asylums,  fifteen 
parochial  schools,  and  St.  Josepn's  Provincial  Semi- 
nary, Troy,  which  he,  with  Arcnbishop  Hughes,  was 
largely  instrumental  in  securing  and  equipping.  He 
also  introduced  into  the  diocese  several  religious 
communities,  amongst  others,  the  Augustinians,  the 
Jesuits,  the  Franciscans,  the  Capuchins,  and  Oblates. 
For  the  care  of  the  young  ^irls  under  his  charge,  he 
provided  by  inviting  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
to  Kenwood-on-the-Hudson ;  the  Sisters  of  Charity, 
the  Sisters  of  Mercy  and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph ;  and 
for  the  boys  the  Christian  Brothers  were  also  intro- 
duced. 

In  January,  1864,  the  Metropolitan  See  of  New  York 
became  vacant  by  the  death  of  its  first  Archbishop, 
John  Hughes,  and  all  looked  to  the  Bishop  of  Albany 
as  the  successor.  His  name  was  placed  first  on  the 
tema  sent  to  Rome  by  the  bishops  of  the  province. 
Amongst  the  bishops,  priests  and  laity,  there  was  only 
one  dissenting  voice,  that  of  Bishop  McCloskey  him- 
self. An  impression  obtained  very  generally  at  the 
time  and  for  years  afterwards  as  to  the  bishop's  atti- 
tude. It  was  said  that,  having  been  consecrated  coad' 
jutor  with  the  right  of  succession  to  the  see  of  New 
York,  twenty  years  before,  he  claimed  the  right  on  the 
vacancy  of  the  see.  The  injustice  of  such  a  suspicion 
will  appear  from  the  following  extract  of  a  letter  writ ' 
ten  by  him  to  one  of  the  most  influential  members  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda,  Cardinal  Reisach, 
the  friend  of  his  youth:  "I  write  to  implore  your 
Eminence  ",  he  says, "  in  case  there  should  be  any  dan- 
ger of  my  appointment  or  of  my  being  transferred 
from  Albany  to  New  York,  to  aid  roe  in  preventing 


HoOLOBKXT 


4S7 


HgOLOSKXT 


h,  and  to  save  me  from  the  humiliation  and  miseir  been  to  him.  la  the  council-chamber,  BUTfS  Caiduul 
ttt  bein^  placed  in  a  position  for  the  duties  and  re-  Gibbons,  his  colleagues  always  listened  with  marked 
•poDsibihties  of  which  I  feel  myself  both  physically  attention  and  respect  to  bis  words,  and  rarely,  if  ever, 
and  moislly  unequal  and  unfit.  After  having  been  did  anv  of  them  dissent  from  the  views  that  he  ex- 
appointed  and   consecrated  coadjutor  of  the  Bishop  pressed.    He  attended  the  Vatican  Council  during  it 


length  and  was  a  member  of  one  of  the  moat 
imporlAnt  commissions — that  on  Discipline.  Cardinal 
Capalti,  who  presided  over  this  commission,  spoke  of 
the  wisdom  o(  the  Archbishop  of  New  York  in  terms  of 
the   highest   admiration.      It   has   been   erroneouslj 


turn  by  the  high  officials,  and 
the  letter  was  signed  by  the 
most  noted  citisens,  amongst 
whom  were  Governor  Sey- 
mour,Erastu3  Corning,  Rufus 
Kingj^Thurlow  Weed,  Philip 
Ten  Eyck.  and  different  mem- 
bers of  tne  Van  Rensselaer 


ilsel^  but   declared  hirnserf 


of  New  York,  with  the  right  of  succession,  I  re- 
signed both  coadjutonihip  and  right  of  suceesaion 
to  come  to  Albany.  I  then  resolved,  and  still  hold 
to  the  resolution,  that,  as  far  as  it  depended  on  any 

free  will  or  consent  of  my  own,  I  should  never  again  „       

return  to  New  York.  Having  been  relieved  from  stated  that  Archbishop  McCioskey  was  opposed  to 
the  prospect  of  succession,  I  never  thought  of  after-  Infallibility.  Nothing  could  be  further  from  tne  truth, 
wards  aspiring  or  being  called  to  it.  J  speaji  only  Cardinal  Gibbons,  who  attended  tlie  Vatican  Council, 
from  the  deepest  sincerity  of  heart  and  from  tl»  writes:"]  haveamostdistinctrecollectionoftheatti- 
strongest  conviction  of  conscience  when  I  say  that  I  tude  of  the  different  prelates  in  regard  to  Hie  question 
possess  neitberthe  learning,  nor  prudence,  noreneru,  of  Infallibility,  and  I  recall  most  distinctly  that  Arch- 
Dor  firmness,  nor  bodily  health  or  strength  which  are     bishop  McClcukey  was  not  opposed  to  the  InfalUbilitr 

requisite  for  such  an  arduous  '■  

and  highly  responsible  office 
as  that  of  Archbishop  of  New 
York.  I  recoil  from  the  very 
thought  of  it  witbsbuddering, 
and  I  do  most  humbly  trust 
that  such  a  crushing  load  will 
not  be  placed  upon  my  weak 
and  unworthy  shoulders." 
This  soul-revealing  letter  tells 
that  theChurch still haswith- 
in  her  hierarehy  men  of  the 
stamp  of  Chiysostom,  Basil, 
and  Gregory  Naiienzeu,  men 
who  strained  every  nerve 
to  avoid  bonoure  as  much  as 
men  of  the  world  strive  for 
them.  He  was  the  choice  at 
the  Holy  See  and  was  pro- 
moted to  New  York,  6  May, 


JoHM  Oaxmnal  HcOLoscn 


_ ,  an  opinion  held 

by  many  at  the  Council," 
The  Archbishop  was  present 
at  the  closing  session  and 
voted  for  the  definition  with 
the  hundreds  of  other  bishops. 
His  attitude  on  this  question 
is  clearly  set  forth  in  the  fol- 
lowing extract  from  a  letter 
to  Piua  IX:  "Through  the 
grace  of  God,  the  Catholics  of 
the  United  States  of  North 
America  are  one  and  un- 
divided in  an  orthodox  faith, 
in  an  \inwavering  fideUty  to 
all    Catholic   doctrines    and 

loyalty  and  allegiance  to  the 
infallible  and  sovereign  au- 
thority of  the  Roman  Church, 
and  in  .irdent  filial  love  ana 
devotion  to  your  Holiness. 
It  is  our  glory  and  our  joy 
that  we  are  preserved  from 
error  and  directed  in  the  sure 
way  of  temporal  and  eternal 
happinessbyoursubjectionto 
the  infallible  teaching  and  si 


and  Townsend  famihes.  The  bishop  declined  the  premeauthoritjroftheMotherandMistressoFChurches," 
honour;  he  loved  the  city  where  he  was  the  most  During  his  visit  to  Rome  at  the  Vatican  Council  he 
distinguished  citizen,  but  with  his  usual  modesty  mode  the  final  impression  which  resulted  in  his  eleva- 
ebrank  from  any  public  demonstration.  He  was  in-  tion  to  the  cardinalate.  Pius  IX  said  c^  him:  "He  is 
stalled  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Mott  St.,  New  a  man  of  princely  mien  and  bearing."  He  was  pre- 
York,  37  August,  1864.  The  text  of  his  first  sermon  to  conized  cardinal  in  the  Consistory  of  15  March,  187S. 
his  new  cha^  was  the  key  to  his  whole  after  admin-  The  news  of  the  first  American  cardinal  was  received 
istration:  "^ace  be  to  ^ou."  He  was  not  given  to  with  universal  applause;  Catholic  and  Protestant,  all 
controversy;  in  fact  the  time  for  this  hod  passed  away,  felt  that  no  one  was  more  worthy  as  a  representative 
He  was  evidently  a  man  of  I^vidence.  destined  to  of  the  American  Church  to  receive  the  highest  honour 
garnerandgiveincreasc  to  the  fruits  of  his  valiant  f*e-  in  the  gift  of  the  pope.  It  was  the  passing  away  for- 
(Iccossor's  conquests.  The  first  of  these  fruila  was  the  ever  of  old-time  prejudice,  and  pointed  attenlioa  to 
unfinished  new  cathedral,  begun  in  185S,  but  suspended  the  proverbial  wisdom  of  Rome.  His  in\'estiture  took 
onaccountofthc  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War.  After  place  in  the  cathedral,  Mott  St.,  27  April,  1875.  The 
fifteen  years  of  collecting  funds,  looking  after  the  con-  hireit-a  was  imposed  by  the  Arehbiahop  of  Baltimore, 
struction,  visiting  Kurope  to  procure  windows  and  James  Roosevelt  Bayley,  as  dele^te  of  the  Apostolic 
altars,  and  after  ^vini;  evervthlng  he  poaiessed  to  See.  The  bearers  of  toe  insignia  from  Rome  were 
hasten  its  completion,  he  had  the  consolation  on  25  MonsignorRoncetti,Dr.UbeIdi,andCountMarafDschi. 
May,  1879,  of  dedicating  it  to  the  service  of  God,  It  was  one  of  the  most  memorable  events  in  the  history 
Distin^iuished  for  his  eloquence  in  the  pulpit  and  of  the  Church  in  the  United  States.  The  cardinal  vis- 
wisdom  in  the  council-chamber,  Archbishop  lloCIos-  ited  Rome  that  year  in  August,  where  he  was  received 
key  was  much  sought  after  on  great  occasions  as  a  by  Pius  IX  with  great  affection.  He  then  took  poe- 
preacher  and  heard  in  consultation  with  deep  rever-  ses8ionofhistitularcburch,SantaMariasopraMinerva. 
encc  by  his  brethren.  He  was  present  at  the  Beoond  In  1878  be  again  visited  Rome  and  assisted  at  the 
and  Third  Plenary  Councils  of  Baltimore,  at  the  coronation  of  Leo  XIII,  from  whom  he  received  tlie 
latter  of  which  he  preached  the  opening  sermon.  On  cardinal's  hat  in  Consistory,  28  March, 
enteringthepulpitne  received  a  telegram  announcing  The  growth  of  the  diocese  and  the  increasing  in- 
tbe  dentructioQ  of  his  cathedral  by  fire.  During  the  firmities  of  age  called  for  the  aid  of  an  assistant,  and 
■ermoiiliegiiveuoevidenceof  tbeshoclcitinqst  Dave  on  1  October,  1880,  Rt.  Rev.  Michael  A.  Conri^^piv, 


HoOLOSKIT  4 

Kihop  of  Newark,  was  Darned  coftdjutor  of  New 
York  with  the  right  of  sucoeasion,  with  the  title  of 
Archbishop  of  Petra.  The  Uat  notable  public  ap- 
pearance  of  Cardinal  McCloskey  waa  on  the  occasion 
of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  lus  ordination,  12  Jan- 
uary, 1884.  His  reply  to  addressee  on  that  day  waa 
yery  suggestive;  "On  this  occaaion  I  cannot  but  con- 
trast the  scene  of  to-day  with  that  of  fifty  years  ago 
in  old  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral.  There  were  only  one 
bJBhop  and  two  priests  and  not  many  people  in  the 
ohurcn.  To-day,  the  fiftieth  anniversarv  of  that 
event,  I  behold  this  aanctuair  filled  with  me  bishops 
of  my  province  and  the  faithful  clergy  of  my  diocese, 
and  this  great  cathedral  crowded  to  overflowing  with 
my  devoted  people.  For  all  this  I  have  only  to  thank 
God  Who  has  spared  me  in  His  goodness  to  witnesa 
the  glory  of  this  day  and  the  wonderful  fruits  of  the 
mustaniseed.  As  to  all  you  have  said  with  r^ardta 
promotions  that  have  followed  one  after  another.  I 
can  onlysay  that  not  one  of  them  was  ever  sought  oy 
me."  These  last  words  reveal  the  true  character  of 
America's  liM  cardinal  better  than  volumes  could  do. 
The  last  public  act  of  Cardinal  HcCloskey  is  one  for 
which  the  American  Church  will  ever  feel  deeply 
grateful.  The  Italian  Government's  act  of  spoliation 
of  ecclesiastical  property  threatened,  in  March,  1834, 
to  expropriate  tlie  American  College  at  Rome.  At 
once  the  Cardinal  laid  the  matter  before  President 
Arthur,  appealing  for  the  protection  of  this  institu- 
tion as  the  property  of  American  citiiens.  The  Secre- 
tary of  State,  Mr.  Frelinghuysen.  through  the  American 
HinlatcrtotheQuirinai,  brought  the  ca3c  to  the  notice 
of  the  Italian  Government,  and  the  college  was  saved. 

Tile  twenty-one  years  of  his  administration  as  arch- 
bishop covered  all  the  sees  of  New  York,  New  Eng- 
land, and  most  of  New  Jersey,  his  suffragans  being 
All«Jiy,  Boston,  Brooklyn,  Burlington,  Buffalo, 
Hartford,  Newark,  Portland,  Sprin^eld,  and  the 
territory  later  apportioned  off  for  the  Dioceses  of  Fall 
River,  Ogdensburg,  Syracuse,  and  Trenton.  To  pro- 
vide for  the  wants  of  thin  vast  territory,  he  held  the 
Fourth  Provincial  Council  of  New  York  m  September, 
1883,  havioK  also  held  the  Third  and  Fourth  Diocesan 
Synods  of  T^w  York.  Considering  his  strength,  he  was 
perhaps  the  most  hard-working  man  in  his  diocese.  "To 
minister  to  the  rapidly  growing  wants  of  his  people, 
which  now  numbered  600,000,  the  priests  having  grown 
from  150  to  400.  the  churches  and  chapels  from  85  to 
229,  schools  and  academies  from  53  to  97,  the  pupils  in 
the  CathoUc  schools  from  16,000  to  37,000,  was  a  t«sk 
that  called  for  more  than  ordinary  energy  and  seal. 
The  New  York  Catholic  Protectory  will  ever  stand  as 
a  striking  monmnent  of  his  foresight  in  making  pro- 
vision for  a  class  of  children  much  neglected,  l«sides 
adding  to  the  number  of  hospitals,  homes,  and  asylums 
as  the  growing  wants  demanded.  But  perhaps  the 
work  which  will  ever  stand  out  as  evidence  of  his 
wonderful  energy  and  ical,  no  less  than  of  his  refined 
and  elevated  taste,  are  the  three  cathedrals  built  by 
him:  the  Immaculate  Conception,  Albany;  St.  Pat- 
rick's, Mott  St.,  rebuilt  ftftcrtne  fire,  and  St.  Patrick's, 
Fifth  Avenue,  New  York,  which  last  was  solemnly 
consecrated  5  October,  1910. 

Cardinal  McCloskey  has  often  been  compared  with 
his  predecessor  by  those  who  knew  them  both. 
Father  Hewitt  wrote:  "During  hia  [Archbishop 
Hughes']  time  of  warfare,  he  wielded  the  battle-axe  of 
Coeur  de  Lion,  while  hia  successor  [Cardinal  McClos- 
key], whose  characteristics  were  in  marked  contrast  to 


dinsi  Gibbons  said:  "These  two  prelates  had  each  his 
predominant  traits  of  character.  The  one  [McCloskey] 
recalls  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles,  blending  authority 
with  paternal  kindness;  the  other  reminding  us  of  the 
Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  wielding  the  two-edged  swotd 
01  the  spirit,  the  tongue  and  the  pen."    Each  prelate 


waa  a  tnan  of  Providence,  rused  up  by  God  for  hia 
time.  StonnywerethedayawhenArchbishopHughea 
took  the  helm,  and  he  was  equal  to  the  emergency. 
Peaceful  the  times  of  Cardinal  McCloskey,  no  great 
crises  calling  for  striking  evidences  of  ptower.  He  gave 
himself  unreservedly  to  the  work  his  hands  found 
ready  to  do;  to  conserve  and  build  up,  to  increase  the 
work  of  him  who  went  before  him.  He  waa  a  ripe 
scholar,  more  erudite  than  prominent.  If  his  profi- 
ciency in  sacred  science  was  not  generally  accorded  the 
prominence  it  might  well  have  commanded,  we  must 
attribute  it  to  his  modesty  and  humility,  of  which  we 
find  so  many  unmistakable  signs  in  his  letters.  In  fact 
he  never  lost  an  opportunity  of  denying  himself  what 
natural  ambition  might  honestly  take.     As  a  young 

Eriest  in  Rome  he  declined  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
livinity;  he  strove  with  all  his  might  to  avoid  promo- 
tion to  the  Metropolitan  See  of  New  York,  and  no  one 
was  more  surprised  than  himself  when  the  news  flashed 
aCTOn  the  ocean  of  his  elevation  to  the  cardinalate. 
He  delighted  to  conoeal  the  gifts  which,  if  allowed  to 
display  themselves,  would  have  secured  the  applause 
of  all  men.  His  written  and  impromptu  sermons  and 
diaooutses  showed  his  cultured  mind  and  strong  nat- 
ural gifts  to  the  beet  advantage  The  dignity  and 
grace  of  manner,  the  quiet  but  persuasive  style  of 
matory  that  carries  conviction  to  every  hearer  were 
particularly  his.  "But  all  these  endowments  were  as 
nothing  compared  to  the  beauty  of  hia  soul  which  waa 
the  seat  of  all  those  virtues  that  render  a  man  accept- 
able before  Godand  dear  to  his  fellow-men.  If  we  had 
to  mention  only  one  trait  of  character,  we  ahould  select 
what  perhapa  was  the  most  conspicuous,  certainly  the 
most  edifying — the  admirable  blending  in  him  of  dig- 
nity which  repelled  none  with  a.  sweetness  whicu 
attracted  all,  a  rare  blessing — 

'  Non  bene  convcniunt  nee  in  una  sede  morantur 
Hajestos  et  amor.  .  .'  " 
Ja  the  soul  of  Cardinal  McCloskey,  where  Christian 
virtue  had  solid  roots,  they  co-existed  in  a  wonderful 
manner.  In  him  were  coupled  the  majesty  of  a 
prince,  which  inspired  no  fear,  but  exacted  the  rever- 
ence of  all,  with  the  simphcity  and  amiablencss  of  a 
child.  Wellmay  we  say  of  him  that  he  was  "Beloved 
of  God  and  men." 

McClohkht,  MB. — Diaruanil  JUaerary  of  JoMmtu  to  Rom* 
(1835}  in  Cad^rya  Arehvoa  of  Ntw  Yorki  Cl^hke.  ti™  o/ 
Dtceaied  Prelain  (New  York.  1S88):  Pablet.  HiUoni  of  St. 
Palriri'i  Calkrdral  (Ne«  York,  !908):  She*.  History  of  Oie 
Catholic  CAtirth  in  the  UnilBd  Statei  (N«u  York.  lSe21:   Hit- 


il  RetonU  and  Studia 


[/nil 


'•  Calhali 


'iff  A^aria.'JaCI.Be?-    CaW^olw  Quarlerlj/' Rivirai 
■—    ■--;    Tht MoniA.XXW'].  Ill  tieAea.iOi. 
JoH.V  M.  Fahlet. 


17  September,  1909.  He  was  the  youngest  of  five 
brothers.  Two  of  his  older  brothers  also  became 
priests:  John,  tor  years  president  of  Mount  St.  Mary'a 
College,  Emmitaburg,  Md.;  and  George,  pastor  of  the 


ordained  subdeacon  at  that  aeminary  by  Arch- 
bishop Eccleston  of  Baltimore,  and  6  Oct.,  1852,  was 
ordained  priest  by  Bishop  Hughes  in  St.  Patrick's 
Cathedral,  New  York.  He  said  his  first  Mass  in  the 
basement  of  the  Church  of  the  Nativity,  of  which  his 
brother  George  was  then  pastor,  and  remained  there 
ten  months  as  assistant.  Then,  from  a  dcsirctotive 
in  the  aeminary  eloiBter,  he  returned  with  the  consent 
of  his  superiors  to  Mount  St.  Mary's,  where  he  taught 
moral  theology,  Scripture,  and  Latin  for  about  six 
years.  He  was  appointed,  1  Dec,  1859,  the  first  rec- 
tor (rf  the  American  College  at  Rome,  being  the  unani- 
mous choice  of  the  American  bishops.  He  reache<l 
Rome  March,  1880.  Georgetown  University  li^nl 
sboKly  before  c<mferred  on  him  the  degree  lA  Doct  or  ot 


MacDOXALD                         489  IftAGDOnUi 

Divinity.  He  was  rector  until  his  promotion  to  the  of  Glenaladale  are  the  senior  cadet  branch  of  the  Ma<V 
See  of  Louisville  in  May,  1868,  being  consecrated  Donalds  of  Clanranald,  and  Captain  MaoDonald  waa 
bishop  in  the  chapel  of  the  college  on  24  May  of  that  chosen  "Tanister"  or  second  in  command  to,  and 
year  by  Cardinal  de  Reisach,  Archbishop  of  Munich,  representative  of,  his  chief.  It  was  an  evil  time  for 
Bavaria,  assisted  by  Monsignor  Xavier  de  M^rode,  Jacobite  Scotland,  especially  for  Catholic  Jacobite 
minister  of  Pius^lX,  and  by  Monsignor  Viteleschi,  Scotland.  The  Catholic  Jacobite  was  cruelly  perse- 
Archbishop  of  Osimo  and  Cmgoli.  Dr.  McCloskey's  cuted,  and  Alexander  MacDonald  of  Boisdale,  south 
administration  of  the  American  College  saw  the  crisis  Uist,  a  former  Catholic,  outdid  others  in  severity  bv 
in  the  history  of  its  affairs,  an  echo  of  the  crisis  in  compelling  his  tenants  either  to  renounce  their  faith 
American  political  life.  He  was  rector  during  our  or  lose  their  land  and  homes.  Thev  chose  to  emigrate 
Civil  War.  In  spite  of  all  his  efforts  and  diplomatic  to  America,  but,  being  utterl^r  destitute,  found  this 
skill  the  spirit  of  faction  affected  the  college,  Southern  impossible.  Hearing  of  their  pitiable  condition,  C^p- 
Catholics  being  as  loyal  to  the  South  as  the  Northern-  tain  MacDonald  went  to  investigate.  What  he  saw 
ers  were  to  the  North.  Moreover,  some  of  the  bishops  moved  him  to  an  act  of  heroic  abnegation.  It  is  said : 
could  at  the  time  send  neither  students  nor  support,  and  ''As  a  nursery  for  the  priesthood,  no  old  Highland 
the  very  existence  of  the  institution  was  threatened,  house  can  rival  that  ot  Glenaladale,  from  the  time 
But  Dr.  McCloskey  stood  loyally  to  his  post,  and  Laird  Angus  became  a  priest  in  1676,  to  Archbishop 
cheerfully  bore  adversity.  Angus,  Metropolitan  of  Scotland,  in  1892  ".  Captain 
He  arrived  in  Louisville  as  its  bishop  towards  the  MacDonald  proved  himself  a  worthy  son  of  his  house, 
end  of  summer,  1868.  The  following  facts  attest  the  when  he  decided  to  mortgage  his  estates  to  his  cousin 
energy  of  his  character  and  the  zeal  of  his  administra-  in  order  to  aid  his  distressed  compatriots.  With  the 
tion.  He  found  sixty-four  churches  and  left  in  his  dio-  money  thus  obtained  he  purchased  (1771)  a  tract 
cese  at  his  death  one  hundred  and  sixty-five.  He  was  of  land  in  Prince  Edwara  Island.  The  following 
zealous  to  provide  chapels  for  the  small  settlements  of  year  the  South  Uist  tenants  with  other  Catholics 
his  jurisdiction.  From  •eighty,  the  number  of  his  from  the  mainland  of  Scotland  embarked  for  Canada, 
priests  grew  to  be  two  hundred.  He  introduced  many  Glenaladale,  who  had  from  the  first  resolved  to  exile 
religious  orders  into  the  diocese,  the  Passionists,  the  himself  with  them,  came  a  year  later.  In  the  Revolu- 
Benedictines,  the  Fathers  of  the  Resurrection,  the  Sis-  tionary  War  he  and  General  Small  raised  the  84th 
ters  of  Mercy,  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  the  (Royal  Highland  Emigrant)  Regiment.  Captain  Mao- 
Franciscan  Sisters,  and  the  Brothers  of  Mary.  The  Donald  and  his  men  fought  so  well  for  the  king  that 
growth  of  the  parochial  schools  was  chiefly  the  prod-  he  was  offered  the  governorship  of  Prince  Edwsuxl  Is- 
uct  of  his  zeal.  The  number  of  children  attending  land,  but  the  Test  Act  being  still  in  force,  he  could 
them  increased  from  2000,  in  1868,  to  12,000,  in  1909.  not,  as  a  Catholic^  comply  with  the  statutory  con- 
In  1869  he  established  the  diocesan  seminary  known  as  ditions.  From  this  time  until  his  death  he  was  ao- 
Preston  Park  Seminary.  He  was  present  at  the  Vat-  tively  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  new  colonists,  both 
ican  Council  in  1870.  He  also  attended  the  Second  in  regard  to  their  temporal  and  spiritual  affairs.  His 
Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  in  1866,  and  the  Third,  in  kindness  and  generosity  knew  no  bounds  and,  extend- 
1884,  strongly  advocatingin  the  former  the  cause  of  ing  to  those  of  other  faiths,  did  much  to  create 
the  American  College  at  Rome.  He  had  a  splendid  a  feeling,  rare  enough  in  thase  days,  of  mutual  tolera- 
physique  and  was  a  man  of  talent  and  eultureo  taste,  tion  and  esteem.  He  himself  never  became  wealthy, 
He  had  a  strong  will,  and  held  tenaciously  to  any  view  and  his  Scotch  estates  eventually  passed  to  the  cousm 
or  plan  of  action  that  he  had  once  entered  on.  Of  to  whom  they  had  been  mortgagee!.  His  people,  how- 
strong  Christian  faith,  of  exemplary  priestly  life,  he  ever,  increased  richly  in  numbers  and  in  fortune.  He 
was  especially  charitable  to  the  very  poor  and  to  the  gave  his  tenants  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  year 
unfortunate  classes  of  society.  He  will  never  be  for-  leases  at  a  trifling  rental,  and  from  this  came  much 
gotten  by  the  unfortunate  magdalens  of  the  House  of  of  their  prosperity. 

the  Good  Shepherd  at  Louis viUe.     Every  Sunday,  Captam  MacDonald  married,  first.  Miss  Gordon  of 

unless  stormy  weather   prevented,  he   visited,   in-  Baldomie,  aunt  of  Admiral  Sir  James  Gordon;  sec- 

structed  and  consoled  them,  listening  to  each  one's  ondj  Marjory  MacDonald  of  Ghemish  (Morar).   Many 

tale  of  woe  and  showing  to  this  fallen  class  that  charity  of  his  descendants  embraced  the  religious  life,  notably 

of  which  Christ  set  the  Divine  example.    He  wrote  a  his  two  grandsons,  John  Alaistir  MacDonald  and  Allan 

life  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  (Louis^olle,  1900).    His  McDonell,  both  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 

love  for  the  poor,  whom  he  visited  in  their  homes  even  „  MacDonald.  SketcfuM  ofHighiand^n  (St.  Jolm,  N.  B.,  1848); 

in  Viiq  nlH  aitp   rtiH  f/^  whom  Ha  iravo  •arhAf^voi*  Tnnnfiv  MacMillan,  Early  Hx9U>ry  Of  the  Catholte  Church  m  Prme9 

in  ms  oia  age,  ana  to  wnom  ne  gave  wnatever  nioney  ^^^^d  Itiand  (Quebec.  i§06);  MacDonald.  A  Knight  of  the 

he  owned,  so  that  he  died  a  poor  man,  lllummated  the  Eighteenth  Century  in  The  Messenger  (January.  Id^):    Mao- 

city  in  which  he  wielded  the  crosier  with  force  and  Donell,  SkHAee,  OUngarry  in  Canada  (Montreal.  1893).  note, 

mprrv  for  Almost  half  a  cpnf  nrv      Ha  w«a  KoIovaH  Kv  130;   BIacKbnub,  History  of  the  MacDonalde  and  Lords  of  the 

mercv  lor  aimosi;  nau  a  century.    ±ie  was  Delovea  by  j,^  (Invem«.  1881);  Records,  ScoU  Colleges  at  Douai,  R4me, 

all  who  knew  him.  Madrid,  VaUadolid,  and  Ratisbon  (Aberdeen.  1906). 

This  sketch  of  his  life  is  founded  on  letters  of  his  atoter.  Mart  Anna  SpRAGUB  MacDonaLD. 
McCloskgt.  and  of  his  chancellor.  Rev.  Dr.  Schuhmann:  The 

Aeeorc^  the  diocesan  organ  of  Louisville,  files;  Brahv,  Htstory  m*-«j^«^«      4—                  /s-x-d-i.           e   rr* 

of  the  American  College  at  Rome  {If  ewYork/l9lO),  M»Cd0Iieil,    ALEXANDER,    first   Bishop  of   King»- 

Henrt  a.  Brann.  ton,  Ontario,  Canada,  b.  17  July,  1760,  at  Inchlaggan 

^^    ^       ,.                                      ,,  in  Glengarry,  Scotland;    d.   14  January,   1840,  at 

MacDonald,  Alexander.      See  Victoria,  Dig-  Dumfries.  Scotland.   His  early  education  was  received 

CESE  OP.  at  Bourblach  on  Loch  Morar.    He  attended  the  Scots 

McDonald,  James  Charles.      See  Charlotte-  CoUeges  at  Parte,  and  Valladolid,  Spai^^ 

TOWN  Diocese  of.  darned  pnest  at  the  latter  place  16  February,  1787. 

'                     *  Returning  to  his  native  land  he  exercised  the  ministnr 

MacDonald,  John,  Laird  of  Glenaladale  and  Glen-  for  five  years  m  the  Braes  of  Lochaber.    In  1792  his 

finnan,  philanthropist,  colonizer,  soldier,  b.  in  Glenala-  people  were  evicted  from  their  homes,  and  their  lands 

dale,  Scotland,  about  1742;  d.  at  Tracadie,  Prince  were  converted  into  sheepwalks.    Despite  the  bitter 

Edward  Island,  Canada.  1811;  he  was  the  son  of  Alex-  feelings  a^inst  Catholics,  lately  intensified  by  the 

ander  and  Margaret   (MaoDonnell  of  Scotus).    He  Gordon  Riots,  and  disregiuxiing  the  fact  that,  being  a 

entered  the  Scots  College,  Ratisbon,  Bavaria,  in  1756,  Catholic  priest  he  was  ipso /ado  an  outlaw,  imdauntod, 

and  there  completed  his  education.    Returning  to  he  led  his  clansmen  to  the  city  of  Glasgow,  where  he 

Scotland,  his  high  personal  character  and  distinguifuied  secured  employment  for  them,  acting  as  their  devoted 

mentality  were  quickly  recognised.   The  MacDonalds  pastor  and  laiCnfnlguflurdian^  a  &lula«(\sw^}cv^^ 


ICACaMlOLL  490  MAODOHELL 

Indeed  lie  continued  to  be  for  fifty  years.  Within  tera  for  twenty-five  years,  though  his  home  was  every- 
two  years  after  the  Highlanders'  arrival  in  Glasgow,  where  in  the  province.  On  his  arrival  he  found  three 
the  Kevolution  on  the  Continent  ruined  the  export  priests  in  the  province,  the  Rev.  Roderick  Macdonell 
trade  of  Glasgow  and  deprived  them  of  their  Uveli-  (Leek)  at  St.  Andrew's  and  St.  Resis,  the  Rev.  Fran- 
hood.  The  only  avenue  open  to  the  unemployed  was  cis  Fitzimmons  in  Glengarry,  ana  the  Rev.  Father 
service  in  the  militia,  but  even  this  was  closed  to  the  Richard  at  Sandwich. 

Glengarrymen,  who,  oeingCatholics,  could  not  declare        The  Rev.  Roderick  Macdonell*  died  in  1806  and 

themselves  Protestants,  as  required  for  enlistment.  Father  Fitzimmons  removed  shortly  afterwards  to 

The  genius  for  organization  possessed  by  Father  New  Brunswick;  this  left  Father  Macdonell  in  chaise 
Macdonell,  which  was  destined  to  make  a  great  name  of  the  whole  province  for  the  next  ten  years  without 
for  him  on  two  continents,  and  render  valuable  ser-  any  assistance.  Father  Richard  being  unable  to  speak 
vice  to  Church  and  State,  quickly  showed  itself.  He  English.  He  was  obliged  to  travel  over  the  country 
boldly  offered  to  organize  his  clansmen  into  a  Catholic  from  the  province  line  of  Lower  Canada  to  Lake 
regiment.  The  pressing  need  of  strengthening  the  Superior,  carrying  the  requisites  for  Mass,  and  the 
forces  made  the  offer  acceptable,  and  in  1704  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  sometimes  on  horse- 
"Glengarry  Fencible  Rc^imenf  was  raised,  and  back,  sometimes  in  Indian  birch  canoes,  and  some- 
Father  Macdonell,  though  it  was  contrarv  to  the  times  on  foot,  living  among  the  savages  with  such 
existing  law,  was  appointed  chaplain,  thus  becoming  fare  as  they  afforded,  crossing  the  great  lakes 
the  first  Catholic  chaplain  in  the  British  Army  since  and  rivers,  and  even  descending  the  rapids  of  the  St. 
the  Reformation.  The  regiment  was  despatched  to  Lawrence  in  their  dangerous  craft.  Equal  hardships 
the  Isle  of  Guernsey  in  1795,  then  threatened  by  the  and  privation  he  endured  among  the  new  settlers. 
French,  and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Rebellion,  they  Thus  he  spent  those  years  in  travelling  about,  offering 
were  sent  to  Ireland  in  1798.  Bernard  Kelly  in  the  the  Holy  Sacrifice  in  rude  huts,  teachmg  the  children, 
"Fate  of  Glengarry'',  writing  of  their  sojourn  in  the  administering  the  sacraments  and  preaching  to  the 
latter  country  says:  "They  everywhere  won  golden  widely  separated  settlers  throughout  the  great  prov- 
opinions  by  their  humane  l)ehaviour  towards  the  van-  ince,  now  Ontario.  During  the  War  of  1812  his  power- 
quished,  which  was  in  striking  contrast  with  the  fiog-  ful  infiuence  was  successfully  used  in  rousing  the  mar- 
kings, burnings,  and  hangings  which  formed  the  daily  tial  spirit  of  his  countrymen,  and  indeed  ot  the  other 
occupation  of  the  rest  of  the  military.  Father  Mac-  inhabitants,  in  defence  of  their  adopte<l  land.  With 
donell,  who  accompanied  the  regiment  in  all  their  the  reorganized"  Glengarry  Fencibles"  he  was  present 
enterprises,  was  in.strumental  in  fostering  this  spirit  in  several  engagements  against  the  American  forces, 
of  conciliation,  and  his  efforts  contributed  not  a  little  His  civil  and  military  services  were  recognized  by  the 
to  the  extinction  of  the  Rebellion.  The  Catholic  British  Government  in  1816  by  an  addition  to  his  own 
chapels  in  many  places  had  been  turned  into  stables  government  allowance,  and  by  an  annual  grant  of 
by  the  yeomanry,  and  these  he  caused  to  be  restored  £100  each,  to  three  clerg3nnen  and  four  school-masters. 
to  their  proper  use.  He  often  said  Mass  himself  in  In  181 7  Upper  Cana£.  was  set  apart  from  the  See  of 
these  humble  places  of  devotion,  and  invited  the  in-  Quebec  as  a  vicariate  Apostolic,  and  two  years  later 
habitants  to  leave  their  hiding  places  and  resume  once  Father  Macdonell  was  appointed  vicar  Apostolic,  his 
more  their  wonted  occupations,  assuring  them  of  the  consecration  as  Bishop  of  Khosina  taking  place  in  the 
king's  protection,  if  they  behaved  quietly  and  peace-  Ursuline  chapel,  Quebec,  on  31  December,  1820.  A 
ably.  Such  timely  exhortations  had  an  almost  magi-  significant  incident  was  the  gift  to  Bishop  Macdonell 
oal  effect,  though  the  terror-stricken  population  could  of  a  magnificent  episcopal  ring  by  King  George  IV. 
scarcely  believe  their  eyes  when  they  beheld  a  regi-  Six  years  later,  14  February,  1826,  the  vicariate  was ' 
ment  of  Roman  Catholics,  speaking  their  language,  raised  to  a  bishopric  by  Leo  5CII,  and  Bishop  Macdonell 
and  among  them  a  aoggarthj  a  priest,  assuring  them  of  then  became  the  first  Bishop  of  Upper  Canada  with 
immunity  from  a  government  immemorially  associ-  his  see  at  Kingston.  Advancing  age  caused  him  to 
ated  with  every  species  of  wrong  and  oppression."  ^P^Y  ^^^  ^  oo-adjutor.  Father  Weld  of  Lulworth 
An  American  bishop,  lately  deceased,  has  given  this  Ciastle,  England,  was  appointed  and  consecrated 
testimony  to  the  chaplain  s  services  and  to  the  Irish  Bishop  of  Amycla,  and  co-adjutor  of  Upper  Canada, 
people's  gratitude:  "The  memory  of  Father  Macdonell  1  August,  1826,  but  his  health  becoming  impaired  he 
IS  as  green  in  those  regions  as  the  fields  they  ctiltivate.  never  assumed  office.  Bishop  Macdonell's  thorough 
That  holy,  chivalrous  priest  saved  the  lives  of  many  knowledge  of  the  country  and  its  people  and  his  great 
innocent  Irishmen  and  restored  the  chapels  to  their  administrative  ability  made  his  counsel  desirable  to 
original  purpose."  At  the  close  of  the  Rebellion  the  government,  and  on  12  October,  1831,  he  was 
Father  Macdonell  was  called  to  London  in  the  interest  called  to  the  Legislative  Council,  and  thereafter  was 
of  the  regiment,  and  was  at  the  same  time  commis-  accorded  the  title  "Honourable".  In  a  letter  to  a 
sioned  by  the  Bishops  of  Ireland  to  make  known  to  the  friend  he  writes  of  his  appointment  as  follows:  "The 
British  government  their  sentiments  in  regard  to  the  only  consideration  that  would  induce  me  to  think  of 
proposed  legislative  union  of  Great  Britain  and  accepting  such  a  situation,  would  be  the  hope  of  being 
Ireland.  The  Fencibles  were  disbanded  in  Glasgow  in  able  to  promote  the  interests  of  our  holy  religion  more 
1802.  effectually,  and  carrying  my  measures  through  the 

The  next  two  years  found  Father  Macdonell  in  ne-  Provincial  Legislature  with  more  facility  and  cxpedi- 

gotiation  with  the  government  for  the  immigration  of  tion  than  I  could  otherwise  do." 
is  people  to  Canada.     Powerful  forces  were  arrayed        Five  voyages  to  Europe,  an  average  travel  of  two 

against  him,  both  at  home  and  in  the  government,  thousand  miles  per  year  through  Ontario,  the  personal 

but  he  eventually  triumphed,  and  brought  out  in  1803  selection  of  church  sites,  in  nearly  all  the  places  now 

and  1804  large  numbers  of  Catholic  Highlanders  to  marked  by  cities  and  to>vn8  in  the  province  of  Ontario, 

Glengarry  in  Upper  Canada,  where  many  of  his  faith  untiring  and  successful  efforts  to  obtain  a  fair  share 

and  race  were  already  exiled  on  account  of  persecution  of  government  grants  in  money  and  land  for  church 

in  their  native  land.    Father  Macdonell  arrived  at  and  school  purposes  (the  first  grant  of  public  money 

Ywk,  now  Toronto,  1  November,  1804,  and  proceeded  for  a  Catholic  school  in  Ontario  was  obtained  for  St. 

to  settle  the  people  on  the  lands  granted  by  tne  British  Andrew's,  Stormont  County,  in  1832),  are  all  evi- 

govemment.    The  whole  of  the  present  Dominion  was  dences  of  an  unusually  active  life.    His  zeaJ  for  the 

then  the  vast  Diocese  of  Quebec.    Father  Macdonell  formation  of  a  native  priesthood  is  abundantly  shown 

with  authority  of  vicar-general  was  assigned  to  the  in  the  establishment  of  the  Seminary  of  lona  at  St. 

mission  of  St.  Raphael's  in  Glengarry,  "the  Cradle  of  Raphaers,  in  1826,  and  of  Rc^iopolis  College  at  I^ngs- 

the  Church  in  Ontario  ",  which  he  made  his  headquar-  ton,  in  1838,  not  to  speak  of  l£e  many  priests  educated 


MacDOKCLL 


491 


MAOSXM) 


at  his  own  expense.  There  is  a  statement  left  among 
his  papers  showing  that  he  expended  £13,000  of  his 
private  funds  for  tne  furthering  of  religion  and  educa- 
tion. 

His  volimxinous  letters  reveal  the  master  mind  of 
the  organizer  and  ruler,  and  the  singleness  of  purpose 
of  the  great  churchman.  His  life  was  a  striking  exam- 
ple of  the  truth  that  in  the  Catholic  Church  piety  and 
patriotism  go  hand  in  hand.  In  the  year  1840  he  died 
in  his  native  Scotland,  whither  he  had  gone  with  the 
hope  of  interesting  Irish  and  Scotch  bishops  in  a 
scheme  of  emigration.  In  1861  his  remains  were 
brought  to  Kingston  by  Bishop  Horan  and  were  in- 
terred beneath  the  cathedral.  Bishop  Macdondil  in 
1804  found  three  priests  and  three  churches  in  Upper 
Canada.  By  his  energy  and  perseverance  he  induced  a 
considerable  immigiation  to  the  province,  and  left  at 
his  death  forty-eight  churches  attended  by  thirty 
priests.  The  memory  that  survives  him  is  that  of  a 
great  missionary,  prelate,  and  patriot — the  Apostle  of 
Ontario. 

Letters  of  Biehop  MaedoneU:  Macoonell,  Reminiscencea  of 
the  Hon.  and  Rt.  Rev.  Alexander  Macdonell;  Kelly,  Tfie  Fate 
q[  Qlengarry;  Moroak,  Bioaraphiea  of  Celebrated  Canadians; 
i,  Pro 


trime  S.  ThomaB  ct  Scoti"  (Padua,  l67l,  1673,  1680), 
3  vols,  in  folio;  "Scholao  theologicae  positivae  ad  .  .  . 
confutationem  haereticorum"  (Rome,  1664)  copied  in 
part  in  Roccaberti,  "Bibliotheca  Maxima  Pontificia", 
XII  (Rome,  1696)  221-48;  "De  davibus  Petri '^ 
(Rome,  1660)  partially  reprinted  in  Roccaberti,  XII. 
113-37;  "  Controversiae  selectae  contra  hsereticos' 
(Rome,  1663).  "Assertor  romanus  ad  versus  calum- 
nias  heterodoxorum  Anglorum  prajsertim  et  Scoto- 
rum  in  academiis  Oxoniensi,  Cantabrigiensi  et  Aber- 
doniensi"  (Rome,  1667);  "Tessera  romana  auctori- 
tatis  pontificis  ad  versus  buccinam  ThomaB  Angli" 
(London,  1654),  also  in  Roccaberti,  XII^  164-220. 
He  also  took  an  active  part  in  the  Jansenist  contro- 
versy, being  at  first  inclmed  to  Jansenism;  but  after- 
wards he  defended  St.  Augustine's  teaching  with 
regard  to  Grace  in  the  most  decided  manner.  "Scru- 
tinium  divi  Augustini"  (London,  1644;  Paris,  1648; 


Hopkins,  Progress  of  Canada, 


D.  R.  Macdonald. 


MftcDonell,  Wiluam  A.  See  Alexandria,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

McDonnell,  Charles  Edward.  See  Brooklyn, 
Diocese  op. 

McDonnell,  Edmund.    See  O'Donnell,  Edmund. 

Mace. — (1)  A  short,  richly  ornamented  staff,  often 
made  of  silver,  the  upper  part  furnished  with  a  knob 
or  other  head-piece  and  decorated  with  a  coat  of  arms, 
usually  borne  before  eminent  ecclesiastical  corpora- 
tions, magistrates,  and  academic  bodies  as  a  mark  and 
symbol  of  jurisdiction. 

(2)  More  properly,  the  club-shaped  beaten  silver 
stick  (mazza)  carried  by  papal  mazzieri  (mace-bearers), 
Swiss  Guards  (vergers),  in  papal  chapels,  at  the  conse- 
cration of  bishops,  and  by  the  cursores  apostolici  (papal 
messengers).  When  in  use  the  mace  is  carried  on  the 
right  shoulder,  with  its  head  upwards.  Formerly  car- 
dinals had  mace-bearers.  Mazzieri,  once  called  servi- 
erUes  armorum,  or  halberdiers,  were  the  body-guard  of 
the  pope,  and  mazze  (dai^,  virgce)  date  back  at  least  to 
the  tweltth  century  {virgarii  in  chapter  xl  of  the  Ordo 
of  Cencius). 

Die  Katholische  Kvche,  I  (Berlin,  1899).  317. 

Joseph  Braun. 

Macedo,  Francisco,  known  as  a  S.  Augustino, 
O.F.M.,  theologian,  b.  at  Coimbra,  Portugal,  1596;  he 
entered  the  Jesuit  Order  in  1610,  which  however  he 
left  in  1638  in  order  to  join  the  Discalced  Franciscans. 
These  also  he  left  in  1648,  for  the  Observants.  In 
Portugal  he  sided  with  the  House  of  Braganza.  Sum- 
moned to  Rome  by  Alexander  VII  he  taught  theology 
at  the  College  of  the  Propaganda,  and  afterwaras 
church  history  at  the  Sapienza,  and  as  consultor  to 
the  Inquisition.  At  Venice  in  1667,  during  the  week 
beginnmg  26  Sept.,  he  held  a  public  disputation, 
against  all  comers,  on  nearly  every  branch  of  human 
knowledge,  especially  the  Bible,  theology,  patrcdogy. 
history,  law,  literature,  and  poetry.  He  named 
this  disputation,  in  his  quaint  and  extravagant  style, 
"  Leonis  Marci  rugitus  litterarii "  (the  literary  roaring 
of  the  Lion  of  St.  Mark) ;  this  obtained  for  him  the 
freedom  of  the  city  of  Venice  and  the  professorship  of 
moral  philosophy  at  the  University  of  Padua.  He 
died  there  1  May,  1681. 

Rather  restless,  but  a  man  of  enormous  erudition, 
he  wrote  a  number  of  books,  of  which  over  100  ap- 
peared in  print,  and  about  thirty  are  still  imprinted. 
The  following  may  be  mentioned:    "CoUationes  doo- 


centii  X."  (Louvain,  1655);  "  Commentationes  du» 
ecclesiastico-polemicae"  (Verona,  1674),  concerning 
Vincent  of  Lerins  and  Hilarius  of  Aries,  against  whom 
H.  Norisius  wrote  his  *'  Ad ventoria  "  in  P.  L.,  XL VII, 
538  sq.  "Medulla  historiap  ecclesiasticaj "  (Padua, 
1671);  "  Azy mas  Eucharist icas",  Ingolstadt  (Venice, 

),   1673,  against  Cardinal  Giovanni   Bona,  and 

at  once  placed  on  the  Index  (21  June,  1673),  until 
it  is  corrected'*,  which  was  done  in  the  neW  edi- 
tion (Verona,  1673).  Mabillon  also  wrote  against 
this.  "Schema  S.  congregationis  s.  officii"  (Padua, 
1676). 

Sbaralea.,  Supplem.  ad  Script.Ord.  3fm.  (Rome,  1806),  260-3; 
2nd  ed.  (Rome,  1908),  I,  276-9;  Joh.  de  S.  Antonio,  BibL 
univ.  francuHc.t  I  (Madrid,  1732),  362;  Nickron,  Mim.  pour 
servir  a  Vhist.  des  homines  Ulust.,  XaI,  317,  333;  Hurter, 
Nomenclator;  Sommervogel,  Bibl.  de  la  c.  de  J.,  V,  244  sq. 

Michael  Bihl. 

Macedo,  Josfc  Aqostinho  de  (1761-1831),  Portu- 
guese controversialist,  preacher,  and  poet,  was  bom  at 
Beja  and  educated  by  the  Oratorians.  Entering  the 
Augustinian  Order,  he  made  his  profession  in  1778,  but 
lived  in  perpetual  strife  with  his  superiors  and  finally 
abandoned  the  monastic  life  and  habit.  In  1792  he 
was  unfrocked,  but  appealed  against  the  sentence  and 
obtained  a  papal  Brief  which  secularized  him  and  con- 
served his  ecclesiastical  status.  He  now  laid  the  foun- 
dations of  a  vast  though  superficial  learning,  while,  as  a 
means  of  livelihood,  he  devoted  himself  to  writing  and 
preaching.  He  founded,  or  contributed  to,  a  large 
number  of  newspapers  and  in  these,  and  in  politioal 

gamphlets,  defended  the  absolute  monarchy  and  the 
hurch  against  liberaUsm  in  politics  and  religion, 
though  he  changed  his  views  more  than  once  in  accord- 
ance with  his  interests  or  sympathies.  His  fiery  seal 
was  equalled  bjr  a  brilliancy  of  invective  and  mordant 
satire  which  gained  him  bitter  foes  and  warm  admir- 
ers. From  1824  to  1829  he  served  as  diocesan  censor 
and  his  critical  analyses  of  the  books  submitted  to  him 
reveal  his  versatility,  though  this,  and  his  fecundity, 
are  best  seen  by  the  catalogue  of  his  writings  which 
occupies  thirty  pages  in  Vol.  4  of  the  "Diccionario 
Bibliographico"  of  Innocencio  da  Silva.  As  early  as 
1802  he  Decame  one  of  the  royal  preachers  and  his 
sonorous  voice  and  discourses  seasoned  by  political 
allusions  made  him  the  most  popular  pulpit  orator  of 
the  daj^.  He  introduced  didactic  poetry  into  Portu- 
gal, writing  rhetorical  poems  devoid  of  inspiration, 
ana  sought  to  rival  CamoSns  by  a  lifeless  epic  "  Ori- 
ente". 

In  that  decadent  period  Macedo  was  able  to  en- 
throne himself  as  dictator  of  letters,  but  this  involved 
him  in  numerous  literary  duels  with  rival  bards  whom 
he  chastised  in  "  Os  Burros  ",  the  most  libellous  poem 
in  the  language.  His  political  and  erotic  odes  reach.  «^ 
high  level,  but  he  gave  thft  b«^\ftw&.  ^\sax'»x^'''«!S^i^ 


MACEDONIA 


492 


McGEB 


lectual  powers  in  the  philosophical  treatise  "  A  demon* 
stration  of  the  existence  of  God  *\  while  his  tract  "  On 
the  state  of  Portiijgal "  (1808)  shows  a  sound  percep- 
tion which  is  lackmp  in  his  later  prose  work.  A  man 
of  immense  vanity,  irregular  life,  and  atrabilious  tem- 
per, he  yet  had  an  affable  manner  and  kindly  heart 
ana  contributed  generously  to  charities.  These  quali- 
ties and  his  rare  talents  earned  him  a  great  position 
and  much  esteem  so  that,  when  he  passed  away,  part 
of  the  population  mourned  his  death  as  a  national 
loss. 

DA  SiLVA,  Memories  para  a  vida  de  Josf  Agoatinho  de  Macedo 
(Lisbon,  1899);  Braqa,  Obraa  Inediku  de  JoaS  Agodinho  de 
Macedo,  2  vols.  (Ldsbon,  1900-1). 

Edgar  Prestage. 

Macedonia.  See  Paul,  Saint,  Apostle;  Roman 
Empire;  Saloniki;  Turkish  Empire. 

MacedonianB.    See  Pneumatomachi. 

Macerata  and  Tolentino,  United  Sees  of^  in  the 
Marches,  Central  Italy.  Macerata  is  aprovincial  cap- 
ital, situated  on  a  hill,  between  the  Cnienti  and  the 
Potenza  rivers,  from  wnich  there  is  a  beautiful  view  of 
the  sea.  Its  name  is  derived  from  maceries  (ruins) ,  be- 
cause the  town  was  built  on  the  ruins  of  Hel  via  Recina, 
d  city  founded  by  Septimus  Severus,  and  destroyed  by 
Alanc  in  408,  after  which  its  inhabitants  established 
the  towns  of  Macerata  and  Recanati.  The  former  is 
mentioned  apropos  of  the  Gothic  wars  and  of  Deside- 
rius,  King  of  the  Lombards,  after  which  time  it  fell 
into  decadence.  Nicholas  IV  restored  it  and,  in  1290, 
established  there  a  university  renewed  by  Paul  III  in 
^540;  this  pope  made  Macerata  the  residence  of  the 
governors  cw  tne  Marches,  and  thenceforth  it  was  one 
of  the  towns  most  faithful  to  the  papacy.  Gregory  XI 
.gave  the  city  to  Rudolf o  Varani  di  Camerino,  a  papal 
general;  the  people,  however,  drove  him  away,  wish- 
mg  to  be  governed  airectly  by  the  Holy  See.  In  the 
fifteenth  centurv,  the  families  of  Malatesta  of  Rimini 
and  Sforza  of  Milan  struggled  for  the  possession  of 
Macerata,  from  which  the  latter  were  definitely  ex- 
pelled in  1441.  Later,  the  town  became  part  of  the 
Duchy  of  Urbino.  In  1797  it  was  pillaged  by  the 
French.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral,  in  which  there  is  a 
mosaic  of  St.  Michael  by  Calandra  and  a  Madonna  by 
Pinturicchio.  There  are,  also,  the  beautiful  churches 
of  Santa  Maria  della  Pace  (1323)  and  of  the  Madonna 
delle  Vergini  (1550),  the  latter  designed  by  Galasso  da 
Carpi.  The  university  has  only  the  two  faculties  of 
law  and  medicine. 

The  episcopal  see  was  created  in  1320,  after  the  sup- 
pression of  that  of  Recanati,  which  was  re-established 
m  1516,  independently  of  Macerata,  to  which  l£ist 
Sixtus  V,  in  1586,  united  the  Diocese  of  Tolentino  (a 
very  ancient  city  in  the  province  of  Macerata),  de- 
stroyed by  the  barbarians.  Tolentino  had  bishops  in 
the  fifth  century,  and  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Cater\'us, 
the  apostle  of  the  city,  is  referred  to  the  time  of 
Trajan.  Besides  its  fine  cathedral,  this  town  contains 
Hie  beautiful  church  of  St.  Nicholas  of  Tolentino, 
which  belongs  to  the  Augustinians,  and  in  which  is  the 
tomb  of  its  patron  saint  (1310).  Tolentino  is  famous 
as  the  place  where  was  signed  the  treaty  between 
Napoleon  and  Pius  VI,  which  gave  Bologna,  Ferrara, 
ana  Romagna  to  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  In  1815  was 
foujght  between  Macerata  and  Tolentino  the  battle  in 
which  the  Austrians  defeated  Murat  and  which  cost 
the  latter  the  throne  of  Naples. 

Among  the  distinguished  men  of  Macerata  are  G.  B. 
Crescimbeni,  a  poet  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
Mario  Crescimbeni,  a  man  of  letters  of  the  seventeenth 
century  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Roman  Arcadia; 
Father  Matteo  Ricci,  S.J.,  astronomer,  and  missionary 
to  China;  the  architect  Floriani,  who  constructed  the 
fortifications  of  Malta.  The  united  sees  are  suffragan 
of  Fermo  and  contain  25  parishes,  with  46,200  inlmb- 
Itants;  within  their  territory  are  4  religious  houses  of 


men,  and  9  of  women;  they  have  4  educational  insti- 
tutes for  male  students,  and  4  for  girls,  and  a  monthly 
theological  publication. 

Cappelletti,  Ckiese  d' Italia,  III  (Venice,  1857);  FAOLiETn, 
Confereme  suUa  etoria  anlica  maceraUse  (Macerata,  1884) ;  Conr- 
fereme  ndla  tioria  medioevaU  macenUeee  (Macerata,  1885). 

U.  Benigni. 

McEyay,  Fergus  Patrick.  See  Toronto,  Arch- 
diocese  OF. 

McFarland,  FRAxas  Patrick,  third  Bishop  of 
Hartford  (q.  v.),  b.  at  Franklin,  Pa.,  16  April,  1819;  d. 
at  Hartford,  (5onn.,  2  October,  1874.  liis  parents, 
John  McFarland  and  Mary  McKeever,  emigrated  from 
Armagh.  From  early  childhood  Francis  had  a  predi- 
lection for  the  priestly  state.  Diligent  and  talented, 
he  was  employed  as  teacher  in  the  village  school,  but 
soon  entered  Mount  St.  Mary's  (]k>llege,  Emmitsburg, 
Md.,  where  he  graduated  with  high  honours  and  was 
retained  as  teacher.  The  following  year,  1845,  he 
was  ordained,  18  May,  at  New  York  by  Archbishop 
Hughes,  who  immediately  detailed  the  young  priest 
to  a  professor's  chair  at  St.  John's  College,  Forcfham. 
Father  McFarland,  however,  longed  for  the  direct 
ministry  of  souls  and  from  his  college  made  frequent 
missionary  journeys  among  the  scattered  Catholics. 
After  a  year  at  Fordham  he  was  appointed  pastor  of 
Watertown,  N.  Y.,  where  his  zeal  was  felt  K)r  many 
miles  around.  On  March,  1851 ,  he  was  transferred  by 
his  new  ordinary,  Bishop  McCloskey  of  Albany,  to  St. 
John's  Church,  Utica.  For  seven  years  the  whole 
city  was  edified  by  his  "saintly  labours",  and  the 
news  of  his  apostolic  achievements  reached  as  far  as 
Rome.  He  was  appointed  Vicar-Apostolic  of  Florida, 
9  March,  1857.  He  declined  the  nonour  only  to  be 
elected  Bishop  of  Hartford.  He  was  consecrated  at 
Providence,  14  March,  1858,  and  resided  in  that  city 
until  the  division  of  his  diocese  in  1872  (see  Provi- 
dence, Diocese  of).  Failing  health  prompted  him, 
while  attending  the  Vatican  Council,  to  resign  his  see. 
His  confreres  of  the  American  episcopate  would  not 
hear  of  such  a  step.  They  had  learned  to  regard  him 
as  the  embodiment  of  the  virtues  of  a  bishop  and  one 
of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  their  order.  By  divid- 
ingthe  diocese  it  was  hoped  that  his  burden  would  be 
sufficiently  lightened.  lie  left  Providence  for  Hart- 
ford 28  Feb.,  1872.  After  reorganizing  his  diocese  he 
immediately  set  about  the  erection  of  a  catheiiral,  and 
to  his  enlightened  initiative  is  owing  the  splendid  edi- 
fice of  which  the  Catholics  of  Connecticut  are  so  justly 
proud.  Bishop  McFarland  displayed  rare  wisdom  in 
the  administration  of  his  see.  His  zeal  and  self-sacri- 
fice carried  him  everywhere,  preaching,  catechizing, 
lecturing,  moving  among  priests  and  people  as  a  saint 
and  scholar.  He  was  a  man  of  fine  intellect  and  com- 
manding presence.  Austere  and  thoughtful,  he  al- 
ways preserved  a  quiet  dignity  and  the  humility  of  the 
true  servant  of  Christ.  He  collected  a  valuable  theo- 
lo^cal  library  which  he  beaueathed  to  his  diocese. 
His  death  at  the  early  age  of  nfty-five  was  mourned  as 
a  calamity.  His  name  is  still  a  household  word  among 
the  Catholics  of  Connecticut. 

HiMory  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  New  England  (Boston,  1899) ; 
The  Connecticut  Catholic  Year  Book  (Hartford,  Conn.);  The 
Catholic  Transcript  (Hartford,  Conn.),  files. 

T.  S.  DUGGAN. 

MacFarlane,  Angus.    See  Dunkeld,  Diocese  of. 

McFaul,  James  A.    See  Trenton,  Diocese  of. 

McGavick,  Alexander  J.  See  Chicago,  Arch- 
diocese OP. 

McGee,  Thomas  D'Arcy,  editor,  politician,  and 
poet,  b.  at  Carlingford,  Co.  Louth,  Ireland,  13  April, 
1825;  assassinated  at  Ottawa,  Canada,  7  April,  ISCkS. 
He  was  a  precocious  youth  and  emigrating  to  the 
United  States  at  seventeen  a  speech  he  made  soon 
after  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  on  the  Repeal  of 


MacGEOOHBOAN 


493 


BiAOHABESS 


the  Union  between  England  and  Ireland,  brought  him 
an  offer  of  employment  on  the  Boston  *'  Pilot  .  His 
editorial  and  other  contributions  to  this  paper  and 
public  addresses  attracted  the  attention  of  O  ConneU 
who  called  them  "  the  inspired  utterances  of  a  young 
exiled  Irish  boy  in  America''.  After  this  McGee  re- 
turned to  Dublm  to  take  a  place  on  the  editorial  staff 
of  "The  Freeman's  Journal  ,  but  his  advocacy  of  the 
advanced  ideas  of  the  Young  Ireland  Party  caused 
him  to  leave  that  paper  for  a  position  on  Charles 
Gavan  Duffy's  "  Nation",  in  which  many  of  his  poems 
and  patriotic  essays  were  printed.  In  the  subsequent 
revolutionary  episodes  of  1848  he  figured  as  one  of  the 
most  active  leaders,  being  the  secretary  of  the  Irish 
Confederation,  and  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  for  a 
short  time  because  of  an  unwise  speecn.  When  the 
government  began  to  suppress  the  movement  and  to 
arrest  its  leaders  McGee  escaped  to  the  United  States 


during  these  years  he  wrote  a  "  History  of  Ireland  ".  It 
was  written  m  French  and  published  at  Paris  in  1758. 
It  was  dedicated  by  the  author  to  the  Irish  Brigade, 
and  he  is  responsible  for  the  interesting  statement  that 
for  the  fifty  years  following  the  Treaty  of  Limerick 
(1691)  no  less  than  450,000  Irish  soldiers  died  in  the 
service  of  France.  MacGeoghegan's  *  *  History  "  is  the 
fruit  of  much  labour  and  research,  though,  on  account 
of  his  residence  abroad,  he  was  necessarily  shut  out 
from  access  to  the  manuscript  materials  of  history  in 
Ireland,  and  had  to  rely  chiefly  on  Lynch  and  Colgan. 
Mitchel's  "  History  of  Ireland  professes  to  be  merely 
a  continuation  of  MacGeoghegan,  though  Mitchel  is 
throughout  much  more  of  a  partisan  than  MacGeo- 
ghegan. 

MacGrooheqan,  History  of  Ireland,  tr.  0*Kbllt  (Dublin, 
1831);  O'CcRRY,  MS8.  Materials  of  Irish  Historj/  (Dublin, 
1861) ;  Boyle,  The  Irish  CoUeffe  of  Paris  (London.  1901). 

E.  A.  D' Alton. 


disguised  as  a  priest.    In  New  York  he  started  a  paper         m*ni-ii_T  otv  ta 

caUed  •'  The  l^ation ",  but  soon  got  into  trouble  Xh        McQolnck,  James.    See  Duluth,  Diocese  or. 


Bishop  Hughes  over  his  violent  revolutionary  ideas 
and  diatribes  against  the  priesthood  in  their  relation 
to  Irish  politics.  Changing  the  name  of  the  paper  to 
"The  American  Olt"  he  moved  to  Boston,  tnenoe  to 
Buffalo  and  again  back  to  New  York. 

In  1857  he  settled  in  Montreal  where  he  published 
another  paper,  "  The  New  Era  '*,  and  entering  actively 
into  local  politics  was  elected  to  the  Canadian  Parlia- 
ment, in  wiiich  his  ability  as  a  speaker  put  him  at  once 
in  the  front  rank.  He  changed  the  whole  tenor  of  his 
political  views  and,  as  he  advanced  in  official  promi- 
nence, advocated  British  supremacy  as  loyally  as  he 
had  formerly  promoted  the  revolutionarj^  doctrines  of 
his  youth.  Tne  Confederation  of  the  British  colonies 
of  North  America  as  the  Dominion  of  Canada  was  due 
largely  to  his  initiative.  In  the  change  of  his  political 
ideas  he  constantly  embittered  and  attacked  the  revo- 
lutionary organizations  of  his  fellow  countrymen,  and 
so  made  himself  very  obnoxious  to  them.  It  was  this 
that  led  to  his  assassination  by  an  overwrought  fan- 
atic. His  literary  activity  in  his  earlier  years  brought 
forth  many  poems  full  of  patriotic  vigour,  tenderness 
and  melody,  and  a  number  of  works,  notably:  "Irish 
Writers  of  the  Seventeenth  Century"  (1846);  "His- 
toiy  of  the  Irish  Settlers  in  North  America"  (1854); 
"  History  of  the  Attempt  to  establish  the  Protestant 
Reformation  in  Ireland"  (1853);  "Catholic  History 
of  North  America"  (1854);  "History  of  Ireland^' 
(1862). 

Sadlirr,  T.  D.  McOee's  Poems  with  Introduction  and  Bio- 
graphical Sketch  (New  York,  1889) :  McCarthy,  Historu  of  Our 
Own  Times.  I  (New  York.  1887);  Fitsgerald,  Ireland  and  Her 
People,  II  (Chicago,  1910),  s.  v.;  Dufft.  Younq  Ireland  (Lon- 
don, 1880);  Idem,  Four  Years  of  Irish  Htstory  (London,  1883). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

MacOeoghegan,  Ja.me8,  b.  at  Uisneach,  West- 
meath,  Ireland,  1702;  d.  at  Paris,  1763.  He  came  of  a 
family  long  settled  in  Westmeath  and  long  holding  a 
high  position  among  the  Leinster  chiefs,  and  was  re- 
lated to  that  MacGeoghegan  who  so  heroically  de- 
fended the  Castle  of  Dunboy  against  Carew,  and  also 
to  Conncll  MacGeoghegan,  who  translated  the  Annals 
of  Clonmacnoise.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century 
the  penal  laws  were  enacted  and  enforced  against 
the  Irish  Catholics,  and  education,  except  in  Protest- 
ant schools  and  colleges,  was  rigorously  proscribed. 
Young  MacGeoghegan,  therefore,  went  abroad,  and 
received  his  education  at  the  Irish  (then  the  Lombard) 
College  in  Paris,  and  in  due  course  was  ordained  priest. 
Then  for  five  years  he  filled  the  position  of  vicar  in  the 
parish  of  Poissy,  in  the  Diocese  of  Qiartres,  "attend- 
mg  in  choir,  hearing  confessions  and  administering  sae- 
rameiits  in  a  laudable  and  edifying  manner".  In  1734 
he  was  cIect<Ml  one  of  the  provisors  of  the  Lombard 
College,  and  subsequently  was  attached  to  the  church 
of  St-Merri  in  Paris.  He  was  also  for  some  time  chap- 
lain to  the  Irish  troops  in  the  service  of  France;  and 


Mftchabees,  The  (Gr.  'Oi  Maicjca/Saibi;  Lat.  Macha- 
baei;  most  probably  from  Aramaic  Nnpb,  maqqSbd*= 
jammer  ")>  a  priestly  family  which  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Mathathias  initiated  the  revolt  against  the 
tyranny  of  Antiochus  IV  Epiphanes,  King  of  Syria, 
and  after  securing  Jewish  independence  ruled  the  com- 
monwealth till  overthrown  by  Herod  the  Great.  The 
name  Machabee  was  originally  the  surname  of  Judas, 
the  third  son  of  Mathathias,  but  was  later  extended  to 
all  the  descendants  of  Mathathias^  and  even  to  all  who 
took  part  in  the  rebellion.  It  is  also  given  to  tJie 
martyrs  mentioned  in  II  Mach.,  vi,  18-vii.  Of  the 
various  explanations  of  the  word  the  one  given  above  is 
the  most  probable.  Machabee  would  accordingly  mean 
"hammerer*'  or  "  hammer-like  ",  and  would  have  been 
given  to  Judas  because  of  his  valour  in  combating 
the  enemies  of  Israel.  The  family  patronymic  of  the 
Machal)ees  was  Hasmoneans  or  Asmoneans,  from 
I^hmon,  Gr.  *A<roiua»Katof,  an  ancestor  of  MathathiaB. 
lliis  designation,  which  is  always  used  by  the  old  Jew- 
ish writers,  is  now  commonly  applied  to  the  princes  of 
the  dynasty  founded  by  Simon,  the  last  of  the  sons  of 
Mathathias. 

Events  leading  to  the  Revolt  of  Mathathias. — ^The  ris- 
ing under  Mathathias  was  caused  by  the  attempt  of 
Antiochus  IV  to  force  Greek  paganism  on  his  Jewish 
subjects.  This  was  the  climax  of  a  movement  to 
hellenize  the  Jews,  begun  with  the  king's  approval  by 
a  party  among  tne  Jewish  aristocracy,  wno  were  in 
favour  of  breaking  down  the  wall  of  separation  be- 
tween Jew  and  Grentile  and  of  adopting  Greek  customs. 
The  leader  of  this  party  was  Jes«is,  or  Josue,  better 
known  by  his  Greek  name  Jason,  the  unworthy 
brother  of  the  worthy  high-priest  Onias  III.  By 
promising  the  king  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  b^ 
offering  to  become  the  promoter  among  the  Jews  of  his 
policy  of  hellenizing  the  non-Greek  popidation  of  his 
domains,  he  obtained  the  deposition  of  his  brother 
and  his  own  appointment  to  tne  high-priesthood  (174 
B.  c).  As  soon  as  he  was  installed  he  be^an  the  Work 
of  hellenizing  and  carried  it  on  with  considerable  suc- 
cess. A  gymnasium  was  built  below  the  Acra  (cita- 
del), in  close  proximity  to  the  temple,  where  the 
youths  of  Jerusalem  were  taught  Greek  sports.  Even 
priests  became  addicted  to  the  games  and  neglected 
the  altar  for  the  ^mnasium.  Many,  ashamed  of  what  a 
true  Jew  gloried  in^  had  the  niarks  of  circumcision 
removed  to  avoid  being  recognized  as  Jews  in  the  baths 
or  the  gymnasium.  Jason  himself  went  so  far  as  to 
send  money  for  the  games  celebrated  at  Tyre  in  honour 
of  Hercules  (I  Mach.,  i,  11-16;  II  Mach.,  iv,  7-20). 
After  three  years  Jason  was  forced  to  yield  the  pontin- 
cate  to  Menelaus,  his  agent  with  the  king  in  money 
matters,  who  secured  the  office  by  outbidding  his  em- 
ployer. To  satisfy  his  obligations  to  the  king,  this 
man,  who  was  a  Jew  only  in  name,  appropriated  sacred 
vesseb,  and  when  the  former  high-priest  OQia&  5^^^^ 


BiAOHABEES 


494 


BfAOHABEES 


tested  against  the  sacrilege  he  procured  his  assassina- 
tion. The  following  year  Jason,  emboldened  by  a 
rumor  of  the  death  of  Antiochus,  who  was  then  war- 
ring against  Egypt,  attacked  Jerusalem  and  forced 
Menelaus  to  take  refuge  in  the  Acra.  On  hearing  of 
the  occurrence  Antiocnus  marched  against  the  city, 
massacred  many  of  the  inhabitants,  and  carried  off 
what  sacred  vessels  were  left  (I  Mach.,  i,  17-29; 
II  Mach.,  iv,  23-v,  23). 

In  168  B.  c.  Antiochus  undertook  a  second  campaign 
against  Egypt,  but  was  stopped  in  his  victorious 
progress  by  an  ultimatum  of  the  Roman  Senate.  He 
vented  his  ra^e  on  the  Jews,  and  began  a  war  of  exter- 
mination against  their  religion.  Apollonius  was  sent 
with  orders  to  hellenize  Jerusalem  by  extirpating 
the  native  population  and  by  peopling  the  city  with 
strangers.  Tlie  unsuspecting  inhabitants  were  at- 
tacked on  the  Sabbatn,  when  they  would  offer  no 
defence;  the  men  were  slaughtered,  the  women  and 
children  sold  into  slavery.  The  city  itself  was  laid 
waste  and  its  walls  demolished.  An  order  was  next 
issued  abolishing  Jewish  worship  and  forbidding  the 
observance  of  Jewish  rites  under  pain  of  death.  Ji 
heathen  altar  was  built  on  the  altar  of  holocausts. 
Tdiere  sacrifices  were  offered  to  Olympic  Jupiter,  ana 
the  temple  was  profaned  by  pagan  orgies.  Altars  were 
also  set  up  throughout  the  country  at  which  the  Jews 
were  to  sacrifice  to  the  king's  divinities.  Though 
many  conformed  to  these  orders,  the  majority  re- 
mained faithful  and  a  number  of  them  laid  down  their 
lives  rather  than  violate  the  law  of  their  fathers.  The 
Second  Book  of  Miichabees  narrates  at  length  the 
heroic  death  of  an  old  man,  named  Eleazar^  and  of 
seven  brothers  with  their  mother.  (I  Mach.,  i,  30-67; 
II  Mach.,  V,  24-vii,  41.) 

The  persecution  proved  a  blessing  in  disguise;  it 
exasperated  even  the  moderate  Hellenists,  and  pre- 
pared a  rebellion  which  freed  the  country  from  the 
corrupting  influences  of  the  extreme  Hellenist  party. 
The  standard  of  revolt  was  raised  by  Mathathias,  as 
priest  of  the  order  of  Joarib  (cf.  I  Par.,  xxiv,  7),  who 
to  avoid  the  persecution  had  fled  from  Jerusalem  to 
Modin  (now  El  Mediyeh),  near  Lydda,  with  his  five 
sons  John,  Simon,  Judas,  Eleazar  and  Jonathan. 
When  solicited  bjr  a  royal  oflScer  to  sacrifice  to  the 
sods,  with  promises  of  rich  rewards  and  of  the 
King's  favour,  he  firmly  refused,  and  when  a  Jew 
approached  the  altar  to  sacrifice,  he  slew  him  to- 
gether with  the  king's  officer,  and  destroyed  the 
altar.  He  and  his  sons  then  fled  to  the  mountains, 
where  they  were  followed  by  many  of  those  who  re- 
mained attached  to  their  religion.  Among  these  were 
the  5asldlm,  or  Assideans,  a  society  formed  to  oppose 
the  encroaching  Hellenism  by  a  scrupulous  observance 
of  traditional  customs.  Mathathias  and  his  followers 
now  overran  the  country  destroying  heathen  altars, 
circumcising  children^  driving  off  aliens  and  apostate 
Jews,  and  gathering  m  new  recruits.  He  diea,  how- 
ever, within  a  year  (166  b.  c).  At  his  death  he  ex- 
horted his  sons  to  carry  on  the  fight  for  their  religion, 
and  appointed  Judas  military  commander  with  Simon 
as  adviser.  He  was  buried  at  Modin  amid  great  lamen- 
tations (I  Mach.,  ii). 

Judas  Machabeus  {166-161  b.  c.).^— Judas  fully  jus- 
tified his  father's  choice.  In  a  first  encounter  he  de- 
feated and  killed  Apollonius,  and  shortly  after  routed 
Seron  at  Bethoron  (I  Mach.,  iii,  1-26).  Lysias,  the 
regent  during  Antiochus's  absence  in  the  East,  then 
sent  a  large  army  under  the  three  generals  Ptolemee, 
Nicanor  and  Gorgias.  Judas's  little  army  unexpect- 
edly fell  on  the  main  body  of  the  enemy  at  Emmaus 
(later  Nicopolis,  now  Amw&s)  in  the  absence  of  Gorgias, 
and  put  it  to  rout  l^efore  the  latter  could  come  to  its 
aid;  whereupon  Gorgias  took  to  flight  (I  Mach.,  iii,  27- 
iv,  25;  II  Mach.,  viii).  The  next  year  Lysias  himself 
took  the  field  with  a  still  larger  force;  but  he,  too,  was 
defeated  at  Bethsura  (not  Bethoron  as  in  the  Vulgate). 


Judas  now  occupied  Jerusalem,  though  the  Acra  still 
remained  in  l^e  hands  of  the  Sjrrians.  The  temple  was 
cleansed  and  rededicated  on  the  day  on  whfch  three 
years  before  it  had  been  profaned  (I  Mach.,  iv,  26-^81; 
II  Mach.,  X,  1-8).  During  the  breathing  time  left  to 
him  by  the  Syrians  Judas  imdertook  several  expedi- 
tions into  neighbouring  territoiy,  either  to  punish  acts 
of  aggression  or  to  bring  into  Judea  Jews  exposed  to 
danger  among  hostile  populations  (I  Mach. ,  v ;  11  Mach. , 
X,  14-38;  xii,  3-40).  After  the  death  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (164  b.  c.)  Lysias  led  two  more  expeditions 
into  Judea.  The  first  ended  with  another  defeat  at 
Bethsura,  and  with  the  granting  of  freedom  of  worship 
to  the  Jews  (II  Mach.,  xi).  In  the  second,  in  which 
Lysias  was  accompanied  by  his  ward,  Antiochus  V 
Eupator,  Judas  sunered  a  reverse  at  Bethzacharam 
(where  Eleazar  died  a  glorious  death),  and  Lysias 
laid  siege  to  Jerusalem.  Just  then  troubles  concerning 
the  regency  required  his  presence  at  home;  he  there-* 
fore  concluded  peace  on  condition  that  the  city  be  sur- 
rendered (I  Mach.,  vi,  21-63;  II  Mach.,  xiii).  As  the 
object  for  which  the  rebellion  was  begim,  had  been 
obtained,  the  Assideans  seceded  from  Judas  when 
Demetrius  I,  who  in  the  meanwhile  had  dethroned 
Antiochus  V,  installed  Alcimus,  *'a  priest  of  the  seed 
of  Aaron",  as  high-priest  (I  Mach.,  vii,  1-19).  Judas, 
however,  seeing  that  the  danger  to  religion  would 
remain  as  long  as  the  Hellenists  were  in  power,  would 
not  lay  down  his  arms  till  the  country  was  freed  of  these 
men.  Nicanor  was  sent  to  the  aid  of  Alcimus,  but  was 
twice  defeated  and  lost  his  life  in  the  second  encounter 
(I  Mach.,  vii,  20-49;  II  Mach.,  xiv,  11-xv,  37).  Judas 
now  sent  a  deputation  to  Rome  to  solicit  Roman  in- 
terference; but  before  the  senate's  warning  reached 
Demetrius,  Judas  with  only  800  men  risked  a  battle 
at  Laisa  (or  Elasa)  with  a  vastly  superior  force  under 
Baccides,  and  fell  overwhelmed  by  numbers  (I  Mach., 
viii-ix,  20).  Thus  perished  a  man  worthy  of  Israel's 
most  heroic  days.  He  was  buried  beside  his  father 
at  Modin  (161  b.  c). 

Jonathan  (161-143  b.  c). — The  handful  of  men 
who  still  remained  faithful  to  Judas's  policy  chose 
Jonathan  as  their  leader.  John  was  soon  after 
killed  by  Arabs  near  Madaba,  and  Jonathan  with  his 
little  army  escaped  the  hands  of  Bacchides  only  by 
swimming  the  Jordan.  Their  cause  seemed  hopeless. 
Gradually,  however,  the  number  of  adherents  in- 
creased and  the  Hellenists  were  again  obliged  to  caD 
for  help.  Bacchides  returned  and  oesieged  the  rebels 
in  Betnbcssen;  but  disgusted  at  his  ul  success  he 
returned  to  Syria  (I  Mach.,  ix,  213-72).  During  the 
next  four  years  Jonathan  was  practically  the  master 
of  the  country.  Then  began  a  series  of  contests  for  the 
Syrian  crown,  which  Jonathan  turned  to  such  good 
account  that  by  shrewd  diplomacy  he  obtained  more 
than  his  brother  had  been  able  to  win  by  his  general- 
ship and  his  victories.  Both  Demetrius  I  and  his  op- 
ponent Alexander  Balas,  sought  to  win  him  to  their 
side.  Jonathan  took  the  part  of  Alexander,  who  ap- 
pointed him  high-priest  and  bestowed  on  him  the 
insignia  of  a  prince.  Three  years  later,  in  reward  for 
his  services,  Alexander  conferred  on  him  both  the  civil 
and  military  authority  over  Judea  (I  Mach.,  ix,  73-x, 
66) .  In  the  conflict  between  Alexander  and  Demetrius 
II  Jonathan  a^ain  supported  Alexander,  and  in  return 
received  the  gift  of  tne  city  of  Accaron  with  its  terri- 
tory (I  Mach.,  X,  67-89).  After  the  fall  of  Alexander, 
Demetrius  summoned  Jonathan  to  Ptolemais  to  an- 
swer for  his  attack  on  the  Acra;  but  inst<*ad  of  punish- 
ing him  Demetrius  confirmed  him  in  all  his  dignities, 
and  even  granted  him  three  districts  of  Samaria. 
Jonathan  having  lent  eflRcient  aid  in  quelling  an  insur- 
rection at  Antioch,  Demetrius  promised  to  withdraw 
the  Syrian  garrison  from  the  Acra  and  other  fortified 
places  in  Judea.  As  he  failed  to  keep  his  word,  Jona- 
than went  over  to  the  party  of  Antiochus  VI,  the  son 
of  Alexander  Balas,  whose  claims  Tryphon  was  press- 


MAOHAWKM 


495 


MAOHABUS 


ing.  Jonathan  was  confirmed  in  all  his  possessions 
and  dignities,  and  Simon  appointed  commander  of  the 
seaboud.  While  giving  valuable  aid  to  Antiochus  the 
two  brothers  took  occasion  to  strengthen  their  own 
position.  Tryphon  fearing  that  Jonathan  might  inter- 
fere with  his  ambitious  plans,  treacherously  invited 
him  to  Ptolemais  and  kept  him  a  prisoner  (I  Mach.,  xi, 
19-xii,  48). 

Simon  (143-136  b.  c). — Simon  was  chosen  to  take 
the  place  of  his  captive  brother/ and  by  his  vigilance 
frustrated  Tryphon's  attempt  to  invade  Judea.  Try- 
phon in  revenge  killed  Jonathan  with  his  two  sons 
whom  Simon  had  sent  as  hostages  on  Tryphon's  prom- 
ise to  liberate  Jonathan  (I  Mach.,  xiii,  1-23).  Simon 
obtained  from  Demetrius  II  exemption  from  taxation 
and  thereby  established  the  independence  of  Judea. 
To  secure  communication  with  the  port  of  Joppe, 
which  he  had  occupied  immediately  upon  his  appoint- 
ment, he  seized  Gazara  (the  ancient  Gazer  or  Gezer) 
and  setUed  it  with  Jews.  He  also  finally  drove  the 
Syrian  garrison  out  of  the  Acra.  In  recognition  of  his 
services  the  people  decreed  that  the  hign-pricsthood 
and  the  supreme  command,  civil  and  miiitajy,  should 
be  hereditary  in  his  family.  After  five  years  of  peace 
and  prosperity  under  his  wise  rule  Judea  was  threat- 
ened by  Antiochus  VII  Sidetes,  but  his  general  Cende- 
beus  was  defeated  at  Modin  by  Judas  and  John, 
Simon's  sons.  A  few  months  later  Simon  was  mur- 
dered with  two  of  his  sons  by  his  ambitious  son-in-law 
Ptolemy  (D.  V.  Ptolemee),  and  was  buried  at  Modin 
with  his  parents  and  brothers,  over  whose  tombs  he 
had  erected  a  magnificent  monument  (I  Mach.,  xiii, 
25-xvi,  17).    After  him  the  race  quickly  degenerated. 

The  Hasmoneans. — JohnHyrcanua  {135-106  b.  c). 
— Simon's  third  son  John,  suniamed  Hyrcanus,  who 
escaped  the  assassin's  knife  through  timely  warning, 
was  recognized  as  high-priest  and  chief  of  the  nation. 
In  the  first  year  of  his  rule  Antiochus  Sidetes  Ix^ieged 
Jerusalem,  and  John  was  forced  to  capitulate  though 
under  rather  favourable  conditions.  Renewed  civil 
strife  in  Syria  enabled  John  to  enlarge  his  possessions 
by  the  conauest  of  Samaria,  Idumea,  and  fiome  terri- 
tory beyond  the  Jordan.  By  forcing  the  Idumeans  to 
accept  circumcision  he  unwittingly  opened  the  way 
for  Herod's  accession  to  the  throne.  In  his  reign  we 
first  meet  with  the  two  parties  of  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life  John  allied 
himself  with  the  latter. 

ArUtobulus  I  (106-104  b.  c). — John  left  the  civil 
power  to  his  wife  and  the  high-priesthood  to  his  oldest 
son  Aristobulus  or  Judas.  But  Aristobulus  seized  the 
reins  of  government  and  imprisoned  his  mother  wiUi 
three  of  his  brothers.  The  fourth  brother,  Anti^onus, 
he  ordered  to  be  kiUM,  in  a  fit  of  jealousy  instigated 
by  a  court  cabal.  He  was  the  first  to  assume  the  title 
King  of  the  Jews.  His  surname  ^iXAXijir  shows  his 
Hellenistic  proclivities. 

Alexander  JannoBus  (104-78  b.  c). — Aristobulus 
was  succeeded  by  the  oldest  of  his  imprisoned  broth- 
ers, Alexander  Jannseus  (Jonathan).  Though  gener- 
ally unfortunate  in  his  wars,  he  managed  to  acquire 
new  territory,  including  the  coast  towns  except  Asca- 
lon.  His  reign  was  marred  by  a  bloody  feud  with  the 
Pharisees. 

The  Last  Machabees  (78-37  b.  c). — Alexander  be- 
queathed the  government  to  his  wife  Alexandra  Sa- 
lome, and  the  high-priesthood  to  his  son  Hvrcanus  II. 
She  ruled  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  Phari- 
sees. At  her  death  (69  b.  c.)  civil  war  broke  out  be- 
tween Hyrcanus  II  and  his  brother  Aristobulus  II. 
This  brought  on  Roman  interference  and  loss  of  inde- 
pendence (63  b.  r.).  Hyrcanus,  whom  the  Romans 
recognized  as  ethnarch,  was  ruler  only  in  name.  Aris- 
tohulus  wa.s  poisoned  in  Rome  by  the  adherents  of 
i'ompey,  and  his  son  Alexander  was  l)cheaded  at  An- 
tioch  by  order  of  Pompey  himself  (49  b.  c).  Antigo- 
nus,  the  son  of  Aristobulus,  was  made  king  by  tae 


Parthians;  but  the  next  year  he  was  defeated  by  Herod 
with  the  aid  of  the  Romans,  and  beheaded  at  Antioch 
(37  B.C.).  With  him  ended  the  rule  of  the  Machabees. 
Herod  successively  murdered  (a)  Aristobulus  III,  the 
grandson  of  both  Aristobulus  II  and  Hyrcanus  II 
through  the  marriage  of  Alexander,  the  son  of  the 
former,  with  Alexandra,  the  daughter  of  the  latter 
(35  B.  c);  (b)  Hyrcanus  II  (30  b.  c.)  and  his  daughter 
Alexandra  (28  b.  c);  (c)  Marianme,  the  sister  of  Aris- 
tobulus III  (29  B.  c);  and  lastly  his  own  two  sons  by 
Mariamne,  Alexander  and  Aristobulus  (7  b.  c).  In 
this  manner  the  line  of  the  Machabees  became  extinct. 

JosBPHUA,  Antxq.,  XII,  v-XV,  vii;  XVI,  iv.  x,  xi;  ScbOrer, 
Hist.  oftheJevcuhPeopU,  I  (New  York,  1801).  i,  186  eq.;  GrAti, 
Hitl.  of  the  Jews,  I  (Philadelphia,  1891),  435  sq.:  II.  i  sol;  ^tan- 
x^T,  Lectures  on  the  Hist,  of  the  JewMi  Church,  III  (London* 
1876);  DE  Qavucy,  Hist,  des  MachaMes  (PariB.  1880);  Derbn- 
BOURO,  Hist,  de  la  Palestine  (Paria,  1867);  Wbllhausen,  Isradir 
Hsche  undJudischeOeschichU  (Berlin,  1894) ;  ChjRTiss,  The  Name 
Machabees  (Leipaig,  1876). 

F.  Bechtel. 

Machabees,  The  Books  of. — ^The  title  of  four 
books,  of  which  the  first  and  second  only  are  regarded 
by  the  Church  as  canonical;  the  third  and  fourth,  as 
Protestants  consider  aU  four,  are  apocryphal.  The 
first  two  have  been  so  named  because  they  treat  of  the 
history  of  the  tebellion  of  the  Machabees,  the  fourth 
because  it  speaks  of  the  Machabee  martyrs.  The 
third,  which  has  no  connexion  whatever  with  the 
Machabee  period,  no  doubt  owes  its  name  to  the  fact 
that  like  tne  others  it  treats  of  a  persecution  of  the 
Jews.  For  the  canonicity  of  I  and  II  Mach.  see  Canon 
OF  THE  Holy  Scriptures. 

The  First  Book  of  Machabees  (MaKKafiaTuw  A; 
Liber  Primus  Machabajorum)  .—Contente. — ^The  First 
Book  of  the  Machabees  is  a  history  of  the  struggle  of 
the  Jewish  people  for  religious  and  political  libertv 
under  the  leadership  of  the  Machabee  family,  with 
Judas  Machalx)us  as  the  central  figure.  After  a 
brief  introduction  (i,  1-9)  explaining  how  the  Jews 
came  to  pass  from  the  Persian  domination  to  that  of 
the  Seleucids,  it  relates  the  causes  of  the  rising  under 
Mathathias  and  the  details  of  the  revolt  up  to  his 
death  (i.  10-ii) ;  the  glorious  deeds  and  heroic  death  of 
Judas  Machabeus  (iii-ix,  22) ;  the  story  of  the  success- 
ful leadership  of  Jonathan  (ix,  23-xii),  and  of  the  wise 
administration  of  Simon  (xiii-xyi,  17).  It  concludes 
(xvi,  18-24)  with  a  brief  mention  of  the  difficulties 
attending  the  accession  of  John  Hvrcanus  and  with  a 
short  summary  of  his  reign  (see  Machabees,  The). 
The  book  thus  covers  the  period  between  the  years 
175  and  135  b.  c. 

Character. — ^The  narrative  both  in  style  and  manner 
is  modelled  on  the  earlier  historical  books  of  the  Okl 
Testament.  The  style  is  usually  simple,  ^et  at  times 
becomes  eloquent  and  even  poetic,  as.  for  instance,  in 
Mathathias's  lament  over  the  woes  ot  the  people  and 
the  profanation  of  the  Temple  (ii,  7-13),  or  in  the  eu^ 
logy  of  Judas  Machabeus  Tiii,  1-9),  or  again  in  the 
description  of  the  peace  ana  prosperity  of  the  people 
after  the  long  years  of  war  and  suffenng  (xiv,  4-15). 
The  tone  is  calm  and  objective,  the  author  as  a  rule 
abstaining  from  any  direct  comment  on  the  facts  he  is 
narrating.  The  more  important  events  are  carefidbr 
dated  according  to  the  Seieucid  era.  which  began  with 
the  autunm  of  312  b.  c.  It  should  be  noted,  however, 
that  the  author  begins  the  year  with  spring  (the  month 
Nisan),  whereas  the  author  of  II  Mach.  begins  it  with 
autumn  (the  month  Tishri).  By  reason  of  this  differ- 
ence some  of  the  events  are  dated  a  year  later  in  the 
second  tlian  in  the  first  book.  (Cf .  Patrizzi,  "  De  Coi^ 
sensu  Utriusque  Libri  Mach.",  27  sq.;  Schurer, "  Hist, 
of  the  Je\^'i8h  People  ",  I,  i,  36  sq.) 

Original  Langxtaae. — ^The  text  from  which  all  trans- 
lations have  been  derived  is  the  Greek  of  the  Septua- 
gint.  But  there  is  little  doubt  tliat  the  Septua^nt  is 
itself  a  translation  of  a  Hebrew  or  Aramaic  onginal, 
with  the  probabilities  in  favour  of  Hebrew.   Not  onl^ 


ICA0HABSE8 


496 


MA0HABF,F.8 


Ib  the  structure  of  the  sentences  decidedly  Hebrew  (or 
Aramaic),  but  manv  words  and  exp^ressions  occur 
wlidch  are  literal  renderings  of  Hebrew  idioms  (e.  g.,  i, 
4,  15,  16,  44;  ii,  19,  42.  48;  v,  37,  40;  etc.).  These 
peculiarities  can  scarcely  be  explained  by  assuming 
that  the  writer  was  little  versed  in  Greek,  for  a  number 
of  instances  show  that  he  was  acquainted  with  the 
niceties  of  the  language.  Besides,  there  are  inexact 
expressions  and  obscurities  which  can  be  explained 
only  in  the  supposition  of  an  imperfect  translation  or  a 
misreading  of  a  Hebrew  original  (e.  g.,  i,  16, 28;  iv,  19. 
24;  xi,  28;  xiv,  5).  The  internal  evidence  is  confirmea 
by  the  testimony  of  St.  Jerome  and  of  Origen.  The 
former  writes  that  he  saw  the  book  in  Hebrew: "  Machr 
absBorum  primiun  librum  Hebraicum  repjeri"  (Prol. 
Galeat.) .  As  there  is  no  ground  for  assuming  that  St. 
Jerome  refers  to  a  translation,  and  as  he  is  not  likely 
to  have  applied  the  term  Hebrew  to  an  Aramaic  text, 
his  testimony  tells  strongly  in  favour  of  a  Hebrew  as 
against  an  Aramaic  original.  Origen  states  (Eusebius, 
"  Hist.  EccL",  vi,  25)  that  the  title  of  the  book  was 
Sarbeth  Sarbane  el  (Sap/3^  Xappavi  A),  or  more  cor- 
rectly Sarbeth  Sabanaiel  (2.  2o/3a wiiA) .  Though  the 
meaning  of  this  title  is  uncertain  (a  number  of  differ- 
ent explanations  have  been  proposed,  especially  of  the 
first  reading),  it  is  plainly  either  Hebrew  or  Aramaic. 
The  fragment  of  a  Hebrew  text  published  by'Chwolson 
in  1896,  and  later  again  by  Schweitzer,  has  little  claim 
to  be  considered  as  part  of  the  original. 

Author  and  Date  of  Composition. — No  data  can  be 
found  eitlrer  in  the  book  itself  or  in  later  writers 
which  would  give  us  a  clue  as  to  the  person  of  the  author. 
Names  have  indeed  been  mentioned,  but  on  ground- 
less conjecture.  That  he  was  a  native  of  Palestine  is 
evident  from  the  language  in  which  he  wrote,  and 
from  the  thorough  knowledge  of  the  geography  of 
Palestine  which  he  possessed.  Although  he  rarely 
expresses  his  own  sentiments,  the  spirit  pervading  his 
work  is  proof  that  he  was  deeply  religious,  zealous  for 
the  Law,  and  thoroughly  in  sympathy  with  the  Mach- 
abean  movement  and  its  leaders.  However,  strange 
to  say.  he  studiously  avoids  the  use  of  the  words 
"  God '^ -and  "Lord'^  (that  is  in  the  better  Greek 
text;  in  the  ordinary  text  "God"  is  found  once,  and 
"Lord"  ihree  times;  in  the  Vulgate  both  occur  re- 
peatedly) ;  but  this  is  probably  due  to  reverence  for 
the  Divme  names,  Jahweh  and  Adonai,  since  he  often 
uses  the  equivalents  "heaven",  "Thou",  or  "He". 
There  is  absolutely  no  ground  for  the  opinion,  main- 
tained by  some  modem  scholars,  that  he  was  a  Sad- 
ducee.  He  does  not,  it  is  true,  mention  the  unworthy 
hi^-priests,  Jason  and  Menelaus;  but  as  he  mentions 
the  no  less  imworthy  Alcimus,  and  that  in  the  severest 
terms,  it  cannot  be  said  that  he  wishes  to  spare  the 
priestly  class. 

The  last  verses  show  that  the  book  cannot  have 
been  written  till  some  time  after  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  John  Hyrcanus  (135-105  b.  c),  for  they  men- 
tion his  accession  and  some  of  the  acts  of  his  adminis- 
tration. The  latest  possible  date  is  genersdly  ad- 
mitted to  be  prior  to  63  b.  c,  the  year  of  the  occupation 
of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey;  but  there  is  some  difFerenqe 
in  fixing  the  approximately  exact  date.  Whether  it 
can  be  placed  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Hyrcanus  de- 
pends on  the  meaning  of  the  concluding  verse,  "  Be- 
nbld  these  [the  Acts  of  Hyrcanus]  are  written  in  the 
book  of  the  days  of  his  priesthood,  from  the  time 
(^  oO,  "ex  quo")  that  he  was  made  high  priest  after 
his  father".  Many  understand  it  to  indicate  that 
Hyrcanus  was  then  still  alive,  and  this  seems  to  be  the 
more  natural  meaning.  Others,  however,  take  it  to 
imply  that  Hyrcanus  was  already  dead.  In  this 
latter  supposition  the  composition  of  the  work  must 
have  followed  close  upon  the  death  of  that  ruler.  For 
not  only  does  the  ^nvid  character  of  the  narrative  sug- 
gest an  early  period  after  the  events,  but  the  absence 
of  even  the  slightest  allusion  to  events  later  than  the 


death  of  Hyrcanus,  and,  in  particular,  to  the  conduefc 
of  his  two  successors  which  aroused  popular  hatred 
against  the  Machabees,  makes  a  much  later  date  im- 
probable. The  date  would,  therefore,  in  any  case,  be 
within  the  last  years  of  the  second  century  b.  c. 

Historicity, — In  the  eighteenth  century  the  two 
brothers  E.  F.  and  G.  Wemsdorf  made  an  attempt  to 
discredit  I  Mach.,  but  with  little  success.  Mc^em 
scholars  ol  all  schools,  even  the  most  extreme,  admit 
that  the  book  is  a  historical  document  of  the  highest 
value.  "With  regard  to  the  historical  value  of  I 
Blach.",  says  CormU  (Einl.,  3ni  ed.,  265),  "there  is  but 
one  voice;  in  it  we  possess  a* source  of  the  very  first 
order,  an  absolutely  reliable  account  of  one  of  the 
most  important  epochs  in  the  history  of  the  Jewish 
people."  The  accuracy  of  a  few  minor  details  con- 
cerning fordgn  nations  has,  however,  been  denied. 
The  author  is  mistaken,  it  is  said,  when  he  states  that 
Alexander  the  Great  divided  his  empire  among  his 
generals  (i,  7),  or  when  he  speaks  of  tne  Spartans  as 
akin  to  the  Jews  (xii,  6, 7, 21) ;  he  is  inexact  in  several 
particulars  regarding  the  Romans  (viii,  1  sq.);  he 
exaggerates  the  numbers  of  elephants  at  the  battle  of 
Magnesia  (viii,  6),  and  some  other  numbers  (e.  g.,  v, 
34;  vi,  30, 37;  xi,  45, 48).  But  the  author  cannot  be 
charged  with  whatever  inaccuracies  or  exaggerations 
may  be  contained  in  viii,  1-16.  He  there  merely  sets 
down  the  reports,  inexact  and  exaggerated,  no  doubt, 
in  some  particulars,  which  had  reached  Judas  Macha- 
beus.  The  same  is  true  with  regard  to  the  statement 
concerning  the  kinship  of  the  Spartans  with  the  Jews. 
The  author  merely  reproduces  the  letter  of  Jonathan 
to  the  Spartans,  and  that  written  to  the  high-priest 
Onias  I  by  Arius. 

When  a  writer  simply  reports  the  words  of  others,  an 
error  can  be  laid  to  ms  cnarge  only  when  he  repro- 
duces their  statements  inaccurately.  TTie  assertion 
that  Alexander  divided  his  empire  among  his  generals 
{to  be  understood  in  the  light  of  w.  9  and  10,  where  it 
is  said  that  they  "  made  fAemseZves  kings  .  .  .  and  put 
crowns  on  themselves  after  his  death"),  cannot  be 
shown  to  be  erroneous.  Quintus  Curtius,  who  is  the 
authority  for  the  contrary  view,  acknowledges  that 
there  were  writers  who  believed  that  Alexander 
made  a  division  of  the  provinces  by  his  will.  As  the 
author  of  I  Mach.  is  a  careful  historian  and  wrote  about 
a  century  and  a  half  before  Q.  Curtius,  he  would  de- 
serve more  credit  than  the  latter,  even  if  he  were  not 
supported  by  other  writers.  As  to  the  exaggeration  of 
numbers  in  some  instances,  in  so  far  as  they  are  not 
errors  of  copyists,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
ancient  authors,  both  sacred  and  profane,  frequently 
do  not  give  absolute  figures,  but  estimated  or  popu- 
larly current  numbers.  Exact  numbers  cannot  be  rea- 
sonablv  expected  in  an  account  of  a  popular  insurrec- 
tion, like  that  of  Antioch  (xi,45,48),  because  they  could 
not  be  ascertained.  Now  the  same  was  often  the  case 
with  regard  to  the  strength  of  the  enemy's  forces 
and  of  the  number  of  the  enemy  slain  in  battle.  A 
modifying  clause,  such  as  "it  is  reported",  must  be 
supplied  in  these  cases. 

Sources. — ^That  the  author  used  written  sources  to  a 
certain  extent  is  witnessed  by  the  documents  which 
he  cites  (viii,  23-32;  x,  3-6,  18-20,  25-45;  xi,  30-37; 
xii,  6-23;  etc.).  But  there  is  little  doubt  that  he  also 
derived  most  of  the  other  matter  from  written  records 
of  the  events,  oral  tradition  being  insufficient  to  ac- 
count for  the  many  and  minute  detaib.  There  is 
every  reason  to  beheve  that  such  records  existed  for 
the  Acts  of  Jonathan  and  Simon  as  well  as  for  those  of 
Judas  (ix,  22),  and  of  John  Hyrcanus  (xvi,  23-24). 
For  the  last  part  he  may  also  liave  relied  on  the  re- 
miniscenses  of  older  contemporaries,  or  even  drawn 
upon  his  own. 

Greek  Text  and  Ancient  Versions. — ^The  Greek  trans- 
lation was  probably  made  soon  after  the  book  was 
written.    The  text  is  found  in  three  uncial  codices, 


MAOHABCTft                           497  MAOHABXIS 

namely  the  Sinaiticus,  the  Alexandrinus,  and  the  events  of  the  period  with  which  he  is  dealing.  He 
Venetus,  and  in  sixteen  cursive  MSS.  The  iexttia  recep^  writes  history  with  a  view  to  instruction  and  edifica* 
tus  is  that  of  the  Sixtine  edition,  derived  from  the  Co-  tion.  His  first  object  is  to  exalt  the  Temple  of  Jeni- 
dex  Venetus  and  some  cursives.  The  best  editions  are  salem  as  the  centre  of  Jewish  worship.  Tnis  appears 
those  of  Fritzsche  ("  Libri  Apocryphi  V.  T.",  Leipzig,  from  the  pains  he  takes  to  extol  on  every  occasion  its 
1871,  203  sq.)  and  of  Swete  ("O.  T.  in  Greek",  Cam-  dignity  and  sanctity.  It  is  "the  great  temple"  (ii. 
bridge,  1905,  IIL  694  sq.),  both  based  on  the  Cod.  20),  "the  most  renowned"  and  "the  most  holv  in  all 
Alexandrinus.  The  old  Latin  version  in  the  Vulgate  the  world"  (ii,  23;  v,  15),  "the  great  and  holy  tern- 
is  that  of  the  Itala,  probably  unretouched  by  St.  pie"  (xiv,  31);  even  heathen  princes  esteemed  it 
Jerome.  Part  of  a  still  older  version,  or  rather  recen-  worthy  of  honour  and  glorified  it  with  great  gifts  (iii, 
sion  (chap,  i-xiii),  was  published  by  Sabatier  (Biblior.  2-3;  v,  16;  xiii,  23) ;  the  concern  of  the  Jews  in  time 
Sacror.  lAtinse  Versiones  Antique,  II,  1017  sq.),  the  of  danger  was  more  for  the  holiness  of  the  Temple  than 
complete  text  of  which  was  recently  discovered  in  a  for  their  wives  and  children  (xv,  18) ;  God  protects  it 
MSo.  at  Madrid.  Two  ^yriac  versions  are  extant:  by  miraculous  interp>o8itions  (iii,  xiv,  31  scj.),  and 
that  of  the  Peshitto,  which  follows  the  Greek  text  of  punishes  those  guilty  of  sacrilege  against  it  (iii,  24  sq.: 
the  Lucian  recension,  and  another  published  by  Cer-  ix,  16;  xiii,  6-8;  xiv,  31  sq.;  xv,  32) ;  if  He  has  allowed 
iani  ("Translatio  Syra  photolithographice  edita",  it  to  be  profaned,  it  was  because  of  the  sins  of  the 
Milan,  1876,  592-615),  which  reproduces  the  ordinary  Jews  (v,  17-20).  It  is,  no  doubt,  with  this  design  that 
Greek  text.  the  two  letters,  which  otherwise  have  no  connexion 

The  Second  Book  of  Machabees  (Mo/c/cojSatlwi'  B;  with  the  book,  were  prefixed  to  it.    The  author  appar- 

Liber  Secundus   Machabseorum).  —  Contents, — The  ently  intended  his  work  specially  for  the  Jews  of  the 

Second   Book  of  Machabees  is  not,  as  the  name  Dispersion,  and  more  particularly  for  those  of  Egypt, 

might  suggest,  a  continuation  of  the  First,  but  coy-  where  a  schismatical  temple  had  been  erected  at  Leon- 

ers  part  of  the  same  ground.    The  book  proper  (ii,  topolis  about  160  b.c.   The  second  object  of  the  author 

20-xv,  40)  is  preceded  by  two  letters  of  the  Jews  of  is  to  exhort  the  Jews  to  faithfulness  to  the  Law,  by 

Jerusalem  to  tneir  Egyptian  coreligionists  (i,  1-ii,  19) .  impressing  upon  them  that  God  is  still  mindful  of  His 

The  first  (i,  1-lOa),  dated  in  the  year  188  of  the  Seleu-  covenant,  and  that  He  does  not  abandon  them  unless 

cid  era  (i.  e.  124  b.  c),  beyond  expressions  of  good-  they  first  abandon  Him;  the  tribulations  they  endure 

will  and  an  allusion  to  a  former  letter,  contains  noth-  are  a  punishment  for  their  unfaithfulness,  and  will 

ing  but  an  invitation  to  the  Jews  of  Egypt  to  celebrate  cease  when  they  repent  (iv,  17;  v,  17,  19;  vi,  13,  15, 

the  feast  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Temple  (instituted  16;  vii,  32,  33,  37,  38;  viii,  5,  36;  xiv,  15;  xv,  23,  24). 

to  commemorate  its  rededication,  I  Mach.,  iv,  59;  II  To  the  difference  of  object  corresponds  a  difference  in 

Mach.,  X,  8).    The  second  (i,  lOb-ii,  19),  whicn  is  un-  tone  and  method.    The  author  is  not  satisfied  with 

dated,  is  from  the  "  senate"  (yepovala)  and  Judas  (Mach-  merely  relating  facts,  but  freely  comments  on  persons 

abeus)  to  Aristobulus,  the  preceptor  or  counsellor  of  and  acts,  distributing  praise  or  blame  as  they  may 

Ptolemy  (D.V.Ptolemee)(Philometor),  and  to  the  Jews*  deserve  when  judged  from  the  standpoint  of  a  true 

in  Egypt.    It  informs  the  Eg^'ptian  Jews  of  the  death  Israelite.    Supernatural  intervention  m  favour  of  the 

of  Ant  iochus  ( Epiphanes)  while  attempting  to  rob  the  Jews  is  em  phasized .  The  style  is  rhetorical,  the  dates  are 

temple  of  Nanea^  and  invites  them  to  join  their  Pales-  comparatively  few.   As  has  been  remarked,  the  chron* 

tinian  brethren  in  celebrating  the  feasts  of  the  Dedi-  ology  of  II  Mach.  slightly  differs  from  that  of  I  Mach. 

cation  and  of  the  Recovery  of  the  Sacred  Fire.    The  Author  and  Date. — II  Mach.  is,  as  has  been  said,  an 

story  of  the  recovery  of  the  sacred  fire  is  then  told,  and  epitome  of  a  larger  work  by  a  certain  Jason  of  Cyrene. 

in  connexion  with  it  the  story  of  the  hiding  bv  the  Nothing  further  is  known  of  this  Jason  except  that, 

Prophet  Jeremias  of  the  tabernacle,  the  ark  and  the  al-  judging  from  his  exact  geographical  knowledge,  he 

tar  of  incense.  After  an  offer  to  send  copies  of  the  books  must  have  lived  for  some  time  in  Palestine.    The 

which  Judas  had  collected  after  the  example  of  Nehe-  author  of  the  epitome  is  unknown.    From  the  promi- 

mias,  it  repeats  the  invitation  to  celebrate  the  two  nence  which  he  gives  to  the  doctrine  of  the  resurreo- 

feasts,  and  concludes  with  the  hope  that  the  dispersed  tion  of  the  dead,  it  has  been  inferred  that  he  was  a 

of  Israel  might  soon  be  gathered  together  in  the  Holy  Pharisee.    Some  have  even  maintained  that  his  book 

Land.  was  a  Pharisaical  partisan  writing.    This  last,  at  ilnv 

The  book  itself  begins  with  an  elaborate  preface  rate,  is  a  baseless  assertion.    II  Mach.  does  not  spetuc 

(ii,  20-33)  in  which  the  author  after  mentioning  that  his  more  severely  of  Alcimus  than  I  Mach.,  and  the  fact 

work  is  an  epitome  of  the  larger  history  in  five  books  of  that  it  mentions  the  high-priests,  Jason  and  Menelaus, 

Jason  of  Cyrene  states  his  motive  in  writing  the  book,  by  name  no  more  proves  it  to  be  a  Pharisaic  partisan 

and  comments  on  the  respective  duties  of  the  historian  writing,  than  the  omission  of  their  names  in  I  Mach. 

and  of  the  epitomizer.    The  first  part  of  the  book  (iii-  proves  that  to  be  a  Sadducee  production.     Jason  must 

iv,  6)  relates  the  attempt  of  Heliodorus,  prime  minis-  nave  finished  his  work  shortly  after  the  death  of  Ni« 

ter  of  Seleucus  IV  (187-175  b.  c),  to  rob  the  treasures  canor,  and  before  disaster  overtook  Judas  Machabeus, 

of  the  Temple  at  the  instigation  of  a  certain  Simon,  as  he  not  only  omits  to  allude  to  that  hero's  death,  but 

and  the  troubles  caused  by  this  latter  individual  makes  the  statement,  which  would  be  palpably  false  if 

to  Onias  III.    The  rest  of  the  book  is  the  history  he  had  written  later,  that  after  the  death  of  Nicanor 

of  the  Machabean  rebellion  down  to  the  death  of  Jerusalem  always  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 

Nicanor  (161  b.  c),  and  therefore  corresponds  to  I  Jews  (xv,  38).    The  epitome  cannot  have  been  written 

Mach.^  i,  11-vii,  50.    Section  iv,  7-x,  9,  deals  with  earlier  than  the  date  of  the  first  letter,  that  is  124  B.C. 

the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (I  Mach.,  i,  11-vi,  As  to  the  exact  date  there  is  great  divergence.  In  the 

16),  while  section  x,  10-xv,  37,  records  the  events  of  very  probable  supposition  that  the  first  letter  was  sent 

the  reigns  of  Antiochus  Eupator  and  Demetrius  I  with  a  copy  of  the  book,  the  latter  would  be  of  about 

(I  Mach.,  vi,  17- vii,  50).    II  Mach.  thus  covers  a  the  same  date.     It  cannot  in  any  case  be  very  much 

period  of  only  fifteen  years,  from  176  to  161  B.  c.   But  later,  since  the  demand  for  an  abridged  form  of  Jason'i 

while  the  field  is  narrower,  the  narrative  is  much  more  history,  to  which  the  author  alludes  in  the  preface  (ii, 

copious  in  details  than  I  Mach.,  and  furnishes  many  .  25-26),  must  have  arisen  within  a  reasonably  short 

particulars,  for  instance,  names  of  persons,  which  are  time  after  the  publication  of  that  work.    The  second 

not  found  in  the  first  book.                ^  letter  must  have  been  written  soon  after  the  death  of 

Object  and  Character. — On  comparing  the  two  Books  Antiochus,  before  the  exact  circumstances  concerning 

of  Machabees  it  is  plainly  seen  tiiat  the  author  of  the  it  had  become  known  in  Jerusalem,  therefore  about 

Second  does  not,  like  the  author  of  the  First,  write  163  b.  c.     That  the  Antiochus   there  mentioned  ia 

history  merely  to  acquaint  his  readers  with  the  stining  Antiochus  IV  and  not  Antiochus  II I « as  msja.^  C^^k^sScaL 

IX.--32 


yAOHABgWB                         498  MAfiFABKKft 

commentators  maintain,  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  his  the  events  grouped  together  in  chap,  v  took  place  in 

death  is  related  in  connexion  with  the  celebration  of  rapid  succession;  (3)  The  two  accounts  of  the  aeath  of 

the  Feast  of  the  Dedication,  and  that  he  is  represented  Antiochus  Epiphanes  differ,  it  is  true,  but  l^ey  fit  very 

as  an  enemy  of  the  Jews,  which  is  not  true  of  Anti-  well  into  one  another.    Omsidering  the  chiUBCter  of 

ochus  III.  Antiochus  and  the  condition  he  was  in  at  the  time,  it 

'  Original  Language. — ^The  two  letters  which  were  ad-  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the 

dressed  to  the  Jews  of  Eg^t.  who  knew  little  or  no  Jews;  (4)  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  in  spite  of 

Hebrew  or  Aramaic,  were  m  all  probability  written  in  the  rhetorical  form  ihe  story  of  the  martyrdoms  is 

Greek.    That  the  book  itself  was  composed  in  the  substantiallv  correct.    As  the  place  where  they  oc- 

same  language,  is  evident  from  the   style,  as  St.  curred  is  unknown,  it  is  hard  to  see  on  what  nt>undtiie 

Jerome  already  remarked  (Prol.  Gal.).    Hebraisms  presence  of  Antiochus  is  denied     It  should  be  noted, 

are  fewer  than  would  be  expected  considering  the  sub-  moreover,  that  the  book  betrays  accurate  knowl- 

ject,  whereas  Greek  id ioms  and  Greek  constructions  are  edge  in  a  multitude  of  small  details,  and  that  it  is  often 

very  numerous.     Jason's  Hellenistic  origin,  and  the  supported  by  Josephus,  who  was  imacouainted  with  it. 

absence  in  the  epitome  of  all  signs  that  would  mark  it  Even  its  detractors  admit  that  the  earlier  portion  is  of 

as  a  translation,  are  sufficient  to  show  that  he  also  the  greatest  value,  and  that  in  all  that  relates  to  Syria 

wrote  in  Greek.  its  knowledge  is  extensive  and  minute.   Hence  it  is  not 

Historicity. — ^The  Second   Book  of  Machabees  is  likely  that  it  would  be  guilty  of  the  gross  errors  im- 

much  less  thought  of  as  a  historical  document  by  non-  puted  to  it. 

Catholic  scholars  than  the  First,  though  Niese  has  Authenticity  of  the  Two  Letters, — ^Although  these  let- 
recently  come  out  strongly  in  its  defence.  The  objec-  ters  have  a  clear  bearing  on  the  purpose  of  the  book, 
tions  brought  against  the  two  letters  need  not,  how-  they  have  been  declared  to  be  palpable  forgeries, 
ever,  concern  us,  except  in  so  far  as  they  affect  their  Nothing,  however,  justifies  such  an  opinion.  The  glar- 
authenticity,  of  which  nereafter.  These  letters  are  on  ing  contradiction  in  the  first  letter,  which  represents 
the  same  footing  as  the  other  documents  cited  in  I  and  the  climax  of  affliction  as  having  been  experienced 
II  Mach.;  the  author  is  therefore  not  responsible  for  under  Demetrius  II,  has  no  existence.  The  letter  does 
the  truth  of  their  contents.  We  may,  then,  admit  that  not  compare  the  sufferings  under  Demetrius  with  those 
the  story  of  the  sacred  fire,  as  well  as  that  of  the  hiding  of  the  past,  but  speaks  of  the  whole  period  of  affliction 
of  the  tabernacle,  etc.,  is  a  pure  legend,  and  that  the  including  the  time  of  Demetrius.  The  legend  of  the 
account  of  the  death  of  Antiochus  as  given  in  the  sec-  sacred  fire  etc.,  proves  nothing  against  the  genuine- 
ond  letter  is  historically  false;  the  author's  credit  as  a  ness  of  the  second  letter,  imless  it  be  shown  that  no 
historian  will  not  in  the  least  be  diminished  thereby,  such  legend  existed  at  the  time.  The  false  account  of 
Some  recent  Catholic  scholars  have  thoueht  that  the  death  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  is  rather  a  proof  in 
errors  could  also  be  admitted  in  the  book  itself  without  favour  of  the  authenticity  of  the  letter.  Such  an  ac- 
casting  any  discredit  on  the  epitomizer,  inasmuch  as  count  would  be  quite  natural  if  the  letter  was  written 
the  latter  declines  to  assume  responsibility  for  the  soon  after  the  first  news,  exaggerated  and  distorted  as 
exact  truth  of  all  its  contents.  But  though  this  view  first  news  often  is,  had  reached  Jerusalem.  There 
may  find  some  support  in  the  Vulgate  (ii,  29),  it  is  remains  only  the  so-called  blunder  of  attributing  the 
hardly  countenanced  by  the  Greek  text.  Besides,  building  of  the  Temple  to  Nehemias.  The  very  im- 
there  is  no  need  to  have  recourse  to  a  theory  which,  probability  of  such  a  gross  blunder  on  the  part  of  an 
while  absolving  the  author  from  formal  error,  would  educated  Jew  (the  supposed  forger)  should  have  made 
admit  real  inaccuracies  in  the  book,  and  so  lessen  its  the  critics  pause.  Nenemias  put  the  last  touches  to 
historical  value.  The  difficulties  urged  against  it  are  the  Temple  (II  Esdr.,  ii,  8;  Josephus,  *'  Antiq.",  XI,  v, 
not  such  as  to  defy  satisfactory  explanation.  Some  6)  which  justifies  the  use  of  olicodofi^ffat.  Codex  125 
are  based  on  a  false  interpretation  of  the  text,  as  when,  (Mosquensis)  reads  olKoyofii/j<rat  "having  ordered  the 
for  instance,  it  is  credited  with  the  statement  that  service  of  the  temple  and  altar";  this  would  remove 
Demetrius  landed  in  Syria  with  a  mighty  host  and  a  all  difficulty  (cf.  II  Esdr.,  x,  32  sq.;  xiii  sqq.). 
fleet  (xiv,  1),  and  is  thus  placed  in  opposition  to  I  Greek  Text  and  Versions. — ^The  Greek  text  is  usually 
Mach.,  vii,  1,  where  he  is  said  to  have  landed  with  a  found  in  the  same  MSS.  as  I  Mach.;  it  is  wanting,  how- 
few  men.  Others  are  due  to  subjective  impressions,  ever,  in  the  Cod.  Sinaiticus.  The  Latin  version  in  the 
as  when  the  supernatural  apparitions  are  called  into  Vulgate  is  that  of  the  Itala.    An  older  version  was 

Question.     The  exaggeration  of  numbers  has  been  published  by  Peyron  and  again  by  Ceriani  from  the 

ealt  with  in  connexion  with  I  Mach.  Codex  Ambrosianus.    A  third  Latin  text  is  found  in 

The  following  are  the  main  objections  with  some  real  the  Madrid  MSS.  which  contains  an  old  version  of  I 

foimdation :  (1)  The  campaign  of  Lysias,  which  I  Mach.,  Mach.    The  Syriac  version  is  often  a  paraphrase  rather 

iv,  26-34,  places  in  the  last  year  of  Antiochus  Epi-  than  a  translation. 

phanes,  is  transferred  in  II  Mach.,  xi,  to  the  reign  of  The  Thibd  and  Fourth  Books  of  Machabees.-;— 

Antiochus  Eupator;  (2)  The  Jewish  raids  on  neigh-  III  Mach.  is  the  story  of  a  persecution  of  the  Jews  in 

bouring  tribes  and  the  expeditions  into  Galilee  and  Egypt  under  Ptolemy  IV  Philopator  (222-205  b.  c), 

Galaadj  represented  in  I  Mach.,  v,  as  carried  on  in  rapid  and  therefore  has  no  right  to  its  title.    Though  the 

succession  after  the  rededication  of  the  temple,  are  work  contains  much  that  is  historical,  the  story  is  a 

separated  in  1 1  Mach.  and  placed  in  a  different  histori-  fiction.     IV  Mach.  is  a  Jewish-Stoic  philosophical 

cal  setting  (viii,  30;  x,  15-38;  xii,  10-45);  (3)  The  treatise  on  the  supremacy  of  pious  reason,  that  is  reli- 

account  given  in  II  Mach.,  ix,  differs  from  that  of  I  gious  principles,  over  the  passions.    The  martyrdom 

l^ch.,  vi,  regarding  the  death  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  of  Eleazar  and  of  the  seven  brothers  (II  Mach.,  vi,  18- 

who  is  falsely  declared  to  have  written  a  letter  to  the  vii)  is  introduced  to  illustrate  the  author's  thesis. 

Jews;  (4)  The  picture  of  the  martyrdoms  in  vi,  18-vii,  Neither  book  has  any  claim  to  canonicity,  though  the 

is  highly  coloured,  and  it  is  improbable  that  Antiochus  furst  for  a  while  received  favourable  consideration  in 

was  present  at  them.  some  Churches. 

To  these  objections  it  may  be  briefly  answered:  q^^^  g^ec.  Introd.,  I  (New  York.  1901).  365  sq.;  Cornelt. 

(1)  The  campaign  spoken  of  m  II  Mach.,  xi,  is  not  the  Jntrod.,  II  (Paris,  1897),  i,  440  sq.;  Knabenbaubr,  Comm.  in 

same  as  that  related  in  I  Mach.,  iv;    (2)  The  events  ^.  Mach.  (Paris,  1907);  Patrimi,  De  Conaenau  Vtnuaq.Lib. 

mentioned  m  ^hi,^^0  and  x,  15  sq.  are  not  nairated  j^^  Mach.  (Vienna.  1746);   Khell.  Auctontas  UtnuJq.  Lib. 

la  I  Mach.,  v.     Before  the  expedition  into  Galaad  (XU,  Mach.  (Vienna,  1749);    Herkknne,  Die  Briefe  zu  Beqinn  dea 

10  sq.)  can  be  said  to  be  out  of  its  proper  historical  ^^,^,}f^^°^J^^^*  (Freibure,  1904);  Gillkt.  ^fMa- 

R/»ffin<y     it   wnnUl    ImvA   fr»   h<»   nrnvrvl    fhnf    T    lUa^h  cAofi^ers  (Pans,  1880);  BEURUERin  K^. />ic<.  rff?/a  BiWf,  I\  ,  488 

betting    It  ^on\<\  nave  to  De  provou  tnat  l  Macn.  .    LESfeTRE.  Jntrod.,  II  (Paris,  1890);    Vigouroux.  Man. 

mvanably  adheres  to  chronological  order,  and  that  BibL,  II  (Paris,  1899),  217  aq.;  Idem,  La  BibU  el  la  Critupf 


MacHALE                             499  MaoBJOM 

slytising  Kil- 

^^ ^ ^^  ^ ^ ^  ^^  ^^  *,.«„„,  Government 

kr5ik''der  Mden'ifaASaMi^^  unjustifiably  gave  countenance.    He  also  attended  the 

KungefiufUsExM.Handbuchzu  den  A^  annual  meeting  of  the  Irish  bishops,  and  gave  evi- 

a^'-d&iP^:  '&  ^EiSS?-  ^.1sSS^.^.^)f^  denoe  at  .Maynopth  CpUege  .before  t^he  Parliamentary 

AjwkrvphmtmdP»eudepi(raphende9  A.  T.iTQhb^S^,  1900).  Comnussioners  then  mquirmg  mto  the  condition  of 

F.  Bechtel.  education  in  Ireland. 

About  this  time  he  also  revised  a  theological  manual 

MacHato,  John,  b.  6  March,  1791,  at  Tubbema-  "On  the  Evidences  and  Doctrines  of  the  Catholic 
vine,  Co.  Mayo,  Ireland;  d.  at  Tuam,  4  November,  Church",  afterwards  translated  into  German.  With 
1881.  He  was  so  feeble  at  his  birth  that  he  was  his  friend  and  ally,  Daniel  O'Connell,  MacHale  took  a 
baptized  at  home  by  Father  Conroy,  who,  six  vears  prominent  part  in  the  important  question  of  Catholic 
later,  was  unjustly  hanged  during  the  Irish  Rebellion.  Emancipation,  impeaching  in  unmeasured  terms  the 
Thou^  Irish  was  always  spoken  by  the  peasants  at  severities  of  the  penal  code,  which  branded  Catholics 
that  time,  the  MacHale  children  were  all  taught  Eng-  with  the  stamp  of  inferiority.  During  1826  his  zeal 
hsh.  When  he  was  old  enough  John  ran  barefoot  with  was  omnipresent;  "he  spoke  to  the  people  in  secret 
his  brothers  to  the  hedge-school,  then  the  sole  means  and  in  public,  by  night  and  by  day,  on  tne  highways 
of  instruction  for  Catholic  peasant  children,  who  on  and  in  places  of  public  resort,  calling  up  the  memories 
fine  days  conned  their  lessons  in  a  dry  ditch  under  a  of  the  past,  denouncing  the  wrongs  of  the  present,  and 
hedge,  and  in  wet  weather  were  gathered  into  a  rough  promising  imperishable  rewards  to  those  who  should 
bam.  John  was  an  eager  pupil,  and  listened  atten-  die  in  their  struggle  for  the  faith.  He  called  on  the 
tively  to  lives  of  saints,  le^nds,  national  songs,  and  Government  to  remember  how  the  Union  was  carried 
historical  tales,  related  oy  his  elders,  as  well  as  to  the  by  Mr.  Pitt  on  the  distinct  assurance  and  implied 
accounts  of  the  French  Revolution  given  by  an  eye-  promise  that  Catholic  Emancipation,  which  had  oeen 
witness,  Ws  uncle.  Father  MacHale,  who  had  just  denied  by  the  Irish  Parliament,  should  be  granted  by 
escaped  from  France.  Three  important  events  hap-  the  Parliament  of  the  Empire"  (Burke,  "The  History 
pen^  during  John's  sixth  vear:  the  Irish  Rebellion  of  of  the  Catholic  Archbishops  of  Tuam"). 
1798;  the  landing  at  Killala  of  French  troops,  whom  In  two  letters  written  to  the  prime  minister.  Earl 
the  boy,  hidden  in  a  stacked  sheaf  of  flax,  watched  Grey,  he  described  the  distress  occasioned  by  starva* 
marching  through  a  mountain  pass  to  Castlebar;  and  a  tion  and  fever  in  Connaught,  the  ruin  of  the  linen 
few  months  later  the  brutal  execution  of  Father  Con-  trade,  the  vestry  tax  for  the  benefit  of  Protestant 
roy  on  a  false  charge  of  high  treason.  These  occur-  churches,  the  tithes  to  the  Protestant  clergj%  which 
rences  made  an  indelible  impression  upon  the  child's  Catholics  were  obliged  to  pay  as  well  as  their  Protest- 
singularly  acute  mind.  After  school  hours  he  betook  ant  countrymen,  the  exorbitant  rents  exacted  by  ab- 
himself  to  the  study  of  Irish  history,  imder  the  guid-  sentee  landlords,  and  the  crying  abuse  of  forcing  the 
ance  of  an  excellent  old  scholar  in  the  neighbourhood,  peasantry  to  buy  seed-corn  and  seed-potatoes  from 
Being  destined  for  the  priesthood  the  boy  was  sent  to  landlords  and  agents  at  usurious  charges.  No  atten- 
a  school  at  Castlebar  to  learn  Latin,  Greek,  and  Eng-  tion  was  vouchsafed  to  these  letters.  Dr.  MacHale 
lish  grammar.  In  his  sixteenth  year  the  Bishop  of  accompanied  to  London  a  deputation  of  Mayo  gentle* 
Killala  gave  him  a  bursarship  in  the  ecclesiastical  men,  who  received  only  meaningless  assurances  from 
college  at  Maynooth.  Earl  Grey,    After  witnessing  the  coronation  of  Wil- 

The  emigrant  French  priests  who  then  taught  at  liam  PV  at  Westminster  Abbey,  the  bishop,  requiring 
Maynooth,  appreciated  the  linguistic  aptitude  of  the  change  of  air  on  account  of  ill-health,  went  on  to  Home, 
young  man  and  taught  him  not  only  French,  but  also  but  not  before  he  had  addressed  to  the  premier  an- 
Latin,  Greek,  Italian,  German,  Hebrew,  and  the  Eng-  other  letter  informing  him  that  the  scarcity  in  Ireland 
lish  classics.  After  seven  years  of  hard  work,  having  "  ¥Cis  a  famine  in  the  midst  of  plenty,  the  oats  being 
acquired  a  profound  knowledge  of  theology,  he  wasap-  exported,  to  pay  rents,  tithes,  etc.,  and  that  the  Eng* 
pomted  in  1814  lecturer  in  that  science,  altnough  only  lish  people  were  actually  sencQng  back  in  charity  what 
a  sub-deacon.  Before  the  end  of  the  year,  however,  had  grown  originally  on  Irish  soil  plus  freightage  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  he  was  ordained  apriest  by  insurance".  It  may  be  observed  that  Dr.  MacHale 
Dr.  Murray,  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  Father  MacHale  never  blamed  the  English  people,  whose  generosity  he 
continued  his  lectures  at  Maynooth  until  1820,  when  he  ever  acknowledged.  On  the  other  hand  he  severely 
was  nominated  professor  of  theology.  He  was  much  condemned  the  Government  for  its  incapacity,  its  in- 
esteemed  by  his  students,  whom  he  strove  to  render  as  difference  to  the  wrongs  of  Ireland,  that  aroused  ia  the 
zealous,  earnest,  and  sincere  as  himself,  and  he  never  Irish  peasantry  a  suUen  hatred  unknown  to  their  more 
failed  to  give  them  very  practical  advice  about  their  simple-mindea  forefathers.  During  an  absence  of  six- 
duties  and  studies.                               ^  teen  months  he  wrote  excellent  descriptive  letters  of 

Dr.  MacHale  was  then  above  medium  height,  of  all  he  saw  on  the  Continent.  They  were  eagerly  read 
rather  an  athletic  figure.  Dignified  and  reservea  in  in  "The  Freeman's  Journal",  while  the  sermons  he 
demeanour,  his  simple  unassuining  manners  and  at-  preached  in  Rome  were  so  admired  that  they  were 
tractive  conversation  procured  him  many  admirers,  in-  translated  into  Italian.  Amid  the  varied  interests  <^ 
cluding'the  Duke  of  Leinster,  who  often  invited  him  to  the  Eternal  City  he  was  ever  mindful  of  Ireland's  woes 
Carton,  where  he  had  frequent  opportunities  of  meet-  and  forwarded  thence  another  protest  to  Earl  Grey 
ing  men  capable  of  appreciating  his  intellect  and  char-  against  tithes,  eess,  and  proselytism,  this  last  grievance 
acter.  About  this  period  he  commenced  a  series  of  being  then  rampant,  particularly  in  Western  C<m* 
letters  signed  "  Hierophilus  ",  vigorously  attacking  ^e  naught.  On  his  return  he  became  an  opponent  of  the 
Irish  Established  Church.  They  attracted  the  notice  proposed  system  of  National  Schools,  fearing  that  the 
of  Daniel  O'Connell  and  led  to  a  very  sincere  friendslup  oill  as  originally  framed,  was  an  insidious  attempt  to 
between  these  two  Irish  patriots.  In  1825,  Leo  XII  weaken  the  faith  of  Irish  cl^ldren. 
appointed  him  Bishop  of  Maronia,  inpartibus,  and  Dr.  Kelly,  Archbishop  of  'Tuam,  died  in  1834,  and 
coadjutor  to  Dr.  Waldron,  Bishop  of  lullala.  After  the  clergy  selected  Dr.  MacHale  as  one  of  three  candi« 
his  consecration  in  Maynooth  College  chapel,  the  new  dates,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  Government  who  de- 
prelate,  who  was  wamuy  received  by  Dr.  Waldron  and  spatcned  agents  to  induce  the  pope  not  to  nominate 
nis  people,  devoted  himself  to  his  sacred  duties.  He  tne  Bishop  of  Maronia  to  the  vacant  see.  Gregorv 
preached  Irish  and  English  sennons,  and  superizi-  XVI  dryly  remarked  "  that  ever  since  the  Relief  BiU 
tended  the  missions  given  in  the  diocese  for  the  Jubi-  had  passed,  the  English  Government  never  failed  to 
lee  of  1825.   The  next  year  Dr.  MacHale  joined  Bishop  intenere  about  every  appointment  as  it  fell  v^sso^!* 


MacHALE  500  MacHALS 

(Greville, "  Memoirs  ",  pt.  II).    Disregarding  their  re*  sry  children  and  people  too  weak  and  infirm  to  seek 

quest,  the  pope  appointed  Dr.  MacHale  Archbishop  of  for  food  in  Tuani.    The  enormous  donations  sent  to 

Tuam.    He  was  the  first  prelate  since  the  Reforma-  him  were  punctiliously  acknowledged,  accounted  for, 

tion,  who  had  received  his  entire  education  in  Ireland,  and  promptly  disbursed  by  his  cleigy  amon^  the  vio* 

The  corrupt  practices  of  general  parliamentary  eleo-  tims  of  fever  and  famine.   The  death  of  Daniel  O'CJon- 

tions  and  the  Tithe  war  caused  frequent  rioting  and  nell  (1847)  was  a  deep  sorrow  to  Dr.  MacHale.    He 

bloodshed,  and  were  the  subjects  of  no  little  denuncia-  was  also  much  grieved  at  the  dissensions  of  the  Re- 

tion  by  the  new  archbishop,  imtil  matters  were  tardily  Dealers,  and  the  violent  tactics  of  the  Young  Ireland 

settled  by  the  passing  of  a  Tithes  Bill  in  1838.    In  rarty,  who  would  not  listen  to  his  wise  and  patriotic 

spite  of  the  labours  of  his  diocese,  which  he  always  advice.    In  1848,  he  visited  Rome  and  by  his  represent 

zealously  fulfilled,  Archbishop  MacHale  now  began  in  tatious  to  Pius  IX  inflicted  a  deadly  blow  upOn  the 

the  newspapers  a  series  of  open  letters  to  the  Govern-  Queen's  Colleges.    He  also  succeeded  in  preventing 

ment,  whereby  he  frequently  harassed  the  ministers  diplomatic  intercourse  between  the  British  Govem- 

into  activity  in  Irish  affairs.    During  the  Autumn  of  ment  and  Rome.   The  Synod  of  Thurles,  held  in  1850, 

1835,  he  visited  the  Island  of  Aehill,  a  stronghold  of  emphasized  the  different  views  entertained  by  the 

the  Bible  Readers.    In  order  to  offset  their  prosely-  hierarchy  respecting  the  education  question.   On  that 

tism.   he  sent  thither  more  priests  and  Franciscan  occasion  Dr.  MacHale  strongly  protested  against  giv- 

monks  of  the  Third  Order.    Although  Dr.  MacHale  ing  any  countenance  te  a  mixed  system  of  education 

had  strong  views  as  to  the  proper  relief  of  the  poor  and  already  condemned  by  the  pope.    During  the  recru- 

the  education  of  youth^  he  condemned  the  Poor  Law,  descence  of  "No  Popery"  in  1851,  on  the  occasion  of 

and  the  system  of  National  Schools  and  Queen's  Col-  the  re-establishment  of  the  English  Catholic  hierarchy, 

leges  as  devised  by  the  Government.    He  founded  his  and  the  passing  of  an  intelerant  Ecclesiastical  Titles 

own  schools,  entrusting  those  for  boys  to  the  Christian  Bill  that  inflicted  penalties  upon  any  Roman  Catholic 

Brothers  and  Franciscan  monks,   while  Sisters  of  prelate  who  assumed  the  title  of  his  see,  Dr.  MacHale 

Mercy  and  Presentation  Nuns  taught  the  girls.    But  boldly  signed  his  letters  to  Government  on  this  sub- 

the  want  of  funds  naturally  restricted  the  number  of  ject  "John,  Archbishop  of  Tuam'\    This  act  of  defi- 

these  schools  which  had  to  be  supplemented  by  the  ance  so  startled  the  Cabinet  that  it  was  considered 

National  Board  at  a  later  period,  when  the  necessary  more  prudent  not  to  attempt  a  prosecution  and  to 

amendments  had  been  added  to  the  Bill.  allow  the  Bill  to  remain  a  dead  letter. 

The  Repeal  of  the  Union,  advocated  by  Daniel  As  to  the  Catholic  University,  though  Dr.  MacHale 
O'Connell,  enlisted  his  ardent  sympathy  and  he  as-  had  been  foremost  in  advocating  the  project,  he  dis- 
sistod  the  Liberator  in  many  ways,  and  remitted  agreed  completely  with  Dr.  Cullen,  Archbishop  of 
subscriptions  from  his  priests  for  this  purpose.  We  Dublin  (afterward  Cardinal),  concerning  its  manage- 
are  told  by  his  biographer  O'Reilly,  that  Uke  his  ment  and  control,  and  the  appointment  of  Dr.  New- 
friend,  the  prelate  ''was  for  a  thorough  and  universal  man  as  rector.  The  want  of  concord  among  the  Irish 
organisation  of  Irishmen  in  a  movement  for  obtaining  bishops  on  this  question,  and  the  honest  but  totally 
by  legal  and  peaceful  agitation  the  restoration  of  Ire-  wrong  opinions  of  Dr.  MacHale,  handicapped  the  new 
iMid's  legislative  independence  ".  The  Charitable  Be-  university.  The  archbishop  approved  of  Tenant  Right 
queste  Bill,  formerly  productive  of  numerous  lawsuits  and  also  of  the  Irish  Tenant  League.  He  wrote  to 
owing  to  its  animus  against  donations  to  religious  O'Connell's  son  that  it  **  was  the  assertion  of  the  prim- 
orders,  was  vehemently  opposed  by  the  archbi^op.  ibive  right  of  man  to  enjoy  in  security  and  peace  the 
In  this  he  differed  consideraoly  from  some  other  Irish  fruit  oi  his  industry  and  labour".  At  a  conference 
prelates,  who  thought  that  each  bishop  should  exer-  held  in  Dublin,  men  of  all  creeds  supported  his  views 
cise  his  own  judgment  as  to  his  acceptance  of  a  com-  on  "  fixity  of  tenure,  free  sale,  and  fair  rent''.  Though 
missionership  on  the  Board,  or  as  regarded  the  partial  it  is  impossible  to  relate  all  the  events  of  a  life  which 
application  of  the  Act.  The  latter  has  since  then  been  the  "  Freeman's  Journal  *'  described  as  the  history  of 
so  amended,  that  in  its  present  form  it  is  quite  favour-  Ireland  for  the  greater  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
able  to  Catholic  charities  and  the  Catholic  poor.  In  enough  has  been  written  to  show  how  by  pen,  word, 
his  zeal  for  the  cause  of  the  Catholic  religion  and  of  and  deed,  "the  Lion  of  Juda''  endeavourea  to  benefit 
Ireland,  so  long  down-trodden.  Dr.  MacHale  fre-  his  covmtry.  Toward  the  end  of  his  life  he  withdrew 
quently  incurred  from  his  opponents  the  charge  of  very  much  from  active  poUtics,  though  he  was  happy 
intemperate  language,  something  not  altogether  un-  enough  to  live  to  see  tne  dawn  of  more  prosperous 
deserved.    He  did  not  possess  that  suavity  of  manner  days  for  Ireland. 

which  is  so  invaluable  to  leaders  of  men  and  public  Notwithstanding  his  very  advanced  years,  Dr.  Mac- 
opinion,  and  so  he  alarmed  or  offended  others.  In  his  Hale  attended  the  Vatican  Council  in  1869.  With 
anxiety  to  reform  abuses  and  to  secure  the  welfare  of  several  distinguished  prelates  of  various  nationalities, 
Ireland,  by  an  uncompromising  and  impetuous  zeal,  he  thought  that  the  favourable  moment  had  not  ar- 
he  made  many  bitter  and  unrelenting  enemies.  This  rived  for  an  immediate  definition  of  the  dogma  of 
was  particularly  true  of  British  ministers  and  their  papal  infallibility;  consequently,  he  spoke  and  voted 
supporters,  by  whom  he  was  dubbed  "a  firebrand",  in  the  council  against  its  promulgation.  Once  the 
and  "a  dangerous  demagogue".  Cardinal  Bamabd,  dogma  had  been  defined,  Dr.  MacHale  instantly  sub- 
Prefect  of  Propaganda,  who  had  serious  disagreements  mitted  his  judgment  to  the  Holy  See,  and  in  his  own 
with  Dr.  MacHale,  declared  he  was  a  twice-dyed  Irish-  cathedral  he  declared  the  dogma  of  infallibility  '*  to 
man,  a  good  man  ever  insisting  on  getting  his  own  way.  be  true  Catholic  doctrine,  which  he  believed  as  he 
This  excessive  inflexibility,  not  suflSciently  tempered  believed  the  Apostles'  Creed",  a  public  profession 
by  prudence,  explains  his  more  or  less  stormy  career,  that  further  raised  John  of  Tuam  in  the  estimation  of 

During  the  calamitous  famine  of  1846-47,  nothing  all  who  admired  his  great  genius  and  virtue.    In  1877, 

could  exceed  his  ener^  and  activity  on  behalf  of  the  to  the  disappointment  of  the  archbishop  who  desired 

afflicted  people.  He  vainly  warned  the  Government  as  that  his  nephew  should  be  his  co-adjutor.  Dr.  Mc- 

to  the  awful  state  of  Ireland,  reproached  them  for  their  Evilly,  Bishop  of  Galway,  was  electee!  by  the  clergy 

dilatoriness  in  coming  to  the  rescue,  and  held  up  the  of  the  archdiocese,  and  was  commanded  by  Leo  XIII 

uselessness  of  relief  works  expended  on  high  roaas  in-  after  some  delay,  to  assume  his  post.    Although  the 

stead  of  on  quays  and  piers  to  develop  the  sea  fisheries,  aged  prelate  haa  opposed  this  election  as  far  as  possi- 

From  England  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  world,  car-  ble,  he  submitted  to  the  papal  order,  without  protest  or 

goes  of  food  were  sent  to  the  starving  Irish.    Bread  resentment.    In  private  life  Dr.  MacHale  never  wasted 

and  soup  were  distributed  from  the  archbishop's  own  time,  for  he  was  always  employed  in  study,  business 

kitehen,  and  he  drove  about  regularly  to  relieve  hun«  and  prayer.    He  was  noted  for  his  charity  to  the  poor. 


HAOHUTILU  .<] 

his  Hirict  fulfilment  of  every  sarrcfl  iluly,iu)it  llie  uffcc- 
tioiiute  considerat  ion  and  hoBpitality  uver  displayed  U>- 
wardB  his  clcrg^'.  His  intense  n^-ipect  for  Baucnlotal 
difRiitynnidercdliimslowto  reprimand,  though  tic  was 
iiiflexinle  in  matters  of  faithaiid  principle.  Eveiy  Sun- 
day he  preached  a  sormon  in  Iriah  at  the  cathedral, 
and  during  his  dioeenaii  visitations  lie  alwa^'s  ad- 
drpiwcd  the  poor  people  in  their  native  tongue.  On 
jounieya  he  usually  conversed  in  Irish  with  his  atten- 
dant chaplain,  anil  never  addresxcl  in  any  other 
tongue  the  poor  people  of  Tuam  or  the  l)cKgar8  who 
greeted  him  whenever  he  went  out.  He  always  en- 
eourajn'd  the  preservation  of  the  Irish  langiiagp,  and 
compiicl  in  it  a  catechism  and  a  praycr-l)ook.  More- 
over, he  made  translations  int«  Irish  of  portioiis  of  the 
Holy  Seriptures  as  well  as  the  magnificent  Latin 
hymns,  "Dies  Inn"  and  "Staliat  Mater".  He  trans- 
lated into  Irish  Moore's  "Melodies"  and  Honier'M 
"  Iliad".  In  the  preface  to  his  translation  of  the  first 
bonk  of  Iha  "Iliad"  he 
wrote  that  "there  is  no 
European  tongue  Ijetter 
adnptnd  than  ours  (Irish) 
to  a  full  or  perfect  version 
of  HomiT".  The^p  Irish 
works  of  Dr.  M.^IInlc  ex- 
cited ihesinccn'  admiral  ion 
of  all  Celtic  scholars  wlio 
were  alile  to  appreiiate the 
I  leaul  y  of  h  is  c  lasficn  1  ( ioel  ie. 
He  celehrateil  the  golden 
jubilee  of  his  episcopacv  in 
- —      The    vcnerahli.   old 


liv 


d     for   !< 


ng  his 
usual  mmlc  of  life  an  for  oh 
hi.t  strength  piTmiltcd  and 
niuking  the  visitations i if  liin 
diiK-esc.  He  prcach<-d  lii.-t 
last  Irisli  sermon  after  his 
Sunday  Uoss.  April,  IKXt 
Heilii-dartrr  a  short  illness, 
ntid  is  buried  in  Tuaru  Ca- 
thedral. 

0'Reii,ly.  Lifir  «!  John  .»■ 
Halt.    ArrkhMop   «/  Tuam.    _ 
viiIh.  (Nxw  Yiirk):  Moork  in  Dul. 
Xat.  Biaa.. ».  v.;  Bubku,  Ltti  of 
Ihe   IMIulir.  Arehbi^hap,  «l 


Hachianlli,  XicoLb,  historian  and  sintcsnian, 
li.  lit  Florence,  .1  Moy,  UOfl;  d.  there.  22  June,  1627. 
Ilisfnmily  is  Kjiid  to  have  lieen  descended  from  the  dd 
niiirquesses  of  Tuscany,  and  tii  hiive  diven  Florence 
thirteen  fonfalunien  of  instiee.  His  fat  Iter,  Bemanio, 
was  n.  Ia»-j-cr,  and  acted  as  treasurer  of  the  Marches, 
liul  W!iM  far  from  wealthy.  Of  Nieol'I's  studies  we 
only  know  that  he  was  a  pupil  ot  Mareello  Vireilio. 
In  UftS  he  was  elected  secretary  ot  the  Lower  (^an- 
ciTy  of  I  he  Signorv,  and  in  later  j-oars  he  heW  the 
name  pn«t  under  the  Ten.  Thus  it  chanced  that  tor 
fiuirteen  years  l»e  had  cbar0>  ot  the  home  and  foreign 
eiirrcspondencc  of  the  republic,  the  registration  ot 
triids,  the  keening  of  the  miniiles  of  the  couneiU.  and 
the  dnifting  di  agreements  with  other  states.  Mote- 
over  he  Wiis  sent  in  various  cnpacilies  to  one  or  other 
lucidity  within  the  Stale  of  Tuscany,  and  on  twenty- 
tliriH,'  occasions  he  acted  as  legate  on  important  em- 
iKissies  to  foreign  princes,  e.  g.  to  Catherine  Sforsa 
(1499),  to  France  (1500,  1510,  1511),  to  the  emperor 


II  HAOHIAVKLU 

(1507, 1509),  to  Rome  (1.">0:{,  1500),  to  C.-esnr  llorgb 
(1502),  to  (iian  I'aohi  Buglione  at  I'erugiu,  to  the 
Petrucei  at  t^iena,  and  to  Piomhino.  On  these  em- 
bassies he  gave  evidence  of  wonderful  keenness  of  ob- 
Ber^'ntioa  and  insight  into  the  hidden  thoughts  of  tlie 
men  he  was  denhiig  with,  r.ither  than  ot  any  great 
diplomatic  skill,  .\fter  the  defeat  of  France  in  Italy 
(1512)  the  Medici  once  motv  olitained  conirol  m 
Florence;  the  secretary  was  dismissed  ami  exih-d  tor 
one  year  from  the  citv.  On  the  discovery  ot  the 
Capponi  and  Bnsc<ili  plot  against  Cardinal  (.liovanni 
de  Medici,  Mitchiavclu  was  aceu-sed  as  an  accomplice, 
and  tortureil,  hut  he  was  set  free  when  the  eaitlinai 
beciime  Pope  Leo  X.     Thereupon  Iw  retired  to  wniie 

Eroperty  he  had  at  Slni<la  near  ,San  Casciano,  when 
e  gave  himself  up  to  the  study  lA  the  classics,  espe- 
ciidly  Livy,  and  to  the  writing  of  his  political  and 
literary  histories.  Both  I^eo  X  and  Clement  VII 
sought  his  advice  in  pulitic:d  matters,  and  he  was 
ofteu  employed  on  partic- 
ular missions  affecting 
matters  of  state,  as,  for  in- 
stance, when  he  was  sent  to 
Francesco  Guiccardini,  the 
pupal  leader  in  the  Koma- 
gna  and  general  of  the  army 
of  the  League,  concerning 
I  he  fort  ifica  lion  of  Florence, 
lie  maile  vain  efforta  t« 
secure  a  public  post  under 
the  Mciliei,  bemif  ready 
even  to  s.icrifiee  lus  politi- 
cal opinions  for  the  purpose. 
He  returned  home  after  the 
sack  of  Home  (12  May, 
l.')27)  when  the  power  ai 
the  Mediei  had  I>een  once 
more  overthrown,  but  his 
old  political  pnriy  turned 
^igiiinsl  him  as  one  who 
fiiwneil    on    tyrant.s.       He 


Miu'l 


attern 
velli":- 


■ilii 


-llhl-r 


foUowiiig 

...  -ich  goes 
from  Ihefall  of  iJicKrupirR 
to  1402,  deilicaledloClem- 
eiil  VII,  al  whose  tequest  it 
hiid  lieen  written.  "IJescri- 
ziniie  del  modo  tcnuto  dal 
ihica  Valentino  nclloanunas- 
VitelloKito  \'itelli.  elc."; '"  Vila  di  Castruccio  Ca»- 

ine ';  "Diseiiniisopni  la  prima  decstdi  Tito  Livio"; 

Uescrisione  drlla  jiestc  di  FirenEC  dell'  anno  1527"; 
to  this  group  belong  uUo  his  letters  from  his  embassies 
us  well  us  hw  min<ir  writings  concerning  the  afTaira  of 
Pisa,  Lucca,  France,  (iemiany.  Political: — "II  Prin- 
cipe", "Discorso  sopra  il  KiEormarv  lo  Stato  di  Fi- 
ren«e";  " Deirartc  della  guemi",  and  other  military 
works.  lAtfTaTij: — "Dialogo  sulle  linguo";  five 
comedies:  "Mnndragola";  "Cliiiu";  a  eoniedy  in 
prose;  "The  Antlria"  of  Terence,  a  translation;  a 
comedy  in  verse;  "  I  Decennaii"  (a  metrical  history 
of  theyears  H9.^i-1504):  "Pell'  Asinod'oro",  writin(^ 
on  moral  subjects;  'La  sereiiata";  "Canti  Camas- 
eialeschi";  anovel,  ''Belfagor",  etc. 

Machiavelli's  eliaraeter  as  a  man  and  a.  writer  has 
been  widely  disousseil,  and  on  Iwh  heads  his  merits 
and  dements  have  been  exuggerati-d,  but  in  such  a 
way  that  his  demerits  have  iireponderatcd  to  tlie  det- 
riment of  his  mctnury.  MachiavellLsni  has  I>6eoine 
synonymous  with  trcaeliery,  intrigue,  subterfuge,  and 
tyranny.  It  has  been  ei-en  siiirl  that  "  Old  Kick",  the 
popular  name  of  the  Devil  among  Ancl()-Sason  races, 
derives  its  origin  from  that  <if  Nicolo  Machiavelli. 
This  dubious  fame  he  haawao,U-j  'NaV«»j*.'<s*i'-'iTa» 


MAOHttua  m 

dpe",  and  the  theories  therein  esploil«d  were  further 
eUborated  in  his  "Discorsi  aopra  Livio".  To  under- 
stand the  "  I'riiicipe"  ri^t  it  must  be  borne  in  miod  that 
tlie  work  ia  Dot  a  treatise  on  foreign  politics.  It  aims 
solely  at  examining  how  a  kingdom  may  be  best  built 
upandeatabliabed;  nor  is  it  a  mere  abstract  diacuBaion, 
but  it  Is  carried  oa  in  the  light  of  on  ideal  long  held  by 
Machiavelli,  that  a  United  Italy  waa  poesible,  and  in 
the  last  chapter  of  tiie  work  he  exhorta  the  Medici  of 
Florence  (Giuliano  and  Lorenzo]  to  its  reaJination. 
Hia  aim  was  to  point  out  the  beat  way  for  bringing  it 
about;  he  did  not  deal  with  abstract  principles  and 
arguments,  but  collected  examples  from  classical  an- 
tiquity and  from  recent  events,  especially  from  the 
career  of  CKsar  Borgia.  80  that  the  "  Principe"  is  a 
political  tract  with  a  definite  aim  and  intended  for  a 
particular  locality.  To  gain  the  end  in  view  results 
are  to  be  the  only  criteria  of  the  methods  employed, 
and  even  the  teach- 
ings of  the  moral 
law  must  give  way 
to  secure  the  end 
in  view.  Good 
faith,  clemency, 
and     moderation 


boa 


e.  Flop 


,  but  he 
teaches  thai  the 
interests  of  the 
atate  are  above 
all  individuiil  vir- 
tues. These  vir- 
tues may  be  use- 
ful, and  when  tbey 
arc  a  prince  ought 
to  exercise  them, 
but  more  often  in 
dealing  with  an 
opponent  they  are 
a  nindranoe,  not  in 
themselves,  but 
by  reason  of  the 
crookedness  (rf 
others. 


Whosoever  would  prevail  against  the  treacheiy, 
crime,  and  cruelty  of  others,  must  himself  be  before- 
hand in  misleading  and  deceiving  his  opponent  and 
even  in  getting  rid  of  him,  as  Cssar  Borgia  had  done. 
WUle  on  the  other  hand  Gian  Paolo  Ba^ione  made  a 
tniatoke,  by  omitting  to  imprison  or  put  to  death 
Julius  II,  in  I50S,  on  the  occasion  of  his  unprotected 
entry  to  Perugia  {Discorsi  aopra  Livio,  I,  xxvii). 
Again,  a  prince  must  keep  clear  of  crime  not  only  when 
it  is  hurtful  to  his  interests  but  when  it  is  useless.  He 
should  try  to  win  the  love  of  hia  aubjecta,  by  aimulat- 
icg  virtue  if  he  doea  not  possess  it;  he  ought  to  en- 
courage trade  so  that  his  people,  busied  in  getting  rich, 
may  have  no  time  for  politics;  he  ought  to  show  con- 
cern for  religion,  because  it  is  a  potent  means  for  keep- 
ing his  people  submissive  and  obedient.  Such  is  the 
general  teaching  of  the  "Principe",  which  has  been 
often  refuted.  As  a  theory  Machiavellisra  may  per- 
haps be  called  an  innovation ;  but  as  a  practice  it  is  as 
on  as  political  society.  It  was  a  most  immoral  work, 
in  that  it  cuts  politics  adrift  from  all  morality,  and  it 
was  rightly  put  on  the  Index  in  1559.  It  is  worth 
noting  that  the  "  Principe"  with  its  glorification  of 
■bsolutism  is  totallv  opposed  to  its  author's  ideas  of 
democracy,  which  led  to  his  ruin.  To  explain  the 
difficulty  It  is  not  necess.iry  to  claim  that  the  book  is  a 
satire,  nor  that  it  is  evidence  of  how  easily  the  writer 
could  change  his  political  views  provided  he  could 
itand  well  with  the  Medici.  Much  as  Machiavelli 
loved  liberty  and  Florence  he  dreamed  of  a  "larger 
Italy"  of  the  Italians.  As  a  practical  man  he  saw  ttot 
his  (Ireara  could  be  realized  only  through  a  prince  of 
eharacter  and  energy  who  would  walk  in  the  steps  of 


CECsar  Borgia,  and  be  conceded  that  the  individual 


when  be  deals  with  what  happened  under  his  eyes  at 
the  various  embaasies;  but  it  should  be  remen^>ered 
that  he  gives  everything  a  more  or  less  unconscious 


what  he  had  heard  or  read,  and  serves  to  explain  the 
discrepancies  in  the  letters  he  wrot«  during  his  em- 
bassies to  Cffisar  Borgia,  the  "DescriEione",  etc.,  the 
ideal  picture  he  drew  S  affairs  in  Germany,  and  his  life 
of  Castruccio  Castracane,  which  is  rather  an  historical 
romance  modelled  on  the  character  of  Agathocles  in 
Plutarch.  He  knew  nothing  of  historic^  criticism, 
yet  he  showed  how  events  in  history  move  in  obedience 
to  certain  general  laws;  and  this  is  his  great  merit  as 
an  historian.  His  natural  bent  was  politics,  but  in  his 
dealings  with  mihtary  matters  he  showed  such  skill  as 
would  amaze  us  even  if  we  did  not  know  be  had  never 
been  a  soldier.  He  recognized  that  to  be  strong  a 
state  must  have  its  standing  army,  and  he  upholds  uiis 
not  only  in  the  "  Principe"  and  the  "Discorsi'i  but  ia 
his  vanous  military  writings.  The  broad  and  stable 
laws  of  military  tactics  he  lays  down  in  masleriy 
fashion ;  yet  it  is  curious  to  note  that  he  lays  no  great 
stress  on  firearma. 

His  style  is  always  clear  and  crisp  and  his  reasomng 
close  and  onierly.  What  poetry  he  has  left  gives  no 
proof  of  poetic  talent;  rather,  the  comedies  are  clever 
and  successful  as  compositions  and  only  too  often  bear 
undisguised  traces  of  the  moral  laxity  of  the  author 
(this  is  shown  also  in  hia  letters  to  his  friends)  and  of 
the  a^  in  which  he  lived.  His  "  Mandragola"  and 
"Cli«ia"  are  notlung  more  or  less  than  pochades  and 
lose  no  opportunity  of  acorinif  against  religion.  Machia- 
velli did  not  disguise  his  dislike  for  Chriatianity  which 
bjr  exalting  humility,  meekness,  and  patience  had,  he 
said,  weakened  the  social  and  patriotic  instincts  of 
moiJrind.  Hence,  he  mocked  at  Savonarola  though 
he  waa  the  saviour  of  democracy,  and  he  had  a  special 
dislike  for  the  Holy  See  as  a  temporal  power,  as  he  saw 
in  it  the  greatest  obstacle  to  ItaUan  unity;  to  use  bis 
own  expression,  it  was  too  weak  to  control  the  whole 
peninsula,  but  too  strong  to  allow  of  any  other  state 
bringing  about  unity.  This  explains  why  he  has  no 
words  of  praise  for  Julius  II  and  his  Italian  policy.  It 
was  merely  as  an  opportunist  that  he  courted  the 
favour  of  Leo  X  and  Clement  VII.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  death  came  bis  way  he  remembered  that 
he  was  a  Christian  and  be  died  a  Christian  death, 
though  his  life,  habits,  and  ideals  "bad  been  pagan, 
and  himself  a  typical  representative  of  the  Itt^an 


E  MlLlMBSI 


Maahiautlli,  ed.  FAaaEWNi  F*nf 

^    ols,,  Florence,  1873-771;  Tl<r  WorkiofNie 

Faithfullii  Englulicd  (Laodon.  1685);  Lrltrre  famigliari.  ed. 
Alvibi  (FlorEDce,  1SS3):  NlTa.Mati/iiavelli  neUa  vUa  e  ndU 
ofurt  (Naples.  1878);  VitLABi,  MocfcinnrfJi  and  Au  Tima  (tr. 
London,  18B21 ;  Hanke,  Znr  Kntili  nrutnr  aarhithUnhTe^rr 
(1824);  Macaulay.  CnJi^aiulAudiruiiJfiHviCEdinbuiBli. 
1827);  UoHi.  Die  AfoeeAwivIfi  LiUerofur  in  OtKhichtr  and 
Littratur  dtr  BlaaUmttenicliaflen.  Ill  (Erlanno,  1855-8)^ 
Pabtoh,  Hulorv  of  thi  Poprt,  tr.  Atitrobub.  V.  VI  (SI.  Louis. 
1902),  pasaiffl;  T)tza,  ilackiattlli  and  thr  Madtm  ^ati  (Bos- 
ton, ims):  VaO(ihan,  Nicoll,  Uachxav^li  in  DiMirt  Rrricw 
(April.  IWW):  UORLET,  MiKtUaniei  (London,  1907).  Works 
MDunM  MnahiavelU  were  written  by:  CAimniAL  Polk;  Cata- 
HIHo;  the  Calvinirt  Oentil,lbt.  DtuDur)  iFEilal.  ,  ,  .  eonire 
Nicol.  Machiavd  (1578);  OeoBiUB,  De  nobililali  cftnjdono 
(Home,  15921;  Forsevino,  JuiHrium  de  mmlm/r  acTiplnrrbiu 
(Rome.  1593):  Fheoerick  II  of  Phusiua.  wtione  Anli-Mae)ii- 
mti  wu  e<lit«ii  by  Voltaire  (Amsterdam.  1711).    Machiavelli 

N.  H.  Thoiibon  has  ttaoslaied  into  English  The  Pnnet  (Oifoidi 
1BS7)  and  Maehiaveni'i  Diieovrm  (London,  1883). 

U.  Beniqni, 

HkchMUb,  the  burial-place  in  the  vicinity  of  an- 
cient Hebron  which  Abraham  bought  from  Ephron 


liAOUUTUS 


r>()3 


MAOHUTtTS 


was  later  Abraham  himself  (xxv,  9).  The  words  of 
the  dying  Jacob  inform  us  that  Rebecca  and  Lia  were 
also  buried  in  this  cave  (xlix,  31),  and,  lastly,  Jacob 
found  there  his  last  resting  place  (1, 13).  According  to 
the  Hebrew  text,  which  always  uses  the  word  Mcxh- 
pdah  with  the  article,  the  Machpelah  \b  the  place  in 
which  the  field  with  the  cave  is  to  be  found.  Thus  we 
read  *'  the  cave  in  the  field  of  the  Machpelah"  in  Gen., 
xxiii,  17,  19;  xlix,  30;  1,  13,  "the  cave  of  the  Mach- 
pelah" is  twice  mentioned  (xxiii,  9;  xxv,  9).  But  in 
the  Greek  text  the  word  is  rendered  "the  double 
cave  " — by  derivation  from  the  root  kafalf  * '  to  double  ". 
This  meaning  is  admitted  into  l^e  Targum,  into  the 
Syrian  translation  and  into  the  Vulgate. 

In  the  later  books  of  the  Old  Testament  Machpelah 
is  not  mentioned.  Josephus,  however,  knows  the 
tomb  of  Abraham  and  his  descendants  in  the  district 
then  known  as  Hebron  (Antig.,  I,  xiv,  1;  xxii,  lj,xxi, 
3).  According  to  this  historian  (op.  cit.,  11,  viii,  2), 
the  brothers  of  Joseph  were  also  interred  in  their 
ancestral  burial-place — a  hypothesis  for  which  there 
is  no  foundation  m  Holy  Wnt.  A  Rabbinic  tradition 
of  not  much  later  date  on  the  strength  of  a  misinter- 
pretation of  Jos.,  xiv,  15  (Hebron-Kiriath  Arba — 
''City  of  Four")  wouJd  place  the  graves  of  four 
Patriarchs  at  Hebron,  and,  relying  on  the  same  pas- 
sage, declares  Adam  to  be  the  fourth  Patriarch.  St. 
Jerome  accepted  this  interpretation  (see  "Oiio- 
masticon  des  Eusebius ",  ed.  Klostermann,  lieipzig, 
1904,  p.  7),  and  introduced  it  into  the  Vulgate.  Ac- 
cording to  Rabbinic  legends,  Ksau  also  was  buried  in 
the  neighbourhood.  Since  the  sixth  century  the  grave 
of  Joseph  has  been  pointed  out  at  Hebron  (Itinerar. 
Antonini),  in  spite  ot  Jos.,  xxiv,  32,  while  the  Moham- 
medans even  to-day  regard  an  Arabian  building  joined 
to  the  north-west  of  the  Haram  as  Joseph's  tomb. 
The  tomb  mentioned  by  Josephus  is  undoubtedly  the 
Haram  situated  in  the  south-east  Quarter  of  Hebron 
(£1-Khalil).  The  shrine  facing  north-west  and  south- 
east forms  a  spacious  rectangle  197  feet  long  by  111 
feet  wide,  and  rises  to  a  height  of  about  40  feet.  The 
mighty  blocks  of  limestone  as  hard  as  marble,  dressed 
and  closely  fitted  ("  beautiful,  artistically  carved  mar- 
ble ",  Josephus,  "  Bell.  Jud.",  IV,  ix,  7),  have  acquired 
with  age  almost  the  tint  of  bronze.  The  monotony  of 
the  long  lines  is  reheved  by  rectangular  pilasters,  six- 
teen on  each  side  and  eight  at  the  top  and  bottom. 
Of  the  builder  tradition  is  silent;  Josephus  is  ignorant 
of  his  identity.  Its  resemblance  in  style  to  the  Haram 
at  Jerusalem  has  led  many  to  refer  it  to  the  Herodian 
period,  e.  g.,  Conder,  Benzin^er.  Robinson,  Warren, 
and  Heidet  regard  the  building  as  pre-Herodian. 

Since  Josephus  tradition  has  no  doubt  preserved  the 
site  correctly.  Eusebius  merely  mentions  the  burial- 
place  ("  Onoraasticon",  ed.  Klostermann,  s.  v."  Arbo", 
p.  6) ;  the  Pilgrim  of  Bordeaux  (333)  speaks  explicitly 
of  a  rectangidar  building  of  magnificent  stone  \"  Itin- 
era Hieros.",  ed.  Geyer,  "Corpus  Script.  Eccl.  Lat,", 
XXXIX,  Vienna,  1898,  p.  25).  In  his  version  of  the 
"  Onomasticon ",  St.  Jerome  unfortunately  does  not 
express  himself  clearly;  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
church,  which  he  declares  to  have  been  recently  built  (a 
nostru  ibidem  jam  ezstructa),  is  to  be  sought  in  the  mau- 
soleum or  at  Haram  Ramet  el  Khalil,  half  an  hour's 
journey  north  of  Hebron.  The  "Itinerarium"  of  St. 
Antoninus  (c.  570)  mentions  a  basihca  with  four  halls 
(perhaps  four  porches  about  the  walls)  at  the  graves 
of  the  Patriarchs,  possessing  an  open  court,  and  eoually 
venerated  by  Christians  and  Jews  ("  It.  Hieros.  ,  ed. 
Geyer,  178  sq.}.  About  700,  Adamnan  informs  us. 
on  the  authority  of  Arculf,  that  the  burial-place  of 
the  Patriarchs  is  surrounded  by  a  rectangular  wall, 
and  that  over  the  graves  stand  monuments,  but  there 
is  no  mention  of  a  basilica  ("De  Loois  Sanct.",  II.  x, 
Geyer,  261  sq^.  The  following  centuries  (Mukka- 
dasi,  Saewulf,  Daniel— 985, 1102, 1106)  throw  no  new 
light  on  the  question.   In  1 1 19  a  Christian  diurch  was 


undoubtedly  to  be  found  there,  either  the  old  feyzaii- 
tine  or  the  Crusader's  church,  which,  to  iudge  from 
the  style,  apparently  dates  from  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century.  Remains  from  early  times  are  still 
perceptible,  but  they  do  not  enable  one  to  form  any 
judgment  concerning  the  old  basilica;  what  still  re- 
mained of  it  at  the  period  of  the  Crusades  is  uncer- 
tain. According  to  a  rather  improbable  statement  of 
Benjamin  of  TudeLa,  a  Jewish  synagogue  stood  in  the 
Hamm  before  the  re-establishment  of  Christian  domi- 
nation. After  the  downfall  of  the  Prankish  kingdom, 
the  Latin  church  was  converted  into  the  present 
mosque.  This  is  built*  in  the  southern  section  of  the 
Haram  in  such  a  position  as  to  utilize  three  of  the 
boundary  walls.  The  interior  is  seventy  feet  long  and 
ninety-three  feet  wide;  four  pillars  divide  it  into  three 
aisles  of  almost  the  same  breadth,  but  of  unequal 
length.  The  entrance  to  the  Haram  is  effected  by 
means  of  two  Rights  of  steps,  a  specimen  of  Arabian 
art  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

According  to  a  late  and  unreliable  Mohammedan 
tradition,  the  tombs  of  the  Patriarchs  lie  under  six 
monuments:  to  Isaac  and  Rebecca  are  assigned  those 
within  the  mosque  itself;  to  Abraham  and  Sara  the 
next  two,  in  front  of  the  north  wall  of  the  mosc^ue  in 
two  chapels  of  the  narthex;  those  of  Jacob  and  Lia  are 
the  last  two  at  the  north  end  of  the  Haram.  Concern- 
ing the  subterranean  chambers  we  possess  only  inex- 
act information.  The  Jewish  accounts  (Benjamin  of 
Tudela,  1160-73;  Rabbi  Petacchia,  1175^80;  David 
Reubeni,  1525)  are  neither  clear  nor  uniform.  An 
extensive  investigation  was  undertaken  by  the  Latin 
monks  of  Kiriath  Arba  (D.  V.  Cariath-Arbe-Hebron) 
in  1 1 19,  but  was  never  completed.  After  several  days 
of  laborious  work,  they  disclosed  a  whole  system  of 
subterranean  chambers,  in  which  it  was  believed  that 
at  last  the  much-souglit-f or  "  double  cave  "  with  the 
remains  of  the  three  Patriarchs  had  been  discovered. 
In  1859,  by  means  of  an  entrance  in  the  porch  of  the 
mosque  between  the  sarcophagi  of  Abraham  and  Sara, 
the  Italian  Pierotti  succeeded  in  descending  some 
steps  of  a  stairway  hewn  in  the  rock.  According  to 
Pierotti's  observations,  the  cavity  extends  the  whole 
length  of  the  Haram.  Owing  to  tlie  intolerance  of  the 
Mohammedans,  all  subsequent  attempts  of  English 
and  German  investigators  (1862, 1869,  1882)  have  led 
to  no  sati^actory  results.  Concerning  the  plan  of  and 
connexion  between  the  underground  chambers  no 
judgment  can  be  formed  without  fresh  investigation. 

Robinson,  BibHcal  Researchee  in  PaleMins,  U  (Boston,  1841), 
76  sqq.;  Memoirs  on  the  Surveu  of  Weetem  Palestine,  III  (Lon- 
don. 1883),  333  sqq.;  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  Quarterly 
Statement  (1882),  197  sqq.  (1897).  53  sqq.;  lb  Stranob,  PoIm- 
tine  under  the  Moslems  (London,  1890).  309  sera.;  Ada  SS.,  IV, 
Oct..  688  sqq.;  Riant,  Archives  de  V Orient  latin,  II  (Grenoa, 
1884),  411  sqq.;  PiERom,  MaepSla  ou  tombeaux  des  patiriar^ies 
rLausanne,  1809);  Heidet  in  Vzgouroux,  DieC  de  la  Bible,  a.  v. 
MacpHaK, 

A.  MSRK* 

MachutUB,  Saint  (Maclovius;  Malo),  b.  about  the 
year  520  probably  in  Wales  and  baptized  by  St. 
Brendan.  Machutus  became  his  favourite  disciple 
and  was  one  of  those  specially  selected  by  that  holy 
man  for  his  oft-described  voyage.  No  doubt  he  may 
have  remained  some  years  in  Llancarrven  Abbey, 
when  St.  Brendan  stayed  there,  and  it  was  from  there 
that  St.  Brendan  and  his  disciple,  St.  Machutus,  with 
numerous  companions  set  forth  for  the  discovery  of 
the  "Island  of  the  Blest".  He  then  put  to  sea  on  a 
second  voyage  and  visited  the  Island  of  September, 
in  the  seawara  front  of  St.  Malo,  known  as  Chzembra, 
where  he  tarried  for  some  time.  It  was  on  the  occa- 
sion of  his  second  voyage  that  he  evangelized  the 
Orkney  Islands  and  the  northern  isles  of  Scotland. 
At  Aleth  opposite  St.  Malo  he  placed  himself  under  a 
venerable  nermit  named  Aaron,  on  whose  death  in  543 
(or  544),  St.  Machutus  succeeded  to  the  spiritual  rule 
of  the  district  subeequently  known  aa  ^t.  '^&&k^^  vksi^^ 


MAOKSNZIK 


504 


hulcmaboh 


was  consecrated  first  Bishop  of  Aleth.  It  is  remark- 
able that  St.  Brendan  also  laboured  at  Aleth,  and  had 
a  hermit's  cell  there  on  a  precipitous  rock  in  the  sea, 
whither  he  often  retired.  In  olcl  age  the  disorder  of  the 
island  compelled  St.  Machutiis  to  leave,  but  the  people 
soon  begged  the  saint  to  come  back.  On  his  return 
matters  were  put  right,  and  the  saint,  feeling  that  his 
end  was  at  hand,  determined  to  spend  his  last  days 
in  solitary  penance.  Accordingly  he  proceeded  to  Ar- 
chambiac.  a  village  in  the  Diocese  of  Santes,  where 
he  passea  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  prayer  and 
mortification.    His  obit  is  chronicled  on  15  Nov.,  in 

the  year  618,  620,  or  622. 

O'Hanlon,  Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints  (Dublin,  s.  d.);  O'Dono- 
OHXTE,  St.  Brendan  the  Voyager  (Dublin,  1895);  Moran,  Irish 
SainU  in  Great  Britain  (Callan.  1903). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Mackensie,  Vicariate  Apostolic  op. — ^This  vicar- 
iate which  was  detached  from  the  Athabaska-Macken- 
zie  Vicariate  in  1901  and  intrusted  to  Mgr  Gabriel 
Breynat,  Titular  Bishop  of  Adramytus,  consecrated  6 
April,  1902,  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  on  the  south  by  60®  latitude,  on  the  east 
by  the  water-shed  and  is  unlimited  on  the  north  tow- 
ards the  pole.  It  comprised  the  Yukon,  which  was  not 
erected  into  a  prefecture  Apostolic  until  1908. 
Through  this  immense  territory,  which  has  an  area  of 
over  half  a  million  square  miles,  are  scattered  six 
nomad  tribes:^  the  Montagnais,  tne  Slave,  the  Flat- 
dog-side,  the  Hare  Indian,  the  Loucheux,  and  the 
Eskimo,  making  a  total  population  of  6000  souls. 
Leaving  out  the  Eskimo  tribe  which  is  still  pagan  and 
nearly  four  hundred  Protestant  red-skins,  all  the  other 
tribes  embraced  the  Catholic  Faith  which  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Oblates^  who  began  mission  work  here 
in  1858.  The  difficulties  of  Chnstianizing  this  land  of 
perpetual  snow  and  long  winters,  when  the  thermom- 
eter sometimes  falls  to  68®  below  zero,  are  readily 
understood  when  one  knows  that  the  only  means  of 
travel  are  dogs  trained  to  harness  and  that  the  heavens 
are  the  only  roof.  Means  of  commumcation  are  so 
poor  that  from  September  to  July  there  is  but  one  mail 
delivery  in  Lower  Mackenzie  and  provisions  are 
brought  by  steamboat  but  once  a  year.  Hence  the 
difficulties  of  travel,  the  absolute  lack  of  local  re- 
sources, the  severity  of  the  cUmate  contribute  to  make 
this  vicariate  the  poorest  in  the  wjiole  world,  living  on 
charity,  more  especially  on  pecuniary  help  sent  from 
France  by  the  Propagation  of  Faith.  Owing  to  this 
assistance  the  vicar  Apostolic  with  his  twenty  Oblate 
fathers  and  twenty-one  brothers  can  maintain  twelve 
missions  where  the  Indians  gather  every  year.  In 
1867  the  Montreal  Gray  Nuns  came  and  shared  the 
hardships  of  the  missionaries,  establishing  an  orphan- 
age at  the  Providence  ^fission,  where  they  are  now 
teaching  seventy-six  children  under  their  care.  In 
1903  they  opened  another  orphanage  at  the  St.  Joseph 
Mission,  Fort  Resolution,  the  vicar  Apostolic's  resi- 
dence, where  forty-five  children  are  being  instructed. 
There  are  twenty-one  nuns  working  in  the  mission. 

PiOLET,  Les  missions  cathoHques,  VI  (Paris.  1903),  51-130; 
TxcHi:,  Vingt  annSes  de  missions  dans  le  Nord-Ouest  de  VAmS- 
rique  (Montreal,  1866);  Idem,  Eaquisse  sur  le  nord-ouest  ds 
VAmirique  (Montreal,  1869),  tr.  Cameron  (1870);  Annates des 
missions  de  la  congrigation  des  Oblats  de  Marie- ImmacuUe 
(1862-1910);  Catholic  Directory  (Milwaukee,  1910). 

C.  H.  A.  Gmoux. 

McLoTi£fhliii,  Jopf,  phvsician  and  pioneer,  b.  in 
the  parish  of  La  Riviere  du  Loup,  Canada,  19  Oct., 
1784;  d.  at  Oregon  City^  3  Sept.,  1857.  He  is  the 
great  hero  of  Oregon's  pioneer  period.  His  paternal 
grandfather  was  bom  m  the  parish  of  Desertegney, 
Jjeland.  He  emigrated  to  Canada  and  married  there, 
and  his  son  John  was  the  father  of  Dr.  John  McLough- 
Hn.  The  maiden  name  of  the  mother  of  the  latter  was 
Angelique  Fraser,  bom  in  the  parish  of  Beaumont, 
Canada.  Her  father  was  Malcolm  Fraser,  a  Scotch 
Ilighlandor,  who  went  to  Canada  in  1769  with  the 


army  of  Wolfe.  Dr.  McLoughlin's  father  died  while 
his  son  was  a  lad.  He  was  brought  up  in  the  home  oi 
his  maternal  grandfather,  and  educated  in  Canada  and 
Scotland.  He  became  a  physician  while  quite  young, 
but  did  not  practise  long.  He  became  a  partner  of  the 
North-West  Company.  When  that  compimy  coalesced 
with  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  in  1821,  he  was  in 
charge  of  Fort  William  on  Lake  Superior,  which  was 
then  the  chief  depot  and  factory  of  the  North- W^est 
Company.  In  1824  Dr.  McLoughhn  was  sent  to  Fort 
George  [Astoria]  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River. 
He  soon  moved  the  head-quarters  of  the  company  to 
Fort  Vancouver,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Columbia 
River,  There  he  ruled  for  twenty-two  years  as  the 
absolute  but  kindly  autocrat  of  what  is  known  as  the 
Oregon  Country.  He  had  no  military  force,  but  by 
his  own  personality  and  the  aid  of  his  officers  and 
employes,  he  estabushed  order  and  maintained  peace 
so' that  persons  unaccompanied  by  escort  could  travel 
over  the  country  without  danger  from  formeriy  hos- 
tile Indians.  There  were  no  Indian  wars  in  the  Ore- 
gon Country  until  after  he  resigned  from  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company.  The  Methodist.  Presbyterian,  and 
Catholic  missionaries  he  aided  ana  protected,  although 
at  that  time  he  was  an  Anglican.  In  1842  he  joined 
the  Catholic  Church,  and  became  a  devoted  Catholic, 
being  created  a  Knight  of  St.  Gregory  in  1846.  In  1843 
the  first  of  the  Oregon  home-buildmg  immigrants  ar- 
rived in  Oregon.  Dr.  McLoughlin  fed  and  clothed  them 
and  cared  for  the  sick,  he  supplied  them  with  seed  and 
farming  implements,  and  loaned  them  domestic  ani- 
mals. He  gave  similar  assistance  to  the  immigrants  of 
1844  and  1845.  As  he  furnished  most  of  this  aid  on 
credit,  and  did  not  discourage  the  settlement  of  Ore- 
gon by  citizens  of  the  United  States,  he  was  forced 
to  resign  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  in  1846.  For 
the  rest  of  his  hfe  he  resided  at  (Jregon  City.  Prior 
to  1840  he  had  taken  up  a  land  claim,  but  there  was 
no  legal  way  to  acouire  ownership  of  land  in  Oregon 
before  the  Oregon  land  law  of  27  Sept.,  1850.  This 
land  claim  was  at  Oregon  City,  which  he  founded  and 
named,  and  where  there  is  a  fine  water  power.  He  de- 
veloped this  power,  and  erected  flour  and  saw  mills 
which  he  personally  operated.  It  was  asserted  that 
as  he  was  a  British  subject,  he  was  not  entitled  to  take 
up  a  land  claim.  But  tnis  was  merely  a  pretext,  for  un- 
til 1846,  when  the  treaty  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  settled  the  ownership  of  the  Oregon 
Country,  a  convention  between  the  two  countries  ex- 
isted, providing  for  the  joint  occupancy  of  the  Oregon 
Country  by  Americans  and  British,  both  having  equal 
rights.  Some  of  the  Methodist  missionaries  and  their 
f(Sowers-~all  of  whom  had  been  befriended  by  Dr. 
McLoughlin — started  this  action  against  him.  It  was 
continued  until  in  the  donation  land  law  a  section  was 
inserted  which  deprived  him  of  his  land  claim,  and 
gave  it  to  the  territory  of  Oregon  for  the  establishment 
and  endowment  of  a  university.  It  was  restored  to  his 
heirs  by  the  legislature  of  Oregon  five  years  after  his 
death.  The  effect  of  this  law  was  that  Dr.  McLough- 
lin lost  nearly  all  of  the  large  fortune  which  he  had 
accumulated.  He  died  a  broken-hearted  man,  the  vic- 
tim of  mendacity,  and  ingratitude.  He  was  buried  in 
the  churchyard  ot  St.  John's  Catholic  church  in  Oregon 
City,  where  his  body  has  lain  ever  since.  By  com- 
mon consent  he  has  become  known  as  the  Father  of 
Oregon. 

Frederick  V.  Holman. 

MacMahon,  Marie-Edm^-Patrice-Maurice  de, 
Due  de  Magenta,  Marshal  of  France,  President  of  the 
French  Republic;  b.  at  Sully,  Sa6ne-et-Loire,  13  July, 
1808;  d.  at  Montcresson,  Loiret,  16  October,  1893. 
BUs  ancestors  were  Irish,  and  had  been  settled  in 
France  since  the  time  of  James  II,  having  applied  for 
naturalization  in  1749.  MacMahon  took  part  in  the 
eiq>edition  to  Algiers  in  1830  as  aide-de-camp  to  Gen- 


MoMAHOH 


505 


McMAHON 


eral  Achard.  His  military  career  in  Algeria  lasted 
twenty  years  (1834  to  1854),  and  he  there  gained  ex- 
oeptioniu  distinction  in  the  assault  on  Constantine. 
In  the  Crimean  War  he  led  the  attack  on  The  Malakoff 
(8  Sept.,  1855);  in  the  Italian  War  he  effected  the 
decisive  movement  of  the  victory  of  Magenta  (4  June, 
1859),  and  was  created  a  marshal  and  Due  de  Magenta 
on  the  field  of  battle.  On  1  September,  1864,  he  was 
appointed  Governor-General  ot  Algeria,  and  in  that 
position  became  involved  in  a  controversjr  with  Arch- 
oishop  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Lavigene  which  attracted 
much  attention  at  the  time.  Mkr  Lavigerie,  then  Arch- 
bishop of  Algiers,  having  just  fotmded  the  Soci^td  des 
Missionnaires  d'Algers,  had  collected  more  than  a 
thousand  Ajnab  chudren  in  his  orphanages,  to  save 
them  from  typhus  fever  and  starvation.  MacMahon 
protested  publicly  against  a  letter  dated  6  April,  1868, 
m  which  tne  archbishop,  announcing  his  intention  of 
founding  a  nursery  of  Arab  Christians,  concluded  with 
the  declaration:  "  France  must  either  let  the  Gospel  be 
given  to  this  people  or  drive  them  into  the  desert,  away 
from  the  civilfzed  world."  In  a  letter  dated  26  April, 
1868.  MacMahon  accused  Lavigerie  of  wishing  to  push 
the  Arabs  back  into  the  desert.  Lavigerie  explained 
that  his  meaning  had  been  misunderstood,  and  refused 
the  coadiutorship  of  Lyons,  which  the  emperor,  to 
satisfy  MacMahon,  offered  him.  The  incident  was 
closed  by  a  letter  from  Marshal  Xicl,  the  minister  of 
war  (28  May,  1868). 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Franco-German  War  Mac- 
Mahon's  advance  guard  was  beaten  at  Wissembourg 
(4  Au^st,  1870),  and  his  own  corps  was  outnumbered 
at  Reischoffen  (6  August,  1870);  he  commanded  the 
retreat  on  Chalons,  and  then,  obeying  the  orders  of 
Palikas,  the  minister  of  war,  led  the  army  to  Sedan, 
where  he  was  wounded,  and  where  Napoleon  III  was 
obliged  to  capitulate  (1  September).  On  28  May, 
1871,  MacMahon  completed  the  victory  of  the  Ver- 
sailles Army  over  the  Paris  Commune^  and  effected 
the  entry  ot  the  regular  troops  into  Pans.  His  splen- 
did military  career  won  general  admiration.  "  A  per- 
fect military  officer"  (officier  de  guerre  complet),  Samt- 
Amaud  called  him;  and  Thiers,  the  "chevalier  sans 
peur  et  sans  reproche"  (the  fearless,  blameless  knight). 
Upon  the  fall  of  Thiers  in  the  session  of  24  May,  1873, 
the  National  Assembly  elected  MacMahon  president 
by  a  majority  of  390  to  2,  the  Left  abstaining  from 
voting.  In  his  message  of  26  May  he  promisedf  to  be 
"energetically  and  resolutely  Conservative"  (iTter- 
giquemerU  et  riaolilmerU  canservateur) ,  and  to  be  "the 
sentinel  on  guard  over  the  integrity  of  the  sovereign 
power  of  the  Assembly'*.  These  expressions  define 
the  spirit  in  which  he  exercised  his  omce  as  president. 
Being  determined  to  devote  himself  loyally  to  "the 
integrity  of  the  sovereign  power  of  the  Assembly",  he 
refused  to  associate  lumself  with  any  projects  looking 
to  the  restoration  of  the  Comte  de  Chambord  and  the 
White  Flag. 

The  Assembly  having  (9  November,  1873)  fixed  his 
term  of  office  at  seven  years,  he  declared  in  a  speech 
delivered  4  February,  1874,  tnat  he  would  know  how  to 
make  the  legally  established  order  of  things  respected 
for  seven  years.  Preferring  to  remain  above  party,  he 
rather  assisted  at  than  took  part  in  the  proceedings 
which,  in  January  and  February,  1875,  led  up  to  the 
passage  of  the  fundamental  laws  finally  establishing 
the  Republic  as  the  le^l  government  of  France.  And 
yet  MacMahon  writes  m  his  still  unpublished  memoirs: 
"  By  family  tradition,  and  by  the  sentiments  towards 
the  royal  house  which  were  instilled  in  me  by  my  early 
education,  I  could  not  be  anything  but  a  Legitunist." 
He  felt  some  repugnance,  too,  in  forming^  in  1876,  the 
Dufaure  and  the  Jules  Simon  cabinets,  m  which  the 
Republican  element  was  represented.^  When  the  epis- 
copal charges  of  the  Bishops  of  Poitiers,  Ntmes,  and 
Nevers,  recommending  the  ease  of  the  oaptive  Pope 
Pius  IX  to  the  sympathy  of  the  French  Govemn\ent, 


were  met  by  a  resolution  in  the  Chamber,  proposed  by 
the  Left,  that  the  Government  be  requestea  "to  re- 
press Ultramontane  manifestations"  (4  May^  1877), 
AfacMahon,  twelve  days  later,  asked  Jules  Simon  to 
resign,  summoned  to  power  a  Conservative  ministry 
under  the  Due  de  Broglie,  persuaded  the  Senate  to 
dissolve  the  Chamber,  and  travelled  through  the  coun- 
try to  assure  the  success  of  the  Conservatives  in  the 
elections,  protesting  at  the  same  time  that  he  did  not 
wish  to  overturn  the  Republic.  However,  the  elec- 
tions of  14  October  resulted  in  a  majority  of  120  for 
the  Left;  the  de  Broglie  ministry  resigned  19  Novem- 
ber, and  the  president  formed  a  Left  cabinet  under 
Dufaure.  He  retained  his  office  until  1878,  so  as  to 
allow  the  Exposition  Universelle  to  take  place  in  polit- 
ical peace,  and  then,  the  senatorial  elections  of  5  Jan- 
uary, 1879,  having  brought  another  victory  to  the 
Left,  MacMahon  found  a  pretext  to  resign  (30  Janu- 
ary, 1879),  and  Jules  Gr^vy  succeeded  him. 

This  soldier  was  not  made  for  politics.  "  I  have  re- 
mained a  soldier",  he  says  in  his  memoirs,  "and  I  can 
conscientiouslv  say  that  I  have  not  only  served  one 
government  after  another  loyally,  but,  when  they  fell, 
have  regretted  all  of  them  with  the  single  exception  oi 
niy  own. ' '  In  his  voluntary  retirement  he  earned  with 
liim  the  esteem  of  all  parties:  Jules  Simon,  who  did 
not  love  him,  and  whom  he  did  not  love,  afterwards 
culled  him  "a  great  captain^  a  great  citizen,  and  a 
righteous  man  "  (un  grand  capitaine,  un  grand  citoyen 
et  un  homnie  de  bien).  Ilis  presidency  may  be 
summed  up  in  two  words:  on  the  one  hand,  he  allowed 
the  Republic  to  establish  itself;  on  the  other  hand,  so 
far  as  his  lawful  prerogatives  permitted,  he  retarded 
the  poUtical  advance  of  parties  hostile  to  the  Church, 
convinced  that  the  triumph  of  Radicalism  would  be 
to  the  detriment  of  France.  The  last  fourteen  years 
of  his  life  were  passed  in  retirement,  quite  removed 
from  political  interests.  In  1893  he  was  buried,  with 
national  honours,  in  the  crypt  of  the  Invalides. 

Laforoe,  Histoire  compUie  de  MacMahon  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
1898);  Chkrot,  Figures  de  Soldata  (Lille,  1900):  Lebrun, 
Souvenirs  des  Guerres  de  Crimee  el  d'ltalie  (Paris,  1890);  Ban- 
NARD,  Le  cardinal  Lavigerie.  I  (Paris,  1896),  234-264;  Daudbt, 
Souvenirs  de  la  prrsidmce  de  MacMahon  (Paris,  1880);  Hano- 
TAUX,  Hiatoxre  de  la  France  eontemporaine,  II,  III,  IV  (Paris, 
1904-1908):  Dk  MAKckRU,  UassembUe  Nationale  de  1871,  11 
(Pariis,  1007);  Idem,  Le  seize  Mai  et  la  fin  du  Septennat  (Paris, 
1900);  Idem,  Hist,  de  la  R/Tfublique  de  1876  h  1879  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1908  and  1910). 

Georges  Goyau. 

McMahon,  Martin  Thomas,  soldier,  jurist;  b.  at 
Laprairie,  Canada,  21  March,  1838;  d.  in  New  York. 
21  April,  1906.  His  parents  took  him  to  the  Unitea 
Stateis  when  he  was  three  weeks  old  and  eventually 
settled  in  New  York.  He  attended  St.  John's  College, 
Fordham,  where  he  was  graduated  in  1855.  To  study 
law  he  went  to  Buffalo,  thence  as  a  special  agent  on  the 
post-office  to  the  Pacific  coast  and  was  admitted  to  the 
oar  at  Sacramento,  Cal.,  in  1861 .  When  the  Civil  War 
broke  out  he  raised  the  first  company  of  cavalry  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  but  resigned  its  captaincy  when  he  found 
it  would  not  go  to  the  front  and  went  east  to  Wash- 
ington where  he  was  appointed  an  aide-de-camp  to 
G^eral  McClellan.  He  served  with  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  all  through  the  war,  and  at  its  close  had  at- 
tained the  rank  of  brevet  Major-Greneral  of  Volun- 
teers. For  bravery  at  the  battle  of  White  Oak  Swamp 
he  received  the  medal  of  honour  from  Congress.  In 
1866  he  resigned  from  the  army  and  was  appointed 
corporation  counsel  of  New  York  City  (1866-67)  and 
then  was  sent  as  Minister  to  Paraguay  ( 1 868-69) .  On 
his  return  he  practised  law  until  1881,  he  was  made 
Receiver  of  Taxes,  U.  S.  Marshal,  State  Assemblyman 
and  Senator.  In  1896  he  was  elected  Judge  of  the 
Court  of  General  Sessions  which  office  he  held  at  this 
death. 

His  brothers,  John  Eugene,  and  James  Power,  were 
also  lawyers  and  soldiers  and  both  hftVl^^  ^^^^sissikss^ 


M  coionela  of  the  164th  New  York  Volunteera  durins 
the  Civil  War.  John  waa  bom  in  Wsterford,  Ireland, 
in  1834,  waa  educated  at  St.  Jobn'e  College,  Fordhani, 
and  died  at  Buffalo,  New  York,  in  1863, Irom  injuries 
received  in  the  army;  James  was  bom  ia  Waterford, 
1836,  and  was  Idllea  while  leading  his  regiment  at  the 
battle  of  Cold  Harbor,  Va. 

MuKncer  (New  York.  March.  1006J:    CalAnlie  Ntui  Wev 


the  pope  oo  the  outlook  in  European  politics  in  a  letter 

fn    RFOBmnnn    tO     Tktid      1fUR-     ' '  TTn    tnou  trat    in    imiwl 


to  Bro 


B&g..i 


Thouah  p.  Meehan. 


HcHutflT,  James  Alphonsus,  editor,  convert,  b. 
at  Duanesburg.  New  York,  U.  S.  A.,  1  April,  1820;  d. 
in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  29  December,  1886.  Hia 
father,  a  promineot  Presbyterian  minister,  sent  his  son 
to  Union  College,  but  he  left  before  graduating  and  be- 
came a  private 
tutor.  It  was  the 
era  of  Tractari- 
anism  and  Brook 
Farm,  and  Mc- 
Moster  became  a 
Catholic  in  1845. 
Believing  he  had 

priesthood ,  he  was 
accepted  as  a  nov- 
ice in  the  Rcdemp- 
torist     Congrega- 

hia    superiors    to 
Belgium.  Here  he 
ouickly  found  that 
uie  life  of  a  reli- 
able for  him,  and 
returning  to  the 
United  States  he 
adopted  t  he  profes- 
sion of  journal  iam. 
iured  him  an  opening  in 
and  his  contributions 
"Tlie  New  York  Freeman'a  Jour- 


Hisvi 


his  oioral  power — it  will  add  to  it";  but  after  the 
events  of  1870,  in  season  and  out  there  waa  no  stronger 
or  more  valiant  champion  of  the  rights  of  the  Holy  See. 
In  behalf  of  Catholic  education  he  was  eaually  stren- 
uous and  uncompromising,  and  w^ged  a  long  warfare 
against  the  attendanoe  oiF  Catho&c  children  at  the 
public  schools. 

With  the  advent  of  modem  newspaper  methods  and 
the  decline  of  the  old-fashioned  "personal  journalism", 
a  new  generation  with  new  ideals  tired  of  HcHast^r's 
hterary  violence,  and  his  once  wide-spread  prestige 
and  influence  waned.  The  whims  and  idiosyncrasies 
o(  the  old  man,  who  grew  more  and  more  diffi- 
cult to  manage  aa  the  end  of  his  curious  and  stormy 
career  drew  to  a  cloee,  still  crsjnped  and  hampered  the 
paper,  and  when  he  died  it  had  little  inSuence  and 
scant  circulation.  Of  his  three  children  one  daughter 
became  a  Carmelite  and  another  a  Siater  of  the  Holy 
Child. 

Fretnan-i  Journal  (New  York),  fila:  CaUudu:  Ntv»  (Ntw 
York,  April  11.  1008);  CaUiolic  Home  Almanac  (New  York. 
!88S);  BRoWKsoK,MHWJ.ti/e  (Detroit.  1896);  Id..  LaUtr  Lift 
(Detroit.  1900);   Cve.  Am.  Bios.,  n.  v. 

Thomas  F.  Ueehan. 

HcMdl,  Neil.    See  St.  Georob's,  Diocese  of. 

MacNeveii,  William  James,  distinguished  Irish- 
American  physician  and  medical  educator,  b.  at  Bally- 
nahowna,  near  Aughrim,  Co.  Galway,  Ireland,  21 
March,  1763;  d.  at  New  York,  12  July,  1841.  Hisau- 
cestors  were  driven  by  Cromwell  from  the  North  of 
Ireland  where  they  held  large  possessions  to  the  wilds 
of  (Jonnaught.  William  James  MacNeven  was  the 
eldest  of  four  sons.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  was  sent 
by  his  uncle  Baron  MacNeven,  to  receive  his  educa- 
tion abroad,  for  the  penal  laws  rendered  education  im- 
possible for  Catholics  in  Ireland.  Thia  Baron  Uac- 
Neven  was  William  O'Kelly  MacNeven,  an  Irish  exile 
ihyeician,  who  for  hia  me<fical  skill  in  her  service  hod 

tn  created  an  Austrian  noble  by  the  Empress  Maria 


phyai 


were  also  printed 

nal",thenownedby  Biahop  John  Hughes.  In  1848  he 
thought  of  atarting  a  semi-monthly  magazine  and  then 
a  semi-weekly  independent  Catholic  paper,  but  aban- 
doned both  ideas,  and,  with  money  loaned  him  by 
George  V.Hecker,  bought  "The  Freeman's  Journal"  in 
June,  1848,  from  Bishop  Hughes.  He  at  once  assumed 
ita  editorial  management,  which  he  retained  up  to  the 
time  of  his  death.  Letters  he  wrote  then  to  Orestes  A. 
Brownson  clearly  show  that  even  at  this  early  date  lie 
was  dominated  by  the  aversion  to  episcopal  supervi- 
sion and  a  determination  to  propound  his  own  views 
which  was  such  a  characteristic  feature  of  his  later 

Sound  on  fundamental  issues  and  principles,  fault- 
finding was  one  of  his  weaknesses.  He  spared  no  one, 
high  or  low,  who  differed  from  him.  and  his  invective 
was  as  bitter  as  an  unlimited  vocabulary  could  make 
it.  He  quarrelled  almost  immediately  with  Risliop 
Hughes  on  the  Irish  question  and  with  Brownson  on 
hia  philosophy.  In  polities  he  waa  a  States  Rights 
Democrat  ana  Anti- Abolitionist  and  tooka  very  active 
and  influential  part  in  the  great  national  controversies 
that  raged  before  the  Civil  War.  After  the  conflict 
began,  his  editorial  assaults  on  President  Lincoln  and 
his  adroinistratitHi  resulted  in  hia  being  arrested,  in 
1861 ,  and  confined  for  eleven  months  in  Fort  Lafayette 
ua  disloyal  citizen.  "The  Freeman's  Journal  waa 
Buppressed  by  the  Government  and  did  not  resume 

Kbiication  until  19  Anril,  1862.  In  national  politics 
then  adopted  a  milder  tone,  but  for  the  rest  the  old 
style  remained.  In  European  politics  Louia  Veuillot 
aiidbis"Univers"(i-ere  the  conalant  models  of  "The 
FrvetOAD'a  Journal".    Tliei«  is  record  of  his  saying  of 


waa  a  favourite 
pupil  of  thediatin- 

Snshed  professor 
estel  and  took 
his  degree  in  1784. 
The  same  year  he 
returned  to  Dublin 

opened  before  him 
in  medicine,  but  he 
became  involved 
in  the  revolution- 
ary disturbances 
of  the  time  with 
such  men  as  Ixtrd 
Edward  Fitzger- 
ald, Thomas  Ad- 
dis Emmet,  and 
his  brother  Rob- 
ert. He  was  ar- 
rested in  March, 
1798,  and  confined 
in  Kilmainham 
Jail,  and  after- 
wards   in    Fort 

George,  Scotland,  until  1802,  when  he  was  hberated 
and  exiled.  In  1803,  ho  was  in  Paris  seeking  an  in- 
terview with  Bonaparte  in  order  to  obtain  French 
troops  for  Ireland.  Disappointed  it  ~ 
MactJeven  can  '  '  -  -  " 
4July,  180Q, 


e  to  America,  landing  at  New  York  on 


MiOON  507  McQUAID 

In  1807,  Dr.  MacNeven  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  1435  Charles  VII  of  France,  by  the  Treaty  of  Arras, 
on  clinical  medicine  in  the  recently  established  College  ceded  it  to  Philip,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  but  in  1477  it 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons.  Here  in  1808,  he  re-  reverted  to  France,  upon  the  death  of  Charles  the 
ceived  the  appointment  of  professor  of  midwifery.  In  Bold.  Emperor  Charles  V  definitively  recognized  the 
1810,  at  the  reorganization  of  the  school,  he  became  Mdconnais  as  French  at  the  Treaty  of  Cambrai(  1529). 
the  professor  of  chemistry,  and  in  1816  was  appointed  The  wars  of  religion  filled  M&con  with  blood;  it  was 
in  addition  to  the  chair  of  materia  medica.  In  1826  captured  on  5  May,  1562,  by  the  Protestant  d'En- 
with  six  of  his  colleagues,  he  resigned  his  professorship  tragues,  on  18  August,  1562,  by  the  Catholic  Tavan- 
because  of  a  misunderstanding  with  the  New  Yoik  nes,  on  29  Sept.,  1567,  it  again  fell  into  the  hands 
Board  of  Regents,  and  accepted  the  chair  of  materia  of  the  Protestants,  and  on  4  Dec,  1567,  was  recovered 
medica  in  Rutgers  Medical  College,  a  branch  of  the  by  the  Catholics.  But  the  Protestants  of  M&con  were 
New  Jersey  institution  of  that  name,  established  in  saved  from  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  prob- 
New  York  as  a  rival  to  the  College  of  Physicians  and  ably  by  the  passive  resistance  with  which  the  bailifif, 
Surgeons.  The  school  at  once  became  popular  be-  Philibert  de  Laguiche,  met  the  orders  of  Charles  IX. 
cause  of  its  faculty,  but  after  four  years  was  closed  by  Odet  de  Coligny,  Cardinal  de  ChAtillon,  who  eventu- 
legislative  enactment  on  account  of  interstate  difficul-  ally  became  a  Protestant  and  went  to  London  to 
ties.  The  attempt  to  create  a  school  independent  of  marry  under  the  name  of  Comte  de  Beauvais,  was 
the  rodents  resulted  in  a  reoi^anization  of  the  Univer-  from  1554  to  1560  prior,  and  after  1560  provost,  of  8t- 
sity  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Dr.  MacNeven's  best  Pierre  de  M&con.  The  Abbey  of  Cluny,  situated 
known  contribution  to  science  is  his  '*  Exposition  of  within  the  territory  of  this  diocese,  was  exempted 
the  Atomic  Theonr"  (New  York,  1820),  which  was  from  its  jurisdiction  in  the  eleventh  century,  in  spite 
reprinted  in  the  French  "Annales  de  Chimie".  In  of  the  opposition  of  Bishop  Drogon.  There  is  still 
1821  he  published  with  emendations  an  edition  of  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  city  a  copy  of  the 
Brande's  "Chemistry''  (New  York,  1829).  Some  of  cartulary  of  the  cathedral  church  of  St-Vincent,  re- 
his  purely  literary  works,  his  *'  Rambles  through  Swit-  built  in  the  thirteenth  century,  but  destroyed  in  1793. 
zerland"  (Dublin,  1803),  his  "Pieces  of  Irish  ffistory"  Of  the  six  councils  held  at  MAcon  (579,  581— or 
(New  York,  1807),  and  his  numerous  political  tracts  582—585,  624, 906,  1286).  the  second  and  third,  con- 
attracted  wide  attention.  He  was  co-editor  for  many  voked  by  command  of  King  Gontran,  are  worthy  of 
years  of  the  "New  York  Medical  and  Philosophical  special  mention.    The  first,  in  681  or  582,  which 


Journal  **.  sembled  six  metropolitans  and  fifteen  bishops,  enacted 

»;r"A~r'ii^'?^Ki;hl.ir?86ih''o^°/^^^^^  penalties  agamat  luxj^jmonz  «»  dergy,  «;amrt 

Medical  GazeUe  (1841),  65;    Byrne.  Afemoira  of  MUea  Byrne  clencs  WhO  summoned  Other  ClenCS  befOTB  lay  tn- 

(Paris,  1863);  MKunns,  Lxvea  of  the  United  Irishmen,  aeiies  iit  bunals,  and  against  religious  who  married;  it  also 

l?tt  (LoidSn"*"  892^037*®^'  *'"*'*^™«' 'S**=^«' ^«^« '"»^  regulated  the  relations  ofChristians  with  Jews.    The 

j^jjgg  J  "Walsh  second,  in  585,  at  which  43  bishops  and  the  representa- 
tives of  20  other  bishops  assisted,  tried  the  bishops 
M&con,  Ancient  Diocese  of  (Matisconensis),  in  accused  of  having  taken  part  in  the  revolt  of  Gon- 
Burgundy  (q.  v.).  The  city  of  Mdcon.  formerly  the  debaud,  fixed  the  penalties  for  violating  the  Sunday 
capital  of  the  Maconnais,  now  of  the  Department  of  rest,  insisted  on  the  obligation  of  paying  tithes,  estal>- 
Sa!6ne-et-Loire,  became  a  civitcts  in  the  fifth  century,  lished  the  right  of  the  bishop  to  interfere  in  the  courts 
when  it  was  separated  from  the  .£duan  territory,  when  widows  and  orphans  were  concerned,  determined 
Christianity  appears  to  have  been  introduced  from  the  relative  precedence  of  clerics  and  laymen,  and  de- 
Lyons  into  this  city  at  an  early  period,  and  Hugh,  creed  that  every  three  years  a  national  synod  should 
Archbishop  of  Lyons,  in  the  eleventh  century,  called  be  convoked  by  the  Bishop  of  Lyons  and  the  king. 
MAcon  "  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Church  of  Lyons ".  ^^^H^  Chrieiiana  (Nota),  iv  (1728).  I038j-i  i  lO;.  TnstrumerUa, 

TU^ui^u,^^^^  u^«r»<.^»«  ^«.«A;n4-x>^^;a4^«A<,.«.^»l;»««u«4.  263-90;  Duchesne,   Faales  Epxacopatu,  U  (Pans),   1U5-198: 

rhe  bishopnc,  however,  came  mto  existence  somewhat  d^  la  Rochbtte.  Hietoire  dee  &vique»  de  M.icon  (2  vols.  MAcon. 

later  than  might  have  been  expected:    in  the  latter  186e-67);  Chavot,  Le  Mdconnaie,  giooraphie  historioue  (Paris, 

part  of  the  fifth  century  it  was  still  a  Bishop  of  Lyons  if?^);  Raout  and  Chavot,  CaHidairede  Saint-Vincent  de 

«.u^  K«^.,»k4.  <,..^»r««»  ♦X  ♦K«.  r«.«;»A  cri-^'^L^^JT .%^>^«vi»  ^t  M&con.  connum>u9  lenomdelivre  enchainS {Mkcon,  1864):  Jean- 

who  brought  succour  to  the  fanune-stncken  people  of  dbt,  uddcon  au  XVI*  sOcU  (MAcon,  1892);  Rameau.  La  kevolw 

MAcon.    At  the  end  of  that  same  century  CloviS  S  OCCU-  tion  dona  randen  diocese  de  Mdcon  (MAcon,  1900) ;  Chaumont, 

pation  of  the  city  both  foreshadowed  the  gradual  ^*^^^5J^^"§2[JSf*e«^  ^o^ 

establishment  of  Prankish  supremacy  and  broiight  JS^oon.  1903);  VirSt.  VA^Seeture  ronume  daniTandeTdio^ 

with  it  the  utter  rout  of  Ananism.    Duchesne  thinks  ekee  de  Mdcon  (Paris,  1892);  Chevauer,  Topobibl.,  1799-1800. 
that  the  Bishopric  of  Mslcon,  suffragan  of  Lyons,  may  Georges  Gotau. 

have  ori^nated  in  an  understanding  between  the 
Merovuigian  princes  after  the  suppression  of  the  Bur-      *  McQuaid,  Bernard  John,  first  Bishop  of  Roches- 

§undian  state.    The  separate  existence  of  M&con  as  a  ter,  U.  S.  A. ;  b.  in  New  York  City,  15  December,  1823: 

iocese  ended  at  the  French  Revolution,  and  the  title  d.  at  Rochester,  18  January,  1909.  His  father,  Bernard 

of  M&con  is  now  borne  by  the  Bishop  of  Autun.  McQuaid,  from  Tyrone,  Ireland,  settled  in  Powel's 

The  first  bishop  historically  known  is  St.  Placidus  Hook  (now  Jersey  City),  New  Jersey.     It  was  in  the 

(538-55).    The  authentic  list  of  his  successors,  as  re-  McQuaid  home  that  Mass  was  first  said  in  Powers 

constructed  by  Duchesne,  comprises  several  bishops  Hook,  by  Father  John  Conron,  on  the  first  Sunday  in 

venerated  as  saints:  St.  Florentinus  (c.  661);  St.  Cselo-  Advent,  November,  1829.     After  his  college  course  at 

donius,  who  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Lyons  in  570:  C^mbly,  Quebec,  young  McQuaid  entered  St.  John's 

St.  Eusebius,  who  assisted  at  two  councils,  in  581  ana  Seminary,  at  Fordham,  and  was  ordained  in  old  St. 

585.    Tradition  adds  to  this  list  the  names  of  Sts.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New  York,  16  January.  1848. 

Salvinius,  Nicetius  (Nizicr),  and  Justus,  as  bishops  of  Most  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey  was  at  that  time  in- 

MAcon  in  the  course  of  the  sixth  century.     Among  eluded  in  the  Diocese  of  New  York,  so  Father  Mc- 

other  bishops  of  later  date  may  be  mentioned  St.  Quaid  was  sent  as  assistant  to  the  pastor  at  Madison. 

Gerard  (886-926),  who  died  in  a  hermitage  at  Brou  When  the  Diocese  of  Newark  was  created  in  1853, 

near  Bourg-en-Bresse,  and  Cardinal  Philibert  Hugonet  Bishop  Bayley  made  Father  McQuaid  rector  of  his 

(1473-84).    For  many  centuries  the  bishops  seem  to  cathearal  church,  and  later,  in  1866,  his  vicar-genenJ. 

have  been  the  only  rulers  of  MAcon;  the  city  had  no  With  the  bishop  he  founded  Seton  Hall  College,  and, 

counts  until  after  850.    From  926  the  countship  be-  without  giving  up  his  parochial  charge  or  his  diocesan 

came  hereditary.     The  MAconnais  was  sold  to  St.  office,  was  its  president  for  ten  years.     He  helped  to 

Louis  ill  1230  by  Alice  of  Vienne,  granddau^ter  of  establish  the  Madison,  New  Jersey,  foundation  of  the 

the  l(Vit  count,  and  her  husband,  Jean  de  Brame.   In  Seton  Sisters  of  Charity.    When  th.e  Cvv^lH4<^^^\^«s^ 


out  he  was  the  fiist  clergyman  at  Newark  to  espouse 
publicly  the  cause  of  the  Union;  he  also  volunteered 
asa  chaplain  and  accompanied  the  New  Jersey  Brigade 
to  the  seat  of  war,  dunng  which  service  he  was  oap- 
tured  by  the  Confederates.  On  the  creation  of  the 
Diocese  of  Rochester  in  1S68,  Father  McQuaid  was 
appointed  its  first  bishop  and  was  consecrated  in  St. 
Patrick's  Cathedral,  New  York,  12  July,  1868.  He 
wae  installed  in  Rochester,  on  July  IS.  A  man  of 
strong  character  and  untiriog  as  a  worker,  he  espe- 
cially devoted  himself  to  the  cause  of  Catholic  edu- 
cation. In  Rochester  within  ten  years  Ifc  completely 
organized  a  splendid  parochial  school  system.  tauf;ht 
bv  nuns,  and  affiliated  it  with  the  State  university. 
3  years  after  he  took  charge  of  the  diocese  he 
^^^ opened  St.  An- 
drew's Preparatory 


ary 


the 


proniisinK  students 
of  which  ne  sent  to 
the  Roman  and 
other  famous  Euro- 


C°.u 


constantly  extend- 
ing the  pari^lies 
tlJoughoutthe  dio- 
cese; founding  new 
works  ot  charity,  or 
Btrengtheii  i  i  le  t  hose 
already  establialied ; 
securing  freedom  ot 
worship  a] id  their 
constitutional  rights 
for  the  inmates  of 
the  state  institu- 
BiBMAHD  J.  McQc*iD  tions,  of  whjch  there 

are  four  in  the  diocese.  The  crowning  event  ot 
his  career  was  the  opening,  ,in  1893,  of  St.  Bernard's 
Stnninary.  which  he  lived'  to  sec  expanded  to  an 
institution  patronized  by  students  from  twenty-six 
other  dioceses,  regarded  by  the  whole  country  as  a 
model  of  its  kind.  Bishop  McQuaid  attended  the 
Vatican  Council  in  1870.  In  1905  he  asked  for  a  co- 
adjutor, and  Bishop  Thomas  K.  Ilickey 


Tht  dtpublic  ^Burton,  2.1  JanuiLty,  1909) :  Cntholic  Sim  (Sym- 
SUM,  22  jknuaiy.  1009):  CatKolie  New  (New  York.  23  Januaiy. 
1009):  Fltbb.  CaHiolic  ChunJi  in  Ncai  Jerieu  (MorriaUiwo. 
1904);  Rbdm.  Bioa.  Cyclo.  Valh.  Hitrarrhv  a!  U.  S.  (Milwaukw, 
1B79);  CaUioiic  DirrdoTV  <1S40-1009). 

TtioMAB  F.  Meehan. 

Uacri  (or  Macrab?),  a  titular  see  in  Mauretania 
Sitifiensis.  This  town  figures  only  in  the  "Notitia 
Africse"andthe"ItinerariumAntoniiu".  It  flourished 
for  a  long  period,  and  Arabian  authors  often  mention 
it  in  eulogistic  terms.  It  was  situated  on  the  Oued- 
Hagra  which  still  bears  its  numc,  near  the  Djcbcl 
Maira,  in  the  plain  of  Bou  Megueur,  south-west  of 
Setif  (Algeria).  In  411  Macri  had  a  Donatist  bishop, 
Maximus,  who  attended  the  Carthage  Conference.  In 
479  Huneric  banished  a  great  many  Catholics  from 
^is  town  and  from  many  other  regions  of  the  desert. 
Id  484  Emeritus.  Bishopof  Maori,  wa^  one  of  the  mem- 
bers present  at  theCartnageAH-scmbly;  likelheothers, 
he  was  banished  by  Iluneric. 

TouunTE,  Qfoffraphie  de  VAfrique  chrHimnt^  Uaurttanit 
(llcnitreuil.sur-mBr.  1S94).  p.  212. 

S.   PbTRID^S. 

Hodina,  the  name  of  two  saints,  grandmother  and 
granddaughter.    They  beloneed  to  the  family  of  the 

Ct  Cnppadocian  Fathers,  8ts.  Basil  and  Gregory  of 
-    »*■ 

St.  Machina  the  Elder. — Our  knowledge  of  the 
life  ot  the  elder  Mocrina  is  derived  mainly  from  the 
testimony  of  the  above-mentioned  Fathers  ot  the 
Church,  her  grandchildren  (Basil,  Ep.  cciv,  7;cuxxiii, 


8  BKaoBHIBBT 

3;  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  "Vita  MadinsJuuioris"),  aod 
the  panegvrio  of  the  third  great  CappadoaiAn,  St. 

Gregory  m  NoEianiua,  on  St.  Basil  (Gregory  N&a., 
Oratio  xliii).  She  was  the  mother  of  the  elder  Basil, 
the  father  of  Basil,  Gregory,  and  other  children  whoee 
names  ore  known  to  us,  including  Blacrina  the 
Younger.  Her  home  was  at  Neocnearea  in  Pootus. 
In  her  childhood  she  was  acquainted  with  St.  Greg- 
0r^ThaumBturKUs,&rstbiBhopof  hernativetowu.  As 
this  venerable  doctor,  who  had  woo  Neocnaarea  al- 
most completely  for  Christianity,  died  between  270 
and  275,  St.  Macrina  must  have  been  bom  before  270. 
During  the  Diocletian  persecution  she  fled  from  her 
native  town  with  her  husband,  of  whose  name  we  are 
ignorant,  and  had  to  endure  many  privations.  She 
was  thus  a  confessor  of  the  Faith  during  the  laat  vio- 
lent storm  that  burst  over  the  early  Church.  On  the 
intellectual  and  religious  training  of  St.  Basil  and  his 
elder  brothers  and  aiaters,  she  exereised  a  great  in- 
fluence, implanting  in  their  minds  those  seeds  of  pietv 
and  that  ardent  desire  for  Christian  perfection  whicn 
were  la1«r  to  attain  so  glorious  a  growth.  As  St.  Basil 
was  probably  bom  in  331,  St^  Macrina  must  have  died 
early  in  the  fourth  decade  of  the  fourth  century.  Her 
feast  is  celebrated  on  14  January. 

St.  Macrina  thb  Yocnger,  b.  about  330;  d.  379. 
.She  was  the  eldest  child  of  Basil  and  the  Elder  Entme- 
lia,  the  granddaughter  of  St.  Macrina  the  Elder,  and 
the  sister  of  the  Cappodocian  Fathers,  Sts.  Basil  and 
Gregory  of  Nyssa.  The  last-mentioned  has  left  us  a 
hiographv  of  bis  sister  in  the  form  of  a  pansyric 
(■'Vita  Slacrinffi  Junioris"  in  P.  G.,  XLVI,  960 
sq.).  She  received  an  excellent  intellectual  training, 
though  one  based  more  on  the  study  of  Holy  Writ 
than  on  that  of  profane  literature.  When  she  waa  but 
twelve  years  old,  her  father  had  already  arranged  a 
marriage  for  her  with  a  young  advocate  of  excellent 
family.  Soon  afterwards,  however,  her  affianced  hus- 
iiand  died  suddenly,  and  Macrina  resolved  to  devote 
herself  to  a  life  of  perpetual  virginity  and  the  pursuit 
of  Christian  perfection.  She  exercised  great  influence 
over  the  religious  training  of  her  younger  brothers, 
especially  St.  Peter,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Sebaste,  and 
through  ner  St.  GrMory  received  the  greatest  intellec- 
tual stimulation.  On  the  death  of  their  father,  Basil 
took  her,  with  their  mother,  to  a  family  estate  on  the 
River  Iris,  in  Pontus.  Here,  with  their  servants  and 
other  companions,  they  led  a  life  of  retirement,  conse- 
crating themselves  to  God.  Strict  asceticism,  eealous 
meditation  on  the  truths  of  Christianity,  and  prayer 
were  the  chief  concerns  of  this  community.  Not  only 
the  brothers  of  St.  Macrina.  but  also  St.  Gregory  of 
Naxianius  and  Eustathius  of  Sebaste  were  associated 
with  this  pious  circle  and  were  there  stimulated  to 
moke  still  further  advances  towards  Christian  perfec- 
tion. After  the  deathofhermotherEmmelia,  Macrina 
became  the  head  ot  this  community,  in  which  the  truit 
of  the  earnest  Christian  life  matured  so  gloriously. 
On  his  return  from  a  synod  at  Antioch,  towards  the 
end  of  379,  Gregory  of  Nyasa  visited  hia  deeply  ven- 
erated sister,  and  found  her  grievously  ill.  In  pious 
discourse,  the  brotiier  and  sister  spoke  of  the  lite 
beyond  and  of  the  meeting  in  heaven.  Soon  after- 
wards Macrina  paased  blissfully  to  her  reward.  Greg- 
ory composed  a  "  Dialogue  on  the  Soul  and  Resurrec- 
tion"   (rtpl    •i'l'xvi    ""'    iraariaem),    treating    ot    his 

pious  discourse  with  hia  dying  sister.  In  this,  Macrina 
appears  aa  teacher,  and  treats  ot  the  soul,  death,  the 


J.   P.   KlRSCB. 


McSHS&RT 


509 


lAADAOASOAR 


McSherry,  James,  author;  b.  at  Liberty  Town,  Fred- 
erick County.  Maryland,  29  July,  1819;  d.  at  Fred- 
erick City.  Maryland,  13  July,  1869,  was  the  son  of 
James  MoSherry  and  Anne  Ridgely  Sappington,  and 
grandson  of  Patrick  McSherry,  who  came  from  Ireland 
in  1745  to  Lancaster  County,  Pa.,  and  removed  later  to 
Maryland.  He  graduated  from  Mount  St.  Mary's  Col- 
lege, Emmitsburg,  Md.,  in  1838,  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1840.  He  began  the  practice  of 
his  profession  in  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  but  returned  to 
Maryland  in  1841,  marrying  Eliza  Spjiurier  on  30  Sep- 
tember of  that  year.  Of  his  fiye  children  the  oldest, 
James,  became  chief  justice  of  Maryland.  He  con- 
tinued in  the  practice  of  law  at  Frederick  until  his 
death.  Mr.  McSherry  was  always  of  a  literary  turn, 
his  writings  showing  a  strong  Catholic  spirit,  and  is 
best  known  for  his  "  History  of  Maryland  (Baltimore. 
1849) .  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  "  United 
States  Catholic  Magazine",  and  also  wrote  "P6re 
Jean,  or  the  Jesuit  Missionary"  (1849)  and  "  Willitoff, 
or  the  Days  of  James  the  First :  a  Tale  "  ( 1851) ,  repub- 
lished in  German  (Fn^fort,  1858). 

Lamb.  Biog.  Diet,  of  Ike  U.  <S.,  V,  312;  Soharf.  History  of 
Western  Maryland,  I  (Philadelphia,  1882).  412-13. 

J.  P.  W.  McNeal. 

McSherry,  James,  jurist,  son  of  the  aboye,  b.  at 
Frederick,  Marj-land,  30  December,  1842;  died  there 
23  October,  1907.  He  received  a  collegiate  education 
to  the  year  before  graduation  at  Mount  St.  Mary's 
College,  Emmitsburg,  Maryland,  but  was  compelled  to 
leave  there  in  1861  on  account  of  his  outspoken  South- 
ern sympathies,  being  arrested  and  confined  for  a  time 
at  Fort  McHenry.  Baltimore.  He  studied  law  in  his 
father's  office  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  on  8  Feb- 
ruary, 1864.  On  26  February,  1866,  he  married  Miss 
Clara  Louise  McAleer^  by  whom  he  had  six  children. 
In  1887  he  was  appointed  chief  judge  of  the  circuit 
court  for  Frederick  and  Montgomery  Counties  and,  as 
such,  a  meml)er  of  the  court  of  appeals  of  the  State, 
and  was  elected  for  the  full  term  on  8  November,  1887, 
without  opposition.  Judge  McSherry  was  appointed 
chief  justice  of  the  court  of  appeals  on  25  January, 
1896,  which  position  he  filled  witn  distinction  until  ms 
death.  The  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  was  conferred 
upon  Judge  M^heny  by  Mount  St.  Mary's  College 
in  1904  and  by  the  University  of  Maryland  in  1907. 

The  Sun  (Baltimore,  34  October,  1907);  Nat.  Cyc.  of  Amer. 
Biography,  a.  v. 

J.  P.  W.  McNeal. 

McSherry,  Richard,  physician;  b.  at  Martinsbiirg, 
Va.  (now  \V.  Va.),  21  November,  1817;  d.  Baltimore, 
Md.,  7  October,  1885,  son  of  Dr.  Ricliard  McSherry. 
He  was  educated  at  Georgetown  College  and  at  the 
University  of  Maryland,  and  received  the  degree  of 
M.  D.  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1841.  Being 
appointed  assistant  surgeon  on  the  medical  corps  of 
the  U.  S.  Army  on  21  August.  1838,  he  served  under 
General  Taylor  in  the  Seminole  War  and  resigned  his 
commission  on  30  April,  1840.  He  married  in  1842  a 
daughter  of  Robert  Wilson  of  Baltimore.  From  1843 
to  1856  he  served  as  assistant  surgeon  in  the  U.  S. 
Navy,  and  after  that  practised  medicine  in  Baltimore 
until  1883.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the  Balti- 
more Academy  of  Medicine,  of  which  he  was  also  one 
of  the  founders.  Dr.  McSherry  contributed  to  medical 
journals,  and  was  also  the  author  of  "  El  Puchero,  or  a 
Mixed  Dish  from  Mexico"  (1850);  "Essays"  (1869), 
and  "Health  and  How  to  Promote  It"  (1883). 

Lamb,  Biog.  Diet.  ofU.  S.,  V,  312. 

J.  P.  W.  McNeal. 

Mactarifl,  a  titular  see  of  the  Byzantine  Empire. 
This  town  is  not  spoken  of  by  any  ancient  geographers; 
the  "  Notitia  Afric®  "  mentions  it  amon^  the  towns  of 
the  Byzantine  Empire.  It  is  now  the  village  of  Mae- 
tar,  headquarters  of  the  civil  administration  between 
Kairouan  and  the  Kef,  in  Tunisia,  sitiv!*«d  950  metres 


above  the  sea-level,  in  a  well-watered  region.  Punic 
civilization  lon^  flourished  here,  as  is  attested  by  sev- 
eral interesting  inscriptions.  It  was  counted  a  Roman 
town  until  the  year  170  at  least,  having  become  a  col- 
ony during  the  last  years  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  under 
the  name  of  ^Elia  Aurella  Mactaris,  as  we  see  from 
other  Latin  inscriptions.  In  the  vicinity  of  Mactaris  a 
numl)er  of  enormous  dolmens  majr  be  seen.  The  re- 
mains of  the  Roman  city  are  very  important;  among 
them  are  two  triumphal  arches,  an  amphitheatre,  pub- 
lic baths,  a  temple,  an  aqueduct,  tombs,  etc.  The 
ruins  of  a  basilica  have  furnished  several  Christian 
epitaphs,  among  others  those  of  two  bishops.  There 
has  also  been  found  an  altar  covering  the  remains  of 
two  martyrs,  one  of  whom  was  named  Felix.  Six 
bishops  are  known,  from  255  to  the  sixth  century, 
among  them  Victor,  a  contemporary  of  Cassiodorus, 
who  tells  us  that  this  Victor  revised  the  books  of 
Cassian. 

TouLOTTE,  Oi'ographie  de  VAfrigue  chrHienne,  Bytactne  H 
Tripolitaine  (Montreuil-sur-Mer,  1894),  127-133. 

S.   Pi^TRIDES. 

Madagascar. — On  the  second  day  of  March,  1500, 
a  fleet  of  thirteen  ships,  commanded  by  Pedro  Alvarez 
Cabral,  sailed  from  Lisbon  to  explore  the  Indian 
Ocean.  On  10  August,  one  vessel  of  .this  fleet,  com- 
manded by  Diego  Dias,  having  been  parted  from  the 
rest  by  stress  of  weather,  came  in  signt  of  a  point  of 
land  on  the  east  coast  of  a  large  island.  To  this  island 
the  name  of  St.  Lawrence  was  given,  the  day  of  its 
discovery  being  the  feast  of  that  martyr;  it  is  now  the 
island  of  Madagascar,  situated  to  the  south-east  of 
Africa,  between  11°  57'  30^  and  25*»  38'  55*  S.  latitude, 
and  between  43°  10'  and  50°  25'  East  long.  Many 
small  islands  of  less  importance  are  adjacent  to  it  in 
^e  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Mozambique  Channel,  the 
principal  being  St.  Mary,  Mayotte,  and  No8si-B4. 

The  island  of  Madagascar  is,  on  the  whole,  very 
thinly  populated,  the  population  averaging  little  more 
than  thirt'een  to  the  square  mile;  but  this  population 
is  unequally  distributed,  dense  in  the  central  regions 
and  sparse  in  other  parts.  The  principal  ethnological 
divisions  are  the  Hova,  the  Betsileo,  the  Sakalava, 
the  Betsimisaraka,  the  Sihamaka,  the  Antaimoro.  the 
Antano8}r.  Since  the  French  conquest  of  the  island 
these  various  peoples,  or  tribes,  have  been  distributed 
in  provinces,  circuits,  and  districts,  all  under  the  ad- 
ministration of  a  governor-general  who  resides  at  the 
capital,  Tananarivo.  Divers  opinions  have  been  put 
forward  by  the  learned  as  to  the  origin  of  the  peoples 
of  Madagascar.  M.  Alfred  Grandidier,  who  is  an 
acknowledged  authority  in  such  matters,  thinks,  and 
the  greater  number  of  anthropologists  think  with  him, 
that  this  population  is  of  the  black  Indonesian  race, 
and  is  therefore  one  of  the  chief  groups  of  the  Malayo- 
Polynesian'countries.  Malagasy  (the  native  language) 
seems  to  be  related  to  the  Nlalayo-Polynesian  lan- 
guages, is,  like  them,  agglutinative^  and  has  a  gram- 
mar apparently  based  on  general  pnnciplcs  analogous 
to  theirs.  It  is  very  rich  on  the  material  and  physical 
side,  and  poor  in  the  expression  of  abstract  ideas. 

The  religion  of  the  Malagasies  appears  to  be  funda- 
mentally a  kind  of  mixed  Monotneism,  under  the 
form  of  a  Fetishism  which  finds  expression  in  nu- 
merous superstitious  practices  of  which  these  people 
are  very  tenacious.  Even  those  who  have  received 
Christian  instruction  and  baptism  retain  a  tendency 
to  be  guided,  in  the  various  circumstances  of  their 
lives,  rather  by  these  superstitious  prescriptions  than 
by  the  dictates  of  reason  and  faith.  Tliey  admit  the 
existence  of  the  soul,  but  without,  apparently,  formr 
ing  any  very  exact  notion  of  it;  in  their  conception,  it 
is  not  so  much  a  spirit  made  in  the  image  of  the 
Creator  as  a  double  of  the  man,  only  more  subtile  than 
the  visible  corporeal  man.  The  Malagasy  is  naturally 
prone  to  lying,  cupidity,  and  sexual  Ususs&inl^^^^ 


lUBAOiLSOAR  5 

which  ia  for  him  bo  far  from  lieing  a  (lelcstable  vice 
tiiAt  parents  are  the  first  to  iDtroduce  their  children  to 
debsurliery.  This  immorality  and  the  lack  of  sta- 
bility and  fidelity  in  marnoge  are  the  fcrcat  obstacles 
to  the  development  of  t\if  f&mily  and  of  the  diristiaii 
reliKion  in  Madngiutcar. 

The  first  priests  to  hrinK  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ 
to  Madagascar  aft«r  tho  discovery  of  the  island,  came 
with  the  PortuKucac.  Old  doeumorti  mention  reli- 
^OUH  who,  about  the  year  1540,  at'componted  a,  colony 
of  emigrants  to  the  south-east«rn  part  of  the  islona, 
where  they  were  all  massacred  together  during  the 
oelebratioD  of  a  feast.  Then  again,  alxiut  1685,  Frey 
J(4o  de  S.  Thomri,  a  Dominican,  appean  to  have  been 


0  lUD&aiSQiA 

seven  pcnmns  had  received  baptism.  It  was  not 
until  four  years  later  that  MM.  Hounier  and  Bourdaise 
come  to  continue  the  missionary  work  which  bad  been 
initiated  at  such  cost;  but  they,  too,  succumbed  to  the 
severity  of  their  task.  A  reinforcement  of  three  mis- 
sionaries sent  to  their  assistaTicc  never  reached  them; 
one  diml  at  wa.  the  other  two  on  the  inland  of  St. 
Mary,  where  they  liad  landed.  KevertheJeaa,  St. 
Vincent  dc  Paul  was  not  discouraged. 

In  160.1,  M.  Alm^ras,  the  successor  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  in  the  government  of  the  CongreKation  of  St. 
Laiare.  obtained  the  appointment  of  M.  Etienne  as 


Vow  or  Tanahabito,  MiiDAOAacu 


poisoned  on  the  coast  of  the'  island.  In  the  Beran- 
teenth  century  two  Jenuits  came  from  Ooa  with  Ra- 
maka,  the  young  son  of  the  King  of  Anosy.  This 
youth  had  been  taken  away,  in  1615,  by  a  Portuguese 
ship,  to  Goa,  where  the  viceroy  hod  mtrueted  him  to 
the  care  of  the  Jesuits;  he  had  been  instructed  and 
baptized.  Ramaka's  father  permitted  these  two 
Jesuits  to  preach  Christianity  in  his  dominions.  But 
soon,  when  they  were  beginning  to  wield  some  power 
for  good,  tho  king,  instigated  by  his  ombiastj  (sorcer- 
ers) forlnide  his  subjects  to  either  give  or  sell  anything 
whfltMoevor  to  the  fathers.  One  of  the  two  died,  but 
the  other  succeeded  in  returning  to  India.  Some 
yearn  after  this,  tlie  I.azariHis,  sent  by  St.  Vincent  dc 
Paul,  essayed  to  conquer  Mailagascar  for  the  Faith. 
The  Socift*  de  i'Oriont  had  then  recently  taken  pos- 
Bession,  hi  the  name  of  France,  of  a  tract  of  territory 
on  the  south-eastern  litoral,  and  had  named  its  prin- 

7il  establishment  Fort-Dauphin.  Tlie  first  superior 
this  Lazarist  mission  was  M.  Nacquart:  he  left 
France  with  the  Sieur  de  Flucourt.  who  represented 
the  Soci^tfi  de  I'Orient,  and  one  of  his  associates,  M, 
Gondn^e.  Arrii-ing  at  Fort'Duuphin  in  Decemljer, 
1648,  M.  Nacquart  dcvotnl  himself  most  zealously, 
amid  difTieulties  of  ei-erj-  kind,  to  the  evangeliHition 
of  the  natives,  until  he  was  carried  off  by  a  fever,  29 
May,  l(l.")0.  M,  riondn'-<-  hod  dii-d  the  year  Ijefore. 
During  these  fourteen  months  of  a|>ostolatc  seventy- 


mas  Day  M.  Etienne  baptized  fifteen  little  children 
and  four  adults.  But  it  was  not  long  before  he, 
too,  fell  a  victim  to  his  zeal.  On  T  March,  1665,  foiu 
new  missionaries  set  out,  and  on  7  January,  1667,  they 
were  followed  by  five  priests  and  four  lay  brothers, 
with  two  Recoll^t  fathers.  But  in  1671,  the  Com- 
pa^ie  dcs  Indes,  which  had  succeeded  to  the  Soci£t£ 
de  I'Oriect,  having  resolved  tp  nuit  Mad^ascar,  M. 
Jolly,  M.  Alnrfras'  successor,  recalled  his  missionaries. 
Only  two  out  of  thirty-seven  who  had  been  sent  to  the 
ialaiid,  were  able  to  return  to  France,  in  June,  1876- 
all  the  rest  had  died  in  harness.  From  the  forcea 
abandonment  of  the  Madagascar  mission  in  1674  until 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  there  were  cmly 
a  few  isolated  attempts,  at  long  intervals,  to  resume 
the  evangel iaation  of  the  great  African  Island:  we 
may  mention  tho^  of  M.  Iioinviile  de  Gl^fier,  of  the 
Missions  Etrang£rcs  of  Paris,  and  of  the  Lazarists 
Monet  and  Durocher.  The  last^-namcd  even  sent 
some  natives  to  the  Propaganda  Scniinar>'  at  Borne 
with  the  view  of  training  tliem  for  the  apostolate  in 
their  own  countrv. 

In  1S32  MM.  de  Solaces  and  Dalmond  laid  the  first 
foundations  of  the  new  Madagascar  Mission.  But  by 
this  time  some  English  Methodists,  supported  by  the 
Government  of  their  country,  had  already  succeeded 
in  establishing  themselves  in  the  centre  of  the  inland. 
The  Rev.  Mr.  Jones  hud  obtained  authorization  from 
the  Court  of  Imerina  to  open  a  school  at  Tananarive, 
the  capital.  Other  English  Protestant  missionaries 
followed  him,  and  by  1830  they  had  thirtV'two  schools 
in  Imerina,  with  four  thousand  pupils.  When,  more- 
over, it  was  learned  at  Tananarive  that  the  new  prefect 
Apostolic,  M.  de  Solagca,  a  Catholic  priest,  was  on  his 
way  to  the  capital,  everj'thiug  was  done  to  arrest  his 
progress,  and  he  died  of  misery'  and  grief  at  Ando- 
voranto.  M.  Dalmond  took  up  the  work  begun  by  M. 
dc  Sotage?.  After  preaching  the  Gospel  in  the  small 
islands  o(T  the  coast  until  about  1S43,  he  returned 
to  France  in  order  to  recruit  a  large  missionary  force. 
The  aid  which  he  so  much  needed  be  obtained  from 
Father  Roothan,  the  general  of  the  Jesuits,  who  au- 
thorized him  to  take  six  fathers  or  brothers  from  the 
Lyons  province.  Two  priesta  from  the  Holy  Ghost 
Seminary  went  with  them.  After  a  fruitless  attempt 
at  Suint-Aucustin,  the  Jesuit  fathcn  set  themselves  to 
evangelize  the  adjacent  islands  of  St.  Mary.  Noesi-Bi^, 
and  Mnyotte.  Assisted  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of 
Cluiiy,  they  also  made  earnest  efforts  towards  the  in- 
struction and  education  of  the  Malagasy  boys  and 
girls  in  the  island  of  Ri^union  (or  Bourbon^.  Tney  did 
not,  however,  by  any  means  lose  sight  of  the  great 
island,  and  again  endeavoured  to  establish  themselves 
on  its  littoral,  but  wore  once  more  compelled  to  aban- 
don their  brave  enterprise. 

It  was  only  in  1855  that  P&re  Finaz,  disguised,  and 
under  an  assumed  name,  wa.s  able  to  penetrate  as  far 
as  the  capital.  "At  last",  he  exclaimed  in  the  joy  of 
his  heart,  "I  am  at  Tananarivo.  of  which  I  take  pos- 
session in  the  name  of  Catholicism. "  Waiting  for  the 
time  when  he  should  be  able  to  freely  announce  the 
Gospel  to  the  Hova,  he  used  all  his  eoorta  to  prolong 
his  stay  at  the  capital  without  arousing  suspicion. 


MiIUaA80A& 


511 


MADAOUOAft 


making  himself  uitcful  and  agreeable  to  the  queen  and  lay  brothers,  8  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  20 
the  great  peraonagea  of  the  realm.  He  seat  up  a  bal-  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny  (besides  'i  native  poatu- 
loou  before  the  awe-stricken  populace  assembled  in  the  lant«  and  3  novices),  34G  native  male,  and  181  native 
holy  place  of  Mahamasina;  he  contrived  theatrical  female,  teachers,  20,000  pupilfi,  a  laity  amounting  to 
perFormonces  on  a  stage  conntructcit  and  set  by  him-  80,000,  152  churcben  and  120  chapels  completed,  and 
self;  he  made  them  a  telegraphic  api^aralus,  a.  minia-  11  churches  and  43  chapels  in  course  of  constnietion. 
turo  railroad, and  other  things  wonilerful  in  their  eyee.  In  the  year  ending  July.  1882,  there  were  IKil  bap- 
Mcanwhile,  Fathere  Jouen  and  Welier,  mider  assumed  tiama  of  adults,  1882  infart  baptisms,  55,41)G  con- 
names,  joined  Father  Final  at  Ta:ianarivo,  coming  as  tesslons,  680  first  communions,  45,466  ordinary  corn- 
assistants  to  a  surgeon,  Dr,  Milhet^Fontajahie,  who  munioiis,  800  confirmBtiDna,  and  190  marriages.  Sir 
had  been  sununonM  from  Reunion  by  the  Queen  of  Gore  Jones,  a  British  admiral,  whose  testimony  can- 
Hadagoscar,  Ranavalona  I,  to  perform  a  rhinopiastic  not  be  suspected  of  favourable  bias,  declared  in  1883, 
operation  on  one  of  her  favourites.  But  this  state  of  in  a  report  to  his  Government  after  a  visit  to  tbo 
affaim  was  not  to  last  long;  Ranavalona  soon  grew  island  made  by  its  orders,  that  the  Catholic  mission- 
suspicious  and  ordered  the  expulsion  of  the  few  £u-  aries,  "working  silently  in  Madagascar",  were  plant- 
ropeans  who  resided  at  Tananarive.  The  fathers,  ing  in  that  land  "a  tree  far  superior  to  all  others", 
however,  had  managed,  during  their  brief  stay  at  the  On  17  May,  1883,  Admiral  Pierre  took  poesessioa  of 
capital,  to  conciliate  the  favour  of  the  heir  preeump-  Majun^  in  the  name  of  Frunce,  and  on  II  June  ot 
tive,  Ranavaloua's  son.  And  so  it  was  that,  in  1861,  Tamatave.  A  formal  order  of  the  queen  expelled  all 
when  thie  same  prince,  on  the  death  of  his  mother,  the  Catholic  missldiianes  and  all  French  citizens, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  as  Radama  II,  FatherB  Jouen  "  Do  not  resist  the  queen's  word  ",  was  the  answer  of 
and  Weber  could  return  to  Tananarive,  bringing^  with  the  more  responsible  among  the  native  Catholics  when 
...  .. i._j  ^i '- the  course  to  be  pup- 
sued.  "To  do  80 
would  be  to  com- 
promise our  future 
and,  perhaps,  to 
bring  upon  u 


Cluny,  and  witnout 
I«ing  oblieed,  this 
time,  to  dissemble 
their  object  in  com- 


Radam 


1  II  gave 
lun  authorisation 
for  the  teaching  of 
the  Cathohc  religion 
in  his  dominions ; 
and  tfaia  much  hav- 
ing been  conceded 
to  the  French  Cath- 


similar  concessions 
liad  to  be  made  to 
the  English  Trotea- 
ta:its  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society. 
Wliat  with  the  large 
subventions  fur- 
nished by  this  organ- 
ization to  its  emis- 
saries, and  the  clever 
manceuvres  of  aome  of  them^porticularly 


lisfortur 


If  you  submit  now, 
you  will  the  more 
easilv  return  later 
on."  They  left  the 
centre  of  the  island 

leaving  the  native 
Catholics  to  their 
own  resources — and 
went  down  to  the 
coast.  For  two  years, 
more  or  less,  while 
hostilities  ktsted,  the 
Malfl(!asy  r.itholics, 
left  wiihout  priesta, 
were  able  to  main- 
tain their  religion — 
thanks  to  the  devo- 
tion and  energy  of 
Victoire  Rasoamanarivo,  a  1a<ly  related  to  the  prime 

....„ . minister,  of  thenative  Brother  Raphael  of  tbeCongre- 

liah  missionaries  acquired  considerable  influence  wiUi  gation  of  the  Christian  Schools,  and  of  some  members 
the  new  queen,  Rosoherina,  and  her  chief  adviaer,  of  the  Cathohc  Union.  This  organiiation,  conaiating 
Rainilaiarivony.  to  the  detriment  of  the  Catholic  mia-  of  };oung  Malagasies,  ahows  a  tmly  wonderful  leal  in 
aionaries.  The  latter,  moreover,  were  few  in  number —  their  efforts  to  make  up  tor  the  absence  of  the  fathers. 
six  fathers  and  five  lay  brothers  at  Tonanarivo,  with  Both  in  the  city  parishes  and  at  Che  country  sCationa, 
two  small  schools  for  boys  and  one,  under  the  Sisters  they  made  themselves  ubiquitous,  instructing  and 
of  St.  Joseph  ot  Clunv,  for  girls;  and  at  Tamatave,  three  encouraging  the  neophytes.  ■  At  Tananarivo  they  sang 
fathers.onelaybrottier,  and  two  sisters.  Nevertheleas,  the  choral  parts  of  high  Mass  every  Sunday,  just  as  u 
in  spite  of  all  difficulties,  the  number  of  neophytes  the  prieat  had  been  at  the  altar;  and  the  native  Gov- 
increased,  and,  especially  after  the  arrival  of  the  erament,  compelled  to  admire  their  fidelity,  permitted 
Christian  Brothers  in  1866,  the  schools  took  on  this  exercise  of  demotion.  On  the  fiist  Sundav  after 
fresh  vigour.  Already  four  parishes  were  in  operation  the  departure  of  the  fathers,  when  the  Cathofica  at/- 
within  the  capital  city,  and  the  missionaries  thought  tempting  to  enter  the  cathedral  were  w'amcd  away, 
of  extending  their  efforts  oulaide.  Father  Fjoaa  Rasoamanarivo  said  to  the  guards  at  the  door:  "If  you 
opened  the  missionary  station  at  Antanetibe  on  12  must  have  blood,  begin  by  shedding  mine;  but  fear 
September,  1868;  by  the  end  of  1869,  thirty-eight  shall  not  keep  us  from  assembling  for  prayer."  After 
groups  of  neophytes  had  been  formed,  twenty-two  that  she  entered,  followed  by  all  the  faithful.  The 
chapels  built,  and  twenty-five  schools  opened.  Bet-  Franeo-Hova  struggle  came  to  an  end,  and  the  mi»- 
sileo  was  occupied  in  1871,  then  Ampositra  and  Vak-  sionariea  returned  to  resume  their  work.  Madagascar, 
inankaratra.  A  propaganda  periodical,  "Resaka",  until  then  a  prefecture  Apostolic,  was  made  a  vicariate 
i  founded.     A  leper-houae  was  built  to  receive     under  its  former  prefect,  who  became  a  titular  bishop. 


about  one  hundred  f 


nedies  to  the  h 


The  sisters  g 


at  their  dispensary.     A  fine  lai        __   ___ 

stone  was  erected  in  the  centre  of  Tananarivo.  When 
the  war  between  France  and  the  Hova  bn^e  out  in 
18S3,  tfie  Catholic  miaaion  numbered  44  priests,  19 


Mgr  J.  B.  Cazet.  Under  his  wise  and  firm  administra- 
tion the  mission  continued  to  progress.  After  a  visit 
to  the  island,  in  1892,  the  Rev.  Kenelm  Vaughan,  an 
EngUsh  priest,  was  most  favourably  impressed  by  the 
mission  work  he  saw. 
In  1891  there  was  a  new  rupture  between  t.bft^i«s<i3^ 


MUAOftm  5 

Bepublic  and  the  Court  of  Tananarivo.  The  French 
ffliaaiooaries  onoe  more  had  to  abandon  their  vork, 
which  then  mcluded  one  college,  9  normal  schools,  443 
schools  and  miaaion  stations,  S3  churches,  287  chapels, 
2  leper-houses,  an  observatory^  a  printing  press,  and 
various  workshops.  The  staff  of  the  mission  com- 
prised:  one  bishop  (the  vicar  Apostolic),  72  priests,  4 
acholastics  (one  of  them  a  Malagasy),  17  lay  brothers, 
16  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  29  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  of  Cluny,  819  native  teachers  of  both  seites. 
There  were  26,839  pupils  and  136,175  converts,  of 
whom  41,133  had  been  baptized.  During  the  military 
operations  a  great  many  of  the  Catholic  missionaries 
Krved  as  chaplains  in  the  expeditionary  coipa,  and 
several  paid  for  their  devotedness  with  their  lives. 
Aft«r  the  conquest  came  the  insurrection  of  the  Taha- 
valo,  in  which  Father  Berthieu  sacrificed  his  life  for 
his  Christians,  whom  he  would  not  forsake :  he  was 
barbarously  slaughtered  by  the  insurgents.  But  his 
blood  was  the  seed 


counted  something 
like  thrice  as  manv 
adherents  and.  pupiu 
in  its  schools  as  it 
had  before  the  war. 
As  to  the  question 
whether  all  these 
new  converts  to  the 
Faith  were  sincerely 
convinced,  it  must 
be  said  that  the 
number  of  defections 
tends  to  show  the 
eziat«nce  of  political 
or  other  human  mo- 
tives. Many  con- 
verts went  over  to 
Catholicism  as  they 
would  have  gone  over 
toProteslantism  had 
Eingland  conquered 
the  island,  or  as  some 
went  over  to  Metho- 
dism when  the  prime 

queen,  by  their  ad-         i 
berence   to   it,   made   that  a 
K  Mgr  Cazet 


1 2  MinttW* 

eran  Mission  of  America  (United  Chvirch) ;  also  those 
oC  the  Free.Church  and,  lastly,  of  the  Soci£t£  des  Mia- 
sions  Evangfliques  of  Paris.  At  present  (1906)  these 
different  societies  number  about  115  representatives, 
men  and  women,  in  Madagascar,  wtule  the  working 
staff  of  the  three  Catholic  vicariates  exceeds  300. 
Navertheless  about  nine-tenths  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Madagascar  remain  pagans.  Progress  is  slow  owing  to 
the  perplexity  arising  from  a  variety  of  Christian  sects. 
I'd  any  pagan  the  spectacle  of  Christian  preachers 
attributing  contradictory  doctrines  to  the  same  Hoo- 
ter must  prove  confusing. 

FucocHT,  HiMoire  de  ta  Brand'  Ut  de  Madagatair  fPmiifc 
I6S8)l   Mimo-iret  de  la  Corarigation  dt  la  Mittion.  IX  (Paris, 


E,  HiMom  dt  Madaffttacar  (Pari 


tSS4):  RouviBi),  Loin  i 


natofficiel  di  MadapfiK 


<.  1902); 
.Mr^  dit 


the  burden 


sort  of  state  religion, 
o  longer  able  to  sustain 

.    .    n  of  his  vast  and  heavy  responsibility  for  the 

whole  island.  At  his  petition,  two  new  vicariates  Apos- 
tolic were  created.  That  of  Southern  Madagascar,  ex- 
tending from  the  l^wenty-second  parallel  of  south 
latitude  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  island,  was 
entrusted  to  the  Laiarists,  who,  under  Mgr  Crouiet. 
resumed  the  work  of  theii'brethrcn  after  an  interrup- 
tion of  200  years.  That  of  Northern  Madagascar, 
extending  from  the  northern  extremity  to  the  eight- 
eenth parallel,  was  given  to  the  fa^er^  of  the  Congre- 
Stion  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  under  Mgr  Corbet.  Mer 
zet  kept  the  territory  between  18°  and  22°  S.  lati- 
tude^ forming  the  Vicariate  of  Central  Madagascar. 
In  view  of  (he  development  of  his  more  densely  popu- 
lated vicariate  and,  consequently,  of  its  needs,  Mgr 
Caiet  asked  and  obtained  the  help  of  the  Missionary 
Fathers  of  Our  Lady  of  La  Salette  and  the  Sisters  of 
Providence  of  Corenc,  to  whom  he  committed  the 
Vakinankavatra  district,  while  Betsileo  was  confided 
to  the  Jesuits  of  the  Champagne  province.  Mgr  Henry 
de  Saune  was  appointed  his  coadjutor. 

In  the  meantime  tlie  Protestants  also  liave  multi- 
plied. To  the  missionaries  and  material  resources  of 
the  London  Missionary  Society  have,  for  some  time 
past,  been  added  those  of  the  Friends'  Foreign  Mission 
Association  and  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Oatpe},  the  Norwegian  Mission,  the  Norwegian  Luth- 


'the Catholic  Kmoa 

uiEn,  La  bUAioQvuphie  d» 
MadatatcaT,  1B00-IB05 
tPstis,  IBOS.  3  vola.). 

Padl  Caubou6. 

Hadaurus,  or 
Madadra,  a  titular 
see  of  Numidia.  It 
was  an  old  Numidiau 
town  which,  having 
once  belonged  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Syphax. 
was  annexed  to  that 
of  Massinissa  at  the 
close  of  the  second 
Punic  War.  It  be- 
came a  Roman  col- 
ony about  the  end  of 
the  first  century  and 
was  famous  tor  its 
schools.  It  was  the 
native  town  irf  Apu- 
leius,  author  of  "The 
<AN*Bivci,  Madaoabcab  Goldeu    Ass",    and 

of  the  grammarians 
Nonius  and  Maximus.  Bt.  Augustine  studied  there; 
through  a  tetter  which  he  addressed  later  to  the  in- 
habitants we  learn  that  many  were  still  pagans. 
Madaurus,  however,  had  many  martyrs  kaowp  by 
their  epitaphs;  several  are  named  iu  the  Roman 
martyrolo^  on  4  July.  Three  bishops  are  known: 
Antigonus,  who  attended  the  council  of  Carthage, 
349;  Placentius,  the  council  of  407  and  the  Confer- 
ence of  411;  Pudentius,  sent  into  exile  by  Hunerio 
with  the  other  bishops  who  had  been  present  at 
the  Conference  of  484.  The  niins  <A  Madaurus  are 
seen  near  Mdaouroch,  department  of  Constantine 
(Algeria);  a  fine  Roman  mnuaoloum,  vast  baths,  a 
Byzantine  fortress,  a  Christian  basilica  are  note- 
worthy and  have  furnished  several  Christian  inscrip- 

Sunn.  Zlvf.  of  Qr^  and  Roman  Geofff.  fl.  v.;  Toulottx. 
OtaamphU  de  CAfnnui  cAn'lwnnc;  Ntimtdie  (It«in«,  1804>, 
201-200. 

S.  VifTBiTtta. 

Hadenut,  Cahlo  (1656-1629),  known  principally 
by  his  extension  of  St.  Peter's,  at  the  command  of  the 

Kpe,  from  the  form  of  a  Greek  to  that  of  a  Lalui  cross. 
!gard  for  ecclesiastical  tradition  and  other  causes 
made  the  long  nave  preferable,  notwitlistandin^  that 
the  effect  of  the  cupola  was  thus  much  diminished. 
Madema  began  his  task  in  the  year  1605,  forty  years 
after  the  death  of  Michelangelo.  By  bringing  the  col- 
umns nearer  ti^jether,  he  sought  to  lessen  the  un- 


BCADEBMO  513  BCADIAMITES 

favourable  effect  produced,  but  in  so  doin^  obstructed  1599.    Before  closing  the  tomb  again,  Clement  VUI 

the  former  unbroken  vista  in  the  side  aisles.    How-  summoned  Mademo,  the  most  skilful  artist  of  his  da^ 

ever,  notwithstanding  the  extension,  the  great  basilica  to  make  an  exact  reproduction  of  the  figure.    His 

has  not  lost  its  sublime  grandeur.  statue  represents  a  delicate,  rather  small  body,  lying 

The  new  facade  was  widened .    It  is  an  ornamental  face  downward,with  the  knees  drawn  together,  the  arms 

structure  independent  of  the  building  itself,  and  its  extended  along  the  side  and  crossing  at  the  wrists,  the 

impressive  size  does  not  harmonise  with  the  character  head  enveloped  in  a  veil.    A  gold  fillet  marks  the 

of  the  decorations.    The  length  measures  112  metres  wound  in  the  back  of  the  partly-severed  neck.    The 

(367  ft.  4  in.)  and  the  height  44  metres  (144  ft.  4  in.^.  form  is  so  natural  and  lifelike,  so  full  of  modesty  and 

£ight  gigantic  columns,  27  metres  (88  ft.  6i  in.)  m  grace,  that  one  scarcely  needs  the  sculptor's  testimony 

height,  stand  in  two  divisions,  on  both  sides  of  which  graven  on  the  base:  '^  Behold  the  body  of  the  most 

are  pillars  and  imbedded  pillars.   Above  Ijliese  extends  holy  virgin  Cecilia  whom  I  myself  saw  lying  incorrupt 

an  entablature  with  balustrades,  and  an  arch  sur-  in  her  tomb.    I  have  in  this  marble  expressed  for  thee 

mounts  the  portals.     Upon  this  entablature  stand  thesamesaintinthe  very  same  posture  of  body".    If 

•statues  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles,  5  to  7  metres  (16  it  were  art  alone,  it  would  be  consummate  art,  but 

to  22  ft.)  high.    Massive  comer-pieces  were  intended  Cico^nara  bears  witness  that  in  the  nerfect  simplicity 

for  bell-towers,  the  lack  of  which  at  the  present  day  of  this  work,  more  unstudied  and  nexuous  than  his 

weakens  the  effect  of  the  facade.    In  the  arran^ment  other  productions,  the  youthful  sculptor  must  have 

of  the  foreground  and  background,  and  in  the  different  been  guided  solelv  by  the  nature  of  the  object  before 

effects  of  intercolumniation.  much  freedom  is  used,  him,  and  followed  it  with  unswerving  docihty. 
not  without  many  happy  shadow  effects.    Between        Stefano  is  supposed  to  have  assisted  in  the  construe- 

the  building,  which  was  itself  lengthened  by  50  metres  tion  of  the  Pauline  Chapel  of  Sta  Maria  Maggiore, 

(164  ft.),  and  the  facade,  there  is  a  vestibule  71  metres  where  two  of  his  reliefs  are  to  be  found:  one  in  marble 

(nearly  233  ft.)  wide,  13  metres  (42  ft.  6  in.)  deep,  aiid  representing  a  battle,  the  other,  the  story  of  the 

20  metres  (65  ft.  6  in.)  high,  leading  into  the  five  snow-fall  in  August,  the  origin  of  the  basilica.    Also 

entrances.    The  interior  of  this  vestibule  is  the  finest  attributed  to  Stefano,  but  quite  without  importance, 

work  of  the  master,  and  it  has  even  been  rated  one  of  are:  the  figure  of  St.  Peter  for  the  facade  of  the 

the  most  beautiful  architectural  works  of  Rome,  on  Quirinal  Palace:  a  statue  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo 

account  of  the  lordly  proportions,  the  svmmetrical  in  the  church  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso,  decorative 

arrangement,  and  the  simple  colouring,  the  relief  on  figures   of   children  in  the  Sixtine  Chapel  of  Sta. 

the  ceiling  being  painted  in  white  and  aark  yellow.  l£iria  Maggiore,  angels  of  the  Madonna  di  Loreto  and 

The  two  fountains  in  the  open  space  {piazza)  before  Sta  Maria  sopra  Mmerva  and  the  allegories  of  Peace 

St.  Peter's  are  also  much  admired.   The  faQade  of  St.  and  Justice  at  Sta  Maria  della  Pace.    Count  Gaspare 

Susanna  and  that  of  the  Incurabili,  as  lesser  works,  Rivaldi,  for  whom  Mademo  executed  various  commis- 

were  better  suited  to  the  genius  of  Madema.    He  also  sions,  having  sought  to  reward  him  by  procuring  for 

grovided  Sta.  Francesca  Romana  with  a  f&^Ade  in  the  him  a  lucrative  position  at  the  excise  offices  of  the  Ga- 

iaroque  style.    In  all  these  works,  the  want  of  har-  belle  di  Ripetta.  the  sculptor's  time  became  unfortu- 

mony  between  the  fapade  and  the  main  body  of  the  nately  engrossed  by  his  new  duties  to  the  exclusion  of . 

church  was  an  inheritance  from  the  Renaissance.   But  his  art.    He  died  in  Rome  in  1636. 
it  was  partially  through  the  influence  of  Fontana.        Cicoonaka,  gtona  <irfte  Scuttura  (V<pice^ 

his  uncle,  that  Madema  was  even  then  dominated  by  f'J^'^  ^^ew  York,  1890);  Grande  Encydop^die  (Pans.  1886). 


the  freedom  of  the  Baroque  style,  which,  in  its  later  M.  L.  Handlby. 
development,  broke  loose  from  all  restraint.    The 

serious  dignity  of  the  facade  of  the  GesiX  is  not  inter-  Madianites    (in  A.  V.  Midianiteb),  an  Arabian 

fered  with  by  its  charming  rhythm,  varying  shadow  tribe:  Heb.  D'^HO  Sept.  Mo8«;witbt  and  MaJiawfrcu, 

effects  and  nch  decoration;   and  there  is  no  lack  of  Lat.  Madianitse).    Comparison  of  Gen.,  xxxvi,  35, 

harmony  of  the  whole,  or  of  symmetry.   The  interior  with  xxxvii^  28,  36  proves  that  the  Biblical  authors 

of  Sant'  Andrea  della  Valle,  majestic  and  rich  in  tone,  employ  indifferently  the  simple  form  Madian  (Heb. 

gives  us  even  now  a  true  idea  of  the  artistic  taste  of  jno   Sept.  Maduii',    Lat.  Madian)    instead    of   the 

Madema.    He  built  a  part  of  the  Palasso  Mattel  (the  tribal   jHural.    The   collective   Madian  appears  in 

court,  with  lofty  loggias)  and,  with  Bernini,  the  Jrai-  Judges,  vi-viii,  and  seems  to  have  been  subsequently 

a2zo  Barberini  (the  central  building,  with  three  orders  preferred  (cf.  Is.,  ix,  3;  Xj  26;  Ps.  Ixxxiii,  10).    In  I 

of  columns  and  an  open  arcade).   He  co-operated,  be-  ICings,  xi,  18,  and  Hab.,  iii,  7,  for  example,  if  Madian 

sides^  in  many  works  at  Rome,  for  example,  the  denotes  a  country,  it  is  by  transposition  of  the  name  of 

Quinnal  Gardens.    At  Ferrara,  he  designed  tne  forti-  the  people,  which  was  not  the  primitive  usage.    By 

fications.  a  specious,  but  inconclusive,  argument,  P.  Haupt 

QuATREii|Ri!  De  Quinct,  Hm*.  d<MpiuB  cfUbtM  archOectea  ("Midian  und  Sinai"  in  "Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen 

L&V^ew"^^."(^cfe  morgenlftndischenGe^llschaft",  bciii,  1909,  p.  506) 

G.  GiETMANN.  *M^8  evcnreoently  sought  to  prove  that  Madian  was  an 

abstract  term  denoting  a  religious  association  such 

Mademo,  Stefano  ^1576-1636),  a  sculptor  of  the  as  the  Gredu  called  an  Amphictyony  (dfjupucTvowia), 
Roman  School  and  of  the  era  just  preceding  Bernini.  The  term  Madianites  must,  m  tmit  case,  have  been 
his  contemporary.  He  is  believed  to  be  of  Lombard  used  somewhat  as  we  say  Muastdmans, 
origin  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Como;  probably  he  The  Madianites  were  mtroduced  into  history  in  the 
was  related  to  Carlo  Madema,  the  architect  and  sculp-  texts  of  Gen.,  xxv,  1-4  and  I  Chron.,  i,  32  sq.  which 
tor,  who  was  also  bom  near  Como,  at  Bissone.  Ste-  aasign  as  their  ancestor  an  eponym  called  Maaian,  the 
fano's  works  are  found  frequently  in  churches  upon  son  of  Abraham  by  Qetourah  (D.V.  Cetura),  which 
which  Carlo  was  engaged.  Stefano  began  by  copying  signifies  "  incense  **  or  conveys  the  idea  of  incense  and 
the  antique  and  made  several  highly  esteemed  models  aromatios  (cf.  Beut.,  xxxiii,  10).  Of  the  five  other 
in  bronze.  His  fame  rests,  however,  upon  the  statue  sons  which  Abraham  had  by  Cetura  the  only  other  one 
of  St.  Cecilia  over  her  tomb  in  the  church  of  St.  Ce-  who  can  now  be  identified  is  Shii^  fD.V.  Sue).  For  a 
cilia  in  Trastevere,  Rome.  He  never  surpassed,  or  long  time  Delitzsch  had  suggested  a  connexion  be- 
even  equalled  this,  which  he  executed  in  hia  twenty-  tween  this  name  and  that  oTSuhu,  a  country,  men- 
third  year.  The  body  of  the  martyr,  discovered  by  tioned  in  the  Ase^rrian  documents  ("  Wo  lag  das  Para- 
Pope  Paschal  I  (fourth  century)  in  the  Catacomb  of  dies",  Ldpzig,  1881,  297  sq.),  which  is  the  desert 
St.  Callistus  and  brought  by  him  to  the  church  which  region  between  the  Euphrates  and  Syria  (see  Ed. 
had  been  her  dwelling,  was  viewed  anew  unchanged  in  .Meyer  "Die  Israeliter  und  ihre  NachbaxstAx&ssAf  > 
IX.— .3 


MADIAMITE8 


614 


MADIAKITES 


flalle,  1906,  314. — DadaUy  too,  inay  probably  be 
oonsidered  as  a  geographical  name  in  tne  region  of 
Teim&) .  The  continuation  of  the  genealogy  settles  its 
character  and  permits  a  better  identification  of  the 
Madianites:  Madian  must  have  had  five  sons,  'Epha, 
*£ph6r,  H&nOk,  AbtdA*,  and  '£ld&h.  The  last  two  are 
used  as  proper  names  in  the  Sabeo-Minean  inscrip- 
tions, but  are  otherwise  unknown.  The  first  thr^, 
which  occur  in  later  Israelitish  genealogies  (see  Num., 
xxvi,  5;  I  Chron.,  ii,  47;  iv,  17),  have  b«Bn  rightly 
compared  with  local  and  ethnolo^cal  designations  in 
soutnem  Arabia  (see  the  more  important  citations 
from  Arabian  authors  collected  in  DiUmann,  "Die 
Genesb  erklart ",  6th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1892,  308  sq.).  For 
'Epha  in  particular  there  is  the  valuable  witness  of  the 
Assyrian  texts.  The  annals  of  Tiglath-Pileser  (D.  V. 
Theglathphalasar) ;  (d.  727  b.  c.)  mention  among  the 
tribes  of  Teim&  and  Saba  a  tribe  called  Hayapa  which 
is  philologically  the  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  HB^y  (cf . 
Schrader, "  Die  Keilenschrif  ten  und  das  A.  T.",  3rd  ed., 
Berlin,  1903,  58). — It  may  be  inferred  from  these  in- 
dicatiohs  that  the  genealogy  of  Madian  is  a  hterary 
process  bv  which  the  Bible  connects  with  the  history 
of  the  Hebrew  people  the  Arabian  tribes  of  the  regions 
which  we  now  call  Nejd  and  Jddf.  Madianites  \a, 
then,  to  be  regarded  as  the  generic  name  of  an  im- 
mense tribe  divided  into  several  clans  of  which  we 
know  at  least  some  of  the  names. 

This  notion  established,  there  will  be  scarcely  any 
difficulty  in  tracing  through  sacred  history  the  rdfe 
played  by  the  Madianites,  without  having  recourse,  as 
nas  too  often  been  done,  to  alleged  contradictions  in 
the  sources.  Some  of  these — e.  g..  Gen.,  xxxvii,  28, 
36  (cf.  Is.,  Ix,  6) — represent  them  as  merchants  en- 
gaged cbiefiy  in  the  transportation  of  aromatics  by 
&eir  camel  caravans.  Otners — e.  g.,  Ex.,  ji,  16  sq.; 
iii,  1— depict  them  as  shepherds,  but  somewhat  seden- 
•  tary.  In  one  place  (v.  g.,  Ex.,  xviii,  7-12,  and  Judges, 
L  16;  see  the  commentaries  of  Moore^  Lagrange,  etc., 
for  the  exact  reading)  the  Madianites  m  general,  or  the 
special  clan  of  the  (^nites  (D.V.  Cinites),  appear  as 
tne  friends  and  allies  of  Israel;  in  another  (v.  g.. 
Judges,  vi-viii,  and  Num.,  xxv,  xxxii)  they  are  irrecon- 
cilable enemies;  Hab.,  iii,  7,  manifestly  localizes  them 
in  southern  Arabia,  by  parallel  with  JK^3  which 
designates  a  country  of  eastern  K(^h,  most  certainly 
distmct  from  Ethiopian  Nubia.  (This  distinction, 
first  established  by  Glaser.  then  by  Winckler  and 
Hommel,  has  been  discussed  by  Lagrange  in  "  Les  in- 
scriptions du  sud  de  1' Arabic  et  Tex^gdse  biblique  "  in 
"Revue  Biblique"^  1902,  269  sqq.  Ed.  Meyer,  who 
denies  the  distinction,  in  "Die  Israeliten",  315  sqq., 
does  not  bring  forward  any  solid  argument  against  it.) 
Num..  xxii,  4,  and  especially  Gen.,  xxxvi,  35,  place 
them  oeyond  contradiction  in  almost  immediate  rela- 
tion with  Moab.  so  that  Winckler  ("  Geschichte  Israels 
in  Einzeldarsteilungen  "^  I,  Leipzig,  1895,  47  sqq.)  as- 
signs to  them  as  habitat,  according  to  the  most 
ancient  tradition,  the  country  later  occupied  by  the 
Moabites. 

It  is  evidently  a  matter  for  Biblical  criticism  to  ex- 
amine the  particular  point  of  view  of  the  various  ac- 
counts in  which  the  Madianites  occur,  and  to  explain, 
for  instance,  why  Madianites  and  Ishmadites  are  em- 
ployed in  apparent  equivalence  in  Gen.,  xxxvii,  25, 28, 
and  Judges,  viii,  24,  26.  For  the  rest,  much  light  is 
shed  on  the  history  of  this  ancient  and  powerful  tribe 
by  analogies  with  what  we  know  concerning  the  great 
Arabian  tribes,  their  constitution,  their  division,  their 
habitat,  their  relations  with  the  neighbouring  tribes  or 
sedentary  peoples .  As  we  find  them  in  the  Pentateuch 
the  Madianites  were  an  important  tribe  in  which  were 
lathered  the  chief  clans  inhabiting  Southern  Aralna. 
The  area  wherein  these  nomads  moved  with  their 
flocks  stretched  towards  the  west,  probably  to  the 
frontiers  of  Egypt,  and  towards  tne  north,  without 
well-defined  limits  to  the  plateaux  east  of  the  Dead 


Sea  and  towards  Hauran.      (Compare  the  modefm 
tribe — much  less  important,  it  is  true — of  the  Qawei- 
t&te.)    It  was  with  them  that  Moses  sought  refuge 
when  he  was  fleeing  from  E^n>t  (Ex.,  ii,  15),  as  did  the 
E^rptian  officer  in  the  weU-known  account  of  Sino- 
uhit.    His  welcome  to  the  tribe  and  the  alliance  which 
subsequently  resulted  therefrom^  when  Moses  and  his 
people  were  marching  towards  Sinai,  are  like  common 
occurrences  in  the  history  of  modem  tribes.    But  the 
Madianites  were  not  all,  nor  exclusively,  shepherds. 
Masters  of  the  eastern  desert,  if  not  also  of  the  fertile 
countries  oi  southern  Arabia,  they  at  least  monopo- 
lized the  traffic  between  Arabia  and  the  Aramean 
countries^  on  the  north,  or  Egypt,  on  the  west .    Their 
commercial  caravans  brought  them  into  contact  witl^ 
the  regions  of  culture,  and  thus,  as  always  happens 
with  nomads,  the  spectacle  of  the  prospenty  of  more 
settled    peoples    aroused    their    covetousness    and 
tempted  them  to  make  raids.     When  Israel  was  form- 
ing Its  political  and  religious  organizations  at  Mount 
Sinai,  it  was  in  peaceful  contact  with  one  of  the  Madi- 
anite  clans,  the  Cinites.     TOne  considerable  school  in 
recent  times  has  even  undertaken  to  prove  that  the 
religion  of  Israel,  and  especially  the  worship  of  Jahve, 
was  borrowed  from  the  Uinites.     Lagrange  nas  shown, 
in  "Revue  Biblique",  1903, 382  sqq.,  that  this  assump- 
tion is  without  foundation.)     It  has  even  been  estaD- 
lished  that  a  portion  of  this  clan  united  its  fortunes 
with  those  of  Israel  and  followed  it  to  Chanaan  (cf . 
Num.,  xxiv,  21  sq.;  Judges,  i,  16;  iv,  11.  17;  v,  24;  I 
Sam.,  XV,  6  sq.).    However,  other  Madianite    clans 
scattered  through  the  eastern  desert  were  at  the  same 
time  covetously  watching  the  confines  of  the  Aramean 
country.    They  were  called  upon  by  the  Moabites  to 
oppose  the  passage  of  Israel  (Num.,  xxii,  sqq.).   As  to 
these  "Mountains  of  the  east",  (HdrerB  Q^dSm)  of 
Num.,  xxiii,  7,  whence  was  brought  the  Madianite 
diviner  Balaam,  cf .  "  the  east  country  "  of  Gen.,  xxv,  7, 
to  which  Abraham  relegated  the  offspring  of  his  con- 
cubine Getura;  cf.  also  the  modem  linguistic  usage  of 
the  Arabs,  to  whom  "  the  East "  (Sherq)  indicates  the 
entire  desert  region  where  the  Bedouin  tribes  wander, 
between  Sjrria  and  Mesopotamia,  to  the  north,  and  be- 
tween the  Gulf  of  Akabah  and  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the 
south. 

Nothing  is  to  be  concluded  from  this  momentary 
alliance  between  the  Moabites  and  a  portion  of  the 
Madianites,  either  with  regard  to  a  very  definite  hab- 
itat of  the  great  tribe  on  the  confines  of  Moab,  or  with 
regard  to  a  contradiction  with  other  Biblical  accounts. 
In  the  time  of  Gedeon,  perhaps  two  centuries  after  the 
events  in  Moab,  the  eastern  Madianites  penetrated  the 
fertile  regions  where  Israel  was  for  a  long  time  settled. 
This  was  much  more  in  the  nature  of  a  foray  than  of 
a  conquest  of  the  soil.  But  the  Madianite  chieftains 
had  exasperated  Gedeon  by  slaying  his  brothers.  The 
vengeance  taken  was  in  conformity  with  the  law  of  the 
times,  which  is  to  this  day  the  Arabian  law.  Gedeon, 
as  conqueror,  exterminated  the  tribe  after  having  slain 
its  leacfers  (Judges,  viii) .  From  this  time  the  tribe  dis- 
appeared almost  entirely  from  the  history  of  Israel  and 
seems  never  to  have  regained  much  of  its  importance. 
The  installation  of  the  eastern  Israelitish  tribes  forced 
these  Madianites  back  into  the  desert;  the  surviving 
clans  fell  back  towards  the  south,  to  Arabia,  which 
had  been  their  cradle,  and  where  some  portions  of  the 
tribe  had  never  ceased  to  dwell.  This  was  their  centre 
in  the  time  of  Isaias  (Ix,  6),  probably  also  in  the  time 
of  Habacuc  (iii,  7;  about  600  b.  c.) ;  here,  at  any  rate, 
all  the  Assyrian  documents  of  Theglathphalasar  (745- 
27)  and  Sargon  (722-05)  make  mention  of  one  of  their 
clans.  Howeve?,  the  conflict  between  the  South- 
Arabian  tribes  increased,  and  new  waves  of  popula- 
tion, flowing  northwards  to  the  regions  of  culture, 
were  to  absorb  the  remains  of  the  ancient  decayed 
tribe.  According  to  the  testimony  of  Greek  geo^- 
phers  and,  later,  of  Arabian  authors,  the  MadianitM 


HAOaAS  51 

would  (teem  to  have  taken  mi)  their  nenimiient  abode 
OD  the  bonlerH  of  the  Gulf  uf  Akabah,  since  there  ex- 
isted there  a  town  called  Mb)i4hi  (Ptolemy,  "Geogr." 
VI,  vii,  2;  but' according  to  Flavius,  Josephus,  and 
Eiuebiua,  MaSutr^),  whose  ruins  have  been  described 
by  the  otplorer  RQppel  and,  more  recently,  by  Sir  R. 
Burton  (''The  Gold  Mines  of  Midinn  "  and  "The  Land 
of  Midian  revisited",  London,  1878  and  1876)  now 
known  as  MdghdJrShuaib,  not  far  from  the  abandoned 
harbour  of  Maqna,  on  the  eaat«m  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah.  If,  as  there  is  every  reason  to  believe,  it  was 
the  Hadianit«s  whom  Procopius  had  in  mind  under 
the  somewhat  distorted  name  of  MnoSiiiwf  (Peraian 
War,  I,  xix;  ed.  Niebuhr,  Bonn,  1833,  p.  100),  the 
tribe  still  exiat^  exactly  in  the  region  mentioned  un- 
der the  reign  of  Justinian.  But  this  document  shows 
us  in  a  manner  the  death-throea  of  the  tribe  which  was 
then  dependent  on  the  Himyarites  and  doubtless  Was 
soon  tendered  wholly  extinct  by  absorption  in  the 
Islamite  hordes. 

WiHnuR  sad  Bdrtoh  id  works  atcd  sbovs  in  the  body  of 

tba  Ktticte.  Also  Bo- 
il accohsi  in  ViooD- 
ROCX,  Diet,  dr  la  BMt. 

TIHCS.  Diet.  0/ lilt  Bibli, 
a.v.  Mvlia«.  Mulianilt: 

Hug  DBS  Vincent. 

Madras  (Madras- 
PATAM),  Archdio- 
cese OP   (Madras- 

Its  area  h  about 
40,350  square  miles, 
and  the  Catholic 
population  about 
50,000  out  of  a  total 


of  0 


lions.  The  diocese 
is  under  the  caie  of 
secular  clergy  (Euro- 
pean and  native) 
aftd  the  missionaries 
of  St.  Joseph,  Mill 
Hill.  There  are  in 
the  archdiocese  47 
churches  and  135 
chapels  in  charge  of  99  priests  (of  whom  39  are  Euro- 
peans, 18  nativea  and  2  Eurasians),  assisted  by  the 
BrotheiB  of  St.  Patrick  and  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi. 
Nuns  of  the  Orders  of  the  Presentation  and  the  Good 
Shepherd,  the  Sisters  of  Jesus,  Mary,  and  Joeeph, 
and  the  Native  Sisterhoods  of  St.  Anne,  of  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi,  of  St.  Fancis  Xavier,  numbering  in  all  262. 
From  the  year  1606  the  districts  covered  by  the 
present  Diocese  of  Madras  belonged  to  the  Padroado 
See  of  San  Thom4.  In  1642,  however,  a  Capuchin 
mission  was  started  at  Madras  and  erected  mto  a 
prefecture  Apostolic  under  Propaganda.  This  mis- 
sion was  kept  up  by  the  same  order  until  the  sub- 
stitution of  a  vicariate  Apostolic  in  1832.  The  fre- 
quent vacancies  of  the  See  of  San  Thom6  and  other 
reasons  led  the  Holy  See  in  1832  to  erect  a  new 
vicariate  Apostolic  in  place  of  the  old  prefecture  Apos- 
tolic, and,  by  the  brief  "Multa  Prwclare"  of  1838,  to 
withdraw  entirely  the  jurisdiction  of  San  ThomS  as 
well  OS  the  other  Padroado  suffragan  sees,  transferring 
this  portion  of  it  to  the  new  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Madras, 
the  other  portions  being  assigned  to  the  Vicars  Apos- 
tolic of  Madura,  of  Bengal,  and  of  the  Coromandel 
Coast  (Pondicherry),  eto.  The  Vicariate  of  Madras 
was  at  first  very  eictensive,  but  was  reduced  by  the 
erection  of  new  vicariates — those  of  Viiagapatam  in 
1849  and  Hyderabad  in  1851.  On  the  eetablishment 
of  the  hierarchy  in  1886,  Madras  was  made  into  an 
archdiocescj  with  Viza^patam  and  Hyderabad  as 
suffragan  dioceses,  and  the  following  year  a  third  suf- 
Wgan  see  was  added  at  Nagpur  by  a  nibdivision  of 


the  territory  of  Viiagapatam.  Subsequently  the 
Doab  of  Haichur  wax  ceded  to  Hydcral^ad,  and  thus 
the  present  boundaries  were  arrived  at.  Within  the 
conbnes  of  the  archdiocese  there  are  five  exempted 
churches  in  Madras  belonging  to  the  jurisdiction  <tf 
San  Thonu5,  and  on  the  other  hand  Adyar  in  the 
Mylapore  confines  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Madras. 
The  list  of  Capuchin  prefects  Apostolic  from  1642  to 
1832  is  not  accessible.  Vicars  Apoetolic;  Joiin  Bede 
Poiding,  O.S.B.,  nominated  in  13^2,  but  declined; 
Pedro  D'AIcantara,  O.  Carm.  Disc.,  Vic.  Ap.  of  Bout- 
bay,  appointeii  ad  inimm  18ii4-35;  Daniel  O'CooneU, 
O.S.A.,  1835-^0:  Patrick  Joseph  Carew,  1840-42;  Joba 
Fennelly,  1842-68;  Stephen FenneUy,  1868-80;  Joseph 
Colgan,  1882,  became  archbishop  in  1886,  still  living; 
present  coadjutor-bishop,  John  Aeten,  since  18^. 
The  Mill  Hill  Fathers,  who  first  entered  the  diocese  in 
1882,  have  St.  Mary's  European  High  School,  Madras, 
founded  1906,with  130  European  pupils;  St.  Gabriel's 
High  School,  Madras,  founded  1839,  with  200  native 
pupils;  St.  Joseph's  European  School,  Bellary,  with 
65  boarders  and  20 
day-scholara;  Native 
Higher  Secondary 
School,  Bellary,with 
100  Tftlugu  pupils. 
The  Brothers  of  St. 
Patrick,  established 
1875,  have  St.  Pat- 
rick's Orphanage, 
Adyar,  with  90  or- 
tolans, also  European 
Boarding  School  with 
60  pupils.  TheTeiv 
tiary  Brothers  of 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
founded  1889,estab- 
lished  at  Bellary, 
1899,  have  a  school 
with  52  boarders  and 
primary  school  with 
117  boys. 

The  Presentation 
Nuns,  established 
1842,  have  the  Pres- 
entation Convent 
College,  Madras,  with  200  boarders  and  225  day 
scholar?,  besides  a  branch  school  at  Rovapuram, 
with  104  pupils;  at  Vepery,  a  convent  school  with 
40  boarders  and  91  day  scholars,  an  orphanage 
with  22  inmates,  and  St.  Joseph's  High  School 
(founded  1884)  with  20  pupils.  The  Good  Sbegy- 
herd  Nuns,  estabUshed  in  1875  at  Bellary:  novi- 
ciate of  the  order,  and  also  of  Native  Sisters  of  St. 
Frands  Xavier;  St.  Philomena's  High  School  for 
Europeans,  with  boarders  and  day-scholars  (total 
135);  military  orphanage;  St,  Joseph's  Orphanage  for 
European  Girls,  with  65  inmates;  St.  Xavier's  Or- 
phanage, for  native  children,  with  28  inmates;  Mag- 
dalene asylum  and  widows'  home  opened  in  1896,  with 
19  inmates.  Sisters  of  Jesus,  Mary  and  Joseph,  estab- 
lished in  1904:  dispensaries  at  Guntur  and  Vetapalem, 
and  schools  with  about  140  pupils;  novitiate  with  6 
novioea.  Native  Sisters  of  St.  Anne,  established  at 
Kilacheri  in  1863  (T^lugu  caste  nuns) :  school  with  03 
pupils;  school  at  Rovapuram,  foundai  1885,  with  148 
pupils;  school  at  N.  George  Town,  founded  1900, 
with  150  pupils.  Native  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  Xavier: 
day-school  at  Phiranghipuram,  with  120  pupils,  and 
prtmaiy  school,  with  180  boys;  teachers'  training- 
school,  orphanage  and  widows'  home;  school  at  Ren- 
tachintta,  with  180  pupils,  and  at  Patibandla,  with 
100  puptia;  lower  secondary  school  at  Bellary.  with 
65  pupils;  orphanage,  with  20  inmates.  Native  Sisters 
of  St.  Francis  of  A^isi,  founded  1884;  fourschoobat 
Vepery,  with  250  pupils;  oiphanage,  with  18  inmataa^ 
and  foundling  as}-lum. 


MAni^TTI 


S16 


MAni^Tn 


Leaving  aside  the  larger  high  schools,  convent 
schools,  and  European  and  native  orphanages,  there 
are  in  the  archdiocese  3  English  schools  for  boys,  2  for 
giris,  and  4  mixed;  16  Tamil  schools  for  boys,  6  for 
giris,  and  5  mixed;  38  Telugu  schools  for  boys,  6  for 
fLrlBf  and  15  mixed.  The  Tamil  Catholic  population 
IS  strong  in  Bladras  and  neighbourhood,  where  there 
are  many  churches,  while  in  the  outlying  parts  there 
are  three  Telugu  mission  groups  in  the  Guntur,  Bellary 
and  Chingleput  districts.  As  regards  indications  of 
missionary  progress,  the  estimated  Catholic  popula- 
tion in  1888  was  43,587,  as  compared  with  49,290  in 
1908.  The  finest  building  in  Madras^ is  the  old  cathe- 
dral, Armenian  Street,  bmlt  in  1775  f  but  several  fine 
churches  have  been  erected  in  the  districts. 

Local  publications  include  the  Madras  "Catholic 
Watchman",  a  weekly  paper  started  in  1887;  the 
"Madras  Catholic  Directory",  published  annually 
since  1851,  and  covering  the  whole  of  India,  Burma. 
Ceylon,  and  Malacca,  with  an  appendix  on  Siam  ana 
China;  the  "Nalla  Ayan",  a  Tamil  monthly. 

Madras  Caikolie  Directory  for  1909  and  previous  ^ears,  espe- 
cially the  year  1867,  which  oontaina  a  spejual  histonciU  account 
of  the  Capuchin  Mission:  Bombay  Examiner^  11  May,  1907,  on 
Bdlary  district.  A  history  of  the  Telugu  Missions  is  ' 
ration  by  Father  Kboot. 


in  prepa- 

"Ebnebt  R.  Hull. 


Madrid-Alcal&f  Diocese  of  (Matritensib-Ala- 
CHENSis,  or-CoMPLTJTENSis:  Complutum  being  the 
name  eiven  by  the  Romans  to  the  town  called  in  later 
years  Alcald  by  the  Moors).  Madrid  is  the  name  of  a 
province  and  town  in  Spain. 

Province. — Madrid  is  one  of  the  five  provinces  into 
which  New  Castile  is  divided:  area  3084  square  miles; 
pop.  (in  1900),  775,036.  It  lies  in  the  basin  of  the 
Ta^us;  other  rivers  of  the  province  being  the  Jarama, 
the  Henares,  the  Logasa  and  the  Manzanares,  all 
tributaries  of  the  Tagus.  The  soil  is  clayey  and 
sandy,  and  on  the  whole  treeless,  except  alon^  the 
mountain  slopes  of  the  Guadarrama.  The  quames  of 
the  Guadarrama  contain  granite,  lime,  iron,  copper, 
and  lead.  The  chief  manufactures  are  cloth,  paper, 
porcelain,  bricks,  and  glass.  In  the  neighbourhood  of 
Madrid  gardening  is  carried  on  extensively,  and  wine 
and  oil  are  a  source  of  wealth  throughout  the  province. 
Commerce  is  mainly  carried  on  with  the  town  of 
Mia^rid,  and  of  late  years  an  improved  railway  system 
18  developing  the  economical  condition  of  country 
places.  The  great  plain  of  Madrid  lies  in  the  heart 
of  the  province,  an  immense  desert  flanked  by  the 
Guadarrama  mountains,  and  resembling  the  wide 
campagna  in  which  Rome  stands. 

Town. — ^The  early  history  of  Madrid  is  largely 
conjectural.  Roman  tablets  and  remains  have  l^n 
discovered  in  the  neighbourhood,  but  nothing  definite 
ia  known  until  the  Moors  took  possession  of  the  sur- 
rounding country  and  established  a  fortress  called 
Bfajrit.  Tradition  relates  that  there  were  Christians 
in  the  town  and  that  during  the  Moorish  occupation 
they  concealed  an  image  of  tne  Blessed  Virgin,  known 
as  Our  Lady  of  the  Almudena,  in  a  tower  of  the  city 
walls,  where  it  was  found  in  after  years.  The  Moors 
were  driven  out  by  Don  Ramiro  II  of  Leon  in  939, 
the  Moorish  Alegar  became  a  royal  palace,  and  the 
mosque  a  Christian  church.  The  new  cathedral,  begun 
in  1885,  and  still  unfinished,  stands  on  the  site  of  the 
mosque.  Under  the  kings  of  Castile,  Madrid  attained 
no  great  prominence.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the 
Cortes  met  there  twice;  John  II  and  Heniy  iV  re- 
Bided  occasionally  in  the  royal  palace,  and  Charles  V 
visited  it  in  1524.  In  1525  Francis  I  of  France  was 
imprisoned  in  Madrid,  and  in  1526  he  signed  the 
Treaty  of  Madrid  by  which  he  abandoned  his  rights 
over  Italy.  On  regaining  freedom,  however,  he  re- 
fused to  be  boimd  by  its  terms.  There  were  twa  other 
Treaties  of  Madrid,  that  of  1617  between  Spain  and 
Venice,  and  that  of  1800  between  Spain  and  Portugal. 
PhiJjp  II  by  decree  dated  1561  declared  the  town  of 


Madrid  to  be  the  tmica  corte,  thereby  establishing  it  aa 
capital  of  all  Spain,  over  the  older  and  more  historic 
towns  of  Valladolid,  Seville,  Toledo,  etc.,  capitals  of 
the  kingdoms  into  which  Spain  had  been  divided. 

From  this  time  dates  the  expansion  of  Madrid; 
Philip  II  built  the  E^orial  palace  and  monastery  In 
the  vicinity;  PhiUp  III,  the  Plaza  Mayor;  Philip  IV, 
the  Buen  Retiro;  Charles  III,  the  Prado  Museum  and 
the  AlcaU  Gateway.  In  1 789  Madrid  had  18  parishes, 
39  colleges,  15  gates,  and  140,000  inhabitants.  In 
1808  it  raised  the  standard  of  independence  against 
the  French  invaders  and  the  monument  of  the  Dos  de 
Mayo  (2  May)  commemorates  the  heroism  of  the 
Madrilefios  when  the  French  assaulted  the  Puerta  del 
Sol.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  restored  the  town  to 
Spain  in  1812.  In  1878  the  wails  were  taken  down 
and  the  urban  boundaries  enlarged  and  its  population 
in  1900  was  539,835.  After  the  abdication  of  King 
Amadeo  (1873),  of  the  House  of  Savoy,  who  accepted 
the  crown  on  the  assassination  of  General  Prim,  the 
town  was  for  a  time  in  a  state  of  anarchy  owing  to 
the  rival  political  passions  of  Carlists,  Republicans, 
and  Socialists.  Eventually  a  republic  was  instituted 
which  lasted  till  1875  when  the  House  of  Bourbon  re- 
turned to  Madrid  in  the  person  of  Alfonso  XII,  father 
of  the  present  sovereign  Alfonso  XIII. 

Madrid  is  built  on  the  Manzanares  (a  narrow  river 
crossed  by  imposing  bridges,  the  principal  of  which 
are  Puente  de  Tolecfo  and  Fuente  de  Segovia),  on  low 
irregular  sandhills  in  the  centre  of  a  bleak  plateau 
2150  feet  above  sea-level  to  the  south  of,  but  unpro- 
tected by,  the  Sierra  Guadarrama.  The  temperature 
ranges  from  18^  to  105°  F.;  the  climate  while  not 
unhealthy  is  treacherous;  the  winter  cold  is  intense 
and  the  summer  heat  pitiless.  The  dust  of  the  sand- 
hills is  a  source  of  discomfort  to  the  inhabitants,  and 
baffles  all  the  efforts  of  the  municipality  to  overcome 
it.  Modem  improvements  are  to  be  seen  everywhere. 
The  streets  are  a  network  of  electric  cars;  the  tele- 
phone system  is  excellent;  transportation  facilities 
aie  provided  for  by  the  nulways  which  give  direct 
communication  with  Paris.  Lisbon,  etc.;  water  is 
supplied  from  the  Logasa,  by  an  aqueduct  47  miles 
long  conveying  40,000,000  gallons  of  water  daily  to 
Madrid:  this  aqueduct  was  erected  at  a  cost  of  $11,- 
000,000.  The  working  classes  are  well  organized  to 
defend  their  interests;  the  masons'  and  bricklayers' 
union  has  15,000  members.  Socialistic  ideals  find 
some  favour  among  the  working  men,  and  May  Day 
demonstrations  are  sometimes  troublesome.  Fublic 
peace  is  looked  after  by  gendarmes  and  civil  guards. 
The  State  maintains  a  savings  bank,  and  the  P&wn- 
broking  of  the  town  is  in  Government  hands.  There 
are  3  foundling  institutions,  6  orphanges,  20  hospitals, 
including  the  Princess  Hospital,  Hospital  of  St.  John 
of  God,  military  hospital,  and  a  lunatic  asylum.  The 
birthrate  is  37.5  per  1000;  the  mortality  37.4.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  tobacco  (the  tobacco 
monopoly  employs  over  4000  women  and  girls),  metal 
ware,  leather,  gloves,  and  fans.  It  is  a  town  of  small 
traders,  a  frugal,  industrious  community  reflecting 
the  political  ioeals  of  the  country.  Barcelona,  while 
commercially  more  important,  has  strong  affiniUes 
with  France;  Burgos,  Salamanca,  and  Cordova  live  in 
their  past  greatness,  but  Madrid  is  a  thriving  state  (y 
town,  well  fitted  to  be  the  capital  of  modem  Spain. 

The  arms  of  the  town  are  a  tree  in  leaf  with  a  be^r 
climbing  the  trunk,  and  the  escutcheon  is  surmounted 
by  a  crown.  Madrid  has  never  been  officially  granted 
the  title  ciudad  or  city. 

Monuments, — Old  Madrid  ended  on  one  side  at  the 
Puerta  del  Sol,  now  the  centre  of  the  town,  whence  the 
chief  thoroughfares  radiate:  the  Calle  de  Alcald,  the 
Calle  del  Arenal,  the  Calle  Mayor,  and  the  Carrera  de 
San  Joronimo,  or  Fifth  Avenue  of  Madrid.  The  Buen 
Retiro  and  Parque  de  Madrid  are  recreation  groimds. 
In  the  Plasa  Mayor  is  a  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 


WiPKTP 


517 


]yi4nnTT> 


Philip  III,  the  work  of  Juaa  de  Bologna.    The  MinU-  a  handsome  building,  badly  lighted,  and  c 

trv  of  State  dates  from  Philip  IV  and  the  town  hall  masterpieces  of  nearly  ali  the  Bchools  of  painting  aiul 

with  itfl  fine  staircase  is  a  aeventeenth'Century  etruc-  sculpture  of  Europe.    The  early  Spanish  School  is 

turo.     The  Palacio  del  Congreso,  where  the  deputies  represented  by  Gallegoa;  Pedro  Berruguete,  Motalei. 

meet,  is  a  Corinthian  building  dating  from  1860.     The  El  Greco,  and  Ribera  (predecesaor  of  Velasquez  and 

Plaza  de  Oriente,  the  largest  square  in  Madrid,  has  a  Murillo)  are  also  represented.     Velasquea,  a  native  o( 

handsome  fountain  adorned  with  bronie  Uons.     This  Seville,  went  to  Madrid  in  1623  where  ne  died  in  1660, 

squaredateefromthereignof  JoeephBonapart«(1808).  and  his  maflterpieces  are  to  be  seen  in  a  aaia  of  the 

Tlie  Royal  Exchange  and  Bank  of  Spain  are  modern  Prado:  "Las  Menifias",  "The  Forge  of  Vulcan",  "Los 

but  impoBinx  buildings.     The  R^af  Palace,  a  laise  Barrachos'',  "Laa  Laneas".     The  Prado  contains 

rectan^dar  building  designed  by  Sacchettj,  overlooks  Murillo's  "Holy  Family",  " The  penitent  Magdalen", 

the  Manianares  and  commands  a  view  of  the  whole  "TheAdorationof  theSiepherdB   .etc.  ^mongltalian 

town.     Before  the  twelfth  century  a  moonsh  AlcAiar  ^intors  there  are  works  by  Fra  Angelico,  Mantegna, 

Ltood  there  and  a  palace  was  built  on  the  site  by  Raffaele,  Del  Sarto,  Corregio,  Tintoretto,  Veronese, 

HeniT  IV  from  designs  by  Herrera.     This  structure  T5ti8n.    There  are  examples  of  Van  Eyck,  a  Van  der 

was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1738,  and  the  present  build-  Weyden,  aMemlinc,  aHolbeia.andaboutSOpaintinHi 

ine  was  then  erected  at  a  cost  of  115,000,000.     It  is  b_y  Rubens,  who  visited  Madrid  in  1628.     The  colleo- 

biult  of  granite  and  faces  the  south.    The  main  stair-  tion  of  paintings  in  The  Prado  rivals  even  that  of  The 

case  is  of  black  and  white  marble;   the  throne  room  Louvre,  and  artists  from  every  country  are  to  be  seen 

has  paintings  by  Tiefolo;  there  is  a  hall  by  Gasparini;  studying  or  copying  its  masterpieces.     Its  treasures 

and  the  royal  chapel  has  painting  by  Mengs  aiui  con-  include   twoecore   Murilloe,    ~'~~    ~ 
tains    the    font    j 


which  St.  Dominic 
was  baptiBcd.  An- 
other royal  palace 
is  La  Grsnja  (4000 
feet  above  sea- 
level),  the  grange  or 
farm,  astunmer  resi* 
dence  in  view  of  the 
Guadarrama  moun- 
tains.    It  was  built 


from  the 
brush  of  El  Greoo. 
much  of  the  work  oi 
Ribera  {a  decidedly 

though  he  Uved  be- 
tween 1588-1656), 
and  a  whole  »aia 
devoted  to  Velaa- 
quez.  There  too  is 
to  be  seen  the  woik 
of    Antonio    MoTo, 


Camcn  or  Sax  JbbAmiu 


of  the 
Spanish  School  of 
portraiture,  wfaoae 
Minting  of  Mary 
Tudor  of  Englaoa, 
wife  of  Philip  II  of 
Spain,  is  of  pecuUar 
interest.  Among 
other  glories  of  The 
Prado  are  Rubens 
and  Goya .  This  as- 
semblage of  canvases 
of  all  the  great 
masters  of  painting 
of  the  most  famous 


cially  as  San  Ilde- 
fonso.  Its  park  and 
fountains  are  fa- 
mous. £1  Pardo,  a 
royal  shooting  box, 
6  miles  from  Madrid 
has  Gobelin  tapes- 
tries after  designs  by 
Teniers  and  Goya. 
Aranjuei,  30  miles 
from  Madrid,  is  an- 
other royal  pabce, 

famous  for  its  gardens  (Garden  of  the  Primavera)  and  makes  The  Prado  collection  o  .  . 

for  its  paintings  by  Mengs,  Maella,  and  Lopei.     (See  and  valuable  in  the  world.    The  Museo  do  Arte  Mo- 

also  EacoRiAi,.)  dema  has  many  pictures  by  conl«mporary  artists,  and 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Royal  Palace,  Madrid,  much  statuary.    The  Real  Academia  de  Bellas  Ariee, 

is  the  upper  house  of  the  Cortes,  the  House  of  Senators,  built  in  1752,  has  also  a  valuable  picture   gallery. 

The  Senate  consists  of  80  members  who  are  senators  There  are   moreover  Academies  of  History   (1738), 

m  their  own  right,  100  membeis  nominated  by  the  Science   (1847),  and   Medicine   (1732),  and  a  Naval 

crown,  and  180  members  elected  by  state  cotpoTations,  Museum  (1S56). 

including  ecclesiastical  bodies,  for  10  years,  one  half        The  fint  public  libmry  in  Madrid  was  the  Saa 

renewable  every  S  years.    The  House  of  Deputies  is  Isidro,  founded  by  the  Jesuits,  and  containing  60  000 

nominally  composed  of  one  deputy  to  every  50,000  volumes.    The  National  Library  was  built  m  1712; 

inhabitants;  he  must  be  over  25  years  of  age,  and  is  it  has  many  editions  of  "Don  Quixote",  a  Visi^othie 

elected  for  a  term  of  5  years.     In  all  there  are  406  work  of  the  tenth  century  and  the  "Siete  Partidas" 

deputies.     Neither  senatois  nor  deputies  are  paid  for  of  Alfonso   the    Wise.     The    library   of  the   Royal 

their  services  to  the  nation.     Sulirage  is  the  ri^t  Academy  of  History  has  many  valuable  books  &ad 

of  every  male  adult  who  has  arrived  at  the  age  <A  MSS. 

35  years  (Law  of  26  June,  1890),  and  who  has  re-        Francisco  de  Quevedo  Villegas,  poet  and  pron 

sided  witlun  a  munidraUtyforat  least  2  years.    The  writer,  was  bom  in  Madrid  in  1580,  and  studied 

king's  civil  list  is  Sl,900,000;  and  the  queen  has  a  at  Alt^^    His  works  have  been  collected  in  3  vtAa. 

state  allowance  of  $90,000 annually.  in   "BibUoteca  de   Autoree   EspaQoles".     His  "Vi- 

Adjoining  the  Royal  Palace  is  the  Royal  Armoury  sions"  were  translated  into  English  in  1688  and  re- 
where  the  student  can  view  if  not  the  evolution  at  publisliedin  1715.  Calderon  lived  in  the  Calle  Mayor, 
least  the  highest  expression  of  the  armourer's  craft,  or  Calle  de  Almudena,  and  Lope  de  Ve^  was  lionl 
It  contains  the  masterpieces  of  the  Caimans  of  Augs-  there  (1562).  There  is  a  monument  to  Calderon  by 
burg  and  the  Negrolis  of  Milan.  Historically,  per-  Figuiras  in  the  Plaza  de  Santa  Ana.  The  first  part 
hapw  less  valuable  than  that  of  the  Tower  of  Lon-  of  Cervantes'  masterpiece,  "  Don  Quixote  ",  was  pub- 
don,  in  magnificence  the  Madrid  coUection  is  rivalled  lishcd  in  Madrid  in  1605.  He  died  in  1616  and  there 
onlyby  that  of  the  Imperial  Armoury  at  Vienna.  The  is  a  monument  to  him  in  the  Plaza  de  las  Cortes.  The 
National  Muaeum  known  as  Museo  del  Prado  from  first  newspaper  was  the  "  Gaceta  de  Madrid  "  printed 
deKignt  by  Villanueva,  dates  from  tlie  reign  of  Charles  in  1661 :  at  first  it  appeared  annually,  but  in  1667 
III,  and  was  completed  under  Ferdinand  VII.     It  is  every  Saturday;  later  it  was  issued  twioe  a  w«^ 


published  in  Madrid  are  "Lectura",  "Ateneo",  "Es- 
pafia  Modema",  "Nuestra  Tiempo",  and  "Razon 


MADRID  518  MADEID 

and  in  1808  it  was  made  a  daily.    The  "Diario"  sept.    The  Church  of  the  Atocha  contams  the  tombs 

was  started  in  1758.  and  its  title  afterwards  be-  of  Palafox,  hero  of  the  war  against  Napoleon,  and 

came   "Diario  oficial  de  Avisos  de  Madrid''.     In  of  Prim,  leader  of  the  insurgents  in  18&,  who  was 

1825  it  became  the  government  newspaper.    "Im-  shot  in  1870. 

Sarcial"  began  in  1806;  and  "El  Imparcial",  "La        Ecclesiastical  Histort.;— The  Diocese  of  Madrid 

orrespondencia",  and  "El  D(a"  were  pubhshed  in  which  includes  the  civil  province  of  Madrid ;  area  3084 

1867.    "  La  Epoca  "  dates  from  1848;  and  "  El  Uni-  s(|.  miles;  is  suffragan  ot  Toledo,  and  while  its  founda- 

verso"  is  newer  in  the  field.    Among  the  reviews  tion  dates  from  the  Concordat  of  1851,  it  was  not 

canonically  erected  until  the  issuing  ^f  the  Bull  of  7 

March,  1885,  which  united  Alcald  and  Madrid.     The 

y  Fe. "  first  bishop,  Mgr  Narciso  Martinez  Izquierdo,  took 

The  Plaza.de  Toros  or  bull  ring  dates  from  1874.  possession  of  the  see,  2  August,  1885;  and  the  Cathe- 

It  seats  about  15,000  persons,  and  cost  3,000,000  dral  chapter,  erected  24  November,  1885,  consists  of 

reales.    It  is  in  the  Moorish  st^le  of  architecture,  with  20  canons  and  8  beneficed  ecclesiastics.    The  total 

a  very  imposing  arch.    Madnd  remains  the  Mecca  of  population  of  the  Diocese  in  1900  was  775,034  souls, 

the  toreros,  and  the  corrida  is  one  of  the  chief  institu-  divided  into  240  parishes  (of  which  21  are  in  the  town 

tions  of  the  national  capital.  of  Madrid),  containing  776  churches  or  chapels  and 

The  national  Church  of  Spain  is  the  Catholic  Church,  the  diocesan  cler^  numbers  664.  The  principal 
A  restricted  liberty  of  worship  is  allowed  to  Protestants  towns  within  the  Diocese  of  Alcald  with  their  popiua- 
of  whom  there  are  about  3000  in  the  whole  kingdom:  tions  in  1904,  are  as  follows: — ^AlcaU  (10,300),  Col- 
statistics  for  Madrid  are  lacking.  The  first  Protestant  menar  de  Oreja  (3694),  Colmenar  Viejo  (4758),  Chin- 
Bishop  of  Madrid  was  appointed  in  1895.  There  is  chon  (4200),  Escorial  (4570),  Getafe  (3820),  Leganes 
a  Protestant  cemetery,  and  schools  are  conducted  by  (5412),  Morata  (4000),  Navalcamero  (3788),  Pinto 
Protestants  of  various  denominations  in  the  town.  (2396),  San  Martin  de  Valdeiglesias  (3290),  San  Se- 
A  project  of  law  for  extending  greater  liberty  to  non-  bastian  de  los  Reyes  (1477),  Tetuan  (2825),  Torrejon 
Catholic  fofms  of  religion  is  at  present  (1910)  in  con-  (3081),  Valdemoro  (2726),  Vallecas  (5625). 
templation.  The  total  non-Catholic  population  of  In  the  town  of  Madrid  there  are  67  houses  of  re- 
the  country  was  30,000  in  1900,  of  whom  4000  were  ligious  women  (including  18  homes  or  institutes  for 
Jews,  3000  Protestants,  the  remainder  being  Ration-  orphans  or  old  and  infirm  people  under  the  care  of  the 
alists  etc.  The  chief  religious  restrictions  complained  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul),  and  14  monasteries  for 
of  are  the  forbidding  of  the  ringing  of  service  bells  men,  Dominicans  (Orator  del  Olivar;  Nuestra  Sefiora 
and  the  prohibition  of  non-Catholic  houses  of  wprship  de  la  Rosario),  Augustinians  (San  Roque  and  E^pfritu 
with  doors  abutting  on  to  the  streets  of  the  town.  A  Santo),  Jesuits  (San  Miguel),  Trinitarians  (San  I^nacio) 
letter  from  Mr.  William  Collier,  U.  S.  minister  at  Redemptorists(San  Justo),andServites(SanNicol^). 
Madrid  to  the  Secretary  of  State^  Washington,  17  Besides  the  Hospital  of  San  Rafael  in  Madrid,  the 
Februanr,  1906,  contains  the  following  passage : ''  The  Brothers  of  St.  Jonn  of  God  have  hospitals  at  Pinto  and 
study  of  the  statutes  [of  Spain]  which  I  have  made  Ciemposuelos;  the  Capuchins  have  a  house  at  £1 
and  the  advice  of  counsel  lead  me  to  the  opinion  that  Pardo;  the  Jesuits  a  college  at  Chamartin;  the  Piarist 
non-Catholics  who  are  Spanish  subjects  may  by  com-  Fathers  a  college  at  Alcaic  and  another  at  Getafe, 
plying  with  the  provisions  of  the  law,  form  legal  associ-  where  the  Trappists  also  have  a  farm ;  the  Augustin- 
ations  vested  with  a  legal  personality,  subject  of  course  ians  have  a  coue^  and  monastery  at  Escorial  and  the 
in  their  ceremonies  and  religious  observances  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Mission  a  house  at  Valdemoro.  There 
restrictions  of  the  constitutional  provisions.''  The  are  Carmelite  nuns  at  Loeches,  Boadillaand  Alcald; 
province  of  Madrid  is  mainly  a  region  of  small  Dominican  nuns  at  Loeches  and  Alcal^;  Capuchin 
agriculturists,  large  towns  are  few,  and  the  peasant  nuns  at  Pinto;  Franciscan  nuns  at  Valdemoro,  Cara- 
does  not  love  to  be  taxed  for  educational  purposes,  banchel  Bajo,  Cubas,  Chinchon,  Ciempucuelos.  Grifion 
That  education  is  making  rapid  progress  in  Spain  is  and  AlcaM;  Augustinian  nuns  at  Coleniar  de  Oreja 
proved  by  statistics.  In  1860,  about  75  per  cent,  of  and  at  Alcald,  where  the  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul 
the  people  could  neither  read  nor  write;  m  1880  the  -maintain  a  hospital.  The  total  number  of  convents, 
numoer  stood  at  68  per  cent.;  in  1900  the  illiterates  hospices,  and  hospitals  in  the  hands  of  religious  is  145. 
had  been  reduced  to  30  per  cent.  In  other  words  the  Tlie  present  bishop,  Mgr  Salvador  y  Barrera  was 
young  generation  is  growing  up  well  educated.  The  bom  at  Marchena  in  the  Diocese  of  Seville,  1  Octo- 
public  schools  of  the  country  are  in  the  hands  of  lay  ber,  1851 ;  appointed  Bishop  of  Tarasona,  16  Deoem- 
teachers  appointed  after  competitive  examination,  ber,  1901 ;  transferred  to  Madrid,  14  December,  1905, 
while  the  teaching  orders  of  the  Church  conduct  where  he  succeeded  Mgr  Guisasola  y  Mendes.  The 
private  schools  and  institttios  or  high  schools  in  which  holydays  of  the  Diocese  are  Christmas,  Epiphanv, 
about  one-fifth  of  the  children  of  the  country  are  Purification,  Ash  Wednesday,  Annunciation,  Holy 
educated.  Thursday,  Good  Friday,  Ascension^  Corpus  Christi, 

Churches. — San  Pedro  in  the  Calle  de  Segovia,  is  a  All  Saints,  and  Immaculate  Conception, 
building  in  Moorish  architecture  and  dates  from  the        AlcalX  on  the  Henares,  21  miles  from  Madrid,  at 

fourteenth  century.    It  is  the  oldest  church  in  Madrid,  a  height  of  2000  feet  above  sea  level  is  a  town  of 

San  Jer6nimo  el  Real,  a  liandsome  Gothic  building,  historic  importance  and  one  of  the  first  bishoprics 

dates  from  1503  and  has  been  much  restored.    In  this  founded  in  Spain.    Cervantes  was  born  there,  and 

church  the   heir-apparent  takes  the  Constitutional  baptized  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  in  1547,  and 

oath,  and  in  the  convent  close  by,  Charles  of  England  the  unhappy  Catherine  of  Aragon,  wife  of  Henry  VIII 

stayed  when  he  visited  Madrid,  in  1623,  on  the  oc-  of  England,  was  a  native  of  the  place.    The  name  by 

casion  of  the  contemplated  "Spanish  Match".     San  which  it  was  known  to  the  Romans  was  Complutuni, 

Francisco  el  Grande,  the  finest  church  in  Madrid  is  but  under  the  Moors  it  became  a  fortified  to^Ti  and 

modelled  on  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  and  was  built  in  was  known  as  AlcaU,  the  stronghold  or  castle.   In  the 

1784.    Cervantes,  Lope  de  Vega,  and  Velasquez  are  Middle  Ages  it  was  famous  for  its  universitjr  founded 

buried  there.    San  Isidro,  the  church  of  the  patron  by  Cardinal  Ximenez,  which  stood  on  the  site  of  the 

saint  of  Madrid,  an  ornate  building,  dates  from  1626-  modem   Colegio  de   San   Ildefonso.    The   bishop's 

51,  and  has  paintings  bv  Rizi  and  Morales.    It  serves  residence  is  now  used  for  preserving  historical  archives, 

as  pro-cathedral  to  the  diocese.    The  Ermita  de  It  was  designed  by  Bemiguete.  and  has  a  famous 

San  Antonio  de  la  Florida  has  a  frescoed  dome  by  staircase.    The  umversity  diapel  dedicated  to  Saints 

Goya.     Santa  Barbara  dates  from  the  reign  of  For-  Just  and  Pastor  has  a  monument  to  Cardinal  Ximenez 

dinand  VI  (1746-59),  who  lies  buried  in  the  tran-  by  Fancelli,  an  Italian  sculptor.    The  surroundings  of 


ISABELLA  THE  CATHOLIC 

KnECTED    BY    MADRID    MUNiriPALlTY    (I8S5) 


^ 


ICADBUZZI 


519 


BIADUR4 


the  town  are  austere  and  bleak^  but  it  is  protected  by 
hdlls  on  the  north  side.  The  University  ouildings  are 
in  ruins,  and  the  town  which  at  one  time  had  a  popula- 
tion of  60,000,  numbered  in  1900  about  10,000  in- 
habitants. At  Alcald  was  printed  under  Cardinal 
Ximenez'  care  the  polyglot  Bible  known  as  the  Ck>m- 
plutensian  Bible,  the  first  of  the  many  similar  Bibles 
produced  during  the  revival  of  Biblical  studies  that 
took  place  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

University  of  lifADRiD. — A;  school  was  founded  in 
Madrid  in  1590,  known  as  the  College  of  Dofla  Maria  of 
Aragon,  which  may  in  a  sense  be  considered  as  the 
foundation  of  the  modem  Tlniversity  of  Madrid, 
but  Madrid  had  no  university  previous  to  1836.  A 
university  had  been  established  at  Alcald  in  1508  by 
Cardinal  Ximenez,  which  in  1518,  owing  to  disputes 
between  the  students  and  the  townsfolk  it  was  resolved 
to  remove  to  Madrid.  The  plan  fell  through,  though 
it  was  again  discussed  in  1623.  In  1822  the  Alcaic 
University  staff  did  actually  open  their  lectures  in 
Madrid,  but  1823  found  them  once  more  at  AlcaU.  It 
was  not  until  1836  that 'the  final  transference  of  the 
Alcald  University  to  the  Calle  de  San  Bernardo,  Ma- 
drid, was  accomplished  (see  AlcalX,  University  op). 
At  the  time  of  its  transference  the  university  includcKi 
a  theological  faculty,  but  this  was  suppressed  in  1868. 
In  1906  there  were  5300  students  (550  philosophy;  900 
science;  1600  law;  1500rr.ed»cine,  and  102  professors). 
The  rector  is  Sefior  Raf  '^1  Conde  y  Luque.  The  li- 
brary contains  204,000  volumes  and  5500  MSS.  Its 
endowment  in  1906  amounted  to  $180,000.  Affiliated 
to  it  is  the  College  of  San  Isidro  founded  in  1770. 

Shaw,  Spain  of  to-day  (New  York,  1909);  Seymour,  Saunter- 
inos  in  Spain  (London,  1906);  HnrroN,  Cities  of  Spain  (Lon- 
don, 1908);  Calvert,  Madrid  (London,  1909):  Annuaire Ponti- 
fical (1910);  Qerarchia  (1910);  Stateeman'e  Year  Botk  (1910); 
Anqulo  in  Dice,  di  Ciencuis  Eclea,^  a.  v.;  Anuario  Edesidetieo 
de  Eapaiia,  1909. 

J.  C.  Grey. 

MadniZEi,  Christopher,  of  a  noble  family  of  Trent, 
b.  5  July,  1512;  d.  at  Tivoli,  Italy,  5  July,  1578.  He 
studied  at  Padua  and  Bologna,  received  m  1529  from 
his  older  brother  a  canonicate  at  Trent  and  the  parish 
of  Tirol  near  Meran,  was  in  1536  a  canon  of  Salzburg, 
in  1537  of  Brixen,  and  in  1539  became  Prince-Bishop 
of  Trent.  Being  only  a  subdeacon  at  the  time,  he  was 
promoted  to  the  deaconship,  priesthood,  and  episco- 
pate in  1542.  In  January,  1543,  he  was  appointed 
administrator  of  the  See  of  Brixen,  and  shortly  after- 
wards, during  the  same  year  1543,  he  was  raised  to  the 
dig;nity  of  a  cardinal  by  Paul  III  (1534-49).  Having 
resigned  his  bishopric  at  Trent  in  1567,  he  spent  the 
latter  years  of  his  Ufe  in  Italy,  and  became  Cardinal- 
Bishop  successively  of  Sabina,  Palestrina,  and  Porto. 
A  few  years  after  his  death  his  remains  were  entombed 
in  the  family  chapel,  in  the  church  of  St.  Onofrio, 
Rome.  Madruzzi  was  a  man  of  great  intellectual  gifts, 
well  versed  in  secular  and  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Clmrles 
V  (1519-56)  and  his  brother,  ICing  Ferdinand  I,  after- 
wards emperor  (1556-64),  esteemed  him  very  highly 
and  employed  him  in  many  important  and  delicate 
missions.  In  the  controversies  between  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  at  the  time  of  the  incipient  Reformation, 
he  always  proved  himself  a  ready  champion  of  the 
Church.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  imperial  Diet 
of  Ratisbon  (1541)  as  representative  of  the  emperor, 
and  upheld  strenuously  the  Catholic  teaching  against 
the  heresy  of  Luther. 

As  cardinal.  Bishop  of  Trent,  and  temporal  ruler  of 
that  principality  he  naturally  played  a  prominent  part 
in  the  Council  of  Trent.  Among  other  things  he  ii^ 
sisted  that  the  reform  oi  the  Church  should  be  taken 
up  in  earnest,  a  matter  much  desired  by  Charles  V, 
and  by  which  it  was  hoped  to  win  the  Protestants  back 
to  the  Church.  It  was  largely  due  to  his  efforts,  that 
this  subject  was  discussed  and  enactments  of  that 
character  wsre  passed  in  each  session  together  with 


decisions  on  doctrinal  matters.  He  was  also  intent 
upon  promoting  a  truly  religious  and  Christian  life 
amon^  both  the  people  and  the  ecclesiastics  under  his 
jurisdiction.  For  the  first  he  recommended  chiefly 
yeariy  confession  and  communion;  and  for  the  second 
an  edifjring,  chaste,  and  temperate  conduct,  and  an 
exact  fulfilment  of  all  the  obhgations  connected  with 
their  high  office.  He  was  himself  cultured  and  learned, 
and  patronized  with  great  munificence  the  liberal  arts 
and  learning.  One  stain  attaches  to  his  memory,  the 
accumulation  of  several  benefices  in  his  hands'.  Men- 
tion was  made  of  the  smaller  ecclesiastical  holdings; 
in  addition  to  his  two  sees  he  received  in  1546,  by  the 
favour  of  Charles  V,  a  yearly  allowance  of  2000  ducats 
from  the  Spanish  Archbishopric  of  Compostela.  He 
may  be  somewhat  excused  in  view  of  the  usage  of  the 
time,  and  of  the  financial  burdens  imposed  on  him 
during  the  sessions  of  the  Council  of  Trent;  moreover, 
in  1567,  he  gave  up  one  of  his  two  sees. 

Pallavxcini,  Hist.  Cone.  Trident,  lib.  V-VIII;  Bonblli, 
Mon.  Bed.  Trident.,  Ill  (Treat.  1765). 

F.  J.  SCHAEFEB. 

Madura,  Diocese  of.  See  Trichinopoli,  Dio- 
cese OF.  .  "         . 

Madura  Mission. — As  shown  in  the  "Atlas  Geogra* 
phicus  S.J.'\  the  ancient  Jesuit  missions  in  India 
under  the  Portuguese  were  divided  into  two  provinces 
— that  of  Goa  comprising  the  west  coast  down  to  Cali- 
cut exclusive,  and  the  interior  districts  of  the  Deccan 
and  Mysore,  while  the  Malabar  province  occupied  the 
south  of  the  peninsula,  that  is  the  Malabar  coast  oa 
the  west,  and  the  Coromandel  coast  on  the  east  as  far 
north  as  the  River  Vellar,  including  Cochin,  Travan- 
core,  Madiuti,  Tanjore,  San  Thome,  and  other  con- 
tiguous districts.  The  term  "Madura  Mission"  re- 
fers to  that  Jesuit  missionary  movement  which  had  its 
starting  point  at  Madura  and  extended  thence  over  the 
eastern  half  of  the  peninsula.  At  the  outset  it  may  be 
remarked  that  the  districts  comprised  under  the  Ma- 
dura Mission  were  totally  removed  from  Portuguese 
political  or  state  influence,  so  that  even  the  prestige  of 
the  Portuguese  name  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  hav- 
ing reached  there,  to  say  nothing  of  the  machinery  of 
the  State.  The  fact  is  a  stancung  refutation  of  the 
unhistorical  charge  that  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  in 
India  was  due  to  poUtical  influence  and  the  use 
of  coercion,  for  in  no  part  of  the  country  did  the 
efforts  of  the  missionanes  meet  with  greater  success 
than  in  Madura. 

The  Madura  Mission  owes  its  origin  to  Robert  de 
NobiU,  who  commenced  at  Madura,  in  1606,  that  pecul- 
iar method  of  propagating  the  faith  which  has  made 
his  name  famous.  "This  policy  consisted  in  conform- 
ing to  the  ways  of  life  in  vc^ue  among  the  Brahmins, 
in  order  to  remove  their  prejudices  against  him;  to  ex- 
hibit himself  as  noble,  as  learned,  as  ascetical  as  they: 
by  this  means  to  excito  their  interest  and  esteem,  and 
to  draw  them  into  ready  intercourse  with  himself;  then 
by  degrees  to  progress  from  indifferent  subjects  to  re- 
ligious matters,  beginning  with  those  points  which 
were  common,  and  gradually  passing  to  those  which 
were  distinctively  Christian;  showing  how  Christianity 
offered  to  Hindus  a  purified  and  pertect  religion,  with- 
out requiring  the  abandonment  of  native  social  usages 
or  the  loss  of  racial  rank  and  nobilitv."  ("  East  and 
West",  Dec.,  1904.)  (See  Malabar  Rites.)  Shortly 
afterwards  Father  Antony  de  Vico,  and  Father  Manoel 
Martins  began  imitating  his  mode  of  life  and  working 
on  the  same  lines  with  considerable  success  Father 
Vico  died  in  1638  and  was  succeeded  by  Fr.  Sebastian 
de  Maya,  who  in  1640  was  imprisoned  at  Madura  in 
company  with  de  Nobih,  wliile  Father  Martins  re- 
mained at  Trichinopoli.  In  1640  a  new  departure  was 
made  by  Father  Balthasar  da  Costa  who  began  working 
specially  for  the  lower  castes.  The  success  was  such 
tnat  in  1644  the  total  numl>er  of  converts  in  the  Ma- 


MAXDOO 


520 


BCAXLBUBHA 


dura,  Trichinopoli,  Tanjore,  and  Satiamangalam  dia- 
tricts  rose  to  3500,  that  is  to  say  1000  of  the  higher 
castes,  and  2500  pariahs.  At  that  time  there  were 
five  priests  worlung  on  the  mission.  Subsequent 
progress  was  still  more  gratifying,  for  in  1680  the  num- 
ber of  converts  altogether  was  reckoned  at  no  less  than 
80,000.  The  numl^r  of  workers,  however,  did  not  in- 
crease in  proportion;  they  generally  amounted  to 
seven,  eight,  or  ten,  and  only  as  late  as  1746  reached  to 
fourteen.  Among  these  the  most  successful  were  Fa- 
ther Balthasar  da  Costa  and  Manoel  Martins  already 
mentioned,  Andrew  Freyre,  Bl.  John  de  Britto,  Fran- 
cis Laynes,  Venance  Bouchet,  Peter  Martin,  and  Fa- 
ther Beschi.  The  last  named,  who  worked  from  1711 
to  1740,  found  himself  in  conflict  with  the  Lutheran 
pioneers  of  Protestant  missionary  enterprise  who 
started  work  at  Tranquebar  in  1706,  and  against 
whom  he  wrote  several  controversial  works. 

The  expulsion  of  the  Jesuit  Order  from  Portuguese 
territory  m  the  year  1759  put  an  immediate  check  on 
the  supply  of  nussionaries,  but  the  fathers  already  in 
the  mission,  bcin^  outside  the  Portuguese  dominions, 
were  able  to  contmue  their  work  though  with  dimin- 
ishing numbers.  The  entire  suppression  of  the  Order 
in  >773,  however,  brought  ttie  Jesuit  regime  to  an  end. 
Three  years  later  (1776)  a  new  mission  of  the  Kamatic 
was  established  by  the  Holy  See,  under  the  Paris 
Seminary  for  Foreign  Missions,  which,  taking  Pondi- 
cherry  as  its  centre,  gradually  extended  its  labours  in- 
wards as  far  as  Mysore,  and  to  the  old  Madura  Mission. 
Under  the  Forei^  Mission  Society  the  remaining  Jes- 
uit Fathers  contmued  to  work  till  they  gradually  died 
out.  Not  much  in  the  way  of  missionary  work  was 
done  by  the  Groan  clergy,  who  took  the  place  of  the 
Jesuits  in  certain  stations,  and  the  results  previously 
gained  were  in  prospect  of  being  almost  totally  lost. 
In  the  year  1836  the  Kamatic  mission  was  erected  into 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  Ck>romandel  Coast;  and 
as  the  Foreign  Mission  Society  could  not  for  want  of 
men  come  to  the  rescue  of  Madura,  they  willingly  ac- 
cepted the  appointment  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  same 
year — the  Society  having  been  restored  in  1814.  In 
1846  the  Madura  Mission  was  in  turn  made  into  a  vi- 
cariate Apostolic  with  Mgr  Alexis  Canoz  as  its  first 
vicar  Apostolic;  but  the  portion  north  of  the  Cauvery 
was  retained  by  Pondicherry.  In  1886,  on  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  hierarchy,  the  Madura  Vicariate  was 
made  the  Diocese  of  Trichinopoly.  In  1893  Tanjore 
was  taken  away  and  given  to  the  Padroado  Diocese  of 
Mylapore.  In  the  same  year  the  Trichinopoly  Dio- 
cese was  finally  made  sufTragan  to  Bombay  (see 
T^iicHiNGPOLi,  Diocese  op). 

Bertrand.  La  Mission  du  Maiduri,  4  vols.  (1847-54);  Idem, 
LtUres  des  nouvelles  missions  du  Madurf,  4  vols.  (1839-47); 
Idem,  Lettres  Mifiantes  et  curieuses  de  la  nouvelle  Mission 
du  MadurS,  2  vols.  (1866);  Saint  Ctr,  Lts  nouveaux  J  ^suites 
d^aens  VInde  (1866);  Writeheau,  India:  a  Sketch  of  the  Madura 
Mission  (London,  s.  d.);'  Guchkn,  Cinquanle  ans  au  Maduri,  2 
vols.  (1889);   Launay,  Histoire  des  Missions  de  VInde.  6  vols. 

il898):  CotTBfc,  Au  pays  des  Castes  (1888);  Strickland,  TAe 
^esuits  in  India  (Duolin,  1852);  Idem,  TheGoa  Schism  (Dub- 
lin, 185.3);  Strickland  and  Marshall,  Catholic  Missions  in  S, 
India  (London,  1865);  Suan,  Monseigneur  Carloz  (1891);  de 
BusBiKRE,  Histoire  du  Schisms Portuguais  dans  VInde  (1856). 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

Maedoc  (Moedhoo,  Mogue,  Aeddan  Foeddog, 
AiDUS,  Hugh),  Saint,  first  Bishop  of  Ferns,  in  Wex- 
ford, b.  about  558,  on  an  island  m  Brackley  Lough, 
County  Cavan;  d.  31  January,  626.  He  was  the  son 
of  Sedna,  a  chieftain  of  Connaught,  and  of  his  wife, 
Eithne.  Even  in  his  early  years  the  fame  of  his  sanc- 
tity was  widespread  and,  when  many  came  to  the 
young  man  and  desired  to  become  his  disciples,  he  fled 
from  Ireland  to  Wales.  Here  he  became  the  pupil  of 
St.  David  and  is  named  as  one  of  his  three  most  faith- 
ful disciples.  Many  miracles  are  recorded  of  St. 
Maedoc,  both  in  his  childhood  and  during  his  sojourn 
in  Wales.  After  many  years  he  returned  to  Ireland 
"'■  '«M)anied  by  a  band  of  disciples,  and  settled  at 


Brentrocht  in  lieinster.  He  foimded  several  monas- 
teries in  that  district,  the  greatest  being  Ferns,  which 
was  built  on  land  given  to  him  by  Brandubh,  King  of 
Leinster.  Here  a  synod  was  held,  at  which  he  was 
dected  and  consecrated  bishop,  about  598.  St.  Mae- 
doe  of  Ferns  must  not  be  confounded  either  with  St. 
Madoc  (or  Maidoc),  the  son  of  Gildas  (28  Feb.),  who 
also  lived  in  the  sixth  century  and  was  the  founder  of 
Llanfadog  in  Wales;  or  with  St.  Modoc  the  Culdee, 
who  lived  in  the  third  or  fourth  century. 

Atia  88.,  Jan.,  II,  1111-20;  Boasb  in  Diet,  Christ.  Biog.,  a.  v.: 
KlLMADocx,  St.  Mogue's  or  St.  Ninian's  Island  in  Notes  and 
Queries^  8th  series,  IV,  421;  Lives  of  the  Cambro- British  Saints, 
ed.  Ree8  (Llandoveiy.  1853),  232>50;  McGovern,  St.  Mogue*M 
or  St.  Nintan's  Island  in  Notes  and  Queries,  8th  series,  V,  151-2; 
QrtAHTOft,  Menohqu  of  England  and  Wales  (London,  1887).  42; 
Vita  Sanctorum  HibemuB,  cd.  Pluikmer  (Oxford,  1910),  I» 
facxv-bcxviii;  II,  141-03,  295-311. 

Leslie  A.  St.  L.  Tokb. 

Maelruan  (Maolruain,  Melruan,  Molruan), 
Saint,  founder  and  first  Abbot  of  Tamlacht  (Tallacht), 
in  the  County  of  Dublin ,  Ireland .  Nothing  seems  to  be 
known  of  .St.  Maelruan  before  the  foundation  of  Tam- 
lacht, which  took  place  in  the  year  769.  The  church, 
which  was  dedicated  to  St.  Michael,  w^as  built  on  land 
given  by  Donnohadh,  King  of  Leinster.  It  was  to  this 
monastery  that  St.  Aengus,  the  Culdee,  came,  during 
the  abbacy  of  Maelruan  and,  concealing  his  name, 
served  for  some  time  at  mei  ^  manual  work.  His  iden- 
tity, however,  was  revea  I'^d  -lirough  assistance  that  he 
gave  to  a  backward  schol  ir  St.  Maelruan  sought  him 
at  once  and,  gently  reproaching  him,  gave  him  an  hon- 
oured place  in  the  community.  The  two  saints  are 
joint  authors  of  the  "  Rule  of  the  C^lidhd  D^ "  (see 
Culdees),  of  which  a  copy  is  preserved  in  the  library 
of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  "It  contains",  says 
O'Curry,  "  a  minute  series  of  rules  for  the  regulation  of 
the  lives  of  the  C^lidh4  D6,  their  prayers,  their  preach- 
ings, their  conversations,  their  confessions,  their  com- 
munions, their  ablutions,  their  fastings,  their  absti- 
nences, their  relaxations,  their  sleep,  their  celebrations 
of  the  Mass,  and  so  forth".  St.  Maelruan  is  called  a 
"Bishop  and  soldier  of  Christ"  in  the  "Annals  of 
Ulster  ,  where  his  death  is  recorded  under  the  year 
791.  In  the  "Annals  of  the  Four  Masters",  however, 
wherein  also  he  is  styled  "Bishop",  his  death  is  as- 
signed, probably  incorrectly,  to  the  year  787.  His 
feast  is  on  7  July. 

Ck>LUAN,  Acta  Sanctorum  vetcris  et  maioris  Scotiep  (Lou vain, 
1645-7);  Gammack  in  Did.  Christ.  Biop.,n.  v.;  Healy,  Insula 
Sanctorum  et  Doctorum,  or  Ireland's  ancient  Schools  and  Scholars 
(Dublin,  1890).  407-9;  Laniuan,  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ire- 
land, III  (Dublin,  1822),  232;  O'Cvrhy,  Lectures  on  the  manu- 
script materials  of  ancient  Irish  History  (Dublin.  1861),  364,  375. 

Leslie  A.  St.  L.  Toke. 

Maelmbha  (Ma-rui,  Molroy,  Errew,  Summar- 
RUFF,  also  Saoart-Ruadh),  Saint,  abbot  and  martyr, 
founder  of  Abercrossan,  b.  642;  d.  21  April,  722.  He 
was  descended  from  Niall,  King  of  Ireland,  on  the  side 
of  his  father,  Elganach.  His  mother,  Subtan,  was  a 
niece  of  St.  Comgall  the  Great,  of  Bangor.  St.  Mael- 
mbha was  bom  in  the  County  of  perry  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Bangor.  When  he  was  in  his  thirtieth  year 
he  sailed  from  Ireland  for  Scotland,  with  a  following 
of  monks.  For  two  years  he  travelled  about,  chiefly 
in  Argyll,  and  founded  about  half-a-dozen  churches, 
then  settled  at  Abercrossan  (Applecross),  in  the  west 
of  Ross.  Here  he  built  his  chief  cnurch  and  monastery 
in  the  niidst  of  the  Pictish  folk,  and  thence  he  set  out 
on  missionary  journeys,  westward  to  the  islands  of 
Skye  and  Lewis,  eastward  to  Forres  and  Keith,  and 
northward  to  Loch  Shinn,  Durness,  and  Farr.  It  was 
on  this  last  ioumey  that  he  was  martyred  by  Danish 
vikings,  probably  at  Teampull,  about  nine  miles  up 
Strath-Naver  from  Farr,  where  he  had  built  a  cell. 
He  was  buried  close  to  the  River  Naver,  not  far  from 
his  cell,  and  his  grave  is  still  marked  by  "a  rough 
cross-marked  stone".  The  tradition,  in  the  "Aber- 
deen Breviary ",  that  lie  was  killed  at  Urquliart  and 


MAXBLAKT                            521  MtABSTEO 

buried  at  Abercrossan  is  jprobably  a  mistake  arising  Martijn"  (third  Martin).    Other  poems  of  this  kind 

from  a  confusion  of  Gaekc  place-names.    This  error  are  "Van  ons  Heren  wonden'',  a  translation  of  the 

had  been  copied  by  several  later  hagiologists,  as  has  hymn  "Salve meal  opatrona'';  "DieClausule  vander 

also  the  same  writers'  confusion  of  St.  Maelrubha  with  Bible '^  an  allegorical  poem  in  praise  of  the  Blessed 

St.  Rufus  of  Capua.    Biaelrubha  was,  after  St.  Co-  Virgin;  the  "Disputacie  van  onser  Vrouwen  ende  van 

lumba,  perhaps  the  most  popular  saint  of  the  north-  den  helighen  Cruce'',  which  bewails  the  sad  situation 

west  of  Scotland.    At  least  twenty-one  churches  are  of  the  Holy  Land.    Maerlant's  last  poem  "Van  den 

dedicated  to  him^  and  Dean  Reeves  enumerates  about  Lande  van  Oversee"  was  written  after  the  fall  of  Acre 

forty  forms  of  his  name.    His  death  occurred  on  21  (1291)  and  is  a  stirring  summons  to  a  crusade  against 

April,  and  his  feast  has  always  been  kept  in  Ireland  on  the  infidels,  with  bitter  complaints  about  abuses  m  the 

this  day;  but  in  Scotland  (probably  owing  to  the  con-  Church.     The  "Gees ten''  were  edited  by  Franck 

fusion  with  St.  Rufus)  it  was  kept  on  27  August.    On  (Grdningen,  1882);  the  "  Heimlicheit,  etc.'*,  by  Clar 

5  July.  1898,  Pope  Leo  XIII  restored  his  feast  for  the  risse  (Dordrecht,  1838)  and  by  Kausler  (1844) ;  "  Der 

Churcn  in  Scotland,  to  be  kept  on  27  August.  Naturen  Bloeme"  by  Verwijs  (Gr5ningen,  1878);  the 

^a^i^"^  ""^  •  w^^of'^r  ^l*^7^,2f*•  OPS'OVAH  (Dublin.  "Rijmbijber'  by  David  (Brussels,  1858-^9);  the  Life 

1856),  ad  ann.  671,722;  Annabo/(/{«(«r»  ed.  HsNNESST  (Dub-,  ^f  a*    irto««ia  K,r   T    ^\A^^».^   fJ^^,A^r^     i<Lie\.    +1*^ 

lin.  1887).  ad  ani.  670.  672,  7^1;  Barrett.  Early  8eotti»h  ^t  O'i.  Francis  by  J.  TidemMl  (Leyden,  1848);    the 

Sainu  in  Dublin  Revieto,  XV  (18W),  348-72;  BARRrrr.  CaUn-  "Spiegel  Histonael"  by  de  Vnes  and  Verwijs  (Ley- 

dar  ofScoOUh  SainU  (Fort  Augustus.  1904),  64-7;  BMvatheea  den,    1857-^3).      Complete  editions  of   the   strophic 

Hagtoffraphtea  Laivna,  ed.  Bollanduts  (Bniaseu.  1900).771:  rww»w»o  «»»»»  <*:„»,«  K,r  i?    VA««r;;o  /r'-x-»;««««    iQQrk\ 

Cajmpbelu  St.  Maolrybka  in  Scottish  Historical  Review,  vf  POems  were  given  by  E.  VerwijS  (Gromngen,  1880) 

ii909),  A42S;  FoHBiM,  Kalendars  of  Scottish  Saints  (EdinbvLTgh,  and  by  J.  Franck  and  J.  Verdam  (Groningen,  1898). 

1872).  382-4;  Gammack  in  Diet.  ChriM.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Mitchell.  Serrure,  Jacob  van  Maerkmt  en  zijne  ioerken  (2nd  ed.,  Ghent, 

On   various   superthttons    in    the   Norih-west    Highlands  and  1867);  te  Wis Ktiu  MaerlantswerkenbeschouivdaU  Spiegel  van 

1&^,^£.^^**^^^^V!P^  ^f^^  Sact€fi/  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  de  IS.  eeuw  (2nd  ed..  Ghent.  1892);  Jonckbloet,  Oeschichte  der 

V'  2^i*'  Y^^^^^r^,^.^^  Maeln^  monacho  et  marhrre  in  NiederlAndischen  Literatur,  German  tr.  by  Berg.  I  (Leiprig. 

AcUiSS.,\\i^.,\l,13l-2inKK\EB,SqintAi(^rubha,hishisU^  1870).  216-263;    te  Winkkl.  Oeschichte  der  ni^derUindischen 

f'^j^V?^^o*^«f''^^*^*'S??i'^^?r*'.*'^/'\!^*?^^^^?^^  I'^'teraiur  in  Paul.  Orundriss  der  germanischen  PhUologie,  II 

^^'  lli',^%:^kS!^A  ^^'  Afao'ru6Aa  m  Scottish  Historical  Re-  (2nd  ed.,  Strasburg.  1902),  pp.  437-40. 

^.  VI  (1909).  ieCHSO.           ^^^^  ^    ^    ^    ^^^  ABTHUB  F.  J.  Remt. 

..      ,         ,                   ,                  „,      .  ,             .  Maes,  Camillus  Paul.    See  Covington,  Diocese 

Maerlant,  Jacob  van,  the  greatest  Flemish  poet  of  of 

the  Middle  Ages,  b.  about  1235;  d.  after  1291.    Of  his  ' 

life  little  is  known.    His  name  he  seems  to  have  de-  Maestro  di  Oamera  del  Papa.— In  former  times 

rived  from  Maerlant  on  the  ishind  of  Voome,  where  he 

lived  for  some  time  employed  as  a  sexton,  whence  his  .                .                  .  . 

surname  "  de  Coster".    Later  he  resided  at  Damme,  (3)  the  Auditor  to  the  pope;  and  (4)  the  Master  of  the 

near  Bruges,  where,  according  to  tradition,  he  held  the  Sacred  Palace.    As  the  position  of  auditor  had  been 

position  of  town-clerk.   Maerlant's  earliest  works  were  allowed  to  remain  vacant  during  the  later  years  of  Leo 

chivalrous  romances,  such  as  were  in  vogue  at  that  XIII's  pontificate,  it  was  abolished  as  being  superflu- 

time  in  courtly  circles,  and  were  adapted  from  French  ous  at  the  beginning  of  Pius  X's  reign.    And  when  the 

or  Latin  sources.    Such  are  "Alexanders  Geesten"  major domo,  Mgr.Cagiano  de  Azevedo,  was  raised  to 


there  were  four  so-called  palace  prelates  Qsrelo/i  palor' 
Hni) :  (1)  the  J^iajor  Domo;  (2)  the  Maestro  di  Camera; 


ly  transferred  to  His  Excellency 

was  little  to  his  taste,  which  inclined  to  the  didactic  Monsignor  Major  Domo".    This  state  of  affairs  stUl 

and  useful.     So  he  turned  his  bade  on  the  lying  continues,  so  that  there  are  now  only  three  palace 

romances,  as  he  called  these  works  in  his  "Rijmbij-  prelacies  and  (as  one  official  discharges  the  duties 

bel",  and  devoted  his  talent  to  poems  of  a  didactic  attached  to  two  of  these)  only  two  palatine  prelates, 

and  moralizing  character.     Among  the  most  note-  All  three  prelates  have  the  right  of  residence  in  the 

worthy  of  these  poems  are  "  Heimlichejit  der  Heim-  Apostolic  palace, 

licheden",  a  treatise  on  politics,  adapted  from  the  The  maestro  di  camera  is  the  real  chief  chamberlain. 

Pseudo-Aristotolcan    "Secreta    Secretorum":    "Der  His  authority  extends  over  all  matters  concerning  the 

theim- 

^  clerical 

Anticamera 

translated  from  the  '^Scholastica  "  of  Petrus  Comestorl  as  regards  the  four  acting  clerical  privy  chamberlains* 

with  a  continuation  "Die  Wrake  van  Jherusalem",  he  informs  the  orderly  officer  of  the  Noble,  Swiss,  and 

adapted  from  the  history  of  Josephus.    He  also  trans-  Palace  Guards  respectively,  of  the  hours  of  duty  for 

lated  a  "  Life  of  St.  Francis"  (Leven  van  St.  Francia-  the  next  day;  he  summons  the  privy  and  honorary  lay 

cus)  from  the  Latin  of  Bonaventure.   Biaerlant's  most  chamberlains  to  their  period  of  weeklv  service,  and 

extensive  work  is  the  "Spiegel  Historiael",  a  rhymed  dismisses  them  at  the  end  of  it.    All  petitions  for 

chronicle  of  the  world,  translated  from  the  "  Speculum  audiences  are  lodged  with  him,  whether  tney  are  pre- 

historiale  "  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais.   It  is  dedicated  to  sented  to  him  immediately,  or  whether  they  are  pre- 

Count  FlorLs  V  and  was  begun  in  1283,  but  was  left  sented  to  him  (in  diplomatic  language)  mediaidy,  by 

unfinished  at  the  poet's  death.    Continuations  were  the  Secretary  of  State.    He  issues  the  summonses  to 

given  by  Philip  Utenbroeke  and  Lodewijc  van  Vel-  audiences,  and  regulates  all  occasional,  unusual,  or  un* 

them,  a  Brabant  priest.  official  ceremonies,  such  as  the  reception  of  pilgrim- 

Maerlant  is  also  the  author  of  a  number  of  strophic  ages  and  the  like.    Being  in  daily  personal  touch  with 

poems,  which  date  from  different  periods  of  his  life,  the  pope,  he  receives  his  orders  concerning  tliu  Anti- 

Of  these  the  best  known  is  the  "Wapoie  Martijn"  camera  of  the  next  day,  and  makes  arranKKtiiutntii 

(Alas!  Martin)  so  called  from  the  openmff  words.     It  accordingly.     As  supernumerary  Prothonotary  AfKM- 

is  a  dialogue  on  the  course  of  events  held  oetween  the  tolic  he  is  always  at  the  head  of  thb  colleip)  of  pn*laltNi. 

poet  himself  and  a  character  named  Martin.    Alto-  irrespective  of  the  date  of  his  appoint irumt.     At|iii|Mu 

gether  there  are  three  parts,  of  which  the  above-men-  audiences  and  on  other  occasions  wlmri  Uk*  \H9tm  dite 

tioned  is  the  first.    The  other  two  parts  are  known  as  upon  his  throne  without  pontifical  vtiMiiit<«iiUi,  the  iimf> 

"  Dander  Martijn  "  (the  second  Martin)  and  ' '  Derden  jor  domo  stands  on  the  right,  the  mmiaiim  iliLiaMBBHc%.wiL 


the  left,  both  on  the  second  atep  of  Ihe  throne.  The 
extent  of  thte  prelate's  jurisdiction  ia  limited  exclu- 
sively to  the  reception  rooms  of  the  pope,  from  the  first 
anticamera  to  the  private  apartments.  He  has  also 
someancient  privileges,  whicn  may  be  read  of  in  Hum- 
phrey, "UrbB  et  OrbiB". 

flee  old  workfl  on  the  Ronun  Curia;  also  OrrarvAia  CoUQlicai 
Hdhpbret.  Urbi  tl  OrMs  (lAQdon.  18»9),  124-31;  Die  KalAo- 
titclu  Kirche  muerer  ZeU,  1  (Bcriiu.  IBBO) ,  278. 

Paul  Hasia.  BADuaASTEN. 

Hftfld,  Bernardino,  poet,  orator,  and  antiqua- 
rian, b.at  Bergamo,  27  Jan.,  1514id.atRonie,  1  Aug., 
1649.  He  studied  juriapnidenco  at  Padua,  and  dur- 
ing the  frequent  absence  of  Dandino  act«d  as  seere- 
tary  to  Cardinal  Atcesandro  Fameae,  and  later  to 
Paul  III,  On  12  March,  1547,  he  was  made  Bishop  of 
Masaa  Maritima,  then  Archbishop  of  Chieti,  and  on  S 
April,  1549,  raised  to  the  purple.  Hewason  intimate 
t«nns  with  St.  Ignatius  Loyola  and  was  highlv  es- 
teemed by  Juliuslll.  His  commentary  on  the  Let- 
ten  of  Cficcro"  is  one  of  the  best.  He  also  wrote: 
"  De  inscriptionibus  ct  tmaginibus  veterum  numisma- 

PF0LriaXireAmIsr..».v,;CiAcOKiD»,Vii»rfHMS.KaP.P., 
in,  737;  Ram.Quar1alKliA/t  (1007),  SO;  Bvami.NanencJiUor: 

Francis  Mersbuan. 

HaSol,  Fkancehco,  Italian  painter,  b.  at  Vicensa; 
d.  at  Padua,  1660.  His  influence  upon  the  art  of  his 
own  and  later  times  bos  not  been  sufficient  to  attach 
much  interest  to  the  details  of  his  life.  Hts  celebrity 
Is  due  to  the  lar^  number  of  ^nerally  pleasing  pic- 
tures by  him,  atiJI  to  be  seen  in  the  churches  of  his 
native  Viccnza  and  many  towns  of  Lombard; 


15IS),  an  encyclopedia  of  all  subjects  known  at  that 
time,  prepared  with  great  care,  but  not  always  with 
the  b^t  judgment.  It  ooosist^  of  three  parts;  in  the 
first,  "Geography",  he  writ«a  extensively  of  the  Span- 
iards and  of  the 
Portuguese;    the 


especially,  to  the 
contemporaneous 
history  of  tiiat 
time;  the  third 
part  is  devoted 
to  "Philology", 
HalTci's  lives  of 
Sixtus  IV,  Inno- 
cent Vm,  Alex- 
ander VI,  and 
Pius  III,  which 
appear  . 
p«ndix 


"£ 


rdy. 
if  Peranda,  but  modelled  his  work  u] 
that  of  Veronese,  which  shows  itself  in  a  certain  opu- 


i  a  pupil  of  F 

it  of  Veronese 


lence  of  colouring.  Unfortunately  his  work  has  been 
very  ill  preserved,  whether  as  the  result  of  hurried  ex- 
ecution, or  of  faulty  methods  in  the  mixing  of  his 
^gments.  Thisisparticularlyapparent in  his"Para- 
aise"  in  the  church  of  San  Francesco  at  Padua.  His 
"St.  Anne"  at  San  Michele,  Vieenia,  is  probably 
one  of  the  best  expressions  of  his  poetical  fancy 
and  colour-sense.  He  was  among  those  painters  of 
bis  period  who  gave  an  impetus  to  the  still  young 
art  of  engraving  by  copying  his  own  work  in  that 
mediimi. 

EL  Macpherbon. 

Haffel,  Raffaelo,  humanist,  historian,  and  theo- 
logian, b.  17  February,  1451;  d.  25  January,  1522, 
f&  was  a  native  of  Volterra,  Italy,  and  therefore  is 
called  Raphael  Volaterranus.  From  earliest  youth  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  letters,  and  in  1466 
was  called  to  Rome,  with  his  brothers,  by  their  father, 
Qherardo  MafFci,  whom  Pius  II  had  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  the  University  of  Rome,  and  had 
taken  later  for  his  secretary,  which  position  he  held 
also  under  Paul  II  and  Sixtus  IV.  At  Rome,  Raffaelo 
hdd  himself  aloof  from  the  court,  devoting  his  time  to 
the  practice  of  piety  and  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  of 
theolo^,  and  of  the  Greek  language,  the  latter  under 
George  of  Trebiiond.  In  1477,  he  went  to  Hungary 
with  Cardinal  I»uis  of  Aragon,  on  the  latter's  mission 
to  Matthias  Corvinus.  Upon  his  return,  RaSaelo  was 
persuaded  by  the  Blessed  Gaspare  da  Firenie  not  to 
become  a  Minor  Observant,  as  Raffaelo  intended  to 
do;  whereupon  he  married,  and  established  his  resi- 
dence at  Volterra.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent 
in  study,  in  the  practice  of  piety  and  of  penance,  and 
in  the  exercise  of  works  of  chanty;  in  his  own  house, 
he  established  an  accndemia,  in  which  he  gave  lec- 
tures on  philosophy  and  on  theology,  while  he  founded 
the  Clarisse  monastery  of  Volterra.  He  died  in  the 
odour  of  sanctity:  and,  contrary  to  his  desire,  his 
brother  erected  to  his  memoi?  a  splendid  monument, 
the  work  of  Fra  Angeb  da  Hontorsolt. 


i'iat 

which  wer< 
published  s 
rately  (Ve: 

1518),  are  taken  from  the  "Commentarii";  in  them, 
Maffei  blames  unsparingly  V>e  disordered  life  of 
the  Roman  court.  At  Volterra,  he  wrote  a  compen- 
dium of  philosophy  and  of  theology,  "De  institu- 
tione  Christiana"  and  "De  prima  philosophia" 
(Rome,  1518)  in  which  he  rather  follows  Scotus.  He 
translated,  from  the  Greek  into  Latin,  the  "Odys- 
sey" of  Homer,  the  "(Economics"  of  Xenophon,  the 
"Gothic  War"  of  Procopius,  "Sermones  ct  tractatus 
S.  Basilii",  some  sermons  of  St.  John  of  Damascus  and 
of  St.  Andrew  of  Crete;  he  also  wrote  the  "Vita  B. 
Jacobi  de  Certaldo".  On  the  other  hand,  he  was  in 
epistolary  communication  with  popes,  cardinals,  and 
other  learned  men.  The  manuscript  of  the  work  which 
be  called  "Peristromata"  remained  incomplete;  it 
went  to  the  Biblioteca  Barlieriniona. 

The  elder  brother  of  Mallei,  Antonio,  was  involved 
in  the  conspiracy  of  the  Pazii.  Another  brother, 
Mario,  was  a  man  of  great  culture.  He  was  nuncio  to 
France  and,  later,  prefect  of  the  building  of  St.  Peter's 
(1507),  regent  of  tne  penitentiaries,  and  Bishop,  first, 
of  Aquino  (1516)  and  then  of  Cavailion;  he  died  on 
23  June,  1537. 

FAI.CONC1NI,-  Vita  dtl  nebU  uomo  e  gran  imn  di  Dio,  BagofHo 
Maffri  (Home,  1T22);  OiBmalr  dilla  LeUmUura  Irol..  XXIX. 
*49»q.  (under  Mario  Magri). 

U.  Bbnigni. 


Hagand,  ANTomE-DouiNiovF,  French  painter,  b. 
at  Marseilles  1817;  d.  there.  18<J9.  He  studied  in 
Paris  under  I>6oii  Cogniet.  The  most  important  of 
his  works  are  at  Marseilles,  where  he  presided  over  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  so  successfully  that  he  was  en- 
titled to  be  called  its  second  founder.  Magaud's  tal- 
ent was  universal;  his  portraits,  and  especially  that  of 
himself,  are  remarkable;  then  be  took  up  landscape 
painting,  and  has  left  us  among  others  "  A  view  taken 
from  St.  Martha's"  near  Marseilles;  his  genre  paint- 
ing include  a  famous  "  Bashi-Baiouk  caUing  up 
Spirite  ".  But  it  is  principally  ia  his  decorative  com- 
positions that  his  real  greatness  is  shown.  In  Mai^ 
seillee  he  decorated  the  Cafg  de  France,  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce,  the  Library,  the  Grand-H6tel,  the  Pre- 
fecture. His  masterpiece  in  work  of  this  kind  is  the 
historical  ^llery  of  the  Marseilles  Religious  Associa- 
tion. This  gallery  comprises  fifteen  canvases,  four 
metres  by  two,  and  a  ceding  nine  metres.  The  sub- 
ject to  be  treated  was  a  pictorial  glorification  of  the 
benefits  of  Christian  civiliiation.    The  main  theme  ia 


MAODALA 


523 


MAQDALA 


set  forth  on  the  ceiling  in  a  vu^t  Hvmbulical  compo- 
sition representing  Religion  as  the  inspiration  of 
Learning.  Science  and  Art.  On  the  side  walls  of  the 
gallery  the  following  subjects  appear:  Philosophy, 
personified  by  St.  Justin  endeavouring  to  prove  to 
the  Jew,  Tryphon,  the  superiority  of  Christianity; 
Theology  is  represented  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  on  a 
visit  to  St.  Bonaventure;  mnguages  and  Literature  by 
the  Palatine  School  of  Charlemagne  and  Alcuin; 
Justice  by  St.  Louis  seated  under  the  oak  of  Vincennes; 
Eloquence  by  St.  Bernard  preaching  the  second  cru- 
sade at  V^zelay;  Poetry  by  Dante  in  rapt  contem- 
Slation  of  the  heavens.  Then  comes  Christopher 
olumbus  landing  at  San  Salvador  and  thanking 
God  for  having  given  him  the  grace  "of  carrying  His 
name  and  His  holy  religion  beyond  the  confines  of  the 
known  stars'';  next,  Michelangelo,  submitting  plans 
for  St.  Peter's  Basilica  to  Pope  Paul  III;  Palestrina 
on  his  knees  before  Pius  IV,  pleading  the  cause  of 
sacred  music;  Father  Cataldmo  evangelizing  the  In- 
dians during  the  conquest  of  Paraguay ;  Cond^  thank- 
ing God  for  the  victory  of  Rocroi;  Mgr  de  Belzunce 
ministering  to  the  plague-stricken;  Volta  in  his  labo- 
ratory at  Como  among  his  alembics  and  his  retorts 
giving  thanks  to  the  God  of  Science;  finally  Bossuet 
teachmg  historv  to  the  Dauphin. 

This  ensemble  of  painting  is  assuredly  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  works  of  Christian  Art  during  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Without  going  to  Marseilles  we  can 
form  some  idea  of  it  by  turning  over  tJie  leaves  of  the 
album  in  which  Sirouy  has  skilfully  reproduced  the 
various  subjects  of  this  vast  epopee.  Magaud  has 
shown  in  many  other  less  important  paintings,  that  he 
could  treat  artistic  subjects  with  the  mind  of  an  en- 
lightened Christian.  For  instance,  ''The  Probatica 
Pool";  "The  Slaughter  of  the  Innocents";  "The 
Christians  in  the  prisons,  aided  by  their  brethren " ; 
"The  Holy  Family"  in  St.  Lazarus's  Church,  Mar- 
seilles; eight  decorative  compositions  for  the  chapel 
of  the  "  Carmehns  "  foimded  m  1621  by  the  officers  of 
the  Confraternity  of  the  Scapular;  "Jeremias  re- 
proaching the  Jews  with  their  iU-deeds". 

Servian,  Magattd,  VariisU,  Uchefdlcole,  Vhomme,  36  etchin^p 
apart  from  the  text  (Paris,  1908) ;  Sirouy.  i4/6tim  de  la  Oalene 
hx8(orique  du  CercU  reliffieux  de  MareeiUs  (Paris,  s.  d.). 

Gaston  Sortais. 

Magdala  (Hebr.  Migdal  =  tower,  fortress;  Aramaic 
Magdala;  Greek  Ma75d\tt). — It  is  perhaps  the  Migdal- 
El  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  (Jos.,  xix,  38;  be- 
longing to  the  tribe  of  Nephtali.  St.  Jerome  in  his 
version  of  Eusebius's  "Chronicle"  supposes  the  place 
to  be  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dor  (Tanturah)  on  the 
sea-coast;  Kiepert,  on  the  contrary,  identifies  it  with 
'Athlit  (Caatellum  Peregrinorum),  The  territory  of 
Nephtali,  however,  never  extended  so  far  to  the  west. 
According  to  Matt.,  xv,  39,  after  the  second  multipli- 
cation of  loaves,  Jesus  went  with  His  Apostles  into  the 
country  of  Macedan,  the  name  given  in  various  forms 
(by  many  of  the  best  authorities,  H,  B,  D,  Old  Lat., 
Old  Syr. ,  Vulg. ) .  Very  many  earlier  authorities,  how- 
ever, give  Magdala  instead  of  Maeedan  (15  Greek  un- 
cials, the  Minusculi,  1  Old  Lat.,  Armen.,  Boh.,  Mth,, 
Syr.,  Hex.).  The  parallel  passage  in  Mark,  viii,  10, 
reads  in  most  recensions  Dalmanutha  (only  D,  Syr. 
Sin.  Old  Lat.  with  one  exception,  Goth.,  and  some 
Minusculi  agree  with  the  name  in  Matthew).  A  solu- 
tion is  rendered  difficult  by  the  fact  that  the  situation 
is  unknown,  and  the  direction  cannot  be  inferred  from 
the  Gospel.  The  most  plausible  suggestion  is  that  of 
van  Kasteren  who  thinks  Dalmanutha  is  the  modem 
El-Delhamiye,  about  four  miles  south  of  the  southern 
end  of  the  lake  near  the  Jordan,  north  of  the  inBux  of 
the  Yarmuk.  He  also  thinks  that  Magedan  is  repre? 
sen  ted  by  Ma*ad,  still  more  to  the  south  (the  change  of 
gkimd  to  ayin  offers  no  difficulty).  In  sound  the 
transition  from  Magdala  to  Biagadan  is  not  imposBible 
in  palfiBOgraphy;  it  is  indeed  easily  intelligible. 


The  existence  of  a  Galilean  Magdala,  the  birthpluoe 
or  home  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen  (i.  e.  of  Magdala),  is  in- 
dicated by  Luke,  viii,  2 ;  Mark,  xvi,  9;  Matt„  xxvii,  56, 
61;  XX viii,  1,  and  in  the  parallel  passages,  John  xx,  1, 
18.  The  Talmud  distinguishes  between  two  Magdalas 
only.  One  was  in  the  east,  on  the  Yarmuk  near 
Gauara  (in  the  Middle  Ages  Jadar,  now  Mukes),  thus 
acquiring  the  name  of  Magdala  Gadar;  as  a  much  fre- 
quented watering  place  it  was  called  Magdala  Ceba 
*ayya  (now  El-Hammi,  about  two  hours'  journey  trom 
the  southern  end  of  the  lake  to  the  east,  near  a  railway 
station,  HaifarDera*a).  According  to  various  pas- 
sages in  the  Talmud,  there  was  another  Magdala  near 
Tiberias,  at  a  distance  from  it  of  about  tliree  and 
three-quarter  miles.  Only  one  mile  being  given  in  the 
Palestinian  Talmud,  several  different  places  have  been 
identified  with  it;  wrongly,  however,  for  according  to 
the  parallel  passages  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud  and 
the  context  of  the  passage,  the  reading  must  be  con- 
demned as  an  error.  This  Magdala,  perhaps  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  place  similarly  named  east  of  the 
Jordan,  is  called  Magdala  Nunayya,  "Magdala  of  the 
Fishes",  by  which  its  situation  near  the  lake  and  plen- 
tiful fisheries  appear  to  be  indicated.  According  to 
the  Talmud,  Magdala  was  a  wealthy  town,  and  was 
destroyed  by  the  Romans  because  of  the  moral  de- 
pravity of  its  inhabitants.  Josephus  gives  an  account 
(Bell,  jud..  Ill,  x)  of  the  taking  of  a  town  in  Galilee, 
which  was  situated  on  the  lake  near  Tiberias  ana 
which  had  received  its  Greek  name,  TarichcfiB  (the  He- 
brew name  is  not  given),  from  its  prosperous  fisheries. 
Plinv  places  the  town  to  the  south  of  the  lake,  and  it 
has  been  searched  for  there.  But  a  due  regard  for  the 
various  references  in  Josephus,  who  was  often  in  the 
town  and  was  present  at  its  capture,  leaves  no  doubt 
that  Taricheae  lay  to  the  north  of  Tiberias  and  thirty 
stadia  from  it  (about  three  and  three-quarter  miles;. 
The  identity  of  Taricheae  with  Magdala  Nunayya  is 
thus  as  good  as  established. 

After  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  Magdala  Nu- 
nayya became  the  seat  of  one  of  the  twenty-four 
priestly  divisions,  and  several  doctors  of  law  sprang 
trom  the  town.  Christian  tradition  sought  there  the 
home  of  Mary  Magdalen.  If  we  are  to  believe  the 
Melchite  patriarch,  Euthychius  of  Alexandria,  the 
brother  of  St  Basil,  Peter  of  Sebaste,  knew  of  a  church 
at  Magdala  in  the  second  half  of  tne  fourth  centuiy, 
which  was  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  Mary  Magda- 
len. About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  the  pil- 
grim Theodosius  reckoned  Magdala's  distance  from 
Tiberias  in  the  south  and  Heptap^on  (now  'Ain 
Tabgha)  in  the  north  at  two  miles.  At  all  events  the 
reckoning  as  to  the  relative  distance  between  the  two 
places  is  approximately  right.  At  the  end  of  the 
eighth  century  St.  Wilubald  went  as  a  pilgrim  from 
Tiberias  past  Magdala  to  Caphamaum.  In  the  tenth 
century  the  church  and  house  of  Mary  Magdalen  were 
shown.  The  Russian  abbot  Daniel  (11(%)  and  the 
Franciscan  Quaresimus  (1616)  give  the  place  the  name 
of  Magdalia.  The  small,  poverty-stricken  village,  El- 
MeJdel,  has  kept  the  name  and  situation  to  this  dav. 
It  lies  about  midway  between  Tabaryya  and  'Am 
Tabgha,  at  the  south  end  of  the  little  fruitful  plain  of 
Genesareth,  and  rests  on  the  declivities  of  tiie  moun- 
tain which  projects  over  the  lake.  Towards  the  west 
the  connexion  with  the  inner  country  of  Galilee  is 
effected  through  Wadi  Hamam,  pa^t  Qam  Hattin. 
In  the  caverns  of  Wadi  Haman,' about  half  an  hour  to 
the  west  of  Magdala,  the  Galilean  robber  bands  dur- 
ing the  time  of  the  first  Herod  used  to  find  a  safe 
refuffe.  Later  the  caves  were  occupied  by  hermits, 
until  finally  a  stronghold  was  established  there  by  the 
Arabs.  JVfejdel,  with  its  few  dirt^  huts  and  single 
palm  tree,  is  all  that  is  left  of  luxunous  Magdala.  No 
ruins  of  any  importance  have  yet  been  imcovered. 

Beskiei  the  usual  diotionaries  of  the  Bible,  oonsult  Oe 

Di§  Oritchafttn  u,  Ortnam  OalUlUu  nach  jQu^i^k^^^'UidjAm 


MAODALIRS 


524 


BCAODSBtmO 


dmdsehen  PalAsHnavereins,  XXVIII  (1005).  11-20:  Klcin. 
BeiMtgexurOeogr.  u.  Geaeh.  Go/Oeuu  (Leipsig,  1909),  76-84;  van 
Kabterbn  in  Revue  bibl.,  VI  (1897),  93-9. 

A.  Merk. 

Maffdatona,  the  members  of  certain  religious  com- 
munities of  penitent  women  who  desired  to  reform 
their  lives.  As  time  went  on,  however,  others  of 
blameless  reputation  were  also  admitted,  until  many 
communities  were  composed  entirely  of  the  latter,  who 
still  retained  the  name  of  Magdalens,  or  White  Ladies 
fit>m  the  colour  of  their  garb.  It  is  not  known  at  what 
period  the  first  house  was  established,  the  date  of  foim- 
oation  of  the  Metz  convent,  usually  given  as  1005,  be- 
ing still  in  dispute.  Rudolph  of  Worms  is  the  tradi- 
tional foimder  of  the  Magoalens  in  Germanjr  (Mon. 
Germ.  Script.,  XVII,  234),  where  they  were  m  exist- 
ence early  in  the  thirteenth  xsentury,  as  attested  by 
Bulls  of  Gregory  IX  and  Innocent  IV  (1243-54), 
granting  them  important  privileges.  H^lyot  quotes 
fetters  ^dressed  by  Otto,  Cardinal  of  the  Title  of  St. 
Nicholas  in  Carcere  Tulliano,  Apostolic  Legate  in  Ger- 
many, granting  indulgences  to  those  contributing  to 
the  support  of  the  German  Magdalens.  Among  the 
earliest  foundations  in  Germany  were  those  at  Naum- 
burg-on-the-Queis  (1217),  and  Speyer  (1226).  Greg- 
ory IX,  in  a  letter  to  Rudolph,  prescribed  for  the 
penitents  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  which  was 
adopted  by  most  of  the  Magdalens,  though  many  of 
the  German  houses  later  aflouiated  themselves  to  the 
Franciscan  or  Dominican  Orders.  Institutions  of 
l^dalens  still  exist,  e.  g.  at  Lauban  (founded  1320) 
ana  Studenz,  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  old.  Few  of 
the  German  convents  survived  the  Reformation. 

Houses  of  the  Maedalens  were  soon  founded  in 
France,  Belgium,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  The 
first  foimdation  in  France  was  made  at  Marseilles 
about  1272  by  Bertrand,  a  saintly  man  who  associated 
with  himself  in  his  work  of  rescuing  fallen  women 
oUier  zealous  men,  later  constituted  a  religious  con- 
gr^ation  by  decree  of  Nicholas  III,  under  the  Rule 
of  St.  Augustine.  In  1492  the  eloquence  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan P^re  Jean  Tisserand  influenced  a  number  of 
women  to  turn  from  evil  ways  and  embrace  a  life  of 
penitence.  Five  years  later  Jean-Simon,  Bishop  of 
P&ris,  prescribed  for  them  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine 
and  drew  up  special  statutes  for  their  direction.  From 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  these  Mag- 
dalens of  Rue  St-Denis  were  all  women  of  stainless 
fives.  Among  other  prominent  communities  of  Mag- 
dalens were  those  at  Naples  (1324),  Paris  (15921, 
Rome,  where  Leo  X  established  one  in  1520,  Seville 
(1550),  Rouen,  and  Bordeaux. 

The  MadeUmnetteSf  members  of  another  Order  of  St. 
Mary  Magdalen,  were  founded  in  1618  by  the  Capu- 
chin P^re  Athanase  Mol6,  who,  assisted  by  zealous  lay- 
men, gathered  a  number  of  women  who  desired  to 
reform  their  lives.  Two  years  later  some  of  these  were 
admitted  to  religious  vows  by  St.  Francis  de  Sales, 
and  were  placed  successively  under  Religious  of  the 
Visitation,  Ursulines.  and  Sisters  Hospitallers  of  the 
Mercy  of  Jesus,  and  trom  1720  under  Religious  of  Our 
Lady  of  Charity.  The  constitutions,  drawn  up  in 
1637,  were  approved  by  the  Archbishop  of  Pans  in 
1640,  and  the  house  was  erected  by  Urban  VIII  into  a 
monastery.  Two  branch  foundations  were  made  at 
Rouen  and  Bordeaux.  The  order  comprised  three  con- 
gregations, (1)  the  Magdalens  proper,  who  had  been 
deemed  worthy  of  being  admitted  to  solemn  vows,  (2) 
the  Sisters  of  Saint  Martha,  who,  for  some  reason, 
could  not  undertake  the  obligation  of  solemn  vows, 
and  were  bound  by  simple  vows  only,  and  (3)  the  Sis- 
ters of  St.  Lazarus,  public  sinners  confined  against 
their  will.  Each  congregation  had  a  separate  building 
and  observed  a  different  rule  of  life.  Sisters  of  St. 
Martha  were  admitted  to  the  ranks  of  the  Magdalens 
after  two  years  novitiate.    This  order  la  no  longer  in 


H^LTOT.  Diet,  drs  ordrea  rrl.  (Paris,  1859);  FEHn  in  Kirehm- 
Ux.t  s.  v.;  Wadding,  Annul.  Min. 

Florence  Rupoe  McGahan. 

Magdeburg,  capital  of  the  Prussian  Province  of 
Saxony,  situated  on  the  Elbe;  pop.  241,000;  it  is 
noted  for  its  industries,  particularly  the  production 
of  sugar,  ite  trade,  and  its  commerce.  From  968 
until  1552  it  was  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric. 

History. — ^The  town  was  one  of  the  oldest  emporia 
of  the  German  trade  for  the  Wends  who  dwelt  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Elbe.  In  805  it  is  first  mentioned 
in  history.  In  806  Charlemagne  built  a  fortress 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  opposite  Magdeburg. 
The  oldest  church  is  also  credited  to  this  epoch. 
Magdeburg  first  played  an  important  part  in  the  his- 
tory of  Germany  duringthe  reign  of  Otto  the  Great 
(936-73).  His  consort  Editha  had  a  particular  love 
for  the  town  and  often  lived  there.  The  emperor  also 
continually  returned  to  it.  On  21  September,  937, 
Otto  founded  a  Benedictine  monastery  at  Magdeburg, 
which  was  dedicated  to  Sts.  Peter,  Maurice,  and  the 
Holy  Innocents.  The  first  abbots  and  monks  came 
from  St.  Maximin's  at  Trier.  Later  on  Otto  conceived 
the  plan  of  establishing  an  archbishopric  at  Magde- 
burg, thus  making  it  a  missionarv  centre  for  the  Wends 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Elbe.  He  succeeded  in 
carrying  out  his  idea  after  various  changes  and  diflS- 
culties.  The  glory  of  the  archbishopric  increased  rap- 
idly, the  town  also  became  more  important.  The  so- 
called  Magdeburg  Righte  were  also  adopted  by  many 
towns  in  eastern  and  north-eastern  Germany  in  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  (in  Pomerania, 
Schleswig,  and  Prussia) .  The  local  tribunal  of  Magde- 
burg was  the  superior  court  for  these  towns.  Magde- 
burg was  also  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league  of 
towns,  and  as  such  was  first  mentioned  in  1295.  -The 
town  liad  an  active  maritime  commerce  on  the  west 
(towards  Flanders),  with  the  countries  of  the  Baltic 
Sea,  and  maintained  traffic  and  communication  with 
the  interior  (for  example  Brunswick). 

The  Reformation  found  speedy  adherents  in  Magde- 
burg where  Luther  had  been  a  schoolboy.  The  new 
doctrine  was  introduced  17  July,  1524,  and  the  town 
became  a  stronghold  of  Protestantism,  being  known 
among  Protestants  as  "  The  Lord  God's  Chancellery  ". 
In  1526  it  joined  the  Alliance  of  Torgau,  and  in  1531 
the  Smalkaldic  League,  and  was  repeatedly  outlawed 
by  the  emperor.  Because  it  would  not  accept  the 
"Interim  "  (1548),  it  was,  by  the  emperor's  commands, 
besieged  (1550-51)  by  the  Margrave  Maurice  of  Saxony; 
it  defended  itseli  bravely  and  retained  its  religious 
liberty  when  peace  was  declared.  Here  Flacius  Illyri- 
cus  and  his  companions  wrote  their  bitterest  pam- 

Shlets  and  the  great  work  on  church  history,  *The 
[agdeburg  Centuries",  in  which  they  tried  to  prove 
that  the  Catholic  Church  had  become  the  kingdom 
of  Anti-Christ.  The  town  met  with  a  terrible  fate 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

The  Elector  Christian  Wilhelm  of  Brandenburg,  who 
had  been  administrator  of  the  archbishopric  since 
1598,  exercised  a  policy  which  was  hostile  to  the  em- 
peror, and  on  this  account  he  was  deposed  by  the 
cathedral  chapter  in  1628,  the  latter  having  remained 
strictly  neutral.  He  now  hoped  to  regain  posses- 
sion of  the  country,  by  means  of  an  alliance  with 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  succeeded  in  forming  the 
alliance  1  August,  1630,  with  the  help  of  the  Evan- 
gelical clergy  and  part  of  the  citizens.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  sent  his  equerry.  Colonel  Diedrich  von 
Falkenburg,  to  defend  the  town  against  the  emperor's 
army.  On  15  December,  Tilly,  commander-in-chief  of 
the  imperial  army,  ordered  Field  Marshal  Pappenheim 
to  advance  upon  the  town.  Tilly  himself  followed  in 
March.  The  help  which  Was  expected  from  Sweden, 
however,  was  not  forthcoming;  Falkenburg  had  2400 
soldiers,  and  Tillv  24,000.  In  spite  of  this  the  town  did 
not  siurender.    It  was  besieged  on  the  morning  of  20 


Hmrch,  1631.    Falkenburg  was  killed.    The  blood-    ceived  the  palliun  at  Rome,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
■bed  and  pillage  were  frightful;  and  the  misery  woe     ytM  woa  solemnly  enthroned  in  HagdebuTK. 
only  increased  by  the  fire  which  broke  out  from  some         The  Diocese  of  Magdeburg  itself  w  ' 


org. 
oall:  ito 


blowinfi,  so  that  in  twelve  hours  the  whole  town  was  which  Halberetadt  resigned.     Posen  was   added   t 

in  ashes  with  the  exception  of  the  cathedral,  the  con-  the  suffrogan  bishoprics  later  on  (from  970  until  the 

vent  of  the  Blessed  Vii^n,  the  parish  churcncs  where  twelfth  century,  when  it  fell  to  Gnesen),  also  Lcbua, 

the  fire  had  been  extinguished,  and  some  two  hundred  and,  for  a  time,  Kammin.    The  cathedra!  school  espe- 

small  houses.     Most  of  the  inhabitants  (nl)out  30,1)00)  cially  fiaincd  in  importance  under  Adclbert's  efficient 

were  smothered  in  the  cellars  and  granaries  where  ad mmist ration.     The  tehoUitticug  Othrieh  was   con- 

they  had  taken  refuge.  sidered  the  most  learned  man  of  his  times.     Muiv 

Much  has  been  written  about  tho  question  as  to  who  eminent  men  were  educated  at  Magdeburg.    Othricn 

was  renponsible  for  the  fire.    There  Was  formerly  a  was  chosen  archbishop  after  Adelbert's  death  (081). 

Protestant  tradition  that  Tilly  was  responsible  tor  the  Gisiler  of  Merseburg  by  bribery  and  fraud  obtainwi 

destruction  of  the  tonti.    It  is  true  that  Pappcnheira  possession  of  the  See  of  Magoeburg,  and  alBO_  suo- 

for  tactical  reaKons  caused  two  houses  to  l>e  set  on  lire,  ceeded    temporarily   in    grasping   the    Bishopric    <A 

and  it  ie  possible  that  the  soldien  ignited  more,  in  Merseburg  (until  1004).     Among  successors  worthy 

;out theorder.    But  for  I'appenheim        '  '  '         '  '  '        ~  "  " ' 


a  and  his     of 


soldiers  to  have  <lelil)erntelypLtnne<l  to  reduce  the    . 
to  ashes,  iis  hiwlieen  suggested,  would  have  been  down- 
right fully,  for  it  robl>ed  tho  imijerialiHts  of  all  the 
profits  of  ihc  siege,    .\sopposed  to  this,  Karl  Witlich's 
theory  gained  many  adherents;  he  held  that  Falkea- 

burg  and  his  faction  (-■"=— *—**—• ' •  ■'-■ 

fallinginiotbclmnds 
of  tite  I>»i>isu.  Von 
Zwiedinccic  Sudcii- 
horst  in  also  of  this 
opinion  in  UlUtein's 
"Weltgeschiehto 
Pflug",  edited  by 
inllartlung(l.>(H)- 


antlientic.  Ilecently 
the  opinion  has  h<n-n 
einphuMied  tluit  un- 
fortunate circum- 
BtanccH,  such  hh  the 
epriiicing  up  of  I  lie 
Dortli-euKt  wmd,  i.'on- 
trilnited  towanl*  it. 
After  lliNOtheton-n 
belonged  to  I'ruwiim 
Bmndenhurg.       In 


re:  theicalousGero  (1012^23);  Werner, 


Kleist  in  a  cowardly 


(106.1-78),  who  was 'killed  in  battle  with  Henry  I V 
(see  Invkhtitubbs,  (Conflict  op)  ;  St.  Norbert,  prom- 
inent in  the  twelfth  centur>' (112&-:i4),  the  founder 
of  the  Prcmonstratensian  order;  W'ichman  (1152- 
iKi)  wa.s  more  important  as  a  sovereign  and  prince 
topreventits  of  llie  Holy  lloman  Kiiipirc  than  as  a  bishop;  Al- 
brecht  II  (120i- 
32)  quarrelled  with 
the  Emperor Ottoll 
(1198-1215),  be- 
cause  he  had  pro- 
nounced the  pope's 
b.'kn  against  the  lat- 
ter and  this  unfor- 
tunate war  greatly 
damaged  the  arch- 
bishopric. In  1208 
be  began  to  build  the 
present  cathedral, 
which  Waa  only  con- 
Becnitediol263,and 
never  entirely  fin- 
iNlietl;  (liintherl 
(1277-70)  hardly 
cscupe<l  a  serious 
war  with  the  Mar- 
grave Otto  of  Bran- 
denburg, who  was 
inccn-icd    ^  -  -     - 


Tut  CatUEDBIL,   .MlGUtUUHU 

North  .Side  .„„,^,^„ 

r  surrendered  the  fortress  to  the  French,  and  his  brother  Erich  had  not  been  elected  archbishop, 

itbclonged  toWestphaiiauntil  18U.    Since  that  time  And    the    Brandenburgera    actually    succeeded    to 

it  has  Wonged  to  Prussia.  forcing  GUnthcr  and  Bemhaid  (1279-1281)  to  resign 

The  Archbishopric— After  the  wars  of  the  years  and  in  makingErichanjhbishop  (1283-1205).    Cordi- 

940  and  9ii4,  when  the  Slavs,  as  fur  as  the  Oder,  had  nal  Albrecht  of  Brandenbui^  (1513-45),  on  account 

been  brought  into  subjection  to  German  rule,  Otto  the  of  his  insecure  position,  as  well  as  bemg  crippled  by  » 

(ireut.inO.^.i.scttoworktoestablLHhanarchbiiihoprio  perpetual  lack  of  funds,  gave  some  occasion  for  the 

in  Magdeburg,  for  the  newly  acquired  territory.    He  spread  of  Lutheraniam  in  his  diocese,  although  him- 

wisheil  to  transfer  the  capital  (A  the   diocese   from  self  opposing  the  Reformation.    It  is  not  tnio  that  be 

Ilallierslacit  to  Magdeburg,  and  make  it  an  arch-  became  a  Lutheran  and  wished  to  retain  his  see  oa  » 

diocese.     But  this  was  strenuously  opposed  by  the  secular  principality,  and  just  aa  untrue  that  in  lite 

.Archbishop  of   Mains  who  n-as   the  metropolitan  of  Kalbe  Parliament  in  1541  he  consented  to  the  intro- 

Hallierstailt.    When,  in  062,  Jolm  XII  sonctioned  the  duclion  of  the  Reformation  in  order  to  have  his  debt« 

establishnM-nt  of  an  archbishopric,  Otto  seemed  to  paid.    His  succcsBors  were  the  lealous  Catholics  John 

havcalwDdoned  hisplanof  a  IransfcE.    Tho  estates  Albert   of   Bwndenburg    (1545-15o0),  who  however 

belonging  to  the  convents  mentioned  above  (founded  could  accomplish   very  little,  and   Frederick   IV  of 

in  037)  were  converted  into  a  mensa  for  the  new  Brandenburg,  who  died  in  1352, 

arehbishopric,   and   the    monks    transferred   to   the         Administrators  who  were  secuUr  princes  now  took 

Berge  Convent.    The  archie piscopol  church  made  St.  the  place  of  tho  orehbiuhop,  and  they,  as  well  as  the 

Maurice  its  jKitron.  and  in  addition  received  new  dona-  majority  of  the  cathedral  chapter  and'  the  inhabitants 

tions  and  grants  from  Otto.    The  following  bishoprics  of  the  diocese,  had  become  Evangelical.     They  be- 

wcro    made    suffmgans:    Havelberg,    Brandenburg,  bnged  to  the  House  of  Brandenburg,    Christian  Wil- 

Merseburg,  Zeili,  and  Meissen.     Then,  on  20  April,  helm  (seealwvc)  was  taken  prisonerin  1631, andwent 

9<ir,  the  archbishopric  was  sotemnly  established  at  the  over  to  the  Catliolic  Church  in  Vienna.    At  the  time 

Synoil  of  Ravenna  in  the  presence  of  the  pope  and  the  of  the  Peace  of  Prague,  this  country  tell  to  the  than 

emperor.    Tlie  first  arehbishop  was  Adelbcrt,  a  former  of  Prince  August  of  Saiconv,  and  after  his  death  (IflSO) 

monk  of  St.  Maximin's  at  Trier,  aflern-ards  mission-  it  waa  publicly  assigned  liy  the  Peace  of  Westpbalitt 

arj-  bislnip  to  the  Russians,  and  Abbot  of  Weissenburg  to  Brand  en  burg-Pnissia  (1048),  to  which  it  luia  since 

in  Alsace.    He  was  elected  in  Ihe  autumn  of  OftS,  re-  l(elanged,withtlie  exception  of  the  intuvo.'.tA ^-rsc^tL 


BIAODEBVRO 


526 


MAOBLLMT 


rule  (1807-1814).  At  the  time  of  the  secularization 
(1803)  there  remained  only  the  convent  of  St.  Agnes 
in  the  Neustadt  Magdeburg,  Marienstuhl  near  ESeln 
andMariendorf,  and  the  monastery  at  Althaldensleben. 
Catholic  parishes  took  their  places.  Before  the  reign 
of  Frederick  the  Great  (1740)  no  Catholics  were  ad- 
mitted to  Magdeburg.  In  modem  times  the  League 
of  St.  Boniface  has  established  mission  parishes  in  the 
suburbs  of  Ms^deburg  as  well  as  in  other  places. 

MuLVERBTBDT,  Regesta  archiepiaeopatua  Magdeburgmsia, 
I-rV  (Magdebuis,  1876-1899) ;  Uhijrz,  GeschichU  de»  Erzbia- 
tum*  Magdeburg  urUer  den  Kaiaem  aua  dem  SAchnschen  Hausa 
(MagdebuJiS.  1887);  Rathmann,  OeaehichUderStadt  Magdeburg, 
I-IV  (ibid..  1886-1886);  Hoffmann.  Chronik  von,  Magdeburg, 
I,  II  (2nd  ed..  ibid.,  l885-«6):  Wolter,  QeschichU  der  Stadt 
Magdeburg  (ibid.,  3rd  ed.,  1901);  Hauck,  Kirchengeachichte 
Deutschlandii,  III,  IV  (Leipzig,  1903-06);  Urkundenhuch  der 
Stadt  Magdeburg,  ed.  von  Hkrtel  (Halle,  1892-06);  Tbitob. 
Die  Frage  nach  dem  Urheber  der  Zeratdrung  Magdeburga  (Halle. 
1904). 

Klemenb  LOffler. 

Magdeburg,  Centuriatobs  of.  See  Cbntubia- 
TORs  OF  Magdeburg. 

Mageddo,  Chanaanitc  city,  called  in  HebreWj  Me- 
giddo'  in  Sept.,  Ma7eW(i(y);  in  Assyrian,  Magiddu, 
Magaadu;  in  the  Amama  tablets,  Magidda  and 
Makida;  and  in  Egyptian,  Maketi,  IkiaJdtu,  and 
Makedo. 

Derivation. — Gesenius  (Thes.,  p.  265)  derives  from 
root  GDD  which  is  in  Hithpahel — "collect  in  crowd" 
(Jer.,  V,  7),  and  from  whicn  gedud — *' troop",  is  de- 
rived. Hence  Megiddo — locus  turmarum.  Others  de- 
rive from  gdd — ^"'cut",  and  compare  with  #c«KoxroAievoj 
of  Sept.  at  Zach.,  xii,  11.  This  suggests  a  survival  of 
the  name  in  the  Nihr-ul-Miiqdttd',  the  ancient  Cison 
(cf.  Smith,  "Historical  Geography  of  Holy  Land", 
p.  387). 

History. — Mageddo,  situated  on  the  torrent  Qina, 
on  the  east  of  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon  opposite  Jezrahel, 
commanded  the  central  of  the  three  passes  that  join 
the  plain  with  the  seaboard.  This  pass,  which  offered 
the  Best  and  shortest  route  from  Egypt  and  the  south 
to  Northern  Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Mesopotamia,  was 
that  commonly  followed  by  the  Assyrians,  Egyptians, 
Philistines,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  and  in  modem  times 
Napoleon's  passage  slightly  to  the  north  was  feasible 
only  because  no  lirlag^do  threatened  his  rear.  The 
Bame  route  served  for  caravans  from  the  days  of  the 
"Mohar,  the  Egyptian  traveller"  under  Rameses  II 
("Records  of  the  Past",  II,  107  sq.;  Max  Mailer, 
*' Asien  und  Europa",  195  sq.)  and  ol  St.  Paula,  a.  d. 
382  ("Life"  by  St.  Jerome,  IV). 

As  the  key  to  so  important  a  pass,  Mageddo  must 
have  been  fortified  long  before  the  invasion  of  Thotmes 
I,  about  1600  B.  c.  Thotmes  III  after  a  vigorous  forced 
march,  defeated  the  Syrian  princes  rallied  there  under 
the  prince  of  Cades,  and  on  the  following  day  stormed 
^e  place,  which  he  declared  to  be  "worth  a  thousand 
cities".  Traces  of  his  assault  are  still  visible  on  the 
ruins  of  the  citadel  (Mailer,  "Asien",  275;  "Rec- 
ords", I,  II,  pp.  35-47).  On  the  arrival  of  the  Israel- 
ites Mageddo  nad  a  kmg  of  its  own;  they  slew  him, 
but  the  town  proving  impregnable  was  later  subjected 
to  tribute  (Jos.,  xii,  21;  xvii,  12,  Judges,  i,  27-28). 
Though  situated  in  the  territory  of  Issachar  it  was 
assigned  to  Manasses.  The  position  chosen  by  Sisara 
for  battle  with  Barac  shows  tnat  Mageddo  was  friendly 
to  him  (Jud.,  v,  19).  Solomon,  who  rebuilt  the  walls 
(III  Kings,  ix,  15;  Jos.,  "Ant.",  VIII,  vi,  1),  assigned 
this  with  other  cities  to  Bana,  the  fifth  of  his  governors 
{hi  Kings,  iv,  12).  In  the  fifth  year  of  Roboam 
Mageddo  was  captured  by  Sesac  (Shoshenq,  I-XXII 
Dyn.),  as  seen  from  lists  at  Kamak  (Maspero,  "His- 
toire",  II,  774;  Winckler,  "Geschichte  Israels",  I, 
160,  but  cf.  "Encyc.  Bibl.",  s.  w.  "Egypt"  and 
"Shishak").  Following  IV  Kings,  ix,  27,  Ochozias 
died  at  Mageddo  (but  contrast  II  Par.,  xxii,  9). 
Finally  early  in  the  seventh  centurv  Josias  tried  to  bar 
Dear  Mageado  the  advance  of  the  Plmrao  Nechao 


itda  Mesopotamia  and  "was  slain  when  he  had 
him"  (IV  Kings,  xxiii,  29-30;  II  Par.,  xxxv,  22; 


towards  Mesoi 
seen 

Jos.,  "Ant.",  X,  v,"i;  Max  Mmier,  "MittheU.  d.  Vor- 
deras.  Gesell.",  ill,  1898,  p.  54;  but  against  cf.  Zim- 
memand  Winckler,  "Die  Keilin.  und  A.  T.",  106,  who 
follow  Herodotus,  II,  clix).  The  mourning  for  thit 
calamity  became  proverbial  (Zach.,  xii,  11).  The 
warlike  reputation  of  Mageddo  is  perhaps  confirmed 
by  Apoc,  xvi,  16. 

Idtniification. — ^Mageddo  is  identical  with  Tell-el 
Mtitesellfm  at  the  extremity  of  a  projecting  ridge  of 
Carmel,  commanding  the  pass  seawards,  ioMi  miles 
west  of  Thanach  (^or  connection  of  Mageddo  and 
Thanach  cf.  Jos.,  xi,  21;  xvii,  11;  Jud.,  i,  27;  v,  19; 
HI  Kings,  iv,  12;  I  Par.,  vii,  29).  The  ruins  of  citadel, 
gates,  and  walls,  may  date  from  2500-2000  b.  c.  and 
are  of  extraordinary  strength.  At  the  foot  of  the  Tell 
was  the  Roman  fortress  of  Legio  (sixth  legion),  now 
LejjCln.  St.  Jerome  implicitly  identifies  Legio  with 
Mageddo,  for  he  calls  Esaraelon  now  Campus  Legionis 
(P.  L.,  XXIII,  "De  Situ  et  Nom.",  s.  v.  "Arbela", 
"Gabathon",  etc.),  now  Campus  Mageddon  (P.  L., 
"In  Zac.",  xii).  YA*q<lt  (tenth-eleventh  cent.)  ex- 
pressly identifies  them  [Kft&b  Mii'j^m  n-BiUdan, 
wastenfeld  (Leipzig,  1860),  351],  Lastly  the  stream 
at  el-Leijiin  is  still  called  "  the  source  (R4s)  of  Cison" 
and  perhaps  is  the  "Waters  of  Mageddo"  (Pal.  Ex. 
Funa  Memoirs,  XI,  29;  Jud.,  V,  19;  Pseudo-Jerome 
in  P.  L.,  XXIII,  1327). 

For  strat^cposition: — Sioth,  UiMorical  Geography  of  tha 
Holy  Land,  aCl  (New  York,  1908) ;  Napoleon,  M&motrea  die- 
tSea  par  lui-mime:  Guerre  de  V Orient  (Paris,  1847) ;  Schumacher 
in  Mittheilutmen  und  Nachrichten  dea  Deut.  PalAat.  Vereina 
(1903),  4-10. 

Identification: — Robinson,  Biblical  Reaearchea,  II  (Boston. 
1841),  329:  Moorb,  Judgea  (Edinbureh,  1901),  45,  47. 
Breasted,  Proceedinga  of  Society  of  Bib.  Archeology  (1900,  95- 
98);  Paleatine  Ezplor.  Fund  Quarterly  (1880),  223  and  vaa.; 
Buhl,  Geographic  dea  Alien  PalAHina  (Freiburg  in  Br.,  99); 
Socin.  Zeitach.  dea  Deut.  PalAat.  Vereina,  IV,  150-151;  Schlat- 
ter, Zur  Topographic  und  Geaehichte  PalAatinaa,  295-299. 

For  site  near  Jordan: — (Bonder,  Tent  Work  in  PaleMine,  6^ 
68,  232.  (6th  ed.,  London);  BiRtH,  Paleat.  Explor.  Fund  Quar- 
teny  (1881),  232  etc.;  Lb  Stranob,  Paleatine  under  the  Moalema 
(London,  1890),  492. 

Psewhere:— RAUMBR.  PalAatinaa  446-448  (4tb  ed.) ;  Maps 
of  Mari  Sanuto  in  Zaiteahr,  dea  D,  PalAaL  Vereina  (1891.  1895. 
1808). 

For  excavations  at  Tell  el-MtiteBelllm: — Schumacher,  Teli 
OrMOleaeUdn,  I  (Leipng,  1908). 

•  J.  A.  Hartigan. 

Magellan,  Ferdinand  (Portuguese  Fem&o  Man 
galhdes)f  the  first  circumnavigator  of  the  world;  b. 
about  1480  at  Saborosa  in  Villa  Real,  Province  of 
Traz  OS  Montes,  Portugal;  d.  during  his  voyage  of  dis- 
covery on  the  Island  oT  Mactan  in  the  Philippines,  27 
April,  1521.  He  was  the  son  of  Pedro  Ruy  de  Ma^- 
h&es,  mayor  of  the  town,  and  of  Alda  de  Mezquita.  He 
was  brought  up  at  the  Ck>urt  of  Portugal  and  learned 
astronomy  and  the  nautical  sciences  under  good 
teachers,  among  whom  mav  have  been  Martin  Be- 
haim.  These  studies  filled  him  at  an  early  age  with 
enthusiasm  for  the  great  voyages  of  discovery  which 
were  being  made  at  that  period.  In  1505  he  took 
part  in  the  expedition  of  Francisco  d' Almeida,  which 
was  equipped  to  establish  the  Portuguese  viceroyalty 
in  India,  and  in  1511  he  performed  important  ser- 
vices in  the  Portuguese  conquest  of  Malacca.  He  re- 
turned home  in  1512  and  took  part  in  the  Portuguese 
expedition  to  Marocco,  where  he  was  severely  wounded. 
On  account  of  a  personal  disagreement  with  the 
commander-in-chief,  he  left  the  army  without  per- 
mission. This  and  an  unfavourable  report  that  nad 
been  made  upon  him  by  Almeida  led  to  his  disgrace 
with  the  king.  Oondemned  to  inactivity  and  checked 
in  his  desire  for  personal  distinction,  he  once  more  de- 
voted himself  to  studies  and  projects  to  which  he  was 
mainly  stimulated  by  the  reports  of  the  recently  dis- 
covered Moluccas  sent  by  his  friend  Serrio.  Serrfio 
so  greatly  exaggerated  the  distance  of  the  Moluccas  to 
the  east  of  liuiXacca  that  the  islands  appeared  to  lie 


within  tiie  baiS  of  the  world  granted  by  the  pope  to 
SpAin.  HaKellan  therefore  resolved  to  seek  the 
Moluccaa  bv  Bailing  to  the  west  around  South  America. 
Ab  he  could  not  hope  to  arouse  interest  for  the  oaiTV- 
ing  out  of  his  pl^s  in  Portugal,  and  was  hims^, 
moreover,  misjudged  and  ignored,  he  renounced  his 
nationality  and  offered  his  services  to  Spain.  He  r»- 
ceiv«d  much  aid  from  Diego  Barbosa,  warden  of  the 
castle  of  Seville,  whoae  dai^ter  he  married,  and  from 
the  influential  Juan  de  Aranda,  agent  of  the  Indian 
ofGce,  who  at  once  desired  to  claim  the  Moluccas  for 
Spain.  King  Charles  1  of  Spain  (afterwards  the  Em- 
peror Charlea  V)  cave  his  consent  as  early  as  22  March, 
1518,  being  largely  influenced  to  do  this  by  the  advice 
of  Cardinal  Juan  Rodriguez  de  Fonseca.  The  king 
made  an  agreement  with  Ma^Ilan  which  settled 
the  different  shares  of  ownerehip  in  the  new  discOT- 
eries,  and  therewards  to  be  granted  the  discoverer,  and 
appointed  him  commaoder  of  the  fleet.  This  fleet 
consisted  of  five 
vessels  granted  by 
the  government; 
two  of  130  tons 
each  two  of  00 
tons  each  and  one 
of  60  tons.  They 
were  provisioned 
for  234  persons  for 
two  years    Magel- 

the  chief  ship,  the 
Trinidad;  Juan  de 
Cartagena,  the  Sam 
Antonio;  Caspar 
de  Quesoda,  the 
Ckm  cepcion ;  Luis 
do  Mendoxa,  the 
Victoria;  Juan  Serrano,  the  Santiago.  The  expedition 
also  included  Duarte  Barbosa,  Barbosa's  nephew,  the 
cosmo^pher  Andres  de  San  Martin,  and  the  Italian 
Antonio  Pigafetta  of  Vicenia,  to  whom  the  account  of 
the  voyage  is  due. 

Hagellaa  took  the  oath  of  all^iance  in  the  church 
of  Santa  Maria  de  la  Victoria  de  IViana  in  Seville,  and 
received  the  imperial  standard.  He  also  gave  a  large 
sum  of  money  to  the  monks  of  the  monastery  in  order 
that  theymight  pray  for  the  successof  the  expedition. 
The  fieet  salted  20  September,  1519,  from  San  Lucar 
de  Barameda.  They  steered  by  way  of  the  Cape  Verde 
Islands  to  Cape  St.  Augustine  m  fimiil,  th^i  along  the 
coast  to  the  Bay  of  Rio  Janeiro  (13  December), 
thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Plata  (10  January,  15201. 
In  both  these  bodies  of  water  a  vain  search  was  maae 
for  a  passage  to  the  western  ocean.  On  31  March 
Magellan  decided  to  spend  the  winter  below  49°  16' 
south  latitude,  and  remained  nearly  five  months  in  the 
harbour  of  San  Julian.  While  in  winter  quarters  here 
a  mutiny  broke  out,  so  that  Magellan  was  forced  to 
execute  Quesada  and  Mendoza,  and  to  put  Cartagena 

The  voyage  was  resumed  on  24  August,  and  on 
21  October  tne  fleet  reached  Cape  Virgenea  and,  with 
it,  the  entrance  to  the  itrng-aought  straits.  Thooe 
straits,  which  are  373  mites  lone,  now  bear  the  name  of 
the  daring  discovemr,  though  ne  himself  called  them 
Canal  de  Todos  ios  Sant^  (All  Saints'  Channel). 
The  San  Antonio  with  the  pilot  Gomei  on  board  se- 
cretly deserted  and  returned  to  Spain,  while  Magellan 
went  on  vrith  the  other  ships.  He  entered  the  straits 
on  21  November  and  at  the  end  of  tjuee  weeks  reached 
the  open  sea  on  the  other  side.  As  he  found  a  very 
favourable  wind,  be  gave  the  name  of  Mar  Paeifico  to 
the  vast  ocean  upon  which  he  now-sailed  for  more  than 
three  months,  suffering  great  privation  during  that 
time  from  lack  of  provisions.  Keeping  steadi^  to  a 
northwesterly  course,  be  reached  the  equator  13 
February,  1521,  and  the  Ladronee  6  March, 


On  16  March  Magellan  discovered  the  Arcfai- 
peit^o  of  San  Laiaro,  afterwards  called  the  Philip- 
pines. He  thought  to  stay  here  for  a  time,  safe  from 
the  Portuguese,  and  rest  hjs  men  and  repair  his  ships, 
so  as  to  arrive  in  good  condition  at  the  now  not  distant 
Moluccas.  He  was  received  in  a  friendly  manner  by 
the  chief  of  the  island  of  CebiJ,  who,  after  eight  days, 
was  baptised  along  with  several  hundred  other  natives. 
Mueltan  wished  to  subdue  the  neighbouring  Island 
of  Macton  and  was  killed  there,  27  April,  by  the  poi- 
soned arrows  of  the  natives.  After  both  Duarte  Bar- 
bosa and  Serrano  had  also  lost  tb^ir  lives  on  the  island 
of  Cebi^,  the  ships  Trinidad  and  Victoria  set  sail  under 
the  guidance  of  Carvalho  and  Gontalo  Vai  d'Espinoaa 
Mid  reached  the  Moluccas  8  November,  1521.  Only 
the  Victoria,  with  Sebastian  del  Cano  as  captain,  and 
a  crew  of  eighteen  men,  reached  Spain  (8  September, 
1522).  The  ship  brought  back  533  hundredweight  of 
cloves,  which  amply  repaid  the  expenses  of  the  voy- 
age. 

Magellan  hinuelf  did  not  reach  his  goal,  the 
Spice  Islands;  yet  he  had  accomplished  the  most 
difficult  part  of  his  task.  He  had  been  the  first  to 
undertake  the  circwnnavigation  of  the  world,  had 
carried  out  his  project  almost  completely,  and  had 
thus  achieved  the  most  difficult  nautical  feat  of  all 
the  centuries.  The  voyage  proved  most  fruitful  for 
science.  It  gave  the  firat  positive  proof  of  the  earth's 
rotund  it  v  and  the  first  true  idea  of^  the  distribution  of 
land  and  wat«r. 

Auoacrn,  Primo  viapffio  intono  dl  globo  Urraequeo  CAOIkn. 
ISOO)  (a  publication  ot  the  original  H8S.  of  PitafMta's  aceouDt, 
pnMTVed  in  the  Ambtogiaa  libmy,  HlUn.  tba  Bibl.  Nttjraiala, 
Puis,  and  T.  Fitirov-Fcawick's— (oinMiiy  Sir  T.  Phllippa'i — 
libtuy,  Cheltanliun ) ;  Pioafbtta,  tr.  aiid  ed.  Rosrbtsoh, 
MagrUiai'i  Cow'  around  tht  World,  Originai  and  Compltle  Text 
BfAe  Oldal  and  Bet  MS.  (the  Ambrof-"  "«  -'  M"-"  ->  ">- 
— ^  _.^ — .L  j(g,-        .      . 

■.  Ohio , 

_ ,  e  gvoffrapkia  dot  na^HtM 

nuUM  (8  vol«..  LiiboQ,  1S3)),  (icM  ui  extrHCt  from  the 
t  uiother  monber  of  the  expedition.  Hcatio  BsutMU; 
Uaadlan  adcr  dit  trale  Rat  urn  die  Erdt  (Leipiis, 
Rarhaji  Ahaua.  Vida  y  naret  dt  MaoeUantM  fwitiuo. 
,  Tht  Fint  Vavave  Round  du  World  (Loadoo, 


_  i«  (Leipii^ 

k.  Vida  y  najet  dt  MageUantM  CwitiuiK 

Fint  Voyage  Round  the  World  (Loadoo, 

-,,    atti- MagtUhAttttnute  u.  AitMrai-Canlauiit  (Inik^ 

bruok  IS81)- OuilxuuRD.  Wao/  Perdmand  UaoeUan  (Lai- 
donriS90);  BurrEHwaHTH,  The  Story  of  Mat^lm  and  tilt 
DitantTyBflhiPhilippi*et(titniYoik.ia09}:  KClukeb,  £>u 


Iw^STd 


Otto  Habtio. 


of  fact,  supporting  their  interpretation  with  the  evi- 
dence of  all  MSS.  and  versions,  and  patristic  citations. 
All  tliis  evidence  rationalists  pronounce  irrelevant: 
they  class  the  story  of  the  Ma^  with  the  so-called 
"  legends  of  the  chiklhood  of  Jesus  ",  later  apocryphal 
additions  to  the  Gospels.  Adroittmg  only  internal 
evidence,  tbe^  say,  this  evidence  does  not  stand  the 
test  ot  criticism.  (1)  John  and  Mark  are  silent. — 
This  is  because  they  begin  their  Gospels  with  the  pub- 
lic life  of  Jesus.  That  John  knew  the  story  ot  the 
Hogi  may  tie  gathered  from  the  fact  that  Irensus 
(Adv.  Haer.   Ill,  ix,  2)  is  witness  to  it;  for  Irenaiua 

B'ves  us  the  Johannine  tradition.  (2)  Luke  is  silent. — 
aturally,  as  the  fact  is  told  well  enough  by  the  other 
Sn^tics.  Luke  tells  the  Annunciation,  details  of  the 
ativity,  the  Circumcision,  and  the  Presentation  of 
Christ  in  tJie  Temple,  facta  of  the  childhood  of  Jesus 
which  the  silence  of  the  other  three  Evangelists  does 
not  render  legendary:  (3)  Luke  contradicts  Matthew 
and  returns  the  ChUd  Jesus  to  Nazareth  immediately 
after  the  Preeentation  (Luke,  ii,  39).  This  return  to 
NaiarelJi  may  have  been  either  before  the  Magi  came 


BCAOI 


528 


2CA0Z 


were;  II.  The  Time  and  Cireumstanoee  of  their 
Visit. 

I.  Who  the  Magi  were.  A.  NonrBibltcal  Evi- 
dence,— We  may  form  a  coQ|ecture  by  non-Biblical 
evidence  of  a  probable  meanmg  to  the  word  Myo*. 
Herodotus  (I,  ci)  is  our  authority  for  supposing  that 
the  Magi  were  the  sacred  caste  of  the  Medes.  They 
provided  priests  for  Persia,  and,  regardless  of  d3rnastio 
vicissitudes,  ever  kept  up  their  dominating  religious 
influence.  To  the  head  ol  this  caste,  Nergal  Sharesar. 
Jeremias  gives  the  title  Rab-Mag,  ''Chief  Magus 
(Jer.,  xxxix,  3, 13,  in  Hebrew  original — Sept.  and  Vulg. 
translations  are  erroneous  here) .  After  the  downfall  of 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  power,  the  religion  of  the  Magi 
hela  sway  in  Persia.  Cyrus  completely  conquered  the 
sacred  caste;  his  son  Cambyses  severely  repressed  it. 
The  Bdagians  revolted  and  set  up  Gaum&ta,  tneir  chief, 
as  King  of  Persia  under  the  name  of  Smerdis.  He  was, 
however,  murdered  (52 1  b .  c.) » and  Darius  became  king. 
This  downfall  of  the  Magi  was  celebrated  by  a  national 
Persian  holiday  called  tMyo4>6wta  (Her.,  Ill,  Ixiii,  Ixxiii, 
bdcix).  Still  the  religious  influence  of  this  priestly 
caste  continued  throughout  the  rule  of  the  Aclueme- 
nian  dynasty  in  Persia  (Ctesias, '  Tersica  " ,  X-XV ) ;  and 
it  is  not  unlikely  that  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ 
it  was  still  flourishing  under  the  Parthian  dominion. 
Strabo  (XI,  ix,  3)  says  that  the  Magian  priests  formed 
one  of  the  two  councils  of  the  Parthian  jEmpire. 

B.  Biblical  EiHdence. — The  word  fxdyoi  often  has 
the  meaning  of  "  magician  "^  in  both  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments (see  Acts,  viii,  9;  xiii,  6, 8;  also  the  Septuagint 
of  Dan.,  i,  20;  ii,  2^  10, 27;  iv,  4;  v,  7, 11, 15).  St.  Jus- 
tin (Tryph.,  Ixxviii),  Origen  (Cels^  I,  bt),  St.  Augus- 
tine (Serm.  xx,  De  epiphania)  and  St.  Jerome  (In  Isa.. 
xix,  1)  And  the  same  meaning  in  the  second  chapter  of 
Matthew,  though  this  is  not  the  common  inteipreta- 
tion. 

C,  Patristic  Evidence. — No  Father  of  the  Church 
holds  the  Magi  to  have  been  kings.  Tertullian  ("  Adv. 
Marcion.",  Ill,  xiii)  says  that  they  were  wellnigh 
kings  {fere  reges) ,  and  so  agrees  with  wnat  we  have  con- 
cluded from  non-Biblical  evidence.  The  Church,  in- 
deed, in  her  litiu^,  applies  to  the  Magi  the  words: 
**  The  kings  of  Tharsis  and  the  islands  shall  offer  pres- 
ents; the  kings  of  the  Arabians  and  of  Saba  shall  bring 
gifts:  and  allthe  kings  of  the  earth  shall  adore  him 
(Ps.  Ixxi,  10).  But  this  use  of  the  text  in  reference  to 
them  no  more  proves  that  they  were  kings  than  it 
traces  their  journey  from  Tharsis,  Arabia,  and  Saba. 
As  sometimes  happens,  a  liturgical  accommodation  of 
a  text  has  in  time  come  to  be  looked  upon  by  some 
as  an  authentic  interpretation  thereof.  Neither  were 
they  magicians:  the  good  meaning  of  /tiyoi,  though 
found  nowhere  else  in  the  Bible,  is  demanded  by  the 
context  of  the  second  chapter  of  St.  Matthew.  These 
Magians  can  have  been  none  other  than  members  of 
the  priestly  caste  already  referred  to.  The  religion 
of  the  Magi  was  fundamentally  that  of  Zoroaster 
and  forbade  sorcery ;  their  astrolo^  and  skill  in  inter- 
preting dreams  were  occasions  of  their  flnding  Christ. 
(See  AvESTA,  The,  Theolooical  Aspects  of.) 

The  Gospel  narrative  omits  to  mention  the  number 
of  the  Magi,  and  there  is  no  certain  tradition  in  this 
matter.  Some  Fathers  speak  of  three  Magi;  they  are 
very  likely  influenced  by  the  number  of  giits.  In  the 
Orient  tradition  favours  twelve.  Early  Christian 
art  is  no  consistent  witness:  a  painting  in  the  ceme- 
tery of  Sts.  Peter  and  Marcellinus  shows  two;  one  in 
the  Lateran  Museum,  three;  one  in  the  cemetery  of 
Domitilla,  four;  a  vase  in  the  Kircher  Museum,  eight 
(Biarucchi,  "Elements  d'arch^olojrie  chr^tienne",  Paris, 
1899, 1, 197).  The  names  of  the  Magi  are  as  uncertain 
as  is  their  number.  Among  the  Latins,  from  the 
seventh  century,  we  find  slight  variants  of  the  names, 
Caspar,  Melchior,  and  Balthasar;  the  Martyroloey 
mentions  St.  Gaspar,  on  the  first,  St.  Melchior,  on  the 
joxth^  and  St.  Balthasar,  on  the  eleventh  of  January 


rActa  88.,  1, 8,  823,  664).  The  Syrians  have  Larvan- 
dad,  Hormisdas,  Gushnasaph,  etc.;  the  ArmenianB, 
Kasba,  Badadilma,  etc.  (cf.  Acta  Sanctorum,  May, 
I^  1780).  Passing  over  the  purely  legendary  no- 
tion that  they  represented  the  three  families 
which  are  descended  from  Noe,  it  appears  they  all 
came  from  ''the  east"  (Matt.,  ii,  1,  2,  9).  East  of 
Palestine,  only  ancient  Media,  ^ersia,  Asi^yria,  and 
Babylonia  haa  a  Magian  priesthood  at  the  time  of  the 
birth  of  Christ.  From  some  such  part  of  the  Parthian 
Empire  the  Blagi  came.  They  probably  crossed  the 
Syrian  Desert,  lying  between  the  Euphrates  and 
Syria,  reached  either  Qaleb  (Aleppo)  or  Tudmor 
(rahnyra),  and  journeyed  on  to  Damascus  and  south- 
ward, by  what  is  now  the  great  Me^ca  route  (darb  el- 
hajf  *'the  pilgrim's  way'0>  keeping  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
and  the  Jordan  to  their  west  till  they  crossed  the  ford 
near  Jericho.  We  have  no  tradition  of  the  precise 
land  meant  by  ''the  east ^'.  It  is  Babylon,  according 
to  St.  Maximus  (Homil.  xviii  in  Epiphan.)  and  Theo- 
dotus  of  Ancyra  (Homil.  de  Nativitate,  I,  x) ;  Persia, 
according  to  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  I,  xv)  ana 
St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  (In  Is.,  xlix,  12);  Arabia,  ac- 
cording to  St.  Justin  (Cont.  Tryphon.,  Ixxvii),  Ter- 
tullian (Adv.  Jud.,  ix),  and  St.  Epiphanius  (Expos, 
fidei,  viii). 

II.  Time  and  Circumstances  op  their  Visit. — 
The  visit  of  the  Maei  took  place  after  the  Presentation 
of  the  Child  in  the  Temple  (Luke,  ii,  38).  No  sooner 
were  the  Magi  departed  than  the  angel  bade  Joseph 
take  the  Child  and  its  Mother  into  Egypt  (Matt.,  ii, 
1 3) .  Once  Herod  was  wroth  at  the  failure  of  the  Magi 
to  return,  it  was  out  of  aU  question  that  the  presenta- 
tion should  take  place.  Now  a  new  difficulty  occurs: 
after  the  presentation,  the  Holy  Family  returned  into 
Galilee  (Luke,  ii,  39).  Some  think  tnat  this  return 
was  not  immediate.  Luke  omits  the  incidents  of  the 
Maffi,  flight  into  Egypt,  massacre  of  the  Innocents, 
and  return  from  Egypt,  and  takes  up  the  story  with 
the  return  of  the  Holy  Family  into  Galilee.  We  pre- 
fer to  interpret  Luke's  words  as  indicating  a  return 
to  Galilee  immediately  after  the  presentation.  The 
stay  at  Nazareth  was  very  brief.  Thereafter  the 
Holy  Family  probably  returned  to  abide  in  Bethlehem. 
Then  the  M&gi  came.  It  was  "in  the  days  of  king 
Herod  "  (Matt.,  ii,  1),  i.  e.  before  the  year  4  b.  c.  (a.  u. 
c.  750),  the  probable  date  of  Herod's  death  at  Jericho. 
For  we  know  that  Archelaus,  Herod's  son,  succeeded 
as  ethnarch  to  a  part  of  his  father's  realm,  and  was 
deposed  either  in  his  ninth  (Joscphus.  Bel.  Jud.,  II, 
vii,  3)  or  tenth  (Josephus,  Aiitiq.,  aVII,  xviii,  2)  year 
of  office  during  the  consulship  of  Lepidus  and  Airun- 
tius  (Dion  Cassius,  Iv,  27),  i.  e.,  a.  d.  6.  Moreover, 
the  Magi  came  while  King  Herod  was  in  Jerusalem 
(w.  3,  7),  not  in  Jericho,  i.  e.,  either  the  beginning  of 
4  B.  c.  or  the  end  of  5  b.  c.  Lastly,  it  was  probably  a 
year,  or  a  little  more  than  a  year,  aft«r  tne  birth  of 
Christ.  Herod  had  found  out  from  the  Magi  the  time 
of  the  star's  appearance.  Taking  this  for  the  time  of 
the  Child's  birth,  he  slew  the  male  children  of  two 
years  old  and  under  in  Bethlehem  and  its  borders  (v. 
16).  Some  of  the  Fathers  conclude  from  this  ruthless 
slaughter  that  the  Magi  reached  Jerusalem  two  years 
after  the  Nativity  (St.  Epiphanius,  "Haer.",  LI,  9; 
Juvencus,  '*  Hist.  E\'ang.",  I,  259).  Their  conclusion 
has  some  degree  of  probability;  yet  the  slaying  of 
children  two  years  old  may  possibly  have  been  due  to 
some  other  reason — for  instance,  a  fear  on  Herod's 
part  that  the  Magi  had  deceived  him  in  the  matter  of 
the  time  of  the  starts  appearance  or  that  the  Magi  had 
been  deceived  as  to  the  conjunction  of  that  appear- 
ance with  the  birth  of  the  Child.  Art  and  archaeology 
favour  our  view.  Only  one  early  monument  repre- 
sents the  Child  in  the  crib  while  the  Magi  adore;  in 
others  Jesus  rests  upon  Mary's  knees  and  is  at  times 
fairly  well  grown  (see  Comely,  "Introd.  Special,  in 
N.  T.",  p.  203). 


time  between  three  and  twelve 
eideB  the  time  of  travel,  there  were  probably  many 
weeks  of  preparation.  The  Hagi  could  scarcely  have 
reachedJeniWem  till  a  year  or  more  bad  ekpaed  from 
the  time  of  the  appearance  of  the  star.  St.  Augustine 
(De  Consensu  Evan^.,  II,  v  17)  thought  the  date  of 
the  Epiphany,  the  sixth  of  January,  proved  that  the 
Magi  reached  Bethlehem  thirteen  days  after  the  Na- 
tivity, i.  «.,  after  the  twenty-fifth  oif  December.  His 
argument  from  liturgical  dates  was  incorrect.  Neither 
liturgical  date  is  certainly  the  historical  date.    (For 


Buai 


seen  a  *(tJla  no'oa.  a  star  which  suddenly  iiiui 
magnitude  ai^  orilliancy  and  then  fades  b.  . 
Thrae  theories  all  fail  to  explain  how  "  the  sfar  whii^ 
they  had  seen  in  the  east,  went  before  them,  until  it 
came  and  stood  over  where  the  child  was  "  (Matt.,  ii, 
9).  The  poeitioD  of  a  fixed  star  in  the  heavens  varies 
at  moat  one  degree  each  day.  No  fixed  star  could 
have  so  moved  before  the  Magi  as  to  lead  them  to 
Bethlehem;  neither  fixed  star  nor  comet  could  have 
disappeared,  and  reappeared,  and  stood  still.  Only  a 
miraculous  phenomenon  could  have  been  the  Star  of 
Bethlehem.  It  was  like  the  miraculous  pillar  of  fire 
which  stood  in  the  camp  by  night  during  Israel's  Exo- 
dus  (Ex.,  xiii,  21),  or  to  the  "brightness  of  God"  whiidi 


an  explanation  of  the  chronological  difficulties,  see 
Chronolouy,  Bibucal,  Dale  of  the  Nativity  of  Jesu» 
Chrht.)  In  the  fourth  centuiy  the  Churches  of  the 
Orient  celebrated  the  sixth  of  Januarv  as  the  feast 
of  Christ's  Birth,  the  Adoration  by  tne  Magi,  utd 
Christ's  Baptism,  whereas,  in  the  Occident,  the  Birth 
of  Christ  was  celebrated  on  the  twenty-fifth  o!  Decem- 
ber. This  latter  dat«  of  the  Nativity  was  introduced 
into  the  Church  of  Antioch  during  St.  Chrysostom's 
time  (P.  C,  XLIX,  351),  and  still  later  into  the 
Churches  of  Jerusalem  and  Alexandria. 

That  the  Magi  thought  a  star  led  them  on,  is  clear 
from  the  words  (itSoiur  yip  afrroiJ  rir  imtpa)  which 
Matthew  uses  in  ii,  2.  Was  it  really  a  star?  Ration- 
alists and  rationalistic  Protestants,  in  their  efforts  to 
escape  the  supernatural,  have  elaborated  a  number  of 
hypotheses;  (1)  The  word  ior^p  may  mean  a  comet; 
the  star  of  the  Magi  was  a  comet.  But  we  have  no  reo- 
oord  of  any  such  comet.  (2)  fhe  star  may  have  been 
a  conjunction  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  (7  B.  c),  or  of 
Jupiter  and  Venus  (6  b.  c.)-  (3)  The  Blagi  may  have 
IX.— 34 


shone  round  about  the  shepherds  (Luke,  ii,  9),  or  to 
"  the  light  from  heaven  "  which  shone  round  about  the 
stricken  Saul  (Acts,  ix,  3). 

The  philosophy  of  the  Magi,  erroneous  though  it 
was,  led  them  to  the  journey  by  which  they  were  to 
find  Christ.  Ma^an  astrology  postulated  a  heav- 
enly counterpart  to  complement  man's  earthly  self 
and  make  up  the  oompEcte  human  -personality.  His 
"double"  (the /rattuAt  of  the  Parsi)  developed  to- 
gether with  every  good  man  until  death  umted  the 
two.  The  sudden  appearance  of  a  new  and  brilliant 
star  suggested  to  the  Magi  the  birth  of  an  important 
person.     They  came  to  adore  him— i,  e.,  to  acknowl- 


2;  Origen,  "in  Num.",  homil.  xiii  7)  think  the 
Alagi  saw  in  "  his  star  "  a  fulfilment  of  the  prophesy  of 
Balaam:  "A  star  shall  rise  out  of  Jacob  and  a  sceptre 
shall  spring  up  from  Israel"  (Num.,  xxiv,  17).  Birt 
from  the  parallelisra  of  the  prophesy,  the  "star"  of 
Balaam  ia  a  great  prince,  not  a  heavenly  bodj;  it  ik 


MAOIO 


530 


BfAOUABSOHI 


not  likely  that,  in  virtue  of  this  Messianic  prophesy, 
the  Magi  would  look  forward  to  a  very  special  star  of 
the  firmament  as  a  sign  of  the  Messias.  It  is  likely, 
however,  that  the  Magi  were  familiar  with  the  great 
Messianic  prophesies.  Many  Jews  did  not  return  from 
exile  with  Nwiemias.  When  Christ  was  bom,  there 
was  undoubtedly  a  Hebrew  population  in  Babvlon, 
and  probably  one  in  Persia.  At  any  rate,  the  Hebrew 
tradition  survived  in  Persia.  Moreover,  Virgil,  Hor- 
ace. Tacitus  (Hist.,  V,  xiii),  and  Suetonius  (Vespas., 
iv)  bear  witness  that,  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ, 
there  was  throughout  the  Roman  Empire  a  general 
unrest  and  expectation  of  a  Golden  Age  and  a  great 
deliverer.  We  may  readily  admit  that  the  Magi  were 
1^  by  such  hebraistic  and  gentile  influences  to  look 
forward  to  a  Messias  who  should  soon  come.  But 
there  must  have  been  some  special  Divine  revelation 
whereby  they  knew  that "  his  star  **  meant  the  birth  of 
a  king,  that  this  new-bom  king  was  verv  God,  and  that 
they  should  be  led  by  "his  star"  to  the  place  of  the 
God-King's  birth  (St.  Leo,  Serai,  xxxiv,  "In  Epi- 
phan."IV,3). 

The  advent  of  the  Magi  caused  a  great  stir  in  Jem- 
salem;  everybody,  even  King  Herod,  heard  their  quest 
fv.  3).  Herod  and  his  priests  should  have  been  glad- 
dened at  the  news;  the^  were  saddened.  It  is  a 
striking  fact  that  the  priests  showed  the  Magi  the 
way^  but  would  not  go  that  way  themselves.  The 
Mac  now  followed  the  star  some  six  miles  southward 
to  Bethlehem,  "and  entering  into  the  house  [e/j  t^p 
olxlawlf  they  found  the  child"  (v.  11).  There  is  no 
reason  to  suppose,  with  some  of  the  Fathers  (St.  Aug., 
Sertn.  cc,  "In  Epiphan.",  I,  2),  that  the  Child  was 
still  in  the  stable.  The  Magi  adored  hrpoffeicOpriaap)  the 
Child  as  God,  and  offered  Him  gold,  frankincense,  and 
myrrh.  The  giving  of  gifts  was  in  keeping  with  Ori- 
ental custom.  The  purpose  of  the  gold  is  clear;  the 
Child  was  poor.  We  do  not  know  the  purpose  of  the 
other  gifts.  The  Magi  probably  meant  no  symbolism. 
Tlie  Fathera  have  found  manifold  and  multiform  syrn- 
bolic  meanings  in  the  three  gifts;  it  is  not  clear  that 
any  of  these  meanings  are  inspired  (cf .  Knabenbauer, 
"inMatth.",  1892). 

We  are  certain  that  the  Magi  were  told  in  sleep  not 
to  return  to  Herod  and  that  "  they  went  back  another 
way  into  their  country  "  (v.  12) .  This  other  way  may 
have  been  a  way  to  the  Jordan  such  as  to  avoid  Jeru- 
salem and  Jericno;  or  a  roundabout  way  south  through 
Beersheba,  then  east  to  the  neat  hi^way  (now  the 
Mecca  route)  in  the  land  of  Moab  and  beyond  the 
Dead  Sea.  It  is  said  that  after  their  return  home,  ihe 
Magi  were  baptized  by  St.  Thomas  and  wrought  much 
for  the  spread  of  the  Faith  in  Christ.  The  story  is 
traceable  to  an  Arian  writer  of  not  earlier  than  the 
sixth  century,  whose  work  is  printed,  as  "  Opus  imper- 
fectum  in  Matthseum  "  among  the  writings  of  St.  Cnry- 
sostom  (P.G.,  LVI,  644).  This  author  admits  that  he 
is  drawing  upon  the  apocryphal  Book  of  Seth,  and 
writes  much  about  the  Magi  that  is  clearly  legendary. 
The  cathedral  of  Cologne  contains  what  are  claimed 
to  be  the  remains  of  the  Magi;  these,  it  is  said,  were  dis- 
covered in  Persia,  brought  to  Constantinople  by  St. 
Helena,  transferred  to  Milan  in  the  fifth  century  and 
to  Cologne  in  1163  (Acta  SS.,  I,  323). 

Standard  Commentariea  on  St  Matthew;  Laoranoe,  La  rtli- 
ffion  des  Per  sea  in  Rev.  Bibl.,  1004;  Curci.  Lexioni  aopra  iquattro 
•mnqeli  (Florence,  1874),  Fouard,  La  vie  de  ^.  S.J.-C.,  I,  88 
(Pans  — ),  De  Broolie,  Coura  d'histoire  des  cuUea  non-ckrft. 
(Parifl.  1881);  Bezold,  Die  Schatthole  (Leipn«,  1883). 

Walter  Drum. 
Magic.    See  Occult  Arts. 

Magin  Oatal&,  b.  at  Montblanch,  Catalonia,  Spain, 
29  or  30  January,  1761 ;  d.  at  Santa  Clara,  California, 
22  Nov.,  1830.  He  received  the  habit  of  St.  Francis  at 
Barcelona  on  4  April,  1777,  and  was  ordained  priest 
probably  in  1785.  After  obtaining  permission  to  de- 
vote himself  to  the  missions  in  America,  he  sailed 


from  Cadiz  in  October,  1786,  and  joined  the  famous 
missionary  college  of  San  Fernando  in  the  City  of 
Mexico. 

In  1793  he  acted  as  chaplain  on  a  Spanish  ship  which 
plied  between  Mexico  and  Nootka  Soimd  (Van- 
couver). In  the  following  year  he  was  sent  to  the 
Indian  mission  of  Santa  Clara,  California,  where  in 
company  with  Father  Jos^  Viader  he  laboured  most 
zealously  until  his  death.  All  through  his  missionary 
life  Fatner  Catald  suffered  intensely  from  inflamma- 
tory rheumatism,  so  that  in  his  bust  years  he  could 
neither  walk  nor  stand  unassisted.  He  nevertheless 
visited  the  sick,  and  preached  in  Indian  and  Spanish 
while  seated  in  a  chair  at  the  altar-rail.  Despite  his 
infirmities  he  oteeryed  the  rule  strictly,  used  the  dis- 
cipline and  penitential  girdle,  tasted  nothing  till  noon, 
and  then  and  in  the  evening  would  eat  omy  a  gruel 
of  com  and  milk.  He  never  used  meat,  fish,  eggs,  or 
wine.  The  venerable  missionary  was  famed  far  and 
wide  for  his  miracles  and  prophecies,  as  well  as  for  his 
virtues.  In  1884  Archbishop  J.  S.  Alemany  of  San 
Francisco  instituted  the  process  of  his  beatification. 
Tins,  in  1908-9,  was  followed  by  the  process  de  non 
cuUu  pxjiblico. 

ESnoblhardt,  TIu  Holy  Man  of  Santa  Clara  (San  Francisoo* 
1009);  Santa  Clara  Miaaion  Records. 

Zephtbin  EInoelhardt. 

Magisterium  of  the  Ohurch.  See  Church;  In' 
falubility;  Pope. 

Magistris,  Simone  de,  b.  in  1728:  d.  6  October, 
1802;  a  priest  of  the  Oratorio  di  S.  Filippo  Neri,  at 
Rome,  wnom  Pius  VI  created  titular  Bishop  of  C^rene 
and  provost  of  the  Congregation  for  the  correction  of 
the  liturgical  books  of  Oriental  Rites.  He  was  very 
well  ver^  in  Oriental  lan^ua^,  and  often  received 
from  Clement  XIV  and  Pius  Vl  commissions  of  re- 
search on  points  of  ecclesiastical  antiquity.  He  was 
more  especiidly  devoted  to  the*8tudy  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,  and  among  his  publications  on  that  sub- 
ject are  (1)  ''Daniel  secundum  Septuaginta  ex  tetra- 
plis  Origenis  nunc  primum  editus"  (Rome,  1772),  from 
the  sole  codex  in  the  Chigi  library,  accompanied  by 
five  diseertations  (one  of  them  on  the  chronolo^  of 
Daniel),  by  the  commentary  of  St.  Hippolytus,  oy  a 
comparison  between  the  version  of  tne  Septuagint 
and  that  of  Theodotion,  a  few  pieces  from  tne  Book 
of  Esther,  in  Chaldean,  a  fragment  of  Papias  on  the 
canon  of  the  Sacred  Scripture,  etc.  (2)  ''^Acta  Mar- 
tyrum  ad  Ostia  Tiberina"  (Rome,  1795).  (3)  "S. 
Dionysii  Alexandrini  episcopi  .  .  .  opera''  (Rome. 
1796),  with  a  learned  mtroduction  on  the  life  and 
writings  of  the  saint.  (4)  "Gli  atti  di  cinque  martin 
della  ODrea",  with  a  notice  on  the  origin  of  the  Faith 
in  that  country  (Rome,  1801),  etc. 

U.  Benigni. 

Magliabechi,  Antonio,  Italian  scholar  and  libra- 
rian, b.  29  Oct.,  1633,  at  Florence;  d.  there,  4  July, 
1714.  He  was  the  son  of  Marco  Magliabechi ,  burgher, 
and  Ginevra  Baldorietta.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a 
goldsmith,  and  worked  in  this  capacity  till  his  fortieth 
year.  His  real  inclination  was,  however,  from  the  be- 
^ning  towards  study,  and  he  was  in  the  habit  of  buy- 
mg  books  out  of  his  small  resources  and  reading  them 
at  night.  Michele  Ermini,  librarian  to  Cardinal  de* 
Medici,  recognizing  his  ability,  taught  him  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew.  Magliabechi  had  an  astonishing 
memory,  and  thus  acquir^  an  unusually  large  knowl- 
edge. In  1673  he  became  librarian  to  Grand  Duke 
Cosimo  III  of  Tuscany,  thus  attaining  the  ambition  of 
his  life. 

He  became  the  central  figure  of  literary  life 
in  Florence,  and  scholars  of  every  nation  sought  his 
acquaintance  and  corresponded  with  him.  He  was 
always  ready  to  give  a  friendly  answer  to  questions  on 
scholarship,  and  was  thus  the  unacknowledged  collab- 


lUGHA  S. 

Diutor  on  many  worka  and  publications.  Strangers, 
visitinKFlorence,  atared  at  him  as  something  miracu- 
lous. He  not  only  knew  all  the  volumea  m  the  li- 
bpiry,  as  well  ae  every  other  possible  work,  but 
oould  also  t«U  the  pa^  and  paraxraph  in  which 


any 


the  page  and  paraxrapn  m  wtuch 
;uiTea.  In  private  Ufe  Hagliabechi 
was  an  eccentric 
old  bachelor,  negli- 
gent, dirty,  slov- 
enly, always  reek- 
ing with  tobacco, 
engBfed  in  study 
at  all  hours,  even 
at  his  meals,  a 
Diogenea  in  hia  re- 
quirements. Ef^ry 
room  in  hia  house, 
and  even  the  cor- 
ridors and  stairs, 
were  crowded  with 
books.  He  died 
at  the  monastery 
of  Sta.  Maria  No- 
\-ella.  He  left  hia  books  (30,000  volumea)  to  the  Grand 
Duke  to  be  used  as  a  public  librarj'i  his  fortune  went 
to  the  poor.  The  Magiiabtdnana  was  combined  with 
the  grand-ducal  private  library  {PaJaHna)  by  Kin^ 
Victor  Emmanuel  in  1861,  the  two  forming  the  Bibh- 
oteca  Nationtdt. 

Salvini.  DtUe  todi  di  Antonio  Mofliabrrhi  (Flatcnce.  1715); 
Clarorum  Bdoarum.  Omnonorum,  Vtntlonim  ad  A.  Maelia- 
bechium  nonnitUoe^ue  aliot  fjjiMola,  I-V  (Fldrenc?.  I745-Q),  ed, 
TABRlOKI-ToMETn:  Cololoew  codicum  saculo  XV.  impreuo- 
rum.  Qui  m  bibliotht&t  Maotiabechiana  Fiorentur  adsrrvanlur, 
I-III  (FlotBDce.  1703-5):  J^cnin.  Alia.  Gddijtmlfx..  Ill 
(Leipiia.  1751).  38-0;  Valert,  Corrapcndanrc  infditc  dt 
Mabaion  d  dt:  Mmttdium  opm  rilalic.l-IU  |Psru,  1847): 
Nauv,  Biogr.  Bfnirale,  ».  v.;  Buck  in  ZenlralblaU  filr  fiiUio- 
tliek'urtrn.  XV  (Lcipiis.  1608),  97-101;   Lctira  dr  MtnoQt  A 

MaglUUirchx  (Paris.   18U1),  with  Lntroductioa  by  Pei, 

Axon,  AnlntiiB  MagliabKhi  ia  ''"'-  '■' ' •■■•■' — 

V  (Londmi.  1003).  59-78. 


Klgmbns  Luffleb. 


modifications  by    Hem?    Ill  in    1216,   1217,  and 
1225. 

The  Magna  Carta  has  long  been  considered  by  the 
English-speaking  peoples  as  the  earliest  of  the  great 
constitutional  documents  which  give  the  history  of 
England  so  unique  a  character;  it  has  even  been 
apf^en  of  by  some  great  authorities  as  the  "founda- 
tion of  our  liberties".  That  the  charter  enjoyed  an 
exaggerat«d  reputation  in  the  days  of  Coke  and  of 
Blackatone,  no  one  will  now  deny,  and  a  more  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  its  different  provi- 
siona  baa  shown  that  a  number  of  them  used  to  be 
interpreted  quite  erroneously.  When  allowance,  how- 
ever, has  been  made  for  the  mistakes  due  to  aeveral 
centuries  of  indiscriminating  admiration,  the  charter 
remains  an  astonishingly  complete  record  of  the  limi- 
tationa  placed  on  the  Crown  at  the  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  an  impressive  illustia- 
tion  of  what  ia  perhaps  a  national  capacity  for  put- 
ting resistance  to  arbitrary  government  on  a  legal 

The  memories  of  feudal  excess  during  the  reign  of 
Stephen  were  strong  enough  and  universal  enough  to 
give  Henry  11  twenty  years  of  internal  peaoe  for  the 
establishment  of  bis  masterful  administration,  and, 
even  when  the  barons  tried  to  "wrest  the  club  from 
Hereulea  "  in  117:S-i,  they  trusted  largely  to  the  odium 
which  the  king  had  incurred  from  the  murder  of  St. 
Thomas.  The  revolt  failed  and  the  Angevin  system 
was  stronger  than  ever,  so  strong  indeed  that  it  was 
able  to  maintain  its  existence,  and  even  to  develop  its 
operations,  during  the  absence  of  Richard  I.  The 
heavy  taxation  of  his  reign  and  the  constant  encroach- 
ments of  royal  justice  roused  a  feeling  among  the 


barons  which  showed  itself  in  a  demand  for  their 
"  ri^t8"put  forward  at  John's  accession.   It  is  indeed 

obvious  that,  quite  apart  from  acts  of  individual  injus- 
tice, the  royal  administration  was  attacking  in  every 
direction  the  traditional  rights  of  the  barons,  and  not 
theira  oidy.  St.  Thomas  had  aaved  the  independence 
of  the  Church,  and  it  now  remained  for  the  other  seo- 


Angevins,  for  to  them  feudalism  ia  the  enemy;  and 
the  increase  of  the  royal  power,  to  be  checked  later 
on  by  a  jiarliamentary  system,  is  tbc  clear  line  of 
constitutional  development;  but,  however  satisfac- 
tory we  may  think  the  ultimate  result,  there  Was  the 
immediate  danger  of  a  rule  which  was  arbitrary  and 
might  be  tyrannical.  The  king  had  acquired  a  power 
which  he  might  abuse,  and  the  acts  of  the  reign  of  John 
are  sufficiently  on  record  to  show  how  much  a  bad  lung 
could  do  before  he  became  intolerable.  Those  who 
drew  up  the  Great  Charter  never  pretended  to  be  for- 
mulating a  syllabus  of  fundamental  principles,  nor 
was  it  a  code  any  more  than  it  was  a  declaration  of 
rights.  It  was  a  rehearsal  of  traditional  principlea  and 
practices  which  had  been  violated  by  John,  and  the 
universality  of  its  scope  is  the  measure  of  the  king's 
misgovern  ment . 

During  the  early  part  of  John's  reign  the  loss  of  the 
greater  part  of  his  French  possessions  discredit«d  him, 
and  led  to  constant  demands  for  money.  Scutage, 
which  had  originally  been  an  alternative  for  military 
service  occasionally  permitted,  became  practically  a 
new  annual  tax,  while  finea  were  exact^  from  indi- 
viduals on  many  pretexts  and  by  arbitrary  means. 
Any  sign  of  resistance  was  followed  by  a  demand  for 
a  son  as  a  hostage,  an  intensely  irritating  practice 
which  continued  throughout  the  reign.  The  quarrel 
with  Innocent  HI  and  the  interdict  (1206-13)  followed 
hard  on  the  foreign  collapse,  and  during  ttiat  period 
John's  hand  lay  so  heavily  on  churchmen  that  Uie  lay 
barons  had  a  temporary  respite  from  taxation,  though 
not  from  ill-government.  When  peace  was  finally 
made  with  the  pope,  the  king  seems  to  have  thought 
that  the  Church  would  now  support  him  against 
the  mutiuouB  barons  of  the  North;  but  he  counted 
without  the  new  archbishop.  Langton  showed  from 
the  first  that  he  intended  to  enforce  the  clause  in 
John's  submission  to  the  pope  which  promised  a  gen- 
eral reform  of  abuses,  and  nia  support  provided  the 
cause  with  the  statesmanlike  leaderanip  it  had  hitherto 
lacked. 

The  discontented  barons  met  at  St.  Albans  and 
St.  Paul's  in  1213,  and  Langton  produced  the  Char- 
ter of  Henry  I  to  act  as  a  model  for  their  demands. 
Civil  war  was  deferred  by  John's  absence  abroad,  but 
the  defeat  of  Bouvines  sent  him  back  still  more  dis- 
credited, and  war  practically  broke  out  early  in  1215, 
Special  charters  ^nted  to  the  Church  and  to  London 
failed  to  divide  hia  enemies,  and  John  had  to  meet  the 
"Army  ctf  God  and  Holy  Church"  on  the  field  of 
Ruimymede  between  Staines  and  Windsor.  He  gave 
way  on  nearly  every  point,  and  peace  was  concluded 
probably  on  19  June.  The  charter  which  was  then 
sealed  was  really  a  treaty  of  peace,  though  in  form  it 
was  a  grant  of  liberties. 

The  clauses,  or  chapters,  of  the  Magna  Carta  are 
not  arranged  on  any  logical  plan,  and  a  number  of 
systems  of  classification  have  been  suggested,  but, 
without  attempting  to  summariie  a  document  ao  com- 
plex, it  may  be  sufficient  here  to  point  out  the  general 
character  erf  the  liberties  which  it  guaranteed.  In  the 
openine  clause  the  "freedom"  of  the  Church  was 
secured,  and  that  vague  phrase  was  defined  at  least  in 
one  direction  by  a  special  mention  of  canonical  elec- 
tion to  bishoprics.  Of  the  remaining  sixty  clauses  the 
largest  class  is  that  dealing  directly  with  the  abuses 
from  which  the  baronage  had  suffered,  fixing  th« 
amount  of  reliets,  protecting  heira  and  ^tWssw^^as^ 


H&aiu,  5; 

the  Crown  and  from  Jewish  creditors,  preserving  the 
feudal  cour1.-<  from  the  invaaions  of  royal  juatice,  and 
securing  the  rights  of  baronial  founders  over  monas- 
teriea.  The  cl^use^  enforcing  let^l  reforms  were  of 
more  general  interest,  for  Henfy  II's  "posscssoiy 
aSEizcs"  were  popular  amoDK  all  classes,  and  all  suf- 
fered from  arbitrary  amercements  and  from  ineufli- 
ciently  controlled  officials.  These  assLzeu  were  to  be 
held  four  times  a  year,  and 

.ed  bv  the  oath 

hood.    _    _ 

great  and  very  unpopular  latitude,  and  many  clauses 
of  the  charter  were  direcle<i  to  the  control  of  the  sher- 
iffs, constables  of  roval  caatles,  and  eapccially  of  the 
I  forest   officials.     The   commercial   classea 


r^  ^ 

^K^H^' 1'    -^ ' 

^"'  y? 

**^':"^' 

llistBbMaconimeiiiornti-themGPtingotthflbaroaB.  20  Novem- 
ber, HH.  whpD('ar>liniil  Laiiirton.  ilBnOmgat  the  hiih 
»ltar.  T^d  out  tlio  (jnipoavl  I'hnrter  of  Llbrrlin. 

M'l|'ni-l''by™iScJoh?'5.121s'  ""^ 

wer«  not  IlltofCl^lhcr  ncjilceted.  London  and  the  other 
boroughs  were  to  liavc  tlieir  ancient  liberties,  and 
an  effort  was  made  tn  secure  unifomuly  of  weights 
and  meusui-ex.  The  clause,  however,  which  prot'ecicd 
foreign  iiK-rclianla,  was  more  to  the  advantage 
of  the  consumer  than  lo  that  of  the  English  com- 
petitor. 

There  is  little  in  the  clwrter  which  can  ly  called  a 
statement  of  cnnstitiitionid  jirinciple;  two  articles 
have,  however,  Iiccti  lifiited,  not  without  reason,  an 
Buch  by  succeeding  geni'nitions.    Cluptcr  xii,  whldi 


declares  thai  n 


itiige  or  aid  shall  be 


impoxeil  except  by  common  counsel  of  the  kingdr 
may  Im'  taken  as  an  assertion  of  the  principle  "  no  ta.t- 
at ion  without  consent ".  llow  the  coiinBetof  the  king- 
dom was  to  lie  tiiken  is  expbineil  in  chapt4.>r  xiv  which 
descriliesthncmnpositionof  tlieCrciit  i'ouncil.  Ohap- 
t«rxxxix  pn-scribes  that  ■'  no  freeman  shall  be  arrested 
ordetained  in  prison  or  deprivcil  of  his  freehold  .  .  . 
or  in  any  wiiy  molested  ,  ,  .  unless  by  the  Liwful 
judgment  of  bis  pctTs  :inil  by  the  l:iw  of  the  land". 


;2  BUOHA 

The  chief  object  of  this  clause  was  to  prevent  execu- 
tion before  trial,  and  bo  far  it  is  certainly  the  assertion 
of  a  far-reaching  constitutional  principle,  but  the  last 
two  phrases  liave  been  the  subject  of  much  wild  inter- 
pretation. "Judgment  by  his  peers"  was  taken  to 
mean  "trial  by  jury",  and  "the  law  of  the  land"  to 
mean  "by  due  process  of  law";  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
both  taken  together  expressed  the  preference  of  the 
barons  for  the  older  traiiitional  and  feudal  forms  of 
trial  rather  tlinn  for  judgment  by  the  court  of  royal 
nominees  instituted  by  Henry  II  and  abused  by  John. 
The  principle  asserted  b^  this  clause  was,  therefore, 
of  great  constitutional  importance,  and  nod  a  long 
future  before  it,  but  the  actual  remedy  proposed  was 
reactionary.  The  final  chapter  was  in  a  sense  the  most 
important  of  all  for  the  moment,  for  it  was  an  effort  to 
secure  the  execution  of  the  charter  by  establishing  a 
luronial  committee  of  twenty-five  with  the  admitted 
right  to  tnake  war  on  the  king,  shoukl  tbey  consider 
that  he  had  violated  any  of  the  liberties  he  had  guar- 
antceil. 

Two  chief  criticisms  have  been  brought  against  the 
Magna  Carta,  that  of  being  behind  the  times,  reac- 
tionary, and  that  of  being  concerned  almost  entirely 
with  the  "selfish"  interests  of  tlie  baronage.  Reao- 
tionary  the  charter  certainly  was:  in  many  inspects 
it  was  a  jtrotcst  agamst  the  sp-stem  established  by 
Henrj-  II,  and,  evini  wlien  it  adopted  some  of  the  re- 
Hult-s  of  his  reign  such  as  tht'  pi>s«es.sory  asHises  and  the 
distinction  between  greater  anu  lesser  barons,  it  neg- 
lcct(?d  the  latest  constitutional  developments.  It  said 
[lothing  on  taxation  of  personatt}'  or  of  the  spirituali- 
ties of  the  clergy;  it  ga\-c  no  hint  of  the  introduction 
of  the  principle  of  representation  into  the  Great  Coun- 
cil: yet  the  early  stages  of  all  tliese  financial  and 
constitutional  mca-surcs  can  !«  found  in  the  reign  of 

Bishop  Stubbs  expres.sed  in  a  pregnant  phrase  this 
characteristic  of  the  charter  when  he  called  it  "the 
translation  into  the  language  of  the  thirteenth  centurj- 
of  the  ideas  of  the  eleventh,  through  the  forms  of  the 
twelfth  ".  It  is  a  reproach,  howei-er,  which  it  bears  in 
good  company,  for  all  the  constitutional  documents  of 
English  history  are  in  a  sense  reactionary;  they  are  in 
the  main  statements  of  princiiiles  or  rights  acmiired  in 
the  pa."!!,  but  recently  violated.  The  dtorgc  of  "  baro- 
nial selRshncss"  is  a  more  serious  matter,  for  one  of 
the  merits  claimed  for  the  ctiartcr,  even  by  its  more 
solier  admirers,  is  Ihat  of  being  a  nalioiial  document. 
It  must  l>c  ailmitte<l  tJiat  many  of  the  clauses  are 
directed  solely  to  the  grievances  of  the  liarons;  that 
some  of  the  measures  enforced,  such  as  the  revival  of 
the  baronial  courts,  would  l)e  injurious  to  tJie  national 
interests;  tliat,  even  whi'n  the  rights  of  freemen  were 
protected,  little  sccuritv  if  any  was  given  to  the  nu- 
merous villein  class.  Nor  aiv  these  criticisms  di»- 
allowed  by  ch.ipter  Ix,  which  declares  hi  general  tcrmB 
that  lilicrties  gruntcil  by  the  king  to  his  men  eliall  in 
turn  be  granteil  by  them  to  their  vassals.  Such  a 
statement  is  so  general  that  it  need  not  mean  much. 
It  is  more  important  to  notice  that  all  the  numeroua 
clauses  directed  to  the  controlling  of  the  royal  officials 
would  licncfit  directl.v  or  indirectly  all  cla.-!»es,  that 
after  all  what  the  comitri-  hail  been  suffering  from  waa 
ro.val  and  not  baronial  tyranny,  and  that  it  was  the 
barons  and  the  clergy  who  had  liceu,  for  the  most  part, 
the  immediate  victims.  Finally  the  word  "selfish" 
must  lie  xiKOil  cautiously  of  an  age  when,  \iy  universal 
i^onS(<Tit,  eoch  class  hail  its  own  Uberlicg,  and  might 
quite  legitimately  contend  for  them. 

Thoueh  in  form  a  free  grant  of  liljcrties,  the  charter 
had  really  l>een  won  from  John  at  the  swonl's  point. 
It  could  not  in  any  sense  be  lo«ikeil  u|m>ii  a.-)  an  act  of 
legislation.  He  ha<l  acccptt-d  the  Icrms  detnHU(l<-<l  by 
the  barons,  but  he  would  ilo  ."O  only  wi  long  as  he  was 
eomix'lled  tii.  He  had  already  taken  measures  to 
aeijuire  lioth  juridical  and  phynieal  weapons  against 


SIGNING  OF  THE  MAGNA.  CfcS.TK. 


MAOMBSZA 


533 


MAGNISH 


his  enemies  by  appealing  to  his  suzerain,  thepoDe,  and 
sending  abroad  for  mercenary  troops.  By  a  Bull  dated 
24  Au^^ist  at  Anagni,  Innocent  III  revoked  the  charter 
and  later  on  excommunicated  the  rebellious  barons. 
The  motives  of  Innocent's  action  are  not  far  to  seek. 
To  begin  with,  he  was  probably  misled  as^to  the  facts, 
and  trusted  too  much  to  the  king's  account  of  what 
had  happened.  He  was  naturally  inclined  to  protect 
the  interests  of  a  professed  crusader  and  a  vassal,  and 
he  took  up  the  position  that  the  barons  could  not  be 
judges  in  their  own  cause  but  should  have  referred  the 
matter  to  him,  the  king's  suzerain,  for  arbitration. 
But,  more  than  this,  he  maintained  quite  correctly 
that  the  king  had  made  the  concessions  under  compul- 
sion, and  that  the  barons  were  in  open  rebellion 
against  the  Crown.  It  is  indeed  manifest  that  the 
charter  could  not  have  b^n  a  final  settlement;  it  was 
accepted  as  such  by  neither  extreme  party,  and,  even 
before  the  gathering  at  Rimn3rmede  had  separated, 
the  archbishop  and  the  moderates  had  grown  suspi- 
cious of  the  executive  committee  of  twenty-five.  War 
broke  out  almost  at  once,  the  revolted  barons  brought 
over  the  French  king's  son,  and,  during  the  sixteen 
troubled  months  that  intervened  between  the  signing 
of  the  charter  and  the  end  of  the  reign,  John  had  on 
the  whole  the  advantage. 

Shortly  after  the  accession  of  the  yoimg  Henry  III,  the 
charter  was  reissued  by  the  regent,  William  Marshall. 
This  Charter  of  1216  differed  in  a  good  many  respects 
from  that  accepted  by  John  at  Runnymede.  To  begin 
with,  the  clauses  dealing  with  the  royal  forests  were 
formed  into  a  separate  charter,  the  Charter  of  the 
Forests;  the  other  clauses  were  considerably  modified, 
points  were  more  accurately  defined,  matters  of  a 
temporary  nature,  including  naturally  the  old  execu- 
tive clause,  were  left  out,  but  the  chief  change  was  to 
restore  to  the  Crown  a  number  of  powers  which  had 
been  abandoned  during  the  previous  year.  Amongst 
these  the  most  important  was  the  right  of  taxation, 
chapters  xii  and  xi  v  being  omitted.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  this  all-important  difference  that  the  new  char- 
ter was  a  genuine  grant  by  the  Crown.  It  may  be 
called  a  piece  of  honest  legislation ;  and  to  this  charter 
the  papal  legate  gave  the  fullest  consent.  A  few  fur- 
ther changes  were  introduced  in  1217,  and  for  a  third 
time  the  Magna  Carta  was  reissued  in  1225.  The 
form  it  then  received  was  final,  and  the  charters  which 
the  Crown  was  so  repeatedly  asked  to  confirm  for 
many  years  to  come,  meant  the  Charter  of  Liberties  of 
1225  and  the  Forest  Charter. 

In  time  the  Charters  became  almost  symbolical;  the 
precise  meaning  of  many  of  the  clauses  was  forgotten, 
and  much  more  was  read  into  some  of  them  thtm  their 
authors  had  ever  intended  to  imply.  They  came  to 
represent,  like  the  *'Laws  of  Good  King  Edward"  in 
an  earlier  age,  the  ancient  liberties  of  Englishmen, 
and,  when  in  Stuart  days  men  looked  behind  the 
Tudor  absolutism  to  a  time  of  greater  independence, 
lawyers  like  Sir  E.  Coke  continual  the  process  of  ideal- 
ization which  had  been  begun  even  in  the  thirteenth 
century.   This  symbolical  use  of  the  Great  Charter  has 

Elayed  a  great  part  in  English  constitutional  history, 
ut  it  would  have  been  impossible,  had  not  the  original 
document  in  its  original  sense  been  a  thorough,  an 
intelligent,  and,  in  the  main,  a  moderate  expression  of 
the  determination  of  Englishmen  to  be  ruled  by  law 
and  tradition  and  not  by  arbitrary  will.  The  most 
convenient  text  of  the  Great  Charter  is  that  printed  in 
B^mont's  "Chartes  des  Libert^s  anglaises"  (Paris, 
1892),  but  it  will  also  be  found  in  Stubbs's  "Select 
Charters  "and  similar  compilations.  W.  S.  McKechnie 
("  Magna  Carta  ",  Glasgow,  1905)  has  published  a  very 
thorough  commentary  J  clause  by  clause,  together  with 
an  historical  introduction  and  a  discussion  of  the  criti- 
cisms brought  against  the  Charter.  His  book  also 
contains  a  bibliography. 
The  ordinary  histories  of  the  period  natunJIy  contaioi  much 


on  the  subject,  espeoi&IIy  Stubbs.  Constitulional  History  (Ox- 
ford. 1883);  lonut  hUrodiu^iona  to  the  RoUa  Series;  Noroatb, 
John  Lackland  (London,  1905).  and  Davis,  Norman  and  An- 
gevin  England.  See  also  Petzt-Dutailus,  notes  to  the  FrKidi 
translation  of  Stubbs,  Comtitutional  History.  These  notes 
have  b6en  translated  and  published  separately  as  Studies  Sup- 
plementary to  Stubbs  ConstittUional  History ^  I,  in  Manchester 
University  Historical  Series  (1908). 

F.  F.  Urquhart. 

Magpesia,  a  titular  see  in  Lydia,  suffragan  of  Ephe- 
sus,  l3nng  about  40  miles  north-east  of  Smyrna  and 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Ma^eti  of 
Thessalv  in  the  fifth  century  f.  c.  Lucius  Scipio  de- 
feated Antiochus,  King  of  Syria,  there  in  190  b.  c.  It 
was  ruined  by  an  earthquake  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
but  recovered  and  prospered.  It  is  now  known  as 
Manisa,  a  flourishing  town  of  35,000  inhabitants  in  the 
sanjak  of  Sarakhan,  containing  twenty  mosques,  and 
a  Greek  and  an  Armenian  church.  The  following 
bishops  are  known:  Eusebius,  at  Ephesus  (431) ;  Alex- 
ander, at  Chalcedon  (553) ;  Stephen  at  Constantinople 
(680);  Basil  at  Nicsea  (787);  Athanasius  at  Con- 
stantinople (869);  Luke  at  the  synod  held  there  in 
879. 

There  was  another  see  in  Asia  called  Magnesia  ad  Msd- 
andrum,  which  was  situated  on  the  Meaider  in  Ionia. 
Said  to  have  been  built  by  Leudppus,  it  was  the  site 
of  the  celebrated  temple  of  Diana  Leucophryne, 
erected  by  Hermogenes,  which  was  granted  the  privi- 
lege of  asylum  by  Scipio,  on  account  of  the  fidekty  of 
the  inhabitants.  Eight  of  its  bishops  are  known: 
Damasus  (second  century);  Eusebius  at  Philoppolis 
(343);  Macarius,  contemporary  of  St.  ChrysbstCHn; 
Daphnus  at  Ephesus  (431) ;  Leontius  at  the  Robber- 
Council  (449) ;  Patritius  at  the  synod  in  Trullo  (692) ; 
Basil  at  Nic«a  (787) ;  Theophilus  at  Constantinople 
(879) ;  Basil  and  Eusebius  may  be  those  referred  to  in 
speaking  of  the  Lydian  Magnesia. 

Le  Quien,  Oriens  Christianus,  I,  ©97,  736. 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 


Magnien,  Alphonse,  educator  of  the  clergy,  b.  at 
Bleymard,  in  the  Diocese  of  Mende,  France,  9  June, 
1837;  d.  21  December,  1902.  As  a  student  of  classics 
at  Chirac,  and  of  philosophy  and  theology  at  Orleans 
(1857-1862),  he  was  distinguished  for  sound  and  bril- 
Uant  talents  and  a  noble,  attractive  character.  He  had 
become  affiliated  to  the  Diocese  of  Orleans  in  response 
to  Mgr  Dupanloup's  appeal  for  clerical  recruits.  In  the 
seminary  he  developed  a  Sulpician  vocation;  but  the 
bishop  postponed  the  fulfilment  of  his  desire,  employ- 
ing him  for  two  years  after  his  ordination  in  1862  as 
professor  in  the  preparatory  seminary  of  La  Chapelle 
St-Mesmin.  He  then  became  successively,  under  the 
direction  of  his  Sulpician  superiore,  professor  of 
sciences  at  Nantes  (1864-65),  and  professor  of  theol- 
ogy and  Holy  Scripture  at  Rodez  (1866-69).  At 
length,  in  the  fall  of  1869,  Father  Magnicn  began  the 
work  at  Baltimore  which  made  him  so  well  known  to 
the  priests  of  America.  He  soon  revealed  himself  at 
St.  Mary's  as  a  bom  teacher,  first  in  his  course  of  phi- 
losophv  and,  later,  of  Holy  Scripture  and  dogma.  He 
seemed  instinctively  to  grasp  the  vital  part  of  a  auies- 
tion  and  rested  content  only  when  he  nad  founa  the 
truth. 

After  the  death  of  Dr.  Dubreul,  superior  of  the 
seminary,  in  1878,  Father  Magnien  was  appointed  to 
the  succession.  As  superior  of  St.  Mary's  Seminary  dur- 
ing a  quarter  of  a  century.  Father  Magnien  exercised 
the  widest  influence  on  the  formation  of  the  American 
clergy.  He  was  richly  endowed  for  his  predestined 
work.  He  was  a  naturally  upright,  frank,  manly 
character;  and  above  all  he  was  a  true  priest,  de- 
voted to  the  Church  and  supremely  interested  in  the 
spread  of  religion.  He  spoke  to  the  seminarians  out 
of  the  abundance  of  a  priestly  heart  and  from  a  full 
knowledge  of  priestly  life.  Nowhere  was  he  so  much, 
at  home  as  on  the  rostrum.    Tci  ^'^fcsSs.^JicaNss^^flapi  <s^ 


BUGMinOAT  5i 

spiritual  topics  witLout  becoming  tireuomti  b  a  task  of 
rare  difiiaulty;  few  men,  indeed,  could  stand  the  test 
so  well  as  Father  Magnien.  In  the  adrninistration  of 
hia  office  there  was  nothing  narrow  or  harah.  He  had 
&  keen  knowledge  of  conditions  in  this  country.  He 
used  to  Bay  at  the  close  of  his  life  "  I  have  trusted  very 
much  aod  been  sometimes  deceived;  but  I  know  that 
had  I  trusted  leas  I  would  have  been  stiii  oftener  de- 

Thia  generous  and  wise  sentiment  cbaracteriies  the 

'         ■'"" °ala  the  secret  of  hia  influence. 

loved  and  revered.  He  had 
strong  affections; 
he  had  also  strong 
dislikes,  but  not 
so  uncontrollable 
as  to  lead  him  into 
an  injustice.  His 
personality  con- 
tributed, in  no 
small  degree,  to 
the  growth  and 
prosperity  of  St. 
Mary'aSeminary. 
Under  his  ad- 
ministration St. 
Austin's  College 
was  founded  at 
the  Catholic  Uni- 

ington,  for  the 
recruiting  of 
American  voca- 
tions to  St.  Sul- 
pice.  His  abilities  as  a  churchman  and  a  theologian 
were  conspicuously  revealed  at  the  Third  Plenary 
Council  of  Baltimore. 

Throughout  his  life,  bis  wise  counsel  was  frequently 
sought  and  highly  valued  by  many  members  of  the 
hierarchy,  and  he  waa  a  father  to  many  of  the  clei^. 
He  frequently  preached  retreats  to  the  clergy;  during 
the  retreat  at  St.  Louis  in  1S97,  he  was  seized  with  an 
Attack  of  a  disease  from  which  he  had  sulTered  for 
years.  SomemonthaJsterhe  went  to  Paris  tor  special 
treatment,  where  he  underwent  a  veiy  dangerous 
operation,  and  returned  to  his  post  at  Baltimore.  Hia 
health,  however,  was  never  entirely  regained  and  after 
two  or  three  ycara  began  to  fail  markedly,  and  in  the 
summer  of  1902  he  resigned  bis  burden.  The  good  be 
wrought  in  the  Church  in  America  can  never  be  told. 
In  my  love  and  veneration  for  his  memory,  I  may  be 
permitted  to  add  that  he  was  to  me,  for  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century,  a  moat  affectionate,  devoted, 
and   faithful   friend,   and   a  wise  and  able  counsel- 


lor. 


F01.BT,   Very  Rrv.  Alphonae  L.  MoonU 
(Nsw  York,M(in;h.  1«13),  pp.  SI4-822i 


day  oC  tbe  funeral; 
'L7Magnitnia  Tht  CalholicSv^ 


Jambs  Cardinal  Gibbons. 


giiam  Marict,  the  "  Gospel  of  Mary  ".  In  the  Roman 
reviary  it  is  entitled  (Vespers  for  Sunday)  Caniicum 
B.M.V.  (Canticle  of  the  Bleaaed  Virgin  Mary).  The 
"Magnificat",  "Benedictua"  (Canticle  of  Zachary — 
Luke  i,  68-73),  and  "Nunc  Dimittia"  (Canticle  of 
Simeon —  Luke,  ii,  29-32)  are  alao  styled  "  evangelica] 
eanticles",  as  they  are  found  in  the  Gospel  (Evan- 
^itim)  of  St.  Luke. 
FoaM  AND  Content. — Commentators  divide  it  into 


14  KiaNiriUT 

three  or  four  atansas,  of  which  easily  accessible  31us- 

tratioQS  may  be  found  In  McEviUy,  "Exposition  of  tbe 
Gospel  of  St.  Luke"  (triple  division;  verses  46-49,  BO- 
SS, 54-55) ;  in  Maas, "  Life  of  Jesus  Christ "  (also  triple, 
but  slightly  different:  vv.  4ft-50,  51-53,  54-55); 
and  in  SchaFF  and  Riddle.  "Popular  Commentai? 
on  the  New  Testament"  (division  into  foiu'  stan- 
■as:  vv.  46-48,  49-50,  51-52.  53-55).  The  Magnifi- 
cat is  in  many  places  very  aimilar  in  thought  and 
phrase  to  the  Canticle  of  Anna  (I  Kings,  ii,  1-10),  and 
to  various  psalms  (sxxiii,  3-4;  xxxiv,  9;  cxxivii,  6; 
Luc,  19;cxxv,  2-3;cx,  9;xcvii,  l;cxvii,  16;x3utii,  10; 
cxii,7;mxiii.  ll;xovii,3;cxxxi,  11).  Similarities  are 
found  with  Hab.,  iU,  18;  Mai.,  iii,  12;  Job,  v,  11;  Js., 
xli,  8,  and  xlix,  3;  Gen.,  xvii,  19.  Steeped  thus  ia 
Scriptural  thought  and  phrascoli^y,  summing  up  in 
its  mspired  ecataay  the  economy  of  God  with  His 
Choeen  People,  indicating  tbe  fulfilment  of  the  olden 
prophecy  and  prophesying  anew  until  the  end  of  time, 
the  Magnificat  is  the  crown  of  the  Old  Testament 
singir^i  the  la^t  canticle  of  the  Old  and  the  tirat  of  the 
New  Testament.  It  was  uttered  (or,  not  improbably, 
chanted)  by  the  Blessed  Virgin,  when  she  viait«d  her 
cousin  EUzabeth  under  the  circumstances  narrated  by 
St.  Luke  In  tile  finit  chapter  of  hia  Goapel.  It  ia  an 
ecstasy  of  praise  for  the  inestimable  favour  bestowed 
by  God  on  the  Virgin,  for  the  mercies  shown  to  Israel, 
and  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  promiaes  made  to  Abra- 
ham and  to  the  patriarchs.  Only  four  points  of 
exegesia  will  be  noted  here.  Some  commentators  dis- 
tinguiah  the  meaning  of  "soul"  (or  "intellect")  and 
"spirit"  (or  "will")  in  the  first  two  veraea;  but,  in 
view  of  Hebrew  usage,  probably  both  worda  mean 
the  aame  thing,  "  the  aoul  with  all  itAfacuItlea",  In  v. 
48,  "humility"  probably  means  the  "low  estate"  or 
"lowliness",  ratner  than  the  virtue  of  humility.  The 
second  half  of  v.  48  utters  a  prophecy  which  has  been 
fulfilled  ever  since,  and  which  adds  to  the  over- 
whelming reasons  for  rejecting  the  Elizabethan  au- 
thorship of  the  canticle.  Finally  the  first  half  of  v. 
55  (-4b  he  spoke  to  our  father^t)  ia  probably  parcnthet- 

Maiuan  AoTHOHsmp. — The  past  decade  lias  wit- 
ncBsed  a  discussion  of  tbe  autborsliip  of  the  Mag' 
nificat,  based  on  the  fact  that  three  ancient  codices 
(Vercellcnais,  Veronensis,  Rhedigerianus)  have;  "Et 
ait  Elisabeth:  Magnificat  anima  mea",  etc.  (And 
Eliiabethsaid;  My  aoul  doth  magnify,  eto.);  and  also 
on  some  very  alight  patriatic  use  of  the  variant  read- 
ing. Hamack  in  Berliner  Sitzungsberichte "  (17 
May,  1900),  S.'iS^Se,  announced  his  view  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan authorahip,  contending  that  the  original  read- 
ing is  neither  "Mary"  nor  "Eliiabeth",  but  merely 
"sne"  (said).  About  two  years  previously,  Durand 
hadcriticized,  in  the  "Revue  Biblique",  the  argument 
of  Jacobs  for  a  probable  ascription  to  Elizabeth.  Dom 
Morin  had  called  attention  (''Revue  Biblique",  1897) 
to  the  words  of  Nicetas  (Niceta)  of  Remeslana,  in  a 
Vatican  MS.  of  his  "De  psalmodiae  bono":  "Cum 
Helisabeth  Dominum  anima  nostra  magnificat "  (With 
Elizabeth  our  aoul  doth  magnify  the  Lord).  The 
works  of  Nicetas  have  been  edited  recently  by  Burn, 
and  give  (De  psalmodla  bono,  ix,  xi)  evidence  of 
Nioetas's  view  (see  note  4,  p.  79,  ibid.).  In  the  intro- 
duction to  Bum's  volume,  Burkitt  rejects  the  reading 
"  Et  ait  Eliaabeth  "  as  wholly  untenable  In  view  of  the 
contradictory  testimony  of  TertuUian  and  of  all  the 
Greek  and  Syriac  texts,  but  contends  for  the  original 
reading  "she"  (said)  and  for  the  Elizabethan  author- 
ship. He  is  answered  by  the  Anglican  Bishop  of  Salis- 
burv,  who  supports  the  probability  of  nn  original 
reading  "  she  ",  but  rejecla  the  ascription  to  Elliateth 
(pp.  clv-clviii).  The  witness  of  the  codices  and  of  the 
Fathers  is  practically  unanimous  for  the  Vulgate  read- 
ing: "Etait  Maria  ";  but,  apart  from  thia,  the  attribu- 
tion of  the  Magnificat  to  Elizabeth  would,  in  St  .Luke's 
cont«;(t,  be  highly  abnormal.    Long  before  the  recent 


BuanrioAT  5; 

discuBgion,  Wcsfcott  and  Hort,  in  the  uppeudix  (52) 
to  their  "  Introduction  to  the  New  TestameDl  in  the 
Original  Greek"  (New  York,  1882),  had  briefly  dis- 
cusaed  and  rejected  the  reading  "EliBabeth;  and 
this  rejection  is  summarily  confirmed  in  their  revised 
text  of  the  "N.  T.  in  the  Original  Greek"  (London, 
1S95),  523. 

LiTUBGicAL  Use. — Whilethecanticles  taken  by  the 
Roman  Brei-iary  from  the  Old  Testament  are  located 
with  the  psalms,  and  are  so  distributed  as  to  be  sung 
only  once  a  week,  the  Magnificat  shares  with  the  other 
two  "evangelical  canticles"  the  honour  of  a  daily  reci- 
tation and  of  a  sin- 
gularly prominent 
location  immedi- 
ately before  the 
Oratio,  or  Prayer  of 
the  daily  OfBce  (or, 
if  there  be  preces, 
immediately  Wore 
these).  The  " Mag- 
nificat" is  assigned 
to  Vespers,  the 
"Benedietus"  to 
Lauds,  and  the 
"Nunc  Dimittis" 
to  Compline.  Six 
reasons  are  given 
byDurandusforthe 
assignment  of  the 
Magnificat  to  Ves- 
pers, the  first  being 
that  the  world  was 

tide  by  the  assent 
of  Mary  to  the  Di- 
vine plan  of  Re- 
demption, Another 
reason  is  found  by 
Cdvenarius  in  the 
probabibty  that  it 

ing  when  Our  Lndy 

arrived  at  the  house 

of     St.    Elizabeth. 

However  this  may 

be,   in    the    Rule 

(written  before  502) 

of  St.  Cssarius   of 

Aries,   the    earliest 

extant   account   of 

its  liturgical  use,  it 

isassignedtoLauds, 

as  it  is  in  the  Greek 

Churches  of  to-dny. 

The  ceremonies  at' 

tending  its  singing 

in  the  choir  at  soU 

emn  Vespers  are  notably  impressive.  At  the  intonation 

"Magnificat",  all  who  are  m  the  sanctuary;  arise,  and 

tlie  celebrant  (having  first  removed  his  birretta  "in 

htxiour  of  the  canticles")  goes  with  his  assistants  to 

the  altar,  where,  with  the  customary  reverences,  etc., 

he  blesses  the  incense  and  incenses  the  altar  ^^  ^^  ^ 

beginning  of  solemn  Mass.     In  order  to  permit  the 

elaborate  ceremonv  of  inccnang,  the  Magnificat  is 

sung  much  more  slowly  than  the  psalms.    A  similar 

ceremony  attends  the  singing  of  the  Benedietus  at 

solemn  Lauds,  but  not  of  the    Nunc  Dimittis  at 

Compline. 

At  the  first  word  of  the  Magnificat  and  td  the 
Benedietus  (but  not  of  the  Nunc  Dimittis,  save 
where  custom  has  made  it  lawful)  the  Sign  of  the 
Cross  is  made.  In  some  churches  the  Magnificat  is 
sung  at  devotions  outside  of  Vespers.  Answering  a 
question  from  Canada,  the  "Ecclesiastical  Review" 
O^XIII,  74)  declares  that  the  rubrics  allow  such  a 


UAOKIFIOAT 


Keparalion,  but  forbids  the  incensing  of  the  altwr  te 
such  a  case.  The  same  review  (XXIII,  173)  remarka 
that  "  the  practice  of  making  the  Sign  of  the  Cross  at 
the  opening  of  the  Magnificat,  the  Benedietus,  and  the 
Nunc  Dimittis  in  the  Office  is  of  very  ancient  usage. 
and  is  sanctioned  by  the  very  best  authority",  aita 
refers  to  the  Congregation  of  Sacred  Rites,  20  Decem- 
ber, 1861  r 

Musical  Sbttinob. — Like  the  canticles  and  psalms, 
the  Magnificat  is  preceded  and  followed  Viy  an  anti- 
phon  varying  tor  ine  feast  or  ferial  Office,  snd  is  sung 
to  the  eight  modes  of  plain  song.  The  first  verse  has, 
however,  no  medi- 
ation, because  of 
the  brevitv  (the 
one    word    Mamti- 

eit)  of  tlie  first 
If.  The  Canticles 
of  Mary  and  of 
Zachary  sha  re  (even 
in  the  Ofiice  of  the 
I>ead)  the  peculiar 
honourof  commenc- 
ing every  verse  with 
an  initium  or  intiv 
nation.    This  into- 

varying modes;  and 
the  Magnificat  has 
a  special  solemn  in- 
tonationfor  the  sec- 
ond, seventh,  and 
eighth  modes,  al- 
though in  this  case 
the  usual  festive 
intonation  applies 
m  the  second  and 
eighth  modes,  to  all 
the  verses  except 
thefirst.  The"mu- 
sical.",  as  distin- 
gui.ahed  from  the 
"  plain  song",  treats 
ing  of  the  canticle 
has  been  very  va- 
ried. Sometimes  the 
chanted  verses  al- 
ternated n-ith  har- 
moniaed  plain  song, 
sometimes  with 
faho  bordone  having 
original  melodies 
in  the  same  mode 
as  the  plain  song. 
But  there  are  in- 
numerable settings 
which -are  entinJv 
original,  and  whicL 
run  through  the  whole  range  of  musical  expres- 
sion, from  the  simplest  harmonv  up  to  the  most 
elaborate  dramatJc  treatment,  witli  orchestral  accom- 
paniment of  the  text.  Almost  every  great  church 
composer  has  worked  often  and  zealously  on  this 
theme.  Palestrina  published  two  settings  in  each  itf 
the  eight  modes,  and  -left  in.  manuscript  almost  as 
many  more.  Fifty  settings  bv  Orlando  di  Lasso  are 
in  the  Royal  Library  at  Municu,  and  tradition  credits 
him  with  twice  as  many  more.  In  our  own  days, 
C^sar  Franck  (1822-00)  is  said  to  have  completed 
sixty-three  out  of  the  hundred  he  had  planned.  In 
addition  to  such  names  as  Palestrina,  cfi  Lasso,  Joa- 
quin des  Pr^s,  Morales,  Goudimal,  Animuccia,  Vitto- 
na,  Anerio,  Gabrieli,  Suriano,  who  with  their  contem- 
poraries contributed  innumerable  settings,  the  modem 
Cecilian  School  has  done  much  work  on  the  Magnificat 
both  as  a  separate  canticle,  and  as  one  of  the  numben 
iu  a  "CknnpUte  Vespers  "tn  many  feasts.  la.k: 


BUOMUS  5f 

serrioeB  the  Magnificat  receives  a  musical  treatment 
not  different  from  that  accorded  to  the  other  canticles, 
and  therefore  quite  Jiasimilar  to  that  for  Catholic 
Vespers,  in  which  the  length  of  time  consumed  in 
incensing  the  sJtar  allows  much  greater  musical  elabo- 
ration. A  giance  through  the  pages  of  Novello's  cata- 
logue of  "Services"  leads  to  tne  estimate  of  upwards 
of  one  thousand  settings  of  the  Magnificat  !dt  Anglican 
services  by  a  single  publishing  house.  Altogether,  the 
eatimnte  of  Krchbie!  that  this  canticle  "has  probably 
been  set  to  music  oftener  than  any  hymn  in  the  lit- 
UTKy"  seems  well  within  the  truth. 


"Jtf'WnutaU'^, 


i.S.  Pair 
(Ranie.  IBM),  a.  i 

atlStributed  tt ■- 


M 


827double- 


f^ 


, OOf^BBA.. ., 

a;  Cote  siDOB.rftiA'iinMonMjfT'A*  Life  d/Ow  lord 

lAa  Wamb)  (Lonilon,  1885),  iei-334,  u)  eMended  Eommeota: 
under  itielHle.  The  Canticle  of  Man:  liicoLj,t.  La  ViergtUarie 
fapri,  fEmntile  (Faris.  ISSOj,  243-ST.  arpin  that  Om  Ham- 
uificat  uloiie  "  pmvce  the  divinity  of  ChriatiBiiity  and  evea  the 
exutanoeof  dad";  DEiaiMitt,  L'BxIimde  Marie,  m  It  Magnifl- 
oai  (Paris,  1802);  M'Swjset,  TTantlatitmt  of  the  Peatme  and 
Cantiitcii  u:ilh  Canuntnlary  (SB.  Loab,  1901),  sivenbi  oolumaar 
tnni.  from  the  Vulgate  uid  PeaUlD,  with  oommentary;  a 
I.1P1UI:,  51.  Liike'e  Oaipel.  tr.  Moeeuxn  (Lonilon,  18B2},  4l-£7; 
McEvTLLT.  £zpanlKma/(A<OD>p>l«/fi(.Z.u*r<NawYork.lBS8), 
37-33:  Bbxem,  A  HannaniiedExpawUion of  ihe Four Ooepde,! 
(Booheater,  New  York,  lS9e),  13S-45:  ARinNio  in  Btclenali- 
«at/ini>u,VUI(3Sl-2T),aderotioDiJeBBmy:SHEeaAM,eTim(M> 
1^  (A*  Magnificat  (Noire  Dune,  lad..  IQOO} ,  >  poetio  mwliUtiaD 
1-  »..  h...j_j  ..■_Hm_j  «„.....-  Baohsawe,  TkePnlmtaiid 
j).lW3),|ivM<3E3]aiiutrlDal 
— '"  "^  -imposes  miMTioa]  ve^ 


2Dd  >" 


Be  by  Cat! 


in  ^Hipi 


r.i.Cur. 


. rent  of  tbe  Masolficat — thu  vxilume  givefl  other  po«ma  ib 

English  dealiog  either  with  Ihe  caoticlee  or  with  the  VieitatioD 
(17,  3^1,490);  cf.  also  Cortnina,  HtBerien  (London,  1803),  78, 
MO.  For  DOD-Catholic  metrical  vemions  in  EnEUsh.see  Joi.uh. 
Diet,  ol  Hum-milomi,  Znd  ed.  (London,  1907),  711  (Mi 
801,  coll  (MewVenion);  1034,  ooL  1  (Scottish  Tn- 
IMl.ool.  l(OldVenioD);U«iiBACH,Car7n>TM^m)M> 
JStrnBhurn,  1907).  430-33,  givflB  in  sreat  detui  th( 


..je  Uasnifit 
a  of  the  Ml 


S^^ii 


1908).  flO-69   thfl  various 


B.  Out.  ofUiuie  and  Mu> 


£[^fie 


a.  V.  Magnifieat:  SlnaEHBlROEB,  Guult  la  Catiiolic  Chwri 
Miuic  (St.  Fmocig,  Wis.),  cive>  (14S-150)  *  liat  of  one  hundred 
upnvedaettinn;  KnEHBlELin^cu  Jf  unc  Rtvira  (Feb.,  1910), 
147:  ¥ia.KO,VBtUiftiqutdeJtan'SihailimBath  (Psris,  1907), 
_: —  ...^ , ,  jjig,   ^  luthor'a  views  o(  Bach's 

H.  T.  Hbnbt, 


HkfDtu  (Maonoaldds,  HAoiNALoua,  popularlv 
known  as  St.  Mano),  Saint,  apoatle  of  the  A%au,  d. 
about  750  (655?).  The  history  of  St.  Magnus  is 
shrouded  in  obscurity.  The  only  source  is  an  old 
"Vita  S.  Magni",  which,  however,  contains  so  many 
manifest  ariachronisms  that  little  reliance  can  be 
idaced  on  it.  It  relates  that  two  Irish  missionaries, 
Columbanus  and  Gall,  spent  some  time  with  Willinuu-, 
&  priest  at  Arbon.  Here  Gall  fell  sick  and  was  put  in 
charge  of  Magnus  and  Theodore  (Moginald  and  Thc- 
odo),  two  clerics  living  with  Willimar,  while  Colum- 
banus proceeded  to  Italy  and  founded  the  monastery 
of  Bobbio.     When  Gall  had  been  miraculously  in- 


they  followed  his  rule.  After  the  death  of  Gull,  Mag- 
nus succeeded  him  as  superior  of  the  cell. 

About  this  time  a  priest  of  the  Diocese  of  Augsburg, 
named  Tozzo,  came  as  a  pilgrim  to  the  grave  of  St, 
Gall  and  invited  Magnus  to  accompany  him  ia  the 
eastern  part  of  Algitu.  Magnus  proceeded  to  Epla- 
ticus  (Epfach),  where  Bishop  Wichbert  of  Augsburg 
received  him  and  entnia1«d  him  with  the  Christ ianiza- 
tion  of  Eastern  Algiiu.  He  penetrated  into  the  wil- 
derness, then  crossed  the  River  Lech  at  a  place  which 
is  still  known  as  St.  Mangstntt  (footstep  of  St.  Mag- 
nus) and  built  a  cell,  where  afterwards  the  monastery 
of  Filssen  was  erected,  and  where  he  died. 

The  "Life"  is  said  to  have  been  written  by  Tbeo* 


6  HAamn 

dore,  the  companion  of  Magnus,  and  ^aoed  in  tha 

gsve  under  the  head  of  St.  Magnus.  When  in  851 
iBhopIantotranaferredthercUcstothenewiy  erected 
church  of  FOsaen,  this  "Life"  is  said  to  have  been 
found  in  a  scarcely  Ic^ble  condition,  and  to  have  been 
emendated  and  rewritten  by  Ermenrich,  a  monk  of 
Ellwangen.  It  was  re-edited  with  worthless  additions 
in  1070  Dv  Othloh  of  St.  Emmeram.  A  manuscript  is 
preBerved  at  the  Monastery  of  St.  GaU  (Codex  565). 
The  chief  inconsistencies  in  the  "Life"  are  the  follow- 
ing: St.  Magnus  is  made  a  disciple  of  St.  Gall  (d.  627) 
and  at  the  same  time  he  is  treated  as  a  coniemponuy 
of  Wichbert,  the  first  historically  established  Bishop 


,  _,  339  sq.),  and  others,  to  reject  the  whole 

Life"  BS  a  forgery  of  ft  much  later  date,  while 
Steichele  (Bistum  Augsbui^,  IV,  338  sq.),  Baumann 
(Qescbichte  des  Allg&us,  I,  93  sq.),  and  many  others 
conclude  that  the  first  part  of  tbe  "Life  ,  where 
Magnus  is  made  a  companion  of  St.  Gall,  is  a  later 
ad£tion,  and  that  the  second  part  was  written  in  S51 
when  the  relics  of  the  saint  were  transferred.  The 
opinion  of  Stf  ichele  and  Baumann  is  the  one  generally 
followed  at  present.  They  maintain  that  a  monk  Oi 
Ellwangea  (probably  not  Ermenrich,  as  Goldast  a»- 
(Wrtfl  without  any  authority)  wrote  the  "  Life"  in  851, 
when  the  body  of  Magnus  was  transferred.  To  attach 
more  weight  to  the  ''Life",  the  story  was  given  out 
that  it  h&d  been  written  l^  Theodore,  the  companion 
of  Magnus,  and  was  found  with  the  body  of  the  saint, 
but  in  a  scarcely  legible  condition;  that  therefore  s 
monk  of  Ellwangen  was  ordered  t^  rewrite  it.  (This 
was  acommoncustomoftheearly  Middle  Ages.)  The 
"Lite",  as  it  was  written  by  the  monk  of  EQwangcn, 


cated  a  church  in  honour  of  St.  Magnus  at  the  monas- 
tery of  St.  Gall,  he  received  a  relic  and  the  "Lite" 
from  the  monks  of  FUssen.  The  monks  of  St.  Gall 
had  a  tradition  of  another  Magnus,  who  was  a  com- 
panion of  St.  Gall  and  lived  100  years  before  the  Apos- 
tle of  the  Algau.  They  now  wrote  a  new  "  Life'',  in 
which  they  blended  the  tradition  of  the  earlier  Magnus 
with  the  "Life"  which  they  had  received  from  FUs- 
sen. This  accounts  for  the  historical  discrepancies. 
His  feast  is  celebrated  on  6  Sept. 

AdaSS.,  Sept., II.  700-81;  Steichele,  Biadim  Auffjiurv,  IV 
(Auaibun.  IS&b),  33S-36D;  Bacuahn,  GocJiicMn  de>  Atigiu^  I 
(Sempteti,  1883),  03-98;  Sepp,  Zur  Moffniuleumde  in  Brilaae 
tur  Auoiburatr  PojUodmo.  no.  38  (29  Junp,  1901).  283-86; 
BABtHBTUBBR,  S(.  Moffnut  Aiffoiorum  AjXffitolut  (Tc^ernsee, 
1721):  TBArtuTnSBarER,  Dtr  hi.  Maanui.  Apo<rl  dct  Algauet 
(Kemplfn,  1842)1  Matek  von  Knunau  in  KealoKuk.  fJr 
nniMtanJucAe   Theolatit   vnd   Kirchr,    XII    (Leipii«,    19(13), 

Michael  Ott. 

Hu[niu,  Olaub,  Swedish  historian  and  geographer, 
b.  at  Steninge, Sweden,  1490;  d.  at  Rome,  1  Aug,,  1558. 
He  belonged  to  the  old  and  noble  family  of  Store  (i.  e. 
great,  mnortijsj.and  pursued  his  studies  from  1510  to 
1517  in  Germany.  lie  was  then,  like  his  l>rother 
John  Magnus,  taken  into  the  higher  ecclesiastical 
service,  and  made  cathedral  provost  at  Strengnas. 
In  1523  King  Gustave  I  named  John  Archbishop  irf 
Upsala,  and  sent  Olaus  to  the  pope  to  have  the  ap- 
pointment confirmed.  After  vain  efforts  to  prevent 
the  king  from  introducing  the  new  doctrines  into 
Sweden,  John  went  to  Rome  in  1537,  and  Olaus  ac- 
companied him  as  secretary,  having  by  his  fidelity  to 
Catholicism  lost  his  property  in  the  confiscation  of 
church  goods.  When  John  died  ui  1544,  Olaus  was 
appointed  his  successor  in  Upsala.  but  never  entered 
into  office,  spending  the  rest  of  his  life  in  Italy,  for  the 
most  part  in  Rome.  From  1545  to  1549  he  attended 
the  Council  of  Trent,  having  been  commissioned  to 


MAGHUB                                537  MAHONY 

tbat  duty  by  Paul  III.    He  was  buried  by  the  side  of  urgent  request  of  Emperor  Ferdinand  III.    He  was 

his  brother  in  St.  Peter's.  apparently  on  his  way  to  Rome  when  in  the  same 

His  works,  which  mark  him  as  one  of  the  most  im-  ^ear  death  overtook  mm  at  Salzbui^.    His  writings 

portant  geographers  of  the  Renaissance  period,  were  mclude,  in  addition  to  many  other  polemical  and  phu- 

publishea  in  Italy.    His  knowledge  of  the  North,  osophical   works:    ''Judicium   de   catholicorum   et 

which  was  so  extensive  that  he  was  uie  first  to  suggest  acatholicorum  regula  credendi''   (Prague,  JL628),  a 

the  idea  of  a  north-east  passage,  enabled  him  to  pro-'  much  attacked  work  which  he  defended  in  his  '' Judi- 

duce  after  years  of  labour  a  CTeat  map  of  the  lanos  in  ciiun  de  catholicorum  regula  credendi''.     '^De  infal- 

the  North.    It  appeared  at  Venice  in  1539  with  the  libilitate  cath.  reg.  credendi"  (Prague,  1641);  "Or- 

title,  "Carta  manna  et  descriptio  septentrionalium  ganum  theologicum"  (Prague,  1643),  i.  e.  defence  of 

terrarum  ac  mirabihum  rerum ' ' ,  and  included  the  area  CathoUc  theolojgy  with  reasoned  arguments ;  '  *  Metho- 

from  the  south  coast  of  Greenland  to  the  Russian  dusconvinoendietrevocandihareticoe"  (Prague.  1643). 

coasts  of  the  Baltic,  including  Iceland,  the  northern  ,rP^^^^f^  9^^^^^^\  Bibliotheca  Scri^rum   0.  Cap. 

Se1<>a    QwA/^An    ISI/xi-t^oxr    nonmarlr    (inHFinlftnH      Tn  (Gonpa,  1591),  306  sqq.  J  ed.  Bernardus  DE  BoNONiA  (Venice, 

isles,  Sweden,  Norwaj^  I>enmark,  ana  l-mianO.     in  1727),  241  eqa.;  HvaoAsek-^UHKhe  Bl&Uer,  CXVIl,  556  aqq.; 

this  map  we  have  the  first  general  fairly  detmite  rep-  Rbusch  in  AUff,  detUscKe  Btog.,  XX.  92-4;  de  Backer.  BiBl. 

resentation  of  the  North,  surpassing  every  attempt  ^*'- .?•.  <^v«  •  ^^^\§22n"^S;a  Sbahalea,  Supplem.  ad  Script, 

contained  in  the  Ptolemaic  editions.    The  work  was  ^"^  ^»'»-  (K^°^«'  1806).^2  aq.;  HuRTER.^^enrtotor 

regarded  fora  long  time  as  lost,  and  a  single  copy,  pro-  Mito-fto-     q^  n^^n  A*rn  Mxnr^r,    JmcHAEL,  uihl. 

c^d  in  the  sixt^th  century  and  pre^rved  In  the  ^^^^e-    See  Goo  and  Magog. 

Royal  and  National  Library,  Munich,  was  only  found  Magrath,  John  Macrory;  b.  in  Munster,  Ireland, 

in  1886  by  Oscar  Brenner.    The  Munich  University  li-  in  the  fifteenth  century;  date  and  place  of  death 

brary  has  a  rough  copy  done  by  hand.     Niccol6  Zeno,  unknown.    Like  man^^  of  his  ancestors,  he  was  chief 

the  younger,  in  1558,  used  the  exact  data  ^ven  by  the  historian  to  the  O'Briens,  princes  of  Thoraond  and 

map  to  publish  an  accoimt  of  a  northern  journey  sup-  chiefs  of  the  Dalcassian  clans.    To  the  same  family 

posed  to  have  been  undertaken  bjr  his  ancestors  m  belon^d  the  celebrated  Miler  Magrath,  Protestant 

1400.    This  work  created  a  sensation,  and  was  not  Archbishop  of  Cashel.    Magrath's  fame  rests  on  his 

imtil  some  time  later  recognized  as  a  fiction.   Sebastian  one  work,  "Cathreim  Thoirdhealbhaigh'\     It  was 

Monster,  Gastaldi,  and  Ortelius  also  turned  the  map  written  in  Irish,  but  has  been  translated  into  English 

to  good  account.    Olaus  Magnus  likewise  compiled  an  by  S.  H.  O'Grady.    It  is  a  history  of  the  wars  of  Tho- 

important  work  dealing  with  history,  geography,  and  mond  from  1194  to  1318,  and  for  the  period  covered  is 

natural  history:  ''Historia  de  gentious  septentrion-  of  great  value.    Magrath  has  necessarily  much  to  say  of 

alibus"  (Rome,  1555;  Antwerp,  1558;  Basle,  1567:  the  Anglo-Normans,  especially  of  the  de  Clares,  and 

Frankfort,  1618.  Translations:  German  (Strasburgand  of  the  efforts  made  dv  the  Dalcassians  to  repel  their 

Basle,  1567) ;  Italian  (Venice,  1565) ;  English  (London,  attacks.    He  has  much  also  to  say  of  the  internal  strife 

1658);  Dutch  (Amsterdam,  1665).     It  is  divided  into  in  Thomond,  and  he  gives  full  particulars  of  the  at- 

twenty-two  books,  and  d^ls  picturesquely  and  sue-  tempt  of  O'Brien  and  O'Neill  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 

ccssively  with  the  manners  ana  customs,  the  commer-  tury  to  make  common  cause  against  the  invaders, 

cial  and  political  life  of  northern  nations,  the  physical  But  as  neither  chief  would  serve  under  the  other  the 

proportions  of  the  land  and  its  minerals  and  zoology,  result  waa  the  victory  of  the  Angjo-Normans  at  the 

Olaus  also  published  a  life  of  Catharine,  daughter  of  battle  of  Downpatrick  in  1259.    We  have  also  an  ao- 

the  Swedish  St.  Bridget,  "Vita  Catharinae",  as  well  as  count  of  the  final  overthrow  of  the  de  Clares  at  the 

another  work,  "Vita  abbreviata  S.  Brimtse".     He  battle  of  Dysert  O'Dea,  in  1318.     Magrath's  work  is. 

edited  the  following  works  of  his  brother  John:  *'  His-  not  a  mere  chronicle  of  events,  but  an  historical  com- 

toriaGothorumSuccorumlibrisXXIV"  (Rome,  1554),  position  in  which  motives  and  causes  are  examined, 

and  the  "Historia  Metropolitana,  seu  Episcoporum  battles  are  described,  and  the  characters  of  men  are 

et  Archiepiscoporum  Upsaliensium''  (Rome,  1557).  estimated.    There  is  also  much  about  the  Dalcassian 

"Biit^ssKK,  Die  &e?Ue  Kartedes  0lau8  Magnus  vomJahre  15S9  chiefs,  and  of  the  topography  of  the  districts  over 

nadidemEx^pUr^Mufuihener^^^  which  they  ruled.    In  these  respects  the  work  is 

VidenwabB^eUkaa Forhanmtnmnr  {lSo6)f  no.  15;  Sgbdmachbb,  ,.„i..^ui«   A^    ~u  :*  ^r*^     1   -.1          \\j:  1.       r  _a   ^            j. 

Olaua  Magnus  u.  die  dUesten  Karten  der  Nordlande  in  Zeitsehri  Valuable,  though  it  often  lacks  sobnetv  of  statement. 

der  Oesellsch.  f.  Erdkunde  zu  Berlin,  XXUI  (1893).  167-200;  S^^^^^J*  ^^3.  MatenaU  of  Ancient  Irish  History  (Dublin, 

Metblka  in  SiUunqsber.  der  k.  bdhmischen  OeselUch.  der  Wis^  1861).  0*RBnj.T.  Irish  Writers  (Dublin.  1820). 

senschaften,  Philol.-hist.KUisse(\SW /in  "Bohemian;  AHLxanuB,  E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Olaus  Magnus  och  hans  framstellning  a^Nordens  geografi  (Upsala, 

1895);  NiEiAEN,  Kirkeleksikan  for  Norden  (Aarhus,  1909).  MagUQlOime.     See  MoNTFELLIER,  DiOCESE  OF. 

Otto  Hartig.  Maguire,  John  Alotsius.    See  Glasgow,  Arch- 

Magnus  (Magni),  Valerianus,  b.  at  Milan,  1586,  ^'^^^  ^^-                                   ^  ,.    « 

presumably  of  the  noble  family  of  de  Magni:   d.  at  Magsrdus,  a  titular  see  of  Pamphyha  Secunda,  suf- 

Salzburg,  29  July,  1661.    He  received  the  Capuchin  ^ragan  of  Perea.    It  was  a  small  town  with  no  history, 

habit  at  Prague.    He  was  also  provincial  there,  and  in  <>»  t^^e  coast  between  Attaleia  and  Perga,  occasionally 

1626  was  appointed  Apostolic  missionary  for  Gtermany,  mentioned  by  ancient  geographers,  and  on  numerous 

Hungary,  and  Poland.    He  was  greatly  respected  by  coins  of  the  imperial  era.    Its  site  was  probafclv  Laara 

Emperors  Ferdinand  11  and  III,  as  well  as  by  Kmg  ^  the  vilayet  of  Konia,  where  there  are  rums  of  a  small 

Wladislaw  IV  of  Poland,  who  employed  him  on  diplo-  artificial  harbour.    The  See  of  Macydus  figures  in  the 

matic  missions.    Landgrave  Ernst  of  Hesse,  who  had  "  Notitia  episcopatuum "  until  the  twelfth  or  thir- 

been  converted  at  Vienna  on  6  Jan.,  1652,  and  who  teenth  century.  Five  bishops  are  known:  Aphrodisius, 

knew  Father  Valerian,  summoned  Capuchins  to  St.  present  at  the  Nicene  Council  (325) ;  Macedo,  at  Chal- 

Goar  on  the  Rhine,  and  was  present  at  the  religious  cedon  (451);  Conon,  at  Constantinople  (553);  Platonat 

disputation  between  Valerian  and  Haberkom  ofGiea-  C<»stantinople  (680  and  692) ;  Marinus,  at  Nicsea  (787). 

sen  at  Rheinfels  in  1651.    The  Jesuit  Johann  Rosen-  c/^i^l  1^;  ^^^^^  *^  ^"""^  ^"^-  »•  ^-  ^  ^"^^^  ^^^'^ 

thai  having  attacked  certain  assertions  of  Valerian's  t  #        .                                         ^   PirrmDijB. 
at  this  debate,  the  latter  was  drawn  into  the  sharp 

literary  controversy  between  dJajpuchins  and  Jesuits,  Mahony,  Charles,  Venerable,  Irish  Franciscan 

which  extended  even  to  Rome.    On  the  appearance  of  martyr;  b.  after  1639;  d.  at  Ruthin,  Denbighshire,  12 

his  pamphlet  "Contra  imposturas  Jesuitarum"  in  August,  1679.    The  British  Museum  has  a  copy  of  a 

1659.  he  was  cited  to  appear  at  Rome.    As  he  did  not  sin^e  sheet  entitled  "The  Last  Speeches  of  Three 

obey  the  summons,  he  was  arrested  at  Vienna  in  1661  Priests  that  were  Executed  for  Religion,  Anno  Domini 

at  the  instance  of  the  nuncio,  but  was  hberated  at  the  1679",  from  which  the  following  transcript  ia  mad^\ — 


MAI 


538 


^An  Account  of  the  words  spoken  by  Mr.  Charlee  Ma- 
hony,  an  Irish  Priest  of  the  Holy  Order  of  St.  Francis, 
who  was  Executed  in  his  Habit  at  Ruthin  in  North 
Wales,  August  IS,  1679. 

Now  God  Almighty  is  pleased  I  should  suffer  Mar- 
tyrdom, his  Holy  Name  b«  praised,  since  I  dye  for  mv 
Religion.  But  you  have  no  Right  to  put  me  to  death 
in  this  Country,  though  I  confessed  myself  to  be  a 
Priest,  for  you  seized  me  as  I  was  going  to  my  Native 
Country  Ireland^  being  driven  at  Sea  on  this  Coast, 
for  I  never  used  my  Function  in  England  before  I  was 
taken,  however  God  forgive  you,  as  I  do  and  shall 
always  pray  for  you,  especially  for  those  that  were  so 
good  to  me  in  my  distress,  I  pray  God  bless  our  King, 
and  defend  him  from  his  Enemies,  and  convert  him  to 
the  Holy  Catholick  Faith,  Amen. 

His  Age  was  under  Forty,  He  was  tryed  and  Con- 
demned at  Denby  [i.  e.  Denbigh]  Confessirvg  himself  to 
he  a  Priest," 

Bishop  Challoner  bases  his  account  of  our  martyr 
on  the  above-mentioned  single  sheet,  but  appears 
to  have  had  access  to  another  authority  now  lost, 
for  he  writes:  "He  suffered  with  great  constancy, 
being  cut  down  alive  and  butchered  according  to  the 
sentence,  as  I  remember  to  have  read  in  a  manuscript, 
which  I  could  not  since  recover."  Subsequent  writers 
add  npthing  to  Bishop  Challoner's  narrative. 

Challoner,  Mernoirt  of  Missionary  Priests,  II,  no.  206; 
QiLLOW,  Bibl,  Diet.  Eng.  Cath..lV,  392;  Stanton,  Menology  of 
England  and  Walts  (Loadon,  1887);  Hope,  Franciscan  MaHi/rs 
in  England  (London,  1878),  240;  Oliver.  Collections  illustrating 
the  History  of  the  Catholic  Religion  (London,  1857),  565;  Thad- 
DEUS,  Franciscans  in  England  (London  and  Leamington,  1808), 
82,71,101.  ,  «    „r 

John  B.  Wainbwmght. 

Mai,  Angelo,  Roman  cardinal  and  celebrated  phi- 
lologist, b.  at  Schilpario,  in  the  Diocese  of  Bergamo,  7 
March,  1782;  d.  at  Albano,  9  September,  1854.  At  an 
early  aee  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  (he  was  a 
novice  in  1779),  was  sent  to  the  residence  in  Naples 
(1804)  and  was  also  stationed  at  Orvieto  and  Rome. 
However,  on  account  of  his  proficiency  in  palaeography 
he  was  appointed  in  1811  to  a  position  in  the  Ambro- 
sian  Library,  Milan.  This  lea  to  his  initial  discov- 
eries: Cicero's  orations:  "Pro  Scauro",  "Pro  Tullio", 
"Pro  Flacco",  "In  Clodium",  and  "In  Curionem" 
(1814) ;  the  correspondence  of  Fronto,  Marcus  Aure- 
Uus,  and  Verus  (1815);  the  speech  of  Isseus,  "De  h»- 
reditateCleonymi"  (1815);  a  fragmentof  the  "  Vidu- 
laria"  of  Plautus,  and  commentaries  on  Terence 
(1816);  Philo,  "De  Virtute";  a  discourse  of  Themis- 
tius;  a  fragment  of  Dionvsius  of  Halicamassus  (1816); 
a  Gothic  version  of  St.  raul;  the  "Itinerarium  Alex- 
andri*';  a  biography  of  Alexander  by  Julius  Valerius 
(1817);  and  an  Armenian  version  of  the  "Chronicle" 
of  Eusebius  (1818).  So  many  new  texts,  almost  all 
of  which  were  found  in  palimpsests,  not  to  mention 
some  editions  of  already  known  texts,  drew  world- 
wide attention  to  Mai.  In  1819,  his  superiors  decided 
that  he  could  render  greater  service  in  the  ranks  of  the 
secular  clergy;  he  therefore  left  the  Society  and  was 
called  by  the  pope  to  the  Vatican  Libranr.  He  then 
worked  with  increased  zest  in  a  richer  field.  His  most 
brilliant  find  at  this  time  was  the  "  Republic"  of  Cicero 
(1822).  To  insure  the  regular  publication  of  his  dis- 
coveries, he  began  large  series  of  Anecdota:  "Scrip- 
torum  veterum  nova  collectio"  (10  vols.,  1825- 
38);  "Classici  auctores"  (10  vols.,  1825-38);  "Spici- 
legium  Romanum"  (10  vols.,  1839-44);  "Nova  Pa- 
trum  bibliotheca"  (7  vols.,  1852-54),  published  by  Mai 
hunself.  The  profane  authors  who  profited  by  Mai's 
labours  are:  Diodorus  of  Sicily;  Polybius;  Oribasus; 
Procopius;  Cicero  (especially  the  Verrine  orations), 
and  tne  Roman  jurisconsults.  Important  discov- 
eries were  made  likewise  with  regard  to  the  works  of 
the  Fathers:  Saints  Augustine,  Hilary,  Cyprian,  Jer- 
ome, Ambrose,  Athanasius,  Cyril,  Basil,  and  Ori^n, 
Iroujeua,  Eiisohiiis  of  Cirsarea,  etc.    To  these  ancient 


writers  must  be  added  the  Italian  Humanists,  the  Latia 
poets  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  Poli- 
ziano,  Sannazaro,  Bembo,  Sadoleto,  and  others,  whose 
works  he  printed  for  the  mist  time  in  the  "  Spicile^um 
Romanum".  He  gave  to  the  world  unpubushed 
pages  of  more  than  350  authors.  Finally,  he  did  not 
overlook  the  Bible.  After  long  delays,  inspired  by 
timidity,  he  was  as  last  authorized  to  make  known  one 
of  the  most  important  Greek  MS.  of  the  Bible  (Vetus 
et  Novum  Testamentum  ex  antiauissimo  codice  Vati- 
cano,  1 858) .  It  has  been  stated  tnat  the  gall  nut  used 
by  Mai  to  revive  the  writing  of  the  palunpsests  half 
destroyed  them.  The  truth  is  that  all  reagents  injure 
parchment.  Soon  little  will  remain  of  the  palimpsest 
of  Plautus  in  the  Ambrosian  Library.  But  the  work 
of  Studemund,  Mai's  successor,  will  insure  its  perpet- 
uitv.  Mai's  brilliant  discoveries  won  him  the  homage 
and  affection  of  many.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Leopardi,  the  poet  of  New  Italv,  a  friendship  equally 
honourable  to  both.  Mai  was  blamed  for  his  great  un- 
willingness to  allow  the  learned  to  share  in  the  trea- 
sures he  guarded  so  jealously.  He  wished  to  enjoy 
them  all  alone.  In  1838,  the  pope  named  him  cai^ 
dinal;  but  he  continued  his  researches,  and  his  publi- 
cations were  interrupted  only  by  his  death. 

SoifMBRVOOEi.,  Bibliothique  de  la  compagnie  de  J^sus,  V,  323, 
till  1819;  BoNNBTTY,  Table  aiphabHique  analytique  et  raiscmnie  de 
tous  les  atUeurs  aacrls  et  profanes  qui  ont  Hi  adcouverts  et  fdiUM 
rAcemment  dans  les  4S  voU  publiSs  par  le  cardinal  Mai  (Paris, 
1850};  PoLBTTO,  PRINA,  and  others.  Net  primo  centenario  da 
oardiriale  Angela  Mai,  atti  deUa  solenne  Accademia  tenuiasi  in  suo  * 
onore  il  7  Marzo  t88B  (Bei]samo,  1882)  \  Poletto,  Del  cardinals 
Angela  Mai  e  d^  suoi  stiuH  e  scoperte  (Siena,  1886)  \  Chatelain, 
Les  palimpsestes  latins  in  Annuaire  de  VEoole  prtUique  des  hautes 
Hudes  (1904),  5. 

Paul  Lejay. 


.Jaignan,  Emmanuel,  French  physicist  and  theo- 
logian; d.  at  Toulouse,  17  July,  1601 ;  d.  at  Toulouse,  29 
October,  1676.  His  father  was  dean  of  the  Chancery 
of  that  city  and  his  mother's  father  was  professor  of 
medicine  at  the  University  of  Toulouse.  He  studied 
the  humanities  at  the  Jesuit  college.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  joined  the  Order  of  Minims.  His  instruc- 
tor in  philosophy  was  a  follower  of  Aristotle,  but 
Maignan  soon  o^an  to  dispute  and  oppose  all  that 
seemed  to  him  false  in  Aristotle's  teachings,  especially 
of  physics.  He  preferred  Plato  to  Aristotle.  He  mas- 
tered the  mathematics  of  the  day,  practically  without 
aid  from  any  one.  At  the  end  of  a  few  vears  his  ability 
was  recognized  by  his  superiors  and  he  was  given 
chs^e  of  the  instruction  of  novices.  In  1636  he  was 
called  to  Rome  by  the  general  of  the  order  to  teach 
mathematics  at  the  convent  of  the  Trinity  dei  Monti. 
There  he  lived  for  fourteen  years,  engaged  in  mathe- 
matics and  in  physical  experiments,  and  publishing 
his  work  on  gnomonics  ana  perspective.  In  1650  he 
returned  to  Toulouse  and  was  maae  provincial.  When 
his  three  years  were  up,  he  was  glad  to  devote  himself 
entirely  to  his  studies.  When  Louis  XIV,  having  seen 
his  machines  and  curiosities  at  Toulouse,  invited  him 
to  Paris,  in  1660,  through  Cardinal  Mazarin,  he  begged 
to  be  aUowed  to  pass  his  life  in  the  seclusion  ofthe 
convent.  His  published  works  are:  "Perspectiva 
horaria,  sive  de  horologiographia,  turn  teorica,  tum 
practica"  (4  vols.,  Rome,  1848);  "Cursus  philoso- 
phicus"  (Ist  ed.,  4  vols.,  Toulouse,  1652;  2nd  ed.  with 
changes  and  additions,  Lyons,  1673);  "Sacra  philo- 
sophia  entis  supematuralis"  (Lyons,  1662,  1st  vol., 
and  1672,  2nd  vol.);  "Dissertatio  theologica  de  usu 
licito  pecuniae"  (Lyons,  1673).  This  dissertation 
seemedf  to  authorize  usury  and  was  therefore  censured 
by  a  number  of  bishops. 

Saouens,  De  Vita,  moribus  et  scriptis  R.  P.  E.  Maignani  el  e26- 
gtum  (Toulouse,  1697);  NicIjron,  Mhnoires  ...  E.  M.,  XXXI 
(Paria,  1736),  346-353. 

William  Fox. 

MaiUa  (Maillac),  Joseph-Ann a-M.uue  de  Movria 
PB,  Jesuit  missionary;   b.  16  Dec,  1669,  at  Chateau 


MAILLARD  fi39  MAnj.AKlD 

Maillao  on  the  Is^re;  d.  28  June,  1748,  at  Peking,  whose  influence  wrou^t  an  immediate  change.  In 
China.  After  finishing  his  studies  he  joined  the  So-  recognition,  he  was  invited  to  Halifax,  where  a  church 
ciety  of  Jesus  in  1686,  and  in  1701  was  sent  on  the  was  Duilt  for  him,  and  he  received  a  pension  of  £200. 
mission  to  China  as  a  member  of  the  order.  In  June,  the  free  exercise  of  the  Catholic  Faith  being  conceded 
1703,  he  arrived  in  Morocco  and  thence  set  out  for  to  all  his  coreligionists,  Irish  as  well  as  Acadian  and 
Canton,  where  he  acquired  a  thorou^  knowledge  of  Indian.  From  Halifax  he  addressed  to  the  scattered 
the  Chinese  language  and  style  of  writing,  and  devoted  groups  letters  that  were  read  with  veneration  like  the 
himself  particularly  to  the  study  of  Chinese  historical  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  At  death's  hour,  after  thirty 
works.  _When  the  Emperor  Khang-hi  entrusted  the  years  of  laborious  ministry,  being  without  any  priest 
Jesuit  missionaries  with  the  cartographical  survey  of  to  administer  the  last  rites,  he  was  visited  by  the  An- 
his  empire,  the  provinces  of  Ho-nan,  Kiang-nan,  Tshe-  glican  parson,  Thomas  Wood,  who  offered  his  mini»- 
kiang,  and  Fo-kien,  and  the  Island  of  Formosa  fell  to  tration.  Calmly  and  gently  MaiUard  refused,  saying: 
the  lot  of  Father  Mailla  along  with  Fathers  Regis  and  "  I  have  served  God  all  my  life,  and  each  day  I  nave 
Hinderer.  As  a  mark  of  his  satisfaction,  the  emperor,  prepared  for  death  by  offering  up  the  Holy  Sacrifice 
when  the  work  had  been  completed,  conferred  on  of  the  Mass."  Thus  vanishes  the  legend  of  his  re- 
Father  Mailla  the  rank  of  mandarin.  When  he  was  quest  to  Wood  to  read  the  prayers  for  the  sick  from 
fifty  years  old  he  began  the  study  of  the.  Manchurian  the  English  ritual.  His  booy  alone  could  the  Protea- 
tongue,  and  made  such  progress  that  he  was  able  to  tants  claim,  and  they  interred  it  with  great  demote 
translate  into  French  the  "Thoung-kian-kane-mou",  strations  of  honour.  He  is  justly  named  the  Apostle 
an  extract  from  the  great  Chinese  annals,  which  the  of  the  Micmacs,  by  whom  he  is  still  held  in  great  ven- 
emperor  had  had  prepared  in  the  Manchurian  langunee.  eration,  and  who,  in  spite  of  many  trials  and  tempta- 
He  finished  the  translation  in  several  volumes  in  tne  tions,  have  preserved,  with  their  language,  the  Faith 
year  1730,  and  in  1737  sent  it  to  France,  where  it  lay  he  tau^t  them. 

for  thirty  years  in  the  library  of  the  college  at  Lyons,       Soirie*  Canadiennea  (Quebec,  1863);  Canada-Francaia  (Que- 

Ferret,  who  purposed  publishing  it,  having  died.     On  ^,'  ^^>J  CxspRyN,  Aup^«<r£:»ana<?/mc  (P  Lea 

♦v»«  cJ^^^^Iir^^^e  4U«  ^^.] ♦u^  \.^n ^,.4^u   -:*t  -  Sulvtciens  en  Acadxe  (Quebec,  1897);    O  Brien,  Memotra  oj 

the  suppression  of  the  order  the  college  authorities  Rijht  Rev,  Edmund  Bwke  (Ottawa,  1894);  Plesms,  Jownti 

gave  the  manuscript  to  the  Abbd  Grotsier  on  condition  dea  vtaitea  pastoraUa  de  1816  et  1816  (Quebec,  1903). 
that  he  would  see  to  the  publication  of  the  work,  which  Lionel  Lindsay. 

had  long  been  awaited  with  interest  by  the  learned 

world.  Not  long  after,  the  work  appeared  under  the  MaiUard,  Olivier,  celebrated  preacher,  b,  at 
title:  "Histoire  g^n^rale  de  la  Chine,  ou  Annales  de  Juignac  (?),  Brittany,  about  1430;  d.  at  Toulouse,  22 
cet  Empire;  traduit  du  Tong-kiere-kang-mou  par  de  July,  1502.  He  took  the  Franciscan  habit  with  the 
Mailla,  Paris,  1777-1783",  in  12  volumes,  with  maps  Observants,  apparently  in  the  province  of  Aquitaine. 
and  plans.  In  1785  a  thirteenth  volume  followed.  He  was  there  the  vicar  provincial  of  the  Observants 
Besides  Grosier,  the  Orientalists  Deshauterayes  and  when  on  2  June,  1487,  he  was  elected  Vicar  General  of 
Colson  were  mainly  responsible  for  the  publication,  the  Ultramontane  Observants  (i.  e.  those  north  of  the 
Mailla's  work  even  to  this  day  j:)rovides  the  most  im-  Alps)  at  the  general  chapter  of  the  Observants  at 
portant  foundation  for  any  connected  presentation  of  Toulouse.  After  his  first  term  of  office  (1487-90),  he 
the  history  of  China.  Mailla  is  also  the  first  European  was  twice  re-elected  (149^-6  and  1499-1502).  Re- 
scholar  to  whom  we  owe  a  detailed  knowledge  of  the  tiring  from  office  at  the  General  Chapter  of  15  May, 
"Shukin^",  the  classic  historical  work  of  the  Chinese,  1502,  he  went  to  Toulouse,  where  he  died  at  the  mon- 
most  of  it^  books  being  included  in  his  translation,  astery  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Angeb.  As  miracles  soon 
Mailla,  also,  in  order  to  promote  the  work  of  the  mis-  occurred  at  his  grave,  the  General  Chapter  of  Barcelona 
sion,  compiled  some  edifying  books  in  Chinese;  the  in  1508  ordered  that  his  remains  should  be  translated 
most  important  being  lives  of  the  saints,  and  medi-  to  a  chapel  built  specially  for  them,  where  for  some 
tat  ions  on  the  Gospels  of  the  Sundays  throughout  the  time  he  enjoyed  a  certain  amount  of  puljlic  venera- 
whole  year.  In  **Lettres  ^difiantes"  there  are  some  tion.  He  is  specially  celebrated  as  a  forceful,  popular 
interesting  letters  from  him  on  the  persecution  of  the  preacher,  who  preached  inspiriting  and  profitable 
Christians  which  took  place  in  China  during  his  time.  Lenten  sermons  in  both  churches  and  public  places. 
When  he  died,  in  his  seventy-ninth  year,  he  was  buried  His  manner  and  style  were  indeed  often  rather 
at  the  expense  of  the  Emperor  Khiang-lung,  many  bluntly  plebeian,  but  by  no  means  so  rough  as  the  later 
people  being  present  at  the  obsequies.  classicists  have  proclaimed  them  to  be.  Of  a  fearless 
LeOrea  idifianiea.  Series  XXVIII  (Paris,  1758),  Hx-facx;  Bio*  nature,  he  did  not  abstain  from  Well-merited  attacks 

Sxiphie  ^veraeUe^XXWh  120;  RicHTHopN,  China  (1877);  db  ^^^  ^he  abuses  of  his  time,  and  upon  the  crimes  of 

▲CKKR-SOMMERVOGEL,  V  (1894),  330-34.  upv**    11*^  i»*^wo«,  V.    ^   v*      x^  c»    v»    ^pv#u    vm^  v«<^ftu^  v« 

Otto  Haktio.  those  m  high  places  (e.  g.  the  cruelties  of  Louis  XI). 

He  abo  espoused  the  cause  of  Jeanne  de  Valois,  the 

MaiUard,    Antoine-Simon.     missionary,     b.    in  repudiated  wife  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans.    On  the  other 

France  (parentage,  place  and  date  of  birth  unknown) ;  hand,  Maillard,  who  was  highly  respected  by  all  classes^ 

d.  12  August,  1762.    He  was  sent  to  A(»Klia  by  the  confirmed  Charles  VIII  in  his  plan  of  restoring  Rous- 

French  Seminary  of  Foreign  Missions  in  1735.    In  sillon  and  Cerdagne  to  Aragon.    Innocent  VIII  asked 

1740  he  was  appointed  vicar-^neral  to  the  Bishop  of  Maillard  in  1488  to  use  his  best  endeavours  with  the 

Quebec,  and  resided  at  Louisbourg  imtil  its  fall  in  French  king  for  abolishing  the  Pragmatic  Sanction: 

1745.  after  which  he  retired  to  the  woods  and  minis-  but  in  this  task  he  was  unsuccessful,  like  many  others, 
terea  to  the  dispersed  Acadians  and  Indians  of  Cape        Of  his  works,  nearly  all  of  which  are  sermons,  there 

Breton,  St.  John's  (Prince  Edward  J  Island,  and  the  is  no  complete  collection;  they  appeared  in  detached 

eastern  coast  of  Acadia  (Nova  Scotia).    He  was  the  fashion,  many  in  various  editions  and  in  both  French 

first  to  acquire  a  complete  mastery  of  the  extremely  and  Latin.    The  most  important  are:  **Sermones  de 

difficult  language  of  the  Micmacs,  for  whom  he  com-  adventu,  quadragesimales  et  dominicales "  (3  vols., 

posed  a  hieroglyphic  alphabet,  a  grammar,  a  diction*  Paris,  1497-8,  1506,  1522,  etc.;  Lyons,  1498,  etc.); 

ary,  a  prayer-b(K>k,  a  catechism,  and  a  series  oi  ser-  "Sermones  de  adventu,  quadragesimales,  dominicales" 

mons.     Although  credited  with  the  gift  of  tongues,  he  and  "De  peccati  stipendfio  et  gratiae  jjraemio "  (Paris, 

had  devoted  over  eight  years  to  hS  task.    Maillard  1498 ,  1515,  etc.;  Lyons,  1503), dehvered  at  Paris  in 

was  the  only  Catholic  priest  tolerated  by  the  Endish  1498;  "Quadragesimale",  delivered  at  Bruges  in  1501 

in  Acadia.    When  the  Indians,  to  avenge  British  oar-  (Paris,  s.  d.);  printed  with  the  author's  notes  and  the 

barity  towards  the  Acadians  and  their  missionaries,  edition  of  his  ''Sermon  fait  Tan  1500  ...  en  la  ville 

massacred  every  English  subject  that  strayed  within  de  Bruges"  (2nd  ed.,  Antwerp,  s.d.);  "Chanson  piteuse 

their  reach,  the  Government  appoale<l  to  Maillard,  , , ,  chant^e  &  Toulouse  1502"  (2nd  ed.,  Paris»  182(a\% 


'HiBtoiredelapaMion  .  ,  .  denoetredoulxsauveur" 
(I^ris,  1493);  "La  conformitS  et  correspoDdanoe 
trie  devote  dea  .  .  .  mystSres  de  1&  mease  &  la  pas- 
■ioii  .  .  ."  (PariH.1562),i«print«da8aliterftryiiionu- 
inent  (Paris,  1828) ; "  L'inetruction  et  conaoUcion  de  la 
VM  contemplative"  (Paris,  a.  d.),  containing  various 
treatises;  La  confession  de  Frire  Olivier  MaiUard" 
{Paris,  a.  d.;  Paris,  1500),  frequently  edited. 

8xuotm.lAli,BI\ultiHir  la  chain  .  .  ,  fmncaittattXV'  i^d*. 
OlivUr  MaiUard  (Bordeaux,  Tauloiue,  sad  Puis.  ISSl);  BoK- 
DBHrB.fEuVTH  /mncaiiFi  d'Oliv.  M.:  Sermont  H  po4tia  (n  notes, 
1877)j  Puarr  in  Aanala  du  Midi.  V  (TouIouk.  1863).  315 
iqq.:  Wadoino.  Xmuilu  Ord.  Frat.  Vinorum.  XIV  (Rome, 
mS),  270;  (2nd  ed..  Rome,  1808),  1S4:  Hrd  ed..  1906),  181; 
Sbaruka.  Suppltn.  ad  Script.   0.   M.   CRome,  1806)_,  671; 


!,  J90T),  «,^ 


MiCIUBL  BiHL. 


Halmbomg,  Louis,  French  church  lustorian,  b.  at 

Nancy,  10  .Tanuary,  1610,  d.  at  Paria  13  August, 
1686.  In  1626  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  taught 
rhetoric  and  humtinities  tor  six  years,  and  suMe- 
quently  won  coiiaid enable  fame  as  a  preacher.  He  is 
now  known,  how- 

ularly  as  a  prolific 
historic^il  writer, 
an    opponent    of 

Protestantism, 
nnd  a  defender  of 
"the  Liberties  of 
the  Gallican 
Church"  against 
the  Apostolic  See. 
Owing  to  hia  de- 
fence of  Gallican- 

cent  XI  ordered 
his  expulsion  from 
the  Society  of 
Jesus  (1681). 
When  he  left  the 
order,  in  1682, 
Louis  XI  Vgranted 
him  a  pension,  and 
until    ■■        '     ■■ 


he  continued  his 
literary  pursuits  in  the  Abbej  of  St.  Victor,  Paris. 
His  works,  remarkable  for  their  elegant  diction,  are  of 
little  value, becausesomewhat  untrustworthy.  Among 
the  most  important  of  them  are:  (1)  "Histoire  de 
I'Arianisme"  (Paria,  1673);  (2)  "Histoire  de  I'hei^sie 
des  Iconoclast«s"  (Paris,  1674)-  (3)  "Histoire  des 
Croisades"  (Paris,  167&);  (4)  ''Histoire  du  scbisme 
dwGrecs"  (Paris,  1678),  The  following  works  by  him 
were  placed  on  the  "Index  of  Forbidden  Books  ":  (1) 
"Histoire  de  la  decadence  de  I'empire  depuis  Charle- 
magne" {Pari^l676);  (2)  "  Histoire  duarindschieme 
d'Occident"  (Paris,  1678);  (3)  "Histoire  du  Luth6- 
raniarae"  (Paris.  1680);  (4)  "Trait*  historique  de 
r^tablissement  et  des  pt^rogatives  de  I'^glise  de  Rome 
et  de  aes  dv&ques"  (Paris,  1685);  (5)  "Histoire  du 
Pontifical  deS.Grfgoirele  Grand  "(Paris,  1686).  He 
is  the  author  of  histories  of  Calvinism,  of  the  League, 
and  of  Leo  the  Great.  His  collect«d  historical  worka 
were  published  at  Paris,  1686. 

" "blioAiquc  dt  la  Compounie  it  Jltm,  V 


SiooiDpA 


N.  A.  Weber. 

Haimonides,  Mobeb,  Teacbino  of. — Moaes  ben 
Maimun  (Arabic,  Abu  Amran  Musa),  Jewish  com- 
mentator and  philosopher,  was  bom  ffl  Spanish  Jew- 
ish pan-nta  at  Cordova  in  11.%  After  sojourning  with 
Ills  parents  in  Spain,  Palestine,  and  Northern  Africa, 


HAUIONICES 


Egypt,  devoted  himself  to  the  exposition  of  the  Tal- 
mud. He  died  at  Cairo,  13  December,  1204,  and  waa 
buried  at  Tiberias  in  Palestine.  His  wntin^  in- 
clude: (1)  Commentaries:  (a)  "Kitftb  al-Siraj",  a. 
commentary  on  the  Hishnah,  written  in  Arabic  and 
translated  mto  Hebrew  (first  published,  H92),  Latin 
(Oxford,  1654),  and  German  (Leipsig,  1863);  (b) 
"  Mishneh  Torah",  or  "  Yad  ba-Haaakah",  written  in 
Hebrew,  and  many  times  published  (first  ed.  in  Italy, 
1480:  latest,  Vihia,  190(^;  translated  in  part  into 
Enghsh  in  1863  by  Bernard  and  Soloweyczik;  (2) 
PhfloBopycal  Worka:  (a)  "  Dalalat  ai-Ha'irln",  trans- 
lated into  Hebrew  as  ''Moreh  Nebflklm"  (1204),  and 
into  Latin  as  "  Doctor  Peiplexorum",  "  Dux  Dubitan- 
tium".  The  Arabic  original  was  published,  with  a 
French  translation  entitled  "Guide  des  ^garfis"- by 
Munk  (13  vols.,  Paris,  18.56-66).  An  English  transla- 
tion of  portion  of  it  by  Townley  appeared  aa  "The 
Reasons  of  the  Laws  c^  Moees"  (London,  1827),  and  a, 
version  of  the  whole  work  under  the  title  "  The  Guide 
of  the  Perplexed'"  by  FriedlSnder  (London,  1889): 
(b)  Minor  Philosophical  Works:  "On  the  Unity  of 
God",  "On  Happiness",  "On  the  Terminology  of 
Lo^c  ,  "On  Resurrection"  etc.;  (3)  Medicaland 
As&onomical  Works:  Several  treatises  on  poisons,  oa 
hygiene,  a  commentary  on  Hippocrates,  on  the  astro- 
nomical principles  of  the  Jewish  calendar  etc. 

Through  the  "Guide  of  the  Peiplexed"  and  the 
philoaopbical  introductions  to  sections  of  lus  com- 
mentanes  on  the  Mishna,  Maiaionides  exerted  a  very 
important  influence  on  the  Scholastic  philosophers, 
especially  on  Albert  the  Great,  St.  Thomas,  and  Duns 
Scotus.  He  was  himself  a  Jewish  Scholastic.  Edu- 
cated more  by  reading  the  works  of  the  Arabian 
philoaophera  than  by  personal  contact  with  Arabian 
teachers,  he  acquired  through  the  abundant  philo- 
sophical Ut«rature  in  the  Arabic  language  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  doctrines  of  Aristotle,  and 
strove  earnestly  to  reconcile  the  philoaophy  of  the 
Stagjrite  with  tne  teachings  of  the  Bible.  The  princi- 
ple which  inspired  all  his  philosophical  activity  waa 
identical  with  the  fundamental  tenet  of  Scholasticism: 
there  can  bo  no  contradiction  between  the  truths 
which  God  has  revealed  and  the  findings  of  the  human 
mind  in  science  and  philosophy.  Moreover,  by  sci- 
ence and  philosophy  he  understood  the  science  and 
Ehilosophy  of  Aristotle.  In  some  important  points, 
owever,  he  departed  from  the  teaching  of  the  Aris- 
tolelean  text,  holding,  for  instance,  that  the  world 
is  not  eternal,  as  Aristotle  taught,  but  was  created  ex 


dent  care  extends  only  to  humanity,  and  not  to  the 
individual.  But,  whUe  in  these  important  points, 
Maimonides  forestalled  the  Scholastics  and  undoubt- 
edly influenced  them,  be  waa  led  by  his  admiration  for 
the  neo-Platonic  commentators  and  by  the  bent  of  ins 
own  mind,  which  was  essentially  Jewish,  to  maintain 
many  doctrines  which  the  Scholastics  could  not  ac- 
cept. For  instance,  he  pushed  too  far  the  principle  of 
negative  predicationin  regard  to  God.  The  Scnolaft- 
tics  agreed  with  him  that  no  predicate  is  adequate  to 
express  the  nature  of  God,  but  they  did  not  go  so  far 
as  to  say  that  no  term  can  be  applied  to  God  in  the 
affirmative  sense.  They  admitted  that  while  "eter- 
nal", "omnipotent",  etc.,  aa  we  apply  them  to  God, 
are  inadequate,  at  the  same  time  we  may8ay"GodiB 
etemar'  etc.,  and  need  not  stop,  as  Moses  did,  with  the 
ne^tive  "  God  is  not  not-eternal",  etc. 

The  most  characteristic  of  all  his  philosophical  doc- 
trines is  that  of  awiuircd  immortality,  lie  distin- 
guishes twokindsof  intelligence  in  man,  the  one  mate- 
ria/in  the  sense  of  being  dependent  on,  and  influenced 
by,  the  body,  and  the  other  imntalcrial,  that  is,  iude- 


pendeatof  tbebodilyor^aniem.  Thelatteris  adireot 
emanation  from  the  uDiversal  sctive  intellect  (this  ia 
bia  interpretation  of  the  »ui  ToiirruEit  of  Aristoteleon 


intelligence  of  God.  The  knowledge  of  God  is,  them- 
fore,  the  Icnowledge  which,  so  to  speak,  develops  in  us 
the  immaterial  intelligence,  and  tnus  confers  on  man 
an  immaterial  or  spiritual  nature.  This  immateriality 
not  only  confers  on  tin  soul  that  perfection  in  which 
human  happiness  consists,  but  also  endows  the  soul 
with  immortahty.  He  who  has  attained  a  knowledge 
of  God  has  reached  a  condition  of  existence  which  ren- 
ders him  immune  fr<Hn  all  the  accidents  of  fortune, 
from  all  the  allurements  <rf  sin,  and  even  from  death 
itself.  Man,  therefore,  since  he  has  it  in  his  power  to 
attain  this  salutary  knowledge,  ia  in  a  position  not 
only  to  work  out  liis  own  salvation,  but  also  to  wo^ 
out  his  own  immortality.  The  resemblance  between 
this  doctrine  and  Spinofa's  doctrine  of  immortality  is 
so  striking  as  to  warrant  the  hypothesis  that  there  is  a 
casual  dependence  of  the  later  on  the  earlier  doctrine. 
The  difference  between  the  two  Jewish  thinkers  is, 
however,  as  remarkable  as  the  resemblance.  While 
Spinoza  teaches  that  the  way  to  attain  the  knowledge 
which  confers  immortality  is  the  proKress  from  sense- 
knowledge  through  scientific  knowledge  to  philosophi- 
cal intuition  of  all  things  sub  apede  aUmUatia,  Hosm 
holds  that  the  road  to  perfection  and  immortality  ia 
thepathoFduty  as  described  in  the  I^awoF  God. 

Among  the  theological  questions  which  Moses  dis- 
cussed were  the  nature  of  prophecy  and  the  reconciU- 


ligence  beine  one  in  the  series  of  intelligences  emana- 
ting from   God,  the  prophet   must,   by  studr  and 
m,  lift  himself  up  to  the  degree  of  perfec 


that  perfection  is  reached,  there  is  required  the  free  i 
of  God  before  the  man  actually  becomes  the  prophet. 
In  his  solution  of  the  problem  of  evil,  ha  follows  the 
neo-Platonista  in  laying  stress  on  matter  as  the  source 
of  all  evil  and  imperfection. 

(Bnalau,  18Ul)i  Beer.  LAn  u.  Wnkm  du  Maintmuia 
(Profiue,  1B50):  GEiaEK,  tfoaet  ben  ilaimim  CBnxIsu,  ISSOI; 
Barccs.  run  loXurra  on  Mairmmida  (Loadoa,  1S4T):  JtmiA 
Encydoprdia,  t.  v.  Mont  Bm  Maimm:  Gutthahh,  Dii  Scho- 
Iait3c  in  ihrCT  Ba.  cum  Jiidattum  (Bnalau.  1902);  ai^ccL, 
Qach,  dtr  Plia.  in  MiUela!Urt,n  (Muui,  1805),  265  iiqq.; 
TuHMen,  HiMary  aj PhiUjiojiliii  CBortonj  1903),  316  ff. 


the  Harafl6n  below  the  junction  of  the  Santiago,  es- 
tablished by  themselves  and  their  successors  from  ^e 
Quito  province,  a  series  of  missions  extending  down 
the  river  on  both  sides.  In  1682  Rodriguez  enumer- 
ates three  missions  of  the  Maina  proper,  in  proximity 
to  Borja,  and  one  each  of  the  Chayavita  Coronados, 
Faranapura,  and  Roamaina,  besides  others  in  the  sur- 
rounding tribes.  In  1798  Hervas  names  San  Ignacio, 
San  Juan,  Concepti6n,  PreBentaci6n,  and  presumably 
San  Borja,  as  missions  occupied  by  Maina  tribes.  Mi 
the  missions  were  then  far  on  the  decline,  which  he 
ascribes  chiefly  to  the  repeated  inroads  of  the  Brasil- 
ian  slave  hunters  (see  Mameluco)  .  The  mission  p<n>- 
ulation  is  now  either  extinct  or  assimilated  with  the 
general  civilized  population,  but  a  few  untamed  bands 
Btill  roam  the  forests. 


Catdloffo  de  fat  Lfncuas,  I  (h 


James  Moonbt. 


WlUJAM   TdENKB, 


ing  alongthe  north  bank  of  the  Maiw^6a.  Their  earlier 
habitat  is  supposed  to  have  been  on  the  upper  waters 
of  the  Morona  and  Pastaza,  Ecuador.  Brintm  gives 
them  six  tribes,  or  dialects,  viz.:  Cahuapana,  C^pa, 
Chayavita,  Coronado,  Uumurano,  Haina,  Roamaina. 
Hervas  gives  them  two  languages  in  six  dialects,  via.: 
Maina  (Chapo,  Coronado,  Humurano,  Roamaino  dia- 
lects) and  Chayavita  (Cahuapano  and  Parsnapuro  dia- 
lects). The  Maina  are  notable  as  having  been  the  first 
tribM  of  the  upper  Amazon  region  to  be  evangelized,  so 
that  they  gave  their  name  to  thewhole  nussion  jurisaio- 
tion  of  the  region  and  to  the  later  province  of  Mainas, 
which  included  the  larger  part  (rf  tJie  present  Ecuador 
and  northern  Peru,  east  oi  the  main  Cordillera,  includ- 
ing the  basins  (£  the  Huallaga  and  ITca^iti.  In  this 
missionary  province  of  Mainas,  according  to  Hervas, 
there  laboured  from  1638  to  the  expulsion  in  1767,  167 
Jesuit  missionaries  of  Quito,  who  founded  152  mift- 
sioas,  and  eight  of  whom  won  the  palm  ot  mar^rdom. 
The  work  was  begun  in  1638  by  the  Jesuit  Patl^ts 
Gaspar  de  Cuxia  and  Lucas  de  la  Cueva,  from  Quito, 
who,  beginning  their  labour  at  the  new  town  cJ  S&a 
Francisco  de  Borja  (now  Borja)  on  the  north  bulk  of 


Halna. — Maine  is  commonly  known  as  the  Pine 
Tree  State,  but  is  sometimes  called  the  Star  in  the  East 

GBOORAPiir. — It  lies  between  43°  6'  and  47°  27'  N. 
lat.,  and  66°  Se*  and  71°  6'  W,  long.,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Provinces  of  Quebec  and  New  Brunswick; 
on  the  east  by  New 
Brunswick ;  on  the 
south-east  and 
south  by  the  At- 
lantic Ocean;  on 
the  west  by  the 
State  of  New 
Hampshire  and  ^ 
the  Province  of 
Quebec.  It  has  an 
area  of  3  3,0  4  0 
square  miles,  in- 
cluding some  3000 
square  miles  of 
water.    The  coast 

of  Maine  has  nu-  ^_^^_— -- 

merous     indenta-  ^"^^^^^^ 

tions;  withacoast-  Seal  or  Mime 

line  of  218  miles^ 

when  measured  direct,  it  has  a  sea-coast  of  2500  miles. 
As  a  result,  it  has  beautiful  bays  sucli  as  Penobecot 
and  Pasamaquoddy;  a  number  of  fine  harbours,  Port- 
land harbour  on  Cosco  Bay  being  one  of  the  best  on 
the  Atlantic.  The  islands  oS  the  coast  of  Maine  are 
very  numerous.  In  Penobscot  Bay  alone  there  an 
some  five  hundred.  The  principal  nvers  of  Maine  are 
the  Saco,  Androscoggin,  Kennebec,  Penobscot,  and  St, 
Croii,  which  flow  south,  and  the  St.  John,  flowing  at 
first  northerly  and  gradually  turning  and  flowing  m  a 
south-easterly  direction  through  New  Brunswick  into 
the  Bay  of  Fundy.  These  rivers  and  their  tributariei. 
which  are  in  general  rapid  streams,  afford  many  great 
and  valuable  souroea  of  water-power,  estimated  to 
represent  some  3,000.000  available  horse-power.  By 
the  Treaty  d  Washington,  also  called  the  Ashburtcu 
Treaty,  nmde  in  1 842  to  end  the  dispute  relative  to  the 

S roper  location  of  the  nortik-eastem  frontier,  the  St. 
□hn  River  was  constituted  the  northern  boundary  of 
Haino  for  a  distance  of  72  miles,  and  the  St.  Croix  for 
a  distance  of  100  miles  or  more.  Unfortunately,  it 
failed  in  part  at  least  to  accomplish  its  purpose,  for  at 
the  present  time  (1910)  a  Jomt  International  Com- 
mission is  endeavouring  to  harmonize  the  differences 
concerning  the  use  of  the  river  which  have  arisen,  and 
are  liable  to  arise  in  the  future  between  citizens  of 
Maine  on  the  northern  border  and  British  subjects 
living  on  the  lower  St.  John. 

The  number  of  lakes  in  Maine  is  about  1580.  Tba 
largest  and  most  celebrated  is  Mooeehead  Lake  near 
the  centre  of  the  state,  drained  by  the  Kermebeo, 

Than  art  tifflfingmfmnlyill  mnpwmMavnj.^-A.'Cplia^ 


MAIME 


542 


MAm 


iff  a  general  elex'utiou  which  extends  from  the  north- 
east boundan'  at  Ma/s  Hill  to  the  sourcesi  of  the  Magal- 
loway  River  in  the  ^lest,  and  constitutes  a  divide 
between  the  streams  flowing  south,  and  those  flowing 
north  or  east.  There  are  seveml  mountain  peaks,  the 
principal  being  Mount  Katahdin  (5:iS5  feet),  near  the 
geographical  centre  of  the  state.  Sad<ileback  Mountain 
(4000  teet),  Mount  Blue  (3900  feet),  Mount  Abraham 
(3387  feet),  and  Green  Mountain  on  Mount  Desert 
Island  (ISOO  feet>.  The  soil  of  Maine  is  for  the  most 
part  hard,  drj*,  and  rockv,  but  along  the  river  vallej's, 
and  in  low  lands  originally  covered  by  water,  there  is 
considerable  fertile  land,  while  in  the  northern  portion 
of  t lie  state,  in  the  valleys  of  the  St.  John  and  its  trib- 
utarv,  the  Aroostook,  the  soil  is  equal  in  fertility  to 
anv  in  the  world. 

IxorsTRiEs. — ^The  following  compilation  will  con- 
vev  a  fair  idea  of  the  leading  industries  as  they  stood 
in*1905. 


Xo.  of 
Establish- 

Value of  pro- 

n.»:«.i       ducts  ^including 
Capital          custom  work 

ments 

and  repairing) 

Boots  and  shoes 

50 

$4,450,939 

$12;35i;>93 

Canning  and  presen'- 

inc  &»h 

141 

2.144.690 

5.055.091 

Flour  and    grist -mill 

products 

161 

1.422.671 

3,932,SS2 

Foundo'  and  machine 

1 

shop  products 

99 

5.191.274 

4.767.025 

Leather,  tanneii.  cur^ 

ried  and  finishc^l 

27 

1.464.735 

2.500.146 

Lumber  and   timber 

products 

752 

15.0Vi.n95 

17.937.6S3 

Lumber,  planing  mill 

■ 

products,  indudins 
aash.     doors     and 

blinds 

84 

2,003.304 

2.223,956 

Marble     and     stone 

! 

work 

42 

2.S07J215 

2,3S2.1S0 

Paper  and  wood-pulp 
Pnntins  and  publish- 

37 

41.273.915 

22.951.124 

ShipDuilding.wooden. 

206 

2,107.149, 

3.372;i;n 

1 

including         boat- 

1 

building 

138 

1.221.691 

3.038.016 

Cotton  goods 

15 

21.642.675 

15.405.S23 

WooUen  gocxis 

66 

14.990.211 

13.969.600 

Worsted  goods 

6 

.       2.562.193 
.$11S.456.057 

3,609.990 

1S24 

$113,497,140 

SBxty-eigfat  other  in-: 

. 

dustries                    , 

1321 
3145 

25.149.693 

30.623.051 

Total ' 

|$143.605.750 

$144,120,191 

Besides  the  al>ove  specifietl  inilustries,  large  amounts 
are  derived  from  otners  of  which  no  accurate  report 
can  be  readily  obtained!.  A  brge  sum  is  derived  each 
year  from  the  tislieries.  ap:irt  from  what  results  from 
the  canning  indust  rv.  The  man\if act  ure  of  lime  in  t he 
vicinity  of  Rocklant^  is  carrieil  on  on  a  ver>-  large  scale. 
The  granite  quarries  at  Vinalhaven  Weld  a  large  re- 
turn. A  \"er>'  considerable  amount  is  obtaine^i  t  hrough 
the  mining  industries,  the  niimerous  mineral  springs. 
located  chiefly  in  Androscoggin  County,  and  numerous 
lesser  industries  of  which  no  report  b  made  to  the 
labour  commissioner.  A  verj-  conser\-ative  estimate 
places  these  at  six  millions  or  more. 

Agriculture. — Finally,  and  most  important  by  far  as 
the  source  from  which  the  livelihooil  of  the  vast  major- 
ity of  the  population  is  drawn,  come  the  agricultural 
products.  Tne  County  of  Aroostook  was  reported  a 
rew  years  sinee  as  ranking  second  in  the  Union  in  the 
value  of  its  agricultural  products,  and  there  has  been 
a  great  increase  in  the  quantity  and  ^-alue  of  its  prod- 
ucts since  then.  The  potato  crop  of  that  eoimtv  in 
19as  brought  nearly  $15,000,000.  Taking  then'tte 
state  as  a  whole,  and  reckoning  potatoes,  hay^  OKti^ 
wheat,  buckwheat,  bariev,  lye,  oom  for  ennni 
poaes,  apples  (of  which  there  were  ^owm  VmQ 
narrols  m  1907),  \-e9ptables  nnd  dnuqr  ] — "■" 
last  a  >-enr  large  and  important  itani)*n 
jrure  the  agricultunk  pWMluBl%  ^^^'^ 


which  are  akin  to  them,  at  more  than  $50»0U0,OOO  in 
an  average  year.  In  brief,  Maine  produces  through  its 
varied  industries  some  S275  to  $300  annually  for  each 
inhabitant. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — ^The  forests  of  Maine  cover  the 
greater  part  of  the  state,  and  the  \^lue  of  its  standing 
woods  is  immense.  Spruce  is  first  in  quantity,  as  it  is 
also  in  greatest  demand.  Aft«r  spruce  comes  hem- 
lock; next,  white  birch  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
spools;  poplar  for  pulpwood;  cedar  for  shinglcss,  and 
bu'ch  for  tne  manufacture  of  furniture.  The  pine  is 
also  found,  but  no  longer  in  large  quantities.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  are  found  the  maple,  ajsh,  beech,  and 
other  varieties.  Owing  to  the  large  extent  of  forest, 
game  is  so  plentiful  that  Elaine  is  called  the  "  hunter's 
paradise  ".  During  the  open  or  hunting  season,  which 
m  general  covers  the  penod  from  1  October  to  1  De- 
cember, the  woods  are  filled  with  hunters  from  all 
parts  of  the  Union.  The  hunter  from  abroad  is  in 
pursuit  of  the  moose,  caribou,  or  deer,  but  the  local 
nunter  adds  to  these  the  fox,  beaver,  marten,  sable, 
mink,  and  wild  cat.  Along  the  coast  especially,  and 
to  some  extent  in  the  lake  regions,  wild  fowl  abound. 
The  various  lakes,  ponds,  and  streams  abound  with 
landlocked  salmon,  trout,  and  togue,  for  which  the 
close  time  extends  from  1  October  until  the  ice  has  left 
the  pond,  lake,  or  river.  Many  other  varieties  of  fish 
are  also  found,  making  Maine  as  attractive  to  the 
angler  as  to  the  hunter. 

Climate. — ^The  climate  of  Maine,  as  its  Jatitude 
indicates,  is  cold  during  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
yea r.  I n  t he  ext  reme  nort h  t he  ground  is  covered  wit  h 
snow  from  the  middle  of  November  to  the  first  of  April 
(and  even  later)  in  the  average  year.  But  the  climate 
is  most  healthful  at  all  seasons.  Tens  of  thousands  of 
people  from  all  parts  of  the  count  r>'  have  their  summer 
nomes  in  Maine,  or  at  least  spend  several  months  of 
each  >*ear  in  the  state.  Not  at  the  famous  summer  re- 
sorts of  Old  Orchard  and  Bar  Harbor  only  is  the  sum- 
mer x-isitor  found,  but  ever^-where  along  the  coast,  in 
the  interior  of  the  state  in  the  vicinity  of  some  of  its 
many  lakes,  and  even  at  the  northernmost  extremity 
of  the  state  in  the  St .  John  \*alley.  The  mar\'ellousiy 
beautiful  scenery,  which  every  successix-e  season  at- 
tracts people  in  increasing  numbers  to  Maine,  enjo\'s 
so  wide  a  renown  that  anything  more  than  a  passing 
reference  to  it  is  unnecessary  here. 

PoprL-VTioN. — ^The  population  of  the  territory  of 
Maine  according  to  the  census  of  1790  was  96,540:  it 
was  151,719  in  ISOO:  22S,705  in  ISIO;  29S.269  in  1820, 
when  it  became  a  state  ^15  Mareh^;  .'J99.455  in  1S30: 
501. 79A  in  1S40:  5S3.aU  in  1S50;  62S.279  in  1S60; 
6*26,015  in  1S70;  64S.9:^  in  1S80:  661.086  in  1890; 
694,4S0  in  19lX\  The  Catholic  population  is  123,517. 
It  will  be  obser\ed  that,  while  the  growth  of  popula- 
tion has  not  been  rapid,  it  has  been  steady  and  regular, 
one  decade  only  from  1S60  to  1S70  showing  a  sli^t 
decrease.  Tliis  is  acci^unted  for  by  t he  fact  that  Mame 
fumishevl  70,107  soldiers  to  the  Federal  army  in  the 
Civil  War,  of  whom  9S9S  died  during  the  waV.  It  is 
safe  to  preiiict  tiiat  the  census  now  being  taken  (1910) 
will  add  fully  ten  per  cent  to  the  figures  of  the  last 
census,  making  the  population  about  765.000. 

CONSTITITIOX  AND  tio  VERS  MEN T. ItS  OOnStituUon 

was  moiielled  after  that  of  the  Federal  go\'eninient. 
The  legislative  power  is  veste^i  in  a  senate  composed  of 
thirty-one  members  and  a  house  of  representatives  of 
one  liundred  and  fifty-one  members,  both  senators  and 
feprescntatives  being  chosen  for  a  period  of  two  jrears. 
Tbe  election  is  heU  on  the  second  Mondax  of  Septem- 
ber in  the  cvai  yniBy  and  the  official  tenn  begins  on 
thidaj  beion  the  fin*  Wcdaeiday  of  Janoaiy  f oUow- 
*~   "^     ^   *        ^    ~   MB eriewlvc pa—d li sub" 

,biii»ahonkibe 


SSSAi 


^: 


MAIMB 


543 


BtAMB 


Initiative  and  Referendum, — An  amendment  to  the 
Constitution,  which  came  into  effect  in  the  first  Wed- 
nesday of  January,  1909.  established  "  a  people's  veto 
through  the  optional  referendum  and  a  direct  initia- 
tive by  petition  and  at  general  or  special  elections  *\ 

Executive  Department. — In  the  executive  depart- 
ment of  the  government,  the  governor  has  associated 
with  him  seven  executive  councillors,  each  represent- 
ing one  of  the  seven  councillor  districts  into  which  the 
state  is  divided.  These  are  chosen  by  the  legislature 
in  joint  convention  at  the  be^nning  of  the  session; 
and  to  this  board  the  nominations  made  by  the  gov- 
ernor are  submitted  for  confirmation.  Under  the  state 
government,  the  following  are  the  principal  heads  of 
departments:  state  auditor,  chosen  by  popular  vote 
at  the  September  election;  attorney-general;  secre- 
tary of  state;  state  treasurer;  three  state  assessors, 
chosen  by  the  legislature;  superintendent  of  public 
schools;  highway  commissioner;  auditor  of  state 
printing;  land  agent  and  forest  commissioner;  insur- 
ance commissioner;  bank  examiner;  state  liquor 
commissioner;  pension  clerk;  commissioner  of  inaus- 
trial  and  labour  statistics;  commissioner  of  agriculture; 
inspector  of  workshops,  factories,  and  mines;  three 
railroad  commissioners;  three  enforcement  commis- 
sioners; state  librarian;  three  commissioners  of  inland 
fisheries  and  game;  three  commissioners  of  sea  and 
shore  fisheries;  keeper  of  the  state  arsenal;  three  com- 
missioners of  harbours  and  tidal  waters;  three  cattle 
commissioners;  three  commissioners  of  pharmacy; 
agent  of  the  Penobscot  Indians;  agent  of  thePassama- 
quoddy  Indians;  three  inspectors  of  prisons  and  jails; 
two  inspectors  of  steamboats;  inspectors  of  dams  and 
reservoirs. 

There  are  also  appointed  eight  medical  men  to  con- 
stitute a  state  board  of  health;  six  medical  men  to 
constitute  a  board  of  registration;  five  lawyers  to 
make  up  a  board  of  legal  examiners;  three  veterinary 
surgeons  to  form  a  board  of  veterinary  examiners,  and 
five  dentists  to  constitute  a  board  of  dental  examiners. 
Besides  these  there  are  numerous  boards  of  trustees  to 
supervise  the  management  of  state  institutions .  A 11  of 
these  are  nominated  bjr  the  governor  and  confirmed 
by  the  council.  The  principal  ones  are:  Maine  Insane 
Hospital  at  Augusta;  Eastern  Maine  Insane  Hospital 
at  Bangor;  state  prison  at  Thomaston;  State  School  for 
Boys  at  South  Portland;  Maine  Industrial  School  for 
Girls  at  Hallowell;  Military  and  Naval  Orphan  Asylum 
at  Bath;  the  University  of  Maine  at  Orono;  College  of 
Law  of  the  University  of  Maine  at  Bangor;  state  nor- 
mal schools  at  Castine,  Farmington,  Gorham,  Presque 
Isle,  and  Calais;  the  Madawaska  Training  School  at 
Fort  Kent,  and  the  Maine  School  for  the  Deaf  at  Port- 
land. In  this  connexion,  although  not  immediately 
under  state  authority,  may  be  named  certain  institu- 
tions of  a  public  nature,  such  as  the  Maine  General 
Hospital  at  Portland,  Central  Maine  General  Hospital 
at  Lewiston,  Eastern  Maine  General  Hospital  at 
Bangor,  the  Eye  and  Ear  Infirmary  at  Portland, 
Maine  State  Sanitorium  Association  and  Maine  Insti- 
tution for  the  Blind — all  of  which  have  received  assist- 
ance from  the  state. 

Judicial  Department. — ^The  judicial  department  is 
composed  in  the  first  place  of  a  supreme  court  of  eight 
justices,  viz.  a  chief  justice  and  seven  associate  jus- 
tices. These  sit  individually  in  the  several  coimties  of 
the  state  to  hear  cases  at  nisi  prius,  and  as  a  court  of 
law  to  hear  cases  brought  before  them  on  exceptions 
at  three  different  places,  namely  Portland,  Bangor, 
and  Augusta.  These  judges  are  also  vested  with  full 
equity  powers  to  hear  and  determine  cases  in  equity 
with  or  without  the  inter\'ention  of  a  jury.  Besides 
these,  superior  courts  have  been  established  in  the 
counties  of  Cumberiand  and  Kennebec  with  a  jurisdic- 
tion fixed  by  the  acts  establishing  them,  and  broad 
enough  to  enable  them  to  hear  and  decide  the  vast 
majority  of  cases  arising  within  their  respective  couDr 


ties.  Each  city  and  a  number  of  the  larger  towns  have 
municipal  courts  of  limited  jurisdiction  in  both  civil 
and  criminal  matters,  and  fijmlly  in  every  county  in 
the  state  are  trial  justices  having  jurisdiction  in  petty 
civil  and  criminal  cases  subject  to  an  appeal  to  a 
higher  court,  and  authority  to  issue  warrants  for  the 
apprehension  of  offenders  in  all  crises,  and  to  bind  over 
the  party  accused  for  trial  at  the  Supreme  or  Superior 
Court  as  the  case  may  be.  The  municipaHties  are 
divided  into  three  classes:  cities,  towns  and  planta- 
tions. Augiista  is  the  capital  of  the  state.  Portland, 
the  largest  city  in  the  state,  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful residential  cities  in  the  whole  country.  Maine  has 
21  cities,  430  towns,  and  73  plantations. 

Religion. — ^The  declaration  of  rights  prefixed  t© 
the  Constitution  of  Maine,  article  1,  section  3,  reads  a£ 
follows: — "All  men  have  a  natural  and  unalienable 
right  to  worship  God  according  to  the  dictates  of  their 
own  consciences^  and  no  one  shall  be  hurt,  molested  or 
restrained,  in  his  person,  liberty  or  estate,  for  wor- 
shipping God  in  the  manner  and  season  most  agreeable 
to  the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience,  nor  for  his  reli- 
gious professions  or  sentiments,  provided  he  does  not 
disturb  the  public  peace  nor  obstruct  others  in  their 
religious  worship;  and  all  persons  demeaning  them- 
selves peaceably  as  good  members  of  the  state  shall  be 
equally  under  the  protection  of  the  laws  and  no  sub- 
oixlination  nor  preference  of  anyone  sect  or  denomina- 
tion to  another  sliall  ever  be  established  by  law,  nor 
shall  any  religious  test  be  required  as  a  qualification 
for  any  office  or  trust  under  the  state;  and  all  religious 
societies  in  this  state  whether  incorporate  or  unincor- 
porate  shall  at  all  times  have  the  exclusive  right  of 
electing  their  public  teachers  and  contracting  with 
them  for  their  support  and  maintenance."  The  fore- 
going is  the  only  constitutional  provision  having  refer- 
ence to  religious  opinions  or  practices. 

Lord's  Day. — ^Tne  statute  provides  penalties  for 
"whoever  on  the  Lord's  Day  or  at  any  other  time, 
behaves  rudely  or  indecently  within  the  walls  of  any 
house  of  public  worship;  wilfully  interrupts  or  dis- 
turbs any  assembly  for  public  worship  within  the  place 
of  such  assembly  or  out  of  it";  for  one  "who  on  the 
Lord's  Dav,  keeps  open  his  shop,  workhouse,  ware- 
house or  place  ot  business  on  that  day,  except  works 
of  necessity  or  charity  " ;  for  an  innholder  or  victualler 
who,  "  on  the  Lord's  Day,  suffers  any  person,  except 
travellers  or  lodgers  to  abide  in  his  house,  vard  or  field, 
drinking  or  spending  their  time  idly  at  play,  or  doing 
any  secular  business  except  works  of  charity  or  neces- 
sity. "  "  No  person  conscientiously  believing  that  the 
seventh  day  of  the  week  ought  to  be  observed  as  the 
Sabbath,  and  actually  refraining  from  secular  business 
and  labour  on  that  day,  is  liable  to  said  penalties  for  do- 
ing such  business  or  labour  on  the  first  day  of  the  week, 
if  he  does  not  disturb  other  persons."  Service  of  civil 
process  on  the  Lord's  Day  is  also  forbidden,  and,  if  in 
tact  made,  is  void. 

Administration  of  Oaths. — Oaths  may  be  adminis- 
tered by  all  judges,  justices  of  the  peace,  and  notaries 
public  m  the  form  prescribed  by  statute  as  follows: 
the  person  to  whom  an  oath  is  administered  shall  hold 
up  his  right  hand,  unless  he  believes  that  an  oath  ad- 
ministered in  that  form  is  not  binding,  and  then  it  may 
be  administered  in  a  form  believed  by  him  to  be  bind- 
ing; one  believing  any  other  than  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion, may  be  sworn  according  to  the  ceremonies  of  his 
religion.  Persons  conscientiously  scrupulous  of  taking 
an  oath  may  affirm. 

Blasphemy  and  Profanity. — ^The  statutes  provide 
that  "whoever  blasphemes  the  Holy  Name  of  God,  by 
denying,  cursing  or  contumeliously  reproaching  God, 
His  creation,  government,  final  judgment  of  the  work), 
Jesus  Christ,  the  Holy  Gnost,  or  the  Holy  Scriptures 
as  contained  in  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  or  by  exposing  them  to  contempt  and 
ridicule,  shall  be  punislied  by  imprisonment  for  not 


BCAINB 


544 


BCAINB 


more  thaa  two  years  or  by  fine  not  exceeding  two  hun- 
dred dollars  ".  A  fine  of  five  dollars  is  provided  for  one 
who  "  profanely  curses  or  swears. " 

Use  of  Prayer  in  Legislature. — ^There  is  no  statute  on 
this  subject,  but  since  Maine  became  a  state  it  has 
been  customary  for  the  president  of  the  senate  and  the 
speaker  of.  the  house  of  representatives  to  invite  in 
turn  the  several  clergvmen  of  Augusta,  Hallowell,  and 
Gardiner,  to  open  each  day's  session  in  their  respective 
branches  with  prayer.  Until  some  twenty  years  ago, 
Protestant  clergymen  alone  were  invited,  but  since 
that  time  Catholic  priests  are  invited  and  officiate  in 
their  turn. 

Recognition  of  Rdigious  Holidays. — ^The  statutes 
provide  that  "no  person  shall  be  arrested  in  a  civil 
action,  or  mesne  process  or  execution  or  on  a  warrant 
for  taxes,  on  the  day  of  annual  fast  or  thanksgiving, 
the  thirtieth  dav  of  May,  the  fourth  day  of  July,  or 
Christmas. ''  The  Legislature  of  1907  passed  an  act 
abolishing  the  annual  fast  day  and  substituting  Pa- 
triots' Day  therefor. 

Seal  of  Confession, — ^There  is  no  record  of  any  at- 
tempt to  obtain  from  any  priest  information  acquired 
by  him  through  the  confessional,  by  any  tribunal  of 
this  state  or  by  any  one  practising  falefore  the  same. 

Incorporation  of  Churches. — ^The  statutes  provide 
that  "  any  persons  of  lawful  age,  desirous  of  becoming 
an  incorporated  parish  or  religious  society,  may  apply 
to  a  justice  of  the  peace",  and  full  provision  is  made 
for  their  incorporation  into  a  parish,  and  further  that 
"  every  parish  may  take  by  gift  or  purchase  any  real  or 
personal  property,  until  the  clear  annual  income 
thereof  shall  amount  to  three  thousand  dollars,  convev 
the  same  and  establish  by-laws  not  repugnant  to  law. " 
By  Act  of  the  Legislature  approved  27  February,  1887, 
the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Portland  was  created  a 
corporation  sole. 

Exemption  of  Church  Property  from  Tcixation, — ^The 
statutes  provide  that  "houses  of  religious  worship, 
including  vestries  and  the  pews  and  furniture  withm 
the  same,  except  for  parochial  purposes;  tombs  and 
tights  of  burial;  and  property  held  b>[  a  religious 
society  as  a  parsonage,  not  exceeding  six  thousand 
dollars  in  value  and  from  which  no  rent  is  received, 
are  exempt  from  taxation.  But  all  other  property  of 
liny  reli^ous  society,  both  real  and  personal,  is  liable 
to  taxation,  the  same  as  other  property." 

Exemption  of  Clergy  from  certain  Public  Duties. — 
Settled  ministers  of  the  gospel  are  exempt  by  statute 
Ifrom  serving  as  jurors,  and  by  the  constitution '  minis- 
ters'  are  among  those  entitled  to  be  exempted  from 
military  duty. 

Marriage  and  Divorce. — ^The  statutes  provide  that 
•'every  justice  of  the  peace,  residing  in  the  State;  every 
drdained  minister  of  the  gospel  and  every  person 
hcensed  to  preach  by  an  association  of  ministers,  re- 
ligious seminary  or  ecclesiastical  body,  duly  appointed 
and  commissioned  for  that  purpose  by  the  governor, 
may  solemnize  marriages  within  the  hmits  of  his  ap- 
pointment. Jhe  governor  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  Council,  may  appoint  women  otherwise  eligible 
under  the  constitution  to  solemnize  marriages."  An- 
other section  safeguards  the  rights  of  those  contract- 
ing marriage  in  good  faith  by  making  it  valid,  al- 
though not  solemnized  in  legal  form,  and  although 
there  may  be  a  want  of  jurisdiction  or  authority  in 
the  justice  or  minister  performing  the  ceremony. 

The  statutory  grounds  for  divorce  are  prescribed 
in  the  following  section:  "A  divorce  from  the  bonds 
of  matrimony  may  be  decreed  by  the  Supreme  Judi- 
cial Court  in  the  Coimty  where  either  party  resides  at 
the  commencement  of  procedings  for  cause  of  adul- 
tery, impotence,  extreme  cruelty,  utter  desertion 
continuea  for  three  consecutive  years  next  prior  to 
the  filing  of  the  libel,  gross  and  confirmed  habits  of 
intoxication,  cruel  and  abusive  treatment,  or,  on  the 
libel  of  the  wife,  where  the  husband  being  of  sufficient 


ability,  grossly  or  wantonly  and  cruelly  refuses  Of 
neglects  to  provide  suitable  maintenance  for  her; 
provided  that  the  parties  were  married  in  this  state 
or  cohabited  here  after  marriage;  or  if  the  libellant 
resided  here  when  the  cause  of  cQvorce  accrued  or  had 
resided  here  in  good  faith  for  one  year  prior  to  t^e 
commencement  of  the  proceedings.  But  when  both 
parties  have  been  guilty  of  adulteiy,  or  there  is  col- 
lusion between  them  to  procure  a  divorce,  it  shall  not 
be  granted."    Either  party  may  be  a  witness. 

Education. — ^The  law  makes  liberal  and  ample 
provision  for  a  system  of  common  schools  covering 
the  entire  state.  The  number  of  school  children  in 
the  state  according  to  the  report  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent for  the  year  1909  was  212,329,  and  the 
amount  expended  for  school  purposes  was  $2,368,890. 
The  statutes  relating  to  public  schools  contain  no 
reference  to  religion  or  religious  teaching.  Free  high 
schoob  are  encouraged  by  reimbursing  any  town 
establishing  one  a  certain  proportion  of  the  amount 
expended  in  connexion  therewith.  Such  schools  have 
been  established  in  all  of  the  cities  and  in  more  than 
half  of  the  towns,  and  scholars  from  other  towns  are 
admitted  without  charge  for  tuition,  the  amount  being 
chaiged  to  the  town  in  which  thev  reside.  Under  the 
heacT of  normal  schools  we  find  the  following  statute: 
**  Said  schools,  while  teaching  the  fundamental  truUis 
of  Christianity  and  the  great  principles  of  morality, 
recognized  by  law,  shall  be  free  from  all  denomina- 
tional teachings  and  open  to  persons  of  different  re- 
ligious connections  on  terms  of  equaUty."  The  higher 
education  is  furnished  by  the  University  of  Maine  at 
Orono;  Bowdoin  College  at  Brunswick;  Bates  College 
at  Lewis  ton;  Colby  College  at  Water  ville;  St.  Mary^s 
College  at  Van  Buren.  Concerning  the  Catholic 
schools,  which  are  attended  by  12,274  pupils,  see 
Portland,  Diocese  of. 

Charitable  Institutions. — The  statutes  provide 
a  method  of  organizing  charitable  societies,  and  there 
is  also  a  provision  exempting  them  from  taxation. 
''The  real  and  personal  property  of  all  literary  insti- 
tutions, and  all  benevolent,  charitable  and  scientific 
institutions  incorporated  by  the  state,  corporations 
whose  property  or  funds  in  excess  of  their  ordinary 
expenses  are  held  for  the  relief  of  the  sick,  the  poor 
or  the  distressed,  or  of  widows  and  orphans,  or  to  bury 
the  dead,  are  benevolent  and  charitable  institutions 
within  the  meaning  of  this  specification,  without  re- 
gard to  the  sources  from  whicn  such  funds  are  derived, 
or  the  limitations  in  the  classes  of  persons  for  whose 
benefit  they  are  applied,  except  that  so  much  of  the 
real  estate  of  such  corporations  as  is  not  occupi^  bj 
them  for  their  own  purposes,  shall  be  taxed  in  the 
municipality  in  which  it  is  situated." 

Sale  of  Liquor. — On  the  first  Wednesday  of  Jan- 
uary, 1885,  the  following  provision  became  a  part  of 
the  constitution:  *'The  manufacture  of  intoxicating 
liquors,  not  including  cider,  and  the  sale  and  keeping 
for  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors,  are  and  shall  be  for- 
ever prohibited,  except,  however,  that  the  sale  and 
keeping  for  sale  of  such  liquors  for  medicinal  and 
mechanical  purposes  and  the  arts  and  the  sale  and 
keeping  for  sale  of  cider,  may  l)e  permitted  under  such 
regulations  as  the  legislature  may  provide.  The  leg- 
islature shall  enact  laws  with  suitable  penalties  for  the 
suppression  of  the  manufacture,  sale  and  keeping  for 
sale  of  intoxicating  liquors,  with  the  exceptions  hereic 
specified.'' 

Prohibitory  Legislation. — Beginning  with  21  June, 
1851,  the  date  of  the  approval  of  the  first  act,  the 
legi^ture  has  passed  fifty-six  acts  intended  to  pre- 
vent the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  The  law  in  its 
§  resent  state  covers  twenty  pages  of  the  Revised 
tatutes  and  is  in  substance  as  toUows:  (1)  A  law  pro- 
hibiting the  manufacture  or  sale  by  any  one  of  such 
intoxicating  liquors  (except  cider);  (2)  prohibiting 
peddling  intoxicating  liquors;  (3)  against  the  trana- 


MAXm 


645 


MAIMS 


portation  from  place  to  place  of  intoxicating  liquors 
with  intent  to  sell;  (4)  prohibiting  any  sale  of  intox- 
icating liquors  by  self,  clerk,  servant,  or  agent;  (5) 
to  punish  the  offence  of  being  a  conunon  seller;  (6)  to 
punish  the  keeping  of  a  drinicing  house  and  tippling 
shop;  (7)  against  keeping  intoxicating  liquors  in  one's 
possession  mtended  for  unlawful  sale;  (8)  a  law  pro- 
viding for  a  search  and  seizure  of  intoxicating  lic^uors 
intended  for  unlawful  sale,  and  for  their  forfeiture; 
(9)  against  advertising  sale  or  keeping  for  sale  of  in- 
toxicating liquors  in  newspapers.  The  penalties 
range,  according  to  the  gravity  of  the  offence,  from  a 
fine  of  fifty  doUiars  and  costs  to  a  fine  of  $1000  and 
costs,  and  imprisonment  from  thirty  days  to  six 
months.  For  a  second  or  subsequent  offence  the  pen- 
alties are  to  be  increased.  Formerly  the  duty  of  en- 
forcing the  prohibitory  law  rested  upon  certain  county 
officers,  such  as  the  sheriff  and  his  deputies  and  the 
county  attorney,  and  upon  certain  municipal  officers. 
In  addition  to  these,  by  act  approved  on  18  March, 
1905,  the  governor  was  authorized  to  appoint  a  com- 
mission of  three  persons,  who  in  turn  may  appoint 
such  number  of  deputies  as  in  their  judgment  may 
be  necessary  to  enforce  the  laws  against  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors. 

State  and  Town  Agencies. — A  ^te  agency  exists  "to 
furnish  municipal  officers  of  towns  and  cities  with  pure, 
unadulterated  mtoxicating  liquors  to  be  kept  and  sold 
for  medicinal,  mechanical  and  manufacturing  pur- 
poses'*. The  municipal  officers  are  authorized  U>  ap- 
point ''some  suitable  person,  agent  of  said  town  or 
city",  who  is  authorized  to  purchase  liquors  from  the 
state  agent  and  "  to  sell  the  same^  at  some  convenient 
place  therein,  to  be  used  for  medicmal,  mechanical  and 
manufacturing  purposes  and  no  other."  "No  such 
agent  shall  have  any  interest  in  such  liquors  or  in  the 
profits  of  the  sale  thereof." 

Prisons  and  Reformatories. — ^Thcre  is  a  state 
prison  located  at  Thomaston,  the  Reform  School  be- 
ing situated  at  Cape  Elizabeth.  There  is  a  county  iail 
in  each  county  except  Piscataquis,  which  uses  the  Pe- 
nobscot jail  at  Bangor,  and  every  citv  and  large  town 
has  its  police  station  or  lock-up.  There  is  also  the 
Industrial  School  for  Girls  at  Hallowell. 

Wills  and  Testaments. — ^The  statutes  provide 
that  "  a  person  of  sound  mind  and  of  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years,  may  dispose  of  his  real  and  personal 
estate  by  will  m  writing  signed  hy  him,  or  by  some 
person  for  him  at  his  request  and  m  his  presence,  and 
subscribed  in  his  presence  by  three  credible  attesting 
witnesses  not  beneficially  interested  under  said  will. 

Charitable  Bequests, — ^There  is  no  statute  on  this 
subject,  but  a  bequest,  for  any  purpose  not  against 
public  policy,  will  be  sustained,  provided  there  be  a 
person  or  persons  or  corporation  empowered  to  accept 
and  receive  the  same. 

Cemeteries. — ^The  statutes  provide  as  follows: 
"Section  1.  Towns  may  raise  and  assess  money,  nec- 
essary for  purchasing  and  suitably  fencing  land  for  a 
burying  ground.  Section  2.  Persons  of  lawful  age 
may  incorporate  themselves  for  the  purpose  of  pur- 
chasing land  for  a  burying  ground."  Another  section 
requires  that  ancient  cemeteries  belonging  to  anv 
town,  parish,  or  religious  society  shall  be  fenced; 
still  another  exempts  lots  in  pubuc  or  private  ceme- 
teries from  attachments  and  levy  on  execution. 

HisTORY.-j-So  conspicuous  were  the  islands  and  the 
coast  of  Maine,  that  it  is  beyond  question  that  they 
were  known  to  nearly  all  of  the  early  explorers.  In 
990  Biame  sailed  from  Iceland  for  Greenland  and, 
driven  by  storms  from  his  course,  discovered  an  un- 
known land  to  the  south,  covered  with  forests.  The 
account  of  his  voyage  leads  one  to  believe  that  he 
passed  in  sight  of  the  Maine  coast.  After  him  came 
other  Northmen;  the  sons  of  Eric  the  Red  sucoe^ 
sively  made  voyages  to  the  coast  of  New  England, 
Leif  in  1000,  Thorwald  in  1002,  <SDd  Thomstein  in 
IX.— 35 


1004.  The  last  named  came  in  search  of  the  body  of 
hb  brother  Thorwald,  slain  in  battle  by  the  natives 
in  the  vicinity  of  what  is  now  Boston  Harbour;  he 
remained  through  the  winter,  returning  in  1005. 
After  these  atmc  Thorfinn  Karlsefne  in  1006;  Thor- 
hall  the  hunter  in  1008,  who  beyond  question  was 
actually  upon  the  coast  of  Maine,  and  Thorfinn  Karl- 
sefne, who  came  again  in  1009  in  search  of  Thorhall  the 
hunter,  but  probably  did  not  quite  reach  the  coast  of 
Maine.  Durmg  the  period  which  elapsed  until  the  time 
of  Columbus  (1492),  while  many  voyages  were  made 
from  Denmark  and  Iceland  to  "vineland",  which 
comprised  the  coast  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire, 
and  to  Markland,  which  was  identical  with  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  of  to-day,  there  is  no  cer- 
tainty that  any  of  the  vessels  of  the  Northmen  landed 
on  the  coast  of  Maine  proper.  The  prevailing  opinion 
was  that  this  region  formed  a  part  of  Europe,  and  it 
is  so  set  down  in  the  maps  of  that  period.  Later  it 
was  believed  to  be  a  part  of  Asia.  Columbus  in  voy- 
aging westward  was  in  search  of  a  passage  to  India. 

The  first  voyage  of  John  Cabot  and  his  son  Sebas- 
tian in  1497,  in  which  the  land  of  North  America  was 
observed,  left  them  under  the  impression  that  it  was 
the  coast  of  Eastern  Asia.  In  1498  Sebastian  Cabot 
passed  along  the  entire  length  of  the  coast  of  Maine 
going  and  returning.  Then  for  the  first  time  and  to 
his  disappointment,  Sebastian  Cabot  discovered  that 
this  land  stood  as  an  apparently  impassable  barrier 
between  him  and  "far-off  Cathay".  In  1624  the 
Italian,  Verrazano,  for  the  French  Government,  ex- 
plored the  coast  bordering  "on  the  gulf  of  Maine", 
and  describes  it  very  minutely.  In  1525  Estevan 
Gomez,  in  behalf  of  the  Spanish  Government,  made  a 
voyage  to  the  New  World,  and  entered  many  of  the 
ports  and  bays  of  New  England.  For  a  long  time 
afterwards,  the  territory  of  which  Maine  forms  a  part 
was  known  on  Spanish  maps  as  the  "Country  of 
Gomez".  In  1527  John  Rut,  on  an  English  vessel, 
visited  the  coast,  being  the  first  Englishman  to  set 
foot  upon  American  soil.  It  was  at  this  time  that 
the  territory  of  Maine  became  known  as  Norupa- 
be^,  called  after  an  imaginary  city  located  in  the  in- 
tenor  on  the  banks  of  the  Penobscot.  All  of  these  ex- 
peditions were  sent  out  in  the  hope  of  discovering  a 
north-west  passage  to  India.  In  1541  Diego  Maldo- 
nado  visited  the  coast  of  Maine.  He  was  in  charge  of 
a  Spanish  expedition  sent  out  in  search  of  Ferdinand 
De  Soto,  who  had  explored  the  southern  coast  of 
North  America  to  take  possession  of  it  for  the  Span- 
ish Government. 

In  1556  Andr^  Thevet,  a  passenger  on  board  a 
French  vessel,  landed  with  others  on  the  banks  of  the 
Penobscot.  This  traveller  has  ^yen  a  very  complete 
and  interesting  account  of  his  visit.  In  1565  Sir  John 
Hawkins  explored  the  coast,  and  Sir  Humphrey  Gil- 
bert perished  on  the  way  to  establish  an  English 
colony  at  Norumbega  on  the  Penobscot.  In  1602 
Bartholomew  Gosnoid  appears  to  have  landed  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  city  of  Portland,  and  in  1603  Martin 
Pring  entered  Pi  nobscot  Bay,  the  mouth  of  the  Ken- 
nebec, and  Casco  Bay. 

The  first  attempt  at  founding  a  colony  within  the 
territory  of  Bifaine  was  made  by  Pierre  du  Guast, 
Sieur  de  Monte,  who,  having  received  authority  from 
Henrv  IV  of  France  in  1603  to  colonize  "Acadia"-, 
by  wnich  was  meant  all  of  the  territory  between  the 
fortieth  and  fifty-sixth  degrees  of  north  latitude, 
sailed  from  Havre  in  company  with  the  still  more 
famous  Samuel  de  Champlain  m  the  spring  of  1604, 
with  two  vessels  carrying  one  hundred  and  twenty 
persons.  After  stopping  at  several  places,  among 
others  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  which  he  named  and 
which  is  still  known  as  the  St.  John,  he  sailed  into 
Passamaquoddy  Bay,  as  it  is  now  called,  up  the  9t. 
Croix  River,  as  he  named  it,  and  landed  on  an  island 
to  which  he  gave  the  same  name.   This  is  now  known 


MAIMB 


546 


MAIMB 


t0  De  Monts  Is]and,  and  is  within  the  limits  of  the 
parish  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  which  includes 
the  citv  of  Calais.  Here,  in  a  small  chapel,  quickly 
erectecf,  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  was  offered  for 
the  first  time  on  the  soil  of  New  England  by  Rev. 
Nicholas  Aubry  of  Paris  in  July,  1604.  From  this 
little  colony  the  Gospel  spread  amon^  the  Indians,  the 
Abenakis  being  the  first  on  the  continent  to  embrace 
the  Faith;  this  they  did  in  a  body,  and  they  have 
ttood  steadfast  in  the  Faith  to  this  aay.  The  colony 
was  transferred  near  the  close  of  the  following  year  to 
a  new  location  at  Port  Royal  on  Annapolis  Bay.  In 
July,  1605,  Captain  George  Weymouth  landed  on  the 
ooaist  of  Maine  within  the  limits  of  the  town  of  St. 
George. 

On  10  April,  1606,  James  I  of  England  grated  a 
charter,  called  the  Charter  of  Virginia,  providing  for 
two  colonies,  one  between  the  thirty-fourth  and 
thirty-eighth  and  the  other  between  the  forty-first 
and  forty-fifth  degrees  of  latitude,  the  latter  including 
flubstantiallv  the  whole  of  the  Maine  coast,  and  extend- 
ing a  considerable  distance  into  the  interior.  Under 
this  charter  a  small  colony  was  established  in  1607 
on  the  peninsula  of  Sagadahoc  on  the  spot  now  com- 
memorated by  Fort  Popham.  This  settlement  ap- 
pears to  have  been  broken  up.  It  was  renewed,  how- 
ever, after  a  few  years  andf  has  continued  down  to 
the  present  time.  These  settlements,  the  one  made 
by  De  Monts  on  St.  Croix  Island,  and  that  made  at 
lort  Popham,  have  formed  respectivelv  the  basis  of 
the  claim  made  by  the  French  and  the  English  to 
tiie  territory  of  Maine — a  controversy  long,  and  bit- 
ter, and  bloody,  in  which  the  religious  element  was 
ever  present.  The  French  king  claimed  as  far  west 
as  the  Kennebec;  the  English  claimed  as  far  east 
as  the  present  line  of  the  state.  The  English  oc- 
cupancy spread  from  the  mouth  of  the  Sagadahoc 
in  ooth  directions,  so  that  in  1614,  when  Captain  John 
Smith  visited  the  coast,  he  found  a  few  settlers  on  the 
island  of  Monhegan  and  around  Pemaquid  Bay.  The 
history  of  the  English  settlement  from  1616  until 
1677  consists  of  the  doings  of  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges, 
his  son  Robert,  and  his  nephew.  Ferdinando  Gorges 
in  1622  received  from  the  English  kin^  a  patent  of  the 
land  between  the  Merrimac  and  the  Kennebec,  and  in 
^e  next  year  sent  his  son  Robert  as  governor  and 
lieutenant-general  of  the  Province  of  Maone.  He  was 
accompanied  by  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  England 
and  several  councillors.  The  first  court  was  con- 
vened tst  Saco  on  21  March,  1636.  In  1639  he  received 
a  charter  which  made  of  the  Province  of  Maine  a  pal- 
atinate of  which  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  was  lord  pala- 
tine. This  is  the  only  instance  of  a  purely  feudal 
possession  on  the  American  continent.  In  1641  the 
first  chartered  city  in  the  United  States,  Gorgiana, 
now  York,  was  established.  In  that  period  (1630-2) 
settlements  were  begun  in  Saco,  Biddeford,  Scarboro, 
Gape  Elizabeth,  and  Portland,  which  progressed  fairly 
well  until  the  Indian  war  in  1675,  during  which  they 
were  almost  destroyed. 

In  1677  Massachusetts  purchased  the  interest  of  the 
Gorges  in  the  Province  of  Maine,  and  in  1691  it  be- 
came definitively  part  of  "The  Royal  Province  of 
Massachusetts  Bay'',  and  so  continued  until  1820. 
The  Maine  men  in  the  Revolutionary  War  were  reck- 
oned as  Massachusetts  troops,  and  a  r^^ent  of 
Maine  men  fought  at  Bunker  WU.  The  first  naval 
battle  was  that  at  Machias,  in  which  Jeremiah  O'Brien 
and  his  five  sons  captured  the  British  ship,  Marga- 
retta  (11  July,  1775).  The  French  occupancy  con- 
sisted of  a  few  missions,  the  principal  being  the  one  at 
Pentagoet  (Castine)  on  the  Penobscot  and  another 
at  Narantsouac  (Norridgewock)  on  the  Kennebec. 
Hie  history  of  the  Frencn  occupancy  is  accordingly 
the  history  of  the  Catholic  missions.  In  1611  Jean  de 
Biencourt,  Sieur  de  Poutrincourt,  having  succeeded 
to  the  title  of  De  Monts,  landed  on  an  idand  at  the 


mouth  of  the  Kennebec.  He  was  accompanied 
among  others  by  Father  Biard.  This  is  believed  to 
have  oeen  the  second  nlace  in  Maine  in  which  the 
Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  was  celebrated.  In  1613 
another  attempt  was  made  at  founding  a  Catholic 
colony  on  the  coast.  Antoinette  de  Pons,  Aiarchioness 
de  Guercheville,  sent  out  imder  the  command  of 
Sieur  de  la  Saussaye  an  expedition  which  sailed  from 
France  on  12  March,  1613,  and  landed  on  the  south- 
eastern shore  of  Mount  Desert.  Here  the  missionaries 
planted  a  cross,  celebrated  Mass,  and  gave  the  place 
the  name  of  St.  Sau  veur.  This  settlement  was  destined 
to  be  short-lived.  Captain  Samuel  Argall  from  Vir- 
ginia, in  a  small  man-of-war,  attacked  the  colony, 
took,  and  destroyed  it.  Father  Masse,  with  fourteen 
Frenchmen,  was  set  adrift  in  a  small  boat,  and  the 
others  were  carried  prisoners  to  Virginia.  Soon  after, 
the  governor  of  Virginia  sent  Argall  to  destroy  the 
remnant  of  the  St.  Croix  and  Port  Royal  colonies, 
which  he  did,  burning  such  buildings  as  had  been 
erected. 

In  1619  the  Recollects  of  the  Franciscan  Order  were 
given  charge  of  the  territory,  which  included  Nova 
Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  Maine.  Tliey  ministered 
to  the  spiritual  wants  of  Indians  and  whites  alike,  and 
so  continued  in  charge  imtil  the  year  1630.  The  Capu- 
chins, another  branch  of  the  Franciscan  Order,  suc- 
ceeded them  three  years  later.  .From  Port  RoyaJ  as  a 
centre,  they  had  missions  as  far  as  the  Penobscot  and 
the  Kennebec,  the  principal  one  in  Maine  being  that  at 
Pentagoet  on  the  Penobscot.  In  1646,  at  the  request 
of  the  Indians  of  the  Kennebec,  the  superior  ot  the 
Jesuit  mission  in  Canada  sent  Father  Gabriel  Druil- 
lettes,  who  founded  the  mission  of  the  Assumption. 
He  returned  to  Quebec  the  following  year,  but  in  1650 
was  back  at  his  post,  being  stationed  at  Norridgewock. 
He  appears  to  have  liv^  alternately  there  and  at 
Quebec  until  1657,  when  he  returned  finally  to  Que- 
bec. The  Capuchin  mission  at  Pentagoet  was  broken 
up  about  this  time  by  an  expedition  sent  by  Cromwell, 
and  the  missionary.  Very  Rev.  Bemadine  de  Crespy, 
was  carried  off  to  England.  In  1667,  Pentagoet  hav- 
ing been  restored  to  France  by  the  Treaty  of  Breda, 
Catholic  worship  was  restored.  Rev.  Lawrence  Molin, 
a  Franciscan,  was  placed  in  charge,  and  from  this 
point  visited  all  the  stations  in  the  state.  The  Baron 
ae  Castine,  from  whom  Castine  (Pentagoet)  derives  its 
name,  was  a  strong  supporter  of  this  mission  at  this 
period.  After  Famer  Molin  came  Father  Morain  in 
1677  to  minister  to  the  Penobscots  and  Passama- 
quoddies.  In  1684  Rev.  Louis  P.  Thury  was  sent  by 
Bishop  Laval,  and  settled  at  Castine.  In  1688  he 
built  the  church  of  St.  Ann  at  Panawaniski  (Indian 
for  Oldtown),  which  exists  to  this  day  and  is  the  old- 
est parish  in  New  England.  Baron  de  Castine  appears 
to  have  been  the  chief  promoter  of  this  church,  and 
also  offered  to  maintain  the  missionary  at  his  own  ex- 

E3.  The  baron  had  married  the  daughter  of  the 
more  Modockewando.  About  1701  he  returned 
■ance;  but  his  half-breed  son,  Anselme,  Baron  de 
Castine,  was  long  a  prominent  figure  in  the  wars  which 
were  continually  waged  between  the  French  and  their 
Indian  allies  and  the  New  Englanders,  representing 
British  interests.  In  the  same  year  (1668)  Father 
James  Bigot  built  a  chapel  at  Norridgewock.  His 
tMX)ther,  Rev.  Vincent  Bigot,  also  served  the  mission 
for  some  little  tiire,  leaving  it  in  1699.  Besides  these, 
and  during  the  same  pericd,  the  Jesuit  fathers,  Peter 
Joseph  de  la  Chasse,  Julien  Binnetau,  and  Joseph  Au- 
bery,  served  the  missions  in  Maine.  Rev.  Jacques 
Alexis  de  Fleury  d'Eschambault  succeeded  Father 
Thury,  who  had  oeen  called  elsewhere.  Father  d'Es- 
chambault  died  in  1698,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rev. 
Philip  Rageot  and  Rev.  Father  Guay  until  1701,  and 
by  Rev.  Anthonv  Gaulin  until  1703.  Rev.  Sebastian 
Kale  was  also  located  at  Norridgewock  during  the 
same  period,  and  continued  there  for  thirty  yeans. 


MAIKB 


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MAINE 


In  1704-5  expeditions  were  sent  from  Massachusetts 
to  destroy  the  mission  stations  in  Maine.  Those  on 
the  Penobscot  were  ravaged,  and  the  church  and  all 
of  the  wigwams  were  burned.  In  1722  another  expe- 
dition sent  out  by  the  Governor  of  Massachusetts 
burned  the  church  on  the  Penobscot.  The  same  ex- 
pedition in  January,  1722,  had  proceeded  to  Norridge- 
wock  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  or  killing  Father 
Rale.  On  this  occasion,  being  warned  in  time,  he  and 
his  flock  escaped  by  taking  to  the  woods.  At  last  the 
end  came.  The  frequent  attempts,  all  more  or  less 
successful,  to  destroy  the  Maine  mission  stations, 
forced  the  Indians  to  prepare  to  defend  themselves. 
After  several  battles  between  the  Massachusetts 
forces  with  their  Indian  allies  and  the  Indians  of  the 
Kennebec,  a  small  force  attacked  the  village  of  Nor- 
ridgewock  on  23  August,  1724.  Father  Rale,  well 
knowing  that  he  was  the  one  whose  life  was  sought, 
and  apparently  anxious  to  divert  the  attack  from  his 
people,  went  forth  to  meet  the  enemy  and  fell 
pierced  by  many  bullets.  After  the  death  of  Father 
Rale,  the  only  missionaries  in  Maine  appear  to  have 
been  Fathers  De  Syresm  and  Lanverjat,  and  these 
remained  only  until  1731.  In  1730  a  chapel  had  been 
erected  on  the  Kennebec,  but  for  fifty  years  or  more 
the  Indians  had  to  content  themselves  with  occa- 
sional pilgrimages  to  certain  places  in  Canada,  notably 
Becancour  ana  St.  Francis  on  the  Chaudidre  River. 
They  were  occasionally  visited  by  Father  Charles 
Germain  from  St.  Anne's  mission,  now  Fredericton, 
New  Brunswick.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  the  Abenakis  having  taken  the  side  of 
the  patriots,  all  persecution  for  religious  or  other 
reasons  ceased,  and  the  General  Council  of  Massachu- 
setts desired  to  furnish  them  a  priest,  but  were  unable 
to  obtain  -one  at  that  time.  At  the  close  of  the  war. 
Rev.  Father  Ciquard,  a  Sulpician,  was  sent  to  Old- 
town  and  remained  there  until  1794,  whence  he  went 
to  Fredericton. 

The  foundation  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Maine 
practically  dates  from  the  arrival  of  Father  (after- 
wards Bishop)  Cheverus  from  Boston  in  July,  1797,  to 
take  charge  of  the  two  Indian  missions  at  Pleasant 
Point.  The  few  white  Catholics  scJattered  here  and 
there  claimed  his  attention  equally  with  the  red 
men.  The  progress  made  was  slow,  but  on  17  July, 
1808,  he  had  the  satisfaction  of  dedicating  St.  Pat- 
rick's church  at  Damariscotta.  Fully  two-thirds  of  its 
cost  had  been  contributed  by  two  gentlemen  partners 
in  business,  Messrs.  Kavanagh  and  Cottrill.  it  is  a  re- 
markable circumstance  that  the  two  most  distinguished 
Catholic  laymen  of  the  past  century  in  Maine  were 
of  their  descendants.  Edward  Kayana^,  son  of  the 
senior  partner,  represented  his  native  district  in  the 
twenty-second  and  twenty-third  congresses,  and  after 
his  second  term  was  appointed  by  President  Jackson 
minister  to  Portugal.  In  1842  he  was  elected  to  the 
state  senate,  and  was  chosen  president  of  that  body. 
Governor  Fairfield  having  been  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate,  Kavanagh  became  acting  governor. 
A  monument  to  the  sterUng  Catholic  principles  of  the 
Kavanagh  family,  exists  in  the  splendid  "  Kavanagh 
School ",  wliich  stands  near  the  cathedral  in  Portland, 
erected  with  means  contributed  by  a  sister  of  the 

fovernor.  James  C.  Madigan  (b.  in  Damariscotta,  22 
uly,  1821;  d,  in  Houlton,  16  October,  1879)  was  the 
grandson  of  Matthew  Cottrill.  He  was  sent  by  Gov- 
ernor Ivavanagh  to  establish  schools  in  the  Madawaska 
territory  in  1843,  and  made  his  home  for  a  number  of 
years  at  Fort  Kent.  He  later  removed  to  Houlton, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days.  He  was  the 
most  conspicuous  Catholic  In  New  England  for  many 
ye&n.  A  gentleman  of  noble  presence,  of  rare  cul- 
ture, elegant  manners,  and  high  character,  he  was 
well  fitted  to  adorn  the  highest  office  in  the  land. 
He  Was  one  of  the  five  members  of  the  commission  ap- 
pointed in  1875  by  Governor  Dingey  to  revise  tne 


constitution  of  the  state.  He  was  an  able  and 
learned  lawyer,  and  an  eloquent  and  powerful  advo- 
cate. He  was  a  devout  Catholic  and  probably  no  lay- 
man in  the  entire  country  in  his  time  stood  so  high  m 
the  estimation  of  the  clergy.  At  Whitefield,  Rev. 
Denis  Ryan  being  pastor,  a  church  was  built  and  dedi- 
cated in  June,  1822.  Rev.  Benedict  Joseph  Fenwick 
having  been  chosen  to  succeed  Bishop  Cheverus,  who 
had  returned  to  France,  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Boston  on  1  Nov.,  1825.  During  his  government 
of  the  Diocese  of  Boston,  St.  Dominic's  church  in 
Portland  was  built,  and  was  dedicated  on  11  August, 
1833.  In  1834  Bishop  Fenwick,  having  secured  a  half 
township  of  land  in  Aroostook  County,  established 
the  prosperous  Catholic  colony  of  Benedicta.  In 
1835  St.  Joseph's  Church  in  Eastport  was  dedicated; 
on  4  August,  i838,  one  in  Gardiner;  on  10  Nov.,  1839, 
St.  Michael's  in  Bangor. 

Knownothin^m.  —  The  growth  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Maine  and  New  Hampshire  was  such  that 
in  1853,  these  states  were  taken  out  of  the  Diocese  of 
Boston  to  form  the  Diocese  of  Portland.  On  22  April. 
1855,  Rev.  David  William  Bacon  was  consecratea 
bishop.  It  was  just  after  the  outbreak  of  Know- 
nothin^sm  which  resulted  in  the  tarring,  feathering, 
and  riding  on  a  rail  of  the  saintly  Father  John  Bap^ 
at  Ellsworth.  This  was  on  15  October,  1854.  On  the 
preceding  8  July,  the  Knownothings  had  burned  the 
church  at  Bath.  Subsequent  events  appear  to  justify 
the  belief  that  this  persecution  was  the  herald  of  the 
remarkable  growth  and  development  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Maine.  It  is  not  easy  to  foresee  to  what 
lengths  this  anti-Catholic  agitation  might  have  gone, 
had  not  events  of  national  importance  begun  to  loom 
on  the  horizon.  The  Civil  War,  in  which  so  many 
Catholics  of  Maine  and  of  all  parts  of  the  IJnion  took 

Eart,  and  so  many  greatly  distinguished  themselves 
y  their  courage  and  valour,  put  an  end  to  this  perse- 
cution— it  is  to  be  hoped,  for  ever.  An  attempt 
was  made  during  the  period  from  1890  to  1895  to 
establish  an  order  of  the  same  nature,  under  the  name 
of  the  "  American  Protective  Association  ",  but  it  soon 
died  a  fitting  death. 

Early  Catholic  Settlers. — The  State  of  Maine, 
although  settled  a  few  years  earlier  than  Massachusetts, 
is  peopled  for  the  most  part  by  inhabitants  who  claim 
descent  from  settlers  from  Massachusetts  and  other 
parts  of  New  England.  The  Catholics  of  Maine  are  of 
either  Irish  or  French  extraction,  the  French-Cana- 
dians and  Acadians  constituting  a  majority.  With 
the  possible  exception  of  a  few  Irishmen  to  be  found 
here  and  there  within  its  borders,  the  Acadians  were 
first  in  point  of  time.  At  the  period  of  the  exportatnon 
of  the  Acadians  from  Grand  Pr^  and  other  places  in 
Acadia,  a  few  escaped  and  formed  the  mission  of  St. 
Ann.  at,  above,  and  below  the  site  of  the  city  of 
Freaericton,  N.  B.  ^  Here  they  remained  until  the 
close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  and  the  arrival  of  the 
Loyalists,  otherwise  called  the  Tories.  Driven  out  of 
the  United  States  by  the  patriots,  these  latter  came 
to  the  St.  John  valley,  lanaing  in  the  city  of  St.  John 
about  11  May,  1783.  Compelled  to  yield  up  their 
possessions  to  the  new-comers,  the  Acadians  went  a 
second  time  into  exile,  and  settled  in  1784,  with  the 
consent  of  the  British  authorities,  on  the  upper  St. 
John,  oocupying  the  territory  now  included  in  Mada- 
waska County,  New  Brunswick,  and  so  much  of 
Aroostook  County  as  is  within  tne  St.  John  valley. 
Until  9  August,  1842,  the  date  of  the  Treaty  of  Wash- 
ington, both  sides  of  the  St.  John  were  under  British 
rule.  Hardly  had  the  Acadians  established  themselves 
in  their  new  homes,  before  they  were  visited  by  mis- 
sionaiy  priests,  espeHwally  by  Rev.  Father  Ciquart 
from  St.  Ann's  mission,  their  former  pastor,  ooon 
after,  in  1791  ^  they  applied  to  the  Bishop  of  Quebec 
for  leave  to  build  a  church;  the  church  of  ot.  Basil  was 
built  and  dedicated  on  7  July,  1793. 


MAIKB 


648 


MADfTSNON 


Rev.  Father  Paquet  was  in  charge  of  the  parish 
until  the  church  was  dedicated,  but  was  succeeded 
soon  afterwards  by  Father  Cicjuart,  whose  name  ap- 
pears in  the  parish  records  until  the  end  of  1798.  in 
1838  the  first  church  on  the  American  side  of  the  St. 
John  River,  St.  Bruno's  Church  in  Van  Buren,  was 
built,  and  Rev.  Antoine  Gosselin  appointed  its  first 
pastor.  At  this  time  that  region  was  in  the  Diocese 
of  Quebec;  after  1842  it  was  in  the  Diocese  of  St.  John, 
and  in  1870  it  became  portion  of  the  Diocese  of  Port- 
land. On  the  Maine  side  oi  the  St.  John  River  there 
are  at  present  eleven  churches,  a  college, seven  convents 
(six  with  schoob),  and  two  hospitals.  Soon  after  the 
Acadians  settled  in  this  region,  they  were  joined  by  a 
few  Canadians  from  the  province  of  Quebec,  and  a 
few  Irish  immigrants.  The  population  to-day  is  made 
up  for  the  most  part  of  Acauians  and  Canadians  in 
about  equal  proportions.  By  the  year  1800  there  was 
a  fair  sprinkling  of  Irish  immigrants  within  the  bor- 
ders, and  they  continued  to  arrive  at  intervals  and  in 
Bmall  numbers  during  the  greater  part  of  the  past 
century.  Probably  the  period  of  the  Irish  famine  of 
1847  would  mark  the  date  of  the  coming  of  the  larger 
number.  ThQ  Canadians  came,  for  the  most  part,  to 
the  manufacturing  centres  during  the  building  up  of 
the  manufacturing  industries  in  Lewiston,  Bidde- 
ford,  Brunswick,  Augusta,  Waterville^  Skowhegan, 
and  Westbrook.  This  was  chiefly  during  the  period 
from  1860  to  1880.  A  large  number  had  established 
themselves  in  Old  town  at  an  even  earlier  period. 

When  one  considers  the  poverty  of  the  Catholic 
immigrants,  their  achievements  seem  truly  marvel- 
lous. Their  zeal  and  devotion,  as  evidenced  by  the 
churches  and  religious  institutions  built  up  by  an  able, 
aealous,  and  pious  clergy  with  their  assistance,  arc 
beyond  all  praise.  They  have  been  most  fortunate 
in  ^eir  bishops  and  priests,  and  at  no  period  have 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  Church  and  its 
interests  been  more  rapid  than  at  the  present  time. 
During  the  past  century,  many  Catholics  of  Maine 
have  ranked  among  the  first  in  ability,  endowments, 
and  character.  Several  were  eminent  in  the  profes- 
sions, and  many  in  business.  But  the  conditions  were 
such  as  did  not  admit  of  any  considerable  political 
advancement.  Times  have  changed,  however,  and 
to-day  there  is  no  perceptible  difference  in  the  support 

given  to  Protestant  and  Catholic  candidates  for  pub- 
c  office. 

At  the  session  of  1907,  by  a  unanimous  vote,  an 
appropriation  to  help  to  erect  an  additional  building 
for  St.  Mary's  College,  was  granted  by  the  legislature, 
showing  that  in  Maine,  at  least,  no  trace  of  the  old- 
time  bieotry  now  exists.  That  conditions  are  as  they 
are,  is  due  lareely  to  the  high  character  of  the  Cath- 
olic clergy,  aided  by  many  able  and  zealous  laymen. 
CoUecttons  of  Mains  Historical  Society,  I— (Portland,  1869—); 
Hannat,  History  of  Acadia  (St.  John,  1879);  Youno,  HisUny 
of  ths  Cath.  Church  in  the  New  England  States,  I.  Diocese  of 
Portland  (Boston,  1899);  Ftttos,  Sketches  of  the  Establishment 
of  the  Church  in  New  England  (Boston,  1872);  Stetson,  Hi»- 
torjf  and  Oovemment  of  Maine  (New  York);  Official  Cath. 
Directoru  and  Clergy  List  for  1910;  Maine  Register  (Portland, 
1909);  Ltons,  Report  of  Industrial  and  iMbor  Statistics  (Portr 
land);  Statement  of  the  case  of  the  United  States  in  matter 
re/erred  to  King  of  the  Netherlands  for  Arbitration  by  Convention 
of  Sept.  29,  1827  (Washington.  1829);  Raymond,  History  of  the 
St.  John  River  (St.  John.  1905);  Maine  Historical  Society, 
Tercentenary  of  Martin  Pring's  landing  (1903),  of  De  Monts*  set- 
tlement on  De  Monts  Island  (1904),  of  Weymouth's  landing  at 
8L  George  (1905)  (Portland);  Gov.  Chamberlain's  Address  at 
ths  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia,  1876,  in  Laws  of 
Maine  (Portland,  1877);  Shea,  The  Cath.  Church  in  the 
United  States  (New  York,  1856);  Spraode,  Sebastian  Rale 
(Boston);   Baxter,  Historical  Manuscripts. 

Peter  Charles  Keeoan. 

Maine  de  Biran,  Francois- Pierre -Gonthier, 
philosopher;  bom  at  Grateloup  near  Bergerac,  Dor- 
doflpie,  France,  29  November,  1766;  died  at  Paris,  16 
July,  1 824.  He  studied  at  P^rigueux,  join^  the  army, 
but  after  a  few  years  resigned  and  entered  politics.  In 
April,  1797,  he  was  one  of  the  Conseil  des  Cinq  Cents; 


howevel",  as  he  incurred  the  hostility  of  the  Directory 
by  his  roy^ist  sympathies  he  withdrew  to  Grateloup 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  philosophy.  His  consti- 
tution was  delicate  and  sensitive  and  his  philosophic 
bent  had  already  manifested  itself  by  his  observations 
on  the  influence  of  the  physical  state  on  the  moral. 
As  an  ideologist  he  won  the  prize  at  the  Institut  with 
his  essay  "Sur  Thabitude"  (1802);  but  his  "Decom- 
position de  la  pens^e'*  (1805)  shows  him  deviating 
from  the  theory  of  that  school,  and  in  "  La  perception 
immediate''  (1807),  and  " Rapports du  physique  et  du 
morale  de  Thomme''  (1811),  ne  is  an  opponent  of  the 
eighteenth-century  philosophy.  He  then  re-entered 
the  political  arena  and  was  elected  to  parliament  in 
1812, 1815,  and  1820.  In  his  latter  days  his  tendency 
to  mysticism  grad\ially  brought  him  back  towarcfs 
practical  Christianity,  and  he  died  a  faithful  child  of 
the  Church.  Three  stages  mark  the  development  of 
his  philosophy.  Up  to  1804,  a  stage  called  by  Naville 
"the  philosophy  of  sensation",  he  was  a  follower  of 
Condillac's  sensism,  as  modified  by  de  Tracy,  which  he 
soon  abandoned  in  favour  of  a  system  based  on  an 
analysis  of  internal  reflection.  In  the  second  stage — 
the  philosophy  of  will — 1804-18,  to  avoid  materialism 
and  fatalism,  lie  embraced  the  doctrine  of  immediate 
apperception,  showing  that  man  knows  himself  and 
exterior  things  by  the  resistance  to  his  effort.  On  re- 
flecting he  remarks  the  voluntary  effort  which  differ- 
entiates his  internal  from  his  external  experience,  thus 
learning  to  distinguish  between  the  ego  and  the  non- 
ego.  In  the  third  stage — the  philosophy  of  religion — 
after  1818,  we  find  de  Biran  advocating  a  mystical 
intuitional  psychology.  To  man's  two  states  of  life: 
representation  (common  to  animals),  and  volition 
(volition,  sensation,  and  perception),  he  adds  a  third: 
love  or 'life  of  imion  with  Gcxi,  in  which  the  life  of 
Divine  grace  absorbs  representation  and  volition. 
Maine  de  Biran's  style  is  laboured,  but  he  is  reckoned 
by  Cousin  as  the  greatest  French  metaphysician  from 
the  time  of  Malebranche.  His  genius  was  not  fully 
recognized  till  after  his  death,  as  the  essay  "  Sur  Thabi- 
tude"  (Paris,  1803)  was  the  only  book  that  appeared 
under  his  name  during  his  lifetime;  but  his  reputa- 
tion was  firmly  established  on  the  publication  of  his 
writings,  partly  by  Cousin  ("(Euvres  philosophiques 
de  Maine  de  Biran",  Paris,  1834-41),  and  pMtly  by 
Naville  ('^(Euvres  in^dites  de  Maine  de  Biran",  Paris, 
1859). 

Naville,  Maine  de  Biran,  sa  vie  et  ses  pensSes  (Paria,  1877); 
Cousin,  Preface  to  hia  edition  of  the  works  (Paris,  l£^4-41); 
Turner,  History  of  Philosophy  (Boston,  1903).  606-7:  Ubbbr- 
WEO,  HiHory  of  Philosophy,  tr.  Morris,  II  (New  York,  1903), 
340-1;  Truman,  Maine  de  Biran's  Philosophy  of  Will  (New 
York,  1904)  *f  Q^rard,  PhUosophie  de  Maine  de  Biran,  an  essay 
with  unpublished  fragments  (Paris,  1876);  Matonade,  Pensies 
et  pages  irUdites  de  Maine  de  Biran  (Pdrigueux,  1896) ;  Couail- 
HAC,  Maine  de  Biran  (Paris,  1905),  an  excellent  study  of  his 
philosophy. 

A.  A.  MacEIrlean. 

Maintenon,  Fran{?oise,  Makqihse  de,  b.  at  Niort, 
28  November,  1635;  d.  at  Saint-C)yr,  15  April,  1719. 
She  was  the  granddaughter  of  the  celebrated  Protest- 
ant writer,  ^rippa  d'Aubign^.  Constant  d'Aubignd, 
son  of  Agrippa,  imprisoned  in  the  Chateau  Trompette 
at  Bordeaux  on  suspicion  of  intriguing  with  the  Eng- 
lish, had  married  in  1627  Jeanne  de  Cardillac,  daugh- 
ter of  his  gaoler.  Again  imprisoned  at  Niort  on  a 
chaise  of  conspiring  against  Cardinal  de  Richelieu,  he 
was  accompanied  into  prison  by  his  wife,  and  it  was  in 
this  prison  at  Niort  tnat  Fran9oise  was  bom.  She 
was  oaptized  a  Catholic,  her  father  having  been  al- 
ready received  into  the  Church.  In  1639  the  family 
went  to  Martinique,  but  came  back  tp  France  in  1645. 
Fran9oise  was  then  placed  under  the  care  of  Mme  de 
ViUette,  a  Protestant  aunt,  who  undermined  the  child's 
faith.  An  order  of  the  court  transferred  Fran^oise  to 
tlie  care  of  a  Catholic  relative,  Mme  de  Neuillant,  but 
for  a  time  neither  the  kindness  nor  the  subsequent 


KAXSmiON  549  MAIMTENON 

Btrictnees  the  latter  employed,  nor  the  efforts  of  the  by  the  "  M^moires  ^  of  Saint^imon,  who  hated  her,  by 
Ursulines  of  Niort.  who  kept  Frangoise  gratuitously  the  letters  of  the  Princess  Palatine,  which  are  bitterly 
for  some  time,  could  counteract  the  influence  of  Mme  antagonistic  to  her,  and  by  the  interpolations  and  for- 
de  Villette.  She  was  finally  converted  at  the  Sj^e  of  series  of  La  Beaumelle,  the  first  editor  of  Mme  de 
foiuteen  tiiroush  the  influence  of  the  Ursulines  oi  Rue  Maintenon's  letters.  As  a  result  of  the  labours  of  La- 
Saint-Jacques,  Paris.  In  June,  1652,  Frangoise,  having  vall^,  no  importance  is  now  attached  to  La  Beaum- 
lost  her  mother  and  finding  herself  reduced  almost  to  elle's  publications,  and  history  passes  on  her  a  more 
poverty,  consented  to  marry  the  celebrated  burlesque  equitable  judgment.  The  letters  written  to  her  by 
poet,  Sc^rron,  who  was  a  cripple.  She  took  great  Louis  XI V  during  his  military  campaigns  show  how 
care  of  him,  was  faithful  to  him,  and  gatnered  around  ardently  and  patriotically  she  was  mterested  in  the 
him  a  group  of  celebrated  writers.  As  she  read  Latin,  destinies  of  France.  She  supported  Marshal  de  Vil- 
and  spoke  Italian  and  Spanish,  she  had  little  difficulty  lars  against  his  enemies,  who  treated  him  as  a  mad- 
in  attaching  them  to  her  circle.  man,  and  it  was  largely  owine  to  the  advice  of  Mme  de 

Scarron  died  on-  7  October,  1660.  Frangoise,  who  Maintenon  that  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  army, 
had  preserved  her  virginity  during  this  odd  marriage,  and  was  thiis  enabled  to  save  France  by  Uie  victory  of 
was  then  a  pretty  widow  of  twenty-five  years;  she  ob-  Denain.  But  Mme  de  Maint^ion's  influence  was  felt 
tained  from  the  queen-mother  a  pension  of  2700  livres  most  in  the  matters  of  religion ;  and  that  is  why  she  in- 
(approximately  $540),  and  withdrew  to  the  convent  of  curred  the  hatred  of  the  Protestants  and  the  Jansen- 
the  Hospitaller  Sisters  (rf  Our  Lady.  Having  received  ists  The  extraordinary  character  of  her  destinv  was 
the  entrie  into  the  Albret  and  Richelieu  circles,  she  represented  to  her  by  many  of  her  advisers  as  a  mar- 
there  became  acquainted  with  Mme  de  S6vign^,  Mme  vellous  vocation'',  which  by  ''a  kind  of  miracle''  had 
de  La  Fayette,  and  Mme  de  Montespan.  She  was  placed  her  beside  the  most  powerful  monarch  in  the 
called  "la  charmante  malheureuse",  and  society  be-  world.  She  was  anxious  that  the  king  should  not  f or- 
gan to  take  an  interest  in  her.  In  March,  1670,  Mme  get  his  spiritual  responsibilities.  It  may  be  said  that, 
de  Montespan  invited  her  to  undertake  the  education  but  for  tne  influence  of  Mme  de  Maintenon,  the  end  of 
of  the  children  she  had  borne  to  Louis  XIV.  Fran-  Louis  XIV's  reign  would  probably  have  resembled,  by 
9oise  accepted  and  imdertook  the  work  in  a  house  situ-  its  depravity  and  excesses,  the  subsequent  reign  of 
ated  in  Rue  de  Vaugirard,  devoting  herself  enthusiast!-  Louis  XV.  It  was  largely  owing  to  her  that  Louis  was 
cally  to  the  young  children,  and  the  Duke  of  Maine  brought  back  to  the  right  path,  and  it  was  due  to  her 
especially  was  alwavs  very  grateful  to  her.  When  in  influence  that  the  courtiers  came  to  recognise  that  im- 
July,  1674,  the  children  were  legitimized,  Francoise  piety,  blasphemy,  and  licentiousness  were  obstacles  to 
followed  them  to  Court:  it  was  the  beginning  ol  her  advancement. 

fortune.  At  first,  as  she  herself  relates,  sne  dis-  Her  great  anxiety  was  for  the  conversion  of  the 
pleased  the  king  very  much;  he  considered  heras  a!>ci  Court.  This  explains  how  it  happened  that,  in  her 
esprit,  interested  only  in  sublime  things.  Soon,  how-  zeal  for  religion,  she  favoured  some  of  the  officials  who 
ever,  he  gave  her  200,000  livrea  ($40,000);  with  this  displayed  the  greatest  severity  towards  the  Protest- 
she  bought  the  lands  of  Maintenon,  and  at  the  end  of  ante;  out  "it  is  an  error",  writes  M.  Lavisse,  "to 
January,  1675,  the  kin^  in  full  Court  named  her  Mme  blame  Mme  de  Maintenon  for  the  revocation  of  the 
de  Maintenon,  by  which  title  she  was  thenceforth  Edict  of  Nantes."  After  having  authorized  Mme 
known.  A  silent  struggle,  the  det-ails  of  which  may  be  Guyon  to  come  and  lecture  at  Saint-Cyr,  Mme  de 
found  in  the  letters  of  Mme  de  S^vign^,  began  between  Mam  tenon,  warned  by  des  Marais,  triwi  to  arrest  the 
her  and  Mme  de  Montespan.  AbW  Gobelin,  Mme  de  spread  of  Quietism;  the  opposition  which  she  met 
Maintenon 's  confessor,  represented  to  her  that  the  sal-  with  on  the  part  of  F^nelon  and  Mme  de  la  Maisonfort, 
vation  of  the  king  required  her  to  remam  at  Court.  was  terminated  in  1698  by  the  lettres  de  cachet,  ordei^ 

In  1680  she  was  appointed  lady  of  the  bed-chamber  ing  the  withdrawal  of  Mmes  de  la  Maisonfort,  du  Tour, 

to  the  Dauphiness.  The  affection  of  the  king  for  Mile  de  and  de  Montaigle  to  convcnte.     It  was  Mme  de  Main- 

Fontanges  showed  that  Mme  de  Montespairs  influence  tenon,  who  in  August,  1695,  had  Louis-Antoine  de 

was  waning.    The  earnest  efforts  of  Mme  de  Main-  Noailles,  Bishop  of  Ch&lons,  appointed  to  the  See  of 

tenon  to  reconcile  the  king  and  the  queen,  Marie-  Paris;  but  from  1699,  under  the  influence  of  dee 

Th^rdse,  were  facilitated  by  the  death  of  Mile  de  Fon-  Marais,  she  detached  herself  from  Noailles,  who  was 

tanges  (1681),  and  brought  about  the  disgrace  of  Mme  too  much  inclined  to  Jansenism.     Mme  de  Maintenon, 

de  Montespan.    The  cjueen  died,  however,  on  30  July,  whose  r61e  was  oftentimes  so  difficult  and  who  was  not 

1683,  and  from  that  time  was  verified  the  witticism  of  unfrequently  placed  in  very  delicate  situations,  was 

certain  courtiers  who,  speaking  of  Mme  de  Maintenon  wont  to  confess  that  she  spent  many  a  wearisome 

in  1680,  called  her  "Mme  de  Maintenant".     Louis  hour;  she  would  compare  herself  to  the  fish  in  the 

XIV  used  to  say  to  her:  "We  address  popes  as  'Your  ponds  at  Marly,  which,  languishing  in  the  sparkling 

Holiness',  kings  as  *  Your  Majesty';  of  you  we  must  waters,  longed  tor  their  muddy  homes.     But  she  al- 

speak  as '  Your  Firmness '  ( Voire  Soliditi) . "  In  the  be-  ways  tried  to  shake  off  this  lonesome  feeling  by  engag- 

ginning  of  1684  Louis  XIV  married  Mme  de  Mainte-  ing  in  teaching  and  charitable  works.     Her  charity 

non  secretly.    This  marriage  is  proved,  principally:  was  celebrated,  and  at  Versailles  she  was  called  the 

(1)  by  two  letters  which  Godet  des  Marais,  Bishop  of  "  mother  of  the  poor".     Of  the  93,000  livres  ($18,600). 

Chartres  and  spiritual  director  of  Mme  de  Maintenon,  which  the  king  gave  her  annually,  she  distributed 

wrote  to  the  kmg  and  Mme  de  Maintenon  in  1697;  (2)  from  54,000  to  60,000  in  alms.     Not  only  did  she  not 

by  the  marriage  contract  of  the  Comte  de  Choiseul,  a  profit  by  her  i>06ition  to  enrich  herself,  but  she  did  not 

contract  on  which  there  may  be  seen,  in  the  comer  of  make  use  of  it  to  favour  her  family.    Her  brother, 

the  page,  where  the  king  and  the  Grand  Dauphin  had  Comte  d'Aubign^  and   formerly  lieutenant-general, 

also  signed,  the  signature  "la  marquise  d' Aubign6 ".  never  became  a  marshal  of  France. 

Mme  de  Maintenon  was  to  play  a  prominent  part  in        Mme  de  Maintenon's  great  glory  is  her  work  in 

politics  for  the  next  thirty-one  years:  the  king  used  to  the  cause  of  education.    She  c^ored  children.    She 

come  with  his  ministers  to  work  in  her  room;  she  re-  brought  up  her  nieces,  the  Comtesse  de  Caylus  and  the 

ceived  foreign  princes,  generals,  and  ambassadors.    It  Duchesse  de  Noailles,  and  attended  to  the  education 

was  not  unusual  for  Louis  XIV  to  remain  with  her  of  the  Duchess  of  Bummdy,  who  seemed  likely  to  be- 

from  five  to  ten  o'clock  in  the  evening.    She  did  not  come  one  day  Queen  of  France.    When  the  Court  was 

thrust  herself  on  the  public,  but  the  more  she  endeav-  at  Fontainebleau,  Mme  de  Maintenon  loved  to  go  to 

oured  to  efface  herself,  the  more  her  power  grew.  the  little  village  of  AVon  to  teach  catechism  to  the  chil- 

For  a  long  time  historians  have  formed  an  erroneous  dren,  who  were  dirty,  ragged,  and  covered  with  vei> 

opinion  of  &Ime  do  Maintenon ;  Uiey  judged  her  sdely  min.    She  also  organized  Ok  «A\^sy\^^st  ^^sox.  \^NS^^ 


MAIMZ 


560 


MAinz 


she  had  fifty  ^oung  girls  educated  at  Rueil  by  an  Ursu- 
line,  Mme  de  Brinon.  Her  zeal  for  education  increased : 
the  boardingHschool  at  Rueil  was  transferred  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1684,  to  Noisy-le-Sec,  where  124  girls  were  edu- 
cated; then,  in  1686,  to  Saint-Cyr,  to  the  magnificent 
buildings  which  Mansart  had  begun  to  construct  in 
June,  1685.  The  house  at  Saint-Cyr,  called  the  *'  Insti- 
tut  de  Seunt-Louis  ",  was  intended  to  receive  200  young 
ladies,  who  had  to  be  poor  and  also  able  to  prove  four 
degrees  of  nobility  on  their  father's  side;  on  leaving 
this  house  each  one  was  to  receive  a  dowry  of  3000 
crowns.  Mme  de  Maintenon  took  an  active  interest 
in  everything  at  Saint-Cyr;  she  was  the  stewardess 
and  the  servant  of  the  house,  looking  after  the  pro- 
visions, knowing  the  number  of  aprons,  napkins  etc. 
The  primary  idea  connected  with  the  foundation  of 
Sain^Cyr  was  very  original.  "The  object  of  Saint- 
Cyr'',  wrote  the  Jesuit  La  Chaise,  the  king's  confessor, 
"  18  not  to  multiply  convents,  which  increase  rapidly 
enough  of  their  own  accord,  but  to  give  the  otate 
well-educated  women ;  there  are  plenty  of  good  nuns, 
and  not  a  sufficient  number  of  good  mothers  of  fami- 
lies. The  young  ladies  will  be  educated  more  suitably 
by  persons  living  in  the  world."  The  constitutions  of 
the  house  were  submitted  to  Racine  and  Boileau,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  P^re  La  Chaise  and  Abb4  Gobelin. 
F^elon  came  to  Saint-Cyr  to  preach ;  Lulli  composed 
the  music  for  the  choirs;  Mme  de  Brinon  developed 
among  the  pupils  a  taste  for  declamation,  Racine  nad 
the  young  ladies  play  Esther  (January  and  February, 
1689)  and  Athalie  (5  April,  1691).  But  the  very  suc- 
cess of  these  pieces,  at  which  Louis  XIV  and  the  Court 
assisted,  finally  disturbed  many  minds;  both  the  Jes- 
uits and  Jansenists  agreed  in  blaming  the  development 
of  this  taste  for  the  tneatre  in  young  eirls.  At  the  in- 
stigation of  des  Marais,  Mme  de  Maintenon  trans- 
formed Saint-Cyr:  on  1  December,  1692,  the  pensiatv- 
not  became  a  monastic  boarding-school,  subject  to  the 
Order  of  St.  Augustine.  This  transformation,  how- 
ever, did  not  change  the  end  for  which  the  house  was 
founded:  of  the  1121  ladies,  who  passed  through  Saint- 
Cyr  from  1686  to  1773,  only  398  became  nuns,  723 
remaining  in  the  world.  And,  even  after  the  trans- 
formation of  Saint-Cyr,  the  course  of  instruction 
remained,  in  the  opinion  of  M.  Gr^rd,  incomparably 
superior,  by  its  comprehensiveness  and  duration,  to 
that  of  any  other  house  of  instruction  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  The  " Entretiens ",  the  "Conversa- 
tions", and  the  "Proverbes"  of  Mme  de  Maintenon, 
by  which  she  formed  her  students,  hold  a  unique 
position  in  the  contributions  of  women  to  French  lit- 
erature. 

Mme  de  Maintenon  left  Versailles  on  the  evening  of 
30  August,  1715,  thirty-six  hours  before  the  death  of 
the  king,  who  recommended  her  to  the  Due  d'0rl6ms, 
and  said  of  her  finally:  "  She  helped  me  in  everything, 
especially  in  saving  my  soul."  She  went  to  live  at 
Saint-Cyr  in  deep  retirement,  which  was  interrupted 
only  by  the  visit  paid  to  her  on  10  June,  1717,  by  Tsar 
Peter  the  Great  of  Russia.  The  news  of  the  imprison- 
ment at  DouUens  of  the  Duke  of  Maine,  who  was  com- 
promised by  the  conspiracy  of  Cellamare  (1718-9), 
saddened  and  perhaps  shortened  her  closing  years.  In 
January,  1794,  her  tomb  was  desecrated  by  the  revo- 
lutionaries, who  stripped  her  corpse,  mutilated  it,  and 
cast  it  into  a  large  hole  in  the  cemetery.  As  for  the 
Institut  de  Saint-Louis,  it  was  closed  in  1793. 

Besidea  the  memoiiB  of  the  period  (see  biblioffraphy  to  Louis 
XrV),  consult  Mme  dk  Maintenon,  (Euvret,  ed.  Lavall^e  (12 
vols.,  Paris,  1854);  GRfcARD,  ExtraiU  de  Mme  de  Maintenon  sur 
Education  (Paris.  1884);  Godet  de«  Marais,  Lettrcs  h  Mme  de 
Maintenon,  ed.  Berthier  (Paris,  1907);  Souvenirs  aw  Mme 
de  Maintenon,  published  by  Haussonvillk  and  Hanotaux 
(3  vols.,  Paris,  1902-4):  Due  de  Noaillks,  Hist,  de  Mme  de  M. 
(4  vols.,  Paris,  1848-59):  Lavall^e,  Mme  de  M.  ei  la  Mai9on 
royale  de  St-Cyr  (Puns,  1862);  Read,  La  petite- fille  d'Agrippa 
d'AubifrnA  in  Bulletin  de  la  Soc.  de  Vhiat.  du  protestantisme, 
XXXVI-VII;  DE  Boiau.sLE,  Scarron  et  Fran^oise  d'Avhiffne 
(Paris,  1804);  Geftrov,  ^rme  de  M.  d'aprH  m,  correejMndance 
(2  voIb.,  Puna,  1887);   Baudrillart,  Mme  de  M.  et  son  role 


politique  in  Revue  dea  Queations  hietor,,  XLVUI  (1800);  Bbu- 
NETZkRE,  Queetiom  de  critique  (Paris,  1889);  D&LUNamR,  DU 
einfiuureiehaie  Frau  der  frantdneehen  Oeach,  in  Akadem.  Vor- 
Mkge  (Munich,  1889) ;  Maintenon,  Secrti  correepondenem  wiik 
the  Princeee  dee  Ursine  (tr.,  London,  1827);  Bilungton,  Mme 
de  Maintenon  and  St-Cvr  in  Irish  Monthly.  XXXVII  (Dublin, 
1904) ,  524  3 1 :  608-15;  Morrison,  Mme  de  Maintenon,  une  Hude 
(New  York,  1886) ;  Montbspan,  Triumph  of  Mme  de  Maintenon 
in  Classic  Memoirs,  1  (New  York,  1901).  180-202;  Dyson,  Mme 
de  Maintenon  (London,  1910). 

Georgbs  Gotau. 


Mains,  (jlerman  town  and  bishopric  in  Hesse;  for- 
merly the  seat  of  an  archbishop  and  elector. 

History. — (1)  UntU  the  Suppression  of  the  Former 
Archdiocese. — ^Near  the  site  of  the  modem  Mains  there 
existed  some  centuries  before  the  Christian  era  a  Celtic 
settlement.  Here,  about  38  b.  c,  Agrippa  establii^hed 
a  Roman  camp  (Moguntiacum),  which,  under  Drusus, 
became  the  centre  of  the  Roman  province  of  Upper 
Germany.  About  the  camp  gradually  developed  a 
considerable  town.  According  to  St.  Irensus,  whose 
statement  received  valuable  corroboration  from  the 
excavations  of  1907-8,  Mainz  possessed  a  Christian 
community  in  the  second  century.  Cr^centius, 
whom  legend  identifies  with  the  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  is 
mentioned  as  first  bishop.  Of  the  bishops  before 
Boniface,  however,  little  is  known.  Bothardus  built 
a  basilica  in  honour  of  St.  Nicomedes;  Riuthardus 
was  imprisoned,  when  the  Alamannian  prince  Bando 
sacked  the  town  in  368,  and  Bishop  Aureus  was  put 
to  death  by  the  Alamannian  Crocus  in  406.  In  451 
Mainz  was  pillaged  by  the  Huns.  Under  the  Prankish 
domination  the  town  began  again  to  prosper.  Bishop 
Sidonius,  who  lived  early  in  the  sixth  century,  restored 
the  old  churches  and  built  new  ones.  The  Frankish 
king  Da^obert  surrounded  Mainz  with  walls  and  estab- 
lished his  residence  there.  Under  him  the  AltmUns- 
terkloster  was  erected  by  St.  Bithikiis.  Bishop 
Ceroid,  who  fell*  in  battle  against  the  Silicons,  was 
succeeded  in  743  by  his  son  Gewilio. 

The  ecclesiastical  and  secular  importance  of  Mains 
may  fitly  be  dated  from  the  accession  of  St.  Boniface 
(q.  v.).  Strictly  speaking,  however,  Mains  was  not 
then  raised  to  metropolitan  rank:  Boniface  was  him- 
self an  archbishop  as  formerly^,  before  he  occupied  any 
see  in  Germany,  but  the  archiepiscopal  dignity  did  not 
descend  immediately  to  his  successor,  St.  Lul  or  Lul- 
lus.  The  long  quarrel  between  Lullus  and  the  Mon- 
astery  of  Fulda  ended  in  the  complete  exemption  of 
the  latter  from  the  episcopal  authority.  Lullus  there- 
upon built  the  Monastery  of  Hcrsfeld,  in  which  he  was 
later  buried.  In  780  or  782  Mainz  was  elevated  to 
metroiK)litan  rank.  The  dioceses  of  LOttich.  Colore, 
Worms,  Speyer,  and  Utrecht  were  fiirst  maae  subject 
to  ib,  together  with  the  sees  of  Erfurt,  Buraburg,  and 
Eichstatt,  as  dioceses  founded  by  Boniface;  then  the 
Swabian  dioceses  of  Augsburg,  Strasburg,  Constance, 
and  Chur.  The  dioceses  of  Erfurt  and  Buraburg, 
however,  lapsed  on  the  death  of  their  first  occupants, 
and  in  798  Cologne  was  made  a  metropoUtan  see  with 
Luttich  and  Utrecht  among  its  suffragans  (see  Co- 
logne). With  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  Saxony, 
the  dioceses  of  Paderborn,  Halberstadt,  Hildesheim, 
and  Verden  were,  on  their  erection,  added  to  the  suf- 
fragans of  Mainz,  and  under  Archbishop  Willigis  the 
newly-created  sees  of  Prague  and  Olmiitz  were  made 
subject  to  it.  The  ecclesiastical  province  then  pos- 
sessed fourteen  suffragans,  and  extended  from  the  Elbe 
to  the  Grison  Alps  and  from  the  Vosges  to  the  Thurin- 
gian  Saale,  thus  representing  the  greatest  ecclesiastical 
administration  of  the  Middle  Ages  after  the  papacy. 
The  actual  power  of  the  archbishops  over  their  suffra- 
gans was,  however,  small.  Mainz  lost  Prague  and 
Olmiitz  during  the  fourteenth  century,  and  Halber- 
stadt and  Verden  through  the  Peace  of  Westphalia. 
In  1752  the  addition  of  the  newly-created  Diocese  of 
Fulda  raised  the  numl)er  of  suffragans  to  eleven. 

Among  the  immediate  successors  of  Lullus,  Arch- 


MAnrZ  551  ICADTZ 

bishop  Richulf  (787-813),  who  built  the  Monasteiy  of  never  to  elect  an  archbishop  who  would  not  take  the 

St.  Alban  (famous  for  its  school),  and  esijeciallv  Ka-  same  oath  as  Si^ried.    Thus  originated  the  election 

banus  Maurus  (a.  v.,  847-56)  deserve  mention.   Under  capitulations,  which  were  later  used  by  the  chapter  to 

Liutbert  (863-89)  the  dienity  of  Archchancellor  of  the  secure  new  rights  and  privileges  from  the  canaidates 

German  Empire  was  nrst  associated  with  Mainz,  for  the  see.     It  was  also  under  Siejgfried  (1244)  that 

Hatto  I  (q.  v.,  891-913)  exercised  a  great  influence  on  the  government  of  the  town  passed  into  the  hands  of  a 

the  fortunes  of  the  whole  empire.    Hildebert  (928-37)  mumcipal  council  elected  by  the  citizens, 
successfully  upheld  against  Cologne  and  Trier  Mainz's        As  a  free  town  of  the  empire,  the  prosperity  of 

claim  to  crown  the  Cferman  king.    The  precedence  of  Mainz  steadily  increased,  its  hnen  and  woollen  Indus- 

Mainz  in  the  German  Ghurch  was  strongly  emphasized  tries  being  the  most  important  alons  the  Rhine.     It 

by  Frederick  (937-54),  when  he  sought  the  office  of  thus  became  known  as  tne  "Golden  Mainz".    Under 

vicar  Apostolic  for  Gtermany.  William  (954-68),  natu-  its  leadership  was  farmed  in  1254  the  "  League  of  the 

ral  son  of  Otto  I,  acquired  for  himself  and  his  succes-  Rhenish  Towns",  supported  by  most  of  the  Rhenish 

sors  the  office  of  Archchancellor  of  the  Empire.   About  towns  and  princes.     A  great  architectural  activity 

Hatto  II  (968-70)  is  related  the  l^nd  ot  the  Mftuse-  also  manifested  itself;  the  glorious  cathedral  was  then 

thurm  near  Bingen.    Willi^  (976-1010),  who  saved  built,  and  numerous  monastic  institutions  were  estab- 

the  empire  from  disintegration  durinc  the  minority  of  lished.     The  discovery  of  printing  by  Gutenberg  (q. 

Otto  III,  fostered  the  commerce  of  Mainz;  he  built  a  v.)  extended  the  fame  of  the  town,  while  the  limitation 

cathedral,  which  was  burned  down  on  the  day  of  its  of  the  right  of  voting  to  the  seven  electors  had  greatly 

consecration,  and  obtained  from  the  pope  the  right  of  increased  the  influence  of  the  archbishops.     At  the 

presiding  over  all  synods  held  within  tne  empire  and  end  of  the  interregnum  Werner  von  Eppstein  (1259- 

of  crowning  the  newly^-elected  kinjg.     Aribo  (q.  v.)  84)  secured  the  election  of  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  whose 

glayed  the  chief  rdle  in  the  election  of  Ck>nrad  II.  support  he  hoped  for  aeainst  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse, 
lardo  von  Oppertshafen  (1031-51)  completed  the  new  In  the  growing  power  of  Hesse,  Werner  rightly  saw  the 
cathedral  by  Willigis  (1037).  most  £ngerou8  menace  to  the  safety  of  Mainz.  Ger- 
In  the  investiture  strife  (q.  v.)  the  archbishops  of  hard  II  von  Eppstein  (1289-1305)  likewise  played  the 
Mainz,  as  the  foremost  spiritual  princes  of  the  empire,  chief  part  in  tne  election  of  Adolf  of  Nassau,  but,  not 
could  not  remain  neutral.  Count  Siegfried  I  von  Epp-  receiving  the  expected  assistance  in  his  domestic  poU- 
stein  (1059-84)  espoused  the  cause  of  the  pope,  pro-  tics,  went  over  with  King  Wenzel  of  Bohemia  to 
mulgated  the  celibacy  law  of  Gregory  Vll,  and  Adolf's  rival,  Albert  of  Austria.  Under  Peter  von  As- 
crowned  Henry's  two  rivals,  Rudolf  of  Swabia  and  pelt  (q.  v.,  1305-20)  Mainz  attained  the  pinnacle  of  its 
Hermann  of  Luxemburg.  Wezilo  (1084-8),  however,  power.  In  opposition  to  Count  Henrv  III  of  Vime- 
supported  the  emperor  and  his  anti-pope.  In  Ruth-  tui^  (1328-46),  appointed  by  John  XXII,  the  chapter 
ara  (1089-1109)  and  Adalbert  I  von  Saarbriicken  unanimously  elected  Baldwin  of  Trier,  who  granted  to 
( 1 109-37)  the  emperor  again  found  opponents ;  for  his  it  or  confirmed  a  scries  of  important  privileges.  It  was 
fidelity  to  the  papal  cause,  the  latter  was  imprisoned  only  on  Baldwin's  resignation  that  Henry  could  enter 
by  Henry  V  for  tnree  years  in  the  fortress  of  Trifels,  on  his  administration,  having  previously,  in  order  to 
until  the  citizens  of  Mainz  secured  his  release  by  confhi-  secure  the  chapter's  recognition,  granted  it  an  impor- 
ing  the  emperor  in  their  town  until  he  guaranteed  the  tant  influence  in  the  government  of  the  archdiocese, 
archbishop  s  liberation.  In  recognition  of  this  assist-  As  a  partisan  of  Louis  the  Bavarian,  he  came  into 
ance,  Adalbert  granted  the  town  a  charter,  which  was  sharp  conflict  with  Clement  VI,  who  separated  F^Bgue 
engraved  on  the  bronze  doors  of  the  Liebfrauenkirche.  and  Olmutz  from  Mainz  (1343),  and  deposed  the  arch* 
At  Adalbert's  proposal  the  richt  to  participate  in  the  bishop  (1346).  However,  Henry  managed  to  retain 
imperial  election  was  confinea  to  certain  princes,  the  the  see  until  1353,  when  Gerlach  of  Nassau  (1346-71), 
foundation  of  the  college  of  electors  being  thus  laid,  appointed  by  the  pope,  entered  into  possession.  By 
The  popularity  enjoyea  by  him  and  his  brother  and  means  of  his  personal  property  Gerlach  greatly  in- 
successor  Adalbert  II  (1138-41)  was  not  shared  by  creased  the  power  of  the  archdiocese.  On  his  aeath 
Arnold  von  Selenhofen  (1153-60),  who  alienated  the  Charles  IV,  fearing  to  see  one  of  the  powerful  Nassau 
good-will  of  the  citizens  by  his  sternness  and  bis  taxa-  family  in  possession  of  the  first  see  of  the  empire,  se- 
tion  to  further  Barbarossa's  campaign  against  Italy,  cured  the  appointment  of  Count  John  I  of  Luxembui^ 
and  was  murdered  by  them  in  the  Mon^tery  of  St.  in  1371,  ana  of  Margrave  Louis  of  Meissen  in  1375. 
Jacob  during  a  riot.  To  punish  the  citizens,  Barba-  The  chapter,  however,  unanimously  chose  Adolf  of 
rossa  deprived  the  city  of  its  charter  and  levelled  its  Nassau,  who  took  possession  of  the  see.  The  fiercely 
walls.  The  rebuilding  of  the  fortifications  was  begun  contested  war  which  ensued  greatlv  weakened  the 
by  Conrad  von  Wittelsbach  (1161-77):  althoiigh  ap-  power  of  Mainz,  and  increased  the  influence  of  Hesse. 
pointed  by  Barbarossa,  he  refused  to  recognize  the  in  1381  an  agreement  was  arrived  at,  Louis  abdicat- 
anti-pope  Pascal,  and  had  in  consequence  to  fly  from  ing  Mainz.  Adolf  founded  the  University  of  Erfurt  in 
his  see.  Count  Christian  I  von  Buch  (1165-83)  was  1^9.  Conrad  II  von  Weinsbere  (1390-6)  was  sue- 
thereupon  named  archbishop  by  Barbarossa.  On  his  ceeded  by  Adolf's  brother,  John  II  (1397-1419),  who 
death,  Conrad,  who  had  meanwhile  become  Arch-  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  deposition  of  King  Wen- 
bishop  of  Salzburg,  returned  to  his  old  see  (1183-  zel  and  the  elevation  of  Rudolf  of  the  Palatinate. 
1200),  now  supported  the  emperor,  and,  at  the  Diet  of  Under  Conrad  von  Daun  (1419-34)  Cardinal  Branda, 
Gelnhausen,  persuaded  the  German  bishops  to  espouse  commissioned  by  Martin  V,  investigated  the  existing 
the  emperor's  cause  against  Rome.  Count  Siegfried  election  capitulations,  which  he  ordered  to  be  replaced 
II  von  Eppstein  (120(F-30)  received  in  1228  the  right  by  a  capitulation  drafted  by  himself, 
to  crown  the  King  of  Bohemia — a  right  retained  oy  The  contest  between  the  rival  archbishops,  Diether 
Mainz  until  1343.  Siegfried  exhausted  the  depleted  von  Isenberg  and  Adolf  II  of  Nassau  (the  "Mainzer 
exchequer  of  the  see,  and  burdened  the  territory  with  Stiftsfehde  ",  1461-3),  resulted  in  great  loss  of  men, 
a  heavy  debt.  His  nephew,  Siegfried  III  von  Epp-  money,  and  territory.  To  punish  the  guilds  for  sup- 
stein  (1230-49),  supported  Innocent  III  against  the  '  porting  Diether,  Adolf,  having  captured  the  town. 
Swabians,  ratified  the  deposition  of  the  emperor,  and  deprived  it  of  its  charter.  Diether  (1475-82)  foimdea 
crowned  two  of  his  rivals.  In  1233  the  chapter  theUniversityof  Mainz  in  1477,  which  continued  imtil 
granted  him  the  twentieUi  part  of  the  ecclesiastical  1798,  but  the  town  never  regained  its  former  pros- 
revenue  for  the  liquidation  otthe  archiepiscopal  debts  perity.  To  retrieve  the  dangerous  financial  conmtioQ 
on  his  swearing  in  the  presence  of  the  clergy  to  incur  of  the  archdiocese  by  an  alliance  with  a  powerful  fam- 
no  debts  thereafter  ana  to  impose  no  further  burdens  ily,  the  chapter  petitioned  the  pope  in  1480  to  appoint 
on  the  clergy.    The  canons  lK>und  t  hemschTs  by  oath  Albert  of  Saxony  archbishop.   During  his  short  cel^ 


musz 


552 


VUJKZ 


(1482-4)  Albert  brought  Erfurt  again  into  submission. 
However,  even  BertEold  of  Henneberg  (q.  v.,  1484- 
1504),  perhaps  the  greatest  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  was 
unable  to  stem  the  decline  of  its  secular  power,  under 
Jacob  von  Liebenstein  (1504-8)  the  loss  of  Erf urt  to 
Saxony  seemed  imminent.  In  open  opposition  to  the 
Saxon  house,  the  chapter  chose,  on  the  death  of  Uriel 
of  Gemmingen  (1508-14),  Albert  of  Brandenburg  arch- 
bishop, althougn  he  already  held  the  sees  of  Magdeburg 
and  Halberstadt  (see  Albert  of  Brandenburg  and 
Germany).  The  mdulgent  attitudii  at  first  adopted 
by  Albert  towards  the  innovators,  allowed  the  Refor- 
mation to  spread  fairly  widely  through  the  archdiocese 
which  w^as  soon  convulsed  by  this  and  the  Peas- 
ants' War.  In  preserving  the  Catholic  Faith,  Lorenz 
Thuchsess  von  rommersfelden^  the  cathedral  dean, 
performed  ever-memorable  services.  Albert's  reign  is 
also  important  on  account  of  the  administrative  re- 
forms introduced  by  him.  Electors  Sebastian  von 
Hausenstamm  (1545-55)  and  Daniel  Brendel  of  Hom- 
burg  (1555^82),  strove  indefatigably  to  heal  the  scars 
of  the  Reformation;  the  latter  summoned  the  Jesuits 
to  Mainz.  Wolfgang  von  Dalberg  (1582-1601),  how- 
ever, gave  such  lukewarm  support  to  the  Counter- 
Reformation  that  he  was  suspected  of  conspiring  with 
the  Protestants.  In  the  election  capitulation  the 
chapter  imposed  on  his  successor.  John  Adam  von 
Bicken  (1601-4),  the  obligation  ot  founding  a  semi- 
nary, which,  however,  he  failed  to  accomplish  during 
his  snort  reign.  John  Schweickhard  von  Cronenberg 
(1604-26)  restored  the  Catholic  religion  in  Eichsfeld 
and  Bcrgstrasse,  and  adjusted  the  quarrel  between 
Emperor  Rudolf  and  his  brother  Matthias. 

Mainz  suffered  grievously  during  the  Thirty  Years* 
War.  Under  George  yon  Greifenklau  (1626-9),  who 
had  a  prominent  share  in  the  Restitution  Edict,  Mainz 
escaped  practically  unaffected,  but  Anselm  Casimir 
von  Wambold  (1629-45)  had  to  fly  before  Gustavus 
Adolphus  in  1631.  When  the  imperial  troops  reoccu- 
piecl  Mainz  in  1636,  the  retiring  Swedes  committed 
many  atrocities.  Frightful  ravage  was  also  wrought 
by  the  French,  when  they  later  occupied  the  town 
(1644-8).  The  very  existence,  indeed,  of  tlie  princi- 
pality seemed  threatened,  as  the  Swedes  demanded  in 
the  peace  negotiations  the  secularization  of  the  arch- 
diocese. Its  escape  from  dissolution  was  entirely  due 
to  the  energetic  protest  of  Saxony  and  the  activity  of 
John  Philip  von  Sch6nbom  (q.  v.,  1647-73).  As  its 
situation  left  Mainz  most  exposed,  after  Cologne,  to 
French  attack,  Lothaire  Frederick  von  Mettemich- 
Burscheid  (1673-5),  to  save  the  archdiocese,  adopted 
a  friendly  attitude  towards  France  during  the  wars 
between  the  emperor  and  Louis  XIV.  In  1688  his 
third  successor,  Anselm  Franz  von  Ingelheim  (1679- 
95),  had  to  surrender  Mainz  to  the  French,  who  were, 
however,  driven  out  of  the  town  in  the  following  year. 
Lothaire  Francis  von  Sch6nbom  (1695-1729).  who 
supported  the  emperor  in  the  War  of  the  Spanisn  Suc- 
cession, reorganized  the  universitjr,  founded  the  Hos- 
pital of  St.  Roch,  and  showed  himself  a  cultivated 
patron  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Under  him  the  town 
enjoyed  a  return  of  prosperity,  testified  even  to-day 
by  the  numerous  ecclesiastical  and  civil  buildings 
dating  from  that  period. 

On  the  death  ot  Franz  Ludwig  von  Pfalz-Neuburg 
(1729-32),  who  was  also  Bishop  of  Worms  and  Breslau 
and  Archbishop  of  Trier,  Philip  Charles  von  Eltz- 
Kempenich  (1732-43)  was  elected  hastily  to  forestall 
the  mterierence  of  the  ruHng  houses.  During  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  which  occurred  imder  Frederick 
Charles  von  Ostein  (1743-63),  the  archdiocese  was  laid 
waste  on  various  occasions.  Emmerich  Joseph  von 
Breitbach-Burresheim  (1763-74)  associated  nimself 
with  the  "  enlightened  **  movement  to  foimd  a  national 
German  Church,  as  far  as  possible  independent  of 
Rome.  In  1766  he  al)olished  many  holy  days,  and 
itsued  decrees  concerning  the  "reform"  of  the  monas- 


teries, the  accumulation  of  real  property  in  the  "  dead 
hand '',  etc.  On  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in  1 773. 
he  employed  their  property  for  the  improvement  of 
elemental  education.  Fr^erick  Charles  Joseph  von 
Erthal  (1774-1802),  the  last  Elector  of  Mainz,  laboured 
at  first  m  the  spirit  Of  the  Church,  but  later,  going  over 
to  the  Enlightened,  formally  renounced  Austria  and 
associated  himself  with  Prussia  (q.  v.).  During  the 
French  Revolution  Mainz  encountered  varying  for- 
tunes. In  1792  the  Confederation  of  the  German 
Princes  was  founded  in  the  town,  which,  after  the  first 
inglorious  campaign  of  the  German  army,  fell  into  the 
huids  of  the  French  during  the  same  year.  Though 
recovered  by  the  Germans  in  1793,  it  was  ceded  to 
Franoe  by  the  Treaty  of  Campo-Formio  in  1797,  and, 
after  the  Peace  of  Lun^ville,  became  the  capital  of 
the  French  Department  of  Mont  Tonnerre.  During 
the  negotiations  of  the  Imperial  Delegates  the  elector 
died  on  25  July,  1802.  By  the  Enactment  of  this 
assembly  of  25  Feb.,  1803,  the  greater  part  of  the 
electorate  was  secularized.  About  five  Aem/er  (ad- 
ministrative districts)  remained  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty, and  were  assigned  to  the  coadjutor  of  the  last 
elector,  Theodore  von  Dalberg  (q.  v.),  who  was  named 
electoral  chancellor,  metropohtan,  and  primate  of 
Germanv.  The  primatial  see  was  transferred  to  Ratis- 
bon.  under  French  rule,  Mainz  was  changed  into  a 
simple  diocese  in  Oct.,  1802,  and  made  subject  to 
Mechlin,  its  jurisdiction  being  confined  to  that  portion 
of  the  old  archdiocese  which  lay  on  the  left  bauK  of  the 
Rhine. 

(2)  From  the  Foundation  of  the  Modem  Diocese  of 
Maim  to  the  Present  Day.—^he  new  diocese  corre- 
sponded to  the  Department  of  Mont  Tonnerre,  and  in- 
cluded portions  of  the  earlier  dioceses  of  Mainz, 
Worms,  Speyer,  and  Metz .  Under  Ludwig  Colmar  (a, 
v.,  1802-18)  was  accomplished  the  delimitation  of  the 
diocese.  On  his  death  the  diocese,  which  was  again 
under  German  rule,  was  left  vacant  and  administered 
by  a  vicar  general.  On  the  reorganization  of  ecclesi- 
astical affairs  in  Germany^  which  resulted  in  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Ecclesiastical  Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine 
(c|.  v.).  the  Diocese  of  Mainz  was  made  conterminous 
with  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse,  and  constituted  suf- 
fragan of  this  newly  erected  province.  Joseph  Vitus 
Burg  (1830-3),  appointed  by  Pius  VIII,  had  taken  a 
prominent  part  in  the  negotiations  concerning  the 
erecftion  of  the  new  province;  he  was.  however  affected 
by  Josephism,  and  defended  the  oroinanoes  (Kircken- 
'pra^matik),  which  the  Upper  Rhine  governments,  in 
opposition  to  their  earlier  aeclarations,  imposed  on  the 
bisnops,  although  they  had  already  been  condemned 
by  Rome.  Burg  also  entered  a  very  feeble  protest 
wnen  the  seminary,  founded  bv  Colmar,  was  partially 
suppressed  and  it-s  theological  faculty  transferred  to 
the  University  of  Giessen.  On  the  death  of  John 
Jacob  Humann  (1833-4),  Peter  Leopold  Kaiser  (1835- 
48)  found  himself  greatly  hampered  by  government 
interference;  while  in  the  matter  of  the  reopening  of 
the  seminary  his  action  in  parliament  was  not  suffi- 
ciently energetic,  he  opposed  unflinchingly  the  "  Ger- 
man Catholic "  movement  of  the  followers  of  Ronge 
in  his  diocese,  and  was  in  his  later  years  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  the  zealous  Lennig  (q.  v.). 

On  Kaiser's  death  the  chapter  chose  Professor  Leo- 
pold Schniidt  of  Giessen,  but  Rome  refused  to  confirm 
the  election  on  account  of  the  candidate's  practically 
indifferentist  religious  and  philosophical  views.  As 
the  chapter,  dispensing  with  a  new  election,  then  re- 
ferred tne  selection  to  the  Holy  See,  Pius  IX  appointed 
Wilhehn  Emmanuel  von  Ketteler  (q.  v.)  bbhop  on  15 
March,  1850.  Ketteler's  closing  years  were  clouded  by 
the  outbreak  of  the  Kulturkampf  in  Uessc  (q.  v.),  and, 
after  his  death,  the  see  was  left  vacant  in  consequence 
of  the  attitude  of  the  government,  the  payment  of  the 
episcopal  dotation  was  suspended  in  1880  and  numer- 
ous parishes  (about  one  fourth)  left  without  a  pastor. 


BtAZPUBX  5 

The  diooeae  was  meanwhile  ad  miniate  red  by  Christo- 
pher Moofang  (a.  v.).  Id  1S86  an  agreement  was 
arrived  at,  and  Paul  Leopold  Haffner,  who  had  ac- 
quired a  reputation  as  aphiloaophcr  and  apolopat, 
was  appointed  bishop.  Tlie  eemiaary  and  diocesan 
colleges  were  reopen^  in  1887,  and  the  task  of  filling 
the  vacant  pariahes  undertaken.  In  1895  religious 
orders,  whicn  devoted  themselves  to  education  and 
the  care  of  the  sick,  were  readmitted.  HafTner  was  fol- 
lowed by  Heinrioh  Brilck  (q.  v.,  1899-1903).  The  pres- 
ent bishop,  George  Heinrich  Haria  Kirstein,  was  elected 
on  20  Nov.,  1903  and  consecrated  on  19  March,  1904. 

Statistics. — The  jiresont  Diocese  of  Mains  coin- 
cides tenitorialty  with  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesae 
(q.  v.),  except  that  three  places  belong  to  the  Diocese 
of  Limburg.  Divided  into  19  deaneries  and  ISS  par- 
ishes, it  possesses  186  parish  priests  and  beneficiaries, 
I  rector,  80  curates,  43]priest8  in  other  positions,  20  on 
leave  or  pensioned.  The  Catholics  number  372,600; 
the  non-CatholicB  830,000.  The  chapter  consists  of 
the  cathedral  dean,  7  canons,  3  cathedral  preben- 
daries; the  oniinanatc  of  a  vicar  general  and  6  epif' 
itual  councillors;  the  o^icialiU^  of  the  official  and  7 
counsellors.  The  bishop  ta  elected  by  the  chapter  from 
a  liat  of  candidates,  which  must  first  be  submitted  to 
the  government.  The  public  authorities  may  erase 
the  names  of  the  less  acceptable  candiiiatcs,  provided 
that  enough  be  left  (o  render  a  canonical  election  pos- 
sible. The  members  of  the  chapter  are  selected  alter- 
nately by  the  bishop  and  the  chapter  itself.  Tlie  dio- 
cesan institutions  include  the  seminary  (S  professors 
and  50  students);  3  diocesan  colleges;  4  episcopal 
boarding-schools  and  orphanages,  delusively  Cath- 
olic high-schools  for  boys  are  forbidden  by  the  Hessian 
school  laws,  and  the  activity  of  the  female  orders  in 
instructing  girls  is  veiyrestncted.  There  are  very  few 
houses  of  the  male  orders;  the  Capuchins  have  2  mon- 
asteries (Mains  and  Dieburg)  with  12  fathers  and  10 
brothers;  the  Brothers  of  Mercy  I  house  with  12 
brothers;  the  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph  parent  house  in 
Kleiniimmem  with  8  brothers;  the  Schulhrilder  1 
house  with  a  middle  school  in  MainiE.  The  female 
orders  are:  theSistersof  Mercy  from  the  mother-house 
at  Trier,  2  houses  with  26  sisters;  the  English  Ladies, 
_  7  houses  with  165  sisters;  the  Franciscan  Sisters  from 
'  Aaclwn,  3  houses  with  27  sisters;  the  Franciscan  Sis- 
ters of  the  Perpetual  Adoration,  1  house  with  35 
sisters;  the  SisWrs  of  Divine  Providence,  mother- 
house  at  Mainz  and  72  filial  houses  with  534  sisters; 
the  Sisters  of  the  Most  Sacred  Redeemer  from  the 
mother-house  at  Niederbronn,  19  houses  with  66  sis- 


with  120  sisters.  Among  the  Catholic  orfrans  of  the 
diocese  the  "KathoHk"  and  the  "Archiv  EOr  katho- 
lisches  Kirchcnrecht"  deserve  special  mention. 

The  principal  churches  of  the  diocese  are;  the 
Romanesque  Cathedral  of  St.  Martin  at  Maim,  one  of 
the  most  interesting  monuments  for  the  history  of 
architecture  in  Germany;  the  Early  Gothic  Church  ot 
St.  Stephen  (1237-1328);  the  Baroque  Ignazkirche 
(1763-74) ;  the  cathedral  and  late  Gothic  Liebfiauen- 
kirche  at  Wormsj  the  basilica  of  the  former  Benedic- 
tine abb^  at  Sehgcnstadt  (Carlovingian) ;  the  former 
church  of  the  Dominicanesses  (thirteenth  century). 

ConcflmiDR  tba  town,  see  StmvHCK,  BeittOat  tur  It.  Ofch. 
mil  UTkmdm  (3  vols.,  Msini  and  Frankfort.  ITSS-QO); 
Werner,  Arr  bom  xa  M.  H  vols..  Mami.  1g£r-36)i  Schaab, 
Onrh.  dn-  SlaiU.  M.  H  toK,  Mttini.  1S41-51:)  HuEt.  Chrm. 
der  mitutriitin.  StadU.  II  (I^p»(.  1882);  BdRCKEL.  It.  Qt- 
KkidiltlnidiT  (Maioi,  IStM):  Schneider,  Drr  Dmn  n>  U.  u. 
iciaeDenkmnUr  ftiaJoit,  1903);  BeilTiQe  ivr  GtKk.  dtr  Vnivtrti- 
Utlt.  u.  Oieaen  (Oicssoi.  1007);  Neeb.  M.  u.  Umatlnma  (3rd 
ed..  Btotlnrt.  1908);  HdLin,  Dot  toUmt  M  .  1  (Maini.  1910). 
For  the  aldnr  litaratun  ini  tha  See  of  Uaii^i,  .«u  Chevalier. 
Tapo-B&t..  B,  V.  Jfavnuv:  consult  tiao  Bcbeppliu,  Coda  wclu. 
MBDwU-naviii.  (AachaItenbiirc,18(K);jArF£.Af<>>iitn.  Mogiint 
(BerliD,  \9aK);RwQtitmwaT0tidi.iBBnbiKhiilcvoitM„b^pai 
by  BdHUKH  mo  Wiu,  (from  BauIfMe  to  VIW;  lacsbmck, 
JB77-86),  and  conlmued  Sy  VogT  ksd  VtUBNEE  (from  1280  to 


Marburi.  1907—);  Hehhes,  Die  Enbixlu,/e  mn  U.  (3r1 
lalni,   ISTB)-  "—     "-'-—   "    -«-:—    .=™.  •— - 


liBNaLE,   Ver/datung  u.    Varwailuiw  i* 

(mra«bujs,  I90b);  Golpscrhliit,  ZentraLocnoroen  u.  oeonuen- 
tum  im  Kurturit.  M.  aim  18,  fc«  lum  18.  Jahth.  (Berlin  abd 
Leipiig.  IMS):  anuKlna,  Die  WahOtapO^  dtr  Bnb,  u.  Ktaf, 
mm  M,  (Qattlunn,  IWW);  WBHCi,Cu<f(rMuiio  rfu  Ertetiflei  It, 
<m  Oaiu  der  deuUc/tm  OawA.  (Kand.  IBOS);  Btdte.  Cu  U. 
EnbitcAefiu.diedtuUcAeKonlfrahlCKeiiBat.  1010);  ZntvAr. 
duitf,  .4Urrtumnirrnn((Mauu,  1903— );  SchenuuiemUi  der  Di^ 
am  U.  (Uaini,  1909).  See  aba  under  Hebse:  Upper  RioNk, 
EcCLEBiAancAL  Province  of  the,  and  tbe  todividuai  bisboiia. 

Joseph  Lins. 

Maipnre  Indluis  (Mayfqre),  a  former  important 
group  oi  tribes  on  the  Upper  Orinoco  River,  from 
above  the  Meta  about  to  the  entrance  of  the  Casai* 
quiare,  in  Venezuela  and  Colombia,  speaking  dialects 
of  the  Arawakan  stock.  The  tribes  were  the  Maipure 
propBT;  Meepure;  Cavere,  or  Cabre;  Avane,  or 
Abaui;  Parenij  Gutpuiiave,  or  Guaypunavi,  and 
Chirupa,  or  Quirupa,  The  Achagua,  on  the  middle 
Meta,  Colombia,  were  sometimes  regarded  as  be- 
longing to  the  same  group.  The  Maipure  tribes  re- 
mained practically  unknown  up  to  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  Their  chief  and  constant 
enemies  were  the  cannibal  Caribs  of  the  Lower  Orinoco. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Portuguese  ala\'e  hunters  of  Brazil  (see  Maueluco) 
extended  their  inroad.i  into  the  Upper  Orinoco  region 
through  the  assistance  of  the  Cuipuiiave  on  the  Ini- 
rida,  who,  though  ferocious,  were  superior  to  the  sur- 
rounding (ribcs,  having  clothes  and  palisaded  forts 
with  stores  of  extra  weapons.  These  incursions  at 
last  became  BO  threatening  that  in  1744  FatherRoman, 
superior  of  the  Jesuit  missions  of  the  Lower  Orinoco, 
took  the  desperate  resolution  of  ascending  the  river, 
without  an  escort  of  soldiers  to  tiy  and  arrange  terms 
withlheGuipufiuve,  Taking  a  few  Indians,  with  a 
crucifix  erected  at  the  bow  of  his  boat,  he  advanced  to 
the  Alabapo  and  then  to  Brazil  by  the  Negro,  return- 
ing to  the  Carichana  misiiion  after  seven  months' 
travel.  He  was  thus  the  first  to  discover  the  con- 
nexion of  the  Amazon  and  the  Orinoco  by  means  of 
the  rivere  Cassiquiare  and  Negro.  As  a  result  the 
Guipuilave  ceased  their  inroads,  and  some  of  the  tribe 
settled  at  tbe  cataract  of  Maipures,  in  1744,  the  new 
mission  being  called  San  Jos^  de  Maipures.  It  in- 
cluded Guipufiai-e  and  Pareni,  with  some  remotely 
cognate  Guariquena  from  theCasaiouiare.  In  1748  the 
Jesuit  Francisco  Gonzales  established  the  mission  of 
San  Juan  Nepomuceno  de  loa  Atures,  now  Atures, 
Vcnesuela,  gathering  into  it  Ature  (Salivan  stoc^, 
Maipure  proper,  Meepure,  Abani,  and  Quirupa.  In 
1749  arrived  Father  Gilii,  the  historian  of  the  Jesuit 
missions  of  the  Orinoco,  to  whom,  according  to  Her- 
v&B,  is  due  the  conversion  of  the  Maipure  tribes. 

When  the  Guipufiave  ceased  their  warfare  on  the 
missions  another  neighbouring  cannilial  tribe,  the 
Maoitivitano,  continued  the  work  of  destruction  for 
the  rewards  neld  out  by  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch. 
When  in  1756  Solano,  commander  of  the  boundary  ex- 
pedition, reached  the  confluence  of  the  Atabapo  wi^ 
the  Orinoco  he  found  there  a  settlement  of  Guipu- 
ilave, whose  chief,  won  over  by  Roman  years  before, 
not  only  consented  to  the  ealablishment  of  a  garrison 
and  mission,  San  Fernando  de  Atabapo,  hut  also 
promised  to  enter  the  mission  with  all  his  people. 
This  mission,  practically  of  government  origin,  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  Observanlines.  About  the 
same  time  the  mission  at  Atures  had  320  Indians 
and  that  at  Maipures  600,  where  Humboldt  in  1800 
found  only  47  and  60  respectively.  Besides  religion, 
the  fathers  taught  their  neophytes  habits  of  regular- 
ity and  industry,  suppressed  the  more  barterouB 
practices  and,  the  Jesuits  especially,  introduced  cattle, 
goats,  and  European  fruits  and  vegetables.    But  not- 


BCAISTRE 


554 


MAISTRE 


withstanding  the  greater  security  and  plenty  of  the 
mission,  the  Venezuelan  savage  preferred  the  life  of 
the  forest.  His  superstition  also  made  him  fear  to 
stay  near  the  «pot  where  one  of  his  friends  had  died. 
Unsanitary  habits,  secret  abortion,  and  frequent  fever 
epidemics  from  periodical  river  floods,  made  a  high 
death  rate,  especially  among  the  children. 

The  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Spanish  America 
in  1767  meant  the  ruin  of  most  of  the  missions  on  the 
Orinoco.  The  Jesuit  establishments  were  placed  un- 
der civil  officers  who  appropriated  all  movable  prop- 
erhr,  leaving  the  rest  to  decay  and  destruction,  in 
1785  the  missions  were  placed  in  charge  of  the  Obser- 
vantines.  It  was  too  late,  however,  to  repair  the  ruin. 
Of  the  Indians,  only  a  small  fraction  remamed,  the  rest 
having  returned  to  their  forests  or  perished  of  disease 
and  starvation.  The  missionaries  tnemsel  ves  were  no 
lonj^er  free,  but  constantly  subject  to  the  annoying  in- 
terterence  of  government  officials.  In  1800  hardly  a 
hundred  Indians  were  left  in  the  two  principal  Maipure 
missions.  By  the  shifting  of  tribes  the  Atures  mission 
was  then  occupied,  not  by  descendants  of  its  ori^nal 
inhabitants,  but  by  Guahibo  and  Maco,  of  entirely 
alien  stocks.  San  Fernando  de  Atabapo  had  suffered 
less  than  the  rest  and  was  still  a  station  of  importance 
with  its  Indian  fields  and  neat  priest's  house,  although 
the  former  hcnis  of  cattle  had  disappeared.  To-day 
the  missions  are  extinct.  Of  the  Maipure  proper  only 
a  few  half-breeds  keep  the  name. 

Except  for  a  scant  oreech-cloth,  the  Maipure  went 
entirely  naked,  but  painted  their  whole  bodies  usually 
with  a  bright  red  obtained  from  vegetable  dyes. 
Their  chief  diet  was  cassava  bread,  bananas  and  nsh. 
They  used  very  little  meat,  which  they  seasoned  with 
a  few  drops  of  a  mineral  solution  which  took  the  place 
of  salt.  Their  favourite  exhilarant  was  the  chicha,  or 
chiza,  fermented  from  com  or  bananas.  Their  huts 
were  open  structures  roofed  with  palm  or  banana 
leaves,  with  simple  furniture  of  reed  mats,  earthen 
pots,  fishing  nets,  and  sleeping  hammocks.  Their 
weapons  were  the  bow  and  arrow,  and  the  blowgun 
with  arrows  tipped  with  the  deadly  ciirari  poison. 
The  men  were  expert  canoeists.  AH  the  Maipure 
tribes  were  especially  noted  for  tlie  pottery  manufac- 
tured by  their  women,  which  excelleu  in  execution  and 
in  colour,  artistic  design  and  glazing.  They  were  all 
cannibals.  Their  government  was  rather  patriarchal 
than  tribal,  eight  or  ten  families  usually  living  to- 
gether, and  combining  in  larger  numbers  only  for  war 
purposes.  Polygamy  was  the  rule,  and  polyandry 
among  brothers  was  common  with  the  Maipure. 
They  oelieved  in  nature  gods,  and  ridiculed  the  i^a  of 
churches,  saying  their  gods  would  not  be  confined  in 
houses.  The  missionaries  met  this  by  holding  ser- 
vices in  the  open  air.  Their  cult  centred  around  a 
sacred  earthenware  trumpet,  called  hotuto,  which  was 
periodically  sounded  in  elaborate  ceremonial  proces- 
sions under  the  palm  trees  to  insure  abundant  fruit, 
was  consulted  as  an  oracle,  and  for  a  woman  to  ap- 
proach within  sight  of  it,  the  penalty  was  death. 

Qxux,  Soffffio  di  Storia  Americana  (Rome,  1784);  Gumii^la, 
Bl  Orenoco  lluatrado  (Madrid,  1745);  Hdmboldt,  TraveU  to 
th§  Equinoctial  Regions  of  America  (London,  1881);  HeryXs, 
Caidlogo  de  laa  Lenguaa,  I  (Madrid,  1800);  Brinton,  American 
Races  (New  York,  1891). 

James  Mooney. 

Maistre,  Joseph-Marie,  Comte  de,  French  philo- 
sophical writer,  b.  at  Chamb^ry,  in  Savoy,  in  1753, 
when  Savoy  did  not  belong  to  France;  d.  at  Turin,  26 
Feb.,  1821.  His  family,  which  was  of  French  origin, 
had  settled  in  Savoy  a  century  earlier,  and  had  at- 
tained a  high  position,  his  father  being  president  of  the 
Senate.  Joseph,  the  eldest  of  ten  children,  was  a  pupil 
of  the  Jesuits,  who,  like  his  parents,  inspired  him  with 
an  intense  love  of  religion  and  detestation  of  the  eigh- 
teenth-century philosophical  rationalism,  which  the 
ji}wAy»  resolutely  opposed.    In  1774  he  entered  the 


magistracy;  in  1780  he  was  assistant  fiscal  advocate 
general;  in  1788  he  was  appointed  senator,  being  then 
thirty-five  years  old.  Four  years  later,  he  was  forced 
to  fly  before  the  invading  French,  and  discharged 
for  four  years  at  Lausanne  a  confidential  mission  for 
his  sovereign,  the  I^^ng  of  Sardinia.  That  monarch 
having  lost  tJie  capital  of  his  kingdom,  de  Maistre 
lived  m  poverty  at  Venice,  but,  on  the  restoration 
of  the  king,  went  to  Sardinia  as  keeper  of  the  great 
seal  (1799)  and,  three  years  later,  to  St.  Petersbui^, 
aaplenipotentiary.  This  mission  lasted  fourteen  years, 
till  1817.  Though  weakly  supported  by  his  Govern- 
ment, which  was  at  times  displeased  with  his  frank- 
ness, poor  amidst  a  lavish  aristocracy,  he  never- 
theless successfully  defended  the  interests  of  his  coun- 
try with  the  Czar  Alexander,  who,  like  most  of  the 
leading  personages  at  St.  Petersburg,  highly  appre- 
ciated his  character  and  his  ability.  He  afterwards 
returned  to  Turin,  to  fill  the  post  of  minister  of  State 
and  keeper  of  the  ereat  seal  until  his  death. 

The  writings  of  Joseph  de  Maistre  (as  well  as  those 
of  his  younger  brother — q.  v.,  below)  were  all  in 
French,  then  the  literary  language  of  Piedmont.  Jo- 
seph's first  important  work  was  written  during  his  so- 
journ in  Switzerland.  He  was  then  forty  years  of 
age.  He  had  previously  composed  some  speeches  and 
a  few  comparatively  unimportant  essays.  We  may 
mention  '*LV'loge  de  Victor  AmM^e  III",  attacking 
the  intolerance  which  had  lighted  the  fires  of  the 
stake,  and  glorifying  the  war  of  the  Americans  against 
their  oppressors.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
Hevohition,  he  published  some  writings  on  current 
events,  e.  g. ''Discours  k  M.  le  Marquis  Costa  de 
Beauregard  sur  la  vie  et  la  mort  de  son  fils'^  and 
"Cinq  paradoxes  k  la  Marquise  de  Nav  ..."  (1795). 
In  the  following  year  appeared  his  "Considerations 
sur  la  France"  (London  and  Lausanne,  in  folio); 
although  its  dissemination  was  rigorously  forbidden 
by  the  French  authorities,  several  editions  were  ex- 
hausted within  a  year.  The  author  maintains  the 
thesis  that  France  lias  a  mission  from  God:  she  is  the 
principal  instrument  of  good  and  of  evil  on  earth. 
De  Maistre  looks  on  the  Revolution  as  a  providential 
occurrence:  the  monarchy,  the  aristocracy,  the  whole 
of  the  old  French  society,  instead  of  turning  the  power- 
ful influence  of  French  civilization  to  benefit  man- 
kind, had  used  it  to  foster  the  doctrines  of  the 
eighteenth-century  philosophers:  the  crimes  of  the 
Reign  of  Terror  were  the  punishment  thus  merited. 
The  author  added  that  the  foreign  nations  were  dupes 
of  a  foolish  dream,  in  undertaking  the  dismeml^r- 
ment  of  France,  "the  most  beautiful  kingdom  after 
that  of  heaven  ".  Finally,  he  predicted  a  speedy  resto- 
ration, and  disappearance  of  the  abuses  of  the  past. 

In  connexion  with  this  work  must  be  mentioned  a 
little  book  composed  in  1809,  under  the  title  "Essai 
sur  le  principe  g^n^rateur  des  constitutions  politiijues 
et  des  autres  institutions  humaines".  Its  main  idea 
is,  that  constitutions  are  not  the  artificial  products  of 
the  study,  but  come  in  due  time  and  under  suitable 
circumstances  from  God,  who  slowly  brings  them  to 
maturity.  After  the  appearance  in  1 81 6  of  the  treatise 
"Sur  les  deiais  de  la  justice  divine  dans  la  punition  des 
coupables",  translated  from  Plutarch,  with  additions 
and  notes,  Joseph  de  Maistre  published  at  Lyons  in 
1 81 9  his  masterpiece  "  Du  Pape  .  The  work  (2  vols,  in 
8vo.)  is  divided  mto  four  parts.  In  the  first  the  author 
proves  that  in  the  Church  the  pope  is  sovereign ,  and  that 
it  is  an  essential  characteristic  of  all  sovereign  power 
that  its  decisions  should  be  subject  to  no  appeal. 
The  doctrinal  declarations  of  the  pope  are  binding  on 
.man  without  right  of  appeal.  Consequently,  the  pope  is 
infallible  in  his  teaching,  since  it  is  by  his  teaching  that 
he  exercises  his  sovereignty.  And  in  point  of  fact ' '  no 
sovereign  pontiff,  speaking  freely  to  the  Church,  has 
ever  made  a  mistake  in  the  matter  of  faith".  In  the 
remaining  divisions  of  his  work  the  author  examines 


SAAISTftfi 


655 


MAtTLAttD 


the  relations  of  the  pope  and  the  temporal  powers; 
civilization  and  the  welfare  of  nations;  the  schionatical 
Churches.  He  establishes  that  nations  require  to  be 
guaranteed  ajgainst  abuses  of  the  power  to  which  they 
are  subject  by  a  sovereignty  superior  to  all  others; 
now,  tms  sovereignty  can  be  none  but  the  papacy, 
which,  even  in  the  Aliddle  Ages,  had,  in  fact,  already 
saved  European  civilization  from  the  barbarians.  As 
to  the  schismatical  Churches,  the  writer  thinks  that 
they  will  inevitably  fall  into  Protestantism,  and  from 
Protestantism  through  Socinianism  into  philosophic 
indifference.  For  "no  religion  can  resist  science, 
except  one. " 

The  treatise,  "L'Eglise  Gallicane  dans  ses  rapports 
avec  les  souverains  pontifes"  (Paris,  1821,  in  8vo), 
formed,  in  the  original  plan  of  the  author,  the  fiiih 
part  of  the  precedmg  work.  De  Maistre  at  the  last 
moment  resolved,  on  the  advice  of  his  friends,  to  make 
it  a  separate  work.  He  discusses  vigorously,  and  at 
times,  from  the  Galilean  standpoint,  harshly,  the  cele- 
brated Declaration  of  the  Assembl^c  of  1682.  Besides 
a  voluminous  correspondence,  Joseph  de  Maistre  left 
two  posthumous  works.  One  of  these,  "  L'examen  de 
la  philosophic  de  Bacon  "  (Paris,  1836, 2  vols,  in  8vo), 
is  an  attack  on  Locke  and  Condillac,  and  in  general  on 
the  French  philosophers  of  the  eighteenth  centur>',  in 
the  person  whom  tne  author  considers  as  the  father  of 
their  system.  This  work  is  not  among  the  most  highly 
esteemed  of  De  Maistre's  writings.  The  "Soir6es 
de  St.  Pdtersbourg"  (Paris,  1821,  2  vols.  8vo)  is  a 
reply  in  the  forpa  of  a  dialogue  to  the  objection 
against  Providence  drawn  from  the  existence  of  evil 
in  the  world.  For  Joseph  de  Maistre,  the  existence  of 
evil,  far  from  obscuring  the  designs  of  God,  throws  a 
new  light  on  them;  for  the  moral  world  and  the  physi- 
cal world  are  inter-related.  Physical  evil  exists  only 
because  there  has  been,  and  there  is,  moral  evil.  All 
wrong  must  be  expiated.  So  humanity,  w^hich  has 
always  believed  in  the  necessity  of  this  expiation,  has 
had  recourse,  to  accomplish  it,  not  only  to  prayer,  but 
to  sacrifice,  that  is,  the  shedding  of  blood,  the  merits 
of  the  innocent  being  applied  to  the  guilty — a  law  as 
mysterious  as  it  is  inaubitable,  and  which,  in  the  opin- 
ion of  the  author,  explains  the  existence  and  tlie  per- 
petuity of  war.  The  fame  of  Joseph  de  Maistre  has 
been  enhanced,  too,  by  his  **Correspondance".  Al- 
most six  hundred  of  his  letters  have  been  preserved. 
In  them  one  finds  the  tender  father,  the  loving,  de- 
voted friend,  and  at  the  same  time  a  keen,  ingenious, 
unaffected,  joyous  writer.  His  complete  works  were 
published  in  fourteen  volumes,  8vo,  at  Lyons,  1884-87. 

To  appreciate  de  Maistre  in  his  writings  as  a  whole, 
one  may  remark  that  his  ideas  are  bold  and  penetrat- 
ing, and  his  views  so  clear  and  accurate  that  at  times 
they  seem  prophetic.  An  enthusiastic  believer  in  the 
principle  of  authority,  which  the  Revolution  tried  to 
aestroy,  he  defends  it  everj'where:  in  the  State  by 
extolling  the  monarchy;  in  the  Church  by  exalting 
the  privileges  of  the  papacy;  in  the  world  by  glorifying 
the  rights  and  the  conduct  of  God.  His  style  is  strong, 
hvely,  picturesque;  animation  and  good  humour  tem- 
per his  dogmatic  tone,  and  he  might  even  be  deemed 
eloquent.  It  is  true  he  does  not  disdain  paradox  in  his 
thinking  or  violence  in  his  language:  he  has  neither 
the  moderation  nor  the  serenity  of  Bossuet.  But  he 
possesses  a  wonderful  facility  in  exposition,  precision 
of  doctrine,  breadth  of  learning,  and  dialectical  power. 
He  influenced  the  age  that  followed  him:  he  dealt 
Gallicanism  such  decisive  blo^  that  it  never  rose 
again.  In  a  word,  he  was  a  great  and  virtuous  man, 
a  profound  thinker,  and  one  of  the  finest  writers  of 
that  French  language  of  which  his  works  are  a  distin- 
guished ornament. 

Raymond,  Eloge  du  Cotnte  Joseph  de  Maistre  (Chamb^ry, 
1827) ;  DE  Margerie,  Le  ComU  Joseph  de  Maistre  (Paris,  1882) ; 
Descottes,  Joseph  de  Maistre  avant  la  Rivoliition  (Paris,  1803); 
CoQORDAN,  Joseph  de  Maistre  (Paris,  1894). 

Gboroes  Bebtrin. 


Maistre,  Xavier  de,  French  romance-writer, 
yoimger  brother  of  the  preceding,  b.  at  Chamb^ry, 
Savoy,  in  1763;  d.  at  St.  Petersburg,  12  June,  1852. 
Being  an  oflScer  in  the  Sardinian  Araiy  when  Savoy 
was  reunited  to  France  in  1792,  he  became  expatriated 
like  his  brother.  In  1799  he  was  in  the  Austro-Russian 
army  in  Italy.  He  followed  General  SuvarofT  to  Rus- 
sia, but,  his  protector  having  fallen  into  disgrace,  was 
reduced  to  earn  his  living  by  painting,  being  a  land- 
scape artist  of  great  ability.  Tne  arri  val  of  his  brother 
Joseph  as  envoy  extraordinary  of  the  King  of  Sardinia, 
changed  his  situation.  He  entered  the  Admiralty 
Office  and  became,  in  1805,  librarian  of  the  Admiralty 
Musevun;  he  was  then  named  to  the  staff  of  the  army, 
took  part  in  the  Caucasian  War,  was  made  a  general, 
and  married  a  lady-in-waiting  of  the  empress.  From 
that  time  he  looked  on  himself  as  a  Russian  subject. 
He  did  not  visit  Savoy  again  till  1825.  After  a  snort 
stay  in  Paris  in  1839,  he  returned  to  St.  Petersburg, 
where  he  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-nine. 

It  may  be  said  that  de  Maistre  became  a  writer  by 
chance.  When  a  young  officer  at  Alexandria,  in 
Piedmont,  he  was  arrested  for  duelling.  Having  been 
sentenced  to  remain  in  his  quarters  for  forty-two  days, 
he  composed  his  "Voyage  autour  de  ma  chambre". 
He  added  some  chapters  later,  but  did  not  judge  the 
work  worthy  of  being  published;  but  his  brother, 
however,  having  read  the  manuscript,  had  it  printea 
(1794).  It  is  a  delightful  chat  witn  the  reader,  filled 
with  delicate  observations,  in  which  an  artless  grace, 
humour,  and  spontaneous  wit  are  wedded  to  a 
gentle  and  somewhat  dreamy  philosophy.  In  1811 
appeared  "Le  L^preux  de  la  cit6  d'Aoste".  This 
little  dialogue,  of  about  thirty  pages,  between  an  iso- 
lated leper  and  a  passing  soldier  (the  author),  breathes 
a  touching  spirit  of  resignation,  ahid  unites  an  im- 
pressive simplicity  of  form  with  suppressed  emotion 
and  exalted  moral  and  religious  ideas.  It  is  a  little 
gem,  a  masterpiece.  The  same  must  be  said  of  the 
two  novels  published  some  years  later:  "I^s  prison- 
niers  du  Caucase*'  and  "La  jeune  Sib^rienne".  In 
the  former  the  author  relates  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
captivity  of  Major  Kascambo,  who  has  fallen,  with 
his  ordnance,  into  an  ambuscade.  "  La  jeune  Sib^ri- 
cnne"  is  the  story  of  a  young  girl  who  comes  from 
Siberia  to  St.  Petersburg  to  ask  for  the  pardon  of 
her  parents.  It  is  the  Tact  round  which  Madame 
Cottm  has  woven  her  romance  "Elisabeth,  ou  les 
exilds  de  la  Sil>6rie";  but  the  story  of  Xavier  de 
Maistre  is  by  far  the  truer  to  life  and  more  pathetic. 
In  1825  de  Maistre  wrote,  as  a  pendant  to  his  first 
work,  in  the  same  vein  and  with  the  same  charm,  the 
"  Expedition  nocturne  autour  de  ma  chambre". 

Xavier  de  Maistre,  it  is  true,  has  written  only  book- 
lets, but  these  booklets  are  masterpieces  of  their  Idnd. 
His  style  is  ingenious,  graceful,  and  brilliant,  while  its 
simplicity,  lucidity,  and  rhythm  wonderfully  enhance 
its  charm  for  reaciers.    He  may  be  regarded  as  one  of 

the  first  among  French  authors  of  the  second  rank. 
Sainte-Beuve,  Portraits  coniemporains. 

Georqeb  Bertrin. 

Maitland,  Diocese  of  (Maitlandensis^,  in  New 
South  Wales.  Maitland,  the  principal  settlement  on 
Hunter  River,  was  chosen  as  the  title  for  a  bishop  in 
1848,  when  Dr.  William  Henry  Davis,  O.S.B.,  was  sent 
as  coadjutor  to  the  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Folding,  O.S.B.. 
Archbishop  of  Sydney,  with  the  title  of  Bishop  oi 
Maitland.  However,  it  did  not  become  a  residential 
see  until  some  twenty  years  later,  when  the  first  suffra- 
gan dioceses  of  New  South  Wales  were  established : 
Goulbum  in  1864,  and  Bathurst  and  Maitland  in  1865. 
The  Right  Reverend  James  Murray,  then  secretary  to 
Cardinal  Cullen,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Maitland. 
and,  after  being  consecrated  in  the  pro-cathedral  ot 
Dublin  by  Cardinal  Cullen  on  14  November,  1865,  pro- 
ceeded to  his  distant  diocese,  of  which  ha  tflfik^^^Rfc- 


AIAJANO 


556 


AIAJOEDOMO 


ftesBion  on  1  November,  1866.  The  Diocese  of  Mait- 
land,  which  served  as  an  episcopal  title  to  Bishop 
Davis,  0.  S.  B.,  consisted  of  the  borough  of  East  Mait- 
land  only.  The  diocese,  as  constituted  by  Papal  Brief 
of  1866.  was  very  extended,  and  in  1887,  at  Bishop 
Murray  s  request  in  the  first  Plenary  Council  of  Syci- 
ne^,  a  considerable  reduction  in  its  territory  was  made, 
bnneing  it  to  its  present  limits.  The  present  Diocese 
of  Maitland  comprises  that  portion  of  New  South 
Wales,  which  lies  between  Camden  Haven  and  Red 
Head,  stretching  west  as  far  as  Wollar  and  Cassilis  and 
north  as  far  as  Murrurundi.  It  thus  lies  between  31^ 
31'  and  33°  7'  S.  kt.,  and  between  149**  5(/  and  152^ 
51'  £.  long.  The  area  is  about  12,000  sq.  miles.  The 
rainfall  ranees  from  30  to  40  inches  annuallv  in  the 
parts  near  tne  coast,  and  from  20  to  30  in  tne  other 
parts.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  63°.  The 
diocese  contains  a  large  area  of  coal-measures  in  the 
vicinity  of  Maitland  and  Newcastle ;  large  stretches  of 
rich  arable  land  lie  on  the  banks  of  Hunter  and  Man- 
ning Rivers,  and  fine  pastoral  tracts  throughout. 

Among  its  population  of  some  150,000,  Maitland 
has  a  Catholic  population  of  30,000.  The  Catholics 
are  for  the  most  part  of  Irish  descent,  but  in  a  few 
places  those  of  German  descent  are  fairly  numerous. 
There  are  twenty  parochial  districts,  each  possessing  a 
church  and  presbytery  with  one  or  more  resident  secu- 
lar priests  (m  all  40),  and  in  nearly  every  district  are 
one  or  more  convents  of  teaching  sisters  (in  all  30 
convents  and  250  sisters).  Catholic  parochial  schools 
unaided  by  the  state  have  been  established  in  every 
district,  and  are  attended  by  about  4000  children. 
There  is  a  Redemptorist  monastery  at  Waratah,  which 
is  the  centre  of  popular  missions.  The  Marist  Broth- 
ers have  boys'  scnools  at  Maitland  and  Newcastle. 
The  Dominican  Nuns  from  Kingstown,  Ireland,  have 
boarding  and  day  schools,  and  are  engaged  in  both 
secondary  and  primary  education.  The  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  from  Ennis  ana  Callan,  Ireland,  have  a  large 
number  of  primary  schools,  besides  boarding  and  se- 
lect schools.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  from  Bathurst 
have  several  day  schools  and  a  boarding-school — all 
for  primary  education.  The  only  Catholic  Institute 
for  Deaf  Mutes  in  Australasia  is  conducted  at  Wara- 
t^  by  the  Dominican  Nuns.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy 
conduct  an  orphanage  for  girls  at  West  Maitland.  The 
building  and  maintenance  of  the  churches  is  carried  on 
entirely  by  charitable  offerings;  schools  are  also  de- 
pendent on  the  small  fees  paid  and  on  the  charitable 
support  of  Catholics.  Maitland's  first  bishop.  Right 
Rev.  James  Murray,  d.  in  1909.  He  was  succeeded  oy 
Right  Rev.  Patrick  Vincent  Dwyer,  the  first  Austra- 
lian-bom bishop,  ordained  a  priest  in  1882,  and  conse- 
crated coadjutor-bishop  Ip.  1897. 

P.  V.  Dwyer. 

Majano,  Benedetto  da,  a  well-known  Florentine 
sculptor  and  architect  of  the  Renaissance,  b.  at  Ma- 
jano,  Tuscany,  1442;  d.  at  Florence,  24  May,  1498. 
During  his  early  life  he  cultivated  the  art  of  wood- 
mosaic,  at  which  he  was  sin^larly  expert.  King 
Corvinus  of  Hungary  invited  him  to  his  court,  and  it 
is  said  that  the  destruction  on  the  journey  of  some  pre- 
ciously executed  inlay  work  he  was  taking  to  his  royal 
patron  induced  the  artist  to  seek  more  durable  material. 
In  1471-72  he  carved  the  monumental  altar  for  the 
Duomo  of  Faenza  dedicated  to  San  Savino;  in  1474, 
the  bust  of  Pietro  Mellini,  shrewd  and  life-like,  in  the 
Bargello ;  in  1480,  the  framework  of  the  doorway  at  the 
Palazzo  Vecchio,  a  delicate  piece  of  chiselling  still  in 
place.  Also  in  1480,  with  nis  brother  Giuliano,  he 
Duilt  and  made  the  sculptures  for  the  little  oratory  of 
the  Madonna  dell'Olivo,  outside  Prato.  The  charm- 
ing adolescent  St.  John  of  the  Bargello  is  ascribed 
to  the  year  1481.  In  1489  Benedetto  designed  the 
Strozzi  Palace  at  Florence  which  still  stands  (contin- 
ued by  Cronaca),  one  of  the  most  picturesque  memo- 


rials of  its  day.  It  is  believed  he  went  to  Naples  in 
1490>  and  there  executed  various  sculptures,  amoiu; 
others  an  Annunciation  at^the  church  of  Monte  Oli- 
veto.  The  tomb  of  Filippb  Strozzi,  with  its  lovely 
roundel  of  Mother  and  Child  supported  by  cherubs  (S. 
Maria  Novella,  Florence),  dates  trom  about  1491.  In 
1493-94  he  made  carvings  at  San  Gimignaao  in  the 
chapel  of  the  child-patron,  Santa  Fina;  a  bust  of 
Onofrio  Vanni  in  the  sacristy;  and  the  beautiful  tomb 
of  San  Bartolo  in  the  church  of  Sant'  Agostino;  the 
circular  high-reHef  in  the  arch  of  the  Madonna  Bjad 
Infant  Blessing  is  one  of  his  most  exquisite  creations. 
Benedetto's  best-known  and  most  esteemed  produc- 
tion is  the  pulpit  at  the  JPranciscan  church  of  Santa 
Croce,  Florence  (about  1495).  Minor  works  are  the 
group  of  the  seated  Madonna  and  Child  at  the  oratory 
of  the  Misericordia,  Florence;  the  bust  of  Giotto  at 
the  Duomo,  and  of  Squarcialupi  in  the  BargcJlo;  in 
Siena,  the  reliefs  of  the  Evangelists  at  the  Duomo,  and 
a  marble  ciborium  in  the  church  of  S.  Domenico;  a 
fine  bust  of  Filippo  Strozzi  in  the  Louvre,  Paris,  and 
another  in  Berlin;  and  a  door  found  at  Boi^o  San 
Sepolcro,  now  in  a  private  collection  at  Palermo.  The 
portico  of  S.  Maria  delle  Grazie,  at  Arezzo,  is  his.  He 
waj3  buried  in  the  crypt  of  S.  Lorenzo.  Bode  is  of  the 
opinion  that  he  was  the  Florentine  who  most  nearly 
approached  the  German  School,  but,  in  his  best  works, 
he  retains  the  subtilty  and  distinction,  the  fineness 
and  ner\'ous  beauty  of  Donatello  and  of  Rossellino. 

Vabari,  Lives,  tr.  Foster  (London,  1887);  LObke,  Outlines  of 
the  Hislorjl  of  Art  (New  York.  1879);  Perkins,  Historical  Hand- 
book of  Italian  Sculpture  (New  York,  18^);  Bode,  Florentins 
Sculptors  of  the  Renaissance  (London,  1008). 

M.  L.  Handley. 

Majorca  and  Iviza,  Diocese  of  (Majoricensis  et 
Ibusensis),  suffragan  of  Valencia,  with  the  episcopal 
residence  at  Palma  on  the  Island  of  Majorca.  The  see 
is  said  to  have  existed  in  the  fifth  century,  there  being 
mention  of  a  Bishop  Elias  of  Majorca  in  480.  The 
first  historical  reference  is  in  898,  at  which  time  Pope 
Romanus  placed  Majorca  and  Minorca  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Bishop  of  Gerona.  The  episcopal  suc- 
cession was  interrupt^  by  the  Moorish  invasion,  but 
in  the  eleventh  century  the  Moorish  king,  Mi^geyd, 
authorized  the  Bishop  of  Barcelona  to  exercise  juris- 
diction over  Majorca.  Don  Jaime  I  of  Aragon  over- 
came the  Moors  in  1229  and  caused  Mass  to  be  said  in 
the  ancient  mosque  at  Palma.  Gregory  IX  re-estab- 
lished the  see  in  1230,  and  the  first  bishop  was  Rai- 
mundo  de  Toirelles  (1237-66).  The  cathedral,  begun 
in  1230,  is  dedicated  to  the  Assumption  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  The  cathedral  chapter  dates  from  1244,  and 
was  confirmed  by  Innocent  IV,  5  April,  1245.  By  the 
BuU  "  Ineflfabilis  Dei  benignitas  "  (30  April,  1782)  Pius 
VI  made  Iviza  and  Majorca  a  joint  diocese.  It  was 
suppressed  by  the  Concordat  of  1857  and  is  now  gov- 
erned by  a  capitular  vicar.  The  present  Bishop  of 
Majorca  and  Iviza  is  Pedro  Campins  y  Barcelo,  b. 
at  ralma,  14  Jan.,  1859,  ordained  m  1882,  appointed 
Bishop  of  Majorca  21  April,  1898,  and  consecrated 
7  July  following.  There  are  in  Majorca  and  Iviza 
326,000  Cathohcs,  61  parishes,  656  priests,  2U 
churches  and  chapels. 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

Majordomo  (Latin,  Major  domus;  Italian,  Maggior-^ 
domo). — ^The  majordomo  or  chief  steward  of  the  house- 
hold of  the  pope  is  one  of  the  three  (formerly  four) 
palatine  prelates  (prelati  palatini),  concerning  whom 
particulars  have  been  given  in  the  article  Maestro  di 
Camera.  He  belongs  also  to  the  four  "  prdaii  di  fioc- 
cheUo"j  so  called  because  they  have  the  right  to  or- 
nament the  harness  of  their  horses  with  violet  and 
peacock-coloured  feathers.  The  four  prdatea  di  fioC" 
chetto  are,  first  the  Governor  of  Rome  in  his  quality  of 
Vice-Chamberlain,  and  after  him  the  Auditor  and  the 
Treasurer  of  the  Apostolic  Chambrr,  and  then  comes 


MAJORrnr 


657 


MAiUNXS 


the  Major-domo.  In  the  ''Introitus  et  Ebdtufl  Cam- 
ene  Apostolicse"  of  the  Vatican  Archives,  which  be- 
gins with  the  year  1295,  the  officials  of  the  Apostolic 
Household  are  given  in  regular  order  according  to 
their  stipends.  But^  although  even  at  this  date 
there  undoubtedly  existed  a  supreme  steward  of  the 
papal  palace,  the  name  and  duties  attached  to  the 
office  of  a  maiordomo  were  not  strictly  defined  until 
later.  The  alterations  in  the  domestic  administra- 
tion of  the  papal  household,  necessitated  under  Clem- 
ent V  and  John  XXII  by  the  transition  from  the  "  nat- 
ural economy"  to  the  "economy  of  money",  were 
of  a  far-reaching  nature;  but  it  was  only  after  the 
return  of  Martin  V  from  Avignon  in  1418  that  the 
present  offices  were  graduaUy  evolved,  to  attain 
subsequently  during  the  Renaissance  a  full  devel- 
opment. In  the  sixteenth  century  a  maestro  di  ccaa 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  whole  administration  of 
the  papal  household.  Towards  the  end  of  that  cen- 
tury the  same  official  was  accorded  the  title  of  prefetto 
del  Sacro  Palazzo  Apostolico,  and  under  Urban  VlII 
(1623-44)  he  was  first  granted  the  title  of  Mag^ior- 
domo  Pontificio.  It  was  then  his  duty,  on  the  acces- 
sion of  a  new  pope,  to  form  the  papal /ami^iia,  that  is, 
to  suggest  candidates  for  the  various  household  offices 
and  then  to  direct  the  whole  household.  '  In  so  far  as 
this  duty  necessitated  expenditure^  the  Treasurer  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Church,  the  minister  of  finance  for 
the  time  being,  exercised  sharply  defined  control  over 
the  majordomo  and  his  assistants.  This  circumstance 
did  not,  however,  constitute  the  treasurer  a  househcHd 
official,  or  the  Prcpfectus  Sacri  PalaHi  an  administra- 
tive official;  the  Majordomo  is,  and  has  always  been, 
exclusively  a  household  official.  A  complete  list  of  the 
occupants  of  the  office  from  1534  is  preserved.  The 
general  rule  recognized  by  the  Curia  at  the  close  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  that  the  head  of  any  important  depart- 
ment should  have  jurisdiction  over  all  his  assistants, 
extended  to  the  Majordomo.  Not  merely  in  civil  mat- 
ters, but  likewise  in  criminal  charges,  seaebat  pro  tribtin 
nali — he  pronounced  judgment  on  all  officials  of  the 
papal  palace.  In  the  course  of  time  his  duties  as 
majordfomo  were  sharply  distinguished  from  those 
which  he  performed  as  Prefect  of  the  Palace,  so  that 
the  majordomo  was  said  to  be  simultaneously  Prefect 
of  the  Palace.  To  the  prefecture  belonged  the  man- 
agement of  the  museums  and  of  all  establishments  of  a 
special  kind  existing  in  the  palaces — provided  they 
were  not  autonomous.  The  keeping  of  the  palace 
accounts  also  fell  to  the  prefect. 

After  1870  there  was  a  great  change  in  these  condi- 
tions. The  important  office  of  the  prefect  was  sepa- 
rated from  that  of  the  maiordomo,  and  entrusted  to 
the  commission  of  cardinals  appointed  to  administer 
the  business  affairs  of  the  Holy  See.  The  arrange- 
ment of  Leo  XIII  was  so  far  altered  by  Pius  X,  maX 
the  Secretary  of  State  was  made  Prefect  of  the 
Apostolic  Palaces.  Subordinate  to  him  are  the  sub- 
prefect,  the  forriere  maegiore,  the  cavallerizzo  ma^- 
giore,  the  segreteria  delm  prefettiora,  the  computis- 
teria,  the  architetto  and  the  juristic  counsellors,  who 
form,  in  their  corporate  capacity,  the  divisional 
boards  of  direction  of  the  palace  administration.  The 
museums  and  galleries  are  also  entrusted  to  this 
body.  The  above-mentioned  alteration  by  Leo  XIII 
took  place  on  29  Dec,  1891,  after  the  prefecture  had 
been  separated  bv  a  Molus  propritis  of  7  Dec.  The 
present  rights  of  the  Majordomo  are  briefly  as  follows: 
He  enjoys  his  old  privilege  of  accompanying  His  Holi- 
ness, and  remains  Governor  of  the  Conclave.  In  this 
capacity  he  has  the  general  control  of  the  personnel  of 
the  palaces,  and  is  responsible  for  the  quiet  and  good 
order  therein  during  tne  Conclave.  In  the  Congresso 
Palatino  (Palatine  Commission),  should  it  be  here- 
after convened,  he  has  a  seat  and  a  vote.  He  con- 
ducts the  Congregation  of  the  Apostolic  Hospice,  and 
is  director  of  the  Cappella  Siatinaj  the  musical  direc- 


tion of  which  is  (1910)  entrusted  to  Maestro  Perosi. 
All  ordinaiy  and  extraordinary  religious  functions,  in 
which  the  pope  and  papal  court  participate,  are  under 
his  arrangement  ana  direction.  The  appointments  of 
papal  chamberlains  are  forwarded  by  hun  at  the  pope's 
order,  and  he  distributes  the  annual  medals  to  the 
members  of  the  papal  household.  His  earlier  duty  of 
issuing  cards  of  admission  to  the  galleries  and  museums 
for  purposes  of  study  and  copying  is  now  withdrawn 
from  him.  The  Majordomo  is  the  chief  Prelate  of  the 
Household,  has  a  distinctive  dress,  and  enjoys  a  free 

official  residence  in  the  papal  palace. 

In  addition  to  the  veiy  numerous  references  in  Moroni, 
Ditionario  di  Erudix.  Storico-EocUt.t  consult  Galbttz,  Memarie 
di  tre  atUiche  chieae  di  Rieti  (Rome,  1765) :  Sickbl,  Ein  Ruolo  di 
Famiqlia  dea  Papatea  Pius  /K  in  Mitteil.  dea  IhaHl.far  eaterreieh. 
Oeaekichtahrachung,  suppl.  vol.  IV;  Die  kathol.  Kir^ae  u.  ihra 
Diener  in  WoH  u.  Bild,  I  (Berlin,  1899),  277-8.  There  is  a  short 
reference  in  Humphrey.  Urba  et  China  (London,  1899),  122-4. 
For  the  officials  themselves  the  various  series  Oerarchia  CaUO' 
lica,  Notisie  di  Roma,  and  the  old  Relalioni  delta  Corie  di  Roma, 
should  be  consulted. 

Paul  Maria  Baumgarten. 

Majority  (Lat.  majoritas),  the  state  of  a  person  or 
thing  greater,  or  superior,  in  relation  to  another  person 
or  thing.  In  canon  law  the  expression  has  three  prin- 
cipal acceptations:  (1)  In  the  elections  or  delibera- 
tions of  any  assembly,  majority  signifies  a  higher  num- 
ber of  votes.  There  is  an  "  atisolute  majority  ",  when 
the  number  of  votes  exceeds  half  the  number  of  the 
voters;  a  "relative  majority"  when  the  votes  for  the 
one  candidate,  or  party,  numerically  exceed  those 
given  to  any  other.  There  are  also  certain  special 
majorities  required  in  certain  cases,  such  as  that  of 
ti?ii^thirds  required  for  pontifical  elections  (see  Con- 
clave; Election)  ;  (2)  In  reference  to  persons,  majo- 
rity is  the  state  of  persons  who  have  reached  the  age 
required  for  such  and  such  definite  acts;  in  particular, 
for  acts  of  civil  life.  As  a  rule,  the  age  of  majority  is 
fbced  at  twenty-one  years  (see  Minors);  (3)  In  the 
hierarchical  sense,  majority  is  the  superiority  of  cer- 
tain persons  over  certain  others  by  reason  of  the 
charge  or  dignitv  held  by  the  former.  It  connotes 
authority,  or  at  least  precedence;  and  its  correlative 
is  obedience  when  there  is  question  of  jurisdiction, 
deference  and  respect  when  there  is  question  of  dig- 
nity. Thus,  in  the  Church,  the  clergy  are  superior  to 
the  laity;  amon^  the  clergy,  individuals  are  ranked 
according  to  their  jurisdiction,  their  Holy  orders,  etc. 
In  a  certain  sense,  even  church  buildings  have  a  hier- 
archical precedence,  the  first  of  churches  being  St. 
John  Lateran's,  the  pope's  cathedral,  "mother  and 
head  of  all  the  churches  of  Rome  and  of  the  world": 
next  come  the  "major"  basilicas,  then  the  primatial 
churches,  the  metropolitan,  cathedral,  collegiate,  etc. 
(cf.  Decretal,  I,  tit.  xxxiii,  "De  majoritate  et  obedi- 
entia"). 

A.   BOUDINHON. 

Major  Orders.    See  Orders,  Holt. 

Majnnko^  Paul,  Catholic  journalist,  b.  at  Gross- 
Schmosrau  m  Silesia,  14  July,  1842;  d.  at  Hochkirch 
near  Glogau,  21  May,  18W.  He  entered  the  Univer- 
sity of  BresLau  in  1861,  and  devoted  four  yearn  to  the 
study  of  civil  and  canon  law  and  Catholic  theology. 
In  1867  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  from  1869  to  1870 
was  editor  of  the  "KClnische  Zeitung".  From  1871 
to  1878  he  was  editor-in-chief  of  the  ^'Germania";  m 
1874  he  was  elected  member  of  the  Reichstag,  and  in 
1878  also  of  the  Prussian  House  of  Deputies,  attaching 
himself  to  the  Centre  party.  He  encouraged  Catholic 
journalism  and,  during  the  KuUurkampf,  was  a  most 
zealous  and  fearless  champion  of  the  Catholic  cause, 
at  the  cost  of  great  personal  sacrifices.  Unfortunately, 
his  uncompromising  zeal  frequently  incited  him  to 
give  expression  to  ill-timed  utterances  in  both  the 
public  press  and  Parliament,  and  these  led  to  an 
estrangement  between  him  and  the  leading  Catb^V^^^. 
of  the  day.    In  1874 1«  ^«»  ^swcAmoscdr^  \Rk  «cvfc  ^^rs^  "^ 


HK^^Am^A 


558 


Imprisonment  for  violation  of  the  press  laws.  Even 
a  motion  in  his  favour  carried  by  the  Reichstag  failed 
to  secure  the  remission  of  his  sentence.  From  1878 
to  1884  he  was  editor  of  the  "  Korrespondenz  der 
Zentrumsbl&tter'\  After  his  appointment  as  parish 
priest  of  Hochkirch  in  1884,  he  withdrew  from  but 
still  continued  his  activitv  in  joi^malism.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are:  "Geschichte  des  Kulturkampfs'' 
(1886;  3rd  ed.,  1902);  '^GeschichtslQgen''  (1884; 
17th  ed.,  1902),  in  collaboration  with  Galland  and 
other  friends.  Some  of  his  works — e.  g.,  "Louise 
Lateau"  (2nd  ed.,  1875) — ^awakened  surprise  by  their 
pronounced  mystical  and  prophetic  stram.  In  ''Lu- 
ther's Selbstmord"  (1892)  he  attempted  to  establish 
the  untenable  theory  of  Luther's  suicide  (concerning 
this  question  see  Faulus,  ''Luther's  Lebensende' , 

1898). 
BxTTELHEXM,  Btograph,  Jahrbuch,  IV  (1900),  258  sq. 

Thomas  Kennedy, 

Makarska.    See  Spalato,  Diocese  of. 

Makil,  Mathew.  See  Changanacherby,  Vicar- 
iate Apostolic  of. 

Malabar. — In  its  narrower  application  Malabar  is 
the  name  of  a  district  of  British  India  stretching  about 
145  miles  along  the  west  coast,  south  of  Mangalore,  and 
belonging  to  the  Madras  Presidency,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  South  Canara,  on  the  east  by  Coorg,  Mysore 
State,  the  Nilgiris  and  Coimbatore,  and  on  the  south 
by  the  Native  State  of  Cochin.  Its  chief  towns  are 
Cannanore,  Tellicheri,  Calicut  (the  capital),  and  Pal- 
ghat.  In  its  older,  wider,  and  popular  significance  the 
Malabar  Coast  includes,  not  only  the  district  of  Mala- 
bar, but  also  the  Native  States  of  Cochin  and  Tra van- 
core  down  to  Cape  Comorin — in  fact  the  whole  south- 
west comer  of  India  as  far  back  as  the  ghaut  line.  The 
ancient  form  of  the  name  was  Afa/e,  "  where  the  pep- 
per grows",  whence  the  name  A/criayaZam  for  the  pre- 
vailing language.  Ecclesiastically,  British  Malabar 
belongs  to  the  Diocese  of  Mangalore;  the  Cochin  State 
comprises  the  Padroado,  Diocese  of  Cochin,  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Verapoly,  and  the  three  Vicariates  Apostolic 
of  Trichur,  Changanachery,  and  Ernaculani;  while 
the  Travancore  State  is  covered  by  the  Diocese  of 
Quilon,  the  divisions  being  in  each  case  approximate. 
'The  name  Malabar  is  used  in  the  connexion  with  the 
"Syrian  Christians  of  Malabar",  chiefly  found  at  the 
present  day  in  the  three  vicariates  just  mentioned. 
The  so-called  "  Malabar  Rites "  had  nothing  to  do 
with  Malabar  proper,  since  the  scene  of  the  dispute 
was  at  Madura,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  peninsula. 
The  term  seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  fact  that  the 
Madura  mission  was  part  of  the  Malabar  Province  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus.  (See  Malabar  Rites;  Thomas 
Christians;  and  the  various  dioceses  above  men- 
tioned.) 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

Malabar  Rites. — ^A  conventional  term  for  certain 
customs  or  practices  of  the  natives  of  South  India, 
which  the  Jesuit  missionaries  allowed  their  neophytes 
to  retain  after  conversion,  but  which  w-ere  afterwards 
prohibited  by  the  Holy  See.  The  missions  concerned 
are  not  those  of  the  coast  of  south-western-  India,  to 
which  the  name  Malabar  properly  belongs,  but  those 
of  inner  South  India,  especially  those  of  the  former 
"kingdoms"  of  Madura,  Mysore  and  the  Kamatic. 
The  question  of  Malabar  Rites  originated  in  the 
method  followed  by  the  Jesuits,  since  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  in  evangelizing  those  coun- 
tries. The  prominent  feature  of  that  method  was  a 
condescending  accommodation  to  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  people  the  conversion  of  whom  was  to 
be  obtained.  But.  when  bitter  enemies  asserted,  as 
some  still  assert,  that  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  in  Ma- 
dura, Mysore  and  the  Kamatic,  either  accepted  for 
themselves  or  permitted  to  their  neophytes  such  prac- 


tices as  they  knew  to  be  idolatrous  or  supentitioua, 
this  accusation  must  be  styled  not  only  unjust,  but 
absurd.  In  fact  it  is  tantamount  to  aiffinnmg  that 
these  men,  whose  inteUigenoe  at  least  was  never  ques- 
tioned, were  so  stupid  as  to  jeopardize  their  own  sal- 
vation in  order  to  save  others,  and  to  endure  infinite 
hardships  in  order  to  establisn  among  the  Hindus  a 
corrupt  and  sham  Christianity. 

The  popes,  while  disapproving  of  some  usages  hith- 
erto considered  inofTensive  or  tolerable  by  the  missioii- 
aries,  never  charged  them  with  having  adulterated 
knowingly  the  purity  of  religion.  On  one  of  them,  who 
had  observed  tne  "  Malabar  Rites  "  for  seventeen  years 
previous  to  his  martyrdom,  the  Church  has  conferred 
the  honour  of  beatiflcation.  The  process  for  the  beati- 
fication of  Father  John  de  Britto  was  going  on  at 
Rome  during  the  hottest  period  of  the  controversy 
upon  the  famous  "  Rites  " ;  and  the  adversaries  of  the 
Jesuits  asserted  beatification  to  be  impossible,  because 
it  would  amount  to  approving  the  "  superstitions  and 
idolatries "  maintained  by  the  missioners  of  Madura. 
Yet  the  cause  progressed,  and  Benedict  XIV,  on  2 
July.  1741,  declared  "that  the  rites  in  question  had 
not  been  used,  as  among  the  Gentiles,  with  rehgious 
significance,  but  merely  as  civil  observances,  and  that 
therefore  they  were  no  obstacle  to  bringing  forward 
the  process  " .  (Brief  of  Beatification  of  John  de  Britto, 
18  May,  1852,)  There  is  no  reason  to  view  the  "  Mala- 
bar Rites  ",  as  practised  generally  in  the  said  missions, 
in  any  other  light.  Hence  the  good  faith  of  the  mis- 
sionaries in  tolerating  the  native  customs  should  not 
be  contested;  on  the  other  hand,  they,  no  doubt, 
erred  in  carrying  this  toleration  too  far.  But  the  bare 
enumeration  of  the  Decrees  by  which  the  question 
was  decided  shows  how  perplexing  it  was  and  how 
difficult  the  solution. 

Father  deNobUi's  Work. — ^The  founder  of  the  missions 
of  the  interior  of  South  India,  Roberto  de  Nobili,  was 
bom  at  Rome,  in  1577,  of  a  noblS  family  from  Monte- 
pulciano,  which  numbered  among  many  distinguished 
relatives  the  celebrated  Cardinal  Roberto  Bellarmine. 
When  nineteen  years  of  age,  he  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus;  and,  after  a  few  years,  the  young  religious, 
aiming  at  the  purest  ideal  of  self-sacrifice,  requested 
his  superiors  to  send  him  to  the  missions  of  India. 
He  eraoarked  at  Lisbon,  1604,  and  in  1606  was  serving 
his  apostolic  apprenticeship  in  South  India.  Chria- 
tianity  was  then  flourishing  on  the  coasts  of  this  coun- 
try. It  is  well  known  that  St.  Francis  Xavier  baptized 
inany  thousands  there,  and  from  the  apex  of  tne  In- 
dian triangle  the  faith  spread  along  both  sides,  espe- 
cial! v  on  the  west^  the  Malabar  coast.  But  the  interior 
of  the  vast  pemnsula  remained  almost  untouched. 
The  Apostle  of  the  Indies  himself  recognized  the  in- 
superable opposition  of  the  "Brahmins  and  other 
noble  castes  inhabiting  the  interior  "  to  the  preaching 
of  the  Gospel  (Monumenta  Xaveriana,  I,  64).  Yet  his 
disciples  were  not  sparing  of  endeavours.  A  Portu- 
guese Jesuit,  Gonsalvo  Fernandes,  had  resided  in  ihe 
city  of  Madura  fully  fourteen  years,  having  obtained 
leave  of  the  king  to  stay  there  to  watch  over  the 
spiritual  needs  of  a  few  Christians  from  the  coast;  and, 
though  a  zealous  and  pious  missionary,  he  had  not 
succeeded,  within  that  long  space  of  time,  in  making 
one  convert.  This  painful  state  of  things  Nobili  wit- 
nessed in  1606,  when  together  with  his  superior,  the 
Provincial  of  Malabar,  he  paid  a  visit  to  Pernandes. 
At  once  his  keen  eye  perceived  the  cause  and  the 
remedy. 

It  was  evident  that  a  deep-rooted  aversion  to  the 
foreign  preachers  hindered  the  Hindus  of  the  interior, 
not  only  from  accepting  the  Gospel,  but  even  from 
listening  to  its  message.  But  whence  this  aversion? 
Its  object  was  not  exactly  the  foreigner,  but  the 
Prangui.  This  name,  with  which  the  natives  of  India 
designated  the  Portuguese,  conveyeil  to  their  minds 
the  idea  of  an  infamous  and  abject  class  of  men,  with 


ff^T-APAB 


559 


whom  no  Hindu  could  have  any  intercourse  without 
degrading  himself  to  the  lowest  ranks  of  the  popular 
tion.  Now  the  Prangui  were  abominated  oecause 
they  violated  the  most  respected  customs  of  India,  by 
eatmg  beef,  and  indulging  in  wine  and  spirits;  but 
much  as  all  well-bred  Hindus  abhorred  those  things, 
they  felt  more  disgusted  at  seeing  the  Portuguese, 
irrespective  of  any  distinction  of  caste,  treat  freely 
with  the  lowest  classes,  such  as  the  pariahs,  who,  in 
the  eyes  of  their  countrymen  of  the  higher  castes, 
are  nothing  better  than  the  vilest  animals.  Accorrl- 
ingly,  since  Femandes  was  known  to  be  a  Portuguese, 
that  is  a  Prangui,  and  besides  was  seen  living  habit- 
ually with  men  of  the  lowest  caste,  the  religion  he 
preached,  no  less  than  himself,  had  to  share  the  con- 
tempt and  execration  attending  his  neophytes,  and 
maae  no  progress  whatever  among  the  better  classes. 
To  become  acceptable  for  all,  Christianity^  must  be 
presented  in  quite  another  way.  While  Nobili  thought 
over  his  plan,  probably  the  example  just  set  by  his 
countryman  Matteo  Ricci,  in  China,  stood  before  his 
mind.  At  all  events,  he  started  from  the  same  prin- 
ciple, resolving  to  become,  after  the  motto  of  St.  Paul, 
all  thin^  to  all  men,  and  a  Hindu  to  the  Hindus,  as 
far  as  might  be  lawful. 

Having  ripened  his  design  by  thorough  meditation 
and  by  conferring  with  his  superiors,  the  Archbishop 
of  Cranganore  and  the  provmcial  of  Malabar,  who 
both  approved  and  encouraged  his  resolution,  Nobili 
boltll}^  began  his  arduous  career  by  re-entering  Ma- 
dura in  the  dress  of  the  Hindu  ascetics,  known  as 
saniassy.  He  never  tried  to  make  believe  that  he  was 
a  native  of  India;  else  he  would  have  deserved  the 
•name  of  impostor,  with  which  he  has  sometimes  l^een 
unjustly  branded;  but  he  availed  himself  of  the  fact 
that  he  was  not  a  Portuguese^  to  deprecate  the  oppro- 
brious name  Prangui.  He  mtroduced  himself  as  a 
Roman  raja  (nobleman),  desirous  of  living  at  Madura 
in  practismg  penance,  in  praying  and  studying  the 
sacred  law.  He  carefully  avoided  meeting  witi  Father 
Femandes  arid  he  took  his  lodging  in  a  solitaiy  abode 
in  the  Brahmins'  quarter  obtained  from  the  oenevo- 
lence  of  a  high  officer.  At  first  he  called  himself  a 
rdja,  but  soon  he  changed  this  title  for  that  of  brah- 
mm,  better  suited  to  his  aims.  The  rdjas  or  ksha- 
tryas,  being  the  second  of  the  three  high  castes,  formed 
the  military  class;  but  intellectual  avocations  were 
almost  monopolized  by  the  Brahmins.  They  held 
from  time  immemorial  the  spiritual  if  not  the  political 
government  of  the  nation,  and  were  the  arbiters  of 
what  the  others  ought  to  believe,  to  revere,  and  to 
adore.  Yet,  it  must  be  noted,  they  were  in  no  wise  a 
priestly  caste;  they  were  possessed  of  no  exclusive 
right  to  perform  functions  of  reli^ous  cult.  Nobili  re- 
mained tor  a  long  time  shut  up  m  his  dwelling,  after 
the  custom  of  Indian  penitents,  living  on  rice,  milk, 
and  herbs  with  water,  and  that  once  a  day;  he  re- 
ceived attendance  onlv  from  Brahmin  servants.  Curi- 
osity could  not  fail  to  be  raised,  and  all  the  more  as  the 
foreign  saniassy  was  very  slow  in  satisfying  it.  When, 
after  two  or  three  refusals,  he  admitted  visitors,  the 
interview  was  conducted  according  to  the  strictest 
r  ules  of  Hindu  etiquette.  Nobili  charmed  his  audience 
by  the  perfection  with  which  he  spoke  their  own  lan- 
guage, Tamil;  by  the  quotations  of  famous  Indian 
authors  with  which  he  interspersed  his  discourse^  and, 
above  all,  by  the  fragments  of  native  poetry  which  he 
recited  or  even  sang  with  exquisite  skill. 

Having  thus  won  a  benevolent  hearing,  he  pro- 
ceeded step  bv  step  on  his  missionary  task,  labouring 
first  to  set  right  the  ideas  of  his  auditors  with  respect 
to  natural  truth  concerning  God,  the  soul,  etc.^  and 
then  instilling  by  degrees  the  dogmas  of  the  Christian 
faith.  He  took  advantage  also  Of  his  acquaintance 
with  the  books  revered  by  the  Hindus  as  sacred  and 
divine .  These  he  contri vea ,  the  first  of  all  Europeans, 
to  read  and  study  in  the  Sanskrit  originals.   For  this 


purpose  he  had  engaged  a  reputed  Brahmin  teacher, 
with  whose  assistance  and  by  the  industry  of  his  own 
keen  intellect  and  felicitous  memory  he  gained  such  a 
knowledge  of  this  recondite  literature  as  to  strike  the 
native  doctors  with  amazement,  very  few  of  them  feel- 
ing themselves  capable  of  vying  with  him  on  the  point. 
In  this  way  also  ne  was  enabled  to  find  in  the  Vedas 
many  truths  which  he  used  in  testimony  of  the  doc- 
trine he  preached.  By  this  method,  and  no  less  by  the 
Erestige  of  his  pure  and  austere  life,  the  missionary 
ad  soon  dispelled  the  distrust  and  prejudices  of  many, 
and  before  tne  end  of  1608,  he  conferred  baptism  on 
several  persons  conspicuous  for  nobility  and  learning. 
While  he  obliged  his  neophytes  to  reject  all  practices 
involving  superstition  or  savouring  in  any  wise  of 
idolatrous  worship,  he  allowed  them  to  keep  their 
national  customs,  in  as  far  as  these  contained  nothing 
wrong  and  referred  to  merely  political  or  civil  usages. 
Acconiingly,  Nobili 's  disciples  continued,  for  example, 
wearing  the  dress  proper  to  each  one's  caste;  the 
Brahmins  retaining  their  codhumH  (tuft  of  hair)  and 
cord  (cotton-  string  slung  over  the  left  shoulder) ;  all 
adormng,  as  before,  their  foreheads  with  sandalwood- 
paste,  etc.  Yet,  one  condition  was  laid  on  them, 
namely,  that  the  cord  and  the  sandal,  if  once  taken 
with  any  superstitious  ceremony,  be  removed  and  re- 
placed by  others  with  a  special  benediction,  the  form- 
ula of  which  had  been  sent  to  Nobili  by  the  Archbish(^ 
of  Cranganore. 

While  the  missionary  was  winning  more  and  more 
esteem,  not  only  for  himself,  but  also'  for  the  Gospel, 
even  among  those  who  did  not  receive  it,  the  fanatical 
ministers  and  votaries  of  the  national  gods,  whom  he 
was  going  to  supplant,  could  not  watch  his  progress 
quietly.  By  their  assaults,  indeed,  his  work  was  al- 
most unceasingly  impeded,  and  barely  escaped  ruin  on 
several  occasions;  but  he  held  his  ground  in  spite 
of  calumny,  imprisonment,  menaces  of  dedth  and 
all  kinds  of  ill-treatment.  In  April,  1609,  the  flock 
which  he  had  gathered  around  him  was  too  numerous 
for  his  chapel  and  required  a  church;  and  the  labour 
of  the  ministry  had  become  so  crushing  that  he  en- 
treated the  provincial  to  send  him  a  companion.  But 
then  fell  on  nim  a  storm  from  a  part  whence  it  might 
least  have  been  expected.  Femandes,  the  missioner 
already  meiitioned,  may  have  felt  no  mean  jealousy, 
when  seeing  Nobili  succeed  so  happily  where  he  had 
been  so  powerless;  but  certainly  ne  proved  unable 
to  understand  or  to  appreciate  the  method  of  his  col- 
league: probably,  also,  as  he  had  lived  perforce  apart 
from  the  circles  among  which  the  latter  was  working, 
he  was  never  well  informed  of  his  doings.  However 
that  may  be,  Femandes  directed  to  the  superiors  of 
the  Jesuits  in  India  and  at  Rome  a  lengthy  report,  in 
which  he  charged  Nobili  with  simulation,  m  declining 
the  name  of  Pranp;ui;  with  connivance  at  idolatry,  in 
allowing  his  neophjrtes  to  observe  heathen  customs, 
such  as  wearing  the  insignia  of  castes;  lastly,  with 
Bchismatical  proceeding,  in  dividing  the  Christians  into 
separate  congregations.  This  denimciation  at  first 
caused  an  impression  highly  unfavourable  to  Nobili. 
Influenced  by  the  account  of  Femandes,  the  provin- 
cial of  Malabar  (Father  Laerzio,  who  had  always 
countenanced  Nobili,  had  then  left  that  office),  the 
Visitor  of  the  India  Missions  and  even  the  General  of 
the  Society  at  Rome  sent  severe  warnings  to  the 
missionary  innovator.  Cardinal  Bellarmine,  in  1612, 
wrote  to  his  relative,  expressing  the  grief  he  felt  on 
hearing  of  his  unwise  conduct. 

TU^ps  chan^d  as  soon  as  Nobili,  being  informed 
of  the  accusation,  could  answer  it  on  every  point. 
By  oral  explaaiations,  in  the  assemblies  of  missionaries 
and  theologians  at  Cochin  and  at  Goa,  and  by  an 
elaborate  memoir,  which  he  sent  to  Rome,  he  iustified 
the  manner  in  which  he  had  presented  himself  to  the 
Brahmins  of  Madura;  then,  he  showed  that  th« 
national  customs  he  allowed  his  converts  to  keep  wev% 


HffAT.AHAfc 


660 


TUrAt.AHAl^ 


such  as  had  no  religious  meaning.  The  latter  point, 
the  crux  of  the  question,  he  elucidated  by  numerous 
quotations  from  the  authoritative  Sanskrit  law-books 
of  the  Hindus.  Moreover,  he  procured  affidavits  of 
one  hundred  and  eight  Brahmins,  from  among  the 
most  learned  in  Madura,  all  endorsing  his  interoreta- 
tion  of  the  native  practices.  Ho  acknowledgea  that 
the  infidels  used  to  associate  those  practices  with 
superstitious  ceremonies;  but,  he  observed,  "these 
ceremonies  belong  to  the  mode,  not  to  the  substance 
of  the  practices;  the  same  difficulty  may  be  raised 
about  eating,  drinking,  marriage,  etc.,  for  the  hea- 
thens mix  their  ceremonies  with  all  their  actions.  It 
suffices  to  do  away  with  the  superstitious  ceremonies, 
as  the  Christians  do.''  As  to  schism,  he  denied  hav- 
ing caused  any  such  thing:  "he  hod  founded  a  new 
Christianity,  which  never  could  have  been  brought 
together  with  the  older:  the  separation  of  the  churches 
hi^  been  approved  by  the  Archbishop  of  Cranganore; 
and  it  precluded  neither  unity  of  faith  nor  Christian 
charity,  for  his  neophytes  used  to  greet  kindly  those 
of  F.  Femandes.  Even  on  the  coast  there  are  dif- 
ferent churches  for  different  castes,  and  in  Europe  the 
places  in  the  churches  are  not  common  for  all."  No- 
bili's  apology  was  effectually  seconded  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cranganore,  who,  as  he  had  encouraged  the 
first  steps  of  the  missionary,  continued  to  stand 
firmly  by  his  side,  and  pleaded  his  cause  warmly  at 
Goa  before  the  archbishop,  as  well  as  at  Rome. 
Thus  the  learned  and  zealous  primate  of  India,  Alexis 
de  Menezes,  though  a  synod  held  by  him  had  pro- 
hibited the  Brahmin  cord,  was  won  over  to  the  cause 
of  Nobili.  And  his  successor,  Christopher  de  Sa,  hav- 
ing thought  fit  to  take  a  contrary  course,  remained 
almost  the  only  opponent  in  India. 

At  Rome  the  explanations  of  Nobili,  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cranganore^  and  of  the  chief  Inquisitor  of 
Goa  brought  about  a  similar  effect.  In  1614  and  1615 
Cardinal  Bellarmine  and  the  General  of  the  Society 
wrote  a^ain  to  the  missionary,  declaring  themselves 
fully  satisfied.  At  last,  after  the  usual  mature  exam- 
ination by  the  Holy  See,  on  31  Janua^,  1623,  Greg- 
ory XV,  by  his  Apostolic  Letter,  "Roman®  Sedis 
Antistes'',  decided  the  question  provisionally  in 
favour  of  Father  de  Nobili.  Accordingly,  the  co- 
dkumbif  the  cord,  the  sandal,  and  the  baths  were  per- 
mitted to  the  Indian  Christians,  "until  the  Holy  See 
provide  otherwise";  only  certain  conditions  are  pre- 
scribed, in  order  that  all  superstitious  admixture  and 
all  occasion  of  scandal  may  be  averted.  As  to  the 
separation  of  the  castes,  the  pope  confines  himself  to 
*' earnestly  entreating  and  beseeching  (etiam  cUmie 
eiiam  oblestamur  et  obsecramiia)  the  nobles  not  to  de- 
spise the  lower  people,  especially  in  the  churches,  by 
hearing  the  Divine  word  and  receiving  the  sacraments 
apart  from  them".  Indeed,  a  strict  order  to  this 
effect  would  have  been  tantamount  to  sentencing  the 
new-bom  Christianity  of  Madura  to  death.  The  pope 
understood,  no  doubt,  that  the  customs  connected 
with  the  distinction  of  castes,  being  so  deeply  rooted 
in  the  ideas  and  habits  of  all  Hindus,  did  not  admit  an 
abrupt  suppression ,  even  among  the  Christians.  They 
were  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  Church,  as  had  been 
slavery,  serfdom,  and  the  hke  institutions  of  past 
times.  The  Church  never  attacked  directly  those  in- 
veterate customs;  but  she  inculcated  meekness,  hu- 
mility, charity,  love  of  the  Saviour  who  suffered  and 
§ave  His  life  for  all,  and  by  this  method  slavery,  scrf- 
om,  and  other  social  abuses  were  slowly  eradicated. 

While  imitating  this  wise  indulgence  to  the  feeble- 
ness of  new  converts,  Father  de  Nobili  took  much  care 
to  inspire  his  disciples  with  the  feelings  becoming  true 
Christians  towards  their  humbler  brethren.  At  the 
very  outset  of  liis  preaching,  he  insisted  on  making  all 
understand  that "  religion  was  by  no  naeans  dependent 
on  caste;  indeed  it  must  be  one  for  all,  the  true  God 
being  one  for  all;  although  Pie  added]  unity  of  religion 


destroys  not  the  civil  distinction  of  the  castes  nor  the 
lawful  privileges  of  the  nobles  ".  Explaining  then  the 
commandment  of  charity,  he  inculcated  that  it  ex- 
tended to  the  pariahs  as  well  as  others,  and  he  ex- 
empted nobody  from  the  duties  it  imposes;  but  he 
mi^t  rightly  tell  his  neophytes  that,  for  example, 
visiting  pariahs  or  other  ^ople  of  low  caste  at  their 
houses,  treating  them  fannliarly,  even  kneeling  or  sit- 
ting by  them  in  the  church,  concerned  pe^ection 
ratner  than  the  precept  of  charity,  and  that  accord- 
ingly such  actions  could  be  omitted  without  any 
fault,  at  least  where  they  involved  so  grave  a  detri- 
ment as  degradation  from  the  higher  caste.  Of  this 
principle  the  missionaries  had  a  n^ht  to  m^e  use  for 
themselves.  Indeed  charity  required  more  from  the 
pastors  of  souls  than  from  others;  yet  not  in  such  a 
way  that  they  should  endanger  the  salvation  of  the 
many  to  relieve  the  needs  of  the  few.  Therefore 
Nobili,  at  the  beginning  of  his  apostolate,  avoided 
all  public  intercourse  with  the  lower  castas;  but  he 
failed  not  to  minister  secretly  even  to  pariahs.  In  the 
year  1638,  there  were  at  Tiruchirapalu  (Trichinopoly) 
several  hundred  Christian  pariahs,  who  had  b^n  se- 
cretly taught  and  baptized  oy  the  companions  of  No- 
bili. About  this  time  he  devised  a  means  of  assisting 
more  directly  the  lower  castes,  without  ruining  the 
work  begun  among  the  higher. 

Besides  the  Brahmin  samassy,  there  was  another 
grade  of  Hindu  ascetics,  called  pandcaranij  enjoying 
less  consideration  than  the  Brahmins,  but  who  were 
allowed  to  deal  publicly  with  all  castes,  and  even  hold 
intercourse  witn  the  pariahs.  They  were  not  ex- 
cluded from  relations  with  the  higher  castes.  On  the^ 
advice  of  Nobili,  the  superiors  of  the  mission  with  the' 
Archbishop  of  Cranganore  resolved  that  henceforward 
there  should  be  two  classes  of  missionaries,  the  Brah- 
min and  the  pandaram.  Father  Balthasar  da  Costa 
was  the  first,  in  1540,  who  took  the  name  and  habit  of 
pandaram,  imder  which  he  effected  a  large  number  of 
conversions,  of  others  as  well  as  of  pariahs:  Nobili 
had  then  three  Jesuit  companions.  After  the  com- 
forting decision  of  Rome,  he  had  hastened  to  extend 
his  preaching  beyond  the  town  of  Madura,  and  the 
Gospel  spread  by  degrees  over  the  whole  interior  of 
South  India.  In  1646,  exhausted  by  forty-two  years 
of  toiling  and  suffering,  he  was  constrained  to  retire, 
first  to  Jafnapatam  in  Ceylon,  then  to  Mylapore, 
where  he  died  16  January,  1656.  He  left  his  mission 
in  full  progress.  To  give  some  idea  of  its  develop- 
ment, we  note  that  the  superiors,  writing  to  the  gen- 
eral of  the  Society,  about  the  middle  and  during  the 
second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  record  an  an- 
nual average  of  five  thousand  conversions,  the  number 
never  being  less  than  three  thousand  a  year  even  when 
the  missioners*  work  was  most  hinderecf  by  persecution. 
At  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  total  num- 
ber of  Christians  in  the  mission  founcied  by  Nobili  and 
still  named  Madura  mission,  though  embracing,  besides 
Madura,  Mysore.  Marava,  Tanjore,  Gingi,  etc.,  is  de- 
scribed as  exceeding  150,000.  Yet  the  number  of  the 
missionaries  never  went  beyond  seven,  assisted  how- 
ever by  many  native  catechists. 

The  Madura  mission  belonged  to  the  Portuguese 
assistance  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  but  it  was  supplied 
with  men  from  all  provinces  of  the  Order.  Thus,  for 
example.  Father  Beschi  (c.  1710-1746),  who  won  so 
high  a  renown  among  the  Hindus,  heathen  and  Chris- 
tian, by  his  writings  in  Tamil,  was  an  Italian,  as  the 
founder  of  the  mission  had  been.  In  the  last  quarter 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  French  Father  John 
Venantius  Bouchet  worked  for  twelve  years  in  Ma- 
dura, chiefly  at  Trichinopoly,  during  which  time  he 
baptized  about  20,000  infidels.  And  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  the  cat<»chumens,  in  these  partes  of  India,  were  ad- 
mitted to  baptism  only  after  a  long  and  careful  prepa- 
ration. Indeed  the  missionary  accounts  of  the  time 
bear   frequent  witness   to   the   very  commendable 


MALABAR 


561 


qualities  of  these  Christians,  their  fervent  piety,  their 
steadfastness  in  the  sufferings  they  often  had  to  endure 
for  religion's  sake,  their  charity  towards  their  breth- 
ren, even  of  the  lowest  castes,  their  seal  for  the  con- 
version of  pagans.  In  the  year  1700  Father  Bouchet, 
with  a  few  other  French  Jesuits,  opened  a  new  mission 
in  the  Kamatic,  north  of  the  River  Kaveri.  Like 
their  Portuguese  colleagues  of  Madura,  the  French 
missionaries  of  the  Kamatic  were  very  successful,  in 
spite  of  repeated  and  almost  continual  persecutions  by 
the  idolaters.  Moreover  several  of  them  became  par- 
ticularly conspicuous  for  the  extensive  knowledge  they 
acquired  of  the  literature  and  sciences  of  ancient  In- 
dia. From  Father  Cceurdoux  the  French  Academi- 
cians learned  the  common  origin  of  the  Sanskrit, 
Greek,  and  Latin  languages ;  to  the  initiative  of  Nobili 
and  to  the  endeavours  of  his  followers  in  the  same  line 
is  due  the  first  disclosure  of  a  new  intellectual  world  in 
India.  The  first  original  documents,  enabling  the 
learned  to  explore  that  world,  were  drawn  from  their 
hiding-places  in  India,  and  sent  in  large  numbers  to 
Europe  by  the  same  missionaries.  But  the  Kamatic 
mission  had  hardly  begun  when  it  was  disturbed  by 
the  revival  of  the  controversy,  which  the  decision  of 
Gregory  XV  had  set  at  rest  for  three  quarters  of  a  cen- 
tury. 

The  Decree  of  Tournon. — ^This  second  phase,  which 
was  much  more  eventful  and  noisy  than  the  first,  ori- 
ginated in  Pondicherry.  Since  the  French  had  settled 
at  that  place,  the  spiritual  care  of  the  colonists  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Capuchin  Fathers,  who  were  also  work- 
ing for  the  conversion  of  the  natives.  With  a  view 
to  forwarding  the  latter  work,  the  Bishop  of  Mylapore 
or  San  Thom6,  to  whose  jurisdiction  Pondicherry  be- 
longed, resolved,  in  1699,  to  transfer  it  entirely  to  the 
Jesuits  of  the  Kamatic  mission,  assigning  to  them  a 
parochial  church  in  the  town  and  restricting  the  min- 
istry of  the  Capuchins  to  the  European  immigrants, 
French  or  Portuguese.  The  Capuchins  were  dis- 
pleased by  this  arrangement  and  appealed  to  Rome. 
The  petition  they  laid  before  the  pope,  in  1703,  em- 
bodied not  onlv  a  complaint  against  the  di\4sion  of 
parishes  made  oy  the  bishop,  but  also  an  accusation 
against  the  methods  of  the  Jesuit  mission  in  South 
India.  Their  claim  on  the  former  point  was  fhially 
dismissed,  but  the  charges  were  more  successful.  On. 
6  November,  1703,  Charles-Thomas-Maillard  de  Tour- 
non, a  Piedmontese  prelate,  Patriarch  of  Antioch, 
sent  by  Clement  XI,  with  the  power  of  legatue  a  latere^ 
to  visit  the  new  Christian  missions  of  the  East  In- 
dies and  especially  China,  landed  at  Pondicherry. 
Being  obliged  to  wait  there  eight  months  for  the  oppor- 
tunity of  passing  over  to  China.  Toumon  institutea  an' 
inquiry  into  the  facts  alleged  by  the  Capuchins.  He 
was  hindered  through  sickness,  as  he  hmiself  stated, 
from  visiting  any  part  of  the  inland  mission ;  in  the 
town,  besides  the  Capuchins,  who  had  not  visited  the 
interior,  he  interrogated  a  few  natives  through  intei^ 
pret^rs;  the  Jesuits  he  consulted  rather  cursorily,  it 
seems. 

Less  than  eight  months  after  his  arrival  in  India,  he 
considered  himself  justified  in  issuing  a  decree  of  vital 
import  to  the  whole  of  the  Christians  of  India.  It  con- 
sisted of  sixteen  articles  concerning  practices  in  use  or 
supposed  to  be  in  use  among  the  neophytes  of  Madura 
and  the  Kamatic;  the  legate  condemned  and  pro- 
hibited these  practfces  as  defiling  the  purity  of  the 
faith  and  religion,  and  forbade  tne  missionaries,  on 
pain  of  heavv  censures,  to  permit  them  any  more. 
Though  dated  23  June,  1704,  the  decree  was  notified  to 
the  superiors  of  the  Jesuits  only  on  8  Jnly,  three  days 
before  the  departure  of  Toumon  from  Pondicherry. 
During  the  short  time  left,  the  missionaries  endeav- 
oured to  make  him  imderstand  on  what  imperfect  in- 
formation his  decree  rested,  and  that  nothing  less  than 
the  min  of  the  mission  was  likely  to  follow  from  its 
execution .    Thev  succeeded  in  persuading  him  to  taiw 


off  orally  the  threat  of  censures  appended,  and  to  sus- 
pend provisionally  the  prescription  commanding  the 
missionaries  to  give  spiritual  assistance  to  the  sick 
pariahs,  not  only  in  the  churches,  but  in  their  dwell- 
ing. 

Examination  of  the  Malabar  Rites  at  Rome. — ^Tour- 
non's  decree,  interpreted  by  prejudice  and  ignorance  as 
representing,  in  the  wron^  practices  it  condemned,  the 
real  state  of  the  India  missions,  affords  to  this  day  a 
much-used  weapon  against  the  Jesuits.  At  Rome  it 
was  received  with  reserve.  Clement  XI,  who  perhaps 
overrated  the  prudence  of  his  zealous  legate,  ordered, 
in  the  Congr^ation  of  the  Holy  Office,  on  7  Janu- 
ary, 1706,  a  provisional  confirmation  of  the  decree  to 
be  sent  to  him,  adding  that  it  should  be  executed  ''  un- 
til the  Holy  See  might  provide  otherwise,  after  havinz 
heard  those  who  might  have  something  to  object  . 
And  meanwhile,  by  an  oracidum  vivce  vocis  granted  to 
the  procurator  of  the  Madura  mission,  the  pope  de- 
clared the  missionaries  tabe  obliged  to  observe  the  de- 
cree, "  in  so  far  as  the  Divine  glory  and  the  salvation 
of  souls  would  permit".  The  objections  of  the  mis- 
sionaries and  the  corrections  they  desired  were  pro- 
pounded by  several  deputies  and  carefully  examined 
at  Rome,  without  effect,  during  the  lifetime  of  Clem- 
ent XI  and  during  the  short  pontificate  of  his  succes- 
sor Innocent  XIII.  Benedict  XIII  grappled  with  the 
case  and  even  came  to  a  decision,  enjoining  ''  on  the 
bishops  and  missionaries  of  Madura,  Mysore,  and 
the  Kamatic  "  the  execution  of  Toumon's  decree  in  all 
its  parts  (12  December,  1727).  Yet  it  is  doubted 
whether  that  decision  ever  reached  the  mission,  and 
Clement  XII,  who  succeeded  Benedict  XIII,  com- 
manded the  whole  affair  to  be  discussed  anew.  In 
four  meetings  held  from  21  January  to  6  September. 
1733,  the  cardinals  of  the  Holy  Office  gave  tneir  final 
conclusions  upon  all  the  articles  of  Toumon's  decree, 
declaring  how  each  of  them  ought  to  be  executed,  or 
restricted  and  mitigated.  By  a  Brief  dated  24  Au- 
gust, 1734,  Clement  XII  sanctioned  this  resolution; 
moreover,  on  13  May,  1739,  he  prescribed  an  oath,  by 
which  every  missionary  should  bind  himself  to  obey- 
ing and  making  the  neophytes  obey  exactly  the  Brief 
of  24  August,  1734. 

Many  hard  prescriptions  of  Toumon  were  mitigated 
by  the  regulation  of  1734.  As  to  the  first  article,  con- 
demning the  omission  of  the  use  of  saliva  and  breath- 
ing on  the  candidates  for  baptism,  the  missionaries, 
and  the  bishops  of  India  with  them,  are  rebuked  for 
not  having  consulted  the  Holy  See  previously  to  that 
omission;  yet,  they  are  allowed  to  continue  for  ten 
years  omitting  these  ceremonies,  to  which  the  Hin- 
dus felt  so  strangely  loath.  Other  prohibitions  or 
precepts  of  the  legate  are  softened  by  the  addition  of 
a  Quantum  fieri  potest,  or  even  replaced  by  mere  coim- 
sels  or  advices.  In  the  sixth  article,  the  taty,  ''with 
the  image  of  the  idol  Pulleyar",  is  still  interdicted,  but 
the  Congregation  observes  that  *Hhe  missionaries 
say  they  never  permitted  wearing  of  such  a  taly*\ 
Now  this  observation  seems  pretty  near  to  recognizing 
that  possibly  the  prohibitions  of  the  rather  over- 
zealous  le^te  did  not  always  hit  upon  existing  abuses. 
And  a  similar  conclusion  might  be  drawn  from  several 
other  articles,  e.  g.  from  the  fifteenth,  where  we  are 
told  that  the  interdiction  of  wearing  ashes  and  em- 
blems after  the  manner  of  the  heathen  Hindus,  ought 
to  be  kept,  but  in  such  a  manner,  it  is  added, "  that  the 
Constitution  of  Gregory  XV  of  31  January,  1623, '  Ro- 
mans Senis  Antistes',  be  observed  throughout '\  By 
that  Constitution,  as  we  have  already  seen,  some  signs 
and  ornaments,  materially  similar  to  those  prohibited 
by  Toumon,  were  allowed  to  the  Christians,  provided 
tnat  no  superstition  whatever  was  mingled  with  their 
use.  Indeed,  as  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda 
explains  in  an  Instruction  sent  to  the  Vicar  Apostolie 
of  Pondicherry,  15  February,  1792,  **thc  Decree  of 
C^urdinal  de  Toumon  and  the  Conatvtv\.t\a^  ^<o:t«i5sri 


lULUU  Bi 

XV  agree  in  this  way,  tliat  both  absolutely  forbid  any 
aign  Marine  even  tne  least  semblance  of  aupentition, 
but  allow  those  which  are  In  general  use  for  the  sake  of 
adornment,  of  good  manners,  and  bodily  cleannees, 
without  any  respect  to  religion." 

The  most  difficult  point  retained  was  the  twelfth 
article,  commandinK  the  miwionaries  to  administer 
the  sacraments  to  the  sick  pariahs  in  their  dwellings, 
publicly.  Though  submitting  dutifully  to  all  pre- 
cepts of  the  Vicar  of  Christ,  the  Jesuits  In  Madun 
could  not  but  feel  distressed,  at  esperlencing  how  the 
last,  especially,  made  their  apostolate  difficult  and  even 
impossible  amidst  the  "JPPer  classes  of  Hindus,  At 
their  raqueat,  Benedict  xlV  consented  to  try  a  new 
Bolution  of  the  knotty  problem,  by  forming  a  oand  of 
iniBsionaries  who  should  attend  only  to  the  care  of  the 
^iriahs.  This  scheme  became  formal  law  through  the 
Constitution  "Omnium  sollicitudinum",  published  13 
September,  1744.  Except  this  point,  the  document 
confirmed  again  the  whole  regulation  enacted  by  Clem- 
ent XII  in  1734.  The  arrangement  sanctioned  by 
Benedict  XIV  benefited  greatly  the  lower  classes  of 
Hindu  neophytes;  whether  it  worked  also  to  the  ad- 
vmntl^  of  the  mission  at  large,  is  another  question, 
about  which  the  reports  are  less  comforting.  Be  that 
M  it  may,  after  the  suppreasion  of  the  Society  of  Jesua 
(1773),  the  distinction  between  Brahmin  and  pariah 
inisBiuiBries  became  extinct  with  the  Jesuit  roission' 
arie*.  Henceforth  conversions  in  the  higher  castes 
were  fewer  and  fewer,  and  nowadays  the  Christian 
Hindus,  for  the  most  p^,  belong  to  the  lower  and 
lowest  classes.  The  Jesuit  missionaries,  when  re- 
entering Madura  in  the  year  1838,  did  not  come  with 
the  dress  of  the  Brahmin  saniaisy,  Uke  the  founders  of 
the  mission;  yet  they  pursued  a  design  which  NobiU 
bad  also  in  view,  though  he  could  not  carry  it  out,  as 
they  opened  their  college  of  Negapatam,  now  at  Tri- 
ohinopoly.  A  wide  breach  has  already  been  made 
into  the  wall  of  Brahminic  reserve  by  that  institution, 
where  hundreds  of  Brahmins  send  their  sons  to  be 
taught  by  the  Catholic  miasionaries.  Within  recent 
years,  about  fifty  of  these  young  men  have  embraced 
the  faith  of  their  teachers,  at  the  cost  of  rejection  from 
theircaste  and  even  from  their  family;  such  examples 
are  not  lost  on  their  countrymen,  either  of  high  or  low 

Bbrthand,  La  Uittion  du  Uadurt  ^aprtt  da  docwnetU 
imidih  (4  vols.,  PuiB.184S-S4):  JevEHcics.  HUloHa  SoriaaHs 
Jesu  Pan  Quinla,  11  (Rome.  1710).  403-500;  Cordara,  A<*- 
H.™  Socirtatii  Jriu  Fare  Sala,  I  (Rome,  1750).  198-lflB,  310- 
814;  LdtmiM^ateirtcurirutitimtea da  Million' Etrangtra 
i>ar  DiM^ouM  MianttrvtaireK  lie  la  Uompagnv  de  Jitua,  5"*  Hbrics 
tPan8,1705).Z,rtfr(i7uP.  Mailin.  I  j^nt.  ;700(on  Nobilietr.): 
«*  acrioi  (Paris,  1707J,  L^Tt  duP.  Mauduil.  I  Jan..  nOB  (od 
tlu  uo  mistiou  of  the  Kamatic);  Prat.  Hii^in  du  B.  Jain 
rfiBnllo  (Puris,lSS31;  8uad,  ^u  Wodure:  Brahma  H  Pariahi 
in  Eludci  (20  Iilsrch.  1909J,  B53-Sa:i.  this  paper  hivcs  some 
wdracUi  from  the  Annual  LriJtri  of  the  mission  of  Madura, 
1843-40;  tomtitution  Romana  Scdit  AniiMn  in  J<^rit  FoiUi- 
Jlci'i  dt  Propa(/anda  Fide  euro  R.  de  Martinii,  I,  t.  I  (Home. 
ISSS),  15-17;  DE  Backkh-Somiiehvodei.,  Bibtiothi^ue  det 
mrivaim  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jttat.  v,  1770-1780.  s.  v.  NobUi. 

CorutitutioD  Omnium  loUicUadinum  tit  BbnedictXIV,  oou- 
tainiDg  also  the  Decree  of  TorRSOHUxlthedeouiDiuof  Cleu- 
imtXT.Bbnedict  XIII.  and  Clement  XII  in  Jwi*  PoiH.  de 
Prop.  P.,  pt.  I,  t.  HI.  I  IS,  and  in  CoUectanea  S.  Congreeationit 
de  Propaganda  Fide  (Rome.  1893),  714-734;  «*e  bI»0  in  the 
latter  coflectioa  the  anEweri  and  instmctiotiB  of  the  Prapa- 
aanili  on  the  name  matter;  Lainei,  Dtlentio  Indiearam 
miieiimum.  Madumifi,  ncmpe.  Maueuren^  rt  Camilmri., 
«Iilo  or-rationt  Dtcrtii  ab  III-'  D-  Patriareha  AnHadieno  D. 
CanlBMai/larddrTavmonVitilalorrApaeloIicoinlndiieOrien- 
taJiftai  (linme,  1707);  Bbanuouni.  Giialificaiione  drl  praticalo 
tin-  era  da'  Reliaiosi  della  Compaania  di  Gtaii  arUe  Mimiani  del 
Madunv.  Jl/nuMur  e  Camate  fBome.  1724):  Lt;cino.  Ragioni 
propoile  td  enaminaii  a  /avare  dtt  Derrelo  pMicalo  dal  Sig"  Car- 
diaale  di  Tournnn,  Committario  ri  Virilaiiire  Anaelolifo  nm 
polrit/i  di  Ltaalo  a  latere,  in  FuduKtH.  li  i  Luglia.  170i.  per 
U  MieeiBni  di  Madurf.  Mayteur  t  Camale!  lu  It  falH  conJiMli 
dal  Padre  Laynez  c  i*i(  Padre  Brandotini  della  Conpagnia  di 
<ii'mu.-  apQBte  per  commando  delta  Contrrrgmione  particolore 
tmula  nmnit  CE~  Sig-  Cardinnle  Imperiali  (Rome,  1725); 
IiiFii.  Eiame  a  Difrea  del  Decrelo  pubblicalo  in  Puducitni  da 
Momianor  Carlo  Tommaio  di  To^mon  .  .  .  (Rome.  1728): 
IBitANj..,i.iM),  Ri.,.o«(o  atti  aetute  doit  al  praticato  tin'  ora  da' 
R'bgion  delta  C"  diOirtfi.  nelle  Mietioni  d*J  Madurt^.Mayitur 
tCanale.  in  duelibtidirtrti  dal  S—  P.  Fta  Luigi  Matia  LvciM, 


18^3;  Erphealiin 


ie,  nt6)\  IVillehuaiilib),  Antcdolet  tur  ftlal  J*  la 
ma  la  Chine..  Cotd^natit  I'  huloire  da  Supeniiiion*  da 
'■' (Parts.  1734),  1-17;  Dicrtl  de  Mar.  de  Tovnum. 
■  m  dii  dirrt  de  U.  U  Card,  de  Townonjiar  wi 
»._..„..,.„...„..  Sndri,SA-lMi;Biirttildii  livre  intiiiM:  Eiamen 
M  dijen.'v  da  Dttrii  He.  par  te  I.  R.  P.  Laiti*  Maria  Lueino.  The 
AhkcUh.  a  Juueaiat  work,  b  e^ce«dinsly  btaaed  acainrt  the 
Jesiiil^i  and  still  more  tbe  vaaXA-bt  Htilone  Utmmrm  ol  Cubel 
Pahisot  ialiai  Abb£  Puatbi,  sometime  Fatsbe  NnEBBiT. 
Capdchin),  which  cams  out,  under  vbivIiir  tttlos,  Hirt  to  cat 
valume  (Luecs.  1742).  then  In  2.  4.  8  volumn,  id  Fimeb  and  in 
Italian  (Luoca,  1744, 174S,  1760) ,  lut  in  utdq  voIuidm  (Liiboo. 

17061 ;  (PatODii-lktI,  LeUrti  k  M.  rEttme  de siir  le  ti'tn 

duP.Norbert  (17451;  Itnl.  tr.  la  RaccoiCa  d'Apoloaic  luBa  dol- 
ttina  •  conduUa  dfRk.  PP.  deOa  C^  di  OetH.  t.  Vn  (17a0).  »d. 
info],  1, 10-50(1782);  FrOL*  In  Kin*enlexikim.a.  v.  PariKH: 
KiRBca,  £ur  OeaehicMe  dir  Ctnturiervng  da  P.  S'orberl  in 
TiroIoguchB  QuarlolKhrifl.  LXXXVI  (TQIlirinn.  IB04).  S^ir- 
378;  IDBU,  Pap^  BenaM  XIV  imd  snne  BilSn  baO^ith  drr 
ehinteieektrt  md  fialaliariKJun  (MrducAt  In  Th.  QwaUcA. 
LXXXUI  (TatHDOBi,  1901),  374-388.     (3n  the  Ute(t  period; 

LAUMAt,  ffJatoiiiiaM  mis»toMder7n<fe,PondicWnr.  ifafi- 

Catnbataur.  I  (Paris,  189S1:  LMra  ■- 


(02);  D, 
).  320-3 


by  Dbhtband  (Paris.  I8M}; 

,  , ,  ftSfl-lflOl);    SOAD.  VIndi 

ButANN.  tndiicht  Pahrten,  It  (Fwl- 
iO. 

Joseph  Bbockzb. 


Mtlucft,  DiocESB  OF  (Malacensis),  comprises  the 
southern  portions  of  tbe  Malay  Peninsula,  otherwise 
known  as  the  Straits  Settlements.  It  includes  Singa- 
pore Island,  the  Malacca  territory  nroper.  Province 
Wellealey  and  Penang  Island,  the  Negri  Sembilon, 
Seluigor,  Perak,  Kedan,  Fohang,  KelautBxi,aDd  Treog- 
ganu  difltricts— -an  area  of  about  400  miles  north  to 
south,  and  200  east  to  west.  Although  outside  India 
proper,  the  See  of  Malacca  is  suffragan  to  Pondicberry. 
The  CalhoHc  population  is  reckoned  at  about  28,000 
out  of  a  total  ot  about  1,800,00(}.  Both  bishop  and 
cler^,  as  in  all  the  other  dioceses  of  the  Pondicheiry 
province,  belong  to  the  Paris  Society  of  Foreign  His- 
sions.  The  priests  number  forty-two,  having  charge 
of  fifty-seven  churches  and  chapels.  Beaides  those 
there  are  five  rehgious  communities  for  men  (Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Schools) ,  and  seven  for  women  (Dames 
de  St-Mam\}  The  cathedral  is  at  Singapore  (Cathe- 
dral of  the  Ciood  Shepherd).  There  Is  a  college  for  the 
education  of  native  clergy  at  Penang.  The  mission 
possesses  49  schools,  in  which  6660  children  are  edu- 

HisTORT. — Malacca  was  erected  by  Pa.ul  IV  into  a 
diocese  under  the  Portuguese  Patronage  in  1557,  and 
so  continued  till  1838,  when,  by  the  Brief  "Multa 
Prfflclare"iuriedictiorfwa8withdrown  from  tbe  see  and 
transferred  to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Avs  and 
Pegu  (Burma),  But  the  clergy  of  this  vicariate  bdng 
insufficient  to  cope  with  the  work,  the  whole  Malay 
Peninsula  was  in  1840  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Vicar  Apoatohc  of  Siam,  with  a  view  to  its  erection 
into  a  separate  vicariate.  This  was  effected  by  the 
Brief  "Universi  Doniinici  Gregis"  ot  10  September.i 
1841.  First  called  Western  Siam,  and  then  the  Vicari- ' 
ate  Apostolic  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  it  was  on  10 
August,  1888,  elevated  into  a  diocese,  the  old  See  of 
Mabcca  being  revived  by  Leo  XIII,  and  by  a  subse- 
quent decree  made  suffragan  to  Pondicberry.  Rt. 
Rev.  Edouard  Gasnier,  who  had  been  vicar  ApostoUc 
from  1878,  was  appointed  the  first  bishop.  He  was 
succeeded  in  1896  by  Rt.  Rev.  Ren«  Fte  (1896-1904). 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Emil  Barrilon. 

WadnuCoMoiieDiVtttorvdOOO);  Ladnat.  Htit  eftiAttled* 
la  Boc  dee  Mitnom-Elrangfra  (3  vols..  Paiu.  1894);  Idem, 
AeatdaMiai<me(fiaia).  „     „ 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

UalMbiw  (Hebrew  M^'aiMi,  one  of  the  twelve 
minor  prophete. 

I.  pEBeoNAOB  AND  Na*! E.— It  IS  the  Ust  book  of  Um 
collection  of  the  twelve  Minor  Prophets  which  is  in- 
scribed with  the  name  of  Mnlachias.  As  a  result,  the 
author  has  long  been  regarded  aa  the  last  of  the  ca- 
nonical prophets  of  the  Old  Testament.  All  that  is 
known  of  him,  however,  i9  summed  up  in  the_t«nor  of 
his  preaching  and  the  approximate  period  of  bis  uuuis- 


WAT.AnWTAft 


563 


KALA0HXA8 


tiy.  The  Jewish  schools  identified  him  quite  earty 
with  the  scribe  Esdras.  This  identification,  which  is 
without  historical  value  and  is  based  according  to  St. 
Jerome  on  an  interpretation  given  to  Mai.,  ii,  7,  was  at 
first  probably  suggested  by  the  tradition  which  be- 
held in  Esdras  the  intermedianr  between  the  prophets 
and  the  *'  great  synagogue '',  wnose  foundation  was  at- 
tributed to  him  and  to  which  he  was  considered  to 
have  transmitted  the  deposit  of  doctrine  handed  down 
by  the  prophets  (Pirqe  Abhdth,  I,  2).  The  position 
of  intermediary  fully  belonged  to  Esdras  on  the  hypo- 
thesis that  he  was  the  last  of  the  prophets  and  the  mst 
member  of  the  * '  great  synagogue  *  * .  The  name  MaXa- 
xioLs  figures  at  the  head  of  the  book  in  the  Septuagint. 
The  ^exandrine  translator,  however,  did  not  under- 
stand Mai.,  i,  1,  to  contain  the  mention  of  the  author's 
proper  name;  he  translates  the  (Passage:  ''The  word  of 
the  Lord  by  the  hand  of  his  Angel/'  so  that  he  has  evi- 
dently understood  the  Hebrew  expression  to  be  the 
common  noun  augmented  by  the  suffix;  he  has,  more- 
over, read  Mdl'Qkkd  instead  of  Mdl'akht.  We  cannot 
say  whether  this  reading  and  interpretation  should  not 
be  considered  as  an  effect  of  Jewish  speculations  con- 
cerning the  identity  of  the  author  of  the  book  with 
Esdras,  or  whether  an  interpretation  of  this  kind 
was  not  at  the  foundation  of  the  same  speculation. 
However  that  may  be,  the  interpretation  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint found  an  et:ho  among  the  ancient  Fathers  and 
ecclesiastical  w^riters,  and  even  gave  rise,  especially 
among  the  disciples  of  Origen,  to  the  strangest 
fancies. 

A  large  number  of  modern  authors  likewise  refuse  to 
see  in  MiM'akhi  the  proper  name  of  the  author.     They 

Eoint  out  that  in  Mai.,  iii,  1,  the  Lord  announces:  *'  Be- 
old  I  send  my  angel  (rndl'&kht)  .  .  .  ".  According 
to  them,  it  is  from  tiiis  passage  that  the  name  MdVdkhi 
was  borrowed  by  a  more  recent  author,  who  added 
the  inscription  to  the  book  (i,  1).  But,  in  the  first 
place,  this  epithet  Mdl'&khl  could  not  have  the  same 
value  in  i,  1,  as  in  iii,  1,  where  it  is  the  noun  aug- 
mented by  the  suffix  {my  angel).  For  in  i,  1,  the  Lonl 
is  spoken  of  in  the  third  person,  and  one  would  expect 
the  noun  with  the  suffix  of  the  third  person,  as  in  fact 
is  given  in  the  Septuagint  (his  angel).  The  messenger 
of  the  Lord  is  moreover  announced  in  iii,  1,  to  arrive 
thereafter  (cf.  iv,  5;  Hebrew  text,  iii,  23);  conse- 
quently no  one  could  have  imagined  that  this  same 
messenger  was  the  author  of  the  book.  There  would 
remain  the  hypothesis  that  Mdl'akhi  in  i,  1,  should  be 
understood  as  a  qualifying  word  signifying  angdicus — 
i.  e.  he  who  was  concerned  with  the  angel,  who  prophe- 
sied on  the  subject  of  the  angel  (iii,  1).  This  explana- 
tion, however,  is  too  far-fetched.  It  is  at  least  more 
probable  that  Mdl'&khi  in  i,  1,  should  be  understood  as 
the  proper  name  of  the  author,  or  as  a  title  borne  his- 
torically by  him  and  equivalent  to  a  proper  name.  We 
are  no  doubt  in  presence  of  an  abbreviation  of  the 
name  MdVokhiyah,  that  is  "  Messenger  of  Y^". 

II.  Contents  op  the  Book. — ^Irie  Book  of  Mala- 
chias  in  the  Hebrew  comprises  three  chapters.  In  the 
Greek  Bible  and  in  the  Vulgate  it  contains  four,  chap- 
ter iii,  19  sqq.,  of  the  Hebrew  forming  a  separate 
chapter.  The  book  is  divided  into  two  parts,  Uie  first 
extending  from  i,  2,  to  ii,  16,  and  the  second  from  ii, 
17,  to  the  end.  In  the  first  the  prophet  first  in- 
veighs against  the  priests  guilty  of  prevarication  in 
their  discharge  of  the  sacrificial  ritual,  by  offering  de- 
fective victims  (i,  6-ii,  4),  and  in  their  office  of 
doctors  of  the  Law  (ii,  5-9).  He  then  accuses  the 
people  in  general,  condemning  the  intestine  divisions, 
the  mixed  marriages  between  Jews  and  Gentiles  (ii, 
10-12),  and  the  abuse  of  divorce  (ii,  13-16).  The 
second  part  contains  a  discourse  full  of  promise.  To  a 
first  complaint  concerning  the  impunity  which  the 
wicked  enjoy  (ii,  17),  Yahweh  replies  that  the  Lord  and 
the  angel  of  the  New  Testament  are  about  to  come  for 
the  purpose  of  purifying  the  sods  of  Levi  and  the  en- 


tire nation  (iii,  1-5):  if  the  people  are  faithful  to  their 
obligations,  esp^ialW  with  respect  to  the  tithes,  they 
will  oe  loaded  with  Divine  blessings  (iii,  6-12).  To  a 
second  complaint  concerning  the  aSOdctions  that  fall  to 
the  lot  of  the  just,  while  the  wicked  succeed  in  every- 
thing (iii,  13),  Yahweh  gives  answer  that  on  the  day  of 
his  justice  the  good  will  take  a  glorious  revenge  (iii,  14 
sqq.).  Tlie  book  closes  with  a  double  epilogue;  the 
first  recalls  the  remembrance  of  Moses,  and  the  laws 
promulgated  on  Mount  Horeb  (iv,  4;  Hebrew  text,  iii, 
22) ;  the  second  announces  the  coming  of  Elias  before 
the  day  of  Yahweh  (iv,  5-6;  Heb.,  iii,  23-24).  The 
unity  of  the  book  taken  as  a  whole  is  unquestionable; 
but  many  critics  consider  as  the  addition  of  another 
hand  either  both  the  epilo^es  or  at  least  the  second. 
There  is  indeed  no  connexion  between  these  passaj^ 
and  what  goes  before,  but  from  this  consideration 
alone  no  certain  conclusion  can  be  drawn. 

III.  Date  op  Composition. — ^The  opinion  brought 
forward  some  time  ago,  that  the  book  ot  Malachias  was. 
composed  in  the  second  centurv  b.  c,  has  received  no 
support.  Critics  are  practically  agreed  in  dating  the 
book  from  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century 
B.  c.  The  text  itself  does  not  furnish  any  explicit 
information,  but  many  indications  are  m  favour 
of  the  assigned  date:  (a)  in  the  first  place  the 
mention  of  the  Peha  (i.  8),  as  the  pohtical  head  of 
the  people  takes  us  back  to  the  Persian  period;  the 
title  of  reha  was  indeed  that  borne  h}r  the  Persian 
governor  especially  at  Jerusalem  (Agg.,  i,  1 ;  I  Esd.,  v, 
14;  II  Esd.,  V.  14-15);  (b)  the  book  was  not  com- 
posed during  tne  first  years  that  followed  the  return 
from  the  Babylonian  captivity,  because  not  only  the 
Temple  exists,  but  relaxation  in  the  exercise  of  wor* 
ship  already  prevails  (Mai.,  i,  6  sqq.) ;  (c)  on  the  other 
hand  it  is  hardly  probable  that  the  discourses  of  Mala- 
chias are  of  later  date  than  Nehemias.  In  the  great 
assembly  which  waa  held  during  the  first  sojourn  of 
Nehemias  at  Jerusalem,  among  other  engagements, 
the  people  had  taken  that  of  paying  the  tithes  regu- 
larly (ll  Esd..  X,  38),  and  history  testifies  that  in  this 
respect  the  adopted  resolutions  were  faithfully  carried 
out,  although  in  the  distribution  of  the  tithes  the  Le- 
vites  were  unjustly  treated  (II  Esd.,  xiii,  5,  10,  13). 
Now  Malachias  complains  not  of  the  injustice  of  which 
the  Levites  were  the  object,  but  of  the  negligence  on 
the  part  of  the  people  tnemselves  in  the  payment  of 
the  tithes  (iii,  10).  Again,  Malachias  does  not  regard 
mixed  marriages  as  contrary  to  a  positive  engagement, 
like  that  which  was  taken  under  the  direction  of  Ne- 
hemias (II  Esd.,  X,  30);  he  denounces  them  on  ac- 
count of  their  unhappy  consequences  and  of  the  con- 
tempt which  they  imply  for  the  Jewish  nationality 
(Mai.,  ii,  11, 12);  (d)  it  is  not  even  during  the  sojourn 
of  Nehemias  at  Jerusalem  that  Malachias  wrote  his 
book.  Nehemias  was  Peha,  and  he  greatlv  insists  upon 
his  disinterestedness  in  the  exercise  of  his  functions, 
contrary  to  the  practices  of  his  predecessors  (II  Esd., 
V,  14  sqq.) ;  but  Malachias  gives  us  to  understand  that 
the  Peha  was  severely  exacting  (i,  8) ;  (e)  the  date  of 
oompositioQ  can  only  fall  withm  some  short  time  be- 
fore the  mission  of  Nehemias.  The  complaints  and 
protestations  to  which  this  latter  gives  expression  (II 
Esd.,  ii,  17;  iv.  4  sq.;  v,  6  sgq.,  etc!)  are  like  an  echo  of 
those  recorded  by  Malachias  (iii,  14,  15).  The  mis- 
fortune that  weighed  so  heavilv  upon  the  people  in 
the  days  of  Malachias  (iii.  9  sqq.)  were  still  felt  during 
those  of  Nehemias  (II  Esd.,  v.  1  saq.).  Lastly  and 
above  all,  the  abuses  condemned  by  Malachias,  namely, 
the  relaxation  in  relij^ous  worship^  mixed  marriages 
and  the  intestine  divisions  of  which  they  were  the 
cause  (Mai.,  ii,  10-12;  cf.  II  Esd.,  vi,  18),  the  negU- 
gence  in  paying  the  tithes,  were  precisely  the  principal 
objects  of  the  reforms  imdertaken  by  Nehemias  (II 
Esq.,  x^  31, 33,  sqq..  38  sqq.).  As  the  first  mission  of 
Nehemias  falls  in  tne  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes  I 
(II  Esd.,  ii,  1),  that  is  in  445  b.  c,  it  CQUA^%^\iab&.««2Q5^ 


MALAOHIAS 


564 


MALAOHIAS 


composition  of  the  Book  of  Malachlas  may  be  placed 
about  450  b.  c. 

IV.  Importance  op  the  Book. — ^The  importance 
lies  (1)  in  the  data  which  the  book  furnishes  for  the 
study  of  certain  problems  of  criticism  concerning  the 
Old  Testament,  and  (2)  in  the  doctrine  it  contains. 

^1)  For  the  study  of  the  history  of  the  Pentateuch, 
it  IS  to  be  remarked  that  the  Book  of  Malachias  is 
directly  connected  with  Deuteronomy,  and  not  with 
any  of  those  parts  of  the  Pentateuch  commonly  desig- 
nated under  the  name  of  priestly  documents.  Thus 
Mai.,  i,  8,  where  the  prophet  speaks  of  the  animals  un- 
fit for  sacrifice,  brings  to  mind  Deut.,  xv.  21,  rather 
than  Lev.,  xxii,  22  sq.;  the  passage  in  Mai.,  ii,  16,  re- 
lating to  divorce  by  reason  of  aversion,  points  to 
Deut.,  xxiv,  1.  What  is  even  more  significant  is  that, 
in  his  manner  of  characterizing  the  Tribe  of  Levi  and 
its  relations  with  the  priesthood,  Malachias  adopts 
the  terminology  of  Deuteronomy;  in  speaking  of  the 
priests,  he  brings  into  evidence  "their  origin  not  from 
Aaron  but  from  Levi  (ii,  4,  5  sqq.;  iii,  3  sq.).  Conse- 
quently, it  would  be  an  error  to  suppose  that  in  this 
respect  Deuteronomy  represents  a  pomt  of  view  which 
in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  was  no  longer  held. 
Let  us  add  that  the  first  of  the  two  epilogueSj  with 
which  the  book  concludes  (iv,  4;  Hebrew,  text,  hi,  32), 
is  likewise  conceived  in  the  spirit  of  Deuteronomy. 

The  examination  of  the  Book  of  Malachias  may 
be  brought  to  bear  on  the  solution  of  the  question  as 
to  whether  the  mission  of  Esdras,  related  in  I  Esd., 
vii-x,  falls  in  the  seventh  year  of  Artaxcrxes  I  (458 
B.  c.),  that  is  to  say,  thirteen  years  before  the  first 
mission  of  Nehemias,  or  in  the  seventh  year  of  Artaxer- 
xes  II  (398  B.  c.)j  and  therefore  after  Nehemias.  Im- 
mediately after  his  arrival  in  Jerusalem^  Esdras  under- 
takes a  radical  reform  of  the  abuse  of  mixed  marriages, 
which  are  already  considered  contrary  to  a  positive 
prohibition  (I  Esd.,  x).  He  tells  us  also  that,  sup- 
ported by  the  authority  of  the  King  of  Persia  and  with 
the  co-operation  of  the  governors  beyond  the  river,  he 
laboured  with  full  success  to  give  to  rehgious  worship 
all  its  splendour  (I  Esd.,  vii,  14,  15,  17,  20— viii,  36). 
And  nothing  whatever  justifies  the  beUef  that  the 
work  of  Esdras  had  but  an  ephemeral  success,  for  in 
that  case  he  would  not  in  his  own  memoirs  have  re- 
lated it  with  so  much  emphasis  without  one  word  of 
regret  for  the  failure  of  his  effort.  Can  data  such  as 
these  be  reconciled  with  the  supposition  that  the  state 
of  affairs  described  by  Malachias  was  the  immedi- 
ate outcome  of  the  work  of  Esdras  related  in  I  Esd., 
vii-x? 

(2)  In  the  doctrine  of  Malachias  one  notices  with 
good  reason  as  worthy  of  interest  the  attitude  taken 
by  the  prophet  on  the  subject  of  divorce  (ii,  14-16). 
The  passage  in  question  is  very  obscure,  but  it  appears 
in  V.  16  that  the  prophet  disapproves  of  the  clivorce 
tolerated  bjr  Deut.,  xxiv,  1,  viz.,  for  cause  of  aversion. 

The  Messianic  doctrine  of  Malachias  especially  ap- 
peals to  our  attention.  InMal.iii,  l,Yahweh  announces 
that  he  will  send  his  messenger  to  prepare  the  way  be- 
fore Him.  In  the  second  epilogue  of  the  book  (iv,  5. 
6;  Heb.,  text,  iii,  23  sq.),  tnis  messenger  is  identifiea 
with  the  prophet  Elias.  Many  passages  in  the  New 
Testament  categorically  interpret  this  double  prophecy 
by  applying  it  to  John  the  baptist,  precursor  of  our 
Lora  (Matt.,  xi,  10, 14;  xvii,  11-12;  Mark,  ix^  10 sqq.; 
Luke,  i,  17).  The  prophecy  of  Malachias,  iii,  1,  adas 
that,  as  soon  as  the  messenger  shall  have  prepared  the 
way,  "the  Lord,  whom  you  seek,  and  the  Angel  of  the 
testament  J  whom  you  desire, "  will  come  to  His  temple. 
The  Lord  is  here  identified  with  the  angel  of  the  testa- 
ment; this  is  evident  from  the  construction  of  the 
phrase  and  from  the  circumstance  that  the  description 
of  the  mission  of  the  angel  of  the  testament  (w.  2  sq.) 
is  continued  by  the  Lord  speaking  of  Himself  in  the 
first  person  in  v.  5. 

A  particularly  famous  passage  is  that  of  Mai.,  i,  10- 


11.    In  spite  of  a  difficulty  in  the  construction  of  the 
phrase,  which  can  be  avoided  by  vocalising  one  word 
otherwise  than  the  Massoretes  have  done  (read  miq- 
Par,  Sept.  Bv/Uafxa^  instead  of  mti^r  in  v.  11),  the 
literal  sense  is  clear.    The  principal  question  is  to 
know  what  is  the  sacrifice  ana  pure  ofiferin|^  spoken  of 
in  V.  11.    A  large  number  of  non-Cathohc  ex^etes 
interpret  it  of  the  sacrifices  actually  being  offered 
from  east  to  west  at  the  time  of  Malachias  himself. 
According  to  some,  the  prophet  had  in  view  the 
sacrifices  offered  in  the  name  of  Yahweh  by  the 
proselytes  of  the  Jewish  religion  among  all  the  nations 
of  the  earth;  others  are  more  inclined  to  the  belief 
that  he  signifies  the  sacrifices  offered  by  the  Jews 
dispersed  among  the  Gentiles.     But  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tuiy  B.  c.  neither  the  Jews  dispersed  among  the  Gen- 
tiles nor  the  prosel^-t^  were  sufficiently  numerous  to 
justify  the  solemn  utterances  used  by  Malachias;  the 
prophet  clearly  wants  to  insist  on  the  universal  diffu- 
sion of  the  sacrifice  which  he  has  in  view.  Hence  others, 
following  the  exampleof  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  think 
they  can  explain  the  expression  in  v.  11  as  referring  to 
the  sacrifices  offered  by  the  pagans  to  their  own  gods  or 
to  the  Supreme  God;  those  sacrifices  would  have  been 
considered  by  Malachias  as  materially  offered  to  Yah- 
weh, because  in  fact  Yahweh  is  the  only  true  God. 
But  it  appeara  inconceivable  that  Yahwen  should,  by 
mean&  of  Malachias,  have  looked  upon  as  **  pure  "  and 
"offered  to  his  name"  the  sacrifices  offered  by  the 
Gentiles  to  this  or  that  divinity;  especially  when  one 
considers  the  great  importance  Malachias  attaches  to 
the  ritual (i,  6  sqq.,  12  sqq.;  iii,  3  sg.)  and  the  attitude 
he  takes  towards  foreign  peoples  (ij  2  sqq.;  ii,  11  sq.). 
The  interpretation  according  to  which  chap,  i,  11,  con- 
cerns the  sacrifices  in  vogue  among  the  Gentiles  at  the 
epoch  of  Malachias  himself  fails  to  recognize  that  the 
sacrifice  and  the  pure  offering  of  v.  11  are  looked  upon 
as  a  new  institution  succeeding  the  sacrifices  of  the 
Temple,  furnishing  by  their  very  nature  a  motive 
sufficient  to  close  the  doors  of  the  house  of  God  and 
extinguish  the  fire  of  the  altar  (v.  10)     Consequently 
v.  11  must  be  considered  as  a  Messianic  prophecy. 
The  universal  diffusion  of  the  worship  of  Yahweh 
is  always  proposed  by  the  prophets  as  a  character- 
istic sign  of  the  Messianic  reign.    That  the  phrase 
is  construed  in  the  present  tense  only  proves  that 
here,  as  on  other  occasions,  the  prophetic  vision  con- 
templates its  object  absolutelv  without  any  regard  to 
the  events  that  should  go  before  its  accomplishment. 
It  is  true  that  Mai.,  iii,  3-4,  says  that  after  the  conrung 
of  the  angel  of  the  testament  the  sons  of  Levi  will  offer 
sacrifices  in  justice,  and  that  the  sacrifice  of  Juda  and 
Jerusalem  will  \xi  pleasing  to  the  Lord.     But  the  new 
institutions  of  the  Messianic  reign  might  be  considered, 
either  inasmuch  as  they  were  the  realization  of  the 
final  stage  in  the  development  of  those  of  the  Old 
Testament  (and  in  this  case  they  would  naturally  be 
described  by  the  help  of  the  images  borrowed  from  the 
latter),  or  inasmuch  as  they  implied  the  cessation  of 
those  of  the  Old  Testament  in  their  proper  form.      In 
Mai.,  iii,  3-4,  the  religious  institutions  of  the  Messianic 
reign  are  considered  from  the  former  point  of  view,  be- 
cause the  language  is  consolatory;  in  Mai.,  i,  10,  11, 
they  are  considered  from  the  latter  point  of  view,  be- 
cause the  language  here  is  menacing. 

Certain  authors,  while  admitting  the  Messianic 
character  of  the  passage,  think  that  it  should  be 
interpreted  not  or  a  sacrifice  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  word,  but  of  a  purely  spiritual  form  of  devo- 
tion. However,  the  terms  employed  in  v.  11  express 
the  idcA  of  a  sacrifice  in  the  strict  sense.  Moreover, 
according  to  the  context,  the  censured  sacrifices  were 
not  considered  impure  in  their  quality  of  material  sacri- 
fices, but  on  account  of  the  defoctM  with  which  the 
victims  were  affected;  it  is  consequently  not  on  ac- 
count of  an  opposition  to  material  Siiciificos  that  the 
offering  spoken  of  in  v.  1 1  is  called  i)ure.     It  is  an  alto- 


aSALAOHT 


565 


MALAGRIDA 


cethcr  difiPerent  question  whether  or  not  the  text  of 
Malachias  alone  permits  one  to  determine  in  a  certain 
measure  the  exact  form  of  the  new  sacrifice.  A  large 
number  of  Catholic  exegetcs  believe  themselves  ius- 
tified  in  concluding,  from  the  use  of  the  term  minhah  in 
V.  11,  that  the  prophet  desired  formally  to  signify  an 
unbloody  sacrince.  The  writer  of  the  present  article 
finds  it  so  much  the  more  difficult  to  aecide  on  this 
question,  as  the  word  minhah  is  several  times  em- 
ployed by  Malachias  to  signify  sacrifice  in  the  generic 
sense  (i,  13;  ii,  12, 13;  iii,  3, 4,  and,  in  all  probability, 
i,  10).  For  the  rest,  the  event  has  shown  how  the 
prophecy  was  to  be  realized.  It  is  of  the  Eucharifr- 
iic  sacrifice  that  Christian  antiquity  has  interpreted 
the  passage  of  Malachias  (cf .  Council  of  Trent,  Sess. 
XXfl,  1). 

ToRRST,  The  Prophecy  ofMalachi  in  Journal  of  Soe,  for  BtbH- 
cat  Lit.  (18Q8),  pp.  1  sqq.;  Perownb,  Book  of  Malachi  (Cam- 
bridge. 1896);  Rkinkb.  Der  ProphH  Maieaehi  (ISM).  Oon- 
luH  also  (^mmentaries  on  the  Bfinor  ProphetB  by  Sioth  (1900) ; 
Drivsr  (Nahum-Malaehi;  Century  Bible):  Knabenbausr 
(1886);  WCLLHAU8EN  (1898);  Nowacx  (1904);  Marti  (1904); 
Van  Hoon acker  (1908);  auo  Introductions  to  the  Old  Teeta- 
jnent.     (See  Aoosus.) 

A.  Van  Hoonacker. 

Malachy,  Saint,  whose  family  name  was  O'Mor- 
gair,  b.  in  Armaeh  in  1094.  St.  Bernard  descril^es  him 
as  of  noble  birth.  He  we:8  baptised  Maelmliaedhoc 
(a  name  which  has  been  Latinized  as  Malachy)  and 
was  trained  under  Imhar  O'Hagan,  subsequently 
Abbot  of  Armagh.  After  a  long  course  of  studies  he 
was  ordained  priest  by  St.  Cellach  (Celsus)  in  1119. 
In  order  to  perfect  himself  in  sacred  liturgy  and  theol- 
ogy, he  proceeded  to  Lismore,  where  he  spent  nearly 
two  years  under  St.  Malchus.  He  was  then  chosen 
Abbot  of  Bangor,  in  1123.  A  year  later,  he  was  con- 
secrated Bishop  of  Ck)nnor,  ana,  in  1132,  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  primacy  of  Armagh.  St.  Bernard  gives 
us  many  interesting  anecdotes  regarding  St.  Malachy, 
and  highly  praises  his  zeal  for  religion  lx)th  in  Connor 
and  Araiagh.  In  1127  he  paid  a  second  visit  to  Lis- 
more and  acted  for  a  time  as  confessor  to  Cormac 
MacCJarthy,  Prince  of  Desmond.  Whiie  Bishop  lof 
Connor  he  continued  to  reside  at  Bangor,  and  when 
some  of  the  native  princes  sacked  (jonnor,  he  brought 
the  Bangor  monks  to  Iveragh,  Co.  Kerry,  where  they 
were  welcomed  by  King  (Jormac.  On  the  death  of 
St.  Celsus  (who  was  buried  at  Lismore  in  1129),  St. 
Malachy  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  1132, 
which  dignity  ne  accepted  with  great  reluctance. 
Owing  to  intrigues,  he  was  unable  to  take  possession 
of  his  see  for  two  years;  even  then  he  had  to  purchase 
the  Bachal  Isu  (Staff  of  Jesus)  from  Niall,  the  usurp- 
ing lay-primate. 

During  three  years  at  Armagh,  as  St.  Bernard 
writes,  St.  Malachv  restored  the  discipline  of  the 
Church,  grown  lax  during  the  intruded  rule  of  a  series 
of  lay-abbots,  and  had  the  Roman  Liturgy  adopted. 
St.  Bernard  continues:  '^ Having  extirpated  barbar- 
ism and  re-established  Christian  morals,  seeing  all 
things  tranquil  he  began  to  think  of  his  own  peace". 
He  therefore  resigned  Annagh,  in  1138,  and  returned 
to  dlonnor,  dividing  the  see  into  Down  and  Connor, 
retaining  the  former.  He  founded  a  priory  of  Austin 
Canons  at  Downpatrick,  and  was  unceasing  in  his 
episcopal  labours.  Early  in  1139  he  journeyed  to 
Rome,  via  Scotland,  England,  and  France,  visiting  St. 
Bernard  at  Clairvaux.  He  petitioned  Pope  Innocent 
for  palliums  for  the  Sees  of  Armagh  and  Cashel,  and 
was  appointed  legate  for  Ireland.  On  his  return  visit 
to  Clairvaux  he  obtained  five  monks  for  a  foundation 
in  Ireland,  imder  Christian,  an  Irishman,  as  superior: 
thus  arose  the  great  Abbey  of  Mellifont  in  1142.  St. 
Malachy  set  out  on  a  second  joumev  to  Rome  in  1148, 
but  on  arriving  at  Clairvaux  he  fell  sick,  and  died  in 
the  arms  of  St.  Bernard,  on  2  November.  Numerous 
miracles  are  recorded  of  him,  and  he  was  also  endowed 
with  the  gift  of  prophecy.   St.  Malachy  was  canonized 


by  Pope  Clement  (III),  on  6  July,  1199,  and  his  feast 
is  celebrated  on  3  November,  in  order  not  to  cladi 
with  the  Feast  of  All  Souls. 

An  account  of  the  relics  of  St.  Malachy  will  be  foimd 
in  Migne,  '*  PatrologisB  cursus  completus",  CLXXXV. 
For  a  discussion  of  the  "prophecies''  concerning  the 
popes,  known  as  "St.  Malachy 's  Prophecies'*,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  article  rROPHEctfes. 

O'Hanlok,  Life  of  St.  Malachy  (Dublin,  1854);  LanioaN{ 
Bed.  Hist,  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1829);  O'Lavertt,  Life  of  St, 
Malachy  (Belfast.  1899);  He  alt,  Ireland'e  Ancient  SehooU  and 
Scholar*  (4th  ed.,  Dublin,  1902). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Malaga,  Diocese  of  (Malacitana),  Spain,  by  the 
Concordat  of  1851  made  a  suffragan  of  Granada,  hay- 
ing previously  l)een  dependent  on  Seville.  Malaga 
was  the  MdXaim  of  Strabo  and  Ptolemy  and  the  Mar 
lata  feeder atorum  Of  Pliny.  It  was  important  during 
•  the  (Carthaginian  period,  because  a  municipium  under 
Roman  rule,  and  under  the  Visigoths  was  made  an 
episcopal  see.  The  earliest  known  bishop  was  Patri- 
cius,  consecrated  about  290,  and  present  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Eliberis.  Hostegesis  governed  the  see  from  845 
to  864.  After  the  battle  of  Guadalcte  the  city  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  and  the  bishopric  was  sup- 
pressed. Malaga  then  became  for  a  time  a  posses- 
sion of  the  C-aliphate  of  Cordova.  After  the  fall  of 
the  Oinayyad  dynasty,  it  became  the  capital  of  a 
distinct  kingdom,  dependent  on  Granada.  In  1487 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  besieged  the  city,  which  after 
a  desperate  resistance  was  compelled  to  surrender; 
and^  with  the  Christian  religion,  the  episcopal  see 
wa£  restored.  The  first  bishop  after  the  restoration 
was  Pedro  Diaz.  The  see  was  vacant  from  1835  to 
1848.  The  present  incumljent  is  Bishop  Juan  Munoz 
y  Herrera,  oorn  at  Antequera,  in  the  Diocese  of 
Malaga,  6  October,  1835. 

The  city  of  Malaga  is  the  capital  of  the  maritime 
province  of  the  same  name  and,  next  to  Barcelona,  is 
the  most  important  seaport  on  the  Spanish  Mediter-^ 
ranean  coast.  It  lies  at  the  southern  Base  of  the 
Axarqua  hills,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Guadalmedina. 
The  Climate  is  mild  and  equable,  the  mean  annual 
temperature  being  about  66°  Fahrenheit.  For  its 
clear  sky  and  broad  expanse  of  bay  the  city  has  been 
compared  to  Naples.  Since  1892  the  harbour,  which 
had  been  obstructed,  has  been  cleared  and  improved, 
and  from  it  are  shipped  the  quantities  of  produce — 
grapes,  oranges,  alinonds,  oil,  and  wine — for  which 
this  district  is  famous.  The  cathedral,  in  the  Grseco- 
Roman  style,  stands  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  Moor- 
ish mosque.  It  was  begun  in  1528  and  completed 
in  1719.  Since  the  Concordat  of  1851  the  C^tnedntl 
Chapter  has  numbered  20  canons  and  11  beneficed 
clerics.  There  are  in  the  diocese  (1910)  520,000  Cath- 
olics, a  few  Protestants;  123  parishes,  481  priests, 
and  200  churches  and  chapels.  The  Augustinian  Fa- 
thers have  a  college  at  Ronda;  the  Piarists  are  engaged 
in  teaching  at  Archidona  and  the  Brothers  of  St.  John 
of  God  have  schools  at  Antequera,  at  which  place  there 
is  also  a  (}apuchin  monastery.  In  the  town  of  Malaga 
there  are  convents  for  women,  including  Bemardines, 
Cistercians,  Augustinians,  Poor  Clares,  &rmelites,  and 
Dominicans.  The  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  maintain 
homes  for  the  aged  and  infirm  at  Malaga,  Antequera, 
and  Ronda.  Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

Malagrida,  Gabriel,  a  Jesuit  missionary  to  Brazil, 
b.  18  Sept.,  or  6  Dec,  1689,  at  Menaggio,  in  Italy,  d. 
21  Sept.,  1761,  at  Lisbon.  He  entered  the  Jesuit  order 
at  (jenoa  in  171 1 .  He  set  out  from  Lisbon  in  1 72 1  and 
arrived  on  the  Island  of  MaranMo  towards  the  end  of 
the  same  year.  Thenoe  he  proceeded  to  Brazil,  where 
for  twentv-eight  years  he  imderwent  numerous  hard- 
ships in  the  Christianization  of  the  natives.  In  1749 
he  was  sent  to  Lisbon,  where  he  was  received  with  great 
honours  by  the  aged  King  John  V.    In  1751  he  ie« 


S66  iiALCBXJi 

turned  to  Brazil,  but  was  recalled  to  Lisbon  in  1753  tyrants  of  the  Renaissance,  without  fear  of  Cod  of 

upon  the  request  of  the  queen  dowager,  Marianna  man.   At  the  same  time,  he  shared  to  a  high  degree  in 

of  Austria,  mother  of  Joseph,  who  had  succeeded  the  Renaissance  cult  of  art;  and  letters,  and  many 

to  the  Throne  upon  the  deatn  of  his  father  John  V.  humanists  and  poets  foimd  shelter  at  his  court.    The 

The  great  influence  which  he  exerted  at  the  Court  of  wonderful  temple  of  San  Francesco  at  Rimini,  the 

Lisbon  was  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  Pombal,  the  prime  most  pagan  of  all  professedly  Christian  churches,  was 

minister.    By  intrigues  and  calumnies  he  induced  the  built  for  him  by  Leon  Battista  Albert! ;    Piero  de' 

young  king,  Joseph  I,  to  banish  Malagrida  to  Setubal,  Franceschi  painted  him  as  kneeling  before  St.  Sigis- 

Nov.,  1756,  and  to  remove  all  the  Jesuits  from  the  mund,  and  Pisanello  cast  his  portrait  in  a  splendid 

Court.    An  attempt  upon  the  life  of  the  royal  chamber-  medal  which  is  a  masterpiece  of  its  kind.    Sigismondo 

lain  Tei^eira,  dunng  which  the  king  was  accidentally  is  accused  of  the  murder  of  his  two  wives,  Ginevra 

wounded,  was  amplified  by  Pombal  into  a  conspiracy  d'Este  and  Polissena  Sforsa.    He  afterwards  married 

headed   bv  Malagrida  and  other  Jesuits.    Without  his  mistress,  the  famous  Isotta  degli  Atti,  in  whose 

Eroof.  Malagrida  was  declared  guilty  of  high  treason  honour  he  composed  poems  which  are  still  extant, 

ut,  oeing  a  priest,  he  could  not  be  executed  with-  In  1465  he  commanded  the  Venetian  army  in  the  un- 

out  the  consent  of  the  Inquisition.    Meanwhile  the  successful  campaign  undertaken  against  the  Turks  in 

officials  of  the  Inquisition,  who  were  friendly  towards  the  Morea,  ana  on  this  occasion  he  discovered  the  re- 

Malagrida^  were  replaced  by  tools  of  Pombal,  who  con-  mains  of  Gemisthus  Pletho  (the  Byzantine  scholar  who 

demned  him  as  a  heretic  and  visionary ^  whereupon  he  introduced  Platonism  into  Italy),  which  he  brought 

Was  strangled  at  an  aulfMia-f^.  and  his  body  oumt.  back  with  him  to  Rimini  and  solemnly  emdirineain 

The  accusation  of  heresy  is  based  on  two  visionary  trea-  San  Francesco.    Pius  II,  who  held  him  in  peculiar 

tises  which  he  is  said  to  have  written  while  in  prison,  abhorrence,  partly  because  of  his  treachery  towards 

His  authorship  of  these  treatises  has  never  been  Siena,  had  begim  by  degrees  to  deprive  nim  of  his 

proved,  and  they  contain,  such  ridiculous  statements  dominions,  and  Paul  II  continued  the  same  course 

that  if  ne  wrote  them  he  must  previously  have  lost  his  until  only  Rimini  itself  remained.     Infuriated  at  a 

reason  in  the  horrors  of  his  two  and  a  half  years'  im-  demand  to  surrender  Rimini  also,  Sigismondo  went  to 

prisonment.  That  he  was  not  guilty  of  any  conspiracy  Rome  in  1468,  with  the  intention  of  slaying  the  pope 

against  the  king,  is  admitted  even  by  the  enemies  of  with  his  own  hands.    Either  opportunity  or  resolution 

the  Jesuits.    A  monument  in  his  honour  was  erected  failed  him.    Paul  seems  to  have  pardoned  him  and 

in  1887  in  the  parochial  church  of  Menaggio.  even  confirmed  him  in  the  possession  of  Rimini,  but 

MuRT,  Hiooire  de  Oabriel  MaUxgrida  (Paris,  1864:  2n(i  ed.,  Sigismondo  returned  home  a  broken  man,  and  died  a 

StraBburg,  1899;  German  tr.  Salzbung*  1890);  Un  monumento  al  *«,«,  Tr»ftr»fVia  la*oi» 
P.  Malagrida  in  La  CxvOUl  CaUolica,  IX,  series  XIII  (Rome,  '^W  moni,ns  later. 
1888).  30-43,  414-430,  658-679;  Sommervogel,  Bibliothi'Xtue  de  ROBERTO  MaLATESTA  (d.  1482),  an  illegitimate  SOn 

la  Compaanxe  de  JSsut,  V  (BniMela,  1894),  394-5;  Butina,  of  Sigismondo,  possessed  himself  of  Rimini  by  treach- 

Fuia  Aj  JlfoAK^rute  (Barcelona.  1886).         j^^^^^^^  ^^  ery  on  his  father's  death.    He  murdered  his  two  half- 

MiCHAEL  UTT.  brothers,  the  sons  of  Sigismondo  by  Isotta,  and  is  said 

Malalas,  John.    See  John  Malalas.  to  have  poisoned  Isotta  herself.     In  1475  he  was 

invested  with  the  vicariate  of  Rimini  by  Sixtus  IV. 

Malatesta,  House  of,  an  Italian  family  prominent  Roberto  inherited  his  father's  military  talent,  and 

in  the  history  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  recovered  some  of  the  territory  that  he  nad  lost.    His 

famous  alike  in  the  poetry  of  Dante  and  in  the  annals  great  achievement  was  the  liberation  of  Rome  by  the 

of  the  early  Renaissance.    The  founder  of  their  power  victory  of  Campo  Morto,  21  August,  1482,  when,  at 

was  Malatesta  da  Verrucchio  (d.  1312),  the  leader  of  the  head  of  the  Venetian  and  papal  forces,  he  com- 

the  Guelphs  in  Romagna,  who  in  1295  made  himself  pletely  defeated  the  royal  army  of  Naples  under  the 

mas^r  of  Rimini  by  the  slaughter  of  the  chief  mem-  command  of  Duke  Alfonso  of  Calabria.    He  died  of 

bers  of  the  rival  Ghibelline  family,  the  Parcitati.  fever,  while  pursuing  the  campaign,  in  the  following 

Thenceforth  the  Malatcsti  ruled  over  a  number  of  month.    His  son,  Pandolfo,  a  cruel  and  contemptible 

cities  in  Romagna  and  the  March  of  Ancona,  including  tyrant,  was  expelled  from  Rimini  by  Cesare  Borgia  in 

Rimini  until  1500,  Pesaro  until  1446,  Fano,  Cesena,  1600,  and,  after  several  brief  restorations  of  the  Mal- 

Fossombrone,  and  Cervia,  sometimes  with  papal  inves-  atestj,  the  city  was  finally  incorporated  into  the  Papal 

titures,  sometimes  merely  by  the  sword.    While  many  States  in  1528. 

of  the  family  were  notorious  for  their  crimes  and  ^  S»^M«N™*f». /2aa»fto  wtorico  d«Ma /ondai^^  e 

(d.   1429),  a  staunch  supporter  of  the  Church,  who      1882);  Ywarte,  Un  CondoUiere  au  XV*  Si^de  (Paris,  1882); 

represented  Gregory  Xllat  the  Council  of  Constance,     P4»»«"^'  .^,^^^^^\  ^*'"„*'l*  feHR*®??^*  ^  Litta,  Fawi- 

AnH  rialiv^ffr^  PnK«»rf/^  (A    ^±'V>\    whn  VkAPamo  a  Pr«n       ^**«  cet^^TX  vtaluine)  (Milan.  1869-1870) ;  ^yuonus,  Sketchei  and 
Mia  UaleOttO  KObertO  (d.  14d^;,  wno  became  a  l^ran-     studies  in  Italy  and  Greece,  II  (London,  1898);  HOTTON.  5tbt»- 

Ciscan  and  shortened  his  life  by  his  austenties.  mondo  Pandolfo  MalaUsta  (London,  190d). 

Giovanni  Malatesta  (d.  1304),  known,  from  his  Edmund  G.  Gardner. 

lameness,  as  Gianciotto,  or  Giovanni,  lo  Sciancato  was        Malchion  of  Antioch.    See  Paul  op  Samosata. 
the  eldest  son  of  Malatesta  da  Verrucchio.    From  1275 

onwards  he  played  an  active  part  in  the  Romagnole        Malchus  (MdXxof),  Greek  form  of  Malluch  (i.  e. 

wars  and  factions..   He  is  chieflv  famous  for  the  do-  counsellor),  a  name  common  in  the  Semitic  langua^ 

mestic  tragedy  of  1285,  recorded  in  the  '*  Inferno"  of  and  of  special  interest  as  being  that  borne  by  the  Jewish 

Dante,  when,  having  detected  his  wife,  Francesca  da  servant  whose  ear  was  struck  off  by  St.  Peter.    The 

Polenta,  in  adultery  with  his  brother  Paolo,  he  killed  incident  is  described  by  all  the  Evangelists  (Matt., 

them  both  with  his  own  hands.    He  captured  Pesaro  xxvi,  51 ;  Mark,  xiv,  47 ;  Luke,  xxii,  50;  John,  xviii,  10), 

in  1294,  and  ruled  it  as  podest^  imtil  his  death.  though  St.  John  alone  furnishes  us  the  names  of  the 

Sigismondo  Malatesta  (b.  1417;  d.  1468)  was  a  son  servant  and  the  disciple,  and  only  St.  Luke  mentions 

of  Pandolfo  di  Galeotto  Malatesta,  the  descendant  of  a  the  miraculous  healing  of  the  injurjr.    According  to 

half-brother  of  Gianciotto.    On  the  abdication  of  his  the  Fourth  Gospel,  Judas,  accompanied  by  a  band  of 

half-brother,  Galeotto  Roberto,  in  1432,  he  succeeded  soldiers  and  servants  sent  out  by  the  high-priests  and 

to  the  lordship  of  Rimini,  Fano,  and  C^na,  as  papal  Pharisees,  set  out  from  the  city  to  apprehend  Jesus, 

vicar.    From  nis  childhood  he  was  a  skilful  and  durmg  After  the  meeting,  when  the  soldiers  were  about  to 

soldier,  and  throughout  his  life  was  regarded  as  af  seize  Jesus,  St.  Peter  drew  his  sword  and  cut  off  the 

most  the  first  captain  in  Italy.    An  appalling  picture  right  ear  of  a  servant  of  the  high-priest.    We  may 

of  his  character  is  given  by  Pope  Pius  II  in  his  *  Com-  conclude  that  Malchus  was  in  the  van  of  the  hostile 

mentAriea",    He  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  worst  party  and  showing  particular  zeal,  for  St.  Peter  would 


MALDOWADO  567  MALDOWADO 

hardly  have  sinded  him  out  without  reason.    Christ  ing  discourse.    Acquaviva,  having  been  elected  gen« 

at  once  healed  the  wound  and  took  occasion  to  teach  eral,  ordered  him  to  remain  at  Rome,  and  Gr^orj 

His  followers  a  lesson  of  peace.    Later  in  the  evening  XIII  appointcjd  him  to  the  commission  for  revlsine 

a  servant,  related  to  Maldius,  wrung  the  second  denial  the  text  of  the  Septuagint,  to  the  excellence  of  which 

from  St.  Peter  (Jolm,  xviii,  26-7).    Since  St.  John  revision  Maldonado  largely  contributed.     In  1583, 

alone  gives  the  name  of  the  servant,  we  may  conclude  fifteen  davs  before  his  death,  when  he  had  not  yet 

that  he  himself  was  the  disciple  known  to  the  high  completed  his  fiftieth  year,  he  delivered  to  the  general 

priest  (John,  xviii,  15).    The  silence  of  the  other  his  unfinished  commentaries.    He  was  a  man  of  emi- 

sacred  writers  with  re^trd  to  Peter's  identity  may  be  nent  virtue,  of  subtle  intellect,  excellent  memory, 

ascribed  to  a  motive  of  prudence,  for  at  the  time  they  immense  reading  and  erudition,  and  was  consulted  by 

wrote  the  Jews  might  have  punished  the  disciple,  had  the  most  illustrious  personages  of  France,  and  sought 

they  known  his  name.  after  by  the  King  of  Poland  for  the  good  of  his  do- 

JosBFH  v.  MoLLOT.  mlmons.    fie  has  been  accused,  but  upon  insufficient 

grounds,  of  certain  rash  utterances  and  of  inordinate 
Maldonado  (Maldonatus),  Juan,  theologian  and  attachment  to  his  own  opinions, 
exesete;  b.  in  1533  at  Casas  deHeina,  in  the  district  His  Teaching, — ^Theology  in  Paris  had  fallen  into 
of  Llerena,  66  leagues  from  Madrid;  d.  at  Rome,  6  decay,  through  the  prevalence  of  philosophical  quib- 
Jan..  1583.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  he  went  bles  and  barbarous  Latin;  this  Maldonado  remedied, 
to  the  University  of  Salamanca,  where  he  studied  giving  due  precedence  to  Scripture,  the  Fathers,  tra- 
Latin  with  two  blind  professors,  who,  however,  were  dition  and  the  theologians,  relegating  the  philosophers 
men  of  great  erudition,  Greek  with  Feman  Nufiez  to  the  lowest  place,  and  keeping  useless  questions 
(el  Pinciano),  philosophy  with  Toledo  (afterwards  a  within  boimds;  he  spoke  Latin  elegantly,  and  drew 
cardinal),  and  theology  with  Padre  Domingo  Soto,  up  a  scheme  of  theology  more  complete  than  that 
He  declared,  as  late  as  the  year  1574,  that  he  had  which  had  been  in  use,  adapting  it  to  the  needs  of  the 
forgotten  nothing  he  had  learned  in  grammar  and  Church  and  of  France.  The  lecture-room  and,  after  it, 
philosophy.  Having  finished  his  course  of  three  years  the  refectory  were  found  to  be  too  small;  Maldonado 
m  the  latter  of  these  two  studies,  Maldonado  would  therefore  carried  on  his  classes,  when  the  weather 
have  devoted  himself  to  jiurisprudencc  with  a  view  to  permitted,  in  the  college  courtyard.  Nobles,  magis- 
the  exalted  offices  of  the  magistracy;  but,  persuaded  trates,  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne,  college  professors,  prcl- 
by  one  of  his  fellowHstudents,  though  to  the  disgust  of  ates,  religious,  and  even  Huguenot  preachers  went  to 
those  upon  whom  he  was  depenoent,  he  turned  his  hear  hfm,  engaging  their  places  in  advance,  and  some- 
attention  to  theology — a  choice  of  which  he  never  r»-  times  arriving  three  hours  before  the  beginning  of  the 
pented.  Having  studied  the  sacred  sciences  for  four  lecture.  Bishops  and  other  great  personages  living 
years,  and  passed  through  the  examination  and  exer-  away  from  Paris  employed  copyists  to  transmit  his 
cises  of  the  doctorate,  he  taught  philosophy,  theology,  lectures  to  them. 

and  Greek  for  some  time  in  the  University  of  Sala-  In  1674  the  imiversity  accused  him  of  impugning 

manca.    The  register  of  the  Salamanca  College  of  the  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  Mary.    This  was  un- 

society  states  that  he  was  admitted  there  in  1558  and  true;  he  only  held  that  the  doctrine  was  not  as  yet  an 

sent  to  Rome  to  be  received.    He  took  the  Jesuit  articleof  faith,  but  that  one  might  properly  take  a  vow 

habit  in  the  Novitiate  of  San  Andrea,  10  August,  to  defend  it;  Mgr  Goudy,  Bishop  of  Paris,  decided  in 

1562,  was  ordained  priest  in  the  following  year,  and  his  favour  (January,  1575).  Again,  he  was  accused  of 
for  some  months  heard  cases  of  conscience  in  the  teaching  that  the  pains  of  purgatory  last  ten  vears  at 
Roman  College.  most.    What  he  really  taught  was  that  the  d.uration 

The  Collie  de  Clermont  having  been  opened  in  of  those  pains  is  unknown  and  it  would  be  rash  to 

Paris,  Maldonado  was  sent  thither  in  the  autumn  of  attempt  to  determine  it;   however,  he  favoured  the 

1563.  In  February,  1564,  he  commenced  lecturing  on  opinion  of  Soto,  that  in  some  cases  purgatory  did  not 
Aristotle's  "  De  Anima".    From  1565  to  1569  he  lee-  last  longer  than  ten  years. 

tured  in  theology.  His  health  beginning  to  fail,  a  Being  an  exceUent  theologian  well  grounded,  at 
year  of  rest  followed,  during  which  (1570)  he  gave  Salamanca,  in  Latin  and  Greek,  having  also  learned 
missions  in  Poitou,  where  Calvinism  was  prevalent,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Chaldaic,  and  Arabic  m  Paris,  and 
and  he  was  so  successful  that  the  people  of  Poitiers  knowing  aU  that  was  then  known  of  ancient  history, 
petitioned  for  a  Jesuit  College.  From  1570  to  1576  he  the  Fathers,  and  the  false  interpretations  of  the  here- 
again  lectured  in  theology,  also  delivering  conferences  tics.  Maldonado  became,  according  to  the  opinion  of 
to  the  court,  by  royal  command,  and  effecting  the  con-  Kunn,  superior  to  most  exegetes  of  his  time,  and  in- 
version of  various  Protestant  princes.  At  the  in-  ferior  to  none.  In  Comely's  opinion,  his  "  Commen- 
stance  of  the  Due  de  Montpensier,  he  proceeded  to  taries  on  the  Gospels"  are  the  best  ever  published. 
Sedan,  to  convert  the  Duchess  de  Bouillon,  the  duke's  He  excelled,  according  to  Simon,  in  explanation  of  the 
daughter,  who  had  become  a  Calvinist.  He  held,  in  literal  sense;  according  to  Andres,  in  nis  comprehen- 
her  presence,  some  very  notable  disputations  with  sion  of  the  text  and  in  gathering  the  aptest  ana  truest 
Protestant  preachers.  During  the  absence  of  the  sense,  leaving  no  difficulty  unexamined, 
provincial,  he  also  acted  for  some  months  as  vice-  His  Works. — "Commentarii  in  quatuor  Evange- 
provincial,  when  his  uprightness  was  vindicated  in  an  listas",  early  editions:  Pont-a-Mousson.  2  vols.,  folio 
action  brought  against  him  by  the  heirs  of  the  Presi-  1596-97  (Lyons,  1598,  1607,  1615);  (Mainz,  1602, 
dent  de  Montbrun  de  Saint- Andr6,  and  in  the  case  of  1604);  (Paris,  1617,  1621);  (Brescia,  2  vols.,  4°, 
the  novice  Jannel,  who  entered  the  Society  in  oppo-  1598);  (Venice,  1606);  modem  editions:  (Mainz,  5 
sition  to  his  parents*  wishes.  The  Parliament  pro-  vols.,  8<*,  1840;  2  vols.,  1853-63;  id.,  1874);  (Bar- 
claimed  his  innocence.  celona,  10  vols..  1881-82);  "Commentary  on  St. 
In  conseouence  of  rivahies  on  the  part  of  the  pro-  Matthew"  in  Migne,  "Curs.  Script."  Maldonado's 
fessors  of  the  university,  the  pope  assigned  him  to  "Commentaries"  have  been  translated  by  G.  I.  Davie 
teach  theology  at  Toulouse,  but  this  was  prevented  by  (London,  1868).  Five  of  the  fathers  at  Pont-a-Mous- 
the  Calvinists,  who  blocked  the  roads  leading  thither,  son  completed  the  "Commentaries",  chief  among 
and  he  withdrew  to  Bourges  to  write  his  "Commen-  them  being  Dupuy  and  Fronton  le  Due  who  substi- 
tary  on  the  Gospels".  In  1678-79  he  was  visitor  of  tuted,  except  where  the  text  would  not  have  corre- 
the  French  Province  of  the  Sodety,  and  then  returned  sponded  with  the  exposition,  the  Clementine  version 
to  continue  his  labours  at  Bourges.  The  province  forthat  of  Plantin,  which  Maldonado  had  used.  Until 
chose  him,  in  1680,  as  elector  at  the  fourth  general  1607  the  editions  agree  with  the  first  (Prat),  which, 
congregation,  at  Rome,  where  he  delivered  the  open-  according  to  Calmet,  is  rare,  but  is  the  best.   TVa^ 


lOHE  5( 

other  oditiimB  vuy,  and  contain  the  ClemeDtine  text 
exclusively;  that  oF  Lyons  (1616),  with  notes  and 
indexea  by  Madur,  came  out  uncorrected;  the  Mains 
1853  ^ition  Was  adapted  to  actual  necessities.  "Com- 
mentarii  in  Propbetas  IV  yeremiaSj  Baruch,  Eiecbiel, 
Daniel):  ExpoeitioFsalmilX:  Epiatola  de Collatione 
Sedanenm"  (Lyons,  1609;  Paris,  1610,  etc.).  "Eie- 
chiel"  is  in  Migne,  "Curs.  Script.",  XIX,  654-1016, 
and  since  1693  "Commentarii  in  pnecipuos  Sacra 
Scripturs  libroa  V.  T."  have  been  added.  "Disputa- 
tionum  ac  controversiarum  decisanim  et  circa  septem 
Ecclesite RomaMS Sacramenta "  (2  vols., Lyons,  I6I4). 
This  Work  is  incorrect  and  wasplaced  on  the  Spanish 
Index  in  1667;  but  not  on  the  Roman  Index.  Dubois 
and  Faure  published  a  corrected  edition  in  "Opera 
varia  theolo^ca  "  (3  vols.,  folio,  Paris,  1877),  together 
with  "De  libero  arbitrio,  gratia,  peccato  orii^oali, 
providentia,  justitia,  justificatiooo  ;  a  disputation 
■'  De  Fide  ",  the  existence  of  which  is  doubted  W  Som- 
inervogel;  "De  Cffiremoniis  Tractatus",  I-CCXj  in 
Vol.  Ill  of  Zaccaria'a  "  Biblioth.  rituaL"  Simon  gives 
extracts  in  "Lettres  choisies",  Apocrypb*'  *™- 
"Traict^des  anges  et  demons",  a  translation  of  some 
of  Maldonado's  expositions  collected  by  one  of  his 
pupils,  and  "Summula  R.  P.  Maldonati  ,  a  compila- 
tion made  by  Martin  Codognat,  placed  on  the  Index, 
16  December,  1605.  Manuscnpts,  cxegetical  and 
theological.  altribut«d  to.  Maldonado,  are  preserved 
in  many  libraries  of  France  {especially  the  National), 
Switierland,  Italy,  and  Spain;  many  of  them  are 
copies  made  by  his  pupils. 

Phat,  Maldonal  H  rOnireriiU  dr  Parii  au  XVI'  tiidi:  (Pa™, 
18M>;  Salvuni.  La  Vie  da  P.  Jran  Maldcmat  in  AptTid.  aux 
Utmoira  du  Pirt  BroH  {Le  Puy,  1885);  Nieheubkbq,  Honor 
Jtl  Oran  Fatriarta  S.  lanarHa  de  Loyola  (Madrid.  1640).  4  J3-S5; 
Htveh.  MaUonat  H  U>  comxifnrcmrtUi  dp  fUnit^iiti  dc  Paal- 
a-MouHon  (Nancy.  1873];  Alcuah,  Chrono-HiOoria  de  la 
Camlia*iadeJaiiMcnlaPn>vinTiadeTeUdi>,n  (Madrid,  1710). 
42-4A;  Baktuktes,  Apttraio  BibiioorJfico  pom  la  HxtLoria  de 
Bxtrtmadura  (Madrid,  I8TS},  460-408:  Astrain,  HiMoria  de  lo 
CompaAia  de  Jet^i  m  la  itaiifFncia  dt  Etparia.^ll  (Modri ' 


gnie  de  Jine  en 


r^,,.-   —A  Foc<iVTn/Li,  HietoiredetaCompoffni 

.  .met.  I  (Paris,  IBIO),  572  etc.;  Hdktbb,  >feiTi«i..„ _ 

nu>  (Inoabruck,  1802),  1-80;  Sokhehtoqil.  BibtioMoue  de 
la  Cimpatnie  de  Jitut,  V  (Pbim,  1894).  col.  403-4J2;  IX.  ml. 
031:  Diu  T  Peru,  Diccumario  de  BMnmeAoi  Ihulree,  II 
(Miidrid,  1884),  e. 

A.    I'^REZ    GOTBNA. 

Holebianctae,  Nicolas,  philosopher  and  theolo- 
pan.priestof  tlieOratoryofSt.PhihpNeri;  b.  at  Paris, 
e  Aug.,  1638;  d.  13  Oct.,  1715.  He  was  the  youngest 
child  of  NicolasMalebmncbe,  secretary  to  Louis  XIII; 
being  slightly  deformed  in  person  and  of  a  weak  consti- 
tution, he  received  his  early  education  from  a  domestic 
tutor,  until  he  was  old  enough  to  enter  the  course  ot 
philosophy  at  the  College  de  La  Marcbe,  whence  he 
passed  to  the  Sorbonne  tor  the  study  of  theology.  On 
the  completion  of  his  studies,  declining  a  canonry  at 
Notre-Dame,  he  joined  the  Paris  houise  of  the  Oratory, 
1660.  There  he  was  first  engaged  on  ecclesiastical 
historv,  but  neither  his  talents  nor  his  taste  lay  in  thia 
direction,  and  on  the  recommendation  of  Richard 
Simon  he  turned  to  the  study  of  Scripture,  only  to  find 
this  study  equally  uncongenial.  A  chance  reading  of 
Descartes'  "Traits  de  I'bomme  on  de  la  formation  du 
fcelus"  determined  his  future  careor,  and  he  became 
an  enthusiastic  Cartesian.  He  published  "Recherche 
dela  V^rit4"in  1674,  and  his  suDsequenl  works  repre- 
aent  developments  or  special  aspects  ot  the  same  doc- 
Sensation  and  imagination,  he  maintains,  are 
produced  not  by  the  objects  but  by  God,  and  ate 
intended  to  serve  man's  practical  needs  only,  and  not 
to  reveal  the  nature  of  things,  the  essence  of  matter 
being  extension  and  its  only  real  property  motion. 
'The  real  nature  of  the  external  world  must  be  found 
in  ideas.  Now  in  accordance  with  Deficartcs'  divorce 
of  mind  and  matter,  matter  cannot  act  on  mind;  and 
mind  cannot  produce  its  own  ideas,  for  thoy  are  spirit- 
ual bein|[s  whose  creation  requires  a  greater  power 


18  ItALKBEAMOBX 

evui  than  the  creation  of  thin^  material.  Tberefora 
we  see  all  things  in  God.  God  Himself,  he  argues,  sees 
all  thin^  in  His  own  perfections,  and  lie  is  so  closely 
united  to  the  soul  b^  His  Presence  that  He  may  be  said 
to  be  the  place  of  spirila,  as  space  is  the  place  of  bodies. 
Aad  so  tne  mind  may  see  in  God  all  the  woi^  of 
God,  supposing  God  willing  to  reveal  them.  That  God 
should  so  will  seems  more  m  accord  with  His  economy 
in  Datuie,  where  He  works  by  the  most  direct  and 
simple  methods.  But  the  strongest  proof  of  all,  Male- 
brancbe  finds  in  the  idea  we  have  ot  the  Infinite;  for 
it  must  be  prior  to  tbe  idea  of  the  finite,  and  all  partie- 
ular  ideas  are  participations  of  that  general  idea  of  the 
Infinite,  just  as  God  derives  not  His  Being  from  crea- 
tures but  all  creatures  ha  ve  their  subsistence  f  romHim. 
Thus  of  all  the  things  that  come  under  our  knowledge, 
we  know  none  but 
God  in  Himself 
wit  bout  the  media- 
tion of  any  idea' 
bodies  and  tiieir 
properties  are  seen 
m  God  and  by 
their  ideas.  As  for 
our  own  soul,  he 
adds,  it  is  known 
onlyoy  conscious- 
ness,  that   is,  by 

that,  though  we 
knowtheexist^nce 
of  our  soul  better 
than  the  existence 
of  our  body  or  of 
the    things   about 

perfect  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  nature 
of  the  soul.  As  for 
the  souls  of  other 
men,  we  know 
them  only  by  con- 
iecture(Recherehe, 

bk.lll,pt.ii,cc.  1-S).  ItisobviousthatMalebranche's 
occasionalism  not  only  makes  our  certainty  of  the  ex- 
temalworlddcpenduponGod'srevclation;  it  suggests 
the  objection  that  there  is  no  purpose  in  a  material  uni- 
verse which  is  out  of  all  contact  with  human  thought 
and  volition.  WhBtispcculiar,however,  to  his  system 
is  its  Ontolof^sm,  and  its  consequences ;  for  (jod  is 
made  not  only  the  immediate  cause  of  our  sensations, 
but  also  the  "place  of  our  ideas",  and  moreover  our 
first  idea  is  of  the  infinite.  From  this  it  would  appear 
to  follow  that  we  see  God's  Essence,  though  Male- 
branche  protested  explicitly  against  this  consequence. 
And,  if,  as  Malebrancne  maintains,  the  essence  of  mimd 
consists  only  in  thought,  as  the  essence  of  matter  oon- 
aista  only  in  extension,  there  is  at  least  a  suggestion  of 
the  Pantheism  which  he  so  vigorously  repudiated. 

With  regard  to  free-will  also,  the  desire  of  Male- 
branche  to  emphasise  tbe  union  of  the  soul  with  its 
Creator  exposed  him  to  many  objections.  The  soul, 
he  says,  has  the  capacity  of  withholding  its  consent  t<i 
a  particular  abject,  so  that  the  intellect  may  recognise 
the  lower  a.s  tl^  higher  good.  But  volition,  according 
to  him,  being  an  effect  of  God's  action  on  the  soul,  it 
was  objected  that  God  was  thus  the  author  of  mn. 
To  this  Malebranche  answered  that  sin  was  due  to  an 
intermission  of  activity;  therefore  sin  is  nothing  and 
though  Goddoes  all  He  is  not  the  author  of  sin.  This 
account  of  evil  Malebranche  utilizes  to  maintain  asort 
of  Optimism  in  his  account  of  creation.  Finite  crea- 
tion as  such  would  be  unworthy  of  God;  it  is  made  a 
worthy  object  of  God's  will  by  the  Incarnation;  and 
as  for  the  evil  that  is  in  creation,  it  is  due  to  particular 
wills,  and  it  does  actually  enhance  the  real  good. 

Antiune  Amauld   waa  the   first  to   attack   Male* 


MALXDZOTZOM 


569 


MALHERBE 


branche's  system,  and  he  was  supported  by  Bossuet 
who  styled  the  system ''  puichra,  novOf  falsa  " .  Natu- 
rally a  chief  topic  of  discussion  wasthe  Question  of  grace, 
though  the  Jansenist  and  the  Oratorian  both  claimed 
the  authority  of  St.  Augustine.  The  discussion  grad- 
ually became  verv  bitter,  and  ended  not  altogether  to 
the  credit  of  Malebranche's  orthodoxy,  for  it  was  Male- 
branche  who  had  been  on  his  defence,  and  his  work 
had  b^n  censured  at  Rome.  Among  other  opponents 
of  Malebranohe  were  Pierre  Silvain  Regis  and  Dom 
Francois  Lamy,  who  attacked  bis  explanation  of 
pleasure  and  of  good.  His  answer  in  ''Traits  de 
I'amour  de  Dieu''  was  well  received  in  Rome  and  had 
the  further  good  fortune  of  reconciling  him  with  Bos- 
suet. His  "Entretiens  d'lm  philosc^he  chr^tien  et 
d'un  philosophe  ohinois  sur  Texistence  de  Dieu",  in 
which  he  accused  the  Chinese  of  Atheism,  drew  from 
the  Jesuits,  Fr.  Toumemine  and  Fr.  Hardouin,  a  coun- 
ter charge  of  Spinosism  and  Atheism  against  his  own 
system.  There  can  be  little  question  of  the  novelty 
and  dangerous  character  of  his  publications.  But  his 
own  loyalty,  his  zeal,  and  piety  are  still  less  question- 
able. He  led  a  simple  and  austere  life,  giving  hinujelf 
but  little  rest  from  his  studies,  and  finding  his  chief 
relaxation  in  the  company  of  little  children.  He  was 
of  an  affable  disposition,  always  ready  to  converse 
with  the  numerous  visitors  who  called  to  see  him. 
And  diuing  his  lifetime  his  reputation  as  a  thinker  and 
writer  was  remarkably  high.  The  following  are  his 
principal  works: — "Recherche  de  la  V^rit^"  (1674): 
two  English  versions;  "Conversations  chr^tiennejs " 
(1677);  "Traits  de  la  nature  et  de  la  grace"  (1680); 
"M^itations  chr^tiennes  et  m^taphysiques"  (168«'{); 
"Traits  de  morale"  (1684) ;  "  Entretiens  sur  la  m^ta-* 
physique  et  sur  la  religion"  (1687);  "Traits  de 
I'amour  de  Dieu"  (1698);  "Rdponses"  (to  Amauld), 
published  together,  1709,  etc;  two  editions  of  his 
works  by  Jules  Simon,  2nd  (1871)  not  complete. 

BouiLUBR,  Hitl,  de  la  Philoa.  CartSnenne;  Blampiunon, 
Ettide  8w  Malebranehe  (Tapres  des  documenU  manuscrita,  suivie 
d'une  corretpondance  inf^ite  (Paris,  1862);  OUiK-LAPHi^E,  Ija 
Philoaopkie  de  Malebranehe  (1870);  Jolt,  Malebranehe  in 
Orande  PhUoeophee  seriee  (Paru,  1901);  Gaonach,  La  thiorie 
dee  idiee  done  la  philoeophie  de  Maldminche  (Brest,  1908); 
Cairo,  Eaeaye  on  Literature  and  PkUntophy  (New  York,  1892). 

James  Bridge. 

Malediction  (in  Scriiture). — Four  principal  words 
are  rendered  maledictio  in  the  Vulgate,  "curse"  in 
Douay  Version:  (1)  118  the  most  genenal  terra, used 
more  often  perhaps  of  men  than  of  God.  (2)  ppp  lit- 
erally " to  treat  lightly",  but  also  used  in  the  sense  of 
"cursing",  whether  of  God,  Dent.,  xxi,  23,  or  of  men, 
Prov.,  xxvii,  14.  It  frequently  expresses  no  more 
than  "to  revile",  II  Kings,  xvi,  6-13;  and  so  perhaps 
I  Pet.,  ii,  23,  in  Sept.  hnKaTapdofuu.  (3)  n{)«,"tO 
curse",  Deut.,  xxix,  19-20,  more  correctly  "to  take 
an  oath",  apparently  from  the  root  rpH  and  meaning 
"to  call  God  to  witness",  Gen.,  xxvi,  28;  Lev.,  v,  1; 
Deut.,  xxix,  13,  also  in  the  sense  of "  calling  God  down 
on  any  one  ".  Job,  xxxi,  30,  hence  in  margin  of  R.  V. 
"adjuration**,  in  Sept.  dpo,  or  SpKos,  (4)  Din  "to 
devote  a  thing",  the  thing  may  be  devoted  to  God, 
Lev.,  xxvii,  28,  or  condemned  to  destruction,  Deut., 
ii,  34.  The  Sept.  seems  from  the  MSS.  to  use  di^BiifjM 
of  the  thing  devoted  to  God,  but  dpdde/ia  of  a  thing 
doomed  to  destruction,  cf.  Luke,  xxi,  5;  and  Thack- 
eray, "  Grammar  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Greek  ",  p. 
80.  The  accepted  translaticxi  of  Din  is  "  ban  ",  signi- 
fying that  something  is  interdicted  and  hence  ao- 
ciu-sed,  cf.  Deut.,  vii^  26;  Mai.,  iii,  24. 

Amongst  the  Semitic  peoples  cursing  was  a  religious 
act ;  and  the  Sinaitic  legislation  was  rather  of  the  nature 
of  a  purification  of  already  existing  usages  than  a 
newly-bestowed  religion;  as  appears  from  the  Code  of 
Hammurabi.  For  tn^  Semites  the  tribal  deity  was 
the  protector  of  liis  pec^le  (III  Kings,  xx,  23,  and  cf . 
the  Moabite  Stone  11,4,5, 14),  and  to  "  curse  "  was  but 


to  call  down  his  vengeance  on  their  opponents.  A  gain, 
the  Hebrews  were  a  chosen  people,  they  were  set  apart, 
and  in  this  seclusion  lay  tneir  defence;  hence  at  the 
conquest  we  find  the  cities  and  peoples  of  Chanaan  de- 
clared  to  be  Din,  or  under  a  "ban";  their  religion 
was  to  bring  salvation  to  the  world,  so  it  required  the 
highest  sanction  and  needed  to  be  ned^  about  with 
anathemas  against  all  who  infringed  its  regulation. 
Again,  the  curses  of  the  O.  T.  must  be  interpreted  in 
the  light  of  the  times,  and  those  times  were  hard,  the 
"lex  talionis"  was  the  rule  not  only  in  Palestine  but  in 
Babylonia  as  well,  cf .  the  Code  of  Hammurabi,  nos. 
196, 197,  200.  It  was  the  specid  feature  of  the  New 
Testament  that  it  abolished  this  spirit  of  retaliation, 
Matt..  V,  38-45;  the  abuse  of  cursing  was,  however, 
forbiaden  by  the  Old  Law  as  well.  Lev.,  xx,  9;  Prov., 
XX,  20.  At  the  same  time  there  are  passages  where 
the  use  of  curses  is  hard  to  explain.  The  so-called  com- 
minative  psalms  must  always  remain  a  difficulty;  few 
would  be  now  prepared  to  defend  St.  Augustine^s  view 
that  they  expressied  not  a  desire  but  a  real  prescience 
of  what  would  happen  ("Contra  Faustum'^,  xvi,  22, 
and  "  F^narr.  in  Ps.  cix.'* ;  see  Psalms).  Similarly  the 
curse  of  Eliseus  on  the  little  boys,  IV  Kings,  ii,  23-24, 
is  at  first  repellent  to  modem  ears,  but  it  is  to  be 
viewed  "  in  speculo  aitemitatis  ",  as  St.  Augustine  says 
expressly  (Enarr.  in  Ps.  Ixxxiii,  2,  and  in  Ps.  Ixxxiv, 
2).  But  though  cursing  plavs  a  very  prominent  part 
in  the  Bible,  we  rarely  find  irrational  curses  in  the 
mouths  of  Biblical  characters.  Nowhere  do  we  find 
in  the  Bible  curses  on  those  who  shall  violate  the 
tombs  of  the  dead,  such  as  we  find  everywhere  in 
Egypt  and  Babylonia,  or  on  the  sarcophagus  of 
Eshmunazar  at  Sidon. 

We  referred  above  to  the  Din,  or  "anathenia". 
This  is  the  most  import^int  of  the  O.  T.  curses  in  its 
bearing  on  N.  T.  doctrines.  The  doctrine  enshrined 
in  tliis  word  lies  at  the  root  of  S.  Paul's  expressions 
touching  the  Atonement,  c.  g.  in  Gal.,  iii,  10-14;  and  it 
is  the  precise  meaning  of  the  word  "  cherem  "  which  en- 
ables iiim  to  treat  of  our  redemption  from  sin  as  he 
does;  cf.  II  Cor.,  v,  21.  The  same  idea  is  manifested 
in  the  words  of  the  Apocalj^jse,  xxii,  3:  "And  there 
shall  Iw  no  curse  any  more."  Of.  also  I  Cor.,  xii,  3,  and 
xvi,  22. 

Sci{()Rt:R.  A  HiHory  of  the  Jewi-ih  People  in  the  time  of  Jesua 
Christ,  II,  ii,  61;  Gikolkstone,  Synonyms  of  the  O.  T.  (Lon- 
don, 1871):    RoBKRTSON -Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites  iEtlin- 

hxiTgh,  1907),  180.  Hugh  Pope. 

Malherbe^  Fkan^ois,  French  poet,  b.  at  Caen, 
Normandy,  m  1555;  d.  at  Paris,  16  October,  1628. 
He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Francois  Malherbe,  councillor 
of  the  inferior  court  of  judicature  at  Caen,  and  of 
Louise  de  Valois.  It  was  the  elder  Malherbe's  wish 
that  FranQois  should  follow  his  profession  and  succeed 
him  in  his  office,  and  with  this  end  in  view,  he  sent  his 
son,  after  his  early  studies  at  Caen  and  Paris,  to  com- 

Slete  Kis  education  at  the  Universities  of  Basle  and 
[eidelbei^.  But  the  natural  bent  of  his  mind  was 
not  towaras  the  law,  and  when  he  was  barely  twenty 
Francois  entered  the  service  of  Henri  d^Angoul6me, 

Sana  prieur  of  France  and  Governor  of  Provence, 
alherlxj's  earliest  experience  in  Provence  was  his  in- 
fatuation for  a  young  woman  of  the  country,  whose 
S raises  he  sang  under  the  name  of  N6r6e;  out  on  1 
kitober,  1581,  he  married  Madeleine  de  Coriolis,  and 
the  union  seems  to  have  been  a  happy  one.  He  re- 
mained ten  years  in  Provence,  Dccomin^  known 
throiiffh  his  "Larmes  de  St.  Pierre",  an  imitation  of 
Tansulo's  verses  and  at  best  a  puerile  production.  In 
1586  Henri  d'Angoul6me  was  slain  in  a  duel  by  Philip 
Altoviti,  and  M^herbe  returned  to  Caen.  He  ad- 
dressed an  ode  to  Henry  IV  on  the  capture  of  Mar- 
seilles in  1596,  and  in  1600  presented  to  Maria  de' 
Medici,  who  stopped  at  Aachen  on  her  way  to  become 
the  queen  of  Henry  IV,  verses  which  show  his  tal- 
ent to  have  reached  it«  maturity « 


Du  Perron  about  this  time  recouuQended  Bfalherbe 
t«  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  when  in  1605  he  came  to 
Paris,  Heniy  had  him  remain  near  him.  The  Duke  of 
Bellegarde  received  the  poet  into  his  household,  settled 
on  him  a  pension,  and  made  it  posaible  for  him  to  live  at 
Court.  At  this 
time  began  his  ac- 
quaintance with 
Kacan,  who  be- 
came hia  first  dis- 
ciple,  and  a  little 
lat«r    he   etartad 


ence  with  Peiresc. 
Since  his  arri  val  at 
Court  Halherbe 
had  assumed  tht> 
rfile  of  literary 
master  and  re- 
former. He  made 
relentless  war  on 
the  provincial  ex- 
pressions, neolo- 
gisms, and  defects 
of  style  in  the 
prose  writers  and 

Siets  of  the  time. 
egatheredabout 
him  a  select  body 
of  followers,  to 
id  he  was  pitiless 

taste.  He  himself  henceforth  wrote  few  verses,  his 
most  touching  lines  being  on  the  tragic  death  of  the 
king  m  1610.  His  son's  death  in  a  duel  in  1627  did 
much  to  brin^  about  Malher1>e's  own  end,  which  came 
in  the  following  year,  and  he  was  buried  in  SaintMSer- 
main-l'Auxerrois.  Mslherbe  has  been  chained  with 
having  "slain  lyricism"  and  the  reproach  has  been 
made  aeainst  him  that  his  crusade  produced  only 
Maynard,  but  the  French  language  and  its  litera- 
ture are  indebted  to  him  for  a  service  which  could 
hardly  have  been  rendered  by  a  man  of  ereater  genius. 
ALIfHfenAN.  RtcherchfabioffTapKvmMmr  Maiherfie  ft  aa  famine 
(IMD);  HippBin,  La  icrimint  aarmamici  (CtuD.  1S58); 
Brdhot,  La  dodrim  dt  Maihrrbt  (Paris.  1890) ;  Aluaib,  ilfal- 
Ab**  (Pari.,  18B2).  Bi^NcHi;  M.  Kelly. 

Malines.    See  Mechun,  Diocese  of. 

HaUseet  Indians,  also  Malecite,  Marebchitb, 
and  AuALEciTii,  the  last  being  the  official  Canadian 
form,  a  tribe  of  Algonquian  stock,  occupying  territory 
upon  the  lower  St.  John  River,  St.  Croix  River,  and 
Passamaquoddy  Bay,  in  western  New  Brunswick  and 
northeastern  Maine,  and  closely  connected  Imguisti- 
cally  and  historically  with  the  Abnaki  (Penobscot, 
ete.)  of  Maine.  Their  chief  settlement  was  Medoct«c, 
on  the  St.  John,  about  ten  miles  below  the  present 
Woodstock,  N.  B.  The  name  by  which  they  are.com- 
monly  known  is  of  disputed  origin,  but  may  be  derived, 
as  claimed  by  one  autnority,  from  their  Micmac  name, 
meaning  "broken  talkers  .  To  the  French  explorers 
they  were  known  as  Etchcmin,  also  of  uncertain  origin 
and  meaning.  Those  about  the  bay  are  usually  diatm- 
guished  as  Passamaquoddies. 

The  acouaiutance  of  the  Maliaeet  with  the  French 
began  probably  even  earlier  than  the  voyage  of  Carticr 
in  1535,  through  the  medium  of  the  fishing  fleets  which 
frequented  the  coast.  The  St.  John  River  was  known 
to  ttie  French  as  early  as  1558,  but  the  tribe  is  first 
mentioned,  under  the  name  of  Et«hemin,  in  1604,  by 
Champlain,  who  entered  the  mouth  of  the  river  and 
was  welcomed  by  the  Indians  with  feasts  and  dances. 
They  seem  at  this  period  to  have  been  enemies  to  the 
Abnaki,  who  were  afterward  their  closest  allies.  In 
the  same  year  de  Monts  made  a  tempora^  settlement 
on  an  island  in  the  bay  and  shortly  afterward  the 
French  fort  I*  Tour  was  built  on  the  St.  John.    By 


on  whose  side  they  fought  in  all  the  lat«r  colonial  wars. 
In  1W6  they  were  at  war  with  the  Gaspesiens,  a  Mic- 
mac band  about  Cape  Gasp£  at  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  but  in  general  they  were  in  alliance  with 
the  Hicmac  (q.  v )  and  Abnaki,  and  like  them  m 
deadly  hoetility  witji  the  Iroquois  of  New  York. 

The  hrst  mission  teacher  among  the  Maliseet  was 
the  Jesuit  Pierre  Biard,  who  visited  them  from  his  ata- 
tion  among  the  Hicmac  in  Nova  Scotia  in  1611-12. 
He  estimated  them  at  about  2500  souls. 

In  1677-8  the  Jesuit  father  Jean  Morain  established 
the  mission  of  Bon  Pasteur  at  Rivifere  du  Loup,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  lower  St.  Lawrence,  P.  Q.,  jointly 
for  the  Gaspesien  Micmac  and  the  M^iseet,  who  raneed 
over  that  territory.  The  former  were  already  imder 
missionary  influence,  but  the  latter,  as  yet  unin- 
structcd,  were  opposed  to  Christianity,  and  given  to 
drunkenness,  superstition,  and  polygamy. '  They 
were  nomadic  and  depended  entirely  upon  hunting 
aod  fishing.  Their  houses  were  light  structures  of 
poles  covered  with  bark,  and  their  beds  were  skins 
spread  upon  the  ground.  Until  the  nomad  habit  was  to 
some  extent  overcome,  the  missionaries  found  it  neces- 
sary to  accompany  their  flock  in  its  wanderings. 

In  168S  the  Recollect  Fr.  Simton  established  a  mis- 
at  Medoct«c,  which  was  soon  aft«r  abandooed, 
consequence  of  the  outbreak  of  King  WU- 

.     ...    About  the  same  time  others  of  the  tribe 

attended  the  Aboaki  mission  at  Sillery.  In  1701  the 
Medoct«c  mission  was  re-established  by  the  Jesuit  Pr. 
Joseph  Aubeiy,  noted  for  his  later  work  in  Abnaki 
linguistics.  Under  his  successors  the  tribe  has  long 
smce  been  completely  Christian iied,  being  all  condst- 
erd)  Catholics  with  a  high  reputation  for  morality  and 
law-abiding  qualities.  Medoct«c  was  finally  aban- 
doned about  the  year  1765,  Except  about  100  at 
Viger,  P.  Q.,  the  Maliseet  are  all  in  New  Brunswick, 
(totributed  upon  small  reserves,  of  which  the  most 
important  is  Tobique,  with  nearly  200  souls.  The 
entire  tribe,  according  to  official  report  for  1909,  num- 
bers 843,  with  probably  a  few  others  in  eastern  Maine. 

Jit.  RfI.,  ed.  TnWAiTEg,  npecially  I  (.LticarbDt).  It  and  III 

(Biard).  LX  lUorain).  LXI-XXVf^  Ratmdnd.  " 

*■       ■     N.B.  Hilt.  Sot.  CoUt..r 


probably  in 


Atmaai  Repli.  (Canadian)  Depl.  Aid. 


.96).  DO.  2  ISain 
Aft-  (Ottawa). 

Jamrb  Moc 


Mallard,  Ehnebt-Francois,  French  mineralogist, 
b.  i  February,  1833,  at  Chftteauneuf-eur-Cher;  d.  6 
July,  1894,  in  Paris.  From  1872  he  was  professor  of 
mineralogy  at  the  Ecole  des  Mines,  from  1890  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Science.  Mallard  has  accom- 
plished much  of  importance  in  mineralogy  by  his 
u[itiring  and  suocessful  research.  Numerous  scien- 
tific reportsappwired  year  after  year  in  the  "Bulletin 
de  la  SocitSbS  miniralogique  de  France"  and  in  the 
"Annalee  des  Mines",  several  also  in  the  "Compt. 
Rend."  By  far  the  greater  number  of  these  discuss 
difficult  problems  in  crystallography,  especially  the ' 
phyncal  attributes  of  crystals.  Tlie  so-cailed  optical 
anomalies  of  some  crj-stals  ho  endeavoured  to  grasp 
clearl^in  their  actual  relationship  and  then  to  explain 
ingeniously  by  a  hypothesis  which  supposes  that  tiie 
highly  symmetrical  form  of  these  crystals  is  caused  by 
a  great  number  of  smaller  crystals  with  a  smaller  num- 
ber of  sjmunctrical  planes,  which  are  arranged  in  a 
certain  manner.  The  best  general  explanation  he  ad- 
vanced in  his  lecture  "Crystallic  Groupings"  which 
appeared  in  the  "Revue  Scientifique "  in  1887.  Hia 
hypothesis  found  many  defenders,  and,  of  course,  also 
many  dissenters;  especially  his  German  colleagues 
drew  him  frequently  into  controversies.  Equally 
known  are  Mallard's  writings  about  isomorphism 
which  be  discovered  in  chlorates  and  nitrates,  and 
about  isomorphic  mixtures,  especially  feldspars,  the 
optical  quftUtiea  of  which  he  traced  mathematically 


MAUJXOKBdm 


671 


MAIJJNOKEODT 


from  the  proportions  in  which  the  components  were 
mixed.  His  reports  about  different  ciystallographical 
instruments,  as  well  as  those  regarding  the  production 
of  thin  sections  of  crystals  for  microscopic  study,  are 
important  for  the  science  of  crystallography.  His 
investigations  of  the  combustion  of  explosive  gas  mix- 
tures, of  mine  explosions,  and  the  safety  lamp,  have 
great  scientific  out  even  greater  practical  value. 
Worth  mentioning  is  his  participation  in  the  geological 
cartographing  of  France.  His  chief  work  is  the  volu- 
minous Treatise  on  Geometrical  and  Physical  Crys- 
tallography "  (Paris,  1879  and  1884) ;  the  third  volume 
has  never  appeared.  His  religious  opinions  were  ex- 
pressed by  himself  during  a  lecture  in  1872:  "Man 
has  been  created  in  the  image  of  the  Lord  and  there- 
fore he  is  capable  of  penetrating  by  the  power  of  his 
reason  into  tne  plans  and  thougnts  of  the  Creator  of 
all  things;  that  must  be  his  highest  ambition  here 
below.  '*  These  words  contain  Mallard's  programme 
of  life  during  the  following  two  decades. 

Db  Lapparbnt  in  Annales  des  mtn«a*  (Paris.  1895). 

M.  ROMPEL. 

Mallinckrodt,  E^skmann  von,  German  parlia- 
mentarian; b.  5  Feb.,  1821,  at  Minden,  Westphalia; 
d.  26  May,  1874,  at  Berlin.  His  father,  Detmar  von 
Mallinckrodt,  was  vice-governor  at  Minden  (1818-23) 
and  also  at  Aachen  (1823-29) ;  and  was  an  Evangelical, 
his  highly  accomplished  and  pious  mother  (nie  Bern- 
hardine  von  Hartmann)  was  a  Catholic,  and  the  chil- 
dren followed  her  creed  (see  Mallinckkoot,  Pauline 
von).  Hermann  von  Mallinckrodt  attended  the  gym- 
nasium at  Aachen  and  studied  law  at  Berlin  and  Bonn. 
He  became  auscuUalor  in  the  district  court  of  Pader- 
bom  in  1841,  referendar  at  Miinster  and  Erfurt  in  1844. 
and  government  assessor  in  1849.  As  such  he  worked 
at  ^ilnden,  ^rfurt.  Stralsund,  and  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder.  At  Erfurt  ne  was  also  for  a  time  commissary 
to  the  first  burgomaster,  and  in  recognition  of  his  ser- 
vices he  received  the  freedom  of  the  city.  In  1859 
he  was  appointed  assistant  in  the  Ministry  of  the 
Interior,  and  in  1860  was  appointed  government 
councillor  at  DQsseldorf.  In  1867  he  was  sent  to 
Merseburg  against  his  will,  and  was  pensioned  oft  at 
his  own  request  in  1872. 

As  earlv  as  1852  the  Westphalian  constituency  of 
Beckum-Ahaus  had  elected  him  to  the  Prussian  House 
of  Representatives,  and  he  took  part  in  the  founding 
of  the  "Catholic  Fraction'*  for  the  defence  of  the 
rights  and  liberties  of  the  Church,  which  since  1859 
h^  been  called  the  Centre.  When  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives was  dissolved  in  1863,  owing  to  the 
debate  on  the  military  law,  Mallinckrodt  lost  his  man- 
date. In  1867,  however,  he  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
stituent Diet  of  the  North  German  Confederation,  and 
in  1868  returned  to  the  Prussian  Lower  House.  In 
the  North  German  Diet  he  was  the  leading  member  of 
the  federal  constitutional  union.  In  1867  he  made  a 
speech  condemning  the  war  against  Austria  (1866)  and 
tne  annexation  of  Hanover  and  Hesse,  and  attacked  the 
idea  of  substituting  a  single  (federal)  government  for 
the  confederation  of  states.  From  1870  till  his  death 
he  stood  at  the  head  of  the  new  Centre  Party,  in  both 
the  Reichstag  and  the  Prussian  Landtag,  that  party 
gaining  strength  during  the  Kulturkampf  (q.  v.).  ae 
'  shared  this  leadership  with  the  brothers  Reichen- 
spergerand,  after  1872,  also  with  Ludwig  Windthorst. 
Mallinckrodt  was  an  unrivalled  parliamentarian. 
"  Never",  to  repeat  the  words  of  a  colleague,  "was  so 
much  force  and  dignity,  energy  and  learning,  strength 
of  character  and  prudence,  piety  and  vigour,  imited  in 
one  person  as  in  Hermann  von  Mallinckroat. "  Dis- 
tinguished and  dignified  in  appearance,  as  tactful  as 
he  was  winning  in  society,  clear  in  his  tnou^ts,  hon- 
ourable in  his  dealings,  of  spotless  life,  and  moreover 
u  strong  and  highly  cultivated  mind,  a  mature  and 
grave,  though  good-natured  and  friendly,  character, 


and  an  orator  who  carried  his  audience  with  him  by 
his  force,  lucidity^  and  fire — with  all  this  he  could  not 
but  be  eminent  m  every  sphere  upon  which  he  en- 
tered. Whatever  he  believed  to  be  right,  that  he  ad- 
vocated with  all  his  power;  and  he  won  tne  esteem  of 
even  his  most  determined  opponents.  Even  Herr 
Falk,  the  Minister  of  Worship,  with  whom  he  had 
often  enough  been  in  conflict,  called  lum  "the  most 
honourable  member  of  the  Centre  Party,  a  man  who 
had  only  lived  and  fought  for  his  convictions. "  And 
the  President  of  the  Prussian  Diet,  von  Bennigsen,  also 
a  vigorous  antagonist,  said:  "In  spite  of  his  resolute 
party  attitude,  he  succeeded  in  gaining  and  retaining 
not  only  the  confidence  of  his  pohtical  friends,  but  also 
the  high  regard  of  his  political  opponents."  While  he 
was  always  an  energetic  orator,  willingly  listened  to, 
he  rose  to  the  height  of  his  eloquence  in  the  Kultur- 
kampf. Mallindcrodt  took  the  leading  part  in  the 
defence  of  the  Church,  to  which  he  entirely  devoted 
himself.  Windthorst's  sparkling  wit  and  Reichen- 
sperger's  Ciceronian  swing  he  had  not.  His  speeches, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  distinguished  by  a  full  com- 
mand of  the  subject,  lucidity  of  form,  and  strictly 
logical  argument.  Reichensperger  said  of  him  that 
in  a  parliamentary  experience  of  forty  years  he  had 
never  known  a  parliamentarian  as  serious  and  con- 
scientious in  the  preparation  of  his  speeches  as  Mal- 
linckrodt. The  keen  force  of  his  woras  was  lauded  by 
his  opponents.  He  spoke  for  the  last  time  on  19  May, 
1874,  and  concluded  with  the  poetical  words:  Per 
crucem  ad  lucem  (Through  the  cross  to  light).  Death 
carried  him  away  only  a  few  days  after.  During  all 
the  years  of  1^  parliamentary  career  hardly  a  bill  of 
leading  importance  had  been  debated  without  his 
taking  a  distinguished  part  in  the  debate. 

A  deeply  religious  man,  whom  his  faith  ever  refined 
and  ennobled,  Mallinckrodt  also  led  a  truly  Christian 
family  life.  His  first  wife,  Elizabeth  (nie  von  Bern- 
hard),  bore  him  seven  children,  of  whom  two  died 
young;  his  second  wife,  her  half-sister,  had  but  three 
months  of  married  life  with  him,  and  when  his  children 
had  grown  up,  she  became  a  religious. 

FriJvr.  Hermann  v.  Mallinckrodt  (Freiburg,  1892;  2nd  ed., 
1901);  MERTENS,  Die  Totenklage  um  Hermann  v.  Mallinckrodt 
(Paderfoom,  1880)  (with  newspaper  articles  and  obituaries). 

KlEMENS  L6FFLER. 

Mallinckrodt,  Pauline,  a  sister  of  the  Catholic 
political  leader  Hermann  Mallinckrodt  (q.  v.),  and 
foundress  of  the  Sisters  of  Christian  Charity;  b.  at 
Minden,  Westphalia,  3  June,  1817;  d.  at  Paderbom, 
30  April,  1881.  Before  she  became  a  religious  she  had 
charge  of  an  institution  for  the  blind  and  an  infant 
school  at  Paderbom.  After  the  death  of  her  father 
she  went  to  Paris  to  induce  Mother  Barat  (q.  v.)  to 
ieke  the  Paderbom  institution  for  the  blind  under  the 
care  of  her  congregation.  As,  however,  the  Prussian 
Government  would  not  permit  a  French  congregation 
in  Prussia,  Pauline  founded  the  Congregation  of  the 
Sisters  of  Christian  Charity,  21  Aug.,  1849,  and  be- 
came its  first  superioress.  The  congr^ation  was  ap- 
proved by  Pius  IX,  21  Feb.,  1863.  It  increased  so 
rapidly  that  before  the  Kulturkampf,  which  tempo- 
rarily annihilated  it,  it  numbered  20  establishments 
and  250  members  in  various  parts  of  Germany. 

On  1  May,  1873,  the  first  sisters  of  this  congregation 
arrived  in  tiie  United  States  and  took  charge  of  the 
school  in  St.  Henry's  Parish,  New  Orleans.  On  7 
Jime,  Pauline  herself  arrived,  and  made  preparations 
for  the  foundation  of  a  mother-house  at  Willcesbarre, 
Pa.  She  then  retumed  to  Europe  and  temporarily 
tnmsferred  the  European  mother-house  to  Mont 
Guibert  near  Brussels.  In  1879  she  went  to  South 
America,  visiting  her  recent  foundation  in  Chili. 
Thence  she  travelled  by  way  of  Panama  to  revisit  the 
United  States,  where  numerous  houses  of  her  institute 
had  sprung  up  since  1873.  (See  Christian  Charity, 
SI8TB9B  or.^ 


MALL0R7  572  aiAUaSBITBT 

HuwER.  Paviine  von  MoZKnc^yA  (Mflngt«r,.i892;  2nd  ed.,  don  as  the  British,  Ingleboum  as  the  English  caUed  it, 

1002);  KBT.H.  Paultn€  van  MaUmehnxU  (Eg^d^  1^).  ^^s  then  a  border  secernent  between  the  Welsh  and 

xKucHA£ia  VTT.  EngUsh,  and  on  the  confines  of  the  kingdoms  of  Wee- 

Mallory.  Stephen  Russell,  American  statesman;  ff^l^AJf^^ltai^^^ 

.  in  the  Island  of  Trinidad,  W.  I.,  1813;  d.  at  Pcnsal  ff^^Slr^d^^nli  ^wLT^^/o^SIT;.    "t^* 

^1-    T?i^«-j«   TT«:*^  a*«*J-  a  at^«    iqtq     tj«  ™«-  stfonghoid  or  castle  still  further  defended  it.    The 


b 


Bar  of  the  State  of  Florida  in  or  about  the  year  1839.  wl^^     \UhJrr.Ja<.  ^*  V«i«l  i^  Po«f^,,^  ^ 

T-.  4.U-V  c^*»:^»u  iii7«-  /iQOK_^o\  k«  c>A.«r.Nri  ao  o  ^r^iiin  Wcssex.    Alanelm  was  sent  twice  to  Canterbury  to 

In  the  Seminole  War  (1835-42)  he  served  as  a  volun-  ^   .        j    g^  ^^^     ^  African,  then  abbot  of  the 

teer  through  anany  arduous  campaigns.   After  serving  „„„Lt*„  „f  a«,  Pot^^onA.T^if^™.^.  Rfi^! 
theSta 
States 

iwflnd  .;S!^l3ki'l857:  Tt  the  bi^kin'g  o7t  of  tEwii.^t'hlril^TH^f'^^ 

the  diva  War  he  followed  the  fortunes  of  his  o^  state,  hf'^V  ^JCtl^^irS^^^i}^  ™«^*  t^^^l 

S^»i^^^^  ^r^^n^  tV^kTthem^C^  ^rvis'Sn  ^thTwS  S^S,  Kel^Wa,"^: 

S^i^    ^1^?^S^™^  TiV^f  ^^hf^  h^m  fi«t  Bishop  of  Sherborne,  in  Dorset,  while  Daniel, 

teS^  „n^^K.^vi^f  rt?B  ^fX,^^nf^«,^  'ao'*  °f  M&mesbuiy,  becime  Bishop  of  Wincheeter 

???®^o2(n       j  Sr^i       «     SouOiem  Confederacy  ,j^    j           retained  4e  management  of  Makneebury 

^.^hik  ^^**nf*?S«'^r.Iv^  HpZfl'St^t^^  ^<i  the  monasteries  of  Frome^d  Bradf ord-on-Av^ 

^.?°rS:n?^he?ot%f1he  rnKSwa^t  -^ich  ^e  h|^  J-^ded^^  Jhe  ho^f^ere^^ 

his'g^rywasonthepointofbreakin.out.withoutany  i^y^Iy  w^L^'i^ffiy  KnTfeTow"  ^Ed! 

^;Si3**'t^o^Xhit'^iw'^i^J^f?vlrof  tS.  Iw  ward  the^Confessor  sanctioned  a  proposal  if  ^Bishop 

™«&     St?^^n^^h»^i  whh  IhM,  ^Z  Herman  of  Wilton  to  transfer  his  Jee  toMaknesbunrj 

matenal.    History  records  the  suc<^with  which  thw  j,^          ^      j  j,    j  q^^    opposed  this,  and  OM 

te?Jf^"*Whrthf.„^f^    n^  f^TIf^  Sarum  was  chosen  instead.    Like'mng  Athelstan  and 

S^^^n^^nTnZi^n  n^l^h^ffli^rL^R^Vlf  o^cr  Saxon  monarchs,  so  did  William  the  Conqueror, 

accomp^ied  Jefferson  Davis  m  his  flight  from  Rich-  j  j^  Richard  II,  Heiry  IV,  and  Henry  V  bSfriend 

mond.    He  then  went  to  La  Grange,  Georgia,  where  rr,  u„.,=«;r^i»*«-  *:„__'                 **«»"/  »  «w.w.«x 

his  family  were  residmg,  was  arrested  there  (20  May,  ^^IrnS^/ri^^fu'*'"?^  „  .    „    v^  K„  b  k«^   - 

1865),  and  was  kept  a  prisoner  for  ten  montli  ia  Fort  „  Under  John  the  place  was  attacked  by  Robert,  .« 

Lafayette,  on  a  sioaU  island  in  New  York  harbour.  ^"^I'.'^S  If^^f  ^'f.^had  gained  possession  of  Devi- 

ReleLed  on  parole  in  1866,  he  returned  to  Pensacola,  ???£^^*iSt±'r^",*!'^'?^"^^^^ 

Florida,  whe^  he  practis^ilaw  untU  his  d^th.  ^^^^^^^^^^''^^^^f'^^t^'^r'Sf^r 

Smtansa,  Memom  ofSermee  Afioat  during  the  War  bttween  the  f               V  •  i.               ^  t  _l     i=                 ^Sl     . 

Staff  (Baltimore.  1689) ;  RebeUion  BawntoTWashiniton,  D.  C.) ;  enclosure,  which  covered  forty-five  acres.     The  town 

The  Freeman' t  Journal  (New  York,  Nov.,  1873)  files;  Encycl.  of  Malmesbury  was  Walled  and  had  f OUr  gates,  au  DOW 

NiABiog.  a.  v.;  Avt>UUm-$Cvchp.^  American  B<oirraphy,B.v.  vanished.    A  preceptory  of  Knights  of  St.  John  of 

iHOUAS  i<.  MEEHAN.  Jerusalem,  three  churches,  and  one  or  two  nunneries, 

m«.ii.  _       i-i  1             t  /-.•!•  •    T>  •           tt            t  ^  mint,  an  important  merchjuit's  guild,  and  a  large 

MaUttS,  a  titular  see  of  Cihm  Prima,  suffragan  of  population  marked  the  prosperity  of  the  place.    TEe 

Tarsus.    According  to  legend,  Mallus  was  founded  by  J^bbey  church  waa  a  valt  ai5  noble  buiialng  with  a 

the  soothwyers  Ajnphilochus  and  Mopsus    sons  of  ^^t^^,  ^        ^^^  ^  ^^t,^  t„^^^  ^j      i*^  ^^^ 

ApoUo.    It  was  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pyra-  ^^  y  1,^^  ^y^^  that  of  Salisbury  Cath^ral.    Be- 

miM,  on  a  hill  opposite  Jlagarsus  which  served  as  its  ^ygg  the  above-named,  the  abbey  was  connected  with 

I»rt.     It  IS  to-^y  the  place  known  as  Ka»Ta8h,m  ^^^^^^  celebrated   men:    Pecthelm,  firet   Bishop  of 

the  vilayet  of  Adana.    The  distnct  was  called  from  it,  whithom  (Galloway);  Ethelhard,  Bishop  of  Win- 

Mallotis.    Alexander  bmlta  bndge  there  and  ex-  chesterand  Archbishop  of  Canterbury;  .Elfec,  Bishop 

empted  the  town  from  paymg  taxes     It  aUied  Itself  ^f   Crediton;    John  ^otus    ErigeA^;    Faricius   A 

witli  Tarsus  agamstAntiochus  IV  Epiphanes  who  j^        physician  and  monk,  latlr  A^bot  of  Abing- 

hadpresentedbothcitiestohi8ConcubmeAntiochi8(U  ^on^  Oliver  or  Elmer,  mechanician,  astronomer,  and 

^L,iv,  30,31).    Numerous  coms  from  Mallus  have  aer<;naut;  an  anonyi^ous  Greek  monk  who  piloted 

been  preserved,  and  those  of  the  third  century  b^  vineyards  here;  Godfrey,  and  one  or  two  anonymous 

the  inscnphon  MaUusCoUmtn  or  Colonu,  Melropolts  ^^^      ^^j  ^^t  f^^^i^  ^j  ^„  William  Somerset. 

Ma«««.    ^e  city  is  mentioned  by  numerous  ancient  knownks  William  of  Malmesbury  (d.aboutll43),who 

authors,  and  in  the  Middle  Agesjby  Arabian,  Arme-  „yj„  ^f^^^  ^^^  ^  the  greatest  of  the  English  m^i«^ 

"•^'  fu  *^  i**  '"^  ^i.*^'!:i     *  Tr  .^-  ^•^'"'  ?'s?PP<»'^  val  historians.  Of  the  aPbots  who  ruled  the  house  and 

jnth  the  Armenian  kingdom  of  Cilicia     "figures  m  jj^  dependency,  Pilton  Priory,  Devonshire,  in  the  last 

the  various  revisals  of  tlie  Antiochene  '  Notitias  Epis-  ^^^  hundred  yWre  of  ite  existence,  few  attained  any 

copatuum"  as  suffragan  of  Taraus     Six  bishops  are  special  celebrity.    On  the  whole  they  seem  to  havi 

^^T^/^77^?vTf  J^'  Pltl?!  i*  f^Q^  ."  i  °  ri^'  been  good  administrators  and  great  builders.    One  or 

t"'«^.  .,(^77) ;  Valentine,  ft  Ephosus  (431)  and  at  Tar-  ^wo  cSme  under  censure  from  the  English  Benedictine 

8U8(434);  Chrysippus  at  Chalcedon  (451)      Le  Quien  3^,  ^     ^^^  f„^  ^^cir  negligence  in  sending  the 

^•^"l w  SwSD^^.mU^f lio?"/"^.*^?  ??^"  P-  M***  due  proportion  of  their  junior  monks  to  the  universi- 

another  bishopnc^Mallusor  Malus,  situated  m  Pisidia.  ties.   tC monastery,  which  had  an  annual  revenue  of 

Smitr.  Dtct.  of  Or,  and  Rom,  Oeogr.,  s.  v.;    Bburlier  in  rotvx    <Rr»o   ^^yr.r>^r^AJLA    ;«    i  f;QO   Kxr   i*a   loef   oKKoi 

VioouRoux.Dtrt.de  to  Bi6i«.B.v.AfaMate«;  Aushan.  Stwovan  *^3>  w^.  surrendered  in   1539  by  ite  last  abbot, 

(Veim»,  1899).  420 Bq.;  Vailh^  in  Echoa (T Orient,  X  (1907).  90.  Robert  Selwyn,  or  Frampton,  and  twenty-one  of  the 

139, 363.                                                   S.  Petrides.  monks,  who  received  pensions.    Of  the  whole  abbey 

only  five  bays  of  the  nave  are  standing;  the  cloisters, 

Malmesbury,  a  small  decayed  market  town  in  Wilt-  etc.,  which  were  to  the  north  of  the  church,  have 

shire,  England,  ninety-five  miles  west  of  London,  for-  entirely  disappeared. 

merly  the  seat  of  a  mitred  parliamentary  abbey  of  Dugdale,  MonaHioon  Anglicanum  rLondon.  1846);   St«* 

Benedictine  monks.    It  owed  its  origin  to  Maildubh  or  vbns.  History  of  the  Ancient  ilW)ry«  (Ix)ndon,  1722);  Ret» 

Mfiildiilf  Jin  Trifih  monk  and  t.<»nrhflp  wVin  «Af  f  1<v^  in  f V»a  ^^^*  Apostolatua  Benedictinorum   in    Anglia   (UoxiBi,    1626)| 

wauauii,  an  insn  monK  ana  leacner  wno  settlea  m  tlie  moffat,  HiHoru  of  the  town  of  MalmesburuiTtithuTy,  1806)t 

pl&ce  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century,     Bla-  Leb  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  (Loqdon.  1900);  Browne.  SL  Aldr 


MALME8BURT                         573  MALPIGHI 

*^»^*;  %K'^*****iiJS'^^°'*'  ^®^^'  WiLDiiAN.  Lift  o!  himself  in  his  "Reply  to  Mr.  James  Ussher  his  An- 

at.  ^Idhdm  (Sherborne,  1906).             Gitbe«t  Dolan  swere,  wherein  it  is  discovered  how  Answerlesse  the 

ui-AN.  said  Mr.  Ussher  retumeth.    The  uniform  consent  also 

Malmesbnry,  The  Monk  op,  supposed  author  of  a  ?/  Antiquity  is  declared  to  stande  for  the  Roman  Re- 

chroniTaS  the  Cottoniail  mIT^  the  British  fejln^^  ^hn^^iTL^  TZ'''^r^LT^}^fl'l 

Museum  {Vesp%.  IV.  73)  which  Tanner  states  to  be  t^^1^m^.':^^J^!^T:i'^^^^ 

only 

cording  to  Sir  Thoma*  Hardy,  is  almost  entirrfy  based  KIX.1^^'^' wK,VK"K~o*fc«n*^iliV 

on  thS  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth.    It  is  a  vilueless  ^^J^2,A  w^if v     Tvli^f Lr^-^^w.  «„,„.*■>..•. 

Ss^bSrs^h^nZ^^'arid^eMato^b^*"^^^  S^KS^S^^-^^IT Zs4t' ^tls'l^e^iS 

s TbbLJ'rjfa&s^ML'^XfoSdS  T^''^^:^^fdi''''d±''^^^^^ 

the  library  of  that  abbey  he  was  regarded  as  a  man  of  ^??  wrote  aprnst  the  book.    Itis  the  only  work 

literary  SLtes,  but  his  aithorshipTthe  MS.^  "S'^«%o='  Sl^  K  te^S*^  V  iU 

Ciently  disproved,  apart  from  its  identity  with  Alfred  Bnoluh  Province  S.  J.  (London,  1882),  vii;    UasHER.  Wo7k% 

of  Beverley,  by  the  fact  that  his  death  took  place  in  or  (Dublin,  1847);  Gii^ert  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  b.  v.;  Sommcr- 

before  1107,  when  Edulf  became  abbot.    Probably  the  ^«'«'-  Btbltath^<iue  de  la  Compaonu  de  JSsu,  (Pana^  1894) 

si^pature  merely  indicates  previous  ownership.    It  is  olater. 

said  that  a  fifteenth-century  Italian  writer,  Baptista  Malory,  Sir  Thomas.— Of  Malory  no  single  bio- 

Fulgosus,  includes  the  work  of     Gotfredus  Angliw  graphicafstatement  is  beyond  con  jecture  save  that  he 

Histoncus'  among  the  authonti^  he  had  consulted,  ^^g  a  knight,  that  his  '*booke  was  ended  in  the  9th 

Tanner,  Btbliotheca  BrU.-Htbemtca  (London,  1748):  Hardt,  --^^_  ^t  ♦W«  ,»«r«»«A  rv*  ir:«»  i?>rlnr«..^  +u«  i?a«i.4^1i  '»    ««,i 

Catalogue  if  Documents  iUuMtrating  British  History.  I  (London;  V^^  ?I  ^^  reygne  of  Kmg  EawBM  the  Fourth    ,  and 

1862),  667;   Kxnospord  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v.  Godfrey  of  that  it  was  not  pnnted  Until  1485  when  Caxton,  the 

Malmeabury.                                         •  first  of  English  printers,  published  it  with  an  illu- 

liiDWiN  Burton.  minating  preface  from   his  own  hand.     Upon  an 

M.IO.S..NT.  See  M.OHxm,B,  SMST.  e"^rl^S^Ta**l,S'SSTurir!^"'lSo"$ 
Malone,  William,  Jesuit  missioner  and  writer;  b.,  **»«  gratification  of  identifying  the  birthplace  of  the 
according  to  the  best  authorities,  in  1586;  d.  at  Se-  romancer  with  the  s6ene8  of  the  Arthurian  epic.  It 
ville,  1655.  His  father,  Simon  Malone,  was  a  Dublin  **««  remained  for  modem  scholarship  to  advance  the 
merchant,  and  his  mother  was  Margaret  Bexwick,  a  more  probable  conjecture  tiiat  Malory  was  a  gentleman 
native  of  Manchester.  William  entered  the  Society  of  o*  an  ancient  house  of  Warwickshire  and  that,  as  a 
Jesus  at  Rome  in  1606,  and,  after  studying  there  and  young  man,  he  served  in  France  in  the  retinue  of  that 
in  Portugal,  was  sent  as  a  missioner  to  Ireland  in  1615.  estimable  "  Father  of  Courtesy  ",  Richard  Beauchamp, 
In  1635  he  was  summoned  to  Rome,  where  he  was  Eari  of  Warwick.  (See  "  WTio  Was  Sir  Thomas 
made  rector  of  the  Irish  College,  a  post  which  he  held  Malory?"  by  G.  S.  Kittredge,  in  "  Studies  and  Notes  m 
for  many  years.  He  was  again  sent  to  Ireland  in  Philology  and  Literature^',  V,  Boston,  1897.)  The 
1647  as  superior  of  the  Irish  Mission  of  the  Society,  obscurity  of  the  author  is  in  somewhat  dramatic  con- 
His  term  of  oflBce  fell  in  most  difficult  times.  In  a  ^rast  to  the  unfailing  clarity  of  appreciation  which  his 
letter  dated  from  Waterford,  15  March,  1649,  he  savs  '*Morte  Arthure"  lias  aroused  for  the  past  four  cen- 
that  the  burden  was  heavier  on  his  shoulders  than  turies.  WTiile  the  *'Morte"  is  a  compilation,  or  mo- 
Mount  Etna,  so  that  he  could  say  with  the  AposUe  sa»c,  of  the  French  romances  of  Merlin.  Lancelot  and 
that  he  was  weary  even  of  life.  He  was  at  Waterford  Tristan,  and  the  English  version  of  the  "  Morte  Ar- 
when  the  town  was  taken  by  the  Parliamentarians,  thure"fromGeoflfreyof  Monmouth,  Malory  succeeded 
and  being  captured  he  was  banished.  On  reaching  "^  changing  the  episodical  character  of  his  material 
Seville  his  talents  for  government  were  again  utilised,  '^^  J*s  mtuitions  of  varying  racial  points  of  view  into 
and  he  was  made  rector  of  the  Jesuit  a)llege  of  St.  unvaryhig  ideals  of  conduct  in  epic  conflict  of  fate, 
Gregory  in  that  city.  Dr.  Oliver  says  of  Malone  that  ideals  that  were  to  affect  profoundly  subsequent  ar- 
during  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  he  rendered  good  t*8tic  conceptions,  the  poetry  of  Spenser,  Milton,  Ten- 
service  to  the  Irish  Mission  by  his  splendid  talents,  nyson,  Arnold,  Morris,  and  Swinburne,  the  painting  of 
apostolic  zeal,  and  extraordinary  prudence.    Dodd,  Rossetti,  Watts,  axU  Bume-Jones,  and  the  lyric  drama 

in  his ''Church  History  of  England'^  testifies  that  "he  ^^^^^I- 

was  a  person  of  learning  and  conduct,  and  well  es-  ^^  addition  to  being  a  permanent  contribution  to 

teemed  not  only  by  those  of  his  own  order,  but  by  all  *he  content  of  artistic  expression,  the  "  Morte  Arthure" 

others  that  had  any  knowledge  of  him".  lays  claim  to  being  the  earliest  production  of  EngUsh 

As  a  writer  he  is  well  known  from  his  controversy  prose,  the  matter  of  Pecock  and  Fortescue  having 

with  Ussher,  the  famou3  Protestant  Archbishop  of  given  as  yet  no  hint  that  the  prose  of  the  vernacular 

Armagh.     Malone  himself  tells  us  how  the  contro-  could  be  fashioned  into  a  medium  of  adequate  literary 

versy  arose.     At  the  request  of  his  friend.  Sir  Piers  expression.     "Malory's  prose  is  conscious  without  the 

Crosby,  not  long  after  Malone  had  come  to  Ireland  in  jawing  egoism  of  the  younger  prose;  it  adopts  new 

1615,  he  wrote  a  "  Demand  concerning  the  idteration  words  without  the  risk  of  pedantry  and  harshness;  and 

of  Faith  and  Religion  in  the  Roman  Church."    Al-  >*  expresses  the  varying  importance  of  the  passages  of 

though  both  Dodd  and  Sommervogel  put  this  paper  ^^^  s^ory  in  corresponding  fluctuation  in  the  intensity 

down  as  one  of  his  "  Works",  it  was  in  reality  nothmg  ^^J^  ^'^gV^g®/.'/,.        .^     ,    ,.  . 

more  than  a  thesis,  pro,x^ition,  or  brief  statement  o]  ,„SSltX''%,,SSSfF^^f X^Xi^Si.'tr^ 

the  Cathohc  position  m  the  relimous  controversy.     It  tee  also  Morlet.  English  Writers,  vol.  VI:  Ker.  Essay  in  Me- 

was  hurriedly  drawn  up  by  MaJone  at  the  request  of  dieval  Literature  (London,  1905);    Sinrn.  The  Transition  Period 

his  Protestant  friend,  who  said  that  he  was  convinced  j^iS'jAvL^h^^d^^'''  Flourishing  of  Romance  and 

that  it  could  be  answered  by  Ussher,  then  Dean  of  uegory             ,         .             Jarvis  Keiley 
Finglas.     The  thesis  was  printed  both  bv  Ussher,  in 

his  "Answer  to  a  Challenge  made  by  a  Jesuit  in  Ire-  Malpighi,  Marcello,  founder  of  comparativephys- 

land  ",  published  in  London,  1626,  and  also  by  Malone  idogy,  b.  at  Crevalcore,  10  March,  1628;  d.  at  Rqoda^ 


UALU  5' 

30  Sept.,  16M.    llie  year  of  his  birth  was  that  of  the 

Eublicstion  of  Harvey's  book  on  the  circulation  of  the 
lood.  a  work  which  Malpighi  was  destined  to  com- 
{>iete  tiy  his  obeervations  on  the  capillaries.  Brought 
up  on  tlie  paternal  farm,  he  became  at  the  Sfe  of  about 
seventeen  a  student  at  the  University  of  Boliwna. 
He  devoted  himself  t«  philosophy,  but  during  the  last 
jfear  of  his  undereraduate  course  his  father,  mother, 
and  paternal  grandmother  died.  As  he  was  the  eldest 
of  the  children,  and  the  next  three  were  girls,  he  bad 
to  leave  the  university  to  settle  the  financial  affairs  of 
the  family.  It  was  more  than  two  years  before  he 
eould  resume  his  studiee,  and  then  he  had  to  take  up 
a  profession  that  would  enable  him  to  help  the  family. 
In  the  medical  school  Malpighi  attracted  the  attention 
of  Professor  Massari,  who  was  not  only  a  teacher  but 
an  investigator,  and  in  1653  obtained  the  d^ree  of 
doctor  in  medicine  and  philosophy.    The  foUowinc 

!'eftr  he  married  Francesca  Massari,  younger  and 
avourite    sister    of 

his  distinguished 
professor,  who  died 
the  year  after.  Mal- 
pighi's  independence 
of  thought,  and  hia 
refusal  to  follow  Ga- 
len blindly,  aroused 
opposition.  Still,  he 
was  offered  in  1656 
the  chair  of  medical 
practice  at  the  uni- 
versity,  and  ,  towards 
tiie  end  of  the  same 
year,  a  special  chair 
of  theoretical  medi- 
cine was  created  for 
him  at  the  recently 
established  Univer- 
sity of  Pisa.  After 
three  years'  woric  at 
Pisa  he  returned  to 
Bologna,  and  two 
years  later  was 


Sicily.     Here  he  remained  four  years,  and, 
return  to  Bologna,  was  greeted  as  one  of ' 

citisens. 


on  human  tissues  with  such  good  effect  that  one  of  the 
layers  of  the  skin  is  still  called  the  rete  Malpighi;  cer- 
tam  bodiM  in  the  spleen  and  in  the  kidneys  are  called 
by  his  name,  and  important  discoveries  in  the  liver  are 
due  to  him.  The  (irst  good  comparative  study  of  the 
liver,  from  the  snail  through  the  fishes,  reptiles,  and 
mammals  up  to  man,  is  due  to  Malpighi,  and  he  was 
the  first  to  give  an  adequate  description  of  the  forma- 
tion of  the  chick  in  the  egg.  Chie  day  he  studied  the 
jagged  bark  of  a  green  branch,  and  found  little  vessels 
m  the  wood.  His  study  of  the  capillary  circulation  in 
man  gave  him  an  interest  in  this,  and  the  result  was 
his  book  on  the  anatomy  of  plants,  nhich  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Royal  Society  of  England  ("Anatome 
planlarum  idea",  London,  1675).  The  Royal  Society 
suggested  his  study  of  silk-wonns.  This  liook  is  still 
consulted,  though  Malpighi  had  few  aids  tor  such  mi- 
nute anatom  vat  that  time.  When  he  was  about  six^- 
four  and  at  the  height  of  his  fame.  Pope  Innocent  XH, 
who  had  been  his  personal  friend,  invited  him  to  Rome 
as  papal  physician  and  professor  of  medicine  in  the 
Papal  Medical  School.  He  was  held  in  high  honour 
during  his  last  years,  and  died  there  of  apoplexy  in  the 
sixly-aeventh  year  of  his  age. 

Soliiif  Biografielu  inionto  0  MarctUo  Malpighi,  RaccoUe  did 
D-  Frmlt  Fimrfa  (Milan,  1860):  JounnAur  in  Bioomphit: 
Uidiaile  (Pari*.  1824);  Walsh.  Malrnalii  in  Tht  Mmmger 
(New  Vofii,Au«.,  1905);  lli<du.Bumlohiu BopkiAi BiJiriin 


HftltK. — ^The  group  of  Maltese  islands,  mduding 
Ualta  (91i  sq.  m.),  Gok)  (24}  sq.  m.),  Comine  (1  aa. 
m.)  andafewinconuderable  tslets,  lies  68  miles  soutli 

of  Sicily  and  about  180  miles  S.E.  by  E.  of  Cape  Bon 
in  Tunisia.  Malta  is  the  headquarters  of  the  British 
Mediterranean  fleet,  and  the  prmcipal  coaling  station 
in  the  Mediterranean.  Owing  to  the  prosperity  con- 
sequent upon  its  important  position,  tfae  isWd  isable 
to  BupiHsrt  a  population  out  of  all  proportion  to  ita 
siie.  The  estimated  civil  population  of  the  islaiids 
was  205,059  on  1  April,  1906.  If  about  18,000  be 
added  forthegarrison  and  the  Royal  Navy,  we  reacha 
total  of  over  223,000.  Without  reckoning  the  fluo- 
tua ting  population  of  the  harbours,  the  density  of  the 
population  in  Malta  itself  works  out  at  over  2000 
persons  per  sq,  mile. 
Of  the  civil  popula- 
tion over  99%  are 
Cathohcs.  In  1901 
there  were  in  the 
civil  population  696 
lunaUce,41Sbliud,80 
lepers,  211  lawyers, 
and  190  doctors.  In 
the  same  year  the 
secular  clergy  con- 
siiited  of  698  priests 
and  251  clerics;  the 
n'pilar  clergy  of  249 
pnesla,  151  clerics 
and  novices,  and  140 
lay  brothers.  There 
were  470  reiigioua 
women  inc  luding  nov- 
ices  and  lay-sisters. 
In  Malta  and  Goio 
there  arc  27  reiigioua 


i   of  I 


_[    36  convents  and  ii. 
~Vii.irr*  Ualta  stitutes   of  religious 

'  '  women.    There   are 

about  190  schoob,  in  which  some  20,000  persons  are 
being  educated.  Besides  the  univeraity  (about  120 
students),  the  Lyceum  (400) ,  and  79  government  ele- 
mentary schools,  there  are  53  other  government 
schools,  2  seminaries  (312),  22  schools  under  icli^ous 
direction,  the  rest  under  the  direction  of  private  mdi- 
viduals.  The  overflow  of  the  papulation  is  mainly  to 
other  Mediterranean  ports.  In  1901,  33,948  MaUesa 
returned  as  residing  in  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean.  Of  these,  15,208  were  in  Tunis  and 
6984  in  Egypt. 

The  government  consists  o(  an  Executive  Council 
of  eleven  members  besides  the  governor,  who  is  usu- 
ally a  distinguished  general,  and  of  a  Legidativ« 
Council  consisting  of  ten  ofncial  and  eight  elected 
memliers.  All  the  judges  and  most  of  the  other  gov- 
ernment olRcials  are  Maltese.  Italian  and  En^h 
are  the  languages  of  the  educated  in  Malta.  Both  are 
taught  in  every  school  but  only  a  small  percentage  of 
the  population  s|)eak  cither  fluently.  The  revenue 
[or  the  year  1903-04  was  £464  590,  of  which  £274,251 
came  from  the  customs.  Under  this  latter  head  the 
duty  on  imported  grain  amounted  to  £97,210.  Id 
1879  proposals  were  made  to  reduce  the  grain  duty, 
which  weighs  heavily  on  the  poorer  classes.  Strangely 
enough,  both  the  people  and  their  representative* 
stoutly  opposed  the  reduction.  There  Is  ug  diieot 
ta-Kation  m  Malta  and  strictly  speaking  no  public  debt. 
The  higher  education  at  the  university  is  paid  for  by 
public  tax.  In  1902-3  the  total  expenditure  under 
this  head  was  £3950,  of  which  £3674  was  paid  out  of 
the  treasury.    In  1904,  38,748  acres,  i.e.  601  sq.  miles. 


UllTA 


575 


MAtTA 


were  under  cultivation  in  the  Halt«sc  islands.  Of 
these  6546  belong  to  Government,  0682  to  tlte 
Church  and  wous  institutionB,  and  25,520  to  private 
individuals.  Wheataud  barley, potAtoes. cotton, and 
grapes  fonn  the  chief  produce  of  the  land.  The  Hal- 
teae  honey,  from  the  superior  quality  of  which  the 
island  was  supposed  to  derive  its  name  of  Helita  (i,  e. 
Greek  (lAi,  gen.  /iAiToi=  honey )^  now  lives  mostly 
oo  its  rsputatioa.  Agriculture  m  Malta  has  been 
starved  by  trade.  A  peouliariy  national  industry  la 
the  Maltese  lace,  chiefly  made  in  Goto. 

Civil  History. — There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  at  a  very 
early  date,  Malta  waa  colooixed  by  the  Phcenicians. 
Numerous  megalithic  and  other  remains,  as  well  as 
inscripttona,  testify  to  this  fact.  It  is  even  probable 
that  the  PtuBnicians  gave  the  island  it«  name,  which 
seems  to  be  derived  from  the  verb  "malat  (Heb. 
oi>D),  "to  take  refuee"  and  to  mean,  therefore,  "the 

Slaoe  of  refuge".  It  is  often  asserted  that  Malta, 
uring  the  eighth  century  b.  c,  passed  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  Greeks  and  was  held  by  them  for  three 
centuries,  but  there  is  little  evidence  to  support  this 
view.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  Carthagimaas 
became  masters  of  the  island,  probably  in  the  fifth 
century  b.  c,  at  a  time  when  the  weaker  Phcmician 
states  united,  for  mutual  protection,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Carthage.  It  is  certain,  too,  that  Malta,  about 
the  time  of  the  Second  Punic  war.  though  the  pteinse 
date  of  its  capture  cannot  be  fixed  (cf.  Livy,  xxi,  51), 
became  a  Roman  possession  and,  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Roman  power  in  the  West,  remained  subject  to 


pears,  they  were,  as  in  Sicily  and  elsewhere,  welcomed 
as  deliverers  from  the  hated  Byzantine  yoke. 

The  principal  and  almost  the  only  monument  of  the 
Arab  dominion  is  said  to  be  the  Maltese  langua^, 
which  is  Semitic  and  has  much  in  common  with 
Arabic.  The  weight  of  the  beet  authority  seems,  how- 
ever, to  incline  decjdedlv  to  the  vieW  that  the  present 
Malt«se  language  is  airectly  descended  from  the 
Phtenician  with  but  little  modification  by  the  Arabic. 
The  Arabs,  in  fact,  seem  to  have  left  the  Maltese  very 
much  to  themselves  and  to  have  interfered  with  their 
language  aa  little  aa  they  interfered  with  their  religion 
ana  their  popular  customs.    The  account  of  the  cap- 


and  philology  alike  point  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
Maltese,  m  spite  of  powerful  outside  influences,  are 
still,  subatantially,  a  PhisniDian  pe^le.  Count  Roger 
of  Sicily,  who  landed  in  Malta  in  1090,  was  welcomed, 
it  seems,  not  as  a  deliverer  from  an  oppressive  yoke, 
but  because  the  iaiandere  naturally  preferred  a  Chris- 


probabiy  during  this  period  that  the  aMence  of  a 
national  hterature,  the  need  of  employing  foreign 
notaries,  and  other  causes,  forced  the  Maltese  to  adopt 


ture  of  Malta  by  the  Normans,  as  given  by  Matat«rra, 
thesecretary  of  Count  Roger,  does  not,  certainly,  con- 
vey the  idea  that  the  Saracens  were  sufficiently  numer- 
ous to  offer  any  serious  resistance  to  the  invaders.  If 
the  Arab  influence  had  prei^ed  so  far  as  to  make  a 
complete  change  in  the  hnguage  of  the  iijandera,  this 
could  only  have  been  the  sequel  t«  a  process  of  dena- 
tionalisation which  had  no  counterpart  in  the  neigh- 
bouring island  of  Sicily  and  which  would  have  implied 
the  presence  of  a  strong  army  of  occupation.   History 


lidlian  as  their  written  language.  Later  on,  when  the 
more  fuUv  developed  Italian  aasert«d  itself  in  Sicily 
it  naturally  beisame  the  medium  of  legal  and  com- 
mereial  transactions  in  Malta.  Its  influence  on  the 
spoken  language  was  confined  to  the  vocabulary, 
which  contains  a  number  of  Italian  words,  the  struc- 
ture remaining  unaltered.  At  least  conjointly  with 
Latin  and  other  languages,  Italian  has  remained  the 
literary  language  of  the  island   right  down  to  our 

In  llflO  Malta,  along  with  Sicily,  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Swabian  emperors,  but,  after  the  battle 
of  Beneventum  (1266)  in  which  Charles  of  Anjou  put 
an  end  to  the  Swabian  rule  in  Apulia  and  Sicilv,  it 
remained  for  seventeen  years  in  the  possession  of  the 
French.  In  1283.  the  vear  after  the  "Sicilian  Ves- 
pers", the  island,  which  had  fared  badly  under  the 
Swabians  and  worse  still  under  the  French,  once  more 
changed  masters  and  became  the  property  ot  King 
Peter  III  of  Aragon.  Under  the  Spanish  rule,  which 
lasted  two  centuries  and  a  half,  Malta  made  consider- 
able progress  in  civiliaation.  This  was  very  lately 
owing  to  the  influence  of  the  religious  orders,  especially 
the  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  and  Auguatinians,  but 
partly  also  to  the  influx  of  foreign  beneliciarieB  who, 
if  they  lived  on  the  wealth  of  tiie  land,  made  some 
return  in  the  higher  culture  which  they  helped  to 
diffuse.  Early  in  1523,  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  after 
the  fall  of  Rhodes,  left  that  island  with  the  honours  of 
war,  and  being  unable,  for  nearly  seven  years,  to  find  a 
lodgment  that  was  convenient  to  all  parties  concerned, 
they  were  at  length  established  in  Malta,  which  was 
conferred  upon  them  by  the  Enipei-or  Charles  V  in  the 
year  1530.  The  earlier  period  of  their  rule  was  the 
golden  age  of  the  history  of  the  island,  for  during  that 
time  Malta  was  one  of  the  chief  bulwarks  of  Christen- 
dom against  the  power  of  the  Turks.  The  successful 
defence  of  the  isliuid  by  the  Grand  Master  La  Vallette, 
in  1565,  ranks  as  high  as  the  Battle  of  Lepanto  among 
the  feats  of  Christian  chivalry.  The  invaders,  num- 
bering over  40,000  men,  must  have  considerably  out- 
numMred  the  total  population  of  the  island  which 
contained  but  8500  men  bearing  arms,  including  the 
592  members  of  the  order.  Yet  such  was  the  spirit 
which  the  brave  islanders  iralubfid.(w^    ''    ■-■■--' 


UALTA  5: 

that  tlisy  compelled  the  enemy  to  retire,  with  heavy 
loas,  after  a  ei^  of  nearly  fom-  moDths. 

The  decline  of  the  Ottoman  power  meant  the  decay 
of  the  Order  of  St.  John.  By  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
centuiy,  so  rife  was  the  apirit  of  the  Revolution,  so 
powerful  the  clique  of  traitors  among  the  Knights,  and 
so  great  the  disaffection  of  the  people,  that,  when 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  appeared  before  Malta  in  June, 
1798,  he  found  that  there  waa  littJe  left  for  him  to  do 
but  to  take  quiet  possession  of  the  island.  After  a  few 
days'  sojourn,  during  which  he  drew  up  a  new  scheme 
of  government  and  made  French  the  national  Ian- 
guage,  he  departed  on  his  fatal  expedition  to  Egypt, 
oanying  with  him  a  great  part  of  the  loot  which ,  to  the 
value  of  £250,000,  had  been  taken  from  the  churehes 
Uid  palaces  of  Malta.  Shortly  after  his  departure  the 
Fttnch  ^rrison,  out  off  by  Nelson's  fleet  from  all 
chance  <M  reinforcements,  was  shut  up  in  Valetta  by 
the  Maltese  who  were  aided,  at  the  last,  by  EIngliah 
Bod  NeapoUton  troops,  and  was  compelled  to  surren- 
der in  Sept«mber, 
ISOO,  after  a  siege 
of  two  veare.  Im- 
mediately after  this 
event  the  Maltese, 
who  had  no  reason 
for  desiring  the  re- 
turn of  the  Knights 
and  still  leas  of  fall- 
ing into  the  power 
of  France  or  Russia, 
offered  to  place  the 
island underthe  pro- 
tection of  the  British 
flag.  The  offer  was 
accepted  on  the  dis- 
tinct understanding 
that    their    religion 


Lituti 


should  he  rcspecteil. 
The  British  sover- 
eign ty  was  con  firmed 
at  the  treaty  of  Paris 
(1814).  The  popula- 
tion of  Malta  and  AiiSEROE  he  (Jabti 
Goto  was  over  25,- 

000  in  1535;  over  40,000  in  1621 ;  54,463  in  1632,  and 
114,000  in  1798.  Since  this  last  date  it  haa  nearly 
doubled. 

EccUsiaatical  Hwlory.~Thc  Church  in  Malta  was 
founded  by  St.  Paul,  and  St.  Publius,  whose  name  is 
mentioned  in  the  Acts,  was  its  first  bishop.  After 
ruling  the  Maltese  Church  for  thirty-one  years  he  was, 
we  are  told,  transferred  in  a.  n. 90  to  the  Bee  of  Athens, 
where  he  was  martyred  in  125.  Though  a  complete 
list  of  bishops  from  the  days  of  St.  Paul  to  Constantine 
has  been  made  out,  its  authenticity  is  more  than 
doubtful.  Still  there  seems  no  reason  to  suppose  that, 
during  the  early  days  of  persecution,  the  flock  was 
long  without  a  shepnerd.  In  451  there  was  an  Aca- 
ciUB,  Melitenus  Episcopua,  whose  name  is  subscribed 
to  the  Acta  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  In  .501  Con- 
atantin US,  Episcopua  Melitenensis,  was  present  at  the 
Fifth  General  Council.  In  588  Tucillus,  Miletin»  civi- 
tatis  episcopua,  was  deposed  by  St.  Gregory,  and  his 
successor  Trajan  elected  by  the  clergy  and  people  of 
Malta  in  599.  The  last  bishop  before^c  Saracen  con- 

?uest  was  the  Greek  Manas.  After  the  Council  of 
halcedon  in  868,  he  was  unable  to  return  to  his  see, 
which  was  bein^  invaded  by  the  Arabs,  and  not  long 
after  we  find  him  in  chains  in  a  Saracen  prison  at 
Palermo.  Of  successors  of  his  under  the  Arabs  there 
are  no  records,  though  probably  such  were  appointed. 
Hence,  if  probable  breaks  in  the  episcopate  be  no  bar 
to  their  ckim,  the  Maltese  can  boost  of  belonging  to 
the  only  extant  Apostolic  see,  with  the  single  exception 
of  Rome.   EjcceptunderCharleaofAnjou,  who  caused 


6  U&LTKST 

Maltese  prelates  to  be  appointed,  the  Bishop  of  Ualta 
was  commonly  a  Sicilian.  There  was  one  Malt«w 
bishop  under  the  poniards,  one  Maltese  and  one  half 
Maltese  under  the  Knights.  Since  1808  all  the  Usbop^ 
have  been  natives  of  the  island.  No  Maltese  was  al- 
lowed to  t>eeome  a  knight  of  St.  John.  This  arrange- 
ment was  made  with  the  purpose,  among  others,  of 
preventing  the  existence,  within  theorder,  of  a  faction 
supportea  by  the  native  population.  Ecclesiastical 
grades,  however,  were  open  to  natives,  and  we  find  the 
rames  of  three  Maltese  who  were  grand  priors  of  the 

The  clerKy  in  Malta  have  always  beat  the  natural 
leaders  of  the  people.  It  was  apriest,  Goetano  Manna- 
rino,  who  headed  an  abortive  revolt  aeainst  theEOv- 
emment  of  the  Knights  in  1775.  In  1788  Canon  F.X. 
Caruana  acquired  a  more  enviable  reputation  by  ac- 
cepting the  leadership  of  the  people  in  their  insurrec- 
tion against  the  French  invaders.  It  was  he  too  who 
demanded  the  annexation  of  Malta  to  Great  Britain. 
He  became  bishop  in 
1831,  Bincel864the 
island  of  Goao  has 
had  its  own  bishop. 
Hence,  with  their 
two  bishops  aitd 
nearly  a  thousand 
priests,  the  Blalteee 
islands  are  more 
plentifully  provided 
with  pastors  than 
any  other  country 
in  the  worid.  The 
place  occupied  by 
religion  in.tnelifeof 
the  people  is  be- 
tokened not  only  by 
the  targe  number  of 
the  secular  clergy 
and  of  religious  men 
and  women,  but  also 
by  the  frequent  fes- 


the  constant  ri 


ehurehes.    The  chureh  of  the  v".  ... 

the  third  largest  dome  in  the  world.  Canon  law  pre- 
vails in  Malta  as  the  law  of  the  land.  Hence  mixed 
marriages  are  illegal  unless  performed  by  a  Catholic 
priest.  The  large  number  of  clerics  in  Malta  is  due,  in 
some  measure,  to  the  smallness  of  the  patrimony  fixed 
as  a  condition  for  receiving  the  priesthood.  The 
necessary  minimum  is  £10.  Ekjuivalent  to  this  is  a 
benefice  of  £5  rental.  In  1777  Pius  VI,  in  order  to 
lessen  the  excessive  number  o(  clerics  in  the  islatuJ, 
raised  the  minimum  patrimony  from  '45  Maltese 
ducats  or  scudi  (abt.  S19)  to  80  (abt.  S34). 

The  eariior  history  of  HalU  lu*  still  to  be  wiltt<B.  anil  the 
it  m&y  yet  be  foimd  ■mong:  the  Simlisn  end  other 
IB  UolteM  wtitws  ASBU  (IfaUa  /IttuCnsM.  1M7) 
(Wa^  /UK^raU,,lT80)  have  bu 


archives.    The  1 

until  Isteiy,  the  commtnily  aeccpted 

worit  bM  bank  done  reenUv  by  CfatiAN*.  SkIT 

Ltngua  MalUtt  (Melts,  imj.    04sr  wotks  *n -,  _- 

kw«  dt  Mallt  (Paris.  1B41) :  Vasballo.  ^Mio  H  Wab  Pl^ 
1SM)i  Fraina,  Storia  EixUtiaitua  di  Maim  nUO^  ISTT); 
TxntAvmccat.  Ultimo  ptriodo  Mia  HoHa  di  WaUa  OWU, 

Prna'di  Jf aba '(Malta,  ISSO):  Ran'bijit.  AmoJu)  H  BIocco  iH 
Uatta. 

Jameb  Ken  DAI.. 
Malta,  Kktohts  op.    See  Hospitallehs  of  St. 
John  or  Jerusalem. 
Malthnslaa  Theory.    See  Pofulation,  Thkoribb 

OP, 

Haltnt  or  Maltrait,  Claude,  French  Jesuit,  b. 
at  Fuy,  3  Oct,,  1621;  d.  at  Toulouse,  3  Jan.,  ie74. 


IftALVEKDA  577  HALTEBK 

He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  12  Oct.,  1637.  On  age  to  Jerusalem  and  began  a  monastery  at  Malvern, 
the  completion  of  his  studies,  he  was  engaged  for  eleven  the  saint  promiaine  him  that  the  place  would  be  won- 
years  in  teaching  belles-lettres  and  rhetoric  and  became  derf  ully  favouied  by  God.  A  convent  of  thirty  mOnks 
widely  known  as  a  classical  scholar.  He  was  then  ap-  gathered  there  under  Aldwyn's  direction  (1135) ;  the 
(Kunted  to  a  professorship  in  Sacred  Scripture,  a  po-  usual  number  was  twentynsix  (and  thirty  i>oor  men), 
sition  which  he  held  for  the  next  nine  years.  In  1662  and  four  at  the  dependent  cell,  Avecot  Priory,  War- 
he  was  made  rector  of  the  College  of  Moiitauban.  In  wickshire,  estabUsned  by  William  Burdet  in  1159. 
the  following  year  he  brought  out  his  greatest  and  Aldwyn  was  succeeded  byWalcher,  a  Lorrainer,  a  man 
best-known  work,  an  edition  of  the  histories  of  Pro-  celebrated  as  an  astronomer,  divine,  and  philosopher, 
copius,  with  a  critical  commentary.  This  work  went  He  was  probably  one  of  those  sent  by  Abbot  Gilbert 
throu^  many  editions,  being  edited  and  augmented  of  Westminster  to  establish  a  regular  community  at 
with  notes  by  other  scholars,  and  was  included  in  the  Malvern  on  land  previously  given  for  the  purpose  by 
^'Sjmopsis  Historic  Byzantins",  published  at  Yen-  Urso  D'Abitot  and  Edward  the  Confessor.  William 
ice.  From  1672  to  1674  Father  Maltret  was  rector  the  Conqueror  confirmed  these  grants  and  was  himself 
of  the  novitiate  of  Toulouse.  His  principal  works  are  a  benefactor,  as  also  was  Henry  I.  This  connexion 
the  following:  (1)  "  Procopii  Csesariensis  Historianun  with  Westminster  led  later  on  to  a  famous  and  pro- 
Libri  VIII";  (2)  "  Procopii  Cssariensis  Arcana  His-  tracted  conflict  between  the  bishops  of  Worcester  and 
toria.  Quiest  hbernonusHistoriarum".  This  is  an  the  Abbot  of  Westminster.  For  a  lon^  time  the 
edition^  with  criticed  notes,  of  the  Latin  translation  of  bishop's  right  of  visitation  over  Great  Malvern  had 
Procopius,  made  by  Nicolaus  Alemannus.  In  the  been  unquestioned :  on  the  election  however  of  a  prior 
preface  of  this  work  Father  Maltret  promised  a  trans-  John  in  1242,  the  aobot  opposed  the  bishop's  action  in 
lation^  with  comments,  of  a  Greek  poem  by  Paulus  confinning  and  installine  the  new  superior.  Under  his 
Silentiarius  entitled:  Descriptio  Ecclesise  Sanct®  successor,  William  de  Ledbury,  matters  came  to.  a 
Sophi^e  ".  This  translation,  however^  was  never  pub-  head.  Ledbury  was  accused  of  serious  crimes  by  some 
lished,  and  it  is  not  known  whether  it  was  ever  com-  of  his  monks  and  was  promptly  deposed  by  l^ishop 
pleted.  (3)  ''Procopii  Csesariensis  Ilistoriarum  sui  Godfrey  Giffard.  On  this  the  monks  chose  instead  the 
temporis  de  bello  Gotnico  libri  quatuor  ".  bishop^  nephew,  William  de  Wykewan,  prior  of  Ave- 

Tnere  seems  to  be  some  doubt  as  to  the  correct  cot.    Wykewan  proceeded  to  Shrewsbury,  where  the 

spelling  of  Father  Maltret 's  name.   Sommervogel  gives  Abbot  of  Westminster  was  then  on  a  visit,  for  confirma- 

it  as  "Maltrait",  while  Hurler,  in  his  "N^menclator  tion  in  his  new  office.     The  abbot  arrested  him  and 

Litterarius  ",  spells  it ''  Maltres  '*.  his  followers  and  sent  them  in  chains  to  Westminster. 

SouuiiKvoaEh,  Biblioth^  d€  Ui  C.  de  J.;  oB  Backer,  The  bishop  retaliated  by  suspending  and  excommu- 

BtbitotK^<iuedes^cnvatn9  delaC.de  «^j  Humtr.  ^;^;~«»^-  nicating  I^bury  and  his  adherents,  and  the  whole 

ooimtryside  was  m^de  to  feel  the  inconveniences  of  a 

Malvenda,  Thomas,  ex^ete  and  historical  critic,  disputed  jurwdiction.    Wwtminster  claimed  exemp- 

b.  at  JAtiva,  Valencia,  1566 ;  d.  7  May,  1628.    He  en-  tion  by  i^pal  grant  for  iteelf  and  all  its  dependencies, 

tered  the  Dominicans  in  his  youth;  at  the  age  of  andmthwwassupTOrtedbytheking;  the  bishop  was 

thirty-five  he  seems  to  have  already  taught  philosophy  supported  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  to 

and  theology.     His  criticisms  on  the  "  Annales'*  of  some  extent  by  other  bi^ope. ,      ^  „ 
Baronius,  embodied  in  a  letter  to  the  author  (1600),        An  appeal  to  the  Holy  See  led  to  fuller  enquiry,  wid 

discovered  so  much  ability  that  Baronius  used  his  for  some  time  thmgs  went  as  the  bishop  wished ;  but 

influence  to  have  Malvenda   summoned  to  Rome.  ^^  harsh  dealing  with  the  monks  went  so  far  that 

Here  he  was  of  material  assistance  as  a  critical  ad-  they,  the  unfortunate  victims  of  all  this  litigation, 

viser  to  the  cardinal,  while  also  employed  in  revising  were  taken  imder  the  king's  protection.    Finally  an 

the    Dominican    Breviary,    annotating    Brasichelli's  end  was  put  to  a  long  andintricate  process,  wherein 

"Index  Expurgatorius",  and  writing  certain  annals  all  powers  and  parties  m  Church  and  State  were  in- 

of  the  order.    These  last  were  published  against  his  yolved,  by  a  truce  agreed  to  at  Acton  Burnell.    Led- 

wishes  and  without  his  revision.    To  this  period  also  bury  wa^  remstated  and  then  deposed  by  his  abbot; 

belong  his  "  De  Antichristo  libri  XI"  (Rome,  1604),  the  monks  gave  the  bishop  the  manor  of  Knichtwick, 

and  *^De  paradiso  voluptatis"  (Rome.  1605).  and  he  on  his  part  released  them  absolutely  from  his 

Returning  to  Spain  in  1608,  Malvenda  undertook  a  own  jurisdiction,  "  m  accordance  with  pnyileg^  here- 
new  version  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Latin,  with  com-  tofore  granted  by  divers  Roman  ppntifiFs  .  The  epis- 
mentaries.  This  he  had  carried  as  far  as  Ezech.,  xvi,  copal  jurisdiction  was  retained  only  over  their  pansh 
16,  when  he  died.  It  gives  the  closest  possible  ren-  churches.  Peace  was  wnyed  at.  and  all  was  amicably 
dering  into  Latin  of  every  word  in  the  origmal;  but  settled  in  1314,  when  Bishop  Walter  Maydeston  gave 
many  of  the  Latin  words  employed  are  intelligible  the  monks  the  church  of  Powyke  to  reimburse  them 
only  through  equivalents  supplied  in  the  maigin.  The  ^or  all  their  losses,  and  ccmfirmed  the  grant  to  them 
work  was  published  at  Lyons  in  1650  as  **Commen-  of  that  of  Laneley,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  great 
taria  in  S.  Scripturam,  una  cum  nova  de  verbo  in  charity  shown  by  them  to  the  poor  and  pilgrims.  A 
verbum  ex  hebraeo  translatione "  etc.  long  period  of  prosperity  followed.    The  church  was 

HuRTER,  Nomenclator.  E.  Macphebson.  magnificently  rebuilt  (c.  1460) ;  it  is  cruciform  with  a 

central  tower — Sir  Reginald  OT&y^  designer  of  Henry 

Malvern,  Worcestershire,  England,  a  district  cov-  VII's  chapel,  Westminster,  is  beheved  to  have  been 

ered  by  a  lofty  range  between  tne  Severn  and  Wye,  the  architect.    It  is  171  feet  long,  63  wide  and  high, 

known  as  the  Malvern  Hills.    On  its  eastern  side  were  Its  stained  glass  is  famous,  as  are  its  ancient  tiles, 

formerly  two  houses  of  Benedictine  monks,  the  prior-  made  at  the  priory.    Both  are  memorials  of  many 

ies  of  Great  and  Little  Malvern.  royal  and  noble  benefactors.   The  church,  St.  Mar3r's, 

(1)  Great  Malvern  began  soon  after  the  death  of  was  purchased  hv  Richard  Beides  and  others  at  the 

St.  Werstan,  a  monk  of  Deerhurst,  who,  flving  from  dissolution,  and  the  <^  parish  church  (St.  Thomas  the 

the  Danes  and  taking  refuge  in  the  woods  of  Muvem,  Apostle)  has  now  diaappcAred.   The  priory  rental  was 

was  there  slain,  and  afterwards  honoured  as  a  saint.  £308  (Duffdale)  or  £375  (&k>eed).   Latimer  pleaded  in 

A  hermitage  was  established  there  before  the  Norman  vain  for  the  preservation  of  the  monastery  as  a  refuge 

Conquest;  one  Aldwyn,  who  had  been  made  a  monk  for  learned  and  studious  men. 

at  the  cathedral  prionr  of  Worcester  by  St.  Wulstan,         (2)  Lfttlb  Malvkrk  Priort  (Our  Lady  and  St. 

bishop  of  that  see,  ana  a  companion  called  Guy,  were  Giles),  three  miles  south  of  the  former,  was  a  small 

apparently  the  first  to  settle  here.    Aldwyn,  by  St.  monastery  founded  from  Wereester  cathedral  about 

Wubtan's  advice,  gave  up  his  contemplated  pilgrim-  117L    Ine  ehoir  and  tower  of  its  church  alone  remniiLv 
IX. -37 


XAKiXIRI 


678 


KAMSLTTOO 


portaoDS  of  the  monaBtery  are  incorporated  in  TheCourt, 
an  old  Catholic  mansion,  the  seat  of  the  Beringtons. 

DuoDALE.  Mofuutioon  Anglicanum  (Loodoo,  1846);  Thomab, 
AnHquitate*  Prioraiu^  Majorin  Malvemia  (London,  1725); 
Parsons,  Hist,  of  the  Priory  of  Little  Malvern  (London,  s.  d.); 
NoAKB,  Guide  to  Woreeaierehire  (London,  1S68);  Gasqubt, 
Hmry  VIII  and  tKe  Engluih  Monaeterise  (London,  1888). 

Gilbert  Dolan. 

Mamachi,  Thomas  Maria,  Dominican  theolodan 
and  historian,  b.  at  Chios  in  the  Archipelago,  4  De- 
cember, 1713;  d.  at  Cometo,  near  Montefiascone, 
Italy,  7  June,  1792.'  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  en- 
tered the  convent  of  Chios  and  passed  later  to  St. 
Bfark's  at  Florence  and  the  Minerva  at  Rome.  In 
1740  he  Was  appointed  professor  of  physics  in  the 
Sapienza,  and  in  1743  taught  philosophy  at  the  Propa- 
ganda. His  residence  at  Florence  and  Rome  brought 
him  into  contact  with  brilliant  men  of  his  order,  e.  g. 
Ohrsi,  DivelU,  and  Concina,  and  greatly  facilitated 
his  progress  m  his  studies.  He  collaborated  with  Orsi 
in  his  De  Romani  pontificis  in  synodos  oecumenicas 
et  earum  canones potestate  ".  Soon  Benedict  XIV  ap- 
pointed him  prelect  of  the  Casanatensian  Libraiy, 
master  of  theology  and  consultor  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Index.  Owing  to  his  office  he  had  to  take  part 
in  the  controversy  between  the  Appellants  (Jansenists) 
and  the  Jesuits,  and  displayed  an  impartiality  which 
greatly  increased  the  difficulties  of  nis  anxious  and 
laborious  |>o6ition.  He  engaged  in  lively  theolo^cal 
controversies  with  Mansi  and  Cadonici.  He  had,  like- 
wise, to  intervene  in  the  controversy  concerning  the 
beatification  of  Blessed  Palafox.  In  a  published 
writing  on  this  question,  he  dealt  severely  with  the 
Jesuit  party  who  opposed  the  beatification;  but  he 
was  not  less  energetic  in  dealing  with  their  opponents, 
the  Appellants  and  the  Jansenist  Church  of  Utrecht. 
He  was  director  of  the  ecclesiastical  journal  of  Rome 
(1742-85),  and  established  at  his  residence  a  reunion 
of  the  learned  Roman  society. 

Mamachi  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  the  power  of 
the  Roman  Pontiff.  Involved  in  all  the  controver- 
sies of  the  day,  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  take  issue 
with  Febronius.  Pius  VI  made  him  secretary  of  the 
Index  (1779)  and  afterwards  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace,  and  frequently  availed  himself  of  his  advice 
and  of  his  pen.  Mamachi 's  ^reat  work  was  to  have 
been  his  "Christian  Antic^uities'*,  but  his  labours  in 
the  field  of  dogma  and  jurisprudence  absorbed  so 
much  of  his  time  that  he  pubushed  onlv  four  of  the 
tvirenty  books  that  he  had  planned.  Moreover,  he 
lived  m  an  age  when  the  good  method  inaugurated  by 
Bosio  had  been  abandoned,  and,  considered  as  an 
archsBological  work,  the  syntnesis  which  he  had  pro- 
jected is  valueless.  A  second  edition^  however,  ap- 
peared in  1842-1851.  His  chief  writings  are:  "De 
ratione  temporum  Athanasiorum  deque  aliquot  sy- 
nodis  rV  s»culo  celebratis"  (Florence,  1748);  "Origi- 
num  et  antiquitatum  christianarum  libri  XX"  (4 
vob.^  Rome,  1749-55);  "Dei  costumi  dei  primitivi 
cristiani"  (3  vols.,  Rome,  1753  sqq.);  "Epistolae  ad 
Justinum  Febronium  de  ratione  regendse  christianse 
reipublicse  (2  vols.,  Rome,  1776-77). 

HuBTXB,  Nomenclator;  Hefcls  in  Kirehenlex^B.  v. 

K.  Maere. 

Mame,  Alfrbd-Hbnbi-Amand.  printer  and  pub- 
lisher, b.  at  Tours,  17  Aug.,  1811 ;  a.  at  Tours,  12  April, 
1893. 

The  founder  of  the  Mame  firm,  Charies  Mame, 
printed  two  newspapers  at  Angers  in  the  last  quarter 
of  the  eighteenth  century;  General  Hoche  had  at  one 
time  hoped  to  marry  his  daughter.  His  eldest  son, 
bookseller  and  publisher  in  Paris,  under  the  First 
Empire,  edited  Chateaubriand's  famous  opuscule, 
"Buonaparte  et  les  Bourbons",  also  Madame  de 
Stag's  works;  and  the  persecutions  directed  against 
these  books  by  the  Napoleonic  poUoe  caused  the  finan- 
cial ruin  of  the  editor.    But  the  third  son,  Amand 


Bfame,  came  to  Tours  and  founded  there  a  firm  which, 
under  the  management  of  Alfred  Mame,  son  of  Amand, 
was  destined  to  become  ver^r  important.  After  hav- 
ing edited,  together  with  ms  cousin  Ernest  Mame. 
from  1833  to  1845,  some  classics  and  a  few  devotional 
books,  Alfred  conceived  and  carried  out,  for  the  first 
time,  the  idea  of  uniting  in  the  same  publishing  house, 
a  certain  number  of  workshops,  grouping  all  the  in- 
dustries connected  with  the  making  <n  lxK>ks:  print- 
ing, binding,'  selling,  and  forwarding.  By  analogy  with 
the  great  iron  workis  of  Le  Creusot,  the  Mame  firm  has 
been  called  the  literary  "Creusot".  Mame  was  also 
one  of  the  principal  owners  of  the  pa{)er-mil]s  of  La 
Haye-Descartes;  and  it  could  thus  be  said  that  a  book, 
from  the  time  when  the  rags  are  transformed  into 
paper  up  to  the  moment  when  the  final  binding  is  put 
on,  passed  through  a  succession  of  workers,  all  of  whom 
were  connected  with  Mame.  Daily,  as  eari^  as  1855, 
this  interesting  and  enterprising  publismng-house 
brought  out  from  three  to  four  thousand  kilograms  of 
books;  it  employed  seven  himdred  workers  within  and 
from  four  hundred  to  five  hundred  outside.  While  it 
put  into  circulation  numberless  books  of  devotion,  it 
was  also  publishing  the  "  Biblioth^ue  de  la  jeunesse 
chr^tienne ",  a  rich  series  of  books  destined  for  priie 
distributions,  the  religious  tone  of  which  was  guaraiir 
teed  by  an  express  approval  given  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Tours.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Alfred  Mame  Press 
issued  splendid  publications:  "Ia  Touraine",  exhib- 
ited at  tne  Universal  Exhibition  of  1855,  whicn  was  in 
its  da]^  the  finest  of  illustrated  books;  the  "Bible" 
with  illustrations  from  Gustave  Dor€;  V^tauH's 
"Charlemagne";  Wallon's  "St.  Louis";  the  authori- 
tative collection  of  "  Chefs  d'oeuvres  de  la  langue  fran- 
caise".  Quantin,  the  publisher,  calculated  that,  in 
1883,  the  Mame  publishing-house  issued  yearly  six 
million  volumes,  of  which  three  million  were  bound. 

Inspired  by  the  social  Catholic  ideal,  Alfred  Mame 
established  for  his  employees  a  pension  fund  which 
allowed  an  income  of  six  hundred  francs  to  those 
over  sixty  vears,  and  this  fund  was  wholly  main- 
tained by  the  head  of  the  firm.  He  opened  schools 
for  the  labouring  classes,  which  caused  nim  to  receive 
one  of  the  ten  thousand  franc  awards  reserved  for  the 
"^tablissements  modeles  oil  r^gnuient  au  plus  haut 
degr^  rharmonie  sociale  et  le  bien-6tre  des  ouvriers". 
During  the  Vatican  Council  at  Rome,  Bishop  Ket- 
teler,  meeting  Alfred  Mame  at  Spithoever's  library, 
interviewed  him  earnestly  on  his  pnilanthropic  efforts 
for  the  benefit  of  the  working-men  of  Tours.  In  1874 
Mame  organized  a  system  by  which  his  working-men 
shared  in  the  profits  of  the  firm.  His  d  ving  woixis  were 
recalled  by  Cardinal  Meignan,  Archbishop  of  Tours,  in 
his  funeral  oration:  "Mv  consolation  is  that  I  never 
published  a  single  line  that  might  grieve  religion  and 
virtue."  At  one  time  he  tried  but  unsuccessfully  to 
enter  political  life;  at  the  election  of  14  Oct.,  1877,  he 
presented  himself  in  the  first  district  of  Tours  as  candi- 
date for  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  on  the  conservative 
side,  against  Belle,  the  republican  deputy  who  had 
founded  in  Tours  tne  first  Lay  school  for  girls.  Mame 
was  defeated,  having  7456  votes,  against  12,006  ob- 
tained by  Belle. 

Paul  Mame  (1833-1903),  a  son  of  Alfred,  was  the 
head  of  the  firm  until  1900. 

Meignan,  Diecoura  aux  funiraUlee  de  M.  Alfred  Mame  (Toun 
1893);   Quantin,  M.  Alfred  Mame  et  la  Mataon  Mame  (Paris, 
1883);  Paul  Mame,  1 883-1903  (Tours,  1903). 

Georges  Gotau. 

Mameluco  (from  the  Arabic,  tnemluk,  *' slave**,  the 
household  cavalry  of  the  former  sultans  of  Egypt,  re- 
cruited chiefly  from  the  children  of  Christian  slaves), 
the  general  term  applied  in  South  America  to  designate 
the  mixed  European-Indian  race,  and  more  specifi- 
cally applied  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies to  the  organized  bands  of  Portuguese  slave- 
himters  who  desolated  the  vast  interior  of  South 


<  . 


BCAMsann 


679 


MABCSETim 


America  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  slopes  of  the  Andes, 
and  from  the  Paraguay  to  the  Orinoco.  The  enslave- 
ment of  the  Indians  by  the  conquerors  began  almost 
wi^  the  discovery  of  America,  being  recommended 
and  put  m  practice  by  Columbus  himself  as  early  as 
1493,  occasioning  his  first  serious  rebuke  by  Isabella. 
In  1511  the  Donunicans  throughout  Hispaniola  (Haiti) 
publicly  preached  against  it,  and  sent  one  of  their 
number  to  Spain  to  protest  against  it  at  coiurt;  their 
actions  resulted  in  a  royal  edict  against  the  abuse,  and 
the  official  appointment  of  the  celebrated  Dominican 
father,  and  later  bishop,  Bartolome  de  Las  Gasas,  as 
"  Protector  of  the  Indians''.  In  1531  Paul  III  issued 
a  Bull  redtoring  liberty  to  all  enslaved  Indians.  •  In 
1543,  largely  ttirough  the  effort  of  Las  Casas,  the 
Spanish  Government  published  a  code  of  new  laws  for 
the  government  of  the  Indians,  limiting  the  existing 
power  of  holding  slaves,  and  prohibiting  all  future  en- 
slavement of  Indians.  The  law  appU^  only  to  the 
native  Indians,  not  to  negroes.  It  served  as  a  check 
upon  the  worst  abuses  and  was  carried  out  strictly 
wherever  the  watchful  eye  of  the  viceroy  could  reach, 
but  elsewhere  it  was  treated  with  contempt. 

The  Portuguese  who  colonized  Brazil  in  the  sixteenth 
century  were  already  the  professional  slave-dealers  of 
Europe,  and  their  settlements  along  the  coast  soon 
became  a  rendezvous  for  a  lawless  class  of  slavers, 
pirates,  and  other  desperadoes.  Intermarrying  with 
the  women  of  the  wild  tribes,  the}^  produced  the  mixed 
breed  of  Mamelucos,  which  combined  the  courage  and 
persistence  of  the  white  race,  and  the  woodcraft  and 
linguistic  faculty  of  the  Indian,  with  a  cruelty  im- 
tempcrcd  by  any  restraining  influence  whatever.  SSo 
Paulo  on  the  South  Brazilian  coast,  and  Par£  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  became  tneir  two  great 
hcadauarters,  from  whidi,  beginning  about  1560,  for  a 
period  of  nearly  two  centuries,  regular  armies  of  slave- 
hunters,  sometimes  a  thousand  strong,  fully  armed 
and  equipped  with  horses,  guns,  and  blood-hounds, 
set  out  periodically,  year  after  year,  to  slaughter  and 
capture  the  helpless  natives.  In  this  work  uiey  were 
encouraged  botn  by  the  Brazilian  colonists,  who  wanted 
slaves  for  the  plantations  and  the  mines,  and  by  the 
Portuguese  Government,  which  favoured  them  as  a 
formidable  barrier  to  the  Spanish  colonization,  of 
which  the  Jesuit  missions  were  considered  outposts. 
Among  all  the  Mamelucos,  those  of  SSo  Paulo,  the 
Paulistas  as  thev  were  call^,  were  most  noted. 

The  first  of  the  Guaranf  missions  of  the  Paraguay 
territory  was  established  in  1610.  In  1629  the  Pamista 
armies  invaded  the  territory,  and  within  two  years  had 
destroyed  all  but  two  of  the  twel  ve  prosperous  missions, 
plundering  and  desecrating  the  churches,  slaughtering 
thousands  of  the  inhabitants,  and  carrying  on  60,000 
Christian  Indians  for  sale  at  SSio  Paulo  and  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  The  result  was  the  entire  abandonment  of 
these  first  missions  and  the  exodus  of  the  survivors, 
led  by  Father  Montoya,  into  the  remote  southern 
province  of  Corrientes,  Eastern  Argentina,  where  the 
work  was  begun  anew.  The  slave-hunters  followed, 
and  again  the  outlying  missions  were  abandoned  until 
at  last,  in  1638,  Fathers  Montoya  and  Tafio  sailed  to 
Europe  and  personally  obtained  from  Urban  VIII  a 
letter  threatening  the  church  penalties  upon  the  en- 
slavers of  the  mission  Indians,  and  from  Philip  IV  per- 
mission for  the  Indians  to  be  furnished  with  guns  and 
drilled  in  their  use  by  Jesuit  soldier  veterans.  This 
was  done  and  at  the  next  invasion,  in  1641,  the  Chris- 
tian Guaranf.  armed  with  guns  and  led  by  their  own 
chief,  inflicted  such  a  defeat  on  the  Biamelucos  as  kept 
them  aloof  for  ten  years.  Then  in  1651,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  war  between  Spain  and  Portugal,  the 
MameTuco  army  advanced  ag&hi,  but  was  scattered 
by  the  neophytes  led  by  the  Fathers  themselves. 
Thenceforth  to  the  close  of  the  Jesuit  period  the 
Guaranf  missions  were  protected  by  an  army  of  drilled 
and  equipped  Christian  Indians. 


Defeated  in  one  direction,  the  Mamelucos  turned  in 
another,  and  began  a  series  of  raids  upon  the  flourish- 
ing Chiquito  missions  of  Southern  Boh  via,  of  which  the 
firet  had  been  established  by  the  Jesuits  in  1691. 
Whole  villages  were  swept  away  one  aftec.  another, 
until  Father  Aro6  gathered  his  people  together,  drilled 
and  armed  them,  and  then  with  a  few  Spaniards  led 
them  against  the  Mamelucos,  whom  he  defeated  and 
drove  across  the  Paraguay,  never  to  appear  again  on 
its  western  bank.  On  the  Upper  Amazon,  according 
to  Hervis,  the  principal  cause  of  the  ruin  and  disper- 
sion of  Hie  numerous  tribes  gathered  into  the  Mamas 
missions  was  the  repeated  raids  of  the  Portuguese 
slave-hunters,  who  in  several  attacks  from  1CS2  to 
1710  carried  off  moro  than  50,000  Indians,  besides  the 
thousands  butchered.  .Of  the  Omagua  alone  more 
than  16,000  were  taken.  Of  those  who  escaped  the 
majority  fled  to  their  original  forests  and  reverted  to 
barbarism.  In  the  Orinoco  missions  the  same  de- 
struction was  wrought  by  slavers  from  Pard,  ascend- 
ing the  Rio  Negro  and  engasinff  the  wild  cannibal 
txibes  as  their  alEes,  until  checkedby  the  heroic  enter- 
prise of  Father  Roman  in  1744,  and  finally  made  im- 
possible by  the  establishment  of  Spanish  frontier 
earrisons  aoout  1756.  The  entire  number  of  Indians 
slaughtered  or  enslaved  by  the  Mamelucos  from  the  be- 

Cung  of  their  career  for  a  period  of  about  130  years 
been  estimated  by  Father  Muratori  at  two  millions. 
(See  also  GuaranI;  Maina;  Maipure.) 

Bancroft,  ffiaC.  CerU.  Am.,  I  (San  Frandaoo,  1886);  Dobbzi* 
BorrKn,H%9t.Abij>onibuM  (tr.  London,  1822);  Grabam,  A  Fon* 
i^ied  Arcadia  (London,  1901).  HervXs,  Catdlogo  de  las  Lengucu, 
I  (Madrid,  1800);  Humboldt,  TravOatotheBquinocHalRegiafu 
of  Am,  a79»-1804),  (London,  1881);  Page,  La  Plata,  etc.  (New 
York,  1869).  JamES  Moonet. 

MamATtiiiA  PrUon. — The  so-called  "Mamertine 
Prison'',  bMcneath  the  church  of  S.  Giuseppe  dei  Fale- 
snami,  via  di  Marforio,  Rome,  is  generally  accepted  as 
being  identical  with 'Hhe  prison  .  .  .  in  the  middle  of 
the  city,  overlooking  the  forum'',  mentioned  by  Livy 
(I,  xxxiii).  It  consists  of  two  chambers,  one  above 
the  other.  The  low^r,  known  as  the  TuUianumf  was 
probably  built  originallv  as  a  cistern,  whence  its  name, 
which  is  derived  from  the  archaic  Latin  word  tuUitis,  a 
jet  of  water — ^the  derivation  of  Varro  from  the  name 
of  King  Servius  Tullius  is  erroneous.  The  Tulliapum 
is  a  circular  chamber,  partly  excavated  from  the  rock, 
and  (Mirtly  built  of  tufa  blocks,  each  layer  of  masonry 
projecting  a  little  over  that  immediately  below  so  as  to 
form  a  conical  vault.  When  the  upper  chamber  was 
constructed,  the  top  of  the  cone  was  probablv  cut  o£f, 
and  the  present  roof,  consisting  of  a  flat  arch  of  tufa 
blocks,  substituted.  The  upper  chunber  is  an  irrepi- 
lar  quadrilateral,  and  contains  an  inscription  reoorduig 
a  restoration  made  in  a.  d.  21.  Sallust  describes  the 
Tullianum,  or  lower  chamber,  as  a  horrible  dungeon, 
"repulsive  and  terrible  on  account  of  neglect,  damp- 
ness, and  smell"  (Gat.,  Iv).  In  the  floor  of  the  Tulli- 
anum  is  a  well,  which,  according  to  the  l^end,  mi- 
raculously came  into  existence  while  St.  reter  was 
imprisoned  here,  enabling  the  Apostle  to  baptise  his 
jailers,  Sts.  Processus  and  Martinianus.  The  well,  how- 
ever, existed  prior  to  this  date,  and  there  is  no  reliable 
evidence  that  the  Chief  of  the  Apostles  was  ever  im- 
prisoned in  the  TuUianum.  The  Acto  of  Sto.  Proces- 
sus and  Martinianus  are  of  the  sixth  century.  The 
two  chambers  are  at  present  connected  by  a  stairway, 
but  originally  there  was  no  means  of  communication 
between  them  save  a  hole  in  the  floor  of  the  upper 
chamber,  through  which  such  famous  prisoners  as 
King  Jugurtha  and  the  Catiline  conspirators  were 
thrown  into  the  lower  dungeon,  where  thev  died  of 
starvation  or  were  steanjgled.  The  name  Mamertine 
Prison  is  medieval,  and  is  probably  derived  from  ihm 
temple  of  Mars  Ultor  in  the  vicinity.  The  medieval 
"Itinerary"  of  Einsiedcdn  alludes  to  the  "foimtain  of 
St.  Peter,  where  also  is  his  prison  ".    From  the  eighth 


ItABOBTirs 


580 


%Mkn 


century  the  tradition  of  the  Acts  of  Sts.  Processus  and 
ICartinianus  relative  to  the  imprisonment  of  St.  Peter 
in  the  Tullianum  was  universally  accepted ;  the  earliest 
allusion  to  the  prison  in  the  character  of  a  church  is  that 
of  Maffee  V^gio,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  who  speaks 
of  it  as  "8.  PS<rus  in  carcere"  (St.  Peter  in  pnson). 

MiDDUETON,  Ancient  Rome  (Edinburgh,   1885):    BIaruccsi, 
KUmenU  d'AreMolooieehrHienne,  III  (Rome,  1902). 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Mamertna,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Vienne,  date  of  birth 
unknown;  d.  shortly  after  4/5.  Concerning  the  life  of 
Mamertus  before  his  elevation  to  the  See  of  Vienne, 
nothing  certain  is  known.  The  fact  that  his  brother, 
Claudianus  Mamertus,  the  theological  writer,  re- 
ceived in  his  youth  a  sound  training  in  rhetoric,  and 
enjoyed  the  personal  acquaintance  of  Bishop  Euehe- 
rius  of  Lyons  (434-50),  suggests  that  the  brothers 
belonged  to  a  wealthy  Gallic  family  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Lyons.  Like  his  brother,  St.  Mamertus 
was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  profane  sub- 
jects as  well  as  of  theology,  and,  before  nis  elevation 
to  the  episcopate,  appears  to  have  been  married.  His 
election  and  consecration  took  place  shortly  before 
462.  As  bishop  he  enlisted  the  services  of  his  brother, 
who  had  withdrawn  to  a  cloister,  and  ordained  him 
priest  of  Vienne.  The  activity  of  the  brothers  is  de- 
scribed in  a  letter  of  Sidonius  Apollinaris  (Epist.,  IV, 
xi^,  another  of  whose  letters  (VII,  i)  is  addressed  to 
Bishop  Mamertus.  In  463  Mamertus  was  engaged  in  a 
dispute  with  Pope  Hilarius  on  the  question  of  the 
privileges  of  the  Bishop  of  Aries.  Pof)e  Leo  I  had 
regulated  the  boundaries  of  the  ecclesiastical  provinces 
of  Aries  and  Vienne:  under  the  latter  he  left  the  Dio- 
oeses  of  Valence,  Tarentaise,  Geneva,  and  Grenoble, 
but  all  the  other  dioceses  in  this  district  were  made 
subordinate  to  Aries.  Regardless  of  this  decision  and 
infringing  on  the  rights  of  his  colleague  of  Aries, 
Blamertus  consecrated  in  463  a  bishop  for  the  city  of 
Die  (Dea).  King  Gundiac  of  Burgundy  complamed 
to  Pope  Hilary  of  this  action,  whereupon  the  latter 
wrote  to  Bishop  Leontius  of  Aries  on  10  Oct.,  463, 
bidding  him  summon  a  synod  of  bishops  from  the  dif- 
ferent provinces  to  enquire  into  the  matter.  In  a 
subsequent  letter  to  the  bishops  of  the  provinces  of 
Lyons,  Vienne,  Narbonnensis  I  and  II,  and  Alpina.  he 
abo  refers  to  the  matter,  and  directs  them  to  ooey 
Leontius's  summons  to  a  regularly  constituted  synod 
(Thiel,  "Epist.  Rom.  Pont.".  I.  cxlvi,  cli;  Jaff^, 
•^Regesta  Rom.  Pont.",  I,  2nd  ed.,  dlvi,  dlbc).  The 
synod  decided  against  Mamertus,  as  we  learn  from 
another  letter  of  the  pope  dated  25  February,  464 
(Tliiel,  op.  cit.,  I,  cxlviii;  Jaff^,  op.  cit.,  I,  dlvh).  In 
this  Hilary  declares  that  Mameitus  and  the  bishop 
unlawfully  consecrated  by  him  should  really  be  de- 
posed; desiring,  however,  that  clemency  be  used,  he 
oommissioned  Bishop  Veranus  to  inform  Mamertus 
that,  if  he  did  not  recognize  and  submit  to  the  regula- 
tions of  Pope  Leo,  he  would  be  deprived  also  of  the 
four  suffragan  dioceses,  still  subject  to  Vienne.  The 
bishop  invalidly  installed  by  Mamertus  was  to  be  con- 
firmed in  his  office  by  Leontius,  after  which  he  might 
retain  the  bishopric.  Mamertus  evidently  subnutted, 
since  we  find  no  subsequent  reference  to  the  incident. 

During  his  episcopate,  the  remains  of  St.  Ferreolus 
were  discovered,  and  were  translated  by  Mamertus  to 
a  church  in  Vienne,  built  in  honour  of  that  holy  martyr 
(Gregory  of  Tours,  "De  gloria  mart.",  II,  ii).  St. 
ILimertus  was  the  founder  of  the  Rogation  Proces- 
sions (see  RooATioN  Days)^  as  we  learn  on  the  testi- 
monvof  Sidonius  ApoUinans  (Epist.,  V,  xiv;  VII,  i). 
and  his  second  successor,  .\vitus  ("  HomiliadeRogat. 
in  P.  L.,  LIX,  289-94) .  In  connexion  with  these  inter- 
cessory processions,  Mamertus  summoned  a  synod  at 
Yienne  between  471  and  475.  About  475  he  attended 
a  synod  at  Aries,  which  dealt  with  the  predestination 
teaching  of  Lucid  us,  a  Gallic  priest.    As  this  is  the 


latest  information  we  possess  oonoeming  him,  we  iDBy 
assume  that  he  died  shortly  afterwards.  After  bis 
death  he  was  venerated  as  a  saint.  His  name  stands 
in  the  "  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum"  and  in  the 
"Martyrologium"  of  Florus  of  Lyons  under  11  May, 
on  which  day  his  feast  is  still  celebrated  (Quentin, 
**Les  martyrologes  historiques",  348). 

DvcBWSHm.Ftutee  invKopata  de  Vaneienne  OatUe^  I  (Paris, 
1804),  147;  HBrBUs,  Konsaienoetch.,  II  (2nd  ed.).  580  aqq., 
606t  507;  Acta  SS.,  IL,  S20  aq.;  TnxsifONT.  Mhnoirea  pour 
wrvir  &  rhiet.  eccl.,  XVI,  104;  Tbrrxbasse,  Notice  ewr  U 
kmbeau  de  St.  Mameri  rScemment  dioouvert  dans  TMirn  de  St- 
Fiene  h  Vienne  (Vienne.  1861).  J.  P.  KlBSCH. 

Mamertus,  Claudianus.    See  Claudianus  BiA- 

MERTUS. 

Mimmon,  Mommmi  ;  the  spelling  Ua/Atutpd  is  contrary 
to  the  textual  evidence  and  seems  not  to  occur  in 
printed  Bibles  till  the  edition  of  Elsevir.  The  deriva- 
tion of  the  word  is  uncertain,  perhaps  from  pD  as  seen 
in  pDt3D>  though  the  Targums,  which  use  the  word 
frequently,  never  regard  it  as  the  equivalent  oijtotSO, 
which  the  Greek  always  renders  0^a^poi,  cf.  Job, 
iii,  4;  Pro  v.,  ii,  4.  But  cf.  also  Hebrew  Ecclus.,  3dii, 
9,  ipB^  niODD  2tO  nn  where  the  margin  reads  pODD, 
**  to  the  father  his  daughter  is  as  ill-gotten  treasure. 
In  N.  T.  only  Matt.,  vi,  24,  and  Luke,  xvi,  9,  11,  13, 
the  latter  verse  repeating  Matt.,  vi,  24.  In  Luke,  xvi, 
9  and  11  Mammon  is  personified,  hence  the  prevalent 
notion,  emphasized  b^'  Milton,  that  Mammon  was  a 
deity.  Nothing  defimte  can  be  adduced  from  the  Fa- 
thers in  support  of  this ;  most  of  their  expressions  which 
seem  to  favour  it  may  be  easily  explained  by  the  per- 
sonification in  Luke;  e.  g.  "Didascalia^',  "De  solo 
Mammona  cogitant,  quorum  Deus  est  sacculus '' ;  simi- 
larly St.  Augustine,  Lucrum  Punice  Mammon  dici- 
tur  (Serm.  on  Mt.,  ii);  St.  Jerome  in  one  place  goes 
near  to  such  an  identification  when  (Dial,  cum  Ludf ., 
5)  he  quotes  the  words:  **  No  man  can  serve  two  mas- 
ters'*, and  then  adds,  "  What  concord  hath  Christ  with 
Belial?''  But  in  his  "  Commentary  on  Matt , "  and  in 
Ep.  xxii,  31,  he  lends  no  countenance  to  it: '"  Ye  can- 
not serve  God  and  Mammon.'  Riches,  that  is;  for  in 
the  heathen  tongue  of  the  Syrians  riches  are  called 
Mammon. "  But  Mammon  was  commonly  regarded  as 
a  deity  in  the  Middle  Ages;  thus  Peter  LomSard  (II, 
dist.  6)  says,  ''Riches  are  called  by  the  name  of  a 
devil,  namely  Manunon,  for  Mammon  is  the  name  of  a 
devil,  by  which  name  riches  are  called  according  to  the 
Syrian  tongue."  Piers  Plowman  also  regards  Mam- 
mon as  a  deity. 

The  expression  "Mammon  of  iniquity"  has  been 
diversely  explained,  it  can  hardly  mean  riches  ill-got- 
ten, for  they  should  of  course  be  restored.  If  we  ac- 
cept the  derivation  from  pK  we  may  render  it  "  riches 
in  which  men  trust",  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
Sept.  of  Ps.  xxxvii,  3,  renders  nj1Dfc<  by  irXAirrv  or 
"  nches  ",  as  though  hinting  at  such  a  derivation.  The 
expression  is  common  in  the  Targums,  where  |)00  is 
ofUn  followed  by  "ip^  corresponding  to  the  dSudat  of 
Luke,  thus  see  on  Fro  v.,  xv,  27;  but  it  is  noteworthy 
that  Ecclus.,  V,  8  (10,  Vulg.)  "goods  unjustly  gotten'' 
Xjy^fMffip  dSlKoiSf  reads  in  Hebrew  1pfi^-p3J  and  not 
ppbo.     For  the  various  explanations  given  by  the 

Fathers  see  St.  Thomas,  II-II,  Q.  xxxii,  a.  vii,  ad  3«ni. 
Trench,  Notea  on  the  Parablee  of  oitr  Lord  (15th  ecL,  Loadoo, 
1886)  i  DASMAini,DieWorteJeau  (tr.,  Edinburgh,  1002). 

Hugh  Pope. 

Man  (Anglo-Saxon  nian=a  person,  human  being; 
supposed  root  man=to  think;  Ger.,  A/ann,  Mensch). 

I.  The  Nature  of  Man. — According  to  the  common 
definition  of  the  School,  Man  is  a  rational  animal.  This 
signifies  no  more  than  that,  in  the  system  of  classifica- 
tion and  definition  shown  in  the  Arbor  Porphyriana, 
man  is  a  substance,  coiporeal,  living,  sentient,  and  ra- 
tional. It  is  a  logical  definition,  having  reference  to  a 
metaph^rsical  entity.  It  has  been  said  that  man's  ani- 
mality  is  distinct  in  nature  from   tiis  rationality^ 


ICAH  581  MAN 


any  substantial  existence  of  its  own.  To  be  exact  we  The  theories  of  the  nature  of  man  so  far  noticed  are 
should  have  to  write:  "Man's  animality  is  rational";  purelv  philosophical.  No  one  of  them  has  been  ex- 
f  or  his  "  rationality  "  is  certainly  not  something  super-  plicitlyr  condemned  by  the  Church.  The  ecclesiastical 
added  to  his ''  animality  ",  Man  is  one  in  essence.  In  definitions  have  reference  merely  to  the  "  union  '*  of 
the  Scholastic  sjmthesis,  it  is  a  manifest  illogism  to  ''body"  and  "soul".  With  the  exception  of  the 
hypostasise  the  abstract  conceptions  that  are  neces-  words  of  the  Council  of  Toledo,  68^8  (Ex  libro  responi- 
sary  for  the  intelligent  apprehension  of  complete  phe-  onis  JuUani  Archiep.  Tolet.),  in  which  "soul"  and 
nomena.  A  similar  confusion  of  expression  may  be  "bod^r"  are  referrea  to  as  two  "substances"  (expli- 
noticed  in  the  statement  that  man  is  a  "  compound  of  cable  in  the  light  of  subsequent  definitions  only  in  the 
body  and  soul".  This  is  misleading.  Man  is  not  a  hypothesis  of  abstraction,  and  as  "incomplete"  sub- 
body  vlus  a  soul — ^which  would  make  of  him  two  indi-  stiuioes),  other  pronouncements  of  the  Church  merely 
viduals;  but  a  body  that  is  what  it  is  (namely,  a  hu'  reiterate  the  doctrine  maintained  in  the  School.  Thus 
man  body)  by  reason  of  its  union  with  the  soiu.  As  a  Lateran  in  649  (against  the  Monothelites),  canon  ii. 
special  appUcation  of  the  general  doctrine  of  matter  "  the  Word  of  God  with  the  flesh  assumed  by  Him  ana 
and  form  which  is  as  well  a  theory  of  science  as  of  in-  animated  with  an  intellectual  principle  shall  come 
trinsic  causality,  the  "soul"  is  envisaged  as  the  sub-  .'..";  Vienne,  1311-12,  "whoever  shall  hereafter  dare 
stantial  form  of  the  matter  which,  so  informed,  is  a  to  assert,  maintain,  or  pertinaciously  hold  that  the  ra- 
human  "body".  The  union  between  the  two  is  a  tional  or  intellectual  soul  is  not  per  se  and  essentially. 
"  substantial "  one.  It  cannot  be  maintained^  in  the  ihi&  form  of  the  human  body,  is  to  be  regarded  as  a 
Thomistic  system,  that  the  "  substantial  union  is  a  rela-  heretic  " ;  Decree  of  Leo  X.  in  V  Lateran,  Bull "  Apos- 
tion  by  which  two  substances  are  so  disposed  that  they  tolici  Regiminis",  1513,  ...  with  the  approval  of 
form  one  ".  In  the  general  theory,  neither  "  matter*'  this  sacred  council  we  condemn  all  who  assert  that  the 
nor  "form",  but  only  the  composite,  is  a  substance,  intellectual  soul  is  mortal  or  is  the  same  in  all  men...  for 
In  the  case  of  man,  though  the  "soul"  be  proved  a  the  soul  is  not  only  really  and  essentially  the  form  of  the 
reality  capable  of  separate  existence^  the  "  body  "  can  human  body,  but  is  also  immortal;  and  the  number  of 
in  no  sense  be  called  a  substance  in  its  own  right.  It  souls  has  been  and  is  to  be  multiplied  according  as  the 
exists  only  as  determined  by  a  form;  and  if  that  form  number  of  bodies  is  multiplied";  Brief ''Eximiamtuam" 
is  not  a  human  soul,  then  the  "  body  "  is  not  a  human  of  Pius  IX  to  Cardinal  ae  Geissel,  15  June,  1857,  con- 
body.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  Scholastic  phrase  demning  the  error  of  GOnther,  says:  "  the  rational  soul 
"incomplete  substance",  applied  to  body  and  soul  is  per  ae  the  true  and  immediate  form  of  the  body", 
alike,  is  to  be  understood.  Though  strictly  speaking  In  the  sixteenth  century  Descartes  advanced  a 
self-contradictory,  the  phrase  expresses  in  a  conven-  doctrine  that  again  separated  soul  and  body,  and  com- 
ient  form  the  abiding  reciprocity  of  relation  between  promised  the  unity  of  consciousness  and  personality, 
these  two  "  principles  of  substantial  being  ".  To  account  for  the  interaction  of  the  two  substances — 
Man  is  an  individual,  a  single  substance  resultant  the  one  "thought",  the  other  "extension" — **Occa- 
from  the  determination  of  matter  by  a  human  form,  sionalism"  (Malebranche,  Geulincx),  "Pre-established 
Being  capable  of  reasoning,  he  verifies  the  philosophi-  Harmony"  (Leibniz),  and  "Reciprocal  Influx" 
cal  defimtion  of  a  person  (q.  v.) :  "  the  individual  sub-  (Locke)  were  imagined.  The  inevitable  reaction  from 
stance  of  a  rational  nature".  This  doctrine  of  St.  the  Cartesian  division  is  to  be  found  in  the  Monism  of 
Thomas  Aquinas  (cf .  I,  Q.  Ixxv,  a.  4)  and  of  Aristotle  Spinoza.  Aquinas  avoids  the  difficulties  and  contra- 
is  not  the  only  one  that  has  been  advanced.  In  Greek  dictions  of  tne  "  two  substance"  theory  and,  saving 
and  in  modem  philosophy,  as  well  as  during  the  Pa-  the  personality,  accounts  for  the  observed  facts  of  the 
tristic  and  Scholastic  periods,  another  celebrated  unity  of  consciousness.  His  doctrine:  (1)  disproves 
theory  laid  claim  to  pre-eminence.  For  Plato  the  the  possibility  of  metempsychosis^  (2)  establisnes  an 
soul  is  a  spirit  that  uses  the  body.  It  is  in  a  non-  inferential,  though  not  an  apodictic  argunient,  for  the 
natural  state  of  union,  and  longs  to  be  freed  from  its  resurrection  of  the  body;  (3)  avoids  aU  difficulties  as 
bodily  prison  (cf.  Republic,  X,  611).  Plato  has  re-  to  the  "seat  of  the  soul",  by  asserting  formal  actua- 
course  to  a  theory  of  a  triple  soul  to  explain  the  union  tion;  (4)  proves  the  immortality  of  the  soul  from  the 
— a  theory  that  would  seem  to  make  personality  alto-  spiritual  and  incomplex  activity  observed  in  the  In- 
ge ther  impossible  (see  Matter).  St.  Augustine,  fol-  mvidual  man;  it  is  not  my  soul  that  thinks,  or  my 
lowing  him  (except  as  to  the  triple-soul  theory)  makes  body  that  eats,  but "  I "  that  do  both.  The  particular 
the  "body"  and  "soul"  two  suostances;  and  man  "a  creation  of  the  soul  is  a  corollary  of  the  foregoing, 
rational  soul  using  a  mortal  and  earthly  body"  (De  This  doctrine — ^the  contradiction  of  Traducianism 
Moribus,  I,  xxvii).  But  he  is  careful  to  note  that  by  and  Transmigration — ^follows  from  the  consideration 
union  with  the  body  it  constitutes  the  human  being.  St.  that  the  formal  principle  cannot  be  produced  by  way 
Augustine's  psychological  doctrine  was  current  in  the  of  generation,  either  directly  (since  it  is  proved  to  be 
Middle  Ages  up  to  the  time  and  during  the  perfecting  simple  in  substance),  or  accidentally  (since  it  is  a 
of  the  Thomistic  synthesis.  It  is  expressed  in  the  subsistent  form).  Hence  there  remains  only  creation 
"Liber  de  Spiritu  et  Anima"  of  Alcher  of  Clairvaux  as  the  mode  of  its  production.  The  complete  argu- 
(?)  (twelfth  century).  In  this  work  "the  soul  rules  ment  may  be  founa  in  the  "Contra  Gentiles"  of  St. 
the  body;  its  union  with  the  body  is  a  friendly  union.  Thomas^  II,  Ixxxvii.  See  also  Summa  Theologica,  L 
though  the  latter  impedes  the  fuU  and  free  exercise  of  Q.  cxviii,  aa.  1  and  2  (against  Traducianism)  and  a.  3 
its  activity;  it  is  devoted  to  its  prison"  (cf.  de  Wulf,  (in  refutation  of  the  opinion  of  Pythagoras,  Plato  and 
"  History  of  Philosophy",  tr.  Coffey).  As  further  in-  Ori^n — ^with  whom  Leibniz  might  be  grouped  as  pro- 
stances  of  Augustinian  influence  may  be  cited  Alanus  fessmg  a  modified  form  of  the  same  opinion — the  crea- 
ab  Insulis  (but  the  soul  is  united  by  a  apiriius  phyti-  tion  of  souls  at  the  beginning  of  time). 
ctis  to  the  body) ;  Alexander  of  Hales  (union  ad  mo-  II.  The  Origin  of  Man. — ^This  problem  may  be 
dum  forma  cum  materia);  St.  Bona  venture  (the  body  treated  from  the  standpoints  of  Holy  Scripture,  the- 
united  to  a  soul  consisting  of  "form"  and  "spiritual  olo^,  or  philosophy.  A.  The  Sacred  Writings  are 
matter"— /orma  completiva).  Many  of  the  Francis-  entirely  concerned  with  the  relations  of  man  to  God, 
can  doctors  seem,  by  inference  if  not  explicitly,  to  and  of  God's  dealings  with  man,  before  and  after  the 
lean  1K>  the  Platonic  Augustimian  view;  Scotus,  who,  Fall.  Two  accounts  of  his  origin  are  given  in  the  Old 
however,  by  the  subtlety  of  his  "  formal  distinction  a  Testament.  On  the  sixth  and  last  day  of  the  crea- 
parU  rei**,  saves  the  unity  oC  the  individual  while  ad-  tion  "  God  created  man  to  Ida  qsr\x  S5»»^\  nr^  '"^5^^ 


MAN 


582 


MAN 


image  of  God  he  created  him"  (Gen.,  i,  27);  and  "the 
Lord  God  fonned  man  of  the  shme  of  the  earth:  and 
breathed  into  his  face  the  breath  of  life,  and  man  be- 
came a  living  soul"  (Gen.,  ii,  7;  so  Ecclus.,  xvii,  1: 
"God  created  man  of  the  earth,  and  made  him  after 
his  own  image  "} .  By  these  texts  the  special  creation 
of  man  is  established,  his  high  dignity  and  his  spiritual 
nature.  As  to  his  material  part,  the  Scripture  de- 
clares that  it  IB  formed  by  God  from  the  "slime  of  the 
earth  ".  This  becomes  a  "  living  soul "  and  fashioned 
to  the  "image  of  God"  by  the  inspiration  of  the 
"breath  of  life  ",  which  makes  man  man  and  differen- 
tiates him  from  the  brute. 

B.  This  doctrine  is  obviously  to  be  looked  for  in  all 
Catholic  theology.  The  origin  of  man  by  creation  (as 
opposed  to  emanative  and  evolutionistic  Pantheism) 
is  asserted  in  the  Church's  dogmas  and  definitions. 
In  the  earliest  symbols  (see  the  Alexandrian:  SI  o^ 
r&  vdirra  fy^ycro.  r&  ip  oipapoU  Kal  firl  yijt^  dpard  re  Kal 
d^para,  and  the  Nicene),  in  the  councils  (see  especially 
rV  Lateran^  1215;  "  Creator  of  all  things  visible  and  in- 
visible, spiritual  and  corporeal,  who  by  this  omnipotent 
power  .  .  .  brought  forth  out  of  nothing  the  spiritual 
and  corporeal  creation,  that,  is  the  angelic  world  and 
the  universe,  and  afterwards  man.  forming  as  it  were 
one  composite  out  of  spirit  and  boay  "),  in  the  writing 
of  the  Fathers  and  theologians  the  same  account  is 
given.  The  early  controversies  and  apologetics  of  St. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen  defend  the  theory 
of  creation  against  Stoics  and  neo-Platonists.  St. 
Augustine  strenuously  combats  the  papan  schools  on 
this  point  as  on  that  of  the  nature  and  immortality  of 
man^  soul.  A  masterly  synthetic  exposition  of  the 
theological  and  philosophical  doctrine  as  to  man  is 
given  in  the  "Summa  Theologica"  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  I,  QQ.  Ixxv-ci.  So  again  the  "Contra  Gen- 
tiles", II  (on  creatures),  especiaUy  from  xlvi  onwards, 
deals  with  the  subject  from  a  philosophical  stand- 
point— ^the  distinction  between  the  .theological  and 
the  philosophical  treatment  having  been  carefully 
drawn  in  chap.  iv.  Note  especially  chap.  Ixxxvii, 
which  establishes  Creationism. 

C.  Scholastic  philosophy  reaches  a  conclusion  as  to 
the  origin  of  man  similar  to  the  teaching  of  revelation 
and  theologv.  Man  is  a  creature  of  God  in  a  created 
universe.  All  things  that  are,  except  Himself,  exist 
in  virtue  of  a  unique  creative  act.  As  to  the  mode  of 
creation,  there  would  seem  to  be  two  possible  alterna- 
tives. Either  the  individual  composite  was  created 
ex  nihilOf  or  a  created  soul  became  the  informing 
principle  of  matter  already  pre-existing  in  another 
determination.  Either  mode  would  be  philosophi- 
cally tenable,  but  the  Thomistic  principle  of  the  suc- 
cessive and  graded  evolution  of  forms  m  matter  is  in 
favour  of  the  latter  view.  If,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
embryo  (St.  Thomas,  I,  Q.  cxviii,  a.  2,  ad  2uin)^  a  suc- 
cession of  preparatory  forms  preceded  information  by 
the  rational  soul,  it  nevertheless  follows  necessarily 
from  the  established  principles  of  Scholasticism  that 
this,  not  only  in  the  case  of  the  first  man^  but  of  all 
men,  must  be  produced  in  being  by  a  special  creative 
act.  The  matter  that  is  destined  to  become  what  we 
call  man's  "  body  "  is  naturally  prepared,  by  successive 
transformations,  for  the  reception  of  the  newly  created 
soul  as  its  determinant  principle.  The  commonly  held 
opinion  is  that  this  determination  takes  place  when 
the  organization  of  the  brain  of  the  foetus  is  sufficiently 
complete  to  allow  of  imaginative  life ;  i.  e.  the  possibility 
of  the  presence  of  phantasmata.  But  note  also  the 
opinion  that  the  creation  of,  and  information  by,  the 
soul  takes  place  at  the  moment  of  conception. 

III.  The  End  of  Man. — In  common  with  all 
created  nature  (substance,  or  essence,  considered  as 
the  principle  of  activity  or  passivity),  that  of  man 
tends  towards  its  natural  end.  The  proof  of  this  lies 
in  the  inductively  ascertained  principle  of  finality. 
77fe  imtur»!  end  of  imn  may  b^  conriaered  from  two 


points  of  view.  Primarily,  it  is  the  procuring  of  the 
f^or^  of  God.  which  is  the  end  of  all  creation.  God's 
intnnsic  perteetion  is  not  increased  by  creation,  but 
extrinsicaliy  He  becomes  known  and  praised,  or 
glorified  by  the  creatures  He  endows  with  intelli- 
gence. A  deoondary  natural  end  of  man  is  the  attain- 
ment of  his  own  beatitude,  the  complete  and  hierar- 
chic perfection  of  his  nature  by  the  exercise  of  its 
faculties  in  the  order  which  reason  prescribes  to  the 
will,  and  this  by  the  observance  ot  the  moral  law. 
Since  complete  beatitude  is  not  to  be  attained  in  this 
life  (considered  in  its  merely  natural  aspect,  as  neither 
yet  elevated  by  grace,  nor  vitiated  oy  sin)  future 
existence,  as  proved  in  psycholorv,  is  postulated  by 
ethics  for  its  attainment.  Thus  the  present  life  is  to 
be  considered  as  a  means  to  a  further  end.  Upon  the 
relation  of  the  rational  nature  of  man  to  his  last  end — 
God — is  founded  the  science  of  moral  philosophy, 
which  thus  presupposes  as  its  ground,  metaphysics, 
cosmology,  and  psychology.  The  distinction  of  gooa 
and  evil  rests  upon  the  consonance  or  discrepancy  of 
human  acts  with  the  nature  of  man  thus  considered; 
and  moral  obligation  has  its  root  in  the  absolute  ne- 
cessity and  immutability  of  the  same  relation. 

With  regard  to  the  last  end  of  man  (as  "man"  and 
not  as  "soul"),  it  is  not  universally  held  by  Scholas- 
tics that  the  resurrection  of  the  body  is  proved  apo- 
dictically  in  philosopher.  Indeed  some  (e.  ^.  Scotus, 
Occam)  have  even  denied  that  the  immortahty  of  the 
soul  is  capable  of  such  demonstration.  The  resurrec- 
tion is  an  article  of  faith.  Some  recent  authors,  how- 
ever (see  Cardinal  Mercier,  "Psycholo^e",  II,  370), 
advance  the  argument  that  the  formation  of  a  new 
bodv  is  naturally  necessary  on  account  of  the  perfect 
final  happiness  of  the  soul,  for  which  it  is  a  condition 
sine  qua  non,  A  more  cogent  form  of  the  proof  would 
seem  to  lie  in  the  consideration  that  the  separated  soul 
is  not  complete  in  ratione  naturce.  It  is  not  the  human 
being;  and  it  would  seem  that  the  nature  of  man 
postulates  a  final  and  permanent  reunion  of  its  two 
mtrinsic  principles. 

But  there  is  de  facto  another  end  of  man.  The 
Catholic  Faith  teaches  that  man  has  been  raised  to  a 
supernatural  state  and  that  his  destiny,  as  a  son  of 
God  and  member  of  the  M3rstical  Body  of  which 
Christ  is  the  Head,  is  the  eternal  enjoyment  of  the 
beatific  vision.  In  virtue  of  God's  infallible  promise, 
in  the  present  dispensation  the  creature  enters  into 
the  covenant  by  baptism;  he  becomes  a  subject 
elevated  by  grace  to  a  new  order,  incorporated  mto 
a  society  by  reason  of  which  he  tends  and  is  brought 
to  a  perfection  not  due  to  his  nature  (see  Church). 
"The  means  to  this  end  are  justification  by  the  merits 
of  Christ  communicated  to  man,  co-operation  with 
grace,  the  sacraments,  pra^rer^  good  works,  etc.  The 
Divine  law  which  the  Christian  obeys  rests  on  this 
supernatural  relation  and  is  enforced  with  a  similar 
sanction .  The  whole  pertains  to  a  supernatural  provi- 
dence which  belongs  not  to  philosophical  speculation 
but  to  revelation  and  theological  dogma.  In  the  light 
of  the  finalistic  doctrine  as  to  man,  it  is  evident  that 
the  "purpose  of  life"  can  have  a  meaning  only  in 
reference  to  an  ultimate  state  of  perfection  of  the  in- 
dividual. The  nature  tending  towards  its  end  can  be 
interpreted  only  in  terms  of  that  lend ;  and  the  activi- 
ties by  which  it  manifests  its  tendency  as  a  living 
being  have  no  adequate  explanation  apart  from  it. 

The  theories  that  are  sometimes  put  forward  of  the 
place  of  man  in  the  universe,  as  destined  to  share 
m  a  development  to  which  no  limits  can  be  assigned, 
rest  upon  tne  Spencerian  theory  that  man  is  but  "a 
highly-differentiated  portion  of  the  earth's  crust  and 
gaseous  envelope  ",  and  ignore  or  deny  the  limitation 
imposed  by  the  essential  materiality  and  spirituality 
of  numan  nature.  If  the  intellectual  faculties  were 
indeed  no  more  than  the  developed  animal  powers, 
there  would  seem  to  be  no  possibility  of  limitin|(  th^U 


MAN  583 

progress  in  the  future.    But  sinoe  the  soul  of  man  is  KmK^BuimQfiK€H<dfMW9,n  (tr..Lcttdan,  ISM);  Sobba* 

the  xBsult,  not  of  evolution,  but  of  creation,  it  is  im-  ">«*.  if «'»we*rt/r«i  unddMAluTett.MiSeAn.  IWO),  204. 

possible  to  look  forward  to  any  such  advance  as  would  w  awbr  ukuu. 

mvolye  a  change  in  man's  specific  nature,  or  any  MMiahan  (Mamijr),  Saint,  a  member  of  the  Church 

essential  difference  m  its  relation  to  its  material  en-  of  Antioch,  foster-brother,  or  household-friend  (<r6p. 

vironment,   m  the   physiolo^cal   conditions   under  rpo4>ot,  Vulg.  coUactaneua),  of  Herod  Antipas  (who 

which  It  at  present  exi^,  or  m  its  "relation/'  to  its  had  St.  John  the  Baptist  put  to  death)  a£d  one  of 

Dmne  Creator    The    Herrenmoralit&t '  of  Nietzsche  those  who,  under  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  laid 

— the  " transvaluation  of  values'  which  is  to  revolu-  hands  upon  Saul  and  Barnabas  and  sent  the  two 

tionixe  the  present  moral  law,  the  new  morality  which  Apostles  on  the  first  of  St.  Paul's  missionary  joumeys 

man's  chan^g  relation  to  the  Absolute  may  some  (/ets,  xiii,  3).    As  St.  Luke  was  an  Antiochene  (see 

day  bnng  mto  existence— must,  therefore,  be  consid-  Eusebius, "  Hist,  eccl.".  Ill,  iv),  it  is  not  at  all  unlikely 

ered  to  be  not  less  mconsistent  with  the  nature  of  that  this  influential  member  of  "the  prophets  and 

man  than  it  is  wantmg  m  historical  probabilitv.  doctore"  of  the  Church  of  Antioch  was  one  dfthe  "  eye- 

St.  Thomas  Aquina»,  Opera   (Panna,  1862-72);  Braolbt,  wif  nA«iaft«  onH  minicif^ranf  fhA  vofvl"  ^T  iilr«  i  9^  wKa 

Appearance  and  Reality  (London.  1890);  Cathrwn.  PkQoao-  WltpesSM  ana  ministers  Of  tne  Word     {^^f,  »,  ^),  WHO 

phw  MoralU  (TTeibiiTii,  1895),  D^YfxjLr^Hxatoriede  la  Pkihm>'  dehvered  unto  Luke  the  details  which  that  sacred 

pkie  MidUvaU  (Louvain.  1905).  tr.  Oowwvr  (London,  1900);  writer  has  in  regard  to  Antipas  and  other  members  of 

fc^S  S.»^J»^a&te?1i^'  ««  Herodum  family.(««  LuCe  iii,  1, 19, 20;  viii,  3;  ix, 

TheoloouB  Dogmatiea  Compendium  (Innsbruck,  1896);  Lodge,  7-9;  XlU,  31,  32;  xxm,8-12;  Acts,Zll).     St.  Manahen 

Subt^Buice  of  Faith  (London,  1907);  hynE.Mierohomoe  (Edin-  may  have  become  a  disciple  of  Jesus  with  "Joanna, 

bursh.  1885);  Mahbr,  P«i/cAo2o0V  in  o<anvAur«<iSene«  (London,  fhnmfe^  nif  C^huan    TTpmH'«  Rtj^ward"  /'T  hIta    viii    W 

1890):  Merctbr.  Peychologie  (Louvain,  1908);  NiirwscH*.  Jen-  "^6  5"®  ,  *A'?'^  neroa  S  Stewam     (l.uJte,  Vlll,  6). 

aeite  von  Out  und  Bdae  (Leipsic,  1886);  Nts,  Coemologie  (Lou-  Antljpas  left  for  Rome,  A.  D.  39,  m  order  tO  obtain 

vain,  1906);  RxcKABT,  Moral  Ph%lo9f>phy  m  Sumykurjd  Senet  the  favour  of  Caligula,  and  received  instead  condem- 

S^h^^n^^r^^l  ^^ii/oT^^^ISS^  nation  to.perpetual  exfle  (Joe    "  Aaf ',  XVIII^^  2). 

Metaphysicarum  Di^putationum  tomi  duo  (Mains,  1605);  Wm-  At  this  time,  the  Church  of  Antioch  Was  founded  by 

DBLBAND.tr. Torre, «i«toryo/PAito«ogfcy  (New  York,  1893).  Jewish  Christians,  who  "had  been  dispersed  by  the 

Francis  Avkling.  persecution  that  arose  on  the  occasion  of  Stephen  and 

Man,  Antiquity  op.    See  Race,  Human.  ^  taught  the  Gospel  also  to  the  Greeks  <rf  Antioch, 

(Acts,  XI,  19-24).    It  IS  quite  likely  that  St.  Manahen 

Manahem  (DH^O),  "the  consoler";    Septuagint,  was  one  of  these  founders  of  the  Antiochene  Church. 

Ma wij/i,  Aquila,  Mam-^p,  was  kine  over  Israel,  according  His  feast  is  celebrated  on  24  May. 

to  the  chronology  of  Kautsch  (Hist,  of  O.  T.  Litera-  Ada  SS.,  May,  V,  273.                      Walter  Drum. 

l^K'-rK^a^'  ^"^"Vl^^  K  ""J  '^P^'^l'l^  Schrader,  from  Manaos.    See  Amazones,  Diocese  op. 

745-736  B.  c.    The  short  reign  of  Manahem  is  told  m  «»— ^v—    *^'^  "^     ^-^^  «*o,  ^  vro 

IV  Kings,  XV,  13-22.    He  was  "the  son  of  Gadi",  Manassas,  the  name  of  sev^n  persons  of  theBible^ 

mavbe  a  scion  of  the  tribe  of  Gad.  Josephus  (Antiq.  a  tribe  of  Israel,  and  one  of  the  apocryphal  writings. 

Jud.,  ix,  xi,  1)  tells  us  he  was  a  general  ot  the  army  of  The  Individuals. — (1)   Manabses  (Heb.   nfi^JO; 

Israel.    The  sacred  writer  of  Iv  Kings  is  apparently  Sept.  Maracrcr^),  eldest  son  of  Joseph  and  the  Egyptian 

synopsizing    the    ''Book    of   the    Words    (Hebrew,  Aseneth   (Gen.,  xli,   50-51;    xlvi,  20).    The  name 

'  Deeds ')  of  the  Days  of  the  Kings  of  Israel ",  and  gives  means  "  he  that  causes  to  forget" ;  Joseph  assigned 

scant  details  of  the  ten  years  that  Manahem  reigned,  the  reason  for  its  bestowal:  "  God  hath  made  me  to 

When  Sellum  conspired  against  and  murdered  Zacha*  forget  all  my  toils,  and  my  father's  house"  (Gen.,  xH, 

rias  in  Samaria,  and  set  himself  upon  the  throne  of  the  51) .    Jacob  blessed  Manasses  (Gen.,  xlviii) ;  but  gave 

northern  kingdom,  Manahem  refused  to  reco^se  the  preference  to  the  younger  son  Ephraim,  despite  the 

usurper;  he  marched  from  Thersa  to  Samana,  about  father's  protestations  in  favour  of  Manasses.    By  this 

six  miles  westwards,  laid  siege  to  Samaria,  took  it,  blessing,  Jacob  put  Manasses  and  Ephraim  in  the 

murdered  Sellum,  and  set  himself  upon  the  throne.    He  same  class  with  Kuben  and  Simeon  (verses  3-5),  and 

next  destroyed  Thapsa,  which  has  not  been  located,  gave  foundation  for  the  admission  of  the  tribes  of 

put  all  its  inhabitants  to  death,  and  treated  even  preg-  Manasses  and  Ephraim. 

nant  women  in  the  revolting  fashion  of  the  time.   The  (2)  ManasbbSj  Judith's  husband,  died  of  sunstroke 

Prophet  Osee  (vii,  1-xiii,  15)  describes  the  drunken-  in  Bethulia  (Judith,  viii,  2-3). 

ness  and  debauchery  implied  in  the  words  "he  de-  (3)  Manasses,  a  character  in  the  story  of  Ahikar 

parted  not  from  the  sins  of  Jeroboam."  (not  in  Vulg.^ut  in  Sept.)  told  by  Tobias  on  the  point 

The  reign  of  this  military  adventurer  is  important  of   death.     The  Vatican   MS.   mentions   Manasses 

from  the  Tact  that  therein  the  Assyrian  first  entered  (Maro^^^)  as  one  **  who  ^ve  alms  and  escaped  the 

the  land  of  Israel.    ' '  And  Phul,  king  of  the  Assyrians,  snare  of  death" :  the  Sinaitic  MS.  mentions  no  one,  but 

came  into  the  land,  and  Manahem  gave  Phul  a  thou-  dearly  refers  the  almsgiving  and  escape  to  Achia- 

sand  talents  of  silver"  (IV  Kings,  xv,  19).    It  is  now  charus.    The  reading  ot  the  Vatican  MS.  is  probably 

generally  admitted  that  Phul  is  Tiglath-Pileser  III  of  an  error  ("Rev.  Bibl.",  Jan.^  1899). 

the  cuneiform  inscriptions.    Phul  was  probably  his  (4)  Manasses,  son  of  Bam,  one  of  the  companions 

personal  name  and  tne  one  that  first  reached  Israel,  of  Esdras  who  married  foreij^  wives  (I  Esd.,  x,  30). 

nis  rei^n  (745-728  b.  c.)  had  begun  at  most  two  years  (5)  Manasses,  son  of  Hasom,  another  of  the  same 

before  Manahem's.    The  Assyrians  may  have  been  in-  oompanions  of  Esdras  (I  Esd.,  x,  33). 

vited  into  Israel  by  the  Assyrian  party.    Osee  speaks  (6;  Manasses  (according  to  k'thibh  of  Massoretic 

of  the  two  anti-Israelitic  parties,  the  Egyptian  and  Text  and  Sept.),  ancestor  of  Jonathan,  a  priest  of  the 

Assyrian  (vii,  11).    The  result  of  the  expedition  of  tribeof  Dan  (Judges,  xviii,  30).    The  Vulgate  and  k'ri 

TigLath-Pilcser  was  an  exorbitant  tribute  imposed  of  the  Massoretic  Text  give  Moses,  the  correct  reading, 

upon  Rezin  of  Damascus  and  Manahem  of  Samaria  (7)  Manasses,  thirteenth  King  of  Juda  (692-6& 

(Mi-ni-hi-im-mi  Sa-mi-ri-na-ai).    This  tribute,  1000  B.C.— cf.  Schrader,  "Keilinschr.imd  das  A.  T."),  son 

talents  of  silver  (about  $1,700,000)  was  exacted  bv  and  succeraor  to  Esechias  <rV  Kings,  xx,  21  sq.). 

Manahem  from  all  the  mighty  men  of  wealth.    Eacn  The  historian  of  IV  Kings  tells  us  much  about  the 

Caid  fifty  shekels  of  silver — about  twenty-eight  dol-  evil  of  his  reign  (xxi,  2--10),  and  the  punishment 

irs.    There  were,  at  the  time,  then,  some  60,000  thereof  foretold  by  the  Prophets  (verses  10-15),  but 

"that  were  mightv  and  rich"  in  Israel.     In  view  of  practically  nothing  about  the  rest  of  the  doings  of 

this   tribute,    Tiglath-Pileser   returned   to   Assyria.  Manasses.    He  brought  back  the  abominations  of 

Manahem  seems  to  have  died  a  natural  dcfttb*    His  Achas;   imported  the  adoration  of  ''all  the  host  of 

son  Fhaceia  reined  in  his  steiMl,  heaven",  seemingly  the  astral,  solar,  and  lunax  tsLt^esi^ 


584 


MANOHSBTEB 


of  Assyria;  introduced  the  other  enormities  mentioned 
in  the  Sacred  Text;  and  "made  his  son  pass  through 
fire"  (verse  6)  in  the  worship  of  Moloch.  It  was 
probably  in  this  f rensy  of  his  varied  forms  of  idolatrv 
that  "  Manasses  shed  also  very  much  innocent  blood, 
tin  he  filled  Jerusalem  up  to  the  mouth"  (verse  16). 
The  historian  of  II  Par.  tells  much  the  same  storv, 
and  adds  that,  in  pimishment,  the  Lord  brought 
the  Assyrians  upon  jTuda.  They  carried  Manasses  to 
Babylon.  The  Lord  heard  his  prayer  for  forgiveness 
and  deliverance,  and  brought  him  again  to  Jerusalem, 
where  Manasses  did  his  part  in  stemming  the  tide 
of  idolatry  that  he  had  formerly  forced  upon  Juda 
(xzxiii,  11-20).  At  one  time,  doubt  was  oast  on  the 
historicity^  of  this  narrative  of  II  Par.,  because  IV 
Kings  omits  the  captivity  of  Manasses .  Schrader  (op. 
cit.,  2nd  ed.,  Giessen,  1883,  355)  gives  cuneiform 
records  of  twenty-two  Idn^  that  submitted  to  Asar- 
haddon  during  his  expedition  against  Egypt;  second 
on  the  list  is  Mi-nansi-i  sar  ir  Ya-u-di  (Manasses,  king 
of  the  city  of  Juda).  Schrader  also  gives  the  fist  m 
twenty-two  kings  who  are  recorded  on  a  cuneiform 
tablet  as  tributaries  to  Asurbani]>al  in  the  land  of 
Qatti;  second  on  this  list  is  Mi-in-si-i  sar  mat  Ya-u-di 
(Manasses,  king  of  the  land  of  Juda).  Since  a  Baby- 
lonian brick  confirms  the  record  of  the  historian  of 
II  Par.,  his  reputation  is  made  a  little  more  secure  in 
rationalistic  circles.  Winckler  and  Zimmem  admit 
the  presence  of  Manasses  in  Babylon  (see  their  re- 
vision of  Schrader's  "  Keilinschr.  und  das  A.  T.".  I, 
Berlin,  1902  274).  Conjectures  of  the  Pan-Baby- 
lonian School,  as  to  the  causes  that  led  to  the  return  of 
Manasses,  the  groundwork  of  the  narrative  in  IV 
Kings,  etc.,  do  not  militate  against  the  historical 
worth  of  the  Inspired  Record. 

The  Tribe. — Deriving  its  naftie  from  Manasses 
(1^,  son  of  Joseph,  this  tribe  was  divided  into  two  half- 
tnbes— the  eastern  and  the  western.  The  tribe  east 
of  the  Jordan  was  represented  by  the  descendants  of 
Machir  (Judges,  v,  14).  Machir  was  the  first-bom  of 
Mainasses  (Jos.,  xvii,  1).  The  children  of  Machir  took 
Qalaad  (Num.,  xxxii,  39);  Moses  gave  the  land  of 
Qalaad  to  Machir  (verse  40).  Two  other  sons  of 
Manasses,  Jair  and  Nobe,  also  took  villages  in  Galaad, 
and  gave  thereto  their  own  names  (verses  41-42).  The 
territory  of  the  western  half-tribe  is  roughly  sketched 
in  Jos.,  xvi,  1-3.  It  was  that  part  of  Samaria  which 
lay  between  the  Jordan  and  tJie  Mediterranean,  the 
plain  of  Esdrelon  and  the  towns  of  Jericho^  Sichem, 
and  Samaria.  The  eastern  half-tribe  occupied  north 
Galaad,  all  Basan,  and  Argob  (Jos.,  xiii,  30-31;  cf. 
Deut.,  iii,  13) — an  immense  tract  of  land  extendingeast 
of  Jordan  to  the  present  Mecca  route  (darb  d~haj)  and 
far  beyond,  so  as  to  include  the  Hauran. 

The  Writing. — ^The  Prayer  of  Manasses  is  an 
aprocryphal  writing  which  puiports  to  give  the  prayer 
referred  to  in  II  Par.,  xxxiii,  13,  18-19.  Its  original 
is  Greek.  Nestle  thinks  that  the  prayer  and  other 
legends  of  Manasses  in  their  present  form  are  not 
earlier  than  the  "  Apost.  Const.  ,  xi,  22;  and  that  the 
prayer  found  its  way  into  some  MSS.  of  the  Septuagint 
as  part,  not  of  the  Sept.,  but  of  the  "Apost.  CJonst." 
(see  "Septuaginta  Studien",  III,  1889).  The  prayer 
is  not  in  the  canon  of  Trent,  nor  has  there  ever  seemed 
to  have  been  any  serious  claim  to  its  canonicity. 

Walter  Drum. 

Mance,  Jeanne,  foundress  of  the  Montreal  H6tel- 
Dieu,  and  one  of  the  first  women  settlers  in  Canada,  b. 
at  Nogent-le-Roi  Champacne,  1606;  d.  at  Montreal, 
19  June,  1673.  Bom  of  a  family  who  belonged  to  the 
magistracy,  she  lived  with  her  father,  Pierre  Mance, 
procureur  du  roi  (king's  attomgr)  until  his  death  in 
1640.  In  this  year  she  met  M.  de  La  Dauversi^re, 
who,  with  M.  Olier,  was  actively  interested  in  the  foun- 
dation of  Montreal.  For  the  first  time  Mile  Mance 
heard  of  New  Prance  (Canada)  and  of  the  women  who 


were  going  there  to  consecrate  themselves  to  the 
spreadmg  of  the  Faith.  She  embarked  at  La  Ro- 
cneUe  in  June,  1641,  with  P^re  Laplace,  a  dozen  men, 
and  a  pious  young  Dieppe  woman.  The  following 
(probably  24)  August  sne  reached  Quebec,  and  de- 
voted herself  durine  the  entire  winter  to  the  care  of  the 
settlers.  Thev  wisned  to  retain  her  at  Quebec,  but  on 
8  May,  1642,  she  w«it  up  the  river  with  M.  de  Maison- 
neuve  and  her  early  companions,  and  reached  Mon- 
treal on  17  May.  It  was  she  who  decorated  the  sJtar 
on  which  the  first  Mass  was  said  in  Montreal  (18  May, 
1642).  The  same  year  she  founded  a  hospital  in  her 
own  home,  a  very  humble  one,  into  which  sne  received 
the  sick,  settlers  or  natives.  Two  vears  later  (1644) 
she  opened  a  hospital  in  Rue  St-Paul,  which  cost  6000 
francs — a  gift  ot  Mme  de  Bullion  to  Jeanne  on  her 
departure  for  Canada — and  stood  for  fifty  vears.  For 
seventeen  years  she  had  sole  care  of  this  hospital. 

In  1650  she  visited  France  in  the  interests  of  the 
colony,  and  brought  back  22.000  livres  of  the  60,000 
set  apart  by  Mme  de  Bullion  tor  the  foundation  of  the 
hospital.  On  her  return  to  Montreal,  finding  that 
without  reinforcements^  the  colonists  must  succumb 
under  the  attacks  of  the  Iroquois  and  the  many  hard- 
ships of  their  position,  she  lent  the  hospital  money 
to  M.  de  Maisonneuve,  who  proceeded  to  France  and 
organized  a  band  of  one  hundred  men  for  the  defence 
of  the  colony.  In  1659  Jeanne  made  a  second  trip  to 
France  to  secure  religious  to  assist  her  in  her  wqrk. 
She  had  for  twentv  months  been  suffering  from  a 
fractured  wrist  badly  reduced,  but  in  Paris,  w^hile 
praying  at  Saint-Sulpice  where  M.  Olier's  heart  was 
preserved,  she  was  suddenly  cured  (2  Feb.,  1659). 
She  was  so  fortunate  as  to  secure  three  Hospital  Sis- 
ters of  St.  Joseph  from  the  convent  of  La  Fl^che  in 
Anion,  Judith  Moreau  de  Br^oles,  Catherine  Mac6. 
and  Marie  Maillet.  They  had  a  rough  passage  ana 
the  plague  broke  out  on  board.  On  their  arrival, 
Mgr  de  Laval  vainly  tried  to  retain  the  three  sisters  at 
Quebec  in  the  community  of  the  Hospital  Sisters  of 
St.  Augustine.  Every  obstacle  having  been  over- 
come, they  reached  Montreal  on  17  or  18  Octob^. 
Jeanne's  good  work  being  now  fully  establishedi  she 
lived  henceforth  a  more  retired  life.  On  her  aeat^ 
after  a  long  and  painful  illness,  she  was  buried  in  the 
church  of  the  H6tel-Dieu,  the  burning  of  which  in 
1695  destroyed  at  once  the  remains  of  the  noble 
woman  and  the  house  that  she  had  built.  Her  work, 
however,  was  continued,  and  two  centuries  later  (1861) 
the  hospital  was  transferred  to  the  foot  of  Mount 
Royal,  on  the  slope  which  overlooks  the  city  and  the 
river.  The  Hdtel-Dieu  still  flourishes,  and  in  1909 
the  two  hundred  and  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  arrival 
of  the  first  three  Hospital  Sisters  (1659)  was  solemnly 
celebrated.  On  the  mitiative  of  Mgr  Bnich^si,  Arch- 
bishop of  Montreal,  a  fine  monument  in  bronze  on  a 
granite  base,  by  the  sculptor  Philip  Hubert,  repre- 
soiting  "  Jeanne  Mance  soignant  un  colon  bless^ '',  has 
bc«n  decided  on.  The  hospital  contains  more  than 
300  beds.  It  is  estimated  that  the  hospital  cared  for 
82,000  patients  between  1760  (dat«  on  which  Canada 
was  ceded  to  England)  and  1860;  128,000  patients 
have  been  receivea  between  1860  and  1910.  A  street 
and  a  public  park  in  Montreal  bear  the  name  of  Mance. 

Annalea  de  la  Sctur  Morin  (MS),  from  1697  to  1725  and  con- 
tinued by  other  annalists;  Faillon,  Vie  de  Mile  Mance  et  Atj- 
toirede  VH6tek-Dxeude  Ville-Marie  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1864);  Bru- 
MATS,  Vie  de  Mile  Mance  d  commencements  de  la  colonie  de 
Montreal  (Montreal,  1883);  Ladnay,  Hifttoire  den  religieueea  hoe- 
pitalti-ree  de  St-Joeeph  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1887) ;  Auclair,  Lea  /He* 
de  VHOtd-Dieu  en  1909  (Montreal,  1909).  illustrated. 

Elie-J.  Auclair. 

Manchester,  Diogebe  of  (Manchesteriensis), 
suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Boston,  U.  S.  A.  The 
city  of  Manchester  is  situated  on  the  Merrimac  River, 
in  the  Stiite  of  New  Hampshire,  and  was  granted  its 
charter  10  July ,  1846.  Its  population  is  about  70,000, 
nearly  three-fifths  of  which  is  Catholic.    There  are  in 


lAAHCHURIA  585  BfA«OHUBU 

the  city  nine  large  Catholic  churches  with  flourishing  official  organ  of  the  diocese,  of  which  he  was  editor 

parish  schools.    There  are  also  two  small  churches,  a  till  his  elevation  to  the  episcopate  (6  July,  1904).    His 

succursal  chapel  of  the  cathedral,  and  a  Ruthenian  consecration tookplace .8  Sept.,  1904. 
Catholic  church.  George  Albert  Guertin,  tiurd  Bishop  of  Manchester 

The  Diocese  of  Manchester  was  established  4  May,  and  present  (1910)  incumbent  of  the  see,  b.  17  Feb., 
1884,  by  a  division  of  the  Diocese  of  Portland  which     1869,  in  Nashua,  New  Hampshire,  was  educated  ia  the 

had  included  both  Maine  and  New  Hampshire.    It  parochial  schools  of  his  native  city,  after  which  be 

comprises  the  entire  State  of  New  Hampshire,  an  area  went  to  St.  Charles  College,  Sherbrooke,  Province  of 

of  9305  sq.  miles.    The  total  population  of  the  diocese  Quebec,  and  St.  HyacintheOolkge,  Province  of  Quebec, 

is  412,000,  of  which  126,034  are  Catholics.  to  pursue  his  classical  studies.    He  then  entered  St. 

Much  of  the  earl v  history  of  Manchester  is  bound  up  Jomi's  Seminary,  Brighton,  Massachusetts,  and  was 

in  the  records  of  the  Diocese  of  Portland,  of  which  it  the  first  graduate  of  that  institution  who  became  a 

formed  a  part  for  twenty-nine  years.    Mass  was  first  bishop.    He  was  ordained  on  17  Dec.,  1892.    Having 

celebrated  in  New  Hampshire  as  early  as  1694,  but  the  displayed  seal  and  abilitv  in  parochial  work,  he  was 

real  history  of  Catholicity  can  hardly  be  said  to  begin  appointed  third  Bishop  of  Manchester,  2  Jan.,  1907,  and 

until  a  century  and  a  quarter  later.     So  few  were  consecrated  19  March,  1907.    Under  his  guidance  the 

Catholics  at  first,  that  up  to  1822  there  were  not  diocese  continues  to  stow  steadily  and  healthily.    It 

enough  families  in  the  entire  state  to  warrant  the  ap-  has  a  well-eauipped  educational  S3rstem.    There  are  38 

pointment  of  even  one  resident  priest.    The  firat  parochial  scnools,  with  a  corps  of  309  teachers  and  an 

priest  to  be  permanently  located  in  New  Hampshire  enrolment  of  13,100  pupils.    Hiere  are:  one  boarding 

was  Rev.  Virgil  Barber,  whom  Bishop  Cheverus  in  school  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  and  three 

1822  sent  to  C&remont,  his  native  town,  there  to  form  academies  presided  over  by  the  Sisters  of  Jesus  and 

the  first  Catholic  parish  in  the  state.     Eight  years  Mary,  Sisters  <^  Providence,  and  Presentation  Nuns 

later  a  small  church  was  built  at  Dover.   Two  mission-  respectively.    A  boarding  college  for  boys  and  yoisog 

ary  priests.  Fathers  Cana van  and  John  B.  Daly,  cared  men  is  imder   the  supervision  of  the  Benedictine 

for  the  spiritual  interests  of  the  Catholics  scattered  Fathers.   There  are  also  five  hish  schools  for  boys, 
throughout  the  state.     In  1848  Manchester,  with  a        There  are  4  hospitals;  7  orpnan  asylums,  with  710 

Catholic  population  of  300,  was  given  its  first  resident  orphans;  1  infant  asylum:  1  night  refuse  for  girls;  5 

pastor,  Rev.  William  McDonald,  notable  on  account  homes  for  working  girls;  4  homes  for  aged  women;  and 
of  his  personal  character  and  his  establishment  of     1  for  old  men.    T^  Sisters  of  Mercy  do  most  of  this 

religious,  charitable,  and  educational  institutions.  eood  work,  and  the  Grey  Nuns  and  Sisters  of  Provi- 

Denis  Mary  Bradley,  the  first  bishop,  was  bom  in  dence  care  for  three  hospitals  and  orphanages. 
Castle  Island,  County  Kerry,  Ireland,  23  Feb.,  1846;        There  are  118  secular  and  19  re^plar  priests  labour- 

d.  13  Dec.,  1903.     At  the  aee  of  eight  he  came  to  ing  in  the  diocese.    The  Benedictine  Fathers,  the 

the  United  States,  settling  at  Manchester.     His  early  Cm*istian  Brothers,  the  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 

education  was  obtained  at  the  parochial  schools  of  Man-  the  Marist  B]:others,  and  the  Xa verian  Brothers  have 

Chester  and  at  Holy  Cross  College,  Worcester,  Massa-  communities,  as  have  also  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters 

chusetts.     On  the  completion  of  his  academic  course  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the  Grey 

he  entered  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Troy,  New  York,  Nuns,  the  Benedictine  Nuns,  Presentation  Nuns,  Sis- 

where,  on  3  June,  1871,  he  was  ordained.    He  was  ters  of  Providence,  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  and 

assigned  duties  in  Portland,  Maine,  and  three  years  the  Felician  Sisters, 

later  Bishop    Bacon   appointed  him    chancellor   of  ,  Dweem  Anhivev  Hu^  of  Caj^^ 

the  diocese  and  rector  of  the  cathedral,  which  offices  t^^i^^^^'S^^^^L^fSi^.^'^S^^^^SSb'^ii 

he  filled  until  June,  1880,  when  he  came  to  Manches-  Dxreeuny  (Milwaukee). 

ter  as  pastor  of  St.  Joseph's  Church.    This  appoint-  Thomas  M.  O'Leary. 

ment  proved  to  be  the  first  step  towards  the  formation 

of  the  Diocese  of  Manchester,  as  four  years  later  (4  Manchuria,  a  north-eastern  division  of  the  Chinese 
May,  1884),  Father  Bradlev  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Empire  and  the  cradle  of  the  present  imperial  d^oiasty. 
the  newlv-erected  See  of  A&nchester,  and  selected  his  It  hes  to  the  north-east  of  tne  Eighteen  Provmoes  of 
parish  church  for  the  cathedral.  His  consecration  China,  and  extends  from  38®  40^  to  49°  N.  lat.  and  froip 
took  place  11  June,  1884.  Bishop  Bradley  was  a  man  120^  to  133**  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
of  tireless  activity  and  rare  sanctity.  For  almost  the  Amur  and  Russian  territory,  on  the  east  by  toe 
twenty  years  he  devoted  his  best  efforts  to  the  cause  Usuri,  on  the  south  by  Corea  (Yalu  River),  the  Gulf  pf 
of  religion  in  New  Hampshire,  and  with  wonderful  sue-  Liao-tun^,  and  the  Yellow  Sea,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
cess.  At  his  consecration  the  diocese  comprised  a  Nonni  River  and  the  line  of  palisades  (Liuoh'tog)y 
Catholic  population  of  45,000.  The  number  of  priests  running  from  the  sea  to  the  Great  Wall  of  China.  Ob 
enj^aged  in  parish  work  and  missionary  labours  was  37,  account  of  its  situation,  its  southern  portion  is  some- 
officiating  in  as  many  churches.  There  were  3  orders  times  called  Shanrhairkwanrwai  Man-chou  Mn-shenq, 
of  women  with  89  members.  At  the  bishop's  death  the  that  is,  the  three  Manchou  provinces  beyond  Shan-hai- 
Catholic  population  was  104,000,  and  the  priests  num-  kwan.  and  also  Kwan4ung,  or  the  Country  East  of  the 
bered  107.  There  were  resident  pastors  in  65  parishes,  Pass  (Shan-hai-kwan) .  Tlie  maricets  opened  to  foreign 
67  missions  were  regularly  attended,  and  there  were  8  trade  are  New-ohwang,  Ngantun^  (Jaoanese  Antoken) 
orders  of  women,  and  4  of  men,  engaged  in  the  Christian  Dalny  (Jap.  Dairen) ,  and  Harbm :  Port  Arthur  (Liu 
education  of  children  and  in  charitaDle  work.  Shun-k'ou),  being  the  terminus  of  the  Siberian  rail- 
John  Bernard  Delany,  second  Bishop  of  Manches-  wa^^  ^  &  poi^  ^  great  importance.  Manchuria  ia 
ter,  b.  9  Aug.,  1864,  in  Lowell,  Massachusetts;  d.  11  divided  into  three^  provinces,  Tung-san-sbeng  (the 
June,  1906;  pursued  his  classical  and  philosophical  three  eastern  provinces);  F^ng-tien,  also  known  as 
studies  at  Holy  Cross  College,  Worcester,  Massachu-  Sheng-king  (Holy  Court)  from  its  capital  Mukden, witji 
setts,  and  Boston  College,  from  which  he  was  graduated  6/u  and  2  fing  (prefectures),  4,000,000  inhabitants; 
in  June,  1887.  He  studied  for  the  priesthood  at  St.  lurin  or  Ki-lin,  with  six  prefectures^  6,500,000  inhab- 
Sulpice,  Paris,  where  he  was  ordained  23  May.  1891.  itants:  and  He-hmg-kian^  or  Tsitsihar  (Amur),  with 
He  served  as  curate  at  St.  Anne's  Chureh,  Manchester,  5  prefectures,  2,000^000  inhabitants.  The  northern 
and  the  Immaculate  Conception  Church,  Portsmouth,  part  of  the  country  is  watered  by  the  Simgari  and  its 
and  in  1898  came  to  the  cathedral  at  Manchester  as  affluent  the  Nonni,  belonging  to  the  Amur  region;  the 
chancellor  of  the  diocese  and  secretary  to  Bishop  southern  part  is  watered  by  the  Liao-ho  and  its  afflu- 
Bradley.  While  serving  in  this  capacity  he  founded  ent  the  Kara-muren,  which  empty  themselves  into  the 
the  *' Guidon",  a  Cathonc  monthly  magazine  and  the  Gulf  of  Liao-tung.    The  country  is  generally  moun- 


lAlMOHimiA                          586  MAJrOHUEX4 

lamouSy  but  it  includes  two  plains,  the  Liao-ho  and  fleet  anchored  at  Port  Arthur  was  attacked  by  Ad- 

the  Central  Sungari.    The  two  chief  ranges  are  the  miral  Togo.  The  culminating  point  of  the  defence  was 

Hhig-ngan-ling  in  the  west,  ^nd  the  Ch'ang-peshan  or  Port  ArUiur,  which  surrendered  on  2  Jan.,   1905. 

6han-a-lin,  the  "  long  white  mountain  ",  in  tne  east.  Manchuria  was  the  field  of  the  action  between  the  two 

The  Chinese  administration  was  reorganised  by  an  contending  armies,  the  chief  battles  being  those  of 

Imperial  Decree  of  20  April,  1907»  and,  instead  of  a  Liao-yanff  (25  Aug.-3  Sept.,  1904)  between  Kuropat- 

Tatang-kiun  (military  governor),  a  Taung-iu  (gov-  kin  and  Oyama,  ofSha-ho  (9-14  Oct.),  and  of  Mukden 

emor  general  and  imperial  high  commissioner)  with  (1-9  March,  1905).    By  the  Treaty  of  Portsmouth 

residence  at  Mukden,  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  three  both  Russia  and  Japan  agreed  to  evacuate  simultane- 

provinces.   The  present  (1910)  occupant  of  this  office  ously  Manchuria,  with  the  exception  of  the  portion  of 

18  Siu  ChUi-ch'ang.   He  is  assisted  by  the  three  Siurirfu  the  Liao-tung  pcminsula  leased  to  Russia  and  surren- 

(governors)  of  the  provinces,  a  senior  and  a  junior  see-  dered  to  Japan,  and  to  retrocede  the  administration 

retary  to  the  government  (Tso  Ts'an-tsan  and  Yu  of  the  province  to  China. 

Ts'an-tsan)  and  conmussioners  of  education,  of  ju»-  Railways. — On  8  Sept.,  1896,  an  agreement  was 
tioe^  for  foreign  affairs,  for  banner  affairs,  for  internal  sigoed  between  the  Chinese  Government  and  the 
affairs,  of  finance,  for  Mongolian  affairs.  The  Eight  Russo-Chinese  Bank  for  the  construction  and  manage- 
Banners  (Pork'i)  of  the  Manchu  army  are  divided  into  ment  of  a  line  called  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway,  and 
two  classes,  the  three  superior  and  five  inferior  ban-  running  from  one  of  the  points  on  the  western  borders 
ners,  distinguished  by  their  colours:  (1)  Bordered  of  the  province  of  Heh  Lung  Kiang  to  one  of  the  points 
yellow;  (2)  plain  yeflow;  (3)  plain  white;  (4)  bor-  on  the  eastern  borders  of  tne  province  of  Kirin;  also 
dered  white;  (5)  plain  red;  (6)  bordered  red;  (7)  for  the  connexion  of  this  railway  with  those  branches 
plain  blue;  (8)  bordered  blue.  There  aje  eight  ban-  which  the  Ixnperial  Russian  Government  was  to  con- 
ners  of  each  of  the  following  nationalities:  Manchu,  struct  to  the  Chinese  frontier  from  Trans-Baikalia  and 
Mongolian,  Chinese  (Han-kiun),  consisting  of  the  the  Southern  Usuri  lines.  An  agreement  between 
descendants  d  the  natives  of  northern  China  who  Russia  and  China  with  regard,  to  Manchuria  was 
helped  the  Manchu  invaders  in  the  seventeenth  cen-  signed  at  Peking  on  26  March  (8  April),  1902,  by 
turv.  Each  nationalitv  is  called  Ku  9ai  (Ku  shan),  which  Russia  agreed  to  the  re-establishment  of  the 
and  as  each  has  eight  banners  or  k'i,  the  whole  force  authority  of  the  Chinese  Government  in  that  region, 
thus  includes  twenty-four  banners.  At  the  head  of  which  remains  an  integral  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire, 
the  banners  is  a  Chu-fang  THang-kiun  or  general,  with  By  the  regulations  for  mines  and  railways,  approved 
an  assistant  (7*«*an-tean-ta-te^'en) ;  then  come  tne  Tu  by  the  Emperor  of  China  on  19  Nov.,  1893,  it  had  been 
T*ungt  Fu  Tu-tung,  etc.  They  are  ^rrisoned  not  stipulated  that  mining  and  railway  questions  in  the 
only  at  Peking,  but  also  iri  various  provmcial  towns.  three  Manchurian  provinces,  in  Shan-tung,  and  at 
History. — ^The  Liao  (K'i-tan)  and  the  Kin  (Niu-  Lung-chou,  being  anected  by  international  questions, 
chen),  two  Tatar  tribes  which  governed  northern  shall  not  hereafter  be  invoked  as  precedents  by  the 
China  from  the  tenth  to  the  thirteenth  century,  sprang  Chinese  or  foreign  authorities.  The  Russian  line  from 
from  Manchuria.  The  present  imperial  Manchu  dy-  the  Lake  Baikal  to  Vladivostok  passes  via  H&ilar, 
nasty  of  China,  the  Ts'mg,  comes  from  the  Ngai-sm  Tsitsihar,  and  Harbin,  whence  a  line  branches  south- 
family,  and  is  related  closely  to  the  Kiu.  both  being  wards  to  Port  Arthur  via  Ch'ang-ch'un  and  Mukden, 
descend^  from  a  common  stock,  the  Su-snen  of  Kirin.  A  short  line  runs  from  Port  Arthur  to  Dalny ;  another 
Tlie  Manchu  chieftains,  ancestors  of  the  present  dy-  from  Tashi-li-k'iao  to  Yinffk'ou(New-chwang);  another 
nasty,  bear  the  dynastic  title  {miao-hau))  of  Chao  Tsu  from  Liao-yang  to  the  Yen-t'ai  mines;  another  from 
Yuan,  Hing  Tsu  Chih,  King  Tsu  Yih,  Hien  Tsu  Yih,  Mukden  to  Ngantung  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu  River. 
Hien  Tsu  Siuan  (1683),  T'ai  Tsu  Kao,  and  T'ai  Tsung  The  Peking-Tientsin  line  is  extended  through  Shan- 
Wen;  the  two  last  have  the  title  of  reign  ornien-Aoo  of  hai-kwan  to  Sinmint'un  and  Mukden,  and  has  a 
T'ien  Ming  (1616)  and  T'ien  Tsung  (1627),  the  latter  branch  line  which  diverges  to  New-chwang.  Express 
changed  in  to  Ts'img  Teh  (1636).  These  kings  are  buried  trains  with  Pullman  cars  began  running  towards  the 
at  Mukden.  The  firet  emperor  at  Peking  was  Shun-che  end  of  October,  1908;  a  train  leaves  Dalny  every 
(1644),with  the  dynastic  title  of  She  Tsu  Chang.  Dur-  Monday  and  Friday  morning,  connecting  with  the 
ing  the  war  between  China  and  Japan,  after  the  severe  Russian  express  at  Kwan-cheng-tze,  and  returning  on 
eneagementatPingYang(16Sept.,  1894)  and  the  naval  Tuesdays  and  Saturdays. 

fight  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu  River  (17  Sept.,  1894).  Trade. — We  give  the  revenue  of  the  various  cus- 
the  Japanese  crossed  the  river,  entered  Manchuria,  ana  toms  districts  according  to  the  statistics  of  1908,  the 
marehed  on  Feng-huang-cheng  and  Ha!-cheng,  whilst  last  published  (1  Haikwan  tael  =  65  cents) : — Gross 
another  army  under  tl^  command  of  Count  Oyama  value  of  the  trade  in  taels:  Ngantung,  6,941,986; 
landed  at  lun-chou  and  captured  Ta-Lien-Wan  and  Tatungkau,  353,517;  Dahiy,  32,688,186;  Suifenho, 
Port  Arthur  (21  Nov.,  1894).  Under  Article  II  of  the  12,754,878;  Manchouli,  4,078,788;  New-chwang,  41,- 
treaty  of  peace  signed  between  China  and  Japan  at  437,041.  Net  value  of  the  trade:  Ngantung,  6,1^,799; 
Shimonoseki  on  17  April,  1895,  China  ceded  to  Japan  Tatungkau,  350,850;  Dalny,  32,258,461;  Suifenho, 
in  perpetuity  full  sovereignty  over  the  southern  por-  11,985,705;  Manchouli,  3,829,785;  New-chwane»  41,- 
uon  of  the  province  of  Fdng-tien,  including  all  the  199,  027.  Suifenho  and  Manchouli  form  the  Harbin 
iislands  belonging  to  it,  which  are  situated  in  the  east-  District.  On  11  Sept.,  1908,  the  Japanese  and  Chinese 
em  portion  or  the  Bay  of  Liao-tung  and  in  the  north-  commissioners  signed  at  Mukden  the  detailed  working 
em  part  of  the  Yellow  Sea.  By  a  new  convention  regulations  of  the  Sino-Japanese  Yalu  Timber  Corn- 
signed  at  Peking  on  8  Nov.,  1895,  Japan  retroceded  panv,  the  re-establishment  of  which  was  first  provided 
this  portion  of  F^^-tien  to  China  for  a  compensation  for  by  Article  X  of  the  Komura  Agreement  signed  at 
of  30,000,000  Kuping  taels;  this  gain  to  China  was  Peking  on  22  Dec.,  1905,  and  later  made  the  subject 
obtained  through  the  action  at  Tokio  of  Russia,  of  a  more  definite  compact  when  the  Yalu  Forestry 
France,  and  Germany.  Russia  was  to  reap  the  bene-  An-eement  was  concluded  at  Peking  on  14  May,  1908. 
fit  of  it.  By  A  convention  signed  at  Peking  on  27  vicariates  Apostolic. — ^The  Vicariate  Apostolic 
Mareh,  1898^  China  agreed  to  lease  to  Russia  Port  of  Manchuria  was  created  in  1838  at  the  expense  of  the 
Arthur,  Ta-Lien-Wan,  and  the  adjacent  waters,  while  Bishopric  of  Peking,  and  the  first  vicar  Apostolic  was 
an  additional  agreement,  defining  the  boundaries  of  Emmanuel-Jean-Frangois  Verrolles,  of  the  Society  of 
leased  and  neutral  territory  in  the  Liao-tung  penin-  Foreign  Missions,  Paris  (b.  12  April,  1805;  created 
sula,  was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg  on  7  May,  1898.  Bishop  of  Colombia,  8  Nov.,  1840;  d.  29  April,  1878). 
Six  years  later,  war  broke  out  between  Russia  i^d  The  names  of  his  successors,  who  all  belonged  to  the 
Japan.   In  the  night  of  the  8^  Feb.,  1904,  the  Russian  same  congregation,  are:  Constant  Dubail,  Bishop  of 


MAHDJUm  5S7  ICAMDSTILLE 

Bolina,  d.  7  Deo.,  1S37;  Joseph  Andr£  Borer,  Bishop  traveller.  Prince  Maximilian,  and  the  artist   Catlin, 

of  Myrina,  coadjutor  to  Hgr  Ouboil,  d.  8  Ibrcb,  1SS7;  both  of  whom,  like  Levis  and  dark,  have  much  to  an 

ArjBtide  Louis  Hippolyte  Raguit,  Bishop  of  Trajanop-  of  their  peculiar  ceremonies,  manly  character  atra 

oUs,  d.  17  May,  1889;    Laurent  Guillon,  Biehop  of  friendly  aispoeition.    In  1837-8  a  great  epidemic  (^ 

Eiunenia,  d.  2  July,  1900.    By  Decree  of  10  May,  1898,  smallpox  which  swept  the  whole  northern  plains  al- 

Manchuna  was  divided  into  two  vicariates  Apostolic;  most  exterminated  the  tribe,  leavinK  alive  only  about 

Northern  Manchuria  and  Southern  Manchuria,  which  130  out  of  1600  souls.    A  few  vears  later  (1S45-1S58) 

Mgr  Guillon  retained.    The  present  vicars  Apostolic  the  survivors  followed  the  Hioatso  up  to  a  new  utua- 

are  Pierre  Marie  Lalouyer,  Bishop  of  Raphanea,  for  tjon  about  the  former  Fort  Berthold,  where  a  reserva- 

Northem  Manchuria  (1898),  residing  at  Kirin,  and  tion  was  later  established  for  the  three  tribes.     The 

Marie  Felix  Choulet,  Bishop  of  ZeU,  for  Southern  Mandannownumberabout  260,  the  Arikara  405,  aral 

Manchuria  (1901),  residing  at  Mukden.    This  mission  the  Hidatsa  460,  a  total  of  about  1125,  as  compared 

suffered  dreadfully  during  the  Boxer  rebellion:    not  with  perhapa  9000  about  1780.    Excepting  for  some 

only  missi<Hiaries  like  Emonet  were  massacred,  but  trouble  wiui  the  Arikara  in  1823.  all  three  tribes  have 

Bisnop  Guillon  himself  was  burnt  to  death  at  Mukden,  maintained  friendly  terms  with  the  whites. 
Southern  Manchuria  (Mukden)  includes  32  European         With  the  possible  exception  of  the  priests  who  ac- 

and  8  native  priests,  23,354  Christians,  and  8406  companied  La  Verendrve,  the  first  regular  mission 

cateobumens;  4  churches  and  86  chapels;  32  schools  teacher  amon^  the  Manoan  and  associated  tribes  was 

for  boys  and  31  for  girls;  IJ  orphanages;   15  sisters  Father  Francis  Craft,  best  known  for  his  work  among 

of  Providence   of  Portieux  and  30  native  sisters,  the  Sioux,  who  with  the  help  of  some  of  his  Sioux 

Northern  Manchuria  (Kirin)  includes  25  European  Indiansisterhoodibeean  what  is  now  the  Sacred  Heart 

and  8  native  priests,  19,350  Christians;   21  churches  mission,  at  Elbowoods,  McLean  Co.,  N.  D., on  the  east 

and  66  chapels;  74  schools  for  boys  and  49  for  girls;  side  of  the  Missouri  and  within  the  reservation,  whii^ 

9  orphanages;    35  native  sisters  of  the  Immaculate  claimsnowover  500  communicanta  in  the  three  tribes, 

Heart  of  Mary  and  135  native  sisters.  served  by  a  secular  priest.     Plane  are  completed  for  ft 

Henri  Cordier.  Benedictine  mission  house  to  be  in  operation  before 


Handeans.    See  Nasorbanb. 


the  close  of  1910.     The  Mandan  and  associated  tribo« 

e  equestrian  in  habit  and  depended  about  equolljr 

'       '    "  '"  '      e  fields  m 


Handan  Indiana — A  formerly  important,  but  now  on  hunting  and  agriculture,  cultivating  large  >i<^itu>  »> 
reduced,  tribe  occupying  jointly  with  the  Hidatsa  com.  beans,  pumpkins,  and  sunflowers  (for  the  edible 
(Minitari  or  Grosventre)  and  Ankara  (Ree)  the  Fort  seeda),whichthey  tradedto  the  Plains  tribes  forhorses 
Berthold  reservation,  on  both  sides  of  the  Miaaouri,  and  buJTalo  robes.  According  to  Maxmilian  the  Man- 
near  its  conjunction  with  the  Knife  River,  North  Da-  dan  were  vigorous,  well  made,  rather  above  medium. 
kots.  The  Mazidan  and  Hidatsa  are  of  Siouan  hnguia^  stature,  many  of  them  being  broad-shouldered  and 
tic  stock,  the  latter  speaking  the  same  language  as  the  muscular.  They  paid  the  greatest  attention  to  their 
Crows.  The  Mandan  call  themselves  Numaflkaki,  headdress.  Tattooing  was  practised  to  a  limited  ex- 
"people",  the  name  bv  which  they  are  commonly  tent,  mostly  on  the  left  breast  and  arm,  with  black 
known — Mawatani  in  tne  Sioux  form — being  said  to  parallel  stnpes  and  a  few  other  figures.  Some  of  the 
be  of  Cree  origin.  According  to  the  Mandan  genesis  women  were  robust  and  rather  tall,  though  usually 
myththeyoriginallylivedunderground.bcsideasubter-  they  where  short  and  broad-shouldered,  and  were 
ranean  lake.  Some  of  the  more  adventurous  climbed  adept  potters.  Their  houses  were  large  circular 
up  to  the  surface  by  means  of  a  grapevine  and  were  communal  structures  of  stout  logs  covered  witjl 
delighted  with  the  sight  of  the  earth,  which  they  earth,  and  their  villages  were  sometimes  palisaded. 
found  covered  with  buffalo  and  rich  wiw  every  kind  They  had  the  same  organization  of  military  societies 
of  fruits;retumingwith  thegrapestheyhadgsthered.  common  to  the  Plains  tribes  generally.  Polyramy 
their  countrvmen  were  so  pleased  with  the  taste  id  was  common.  Besides  the  Sun  ana  the  Biwalo, 
them  that  trie  whole  nation  resolved  to  leave  their  they  Invoked  a  number  of  supernatural  personages, 
dull  residence  for  the  charms  of  the  upper  region;  among  whom  was  the  "Old  Woman  who  Nev«r 
men,  women,  and  children  ascended  by  means  of  the  Dies' ,  who  presided  over  the  fields  and  harvests, 
vine;  but  when  about  half  the  nation  had  r^ched  and  in  whose  honour  they  performed  ritual  danOM 
the  surface,  the  vine  broke,  and  the  light  of  the  and  sacrifices  at  planting  and  gathering.  The^ 
sun  was  lost  to  the  remainder.    When  the  Mandan  had  numerous  shrines  ana  sacred  places,  and  their 


die  they  expect  to  return  to  the  original  seats  of  their     great    palladium   was   a   sacred  "ark",  which  WU 
forefathers,  the  good  reaching  the  ancient  village  by     connected  with  theif  genesis  myth,  and  which  i  ~~ 


the  wicked  will  not  enable  them  to  cross.  It  is  poa-  ceremony  of  the  SunOance — descrit)ed  by  Catlin  under 
sible  that  the  tradition  regarding  the  "  ground-house"  the  name  of  Okeepa — exceeded  that  of  sJl  other  tribe* 
Indians  who  once  lived  in  that  section  and  dwelt  in     in  the  extent  of  narbaroua  self-torture  practised  t^ 


:ular  earth  lodges,  partly  undergroimd,  applies  to  the  participants.  Sketches  of  the  language  are  given 
this  tribe.  Their  traditional  migration  was  up  the  by  Hayden  and  Maxirnitiun.  0k-c  also  .Sicux.) 
Missouri,  and  the  remains  of  their  former  viUsftne  Catum.  .VortA  Am.  /nrfi,  (Np*  York.  ifnH:  liif«.  Otwjw.  a 
can  be  traced  as  lar  down  as  White  Klver,  8.  U.  rm-mMBOBmof /-ui.^jToir.,.A™i«.iBfp(..<WMluiwU>n);Doa: 
The  earliest  white  explorer  to  visit  them  was  the  iii.y,3iaityol8iauanCuliii,inlliMii:Bi..Bjir,Eihi^liv»(WaA- 
French  La  Verendrye  in  1738,  but  their  villaaes  inaion.  i&«;  HATDD^EitaM.r™imwom,o/i»./nd.  TH6f» 
were  even  then  the  trading  rendeivous  and  taul  "d^,oi^'l/'rS'^^^m^lT\sk-5yM^iSk^ 
centreforall  the  tribes  of  the  upper  Missouri.     About     Hidain  /ndiowr  (Wuhinctno,  1S7T)'  Maxiuiuu^,  Prince  <w 

"- """  -■-— '-"' "-— '  "- —      '      Wieu,  rrawl-  (Cobleni.  1830-111;    Eng.  tr.  (London,  1843)! 

Ciraclor.  Bur,  Calh.  Ind.  Miitiont,  Annual  RfporU  (Wiuhiiic- 
tonl.  Mabobi,  DicouverUi.  eto.,  VI  (Paris.  iSftfll  (U  Veraa- 
dryeropoti).  James  Moo.'^EV. 

numU'I^"h^"a^u't3'60o'souta?'""B^^t^^^  Mwdthim.    See  HoLT  Wmk;  Maunbt  Thubs- 

and  the  visit  of  the  American  explorers,  Lewis  and  "*''• 

Clark,  who  wintered  among  them  in  1804-4,  they  had  UanderiUa  (Maumdeviixb,  Hontevilla),  Jean 

been  reduced  by  smallpox  (1 780-2)  and  wars  wioi  the  de,  author  of  a  book  of  travels  much  read  in  the  Hid- 

Sioux  to  about  1200  souls  in  two  villages  on  opposite  die  Ages,  d.  probably  in  1372.    The  writer  describea 

sides  of  the  Missouri,  below  Knife  river.    Here  they  himself  as  an  English  knight  bom  at  St.  Albans.    In 

were  visited  between  1832  and  1837  by  tlie  German  1322,  oa  the  feast  of  St.  Michael,  he  set  out  on  a  joup- 


iCAHU                                588  ICAHaALOBB 

n^  that  took  him  first  to  Egypt  where  he  participated  1256  not  far  from  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Sipontum, 
as  mercenary  in  the  8ulta?^B  wars  against  the  Bed-  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1233.  Sipontum  was  a 
ouins.  He  next  yisited  Palestine,  then,  by  way  of  flourishing  Greek  colony;  haying  fallen  into  the  hands 
India,  also  the  interior  of  Asia  and  China,  and  seryed  of  the  Samnites,  it  was  retaken  about  335  b.  c.  l^ 
for  fifteen  months  in  the  army  of  the  Great  Khan  of  King  Alexander  of  Epirus,  unde  of  Alexander  tlie 
Mpngolia.  After  an  absence  of  thirty-four  years  he  Great.  In  189  b.  c.  it  becsune  a  Roman  colony^  and 
returned  in  1356,  and  at  the  instance  and  with  the  in  a.  d.  663  it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Slays, 
help  of  a  physician,  whose  acquaintance  he  had  made  In  the  ninth  century,  Sipontum  was  for  a  time  in  the 
in  Egrpt  at  the  court  of  the  sultan,  he  wrote  in  Lot-  power  of  the  Saracens;  m  1042  the  Normans  made  it 
Uch  an  account  of  his  experiences  and  obseryations.  the  seat  of  one  of  their  twelve  counties.  The  latter 
Jn  the  manuscripts  1372  is  giyen  as  the  year  of  his  won  a  decisive  victory  there  over  the  Byzantine  gen- 
death.  Later  investigation,  however,  made  it  clear  eral  Argyrus  in  1052.  According  to  legend,  the  Gospel 
that  the  real  author  was  Jean  de  Bourgoigne,  or  &  la  was  preached  at  Sipontum  by  St.  Peter  and  by  St. 
Barbe,  a  physician  from  Lttttich,  to  whom  several  Mark;  more  trust,  however,  may  be  placed  in  the  tra- 
medical  works  are  also  attributed.  He  really  lived  for  dition  of  the  mart3rrdom  of  the  priest  St.  Justin  and 
some  time  in  E^ypt,  and  during  his  sojourn  may  have  his  companions  under  Gallienus  and  Maximian  about 
conceived  the  idea  of  describing  a  journey  to  the  255.  The  first  bishop,  whose  date  may  be  fixed,  was 
Orient.  Having  visited  no  foreign  country  except  Felix,  who  was  at  Kome  in  465.  In  the  time  of 
Eig^rpt,  he  was  compelled  to  make  use  of  the  descrip-  Bishop  Lawrence,  during  the  reign  of  Gelasius  I  (492- 
tions  of  others  and  to  publish  his  compilation  under  a  496),  took  place  on  Mt.  Gargano  the  apparition  of  St. 
pseudonym.  He  discloses,  in  the  situations  borrowed  BGchael,  in  memory  of  which  the  famous  Monasteiy 
often  word  for  word  from  various  authors,  an  extraor-  of  the  Archangel  was  founded.  About  688  Pope  Vi- 
dinarily  wide  range  of  reading,  and  he  unaerstood  how  talian  was  obhged  to  entrust  to  the  bishops  of  Bene- 
to  present  his  matter  so  attractively  that  the  work  in  vento  the  pastoral  care  of  Sipontum,  which  was  al- 
manuscript  and  print  had  a  wonderful  popularity.  most  abandoned,  but  the  see  was  re-established  in 

His  chief  sources  are  the  accounts  of  the  travels  of  1(^,  and  under  Bishop  Saint  Gerard  (1066)  it  became 
the  first  missionaries  of  the  Dominican  and  Franciscan  an  archdiocese.  The  ancient  cathedral  remained  still 
orders  (see  Geography  and  the  Church),  who  were  at  Sipontum,  but,  with  the  building  of  Manfredonia, 
the  first  to  venture  into  the  interior  of  Asia.  He  de-  thearchiepiscopal  see  was  transferred  to  the  latter  city, 
scribes  Constantinople  and  Palestine  almost  entirely  Among  the  other  bishops  were  Matteo  Orsini  (1327), 
according  to  the  "  Itinerarius'*  of  the  Dominican  Will-  later  cardinal;  Cardinal  Bessarione  (1447),  adminis- 
lam  of  Boldensele  written  in  1336;  he  made  use  more-  trator;  Niccol6  Pecotto  (1458),  a  Greek  scholar  and 
over  of  the  *'Tractatus  de  distantiis  locorum  terrae  theologian;  Giovanni  del  Monte  (1512).  subsequently 
sanctae^of  Eugesippus,the*'DescriptioterraB8anctaB"  popne  under  the  name  of  Julius  III;  Domenico  Gin- 
of  John  of  WQrzburg  ^c.  1165),  ana  the  "  Libellus  de  nasio  (1586),  who  suppressed  the  use  of  the  Greek  Rite 
locis  Sanctis''  of  Th^)aoricus  (c.  1172).  He  was  able  at  the  high  altar  of  the  cathedral  of  Sipontum,  a  cus- 
out  of  his  own  experiences  to  give  particulars  about  tom  which  had  obtained  until  his  day;  Antomo  Mar- 
Efert-  What  he  nas  to  say  about  the  Mohammedan  cello  (1643)  who  founded  the  seminary  and  restored 
is  taken  from  the  work  "De  statu  Saracenarum*'  the  cathedral  destroyed  by  the  Turks  in  1620;  Vin- 
(1273)  of  the  Dominican  William  of  Tripolis.  His  cenzo  Orsini  (1675),  afterwards  pope  under  the  name 
account  of  the  Armenians,  Persians,  Turts,  etc.,  is  of  Benedict  XIII.  In  1818  the  Archbishop  of  Man- 
borrowed  from  the  **Historia  orientalis"  of  Hay  ton,  fredonia  was  made  perpetual  administrator  of  the 
the  former  Prince  of  Armenia  and  later  Abbot  of  Diocese  of  Viesti,  a  see  that  dates  at  least  from  the 
Poitiers.  For  the  countiy  of  the  Tatars  and  China  he  eleventh  century.  The  archdiocese  is  divided  into 
made  use  almost  word  for  word  of  the  '^Descriptio  16  parishes;  contains  101,800  faithful,  1  religious 
orientalium''  of  the  Franciscan  Odoric  of  Pordenone,  house  of  men  and  4  of  women,  and  4  educational  in- 
and  in  parts  of  the  "Historia  Mongolorum"  of  the  stitutes  for  girls. 

Franciscan  John  of  Piano  Carpini.    Apart  from  books  Cappeixbtti,  Le  Chiese  d^  Italia,  XX  (Venice,  1857). 

of  travels  he  plagiarised  from  works  of  a  general  U.  Bbnigni. 
nature,  the  old  authors  Pliny,  Solinus,  Josephus  Fla- 

vius,  and  the  comprehensive  **  Speculum  Historiale "  of  Mangalore,  Diocese  op  (Manqalorensis) ,  on  the 

Vincent  of  Beauvais.   The  numerous  manuscripts  and  west  coMEist  of  India,  suffragan  of  Bombay.     It  com- 

printed  editions  are  enumerated  by  Rohricht  ("Bib-  prises  the  whole  collectorate  of  South  Canara,  and  a 

hotheca  Geographica  Palestinse",  Berlin,  1890,  pp.  portion  of  Malabar  from  Ponany  to  Mount  Deli;  it 

79-85).    The  oldest  impressions  are :  in  French  (Lyons,  stretches  inland  as  far  as  the  Ghauts,  a  distance  vary- 

1480);     German   (Augsburg,   1481,   1482);    English  ing  from  40  to  60  miles.    The  total  Catholic  popula- 

(Westminster,  1499).    Modem  editions:  "The  voiage  tion  is  reckoned  at  about  93.028.    South  Canara  is 

and  travaile  of  Sir  Mandeville",  with  introd.  by  J.  O.  divided  into  four  ecclesiastical  districts,  each  with  its 

Halliwell  (London,  1839) ;  "The  Buke  of  John  Maun-  Vara  (almost  equivalent  to  rural  dean),  in  which  there 

deuill",  ed.  by  G.  F.  Warner  (Westminster,  1889),  in  are  thirty-three  churches  with  resident  priests  besides 

Roxburghe  Club,  Publications,  No.  30;   "Travels  of  a  number  of  chapeb;  while  in  Malabar  there  are 

MandeviUe.    The  Version  of  the  Cotton  Manuscript  in  churches  at  Cannanore,  Tellicherry  and  Calicut.    The 

Modem  Spelling"  (London,  1900).  clergy  are  partly  of  the  Venetian  province  of  the  So- 

Oonsult  SchOhborn,  Bibliogr.  Unterauchungm  aJber  die  Reiae-  ciety  of  Jesus,  and  partly  native  secular  clergy,  the 

JSfSr5riSiJ;;«<1?  ^^v"^'8.^»S'^!gSk,?.T8il^  f«^ernumbenng41andthe  latter  56.  Jhere  is  also 

-  -       -  — 3  of  the  Convent  of  the  Carrr-  — 

lalabar  rite,  besides  Carm* 

ieiner  ReuteSeachreibuno  in  Zeittchr.  der  Om.  E.  Erdkuhde  tu  oioi««of  Charity.     The  episcopal 

Berlin,  XXIII  (Berlin.  1888),  pp.  177-306;   Murray.  John  de  nary  are  at  Man^lore. 

Burdens  or  John  de  Burpundia  otherwise  Sir  John  de  Mandeville  History. — Originally  the  South  Canara  portion  be- 

and  the  pestilence  (Lon<fon.  1891).  \ong^  to  the  Archidocese  of  Goa,  while  the  Malabar 

--.^^.     o     xr                                        hartig.  portion  belonged  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Cranganore. 

Manes,    bee  MANiCHiBiSM.  §^  Francis  Xavier  was  at  Cannanore  for  a  few  hours, 

Manfredonia.  Archdiocese  op  (Sipontina).     The  but  there  is  no  evidence  for  the  popular  tradition  that 

dty  of  Manfredonia  is  situated  in  the  province  of  he  missionised  Canara.    The  pioneer  work  seems  to 

Foggia  in  Apulia,  Central  Italy,  on  the  borders  of  have  been  done  by  the  Franciscans,  who  early  in  the 

Mount  Gargano.    It  was  built  by  King  Manfred  in  sixteenth  century  had  founded  several  stations  along 


MANOAH 


589 


MAMOAH 


the  coast;  and  the  number  of  Christians  was  aij£- 
mented  by  immigrations  from  Salcete  near  Goa.  In 
the  seventeenth  century,  on  account  of  the  decline  of 
the  Portuguese  supremacy  in  India,  Canara  seems  to 
h^ve  become  destitute  of  resident  clergy.  In  conse- 
quence the  Holy  See  placed  the  country'  under  the  al- 
ready existing  Carmelite  vicar  Apostolic  of  Malabar — 
an  arrangement  which  soon  gave  rise  to  rivalry  and 
disputes  with  the  Goa  authorities.  Between  1685  and 
1712  some  Oratorians  were  working  in  the  districts,  of 
whom  the  chief  was  the  Ven.  Joseph  Vas.  In  1764 
Canara  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Hyder  Ali  of  My- 
sore, whose  attitude  towards  the  Christians  was  fav- 
ourable. But  his  successor  Tipu  Sultan  (1782-1709) 
showed  himself  so  fanatical  and  violent  that  the 
Christians  were  for  the  most  part  seized  and  reduced  to 
captivitv.  A  few  were  suffered  to  remain  immolested 
round  about  Mangalore,  while  others  escaped  to  Coorg 
and  certain  parts  of  the  Camatic.  Meanwhile  the 
country  still  remained  under  the  Carmelite  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Verapoly  (Malabar)  whose  domain  com- 
prised not  only  South  but  also  North  Canara  (Sunkery 
or  Carwar  mission)  while  Coorg  fell  to  the  lot  of  the 
vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Great  Mogul  at  Bombay.  In 
1838,  in  consequence  of  the  brief  "  Multa  Praeclare  ", 
and  its  definitive  restriction  of  the  Padroado  jurisdic- 
tion, great  rivalry  and  discord  was  renewed  between 
the  Propaganda  and  Padroado  parties.  In  1840  the 
people  of  Canara  hoped  to  put  an  end  to  these  dissen- 
sions by  petitioning  for  a  separate  vicariate;  but  the 
movement  was  opposed  by  tne  Carmelite  vicar  Apos- 
tolic. In  1845  the  Vicariate  of  Verapoly  was  divided 
into  three  parts  (Quilon,  Verapoly  and  Mangalore) 
and  the  pro-vicar  Apostolic  appointed  for  Mangalore 
was  a  Carmelite,  Father  Bernardine  of  St.  Agnes.  In 
1853  South  Canara  was  made  into  a  separate  vicariate 
but  remained  under  Italian  Carmelite  rule  until  1858. 
when  it  was  transferred  to  the  French  Carmelites,  and 
finally  in  1878  to  the  Jesuits.  On  the  formation  of  the 
hierarchy  in  1886  Mangalore  became  a  bishopric,  which 
in  1893,  together  with  Trichinopoly,  was  made  suffra^ 
gan  to  Bombay. 

Succession  of  Prelates. — Previous  to  1845,  sec  Ve- 
rapoly, Archdiocese  of. 

Pro-Vicar  Apostolic. — Bernardine  of  St.*  Agnes, 
O.  C.  Disc,  1845-52. 

Vicars  Apostolic. — Michael  Anthony  of  St.  Aloy- 
sius,  O.  C.  Disc,  1853-71. 

Mary  Ephrem  Garrelon,  O.  C.  Disc,  1868-73.  ^ 

Nicholas  Pagani,  S.  J.,  1885-95  (became  first  bishop 
in  1886). 

Abundius  Cavadini,  S.  J.,  1895-1910  (see  vacant). 

InstiUdiona. — St.  Aloysius's  College,  Mangalore, 
8Lfl5liated  to  Madras  University,  the  only  First  Grade 
College  on  the  Malabar  Coast,  with  1000  pupils. 
Classes  from  elementary  to  B.  A.  taught  by  Jesuit 
Fathers  and  lay-teachers:  boarding  house  with  80 
boarders,  and  hostels  for  Hindu  students.  About  350 
non-Christian  pupils  of  various  castes  and  creeds  are 
among  the  pupils.  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Jeppoo, 
with  43  clerical  students  under  Jesuit  professors;  Sa- 
cred Heart  House  of  students  of  the  Carmelite  Congre- 
gation; St.  Anne's  High  School  under  Tertiaiy  Car- 
melite Sisters,  for  Eurasian  and  Indian  girls,  with  449 
pupils,  prepares  for  matriculation  and  teacher's  certif- 
icate examination;  Victoria  Caste  Girls'  School  with 
159  pupils,  and  St.  Mary's  School,  Milagres,  with  175 
pupils,  both  conducted  by  the  same  Sisters;  St.  An- 
thony's Boys'  and  Girls  Schools  with  200  pupils; 
schools  at  Cannanore  with  686  pupils,  at  TeUicherry 
with  132  pupils,  at  Calicut  with  139  pupils;  European 
Boys  School  at  Calicut  with  164  pupils,  besides  70 
other  schools  scattered  over  the  district.  Boarding 
bouses  attached  to  four  schools;  Catechumenates  at 
Mangalore,  Cannanore  and  Calicut;  St.  Joseph's  Asy- 
lum work-shops  at  Jeppoo,  Manfinlore;  three  orphan- 
ages at  Mangalore,  and  two  at  Cannanore  andTCali' 


cut.  Fr.  Mailer's  establishments  at  Kankanady  oom- 
prise:  (1)  Homoeopathic  Poor  Dispensary,  where  the 
medicines  dispensed  to  about  100  out-patients  a  day 
are  the  Solen-Bellotti  specifics,  of  which  Fr.  Mdller 
possesses  the  secret;  (2)  St.  Joseph's  Leper  Asylum;  (3) 
Our  Lady's  Home,  with  male  and  female  wards,  each 
containing  36  beds:  (4)  Plague  Hospital  for  cases  of 
bubonic  plague.  Fr.  Miiller  is  assisted  by  a  qualified 
doctor  and  a  number  of  infirmarians  and  nurses. 
There  is  a  hospital  at  Jeppoo  under  the  Sisters  of 
Charity,  and  another  is  situated  at  Calicut  imder 
Carmelite  Tertiaries.  New  mission  stations  have 
been  opened  at  Suratkal  and  Narol,  each  served  by 
a  Jesuit.  Other  establishments  are  St.  Vincent  8 
Society,  Calicut;  Catholic  Union  Club^  Milagres;  The 
Provident  Fund  with  its  office  at  Codialbail;  Codial- 
bail  Press,  at  which  the  "Mangalore  Magazine"  is 
published  and  the  Cloistered  Carmelite  Convent  at 
Kankanady  with  16  choir-nuns,  5  lay-sisters,  and  4 
touriires.  The  finest  buildings  in  the  diocese  are  St. 
Aloysius's  college  and  chureh;  St.  Joseph's  seminary, 
and  the  (Gothic)  convent  of  Cloistered  Carmelite 
nuns. 

History  of  the  Diocese  of  Mangcdore,  ed.  Moork  (1905); 
Madras  CoMolic  Directory  for  1909;  The  Mangalore  Maoaxine; 
Status  Missionis  Mangalorensis  (1909). 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

Mangan,  James  Clarence,  Irish  poet,  b.  in  Dub- 
lin, 1  May,  1803;  d.  there,  20  June,  1849.  He  was  the 
son  of  James  Mangan,  a  grocer,  and  of  Catherine 
Smith.  He  attended  a  school  in  Saul's  Court,  but 
when  still  young  he  had  to  work  for  the  support  of 
his  family.  For  seven  years  he  was  a  scnvener's 
clerk  and  for  three  years  earned  measre  wages  in 
an  attorney's  office.  Mitchel  accepts  the  story,  re- 
lated by  Mangan  himself,  but  which  O'Donaghue  is 
inclined  to  make  light  of,  that  he  passed  through 
an  unhappy  love  affair,  which  infused  the  bitter  and 
mocking  note  into  his  subsequent  verses,  and  even 
drove  him  to  that  intemperance  which  clouded  the 
remainder  of  his  days.  In  1831,  as  a  member  of  the 
Comet  Club,  he  contributed  verses  to  the  club's  jour- 
nal, to  which  he  sent  his  first  German  translations. 
His  connexion  with  "The  Dublin  University  Maga- 
zine" was  terminated  because  his  habits  rendered  him 
incapable  of  regular  application.  When  Charles  Ga- 
van  Duffy  inauguratea  "The  Nation",  in  1842,  Man- 
ean  was  for  a  time  paid  a  fixed  salary,  but,  as  on 
former  occasions,  these  relations  were  broken  off, 
though  he  continued  to  send  verses  to  "The  Nation", 
even  after  he  had  cast  in  his  lot  with  Mitchel,  who  in 
1848  began  to  issue  "The  United  Irishman".  Forthese 
journals,  as  well  as  for  "The  Irish  Tribune",  "The 
Irishman",  and  "Duffy's  Irish  Catholic  Magaaine", 
Mangan  wrote  under  various  fantastic  sijg;natures. 

In  his  clerical  positions  his  eccentricities  of  manner 
and  appearance  nad  made  him  the  object  of  persecu- 
tion on  the  part  of  those  employed  with  him,  and  his 
f  rowing  habits  of  intemperance  gradually  estranged 
im  from  human  society.  There  are  many  descrip- 
tions of  his  personal  appearance  at  this  time,  all  of 
them  dwelling  on  his  spare  fifi;ure,  his  tight  blue  cloak, 
his  witch's  hat,  his  inevitable  umbrella.  Still,  there 
were  distinguished  men  who  recognized  his  ability  and 
pitied  lus  weaknesses,  among  tnem  Anster,  Petrie, 
Todd,  O'Curry,  O'Daly,  and  the  various  editors  who 
printed  his  contributions.  O'Donoghue  thinks  he  has 
traced  all  of  ^^jogan's  poems  and  ascribes  to  him  be- 
tween 800  and  90ir.  In  these  there  is  necessarily  j^reat 
inequality,  but,  at  his  best,  it  is  difficult  to  gainsay 
Mitchel's  enthusiastio  estimate  of  him.  His  verses 
ranjge  from  the  passionate  lament  of  the  patriot  to  the 
whimsical  satire  and  the  apocryphal  translation.  He 
knew  little  or  nothing  of  the  languages  from  which 
his  translations  affect^  to  be  made.  He  was  depend- 
ent for  his  renderings  of  Irish  themes  on  the  ntersl 
prose  tmoslations  made  by  O'Curry  and  Q'XV^ « 


ICAHaAH  500 

Mangan  fell  an  easy  victim  to  the  cholera  which  for  the  forty  dajrs  ci  Lent.    They  likewise  opposed 

laged  in  Dublin  in  1849.    Before  his  death  he  was  at-  text-books  recently  brought  into  the  schools,  which 

tended  bv  the  Rev.  C.  P.  M^han,  who  appreciated  were  not  Christian  in  tone,  and  finally  they  com- 

and  loved  him,  and  who,  in  1884,  edited  a  collection  of  bated  the  vaccination  of  children,  as  an  offence  against 

his  poems.    A  shabby  stone  marks  his  grave  in  Glas-  faith,    and   for  this   additional  reason    reproached 

nevm  Cemetery.    The  chief  editions  of  his  poems  are  the  clergy  with  countenancing  and  supporting  this 

MitcheFs  (New  York,  1859),  Miss  Guiney's(  1897),  and  state  regulation.    A  spell  of  apocalyptic  extra va- 

the  centenary  edition  (Dublin  and  London,  1903).  gance  took  hold  of  the  Manharter  about  this  period, 

McCaj^U  Life  of  James  Clarence  Mtrngan  (Dublin.   1887);  when  they  united  with  the  so-called  "Michael  Con- 

^%i'^t^n^.  ff'JZS'FJ^li^n  ?I^bS2;  fraternity  "or  the  Order  of  the  Knighta  of  .Michael. 

1897).  This  was  a  fanatical  secret  society  founded  m  Cann- 

Blanche  M.  Kelly.  thia  by  the  visionary,  Agnes  Wirsinger,  and  by  a 

mc^.^^.-    T^„*r     e^  Tr«„»^  ^^rr.  kr^TTAT^^^  T^,^  prfcst,   Johauu   Holzer  of  GmUnd.     Its  adherents 

J^^     '  Aghadoe,  Dio-  ^^^^  ^^g  impending  destruction  of  the  wicked  by 

CBBE  OF.  ^  ^  the. Archangel  (jiabriel,  at  which  time  they,  the  unde- 

Manharter,  a  politico-religious  sect  which  arose  in  filed,  were  to  be  spared  and  to  receive  the  earth  in 
Tyrol  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Its  heri^ge.  The  heads  of  the  Manharter  began  their 
founder  was  a  priest,  Kaspar  Benedict  Hagleitner  of  relations  with  this  society  in  the  autumn  of  1815,  and 
Aschau,  who  was  the  only  one  of  the  clergymen  of  in  1817  Hagleitner  secured  their  formal  admittance 
Brixenthal  to  refuse  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  into  it.  One  phase  of  this  society's  apocalyptic  ex- 
prescribed  by  Napoleon's  edict  of  30  May.  1809,  for  pectations  led  its  members  to  regard  Napoleon  as 
the  ecclesiastical  and  secular  authorities  of  the  prov-  Antichrist  already  come  upon  the  earth, 
ince  of  Salzburg,  of  which  Brixenthal  was  then  a  part.  In  vain  did  the  new  administrator  of  the  Archdio- 
His  notion  was  that  priests  who  took  this  oath  were  cese  of  Salzburg,  Count  Leopold  von  Firmian,  exert 
by  that  act  excommunicated  jointly  with  Napoleon,  himself  on  his  pastoral  visitations  during  the  summer 
It  was  not  long  before  zealous  supporters  rallied  to  of  1819  to  convince  the  Manharter  of  their  error, 
him  from  among  Austrian  sympathizers  and  patriots  The  latter  questioned  the  genuineness  of  his  episcopal 
in  the  Brixenthal  villages  of  Westendorf,  Bnxen  im  character  and  refused  to  hear  anyone  but  the  pope. 
Thai,  Hopfgarten,Itter,  and  from  Unter-Innthal.prin-  The  efforts  of  Bemhard  Galura,  spiritual  counsellor 
dpally  m  the  villages  of  W5rgl  and  Kirchoichl.  to  the  Government,  remained  equally  fruitless.  Even 
There  were  two  laymen  also  with  Hagleitner  at  the  punishments  inflicted  by  the  civil  authorities  for  the 
head  of  this  movement,  Thomas  Mair,  a  tanner,  and  nolding  of  secret  reunions  and  for  continued  dis- 
Ha^eitner's  brother-in-law,  and  Sebastian  Manzl,  the  obedience  failed  to  accomplish  any  result.  The  Man- 
pansh  magistrate  of  Westendorf.  The  latter  was  sur-  barter  persisted  in  their  request  that  they  be  permitted 
named  Manhart  after  his  estate,  the  "Untennan-  to  sena  a  deputation  to  Rome  to  obtain  a  decision 
hartsgut",  and  it  was  from  him  that  the  sect  derived  from  the  pope  in  person,  but  this  the  Government  re- 
its  name.  Hagleitner  himself  lost  his  cure,  and  in  fused  to  allow.  'The  majority  of  the  members  of  the 
1811  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  was  appointed  curate  sect  were  at  last  brought  back  into  the  fold  of  the 
in  Wiener-Neustadt.  He  kept  in  touch,  however,  Church  under  the  distinguished  Archbishop  of  Salz- 
with  his  partisans  in  Brixenthal,  and  on  'Tyrol  being  burg,  Augustin  Gruber.  It  is  true  that  nis  endea- 
restored  to  Austrian  rule,  he  was  given  once  more  a  vours  to  correct  them  in  the  course  of  a  pastoral  tour 
cure  in  Wdrgl  in  November,  1814.  But  new  in-  made  through  Brixenthal  in  1824,  and  his  appeals  to 
trigues  again  resulted  in  his  removal  the  following  them  in  a  pastoral  letter  of  25  May,  1825,  bore  no  di- 
Bummer.  He  thenceforth  lived  a  private  life  in  and  rect  fruit;  out  he  obtained  their  promise  to  believe  in 
around  Innsbruck  until  the  summer  of  1818,  when  he  and  to  obey  him,  provided  the  pope  himself  should  de- 
was  ordered  by  the  Government  to  repair  to  Vienna,  clare  that  he  was  their  lawful  bishop.  Archbishop 
He  was  named  Kaplan  shortly  after  in  Kalksburg  Gruber  then  secured  leave  from  the  emperor  for 
near  Vienna,  and  died  there  as  parish-priest  in  1836.  Manzl,  Mair,  and  Simon  Laiminger,  to  make  the  jour- 

The  schism  reached  its  full  development  at  Easter,  ney  to  Rome  with  an  interpreter.  They  started  in 
1815,  when  for  the  first  time  Manzl  and  his  househola  September,  1825,  were  received  affectionately  in  the 
refused  to  receive  the  sacraments  from  the  vicar  of  Eternal  City,  and,  by  order  of  the  Holj^  Father,  were 
his  home  parish  of  Westendorf.  Tlwnoeforth  Hag-  given  a  long  and  exhaustive  course  of  instruction  by 
ileitner  was  looked  upon  by  the  Manharter  as  the  only  Sie  Camaldolese  abbot,  Mauro  Capellari  (afterwards 
priest  of  that  region  who  had  the  power"  to  confess  Gregory  XVI).  Finally,  on  18  December,  they  were 
and  to  administer  Holy  Communion.  As  a  rule  they  received  in  private  audience  by  Leo  XII,  who  con- 
no  longer  attended  public  Catholic  worship,  but  held  firmed  eve^hing  to  them  and  received  their  sub- 
independent  reunions  of  their  own.  They  refused  mission.  The  three  deputies  returned  home  in  Jan- 
even  to  receive  the  Last  Sacraments.  Thus  the  Man-  uary,  1826,  appeared  oef ore  the  archbishop,  and 
barter  first  of  all  cut  themselves  off  from  their  priests,  declared  to  him  their  allegiance.  Two  canons,  sent 
because  they  considered  them  to  have  been  excom-  into  Brixenthal  as  representatives  of  the  archbishop, 
municated.  They  went  further  and  proclaimed  that  received  the  profession  of  allegiance  of  the  remaining 
the  majority  of  French  and  German  bishops  and  Manharter.    However,  while  this  brought  back  into 

Sriests,  as  supporters  of  Napoleon  in  the  estaolished  the  Church  the  majority  of  the  sect,  which  disap- 

hurch,  had  severed  themselves  from  the  supreme  peared  entirely  from  Brixenthal,  a  certain  minority 

pontiff,  and  therefore  from  the  Catholic  Church  itself,  m  Iimthal,  led  by  a  fanatical  woman,  Maria  Sillober 

Consequently,  they  were  now  devoid  of  sacerdotal  of  Kirchbichl,  refused  to  submit  and  continued  to  per- 

powersj  all  of  their  ecclesiastical  functions  were  null  sist  in  their  sectarianism.    These  fanatics  extended 

and  void;  they  could  neither  consecrate  nor  absolve  their  opposition  even  to  the  pope  himself,  declaring 

validly.    The  Manharter  thus  believed  themselves  to  that  Leo  XII,  having  set  himself  in  contradiction  to 

be  the  only  genuine  Catholics  in  the  land,  and  they  Pius  VTI.  was  not  a  lawful  pope,  and  that  the  Holy 

professed  to  be  true  adherents  of  the  pope.     As  See  was  tor  the  time  vacant.    Thus  the  sect  endured 

strictly  conservative  champions  of  traditional  custom,  still  a  few  dozen  years  with  a  restricted  following  until 

they  protested  likewise  against  a  series  of  innovations  at  last  it  disappeared  completely  with  the  death  of  its 

which  had  been  introduced  into  the  Austrian  Church,  last  adherents. 

against  the  aboHtion  of  indulgences  and  pilgrimages,         p,^^^  ^>^  Manharter.  Bin  BeUrag  zur  Gesch.  TiroU  im  19. 

the  abrogation  of.feaet-days,  the  abohticm  of  the  /oAr^  (izuubnick,  I8fi2). 
SBturday  fast,  and  ihe  mitigation  of  that  prescribed  Friedbich  Lauchebt. 


BCANIOHiBISM 


591 


UAmOUMOM 


MaxiichiBiam  is  the  religion  founded  by  the  Persian 
Mani  in  the  latter  half  of  the  third  century.  It  piyr- 
port^d  to  be  the  true  synthesis  of  all  the  religious 
systems  then  known,  and  actually  consisted  of  Zoroas- 
trian  Dualism,  Babylonian  folklore,  Buddhist  ethics, 
and  some  small  and  superficial  addition  of  Christian 
elements.  As  the  theory  of  two  eternal  principles, 
good  and  evil,  is  predominant  in  this  fusion  of  ideas 
and  eives  colour  to  the  whole,  Manichseism  is  classified 
as  a  form  of  religious  Dualism.  It  soread  with  extraor- 
dinary rapidity  both  in  East  ana  West  and  main- 
tained a  sporadic  and  intermittent  existence  in  the 
West  (Africa,  Spain,  France,  North-Italy,  the  Balkans) 
for  a  thousand  years,  but  it  flourished  mainly  in  the 
land  of  its  birth  (Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  Turkestan) 
and  even  further  East  in  Northern  India,  Western 
China,  and  Tibet,  where,  c.  a.  d.  1000,  the  bulk  of  the 
population  professed  its  tenets  and  where  it  died  out 
at  an  uncertain  date. 

I.  Life  of  the  Founder. — Mani  (Gr.  Mdwyt,  gen. 
usually,  Md^TTOf,  sometimes  Mdi^rrof,  rarely  Mdrov;  or 
MavixoMt;  Lat.  Manes,  gen.  Manetis;  in  Augustine  al- 
ways ManichcBus)  is  a  title  and  term  of  respect  rather 
than  a  personal  name.  Its  exact  meaning  is  not  quite 
certain,  ancient  Greek  interpretations  were  ffKeOos  and 
6fu\ta,  but  its  true  derivation  is  probably  from  the  Baby- 
lonian-Aramaic MdnA ,  which  among  the  Mandseans  was 
a  term  for  a  light-spirit,  mdnd  rabl^  being  the  **  Light- 
King".  It  would  therefore  mean  "the  illustrious". 
This  title  was  assumed  by  the  founder  himself  and  so 
completely  replaced  his  personal  name  that  the  precise 
form  of  the  latter  is  not  known;  two  latinized  forms 
however  are  handed  down,  Cubricus  and  Ubricus, 
and  it  seems  likely  that  these  forms  are  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  not  unusual  name  of  Shuraik.  Although 
Manias  personal  name  is  thus  subject  to  doubt,  there  is 
no  douDt  concerning  that  of  his  father  and  family. 
His  father's  name  was  Ffi,tdk  BAb&k  (Par^/wof,  or  the 
**  Well-preserved"),  a  citizen  of  Ecbatana,  the  an- 
cient Median  capital,  and  a  member  of  the  famous 
Chascanian  Gens.  The  boy  was  bom  a.  d.  215-216 
in  the  village  of  Mardinu  in  Babylonia,  from  a 
niother  of  noble  (Arsacide)  descent  whose  name  is 
variously  given  as  Mes,  Utdchtm,  Marmarjam,  and 
Karossa.  The  father  was  evidently  a  man  of  strong 
religious  propensities,  since  he  left  Ecbatana  to  join 
the  South-Babylonian  Puritans  (Menakkede)  or  Man- 
dseans  and  had  his  son  educated  in  their  tenets. 
Manias  father  himself  must  have  displayed  consider- 
able activities  as  a  religious  reformer  and  have  been  a 
kind  of  forerunner  of  his  more  famous  son,  in  the  first 
years  of  whose  public  life  he  had  some  share.  It 
IS  not  impossible  that  some  of  Patekios's  writing  lies 
embedded  in  the  Mandsean  literature  which  has  come 
down  to  us.  Through  misunderstanding  the  Aramaic 
word  for  disciple  {Tarbithaf  stat  abs.  Tarbt),  Greek 
and  Latin  sources  speak  of  a  certain  Tepi^pdos,  Tere- 
binthus  of  Turbo,  as  a  distinct  person,  whom  they  con- 
found partially  with  Mani,  partially  with  Patekios,  and 
as  they  also  forgot  that  Mani,  besides  being  Patekios' 
great  disciple,  was  his  bodily  son,  and  that  in  conse- 
quence the  Scythian  teacher,  Scvthianus,  is  but  Fatak 
Babak  of  Hamadam,  the  Scythian  metropolis,  their 
account  of  the  first  ongins  of  Manichseism  differs  con- 
siderably from  that  given  in  Oriental  sources.  Notwith- 
standing Kessler's  ingenious  researches  in  this  field,  we 
cannot  say  that  the  relation  between  Oriental  and 
Western  sources  on  this  point  has  been  suflSciently 
cleared  up,  and  it  may  well  be  that  the  Western  tradi- 
tion going  back  through  the  *'  Acta  Archelai "  to  within 
a  century  from  Mani's  death,  contains  some  truth. 

Mani's  father  was  at  first  apparently  an  idolator,  for, 
as  he  worshipped  in  a  temple  to  his  gods  he  is  sup- 
posed to  have  heard  a  voice  urging  him  to  abstain 
trom  meat,  wine,  and  women.  In  obedience  to  this 
voice  he  emigrated  to  the  south  and  joined  tiie  Mugb- 
tasilah^  or  Mandsean  Bapt^ts,  taking  the  boy  Mani, 


with  him,  but  possibly  leaving  Mani's  mother  behind. 
Here,  at  the  age  of  twelve  Mani  is  supposed  to  have 
received  his  first  revelation.  The  aneei  EUtaum 
(God  of  the  Covenant;  Tamiel,  of  Jewish  rabbinical 
lore?),  appeared  to  him,  bade  him  leave  the  Mandseans 
and  live  chastely,  but  to  wait  still  some  twelve  years 
before  proclaiming  himself  to  the  people.  It  is  not 
unlikely  that  the  &)y  was  trained  up  to  the  profession 
of  painter,  as  he  is  often  thus  designated  in  Oriental 
(though  late)  sources. 

Babylon  was  still  a  centre  of  the  pagan  priesthood; 
here  Mani  became  thoroughlv  imbued  with  their  an- 
cient speculations.  On  Sundav,  20  March,  a.  d.  242, 
Mani  first  proclaimed  his  Gospel  in  the  royal  residence, 
Gundesapor,  on  the  coronation  day  of  Sapor  I,  when 
vast  crowds  from  all  parts  were  gathered  together. 
"  As  once  Buddha  came  to  India,  ^roaster  to  Persia, 
and  Jesus  to  the  lands  of  the  West,  so  came  in  the 
present  time  this  Prophecy  through  me,  the  Mani,  to 
the  land  of  Babylonia",  sounded  the  proclamation  of 
this  **  Apostle  of  the  true  God".  He  seems  to  have 
had  but  little  immediate  success  and  was  compelled  to 
leave  the  country.  For  many  years  he  travelled 
abroad,  founding  Manichsean  communities  in  Turkes- 
tan and  India.  When  he  finally  returned  to  Persia  he 
succeeded  in  converting  to  his  doctrine  Peroz,  the 
brother  of  Sapor  I,  and  dedicated  to  him  one  of  his 
most  important  works,  the  *'Shapurakan".  Peroi 
obtained  for  Mani  an  audience  with  the  king  and  Mani 
delivered  his  prophetical  message  in  the  royal  presence. 
We  soon  find  Mani  again  a  fugitive  from  his  native  land ; 
though  here  and  there,  as  in  Beth  Garmia,  his  teaching 
seems  to  have  taken  early  root.  While  travelling.  Mam 
spread  and  strengthened  his  doctrine  by  epistles  or 
encyclical  letters,  of  which  some  fourscore  are  known  to 
us  bv  title.  It  is  said  that  Mani  afterwards  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Sapor  I,  was  cast  into  prison,  and  only 
released  at  the  king's  death  in  274.  It  seems  certain 
that  Sapor's  successor,  Ormuzd  I,  was  favourable  to  the 
new  prophet;  perhaps  he  even  personally  released 
him  from  his  dungeon,  unless,  indeed,  Mani  had  al- 
ready effected  his  escape  by  bribing  a  warder  and 
fleeing  across  the  Roman  frontier.  Ormuzd's  favour, 
however,  was  of  little  avail,  as  he  occupied  the  Persian 
throne  only  a  single  year,  and  Bahram  I,  his  successor, 
soon  after  his  accession,  caused  Mani  to  be  crucified, 
had  the  corpse  flayed,  the  skin  stuffed  and  hune  up  at 
the  city  gate,  as  a  terrifying  spectacle  to  his  followers, 
whom  he  persecuted  with  relentless  severity.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  fixed  at  276-277. 

II.  System  of  Doctrine  and  DisaPLiNE. — Doctrine. 
— ^The  key  to  Mani's  ^rstem  is  his  cosmogony.  Onee 
this  is  known  there  is  little  else  to  learn.  In  this 
sense  Mani  was  a  true  Gnostic,  as  he  brought  salvation 
by  knowledge.  Manich£eism  professed  to  be  a  religion 
of  pure  reason  as  opposed  to  Christian  credulity;  it 
professed  to  explain  the  origin,  the  composition,  and 
the  future  of  the  universe;  it  had  an  answer  for 
everything  and  despised  Chnstianity,  which  was  fuU 
of  mysteries.  It  was  utterly  unconscious  that  its 
every  answer  was  a  mystification  or  a  whimsical  in- 
vention; in  fact,  it  gained  mastery  over  men's  minds 
by  ^e  astonishing  completeness,  minuteness,  and 
consistency  of  its  assertions. 

We  are  giving  the  cosmogony  as  contained  in  Theo- 
dore Bar  Khoni,  embodying  the  results  of  the  study  of 
Francois  Ciunont.  Before  the  existence  of  heaven 
and  earth  and  all  that  is  therein,  there  were  two  Princi- 
ples, the  one  Good  the  other  Bad.  The  Good  Principle 
dwells  in  the  realm  of  light  and  is  called  the  Father 
of  Majesty  (Grandeur  or  Greatness,  TAiytBot,  Abba 
D'rabbutna),  or  the  Father  with  the  Four  Faces  or 
Persons  (rerpairpd<n#ror),  probably  because  Time. 
Light,  Force,  and  Goodness  were  regarded  as  essential 
manifestations  of  the  First  ^ein^  oy  the  Zervanites 
(see  Cosmogony  :  Jranian) . '  Outside  the  Father  then 
are^is^fyeTabern^efeQ.^t  '^'" 


Tr\ 


KAHIOHJUfllC 


592 


ICANIOHJUSM 


Reason,  Thought,  Reflection,  and  Will  The  designa- 
tion of  *' Tabernacle"  contains  a  play  on  the  sound 
Shechina  which  means  both  dwelling  or  tent  and  *'  Di- 
vine glory  Of  presence''  and  is  used  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment to  designate  God's  presence  between  the  cheru- 
bim. These  five  tabernacles  were  pictured  on  the 
one  hand  as  stories  of  one  building — Will  beine  the 
topmost  story — and  on  the  other  hand  as  limbs  of  God's 
body.  He  indwelt  and  possessed  them  all,  so  as  to  be 
in  a  sense  identical  with  tiiem,  yet  aeain  in  a  sense  to 
be  distinct  from  them.  The^r  are  abo  designated  as 
CBons  or  worlds,  beata  scBcula  in  St.  Augustine's  writ- 
ings. In  other  sources  the  five  limbs  are;  Longanim- 
ity, Knowledge,  Reason,  Discretion,  and  Understand- 
ing. And  again  these  five  as  limbs  of  the  Father's 
spiritual  body  were  sometimes  distinguished  from  the 
five  attributes  of  his  pure  Intelligence:  Love,  Faith, 
Truth,  Highmindcdness,  and  Wisdom.  This  Father 
of  Light  together  with  the  light-air  and  the  light- 
earth,  the  former  with  five  attributes  parallel  to  his 
own  and  the  latter  with  the  five  limbs  of  Breath,  Wind 
Light,  Water,  and  Fire  constitute  the  Manichsean 
Pleroma.  This  light  world  is  of  infinite  extent  in  five 
directions  and  has  only  one  Hmit,  set  to  it  below  bv 
^e  realm  of  Darkness,  which  is  likewise  infinite  in  all 
directions  barring  the  one  above,  where  it  borders  on 
the  realm  of  light.  Opposed  to  the  Father  of  Grandeur 
is  the  King  of  Darkness.  He  is  never  actually  called 
Qod,  but  otherwise,  he  and  his  kingdom  down  below 
are  exactly  parallel  to  the  ruler  and  realm  of  the  light 
above,  "the  dark  Pleroma  is  also  triple,  as  it  were 
firmament,  air,  and  earth  inverted.  The  first  two 
(Heshuha  and  Humana)  have  the  five  attributes, 
members,  aK>ns,  or  worlds:  Pestilent  Breath,  Scorch- 
ing Wind,  Gloom,  Mist,  Consiuning  Fire;  the  last  has 
the  following  five:  Wells  of  Poison,  Columns  of  Smoke, 
Abysmal  Depths,  Fetid  Marshes,  and  Pillars  of  Fire. 
This  last  five-fold  division  is  clearly  borrowed  from 
ancient  Chaldean  ideas  current  in  Mesopotamia. 

These  two  Powers  might  have  lived  eternally  in 
peace,  had  not  the  Prince  of  Darkness  decided  to  in- 
vade the  realm  of  light.  On  the  approach  of  the 
monarch  of  chaos  the  five  seons  of  light  were  seized 
with  terror.  This  incarnation  of  evil,  called  Satan  or 
Uivdevil  {AiitfioKot  irpdrot,  Iblis  Kadim,  in  Arabic 
sources),  a  monster,  half  fish,  half  bird,  yet  with  four 
feet  and  lion-headed,  threw  himself  upward  towards 
the  confines  of  light:  The  echo  of  the  thunder  of  his 
onrush  went  through  the  blessed  seons  till  it  reached 
the  Father  of  Majesty,  who  bethinking  himself  said:  I 
will  not  send  my  five  sons,  made  for  blessed  repose,  to 
engage  in  this  war,  I  will  90  myself  and  give  battle. 
Hereupon  the  Father  of  Maiesty  emanated  the  Mother 
of  Life  and  the  Mother  of  Lite  emanated  the  First 
Man.  These  two  constitute  with  the  Father  a  sort  of 
Trinity  in  Unity,  hence  the  Father  could  say:  *'  I  my- 
self will  go".  Mani  here  assimilates  ideas  already 
Imot^  from  Gnosticism  (q,  v.,  subtitle  The  Sophia 
Myth)  and  resembling;  Chnstian  doctrine,  especially 
when  it  is  borne  in  mmd  that  *' Spirit"  is  femmine  in 
Hebrew- Aramaic  and  could  thus  easily  be  conceived  as 
A  mother  of  all  living.  The  Protanthropos  or  *'  First 
Man"  is  a  distinctly  Iranian  conception,  which  like- 
wise foimd  its  way  mto  a  number  of  Gnostic  systems 
(q.  v.),  but  which  became  the  oentral  figure  in  Mani- 
chsism.  The  myth  of  ihe  origin  of  the  world  out  of 
the  members  of  a  dead  giant  or  Ur-man  is  extremely 
ancient,  not  only  in  Iranian  speculations  but  also  in 
Indian  mytholo«y  (Rig-Veda,  A,  00).  Indeed  if  the 
myth  of  Giant  Ymir  In  Norse  Cosmogonies  (see  Coa- 
MOOony)  is  not  merely  a  medieval  mvention,  as  is 
sometimes  asserted,  this  legend  must  be  one  of  the 
earliest  possessions  of  the  Aryan  race. 

According  to  Mani  the  First-Man  now  emanates 
sons  as  a  man  who  puts  on  his  armour  for  the  combat. 
These  five  sons  are  the  five  elements  opposed  to  the 
Ave  moM  of  dMrkaow:  C^ear  Air,  Eefseehing  W^d, 


Bright  Li^t,  Life-giving  Waters,  and  Warmin£[  Fire. 
He  put  on  first  the  aerial  breeze,  then  threw  over  himself 
light  as  a  fiaming  mantle,  and  over  this  li^ht  a  cover- 
ing of  water;  he  surrounded  himself  with  gusts  of 
wind,  took  light  as  his  lance  and  shield,  and  cast  him- 
self Qownward  towards  the  line  of  danger.  An  angel 
called  Nahashbat  (?),  carry ine  a  crown  of  victory, 
went  before  him.  The  First-Man  projected  his  light 
before  him,  and  the  King  of  Darkness  seeing  it,  thought 
and  said:  *'  What  I  have  sought  from  afar,  lo;  I  found 
it  near  me".  He  also  clothed  himself  with  his  five 
elements  and  engaged  in  combat  with  the  First-Man. 
The  struggle  went  m  favour  of  the  King  of  Darkness. 
The  Firs^f  an,  when  being  overcome,  gave  himself  and 
his  five  sons  as  food  to  the  five  sons  of  Darkness, "  as  a 
man  having  an  enemy,  mixes  deadly  poison  in  a  cake, 
and  gives  it  to  his  foe ' .  W^hen  these  five  re^lendcnt 
deities  had  been  absorbed  by  the  sons  of  Darkness, 
reason  was  taken  a%vay  from  them  and  they  became 
through  the  poisonous  admixture  with  the  sons  of 
Darkness,  like  unto  a  man  bitten  by  a  wild  dog  or  ser- 
pent. Thus  the  evil  one  conquered  for  a  while.  But 
the  First-Man  recovered  his  reason  and  prayed  seven 
times  to  the  Father  of  Maiesty,  who  being  moved  by 
mercy,  emanated  as  second  creation,  the  Friend  of  the 
Light,  this  Friend  of  the  Light  emanated  the  Great 
Ban,  and  the  Great  Ban  emanated  the  Spirit  of  Life. 
Thus  a  second  trinity  parallel  to  the  first  (Father  of 
Light,  Mother  of  Life,  First  ManJ  comes  into  existence. 
The  first  two  personages  of  the  latter  trinity  have  not 
yet  been  explained  and  particularly  the  meaning  of 
the  Great  Ban  is  a  puzzle,  but  as  in  the  former  trinity,  it 
is  the  third  person,  who  does  the  actual  work,  the  Spirit 
of  Life  (Tb  ZQw  liveO/xa),  who  becomes  the  demiui^ 
or  world-former.   Like  the  First-Man  he  emanates  five 

gersonalities:  from  his  intelligence  the  Ornament  of 
plendour  (Sefath  Ziva,  Splcnditenens,  ip€yy6Karoxot 
in  Greek  and  Latin  sources),  from  his  reason  the  Great 
King  of  Honour,  from  his  thought  Adamas,  Light, 
from  his  self-reflection  the  Iving  of  Glory,  and  from 
his  will  the  Supporter  (Sabhla:  Atlas  and  *Qfio4>6pos  of 
Greek  and  Latm  sources).  These  five  deities  were 
objects  of  special  worship  amongst  Manichseans,  and 
St.  Augustine  (Contra  Faustum,  aV)  eives  us  descrip- 
tions 01  them  drawn  from  Manichsean  hymns. 

These  five  descend  to  the  realm  of  Darkness,  find 
the  First-Man  in  his  degradation  and  rescue  him  by 
the  word  of  their  power;  his  armour  remains  behind, 
but  lifting  him  by  the  right  hand  the  Spirit  of  Life 
brings  him  back  to  the  Mother  of  Life.  The  fashion- 
ing of  the  world  now  begins.  Some  of  the  sons  of  the 
Spirit  of  Life  kill  and  flay  the  archons  or  sons  of 
Darloiess  and  bring  them  to  the  Mother  of  Life.  She 
spreads  out  their  skins  and  forms  twelve  heavens. 
Their  corpses  are  hurled  on  the  realm  of  Darkness  and 
eight  worlds  are  made,  their  bones  form  the  mountain 
ranges.  The  Ornament  of  Splendour  holds  the  five 
resplendent  deities  by  their  waist  and  below  their 
waist  the  heavens  are  extended.  Atlas  carries  all  on 
his  shoulders,  the  Great  King  of  Honour  sits  on  top  of 
the  heavens  and  guards  over  all.  The  Spirit  of  Life 
forces  the  sons  of  Darkness  to  surrender  some  of  the 
light  which  they  had  absorbed  from  the  five  elements 
and  out  of  this  he  forms  the  s\m  and  the  moon  (ves- 
sels of  ligjht,  lucidcB  naves  in  St.  Aug.)  and  the  stars. 
The  Spirit  of  Life  further  makes  the  wheels  of  the 
wind  under  the  earth  near  the  Supporter.  The  King 
of  Glory  by  some  creation  or  otner  enables  these 
\dieel8  to  mount  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  thus 
prevents  the  five  resplendent  deities  from  being  set 
on  fire  by  the  poison  of  the  archons.  The  text  of 
Theodore  Bar  Khoni  is  here  so  confused  and  corrupt 
that  it  is  difi^cult  to  catch  the  meanine;  probably 
wind,  water,  air,  and  fire  are  considered  protective 
coverings,  encircling  and  enveloping  the  gross  material 
earthy  and  revolving  around  it. 
At  this  stage  of  the  cosmogony  the  Mother  of  lofot 


ICANIOHiBISM 


593 


HANIOHiBISM 


the  First-Man,  and  the  Spirit  of  Life  beg  and  beseech 
the  Father  of  Majesty  for  a  further  creation  and  as 
third  creation  he  emanated  the  Messenger;  in  Latin 
sources  this  is  the  so-called  Legatus  Tertius.  This 
Messenger  emanates  twelve  virgins  with  their  gar- 
ments, crowns,  and  garlands,  namely  Royalty,  Wis- 
dom, Victory,  Persuasion,  Purity,  Truth,  Faith, 
Patience,  Righteousness,  Goodness,  Justice,  and  Light. 
The  Messenger  dwells  in  the  sun  and,  coming  towards 
these  twelve  virgin-vessels,  he  commands  nis  three 
attendants  to  make  them  revolve  and  soon  they  reach 
the  height  of  the  heavens.  All  this  is  a  transparent 
metaphor  for  the  planetary  system  and  the  signs  of  the 
sodiac.  No  sooner  do  the  heavens  rotate  than  the 
Messenger  commands  the  Great  Ban  to  renovate  the 
earth  and  make  the  Great  "Wheels  (Air,  Fire,  and 
Water)  to  mount.  The  Great  Universe  now  moves, 
but  as  yet  there  is  no  life  of  plants,  beasts,  or  man. 
The  production  of  vegetative,  animal,  and  rational 
life  on  earth  is  a  process  of  obscenity,  cannibalism, 
abortion,  and  prize-fighting  between  the  Messenger 
and  the  sons  and  daughters  of  Darkness,  the  details  of 
which  are  better  pa^ed  over.  Finally  Naimrael,  a 
female,  and  Ashaklun  a  male  devil,  brine  forth  two 
children,  Adam  and  Eve.  In  Adam's  boay  were  im- 
prisoned a  vast  number  of  germs  of  light.  He  was  the 
E'eat  captive  of  the  Power  of  Evil.  The  Powers  of 
ight  had  pity  and  sent  a  Saviour,  the  luminous  Jesus. 
This  Jesus  approached  innocent  Adam,  awoke  him 
from  his  sleep  of  death,  made  him  move,  drew  him  out 
of  his  slumber,  drove  away  the  seductive  demon,  and 
enchained  far  away  from  him  the  mighty  female  ar- 
chon.  Adam  reflected  on  himself  ana  knew  that  he 
existed.  Jesus  then  instructed  Adam  and  showed  him 
the  Fathers,  dwelling  in  the  celestial  heights,  and 
Jesus  showed  him  his  own  personality,  exposed  to  all 
things,  to  the  teeth  of  the  panther,  the  teeth  of  the 
elephant,  devoured  by  the  greedy,  swallowed  by  glut- 
tons, eaten  by  dogs,  mixed  with  and  imprisoned  in  all 
that  exists,  encompassed  by  the  evil  oaours  of  Dark- 
ness. Manias  weird  but  mighty  imagination  had  thus 
created  a  "suffering  Saviour''  and  given  him  the  name 
of  Jesus.  But  this  Saviour  is  but  the  personification  of 
the  Ck)smic  Light  as  far  as  imprisoned  in  matter,  there- 
fore it  is  diffused  throughout  all  nature,  it  is  bom, 
suffers,  and  dies  every  day,  it  is  crucified  on  every  tree, 
it  is  daily  eaten  in  all  fooa.  This  captive  Cosmic  Light 
is  called  Jesu8  patibilia.  Jesus  then  made  Adam  stand 
up  and  taste  of  the  tree  of  life.  Adam  then  looked 
around  and  wept.  He  mightily  lifted  up  his  voice  as  a 
roaring  lion.  He  tore  his  hair  and  struck  his  breast 
and  said,  "Cursed  be  the  creator  of  my  body  and  he 
who  bound  my  soul  and  they  who  have  made  me  their 
slave. "  Man's  duty  henceforth  is  to  keep  his  body 
pure  from  all  bodily  stain  by  practising  self-denial  and 
to  help  also  in  the  great  work  of  puri&ation  through- 
out the  universe.  ManichsBan  eschatology  is  in  keep- 
ing with  its  cosmogony.  When,  mainly  through  the 
activity  of  the  elect,  all  light-particles  have  been 
gathered  together,  the  Messenger,  or  Legatus  Tertius, 
appears,  the  Spirit  of  Life  comes  from  the  west,  the 
First-Man  with  his  hosts  comes  from  north,  south,  and 
east,  together  with  all  light  seons  and  all  perfect  Mani- 
chsans.  Atlas,  the  World-Supporter,  throws  his  bur- 
den away,  the  Ornament  of  Splendour  above  lets  go, 
and  thus  heaven  and  earth  smk  into  the  abyss.  A 
universal  conflagration  ensues  and  bums  on  imtil  noth- 
ing but  lightless  cinders  remain.  This  fire  continues 
during  1486  years,  during  which  the  torments  of  the 
wicked  are  the  delight  of  the  just.  When  the  separa- 
tion of  light  from  darkness  is  finally  completed,  all 
angels  of  li^ht  who  had  functions  in  the  creation 
return  on  hieh;  the  dark  world-soul  sinks  away  in 
the  depth,  which  is  then  clcraed  forever  and  eternal 
tranquillity  reigiis  in  the  realm  of  light,  no  more  to 
be  invaded  by  darkness.  With  reganl  to  the  after- 
death  of  the  individual,  Manichsism  taught  a  three-, 
IX.— 38 


fold  state  prepared  for  the  Perfect,  the  Hearers,  and 
the  Sinners  (non-Manichseans).  The  souls  of  the 
first  are  after  death  received  by  Jesus,  who  is  sent  by 
the  First-Man  accompanied  by  three  SBons  of  light  and 
the  Light-Maiden.  They  give  the  deceased  a  water- 
vessel,  a  garment,  a  turban,  a  crown,  and  a  wreath  of 
light.  In  vain  do  evil  angels  lie  in  his  path,  he  scorns 
them  and  on  the  ladder  of  praise  he  mounts  first  to  the 
moon,  then  to  the  First  Man,  the  Sun,  the  Mother  of 
Life,  and  finally  to  the  Supreme  Light.  The  bodies  of 
the  Perfect  are  purified  by  sun,  moon  and  stars;  their 
light-particles,  set  free,  mount  to  the  First  Man  and 
are  formed  into  minor  deities,  surrounding  his  person. 
The  fate  of  the  heavens  is  ultimately  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Perfect,  but  they  have  to  pass  through  a  long 

Eurgatory  before  they  arrive  at  eternal  bliss.  Sinners, 
owever,  must  after  death  wander  about  in  torment 
and  anguish,  surrounded  by  demons  and  condenmed 
by  the  angels,  till  the  end  of  the  world,  when  they  are, 
body  and  soul,  thrown  into  hell. 

Discipline. — ^To  set  the  light-substance  free  from 
the  pollution  of  matter  was  the  ultimate  aim  of  all 
Manichaean  life.  Those  who  entirely  devoted  them- 
selves to  this  work  were  the  "Elect "  or  "the  Perfect", 
the  Primates  ManicJuBorum;  those  who  through  hu- 
man fraility  felt  unable  to  abstain  from  all  earthly  joys, 
though  they  accepted  Manichsean  tenets,  were  the 
Hearers",  auditoreSf  or  catechumens.  The  former 
bear  a  striking  similarity  to  Buddhist  monks,  only  wiih 
this  difference  that  they  were  always  itinerant,  being 
forbidden  to  settle  anywhere  permanently.  The  life 
of  these  ascetics  was  a  hard  one.  They  were  for- 
bidden to  have  property,  to  eat  meat  or  drink  wine,  to 
gratify  any  sexiial  desire,  to  engage  in  any  servile  occu- 
pation, commerce  or  trade,  to  possess  house  or  home, 
to  practise  magic,  or  to  practise  any  other  religion. 
Their  duties  were  sunmied  up  in  the  three  signw:ula, 
i.  e.,  seals  or  closures,  that  of  the  mouth,  of  the  hands, 
and  of  the  breast  (oriSj  manuum,  sinus).  The  first 
forbade  all  evil  words  and  all  evil  food.  Animal  food 
roused  the  demon  of  Darkness  within  man,  hence  only 
vegetables  were  allowed  to  the  perfect.  Amongst 
vegetables,  some,  as  melons  and  fruit  containing  oil, 
were  specially  recommended,  as  they  were  thought  to 
contain  many  light-particles,  and  by  being  consumed 
by  the  perfect  these  light  particles  were  set  free.  The 
second  forbade  all  actions  detrimental  to  the  light- 
substance,  slaying  of  animals,  plucking  of  fruit,  etc. 
The  third  forbade  all  evil  thoughts,  whether  against 
the  Manichsean  faith  or  against. purity.  St.  Angus* 
tine  (especially  "De  Moribus  ^nich.")  strongly  in- 
veighs i^ainst  the  Manichseans'  repudiation  of  mar- 
riage. They  regarded  it  as  an  evil  in  itself  because  the 
propagation  of  the  human  race  meant  the  continual 
re-imprisonment  of  the  light  substance  in  matter  and 
a  retarding  of  the  blissful  consunmiation  of  all  things; 
maternity  was  a  calamity  and  a  sin  and  Manichseans 
delighted,  to  tell  of  the  seduction  of  Adam  by  Eve  and 
her  nnal  punishment  in  eternal  danmation.  In  conse- 
quence there  was  a  danger  that  the  act  of  generation, 
rather  than  the  act  of  unchastity  was  abhorred,  ana 
that  this  was  a  real  danger  Augustine's  writings  testify. 
The  number  of  the  Perfect  was  naturally  very  smill 
and  in  studying  Manichseism  one  is  particularly  struck 
by  the  extreme  paucity  of  individual  Perfecti  known  in 
history.  The  vast  bulk  of  Mani's  adherents — ^ninety- 
nine  out  of  every  hundred — were  Hearers.  They 
were  bound  by  Mani's  Ten  Commandments  only,  whicn 
forbade  idolatry,  mendacity,  avarice,  murder  (i.  e.  all 
killing),  fornication,  theft,  seduction  to  deceit,  magic, 
hypocrisy  (secret  infidelity  to  Manichseism),  and  re- 
ligious indifference.  The  first  positive  duty  seems  to 
have  been  the  maintenance  ana  almost  the  worship  of 
the  Elect.  They  supplied  them  with  vegetables  for 
food  and  paid  them  homage  on  bended  knee,  asking  for 
their  blessin^g.  They  regarded  them  as  superior  bern^n, 
Qay>  coUect^vely,^  they  were  thought  to  conMitu^^^ 


594 


MAMlCBMUaa 


oozniiLir.'inier.r-:  rhv.-*-  v**:!*  rh-i  r^o  d'-i*.:«  commor.  to 
all.  pravfrr  ir.i  rVrir.z. 

late  IT.  *.zj:  a::r:.T->j.-..  ar'.er  -:;r--f::.  ir.-:  tr-i^e  lo^it; 
Latf-r.     Prav'rr  -wi^  rr-i'l-?  fioir.z  \zj-  ?':r-.  or.  in  '.he 

viiir.ir.  th'-r.  fL-^  Nor.r..  i'l.^  tLr'-r.e  o:  the  L:zc.>K:r.z. 
It  'xi^.  pr^r-i-i  J"  •■•  i  rr-r-^-rr-or-iil  pur! £■:&•. :■:■:.  wltn 
wa%::r  or  for  I:i.:ic  o: 'va-.-r  'a-^.L  ^^mv  o':h»::r  ?--h<r?ir*ce 
in  the  Mohir^jr.v'iir.  ri-r.ior..  TLr  '"Liily  prav*-r?  Tirere 
accorr.rar.iei  r.y  -.-a-^I-.v-  pr-i-^rravlor^-  ar.i  i'l-fresitii  to 
the  viir.o-i-  p-.r=o :.::!:•:•■-'•  ;r.  •L-:  roiilni  or  lizht:  the 
Father o:  Mjij*^?:*.'.-.  •!..  F :r-*  Mar.,  th-:-  I^zii*'is  Ter:-±=. 
the  Pira'^ifr^:  M:i:.i  .  •.:.--  Fiv*?  Elr=.-:r.*-=.  ar.d  =o  or.. 
They  '^or-TiT*.  nalr-Iy  ■>:  i  -rrir-zo:  la'iL.*or.'  ^pitL«:t.-  arji 
cor.tair.  ryi".  l:r:>  =:r.'_r.I^?a':!or..  A.-;  •.i.-r.-^  ar.i  a'tit'-tie 
of  pray«rr  ^'-rr-  ir.';:r-iv!y  -  or-r.-KV:-!  •^■i*::  a-rror.orr.;- 
cal  pL*:r.omeri.  r«-F  lik-.'  :.-^  ws.-f  'h-r  i-ty  o:  fi.=:L'e. 
All  ra^Tr  :  or.  T.v  ::r-'  Ajt/  >;:  ':.*:  -^^-rk  ir.  hor.^-ir  of 
the  s'ir..  rh*-  P'rrfv'.t  al.-^j  fi-r'ri  or.  *.L*-  -^fco:.  i  'lay  ir. 
hor:o':ro:  :ho  r::<:-or..  All  k-^r.:  rhv  :a-:  'i;rlr.e  t'^v-o 
dav=  a::^r  f:v-r."  z.r'x-  rr.x.r. :  ur.i  o:.-?'.-  a  ytiir  at  th*.- 
fu5  rr-->.»:..  ar.  i  at  ':.^  r.»:-£.r.r.]r.eo :".:.-  :.r^'  viarter  of 
th^  rr-r-'^r..  Mor^-ovvr  a  rr^or.th'y  ::i-r*.  o'  -serv-i-fi  -iil 
suri.-T*:". .  "»a=  '.♦•^■:^  or.  •:.•>  eishti-  day  of  -hr:  nior-tr.. 
hi  rlTr*  ar,r!  '^f-r^rrr.or.iv-s  an:  .-r.^-t  '.'i.f^  MarJ-.hjear.T  r  .:t 
VTer>-  Iirt>  i.r  kr,  j-at.  to  'i.-?.  Tr.  y  haii  o:.r  sr^ii:  ^jl-ni- 
nhy.  th-at  of  '.v    fjf-rria    st:'2      thv  ar.r.iv.  r^ar;/  of 

And  -r-"""''^"-'  ">=■■  ■'  "  ^         X'   r-""-  •  *v  r  •  j"-  v. -v-  "■'■■-.",-•■    -,- 

■*?••  '»■■  *|  *f-  • 

de-ta:!--  ar*=:  a-  >^t  -::.kr-0'.vT..     .St.  A  iz  ..*-:::-•-:  '■■or::  !^:'..r 
that  thouzh  Mar.:'':L*ar.^  rrr:-*^rr.':v'i  to  :•-  rhri^*;.-..-.- 
their  f'ra.-t  of  tr.'.-  'i-ath  of  Niar.:  •:-xc»>:-'i'=-i  ir.  =o-»:r..:.:ty 
that  of  th'=:  I>.-ath  ar.-l  Reauirtctiori  of  Christ. 

Mar.icLsar..-;  in'i.-t  r^v«?  pK)^.=e=.-*>'i  a  kirid  of  harTSri 
and  ''.-•^c'r-irl';*.  Tr.r  op>r'.r:  on  haptiim.  whi'h  o«?- 
curm-i  ar:;o:.z  th*--  =ii.cTf:^i  lit^-rafirc:  of  the  Mani'.-hjta:.-. 
13  ur.forr:.'.at*-ly  los*.  ar.i  in  *l»r>ntal  50'irceT=  th^  mat- 
ter L?  no*  r'^;frrrp-i  to.  but  Chrlrtian  JiO'irce^  rupporfe  ^he 
existence  of  ryjth  thfr^:  rlt*-?.  O:  zr*.ater  importance.- 
than  rapt:--m  wa.--  ♦hp*  Cv?  -".''*''»<*  ;-tr»;  or  "'tl'or.-ola- 
tion",an  irrip*>^::ion  of  Lan-l*  r>yon*r  of  the  E!r-:t  I  y 
which  a  H'rarer  wi-  receivel  axno.nz'-'t  their  nimrvr. 
The  ManichsFran  hi  .rarchy  and  con-tit  irion  i.s  -till 
involved  in  owcurlty.  Man:  evidently  inter.d'^i  to 
pro\~lde  a  siipreme  hv-ad  for  the  multitude  of  his 
follower-.  He  even  decided  that  h:.^  succc'r-sor  i:. 
th:«  dizr.ity  .-hoild  reside  in  Baby  ion.  Thi*  hizh 
pre.^*ho<''i  i=  kno'vn  in  Arabic  =ourc».':"  a.*  the  Z^*'.:- 
mcu.  In  the  Flar*  i*  .T^-enL?  to  have  r>o*re?s«ed  at  !ea*t 
some  temr-jrar/  im:.or:ance.  in  thfi*  Wf.-az  it  s^«=^rr-s 
hardly  kno-^T.  or  r^rcoz.^  Ized.  \o  1: -t  of  t h^-se  .'Supreme 
Pon'iffs  of  Manicha.-i-m  ha-  come  down  to  u*:  har«i:y  a 
name  or  two  >  kr.own  to  hi.-*or.*.  It  i'  doubt ful  -  v-  n 
whether  the  f-hair  of  Mani  did  not  remain  vacant  f-.r 
lonz  perlvb .  On  t  he  d  u •  :•■  -  a :.  i  r -ri  vi  i-ze •:  of  t  he  I  ma- 
mate  '.ve  pO'.=':-T=.=  af  present  no  :r. formation.  Acr-ord- 
imr  to  ^^ e-terr:  a:.l  Ila-'err.  .-o'lrce*  the  ManicL;ean 


Church  wiT  di-.id'.d  i:.*o  ':v»^  hi^-rarchical  c;a."vi*.?: 
St.  A^iZ':-=!":ne  name^  *hem  v.-iv:;:'.-;.-:'.  <rp •".•/•  r/f.  }'rt:.i- 
IrjtKri,  kU'I'.x,  *jkrA  •i.-i:i'-^e-:  x\.'>.  Chr;.-'ian:z»-d  termi- 
noloey*  repre-en*.--  in  .Manirhjran  my-tical  lar.piaze  'he 
son^  of  m*;ekne.ST.  of  rea.'^jn.  of  kj'iOwl».-flze.  oi  my.ster} . 
and  01  under? tandinz.  Manis  a.-trologica!  pr^-^iilec- 
tion=  for  'he  n:mr<r  five,  t-o  evident  in  his  ro-mo- 
gony.  e\idently  -'icz'-rtM  this  divl-ion  for  h:=  Church 
or  kinzdom  of  the  iizht  on  earth.  The  Teachers 
and  Admini.-rtrator*  r'-.n-si^  *r{  *-r  *  ry-  ^rnjA  are  rroba"' -Iv 
an  adaptatior:  ot  the  X^/o:^€j  rj:.d  ^^^vrtt,  *he  speakers 
and  the  doers? ,  known  in  Gr^r-k  an-i  Bahiylor.ian  myster- 
ies; and  the  name  'prierts''  is  probahly  taken  over 
from  the  Sabian  Kura. 

V\'ith  regard  to  the  relation  of  Manichaei.'-m  to  Chris- 
tianity two  things  are  clear:  a.  Some  connexion  with 
Cl«^-*"*''ity  was  intended  from  the  very  first  by  Man! 


him>*?If.  it  was  not  an  after-thouzht.  intrfjduciSil  when 
Manzchsism  came  in  touch  w-.th  'he  West,  as  is  sone^ 
times  assertefL  TTirlstianity  was  the  preiocsinAnt 
relizio.n  inC>srhoene.  and  perhac'r  the  prlnc:p«il  relizion 
in  all  MetK>potamia  in  Mani  s  time.  Man:.  wh«:-5#?  :h- 
]ect  was  to  found  a  sj'rtem.  ccmprehensive  cf  all  re- 
iizions  then  known,  could  not  "^  ut  tr.-  to  incorrvratc- 
Christianity.  In  the  5r=t  wori-  of  his  rro«:lairia*:o:i 
on  the  coronation  day  of  Saf->r  I.  he  mentioneii  Jesus. 
who  ha«i  come  to  the  countries  of  the  West.  h  The 
connexion  was  purely  external  and  ar  i^jlal.  Tbe  sub- 
stance of  Manic hJE-ism  was  Chali-an  istr':'.'?zy  and 
folklore  cast  in  a  rlzid  d^ialistio  mi-uld:  if  Christianity 
was  brouzht  in.  it  was  only  thro'^h  f  ^rre  ::  h-?rorloal 
circumstances.  Christianity  could  nrt  r-r  izn«:red. 
In  conse^-juence  1  Man:  pr«.<:Iaimf:-i  h:n.^l:  the  Para- 
clete pr«jmi*e»i  by  J':-s*.:i:  2  rt;-i:':»>i  "rhe  whole  cf  the 
I  »li  Testament.  :.ut  adn-itt.:  i  a*  nr.uoh  ^"^z  the  New  as 
sTiited  him:  in  pa.ric-ilar  h-  rfLJ-:-— t^d  the  Ar.s  of  the 
Ap>stlrs.  l^ca'ir»;  it  told  of  th-  d-7^>r:.t  of  the  Hcly 
Gno=t  in  the  r-a.-r..  The  fn-Trel*  w-re  corrjptei  in 
many  places,  but  where  a  ttxt  ?eeni"'i  to  favour  bizn 
the  Manichee  knew  how  ti^  parade  i*.  'I'ne  ^  ^«  to 
n-ad  .^t.  A:;z-;stin«^"?  anti-Mar.:  hf a r.  ii-put«  to  real- 
ize the  extreme  inzen'.uty  v%;-h  whi'.h  Scrlpfir*^  texts 
were  coi;ect»-*i  an-i  interT.r»:t«:d.  ;.■  Tho'.xh  Man: 
called  h::r_=.:!f  the  Paraclvti-.  hv  o'.aime*!  no  Di'.-inity 
but  wi:h  show  of  h'lmili'y  -tyie-i  hiniTfilf  "  Ar-:>st:e  of 
Jesu-;  Christ  *r.y  the  Pr-- v!  !•  nee  of  '>■•■;  the  Fsthr^r": 
a  'iv-i^.a-.i-jn  v.h:.n  >  •.' •-: ju*:y  aaar't^i  :r:m  "ne 
:.-a.:.:.r  of  the  Pa-iline  F;.  i-^l-s.  Mini,  h./'^^'evvr.  wjk< 
•;.v  .V:->*1---  «::  J.-.-:  rhris*.  i.  »•.  thv  -M':-?s«Lrz'=r  of 
Cl.r:.-:*  -  X'T'tTzz^. .  rha*  Paraoi-.te  whom  He  sent  aToo-- 
-:  •::  *-o::i  aTw-AX-;.  •«..  -^n  i  .  Mani's  bLiSr-hemo'-xs 
..;  r:.:-ition  was  thus  tone!  down  a  little  to  Christian 
earv.  ■  4  ■  Jesus  ChrL-t  was  to  Mani  but  an  apon  or  sub- 
.-i.-tent  jyirsonincation  of  the  Lizht  in  the  world:  as 
f -r  a-  it  hjid  already  S:<n  s*-t  fr»"*^  it  wa«  the  luminous 
Jesu.*  or  J€*'iJ!  p-.t'^/lii.  •'»  Ti.-  h>tor:oa!  Jesus  of 
Nazart-th  wa.?  e:.*ir».:y  rt^-rudirivl  by  Mani.  "The 
•on  of  a  poc»r  wi-low"  Mari"  .  'the  J«:w:ih  MtSi?:as. 
whom  the  Jews  cr;'.:r.»vl  ".  "a  <ie'.-i'..  who  v»-:is  just ly 
punishe*!  for  ir.trrvrinz  in  the  u-rk  i-f  the  ^on 
Jcs'is"".  such  wa^  at.'.-c  rdinz  to  Ma:.:,  the  Christ  w-hom 
Christians  wr.r>hiri-^i  a?  <.ic-i.  Man:?  Chrlstology 
war  p'in?;y  Dix'ttit..  hi?  Ch.-lst  apr^are^i  '..j  hv  man.^o 
live,  suffer,  and  di-.-  to  syn.r-jlize  the  Iizht  ^u^crlnz  in 
this  world.  Thouzh  Mar.i  'ise^i  the  term  "■  Evangel" 
for  hif?  messaze.  his  E  vang-l  wa-  cl-Larly  in  no  real  s^nse 
that  of  the  Chr>va:.*.  ~r>  Mani  r.nai'.y  r^^z'^ied  the 
unwarj-  by  the  us*:-  c.f  *uch  aprarently  ih.'^ls'rian  terms 
as  Father,  .tyjn.  and  Holy  lihost  tij  dvsiznate  Di\-ine 
personalitif-s.  but  a  zlanoe  at  his  Ci-*sn;ozony  shows 
how  riim-sv  was  the  disz*;L"?*--.  N*:  vvrh-.lvss.  Mani- 
chaean?  sr-oke  so  cautiou-ly.  urzi:.z  r  n'.y  faith  in  God. 
His  light!  Hi--  power,  ani  Hi-  wisii'-^ni  In  r»>a:ity  "the 
Father  of  Majesty":  th^-  -ur.  ani  rvx*n:  the  r.ve 
blesses i  afon*.  his  ^itn*:  and  the  Mani-.hiean  religion  . 
That  they  dt-ceiveii  many. 

III.  HisTOP.v  IX  THf.  E.iST. — Nov.v:-l'>tand:nz  the 
bitttn^s*  p*jrs^'CUtio::  by  thv  Sa-sa:. :■:•■*  in  Ptrsi^*  as 
well  as  by  the  cmp<:n>r?  a*  Ron:-.-.  Mani-.hitism  sprtad 
very  rapidly.  Its  grt;a*es'  sUv'-.-;-s  wa.-?  achieved  :-. 
countries  to  the  pa.st  r-f  Per-ia.  In  a.  r>.  1"«»  the 
.\rab  historian  A!-B*.-ru!.i  wr-v:  -The  majority  of 
the  Eastern  Turk.-,  th-  irha- itar.'s  ^^i  China  and 
Tibet  and  a  numUr  in  I  id:  a  ':  » l«:'r.z  to  'he  >Mzion  of 
Manh"  The  recent  nnd-  -v  ManichLean  literature  and 
painting  at  Turfan  corroN'rate  this  statomont.  Within 
a  gent^ration  after  Mani's  li^ath  his  foliowtrs  had  sot- 
tied  on  the  Malabar  Cast  an.i  gave  the  name  to 
Manierama .  i .  e . " '  st-t  t  lemm t  of  .^Ia  ni " ' .  T he  Chi nese 
inscriptions  of  Kara  Belza-sum.  once  thought  to  refer 
to  the  Xestorlans.  doub^!!.-^-  have  r\i\'r»?nce  to  the 
existence  of  Manfiha-ism.  The  zrv:i'  Turkish  tril^  of 
the  Tuzuzzuz  in  ^y-^O  threatenk-.i  r--:r:-N:iLs  vn  Moham- 
medans? inthcl-  p^wi.'r  if  'ht  ManijL.fa:.s  i:.  Samar- 


MANICBLfiISM 


595 


MAHIOHiBISM 


cand  were  molested  by  the  Prince  of  Chorazaii,  in 
whose  dominion  they  were  yety  numerous.  Detailed 
information  on  the  extreme  Eastern  Manichseans  is 
stiU  lacking.  In  Persia  and  Babybnia  proper,  Mani- 
chseism  seems  never  to  have  been  the  predominant 
religion,  but  the  Manichaians  enjoyed  tnere  a  large 
amount  of  prosperity-  aiid  toleration  under  Mahoname- 
dan  rule.  Some  caliphs  were  actually  favourable  to 
Manichseism,  and  it  had  a  number  of  secret  sympa- 
thizers throughout  Islam.  Though  not  numerous  in 
the  capital,  Bagdad,  they  were  scattered  in  the  vil- 
lages and  hamlets  of  the  Irak.  Their  prosperity  and 
intimacy  of  social  intcreourse  with  non-Manichseans 
aroused  the  indignation  of  the  Puritan  part)r  amongst 
Mani's  followers,  and  this  led  to  the  formation  of  tne 
heresy  of  Miklas,  a  Persian  ascetic  in  the  eighth  century. 

As  Manichseism  adopted  three  Christian  apocrypha, 
the  Gospel  of  Thomas,  the  Teaching  of  Addas,  ana  the 
Shepherd  of  Hennas,  the  legend  was  soon  formed  that 
Tliomas,  Addas,  and  Hermas  were  the  first  great  apos- 
tles of  Mani's  system.  Addas  is  supposed  to  have 
spread  it  in  the  Orient  (t4  t^i  dyaroXrjs),  Thomas  in 
Syria,  and  Hennas  in  Eeypt.  Manichsism  was  cer- 
tainly known  in  Judea  lx?fore  Mani's  death;  it  was 
brought  to  Elcutheropolis  by  Akouas  in  274  (Epiph., 
*'H«r.",  LXVI,  1).  St.  Ephrem  (378)  complained 
that  no  country  was  more  infected  with  Manichsism 
than  Mesopotamia  in  his  day,  and  Manicha^ism  main- 
tained its  ground  in  Edessa  even  in  a.  d.  450.  The  fact 
that  it  was  comlmted  by  Eusebius  of  Emesus,  George 
and  Apollinaris  of  Laodicea,  Diodorus  of  Tarsus,  John 
(Chrysostom)  of  Antioch,  Epiphanius  of  Salamis,  and 
Titus  of  Bostra,  shows  how  early  and  ubiquitous  was 
the  danger  of  Manichseism  in  Western  Asia.  Alx)ut 
A.  D.  404,  Julia,  a  lady  of  Antioch,  tried  by  her  riches 
and  culture  to  pervert  the  city  of  Gaza  to  ^la^ichaJism, 
but  without  success.  In  Jerusalem  St.  C3'ril  had  many 
converted  Manicha'ans  amongist  his  catechumens  and 
refuted  their  errors  at  length.  St.  Nilus  knew  of 
secret  Manicha^ans  in  Sinai  before  a.  d.  430. 

In  no  country  did  Manichaeism  enter  more  insidi- 
ously into  Christian  life  than  in  Egj'pt.  One  of  the 
governors  of  Alexandria  under  Constantine  was  a 
Manichxan,  who  treated  the  Catholic  bishops  with 
unheard-of  severity.  St.  Athanasius  says  of  Anthony 
the  Hermit  (330)  that  he  forbade  all  intercourse  with 
"Maniclucans  and  other  heretics". 

In  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire  it  came  to  the  zenith 
of  its  power  about  a.  d.  375-400,  but  then  rapidly 
declined.  But  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  it 
once  more  rose  into  prominence.  The  Emperor  Justin- 
ian himself  dispute<i  wnth  them;  Photinus  the  Mani- 
chiean  publicly  disputed  with  Paul  the  Persian. 
Manicliu^isin  obtained  adherents  amongst  the  highest 
classes  of  society.  Barsymes,  the  Nestorian  prefect  of 
Theodora,  was  an  avowe<l  Manichiean.  But  tliis  re- 
cnidescence  of  Manicha?ism  was  soon  suppres.sed. 

Soon,  however,  under  the  name  either  of  Paulicians 
or  Bogomiles,  it  again  invaded  the  Byzantine  Empire, 
after  having  lain  hidden  for  a  time  on  Mussulman 
territory.  The  following  are  the  imperiul  edicts 
launched  against  Manicha>ism:  Diocletian  (Alexan- 
dria, 31  March,  296)  commands  the  Proconsul  of 
.Africa  to  persecute  them,  he  speaks  of  them  as  a  sordid 
and  impure  sect  recently  come  from  Persia,  which  he  is 
determined  to  destroy  root  and  branch  (utirpilun  am- 
putari).  Itjs  leaders  and  propagators  must  Ix?  burnt, 
together  with  their  hooks;  the  rank  and  file  Ix^headed, 
|H»ople  of  note  condemned  to  the  mines,  and  their 
goods  confiscate<l.  This  edict  remained  at  least  nomi- 
nally in  force  under  Constantine  and  Constantitis. 
lender  Julian  the  .\postate  Manichieism  seems  to  have 
beon  tolerated.  Valentinian  I  and  (iratian,  though 
tolerant  of  other  sects,  made  exception  of  the  Mani- 
clurans.  TheiNlosius  I,  by  an  e<lict  of  381,  dedared 
ManicliMMMs  to  l>e  without  civil  rights  and  incapaUeof 
testamentary  disposition.    In  the  following  year  Ik 


condemned  them  to  death  under  the  name  of  Encm> 
tites,  Saccophores,  and  Hydroparastates.  Valentinian 
II  confiscated  their  goods,  annulled  their  wills,  and 
sent  them  into  exile.  Honorius  in  405  renewed  the 
edicts  of  his  predecessors,  and  fined  all  governors  of 
cities  or  provinces  who  were  remiss  in  carr>'ing  out  his 
orders;  ne  invalidated  all  their  contracts,  declared 
them  outlaws  and  public  criminals.  In  445  Valen- 
tinian III  renewed  the  edicts  of  his  predecessors; 
Anastasius  condemned  'all  Manicha^ans  to  death; 
Justin  and  Justinian  decreed  the  death  penalty,  not 
only  against  Manicha>ans  who  remained  obstinate  in 
their  heresy,  but  even  against  converts  from  Manichse- 
ism who  remaine(l  in  touch  with  their  former  co-reli- 
gionists, or  who  did  not  at  once  denounce  them  to  the 
magistrates.  Heavy  penalties  were  likewise  decreed 
against  all  State  officials  who  did  not  denounce  their 
colleagues,  if  infected  with  Manichxism,  and  against 
all  those  who  rctaine<l  Manichaian  books.  It  was  a 
war  of  extermination  and  was  apparently  successful, 
within  the  confines  of  the  Byzantine  Empire. 

IV.  History  in  the  West. — In  the  West  the  special 
home  of  Manichaiism  was  Proconsular  Africa,  where 
it  seems  to  have  had  a  second  apostle  inferior  only  to 
Mani,  a  further  incarnation  of  the  Paraclete,  Adiman- 
tus.  Previous  to  296  Julian  the  Proconsul  had  writ- 
ten to  the  emperor  that  the  Manichceans  troubled  the 
peace  of  the  populat  ion  and  caused  injury  tothetowns. 
After  the  etlict  of  Diocletian  we  hear  no  more  of  it  till 
the  days  of  St.  Augustine.  Its  most  notorious  cliam- 
pion  was  Faustus  of  Mileve.    Bom  at  Mileve  of  poor 

Sirents,  he  had  gone  to  Rome,  and  being  converted  to 
anichieism  he  had  begun  to  study  rhetoric  somewhat 
late  in  life.  He  was  not  a  man  of  profound  erudition, 
but  he  was  a  suave  and  unctuous  speaker.  His  fame  in 
Manicho^an  circles  was  very  great.  He  was  a  Mani- 
cha>an  cpUcopus  and  boasted  of  having  left  his  wife 
and  children  and  all  he  had  for  his  religion.  He  ar- 
rivefl  at  Carthage  in  383,  and  was  arrested,  but  the 
Christians  obtained  the  commutation  of  his  sentence  to 
banishment,  and  even  that  was  not  carried  out.  .\bout 
A.  D.  400  he  wrote  a  work  in  favour  of  Manichaeism,  or 
rather  against  Christianitv,  in  which  he  tried  to  wrest 
the  New  Testament  to  the  suppKDrt  of  Manicha'ism. 
St.  Augustine  anstN-ercd  him  in  thirty-three  l)ooks  em- 
bodying verlxilly  much  of  his  teaching.  On  28  and  29 
August,  392,St.  Augustine  had  refuted  a  certainPortu- 
natus  in  public  discussion  held  in  the  Baths  of  SossiuB. 
Fortunatus  acknowledged  defeat  and  disappeared 
from  the  town.  On  7  Dec,  404,  St.  Augustine  held  a 
dispute  with  Felix,  a  Manichsean  priest.  He  con- 
vinced him  of  the  error  of  his  ways  and  he  made  him 
say:  Anathema  to  Mani.  St.  Augustine  knew  how  to 
use  severitv  to  extirpate  the  heresy.  VictorinuB»«  a 
deacon,  had  become  an  auditor  and  propagandifi  cf  the 
Manichs^ans.  He  was  discovered,  upon  which  he  ap- 
parently repented  and  asked  for  reconcilbUcn.  but  St, 
Augustine  punished  him  and  banished  him  from  the 
town,  warning  all  people  against  him.  H*  would  not 
hear  of  his  repentance  unless  he  tfencuneed  all  the 
Manichseans  he  knew  in  the  province.  ^.  Augustine 
did  not  write  against  MaxuciiMsn  during  the  last 
twenty-five  years  of  his  life:  hmop  it  i»  thought  that 
the  sect  decreased  in  importanc*  during  that  time. 
Yet  in  420  Ursus,  the  imfml  jwrfect,  aircsted  some 
Manichaeans  in  Oirtba^^  aaS  n***^  \^"^  recar:*:. 
When  the  Arian  Vaadak  «»?»««*  -^"«*  ^^  ^-^-^ 
chseans  thou^t  rf  ^iaa^tbe  Arian  c]erg>- 1  y  secrr-hr 
entering  their  raska.  hdl  Huawic  {4.  i-4s4    K- c  rf 


as  the  hnbed  «f 
Rpnicd  by  CgtaKCT  !I  T^»l 
The  snifei  oc  V^-=j>^*U-.- 


:.:-  •  > 


ll' 


:c  -    •=■ 


MJjnOHJEISM 


596 


MAKICHiBISM 


It  18  well  known  how  St.  Augustine  (383)  found  a 
home  at  Rome  in  the  Manichaean  community,  which 
must  have  been  considerable.  According  to  the 
"Liber  Pontificalis"  Pope  Miltiades  (311-314)  had  al- 
ready discovered  adherents  of  the  sect  in  the  city. 
Valentinian's  edict  (372),  addressed  to  the  city  prefect, 
was  clearly  launched  mainlv  against  Roman  Mani- 
chseans.  The  so-called  "Ambrosiaster"  combated 
Manichffiism  in  a  great  number  of  his  writings  (370- 
380).  In  the  years  384-388  a  special  sect  of  Slani- 
chseans  arose  in  Rome  called  Martari  or  Mat-s(juatters. 
who,  supported  by  a  rich  man  called  Constantius,  triea 
to  start  a  sort  of  monastic  life  for  the  Elect  in  contra- 
vention of  Mani's  command  that  the  Elect  should 
wander  about  the  world  preaching  the  Manichsean 
Gospel.  The  new  sect  found  the  bitterest  opposition 
among  their  co-reli^onists.  In  Rome  they  seem  to 
have  made  extraordinary  endeavours  to  conceal  them- 
selves by  almost  complete  conformity  with  Christian 
customs.  From  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  on- 
ward Manichaeism  apparently  died  out  in  the  West. 
Though  a  number  of  secret  societies  and  dualistic 
sects  may  have  existed  here  and  there  in  obscurity, 
there  is  apparently  no  direct  and  conscious  connex- 
ion with  the  Prophet  of  BaWlon  and  his  doctrine. 
Yet  when  the  Paulicians  and  Bo^omili  from  Bulgaria 
came  in  contact  with  the  West  m  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, and  Eastern  missionaries  driven  out  by  the 
Byzantine  emperors  taught  duahst  doctrines  m  the 
North  of  Italy  and  the  South  of  France  they  found 
the  leaven  of  Manichajism  still  so  deeply  pervading 
the  minds  of  many  that  they  could  make  it  ferment 
and  rise  into  the  formidable  Catharist  heresies. 

V.  MANicHiEAN  WRiTERs.—Manichseism,  like  Gnos- 
ticism, was  an  intellectual  religion,  it  despised  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  crowd.  As  it  professed  to  bring  salvation 
through  knowledge,  iterance  was  sin.    Manichaeism 
in  consecjuence  was  literary  and  refined,  its  founder 
was  a  fruitful  writer,  and  so  were  many  of  his  followers. 
Of  all  this  literary  output  only  fragments  are  at  present 
extant.    No  Manichsean  treatise  has  come  down  to  us 
in  its  entirety.    Mani  wrote  in  Persian  and  Babylon- 
ian Aramaic,  apparently  using  either  language  with 
e€[ual  facility.    The  following  seven  titles  of  works  of 
his  have  come  down  to  us:  (1)  "Shapurdk&n",  i.  e. 
"  Princely '\  because  it  was  dedicated  to  Peroz  the 
brother  of  oapor  I  (written  in  Syrian) .    It  was  a  kind 
of  Manichflean  eschatology,  dealing  in  three  chapters 
with  the  dissolution  of  Hearers,  Elect,  and  Sinners.  It 
was  written  about  a.  d.  242.     (2)  "The  Book  of  Mys- 
teries", polemical  and  dogmatic  in  character.     (3) 
"The  Book  of  the  Giants",  probably  about  cosmogonic 
figures.     (4)  "The  Book  of  Precepts  for  Hearers", 
with  appendix  for  the  Elect.      (5)  "The  Book  of 
Life-Givmg",  written  in  Greek,  probably  of  consider- 
able size.    (6)  "The  Book  of  the  Pragmateia",  con- 
tents totally  unknown.     (7)  "The  Gospel"  (written 
in  Persian),  of  which  the  chapters  began  with  succes- 
sive letters  of  the  alphabet.    Besides  these  more  ex- 
tensive works  no  less  than  seventy-six  letters  or  brief 
treatises  are  enumerated,  but  it  is  not  always^  clear 
which  of  these  are  by  Mani  himself,  which  by  his  im- 
mediate successors.    The  "  Epistola  Fundamenti ",  so 
well  known  in  Latin  writers,  is  probably  the  "Treatise 
of  the  Two   Elements",  mentioned  as  first  of  the 
seventy-six  numbers  in  Arabic  sources.    Small  and 
often  unintelligible  fragments  in  Pahlevi  and  in  Sog- 
dian  (?)  have  recently  been  found  in  Chinese  Turkestan 
by  T.  W.  K.  Mueller.    The  "  Epistola  Fundamenti "  is 
extensively  quoted  in  St.  Augustine's  refutation  and 
also  in  Theodore  Bar  Khoni  and  Titus  of  Bostra,  and 
the  "Acta  Archelai ".    Of  Manichean  writers  the  fol- 
lowing names  have  come  down  to  us:  A^pius  (Pho- 
tius,  Cod.  179),  of  Asia  Minor;  Aphthonius  of  Egypt 
(Philostorgium,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  Ill,  15),  Photinus  re- 
futed by  Paul  the  Persian  (Mercati,  "Per  la  vita  di 
Paolo  il Persian©"),  Adimantus,  refuted  by  Augustine. 


VI.   ANTi-MANiCHiEAN    WRITERS. — St.    Eplmem 
(a.  d.  306-373) ;  his  treatise  against  the  Manidupans  wa« 
publish^  in  poems  (59  to  73)  in  the  Roman  edition 
with  Latin  translation,  and  again  by  K.  Kessler  in  his 
"  Mani ",  1, 262-302;  Hegemonius  is  said  by  Heracleon 
of  Chaloedon  to  be  the  author  of  the  "  Acta  disputa- 
tionis  Archelai   episcopi   Mesopotamise   et   Manetis 
hseresiarchse  " .    This  important  work  on  Ifonidueism, 
written  originally  in  Greek  or  perhaps  in  Syriac,  be* 
tween  a.  d.  300  and  350,  has  come  down  to  us  only^  in  a 
Latin  translation,  though  small  fragments  exist  in 
Greek.    The  most  recent  edition  is  that  of  M.  Beeson 
(Berlin,  1906).    It  contains  an  imaginary  dispute  be* 
tween  Archelaus.  Bishop  of  Charcar,  and  Mani  nimself . 
The  dispute  is  out  a  literary  device^  but  the  woiIl 
ranks  as  the  first  class  authority  on  Manichseism.    It 
was  translated  into  English  in  the  Ante-Nicene  library. 

Alexander  of  Lycopolis  published  a  short  treatise 
against  ManichsDism,  last  edited  by  A.  Brinkmann 
(Leipzig,  1895).  Serapion  of  Thmuis  (c.  350)  is  credited 
bv  St.  Jerome  with  an  excellent  work  against  the  Mani- 
cbpans.  This  work  has  recently  beeu  restored  to  its 
original  form  by  A.  Brinkmann,  "Siti.  ber.  der  Preuss. 
Acad.  Beriin  "  (1895),  479  sqq.  Titus  of  Bostra  (374) 
published  four  books  against  the  ManichsDans,  two  con- 
taining arguments  from  reason  and  two  arguments 
from  Scripture  and  theology  against  the  heresy.  They 
have  come  down  to  us  complete  only  in  a  Syriac  ver- 
sion (Lagarde, "  Tit.  Bost.  contra  Manichsos  Libri  IV". 
Berlin,  1859),  but  part  of  the  original  Greek  ispublishea 
in  Pitra's  "Analecta  sacr.  et  class."  (1888),  I,  44-46. 
St.  Epiphanius  of  Salamis  devoted  his  great  work  "  Ad- 
versus  Hsereses  "  (written  about  374)  mainly  to  refuta- 
tion of  Manichffiism.  The  other  heresies  receive  but 
brief  notices  and  even  Arianism  seems  of  less  impor- 
tance. Theodoret  of  Cyrus  (45S),  "Dehaereticonim 
fabulis  ",  in  four  books  (P.  G.,  LXXXIII),  gives  an  ex- 
position of  Manicha?ism.  Didymus  the  Blind,  president 
of  the  catechetical  school  at  Alexandria  (345  to  395), 
wrote  a  treatise  in  eighteen  chapters  against  Mani- 
chseans.  St.  John  Damascene  (c.  750)  wrote  a  "  Dia- 
logue against  Manichaeans  "(P.  G.,XCTV),  and  a  shorter 
"  Discussion  of  John  the  Orthodox  with  a  Manichsean  " 
(P.  G.,  XCVT);  Photius  (891)  wrote  four  books 
against  the  Manichseans,  and  is  a  valuable  witness  of 
the  Paulician  phase  of  Manichaiism.  Paul  the  Persian 
(c,  529),  "Disputation  with  Photinus  the  Manichaean" 
(P.G.,LXXXVTII,  528).  Zacharias  Rhetor  (c.  636), 
"Seven  theses  against  Manichseans",  fragments  m 
P.  G.,  LXXXV,  1143—.  Heraclian  (c.  610),  wrote 
twenty  books  against  Manichseans  (Photius,  Cod.  86}. 
Amongst  Latin  wiiters  St.  Augustine  is  foremost,  his 
works  being  "De  utilitate  crcdendi";  "De  moribus 
Manichseorum " ;  "De  duabus  animabus";  "Contra 
Fortunatum";  "Contra  Faustum";  "De  actis  cum 
Felice",  "De  Natura  Boni",  "Contra  Secundinum", 
"Contra  Adversarium  Legis  et  Prophetarum"  in 
"  Opera  ",  VIII  (Paris,  183717  Some  inT:nglish.  "  De 
Genesi  contra  ManichsBos  lib.  II . "  Ambrosiaster  (370- 
380) :  for  his  commentaries  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  and 
his  "Quffistiones  V.  et  N.  Testamenti"  see  A.  Souter, 
"A  Studv  of  Ambrosiaster"  (1907);  Marcus  Victop- 
inus  (380),  "Ad  Justinum  Manichseum". 

Sources. — Theodore  Bar  Khoni,  Kefltorian  Bishop  of  Cas- 
car  (c.  end  sixth  oentu^),  wrote  a  book  of  "Scholia"  or 
Memoirs.  Book  XI  of  this  work  contains  a  list  of  "sects  which 
arose  at  different  times*';  among  these  he  sives  an  account  of 
the  ManichsEtans  and  relates  at  length  the  Monichsan  oosmog* 
ony.  This  is  especially  interesting  and  valuable  as  he  retains 
the  original  Synac  designations  of  the  cosmogonic  figures  and 
probably  (rfves  Mani's  own  account  verbally  from  the  Fondft'- 
mental  Epbtle;  in  Poonon.  Tnacriptions  mandaitea  dea  ooupe§  d* 
Khouabir  (Paris,  1898),  French  tr.  (see  also  M.  Noldbkb 
Wiener,  Zeitsch.  Kund.  Morg.,  XII,  355);  Abu*  Lfaradsb* 
usually  called  En  Nahim  ("The  Shining  One"),  an  Arab  hiaio- 
rian  who  in  a.  d.  008  wrote  his  Fihrist  aVulvm  or  Compendium 
of  Sciences.  The  chapters  dealing  with  the  Manichssans  wezB 
published  in  German  tr.  by  FLtJosL  in  his  Manx.  Al  Bnttnti, 
an  Arabic  chronologist  (a.  d.  1000),  in  his  Chronoloov  ofBiUUm 
Naiionej^Eng.  od.  Sachau,  Or.  tranaL  Fund  (London,  lo79),  and 
Indiat  Bug.  ed.  Sacbau,  TrQbn.  Or,  aer.  (London,  1888). 


BUmnSTATIOH  597  lUHlu 

Lrriii*.TnHB.— DcroDno).  Eiudea  lur  Ira  lirnta  Marianim  from  their  respective  ConBtitutionB,  Directories,  and 

mrn^io'iH'  Dt  wSn'iJS^T/ud  tJi^'^u^' ,'S^^  Manuals  all  the  aforesaid  reguiatioaB."    llie  pope 

taeuie.  ett  (tiriii,  IBiOl:   Cckont.  Rtdierchci  lar  It  Mam-  having  thuH  abolished  compuiaory  manlfeBtatlon  of 

dUifnii,  I;  La  Coimoaonit  Manichrmne  (Bnusela,  1908);   Ip  conscience,  goea  On  to  torhld  superiors,  either  directly 

d^l:°lfl^^i^^^m^^^a^^^!^•^^^^°^^S^^'La  "  ""li'^tly,  to  induce  their  subjects  to  such  nianife*- 

'^^mm  du  afonSiJurM  Sum.  Vempirt  Ramain  (Ghent,  IMS);  tatioa,    and    conunanda  that   auch   superiors   be   de- 

Kesblch.  Mcifif,  F"or«»un(fm  fl6=r  dii  mani-cAfliKAc  Rriigiim,  I  nounced  to  higher  superiors  jf  they  violate  thU  decree, 

^%f  »^jj'(y^' 'i^")"  ^iJi^^' R^^ALlTr'P^t  o'  >n  case  of  the  superior-general  to  the  Sacred  Congre- 

ThtiA    a  vSmJ,  ManvJuXr:  'FlOqbi,,  MmiiiSSit  Ldtrc  umJ  gation  of  Bishopa  and  Regulars  (now  the  Coniregation 

._■_.   =.i_-f.-  ,i^^^.   ,B*.^.  uv>,.„„   H..j_».   B.^.  .■_  of  the  Religious  Orders).    The  decree  states,  hov 


that  any  voluntary  manifestation  on  the  part  of  sub- 
jects, for  tbe  purpose  of  obtaining  help  in  doubts  and 

„,.  .„  .„.,  . . ,--.  difficulties,  and  to  further  their  spiritual  progress,  is 

H^S!u'AfV^5!;.-Z'MJ>i3KS:,llmSL,S;,^T«l);  not  prohibited.     Neither  does  this  decree  forbid  the 

Bddbbbt,  Uaufit/mMme  der  OnoiU  (Oottiimpn.  1907):   SAti-  Ordinary  domestic  Or  pftt«tnal  interroKation  Which  is 

iiAH«.  ManicivrvAe  Studim  (petenburg.  1908) ;  CAfl*inTLU.  part  of  all  reiigious  government,  HOT  the  solicitude  of 

dSjCi?(^^vi"i897)^*N«BS5^/S7^"'Mvm"j51ufi^  *  superior  in  mquinng  into  the  manifest  troubles  or 

HwMutlsaz)   TiiH-UEitKKTBciuui.'oie/'auJiswjn.r  (l^piig.  affliction  of  a  Hubject.    The  pope  commanda  that  the 

iSOSjjDaiiiKiieH.OMtAieAiedn-pnojf-inonti-A.arcimiMunicE,  decree  "Quemadmoduni"  be  translated  into  the  ver- 

ISBOi:  a«*uiii,  Sttttn  d.,  MaaKhaumu,  Uenj,  1B7S),  nacular  and  inserted  into  the  Constitutiona  of  those 

J.  r.  ASENDZBN.  religious  institutes  which  it  affects,  and  that  it  be  read 

Huiif«tttioa  of  OoilBcienM  (Ratio  Conscibn-  publicly  on..e  a  year. 

Ti«),  a  practice  in  many  religious  orders  and  congre-  „^""'"™™i  ^' .'i^'SV"",  ^H^'^-  '~!^™<"'   l****'' 

gations,  by  which  subjects  manifest  the  state  of  tKeir  ^^''^''■^'"'^'"'^'^^''^,if^y^-i^VA^^n 
S:„.„.-„„„/tothesuperior,inorderthattheIattermay  Wiujam  H.  W.  Jamninq. 


know  them  intimately,  and  thus  further  their  spirituid         Hutllft,  Akchdiocese  of  (de  Maniia),  eomprisee 

progress.    This  practice  has  been  employed  by  those  the  city  of  Manila,  the  provinces  of  Etataan,  BuLacao, 

devot«d  to  the  ascetical  life  from  the  early  centuries  of  Cavite,  Mindoro,  Nueva  E^ija,  Pampanga,  Rizal,  Tar- 

the  Church,  and  Cassian's  "Conferences"  make  fre-  lac,  and  Zambalea;  and  the  Districts  oT  Infanta  and 

Juent  mention  of  it  aa  in  common  uae  among  the  Marinduquein  the  Province  of  Tayabas.     The  area  of 

atbers  of  the  Desert.    It  is  part  of  the  domestic  and  this  territory  is  18,175  square  miles.    The  population, 

paternal  government  of  reli^ous  institutes  and  of  nearly  all  CatboUca,  is  estimated  at  1,642,582.    By 

itoelf  requires  no  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  thesupe-  the  appointment  (March,  1610)  of  the  Rt,  Rev.  Jose 

riora,  and  hence  such  a  function  may  be  annexed  to  Patrelu  as  first  Bishop  of  Lipa,  Batangas,  the  prov- 

the  office  of  a  lay,  or  even  female,  superior.     Tbe  ineeflof  Batangas  and  Laguna  were  aeparatcd  from  the 

Imowledge  of  the  state  of  soul  acquired  by  manitesta-  archdiocese  of  which  they  had  until  then  been  a  part. 

tion  of  conscience  enables  the  superior  to  determine  The  archidocese  includes  some  270  towns,  or,  more 

the  expediency  of  the  frequency  of  communion,  what  properly,  townships  or  counties,  since  each  town  may 

spiritual  reading  is  to  be  selected,  what  penances  to  be  mclude,  together  with  the  pueblo  several  barriot  (vil- 

practised,  what  counsel  to  be  given  concerning  doubts,  j^g^)  witha  population  of  two  or  three  thousand  each. 

difficulties,  and  temptations.    Primarily,  the  object  of  There  are  in  the  arehdiocese  225  secular  priests,  182 

this  manifestation  is  the  ^ood  of  the  mdividual  sub-  priests  representing  nine   religious  orders,  252  par- 

ject,  though,  secondarily.  It  also  affects  the  good  of  tbe  lahes   (196  of  which  have  resident  priests),  70  lay 

whole  religious  institute.    The  superior  cannot  indeed  brothers,  309  members  of  nine  religious  communities 

make  use  of  this  knowledge  for  government  in  auch  a  of  women,  a  preparatory  and  a  general   seminaiv, 

way  as  to  inflict  any  loss  or  grievous  inconvenience  on  one  university,  52  cglleges,  academies,  and  school, 

the  aubject,  and  thus  reveal  the  aecret  knowledge  he  with  a  total  attendance  of  about  5000,  and  9  chad- 

haa  obtained,  but  be  can  diapose  even  external  mat-  table  institutions  with  approximalely  2fi00  inmates. 
tera  for  the  interior  good  of  the  subject,  who  is  pre-         I.  Histobt. — Manila  was  formerly  occupied  by  tbe 

Bumed  to  tacitly  consent  to  such  arrangement.    The  Spaniards  under  Legaspi  on  19  Mav,  1571.     The  na- 

secret  must,  however,  be  kept  inviolably,  and  hence  a  tivea  whom  the  missionaries  found  there  were  idol- 

aubject  may  object  to  any  external  use  whatever  of  ators,  aacestor-worBhippers,  and  worshippers  of  the 

the  re vetat ions  he  has  made  to  the  superior.    He  can,  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  of  animals  and  birds.     The 

likewise,  if  he  wishes,  amplify  the  right  of  the  superior  Mohammedana    (Moroa)    from    Mindanao,    however, 

to  use  it.    It  is  to  he  noted  that  this  manifestation  of  had  begun  to  force  their  creed  among  the  natives  be- 

conscience  differs  from  sacramental  confession  both  In  fore  Legaspi  arrived,  and  be  waa  accompanied  by 

end  and  in  object,  as  also  from  judicial  and  paternal  Augustinian  Friars,  who  immediately  he^a  to  es- 

investigation,  E^'"  ^''^  doctrines  of  Christianity  to  the  pa^ns. 

Although,  by  tbe  nature  of  things,  the  power  of  Their  conversion  was  rapid,  and  in  a  comparatively 

receiving  manifestation  of  conscience  is  not  incompati-  abort  time  churehes  were  erected,  schools  opened,  and 

ble  with  the  state  of  lay,  even  female,  superiors,  yet  a  printing  press  established.      Tbeeaaetvith  which  the 

by  the  decree  "Quemadmodum",  of  17  Dec.,  1890,  Spanianfi  conquered  these  Islands  was  due  to  tbe  *eal 

Pope  Leo  XIII  considerably  limited  the  powers  of  the  ofthemisaionaries.     That  the  Filipinos  have  remained 

latter.    Tbe  decree  8a3^;  "His  Holiness  annuls,  abro-  loyal   to   their  faith   is   attested  by  the   Philippine 

gates,  and  declares  of  no  force  whatever  hereafter,  all  CoimniasioD  (Atkinson,  "Tbe  Philippine  Islands   ,  p. 

regulations  whatsoever  in  the  Constitutions  of  pioua  329). 

societies  and  institutes  of  women  who  make  either         The  See  of  Manila,  with  jurisdiction  over  all  the 

simple  or  solemn  vowa,  as  well  as  in  those  of  men  of  Philippine   lalands  and   suffragan    to   Mexico,   was 

the  purely  lay  order  (even  though  the  said  conatitu-  erected  in  1578.    The  first  bishop,  Domingo  deSalasar 

lions  should  have  received  from  tH.e  Holy  See  approba-  (b.  1512),  arrived  in  Sept.,  1581.     One  of  the  first  acts 

tion  in  whatsoever  form,  even  that  which  is  termed  of  the  bishop  was  to  publish  (21  Dec,  1581)  regula- 

most  special),  in  this  one  point,  in  which  those  consti-  tlons   for   the   government  of  the  cathedral  chapter, 

tutiona  regard  the  secret  manifeatation  of  conacience  He  appoint«d  a  dean,  canons,  and  other  ecclesiastical 

in  whatsoever  manner  or  under  whatsoever  name,  officials,  and  in  1582  convoked  a  synod  at  Manila,  in- 

He  therefore  seriously  enjoins  on  all  superiors,  male  terrupting  it  until  1586  on  account  of  the  absence  from 

and  female,  of  such  institutes,  congregations,  and  the  Fnilippines  of  the  Jesuit  Father  Sanchez.    There 

societies  absolutely  to  cancel  and  expunge  altogether  were  ninetyeccl^astic8,andsix  laymen,  at  the  counciL 


AftertenyeaiBofenereetic  work  Salainr  went  to  Spain 
to  plead  toe  cause  of  tne  Filipinoe  before  the  Kine.  He 
was  nominated  Archbishop  of  Maiiila,  with  sunragan 
aeee  at  Cebu,  Nueva  Caceres,  and  Nueva  Segovia 
(Vigan).  To  these  were  added  the  Diocese  of  Jaro, 
in  1S65,  and  four  other  dioceses,  in  1902,  Salaxar 
died  at  Madrid,  4  Dec.,  1594,  before  receiving  the 
Bulls  of  his  appointment  from  the  pope.  The  firet 
archbiahop  to  reach  Manila  waa  the  Franciscan,  Ig- 
nacio  de  Santibai^ez.  He  took  possession  of  bis  see 
in  1798,  but  died  Uiree  months  later.  F"ive  years 
passed  before  a  eucceasor  was  appointed,  in  the  pcrsoti 
of  Miguel  de  Benavides,  a  Dominican  and  first  fliahop 
ot  Nueva  Segovia  in  Northern  Luzon.  The  new  arch- 
bishop had  come  to  the  Philippines  in  1587.  He  had 
laboured  among  the  Chmese  of  Manila  and  built  the 
hospital  of  San  Gabriel  for  them.  He  was  the  founder 
ot  the  celebrated  Univeraity  of  Santo  Tomis  at  Manila, 
which  exists  to  this  day.  During  the  archiepisco- 
pacy  of  his  successor,  Diego  Vasquez  de  Mercado, 
there  arrived  in  Manila  a  large  band  of  confessors 
exiled  from  Japan. 
Col  m '  8  ■  'Labor  E  vaa- 
gelica",  pp.  434-662. 
Among  the  other 
archbisnops  who 
filled  the  See  of 
Manila  were:  Miguel 
Garcia  Serrano,  an 
Augustinian,  noted 
for  his  great  sanc- 
tity of  life;  Hernando 
Guerrero,  a  Fran- 
ciscan, who  had  la- 
boured for  more  tlian 
thirty  years  among 
theTaga  los  an  d  Pam- 

^ngans;  Fernando 
on tero  de  Kspi- 
nosa;  Miguel  Pol>- 
letc.  who  rebuilt  the 
cathedral  and  him- 
self went  about  the 
city  soliciting  alms 
for  that  purpoee; 
Felipe  Pardo,  a  Domii 
citybythe  Audiencia,butw 
delaCueBta,aHien 

number  of  prom inen       ,  .       .  _     .      , 

prisoned  by  the  tyrannical  governor  Bustamente,  ui 
Fort  Santiago,  whence  he  was  afterwards  taken  and 
forced  by  the  populace  to  accept  the  governorship  of 
the  i^ands  ad  interim,  in  place  of  Bustamente.  Man- 
uel Rojo,  who  took  possession  of  the  see  22  July, 
1759,  had  been  also  appointed  governor-general  of  the 
islands.  During  his  rule  the  English,  under  Draper, 
besieged  and  captured  Manila  and  then  pillaged  the 
city  so  wantonly  that  Draper  himself  was  obliged  to 
interfere.  In  order  to  raise  the  money  demanded  by 
the  English,  the  archbishop  was  obliged  to  surrender 
all  his  chureh  property,  even  to  his  own  pastoral  ring. 
Archbishop  Pedro  Payo,  a  Dominican,  built  the  pres- 
ent cathedral  at  a  cost  of  about  1500,000.  Bernar- 
dino Noialeda,  also  a  Dominican,  was  the  last  areh- 
bishop  under  the  Spanish  domination,  resigning  his  sec 
in  I90I.  The  archdiocese  was  then  admmistercd  by 
the  Rt.  Rev.  Martin  Garcia  y  Alcocer,  Bishop  of  Cebu, 
until  the  appointment  of  the  first  American  areh- 
bishop,  the  Most  Rev.  Jeremiah  J.  Harty.  Arch- 
bishop Harty  was  bom  at  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  1  Nov., 
1853,  made  his  early  studies  under  the  Christian  Brolh- 
ersand  in  the  Jesuit  University  of  St.  Louis,  entered 
the  seminary  at  Cape  Girardeau  in  1873,  and  was  or- 
dained priest  28  April.  1878.  He  had  held  various 
cures  of  souls  in  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis,  and 
had  founded  the  Parish  of  St.  Leo  in  that  city,  when 
Pius  X  appointed  him  to  the  See  of  Manila  by  a  Brief 


i  tumhk 

dated  8  August,  1903.  He  was  consecrated  at  Rome, 
15  August,  of  the  same  year,  pieconiied  on  9  Not., 
and  took  possession  of  the  see  on  16  Jan.,  1004.  An 
Apostolic  delegation  to  the  Philippine  Islands  was  cn- 
Bugurated  in  19^  with  the  Most  Rev.  John  Baptist 
Guidi,  who  died  at  Manila,  26  June,  1904,  and  wae 
replaced  two  months  lat«r  by  the  Most  Rev.  Ambrose 
Agius,  a  Benedictine.  Monsignor  Agius  convoked  the 
first  Provincial  Council  of  the  Philippine  lalanda, 
which  was  solemnly  opened  in  the  cathedral  of  Hanils 
on  the  Feast  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  1907. 

II.  Reuqioub  Ordebb, — Sawyer,  a  Protestant 
writer,  speaking  of  the  relipous  orders  in  the  Philip- 
pines, says:  "The  friars  have  fared  badly  at  the  hands 
of  several  nriteis  on  the  Philippines;  but  it  will  be 
noticed  that  those  who  know  tJie  least  about  them 
sp^k  the  worst  of  them"  ("The  Inhabitants  of  tl»e 
Phihppines",  p,  65).  "The  religious  ordetB  .  .  .were 
hardy  and  adventurouspioneetsof  Christianity  and  in 
the  evangelization  of  the  Philippines,  by  persuasion 
and  teaching,  they  did  more  for  Chnstianity  and  civili- 
Kationtlian  any  other 
missionaries  of  mod- 
em times.  Of  un- 
daunted courage, 
they  have  ever  b^n 
to  the  front  when 
calamities  threat- 
ened theirflocks.  . . . 

plague  and  chtJeis 
they  have  not  been 
dismayed,  nor  have 
they  ever  in  such 
cases  abandoned 
their  flocks.  .  .  . 
They  have  done 
much  for  education, 
having  founded 
schools  for  both 
sexes,  training  eol- 
leges  for  teachers, 
the  Univeraity  ot  St. 
Thomas  in  Man  Ha 
and  other  institu- 
tions. Hospitals  and  asylums  attest  their  charity. 
They  were  formerly,  and  even  lately,  the  protectors  of 
the  poor  against  the  rich,  and  of  the  native  against 
the  Spaniard.  Tbey  have  consistently  resisted  the 
enslavement  of  the  natives.  They  restrained  the  ccai- 
stant  inclination  of  the  natives  to  wander  away  into 
the  woods  and  return  to  primitive  savagery  by"Keei>- 
ing  them  in  the  towns,  or,  as  they  said,  'under  the 
bells'"  (ibid,,  p.  75). 

The  firat  missionaries  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Manila 
were  Augustinians,  They  arrived  in  Cebu,  with 
Legaspi,  in  1565,  and  six  years  later  opened  a  house 
at  Manila  which  became  the  central  house  of  their 
order  in  the  Philippines.  TJiey  founded  the  panahes 
of  Tondo  (Manila),  Tambobong.  and  Pasig.  In  the 
Province  of  Bulacan  they  established  the  parishes  ot 
Dapilap,  Guiguinto,  Bigaa,  Angat,  Baliuag,  Quingua, 
Malolos,  Paombong,  Calumpit,  and  Hagonoy.  In  the 
Province  o!  Pampanga  they  founded  parishes  at 
Bacolor,  Macabebe,  Porac,  Mexico,  Arayat,  and 
Apalit.  They  had  their  clmrches  also  at  Tarlac,  San 
Miguel  de  Mayumo,  and  Candaba.  In  the  Province 
ot  Balangas  they  touniled  the  towns  (now  numbering 
from  20,000  to  40,000  inhabitants)  of  Taa],  Balayan, 


laboured,  reduced  the  languages  to  a  system,  and  pub- 
lished grammars,  dictionaries,  and  books  of  devotion 
for  the  natives.  In  all  their  parishes  (and  this  may  be 
said  equally  ot  the  other  religious  ordera^  they  erected 
magnificent  stone  churches  which  remain  to  this  day 
as  a  lasting  memorial  to  their  leal.   Their  monastery 


Lg  of  members  of  their  order  at  San  Pedro 
3ar  Manila.  The  solid  stone  church  Btill 
I,  but  to-day  only  massive  ruins  remain  of  the 
seventeenth-century  novitiate.  The  Jesuits  also  pos- 
sessed a  college  at  Cavite.  They  built  the  famous 
sanctuary  of  Antipolo,  at  present  the  most  frequented 
place  of  pilgrimage  in  the  islands.  They  established 
the  Parishes  of  Santa  Cruz  and  of  San  Miguel,  Mamta, 
They  published  numerous  works  in  the  Tagalog  dia- 


and  church  at  Guadalupe  (near  Manila)  and  their    the  tt 

church  at  Malolos,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  islands,  Hacati, 
were  destroyed  during  the  Filipino  insurrection;  but 
even  the  rums  bear  splendid  testimony  to  the  Apos- 
tolic leal  of  these  fervent  miBsionaries, 

The  Franciscans  arriv'ed  at  Manila  24  June,  1577. 
They  were  the  first  missionaries  in  the  districts  of 
Sampaloc  and  Santa  Ana,  Uanila,  and  in  the  towns 

of  Meycauayan,  Bocaue,  Moroug,  Baraa,  Pagsanjan,  They  published  numerous  works  in  the  Tagalog 

Santa  Cnu  de  la  Laguna.  and  Mainit.    They  also  e»-  lect,  and  some  of  their  great  folio  dictionaries  ot  that 

tablished  numerous  parishes  in  the  Provinces  of  Ta-  tongue  exist  to-day.    Expelled  from  the  Philippines  in 

yabas  and  Camarines.    A  lay  brother,  porter  in  the  1768^  it wasnot  until  ISd^thatthcytrcrepermittedto 

Convent  of  San  Francisco,  Manila,  was  tne  founder  of  contmue  the  work  they  had  begun  278  years  before. 

the  San  Lazaro  hospital  for  lepers  in  159S.    Five  years  They  opened  the  college  of  the  Ateneo,  which,  from 

later  the  hospital  was  removed  outside  the  city;  since  humble  beginnings  became  a  school  of  secondary  in- 

the  American  occupation  it  has  been  in  the  possession  struction  in   1865,   and   now   numbers   about    1500 

of  the  American  Government,  though  the  archiepis-  students,  and  they  established  a  normal  school  which, 

copal  cross  still   remains   over  the  entrance.     The  since  the  American  occupation,  has  become  a  con^ 

Emperor  of  Japan  was  responsible  in  a  great  meaaura  bined  preparatory  seminary  and  college  under  the  title 

for  the  increase  of  leprosy  in  the  Islands,  as  he  sent  a    of  San  Xavier.    (See  also  Mani"     '^ ' 

sbipdoad  of  the  unfortunates  to  Manila  with  the  double  The  first  band  of  Dominican 
purpose  of  ridding 
bis  country  of  them 
and  of  manifesting 
his  displeasure  at  the 
spread  of  Christian- 
ity inhiscmpire.  He 
is  reported  to  have 
sent  a  message  with 
the  convoy  to  the 
effect  that,  as  the 
Spaniards  were  so 
fond  ot  caring  for  the 
sick,  he  desired  to 
gratify  their  Wishes 
by  pi«seDt!ng  them 
with  the  lepers.  To 
the  Franciscans  is 
probably     due,      in 

great    measure,    the     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^_^^^^_^__;j^         ^^^^^^— ™— 

striking  devotion  to  ^^^^^^^^^^^SSJ^B^^^^^Ljii^^—^^KUP  to  establish  a  chaTr 
the  Passion  of  Our  \^0gf/^i^BSSBS^^^^^^^^^SSSff^^^^S^Kt  '^^  Spanish  and  Insu- 
Lord    which    exists    „      — r „   "   "    ' lar  Law.    The  peti- 

Fiupmo  people.                                        i            .^             ».  ^^  ^j^^  j^^  depart- 

The  first  Jeauits  to  arrive  in  the  islands  came  with  ment  of  the  university  was  begun.     In  1871  dcpart- 

BishopSalaiarin  1581.    One  of  them.  Father  Sedeno,  meats  of  medicine  and  pharmacy  were  opened.     As 

had  been  a  missionary  in  Florida.   He  opened  the  first  these  di«w  revenue  from  the  estate  of  the  old  San  Jaa6 

school  in  the   Philippines  and   founded   colleges  at  College,  they  are  now  known  as  the  San  Job6  Collese. 

Manila  and  Cebu.     He  taught  the  Filipinos  to  cut  The  Cmlege  of  San  Juan  de  Letrin  was  begun  by  the 

stone,  to  make  mortar,  to  weave,  and  to  sew.     He  Dominican  Fathers  in  1840;    it  was  elevated  to  the 

brought  artists  from  China  to  teach  them  to  draw  and  rsnkofaschool  of  secondary  instruction  in  1807.   The 

paint,  and  erected  the  first  stone  building  in  the  Phil-  students,  who  number  about  1000,  follow  the  usual 

Sipines,  the  cathedral,  dedicated  to  the  Immaculate  college  course  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  d 

□nception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  the  patroness  Arts.    Of  the  professors  of  Santo  Tomis  about  thirty 

of  the  whole  group  of  islands.    His  companion,  Father  have  been  raised  to  the  episcopal  dignity,  and  one 

Sanchei,  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  the  student,  a  native  Chinese  namea  Gregorio  Lopei,  was 

society  in  his  day,  and  by  a  unanimous  vote  of  all  the  Bishop  of  Nanking,  where  he  died  in  1670.    What  is 

Spaniards  of  the  colony,  was  sent  to  Eunwe  to  treat  now  tne  University  Press  was  established  at  the  end 

with  Philip  II  and  with  the  pope  on  the  affairs  of  the  of  the  sixteenth  century,  before  the  foundation  of  the 

colony.     He  was  accompamed  by  a  Filipino  boy,  a  miivereity  itself.    It  was  fii^  established  in  the  Hos- 

Pampangan  youth  named  Martin,  who  later  returned  pital  of  San  Gabriel,  later  transferred  to  Bataan_,  and 

to  his  native  land  as  the  first  Filipino  Jesuit.   The  col-  m  1623  it  was  removed  to  the  university,  where  it  has 

lege  and  seminary  of  San  Jos£  was  established  by  the  continued  until  the  present  day.     During  its  long 

Jesuits  of  Manila  in  1595.    Though  no  longer  under  career  the  University  Press  has  issued  countless  works 

the  control  of  the  Jesuits,  it  still  exists,  and  is  therefore  of  a  religious  and  educational  character,  not  only  in 

the  oldest  of  the  colleges  of  the  archipelago.    By  royal  the  modem  and  classical  languages,  but  in  various 

decree  ot  12  March.  1653,  it  took  pre(Xdence  of  all  cen-  native  dialects  of  the  Islands.     Greek,  Hebrew,  and 

tresof  leamingintheislands.   During  the  first  hundred  Sanskrit  are  included  in  its  rich  assortment  of  type. 

B»rs  of  its  existence  it  counted  among  its  alumni  8  The  Church  of  San  Domingo  at  Manila,  which  was 

shops.  39  Jesuits  (4  of  whom  became  provincials),  II  rebuilt  for  the  fifth  time  in  1868,  contains  the  famous 

Augusttnians,  18  Franciscans  of  various  bmnchea  of  statue  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary  which  is  carried  in 

the  order,  3  Dominicans,  and  39  secular  clere^.    The  solemn  procession  every  year  through  the  streeta  of 

Jesuit  University  of  St.  Ignatius,  which  opened  its  first  Manila  attended  b^  a  vast  multitude  of  people  from 

classes  in  1687,  wasconfkrmedasapontifical university  every  part  of  the  islands.    That  the  devotion  to  the 

in  1621, and  asa  royal  university  in  1B63.  Besidestheir  Holv  Rosary  is  so  deeply  implanted  in  the  hearts  d 

college  and  university,  the  Jesuits  had  a  novitiate  for  the  Filipino  people,  is  due  mainly  to  the  leal  of  the 


Obbbrvatort.) 

islands  arrived 
in  Manila  in  15S7.  A 
full  account  of  the 
immense  good  ac- 
complished by  these 
fathers  will  be  found 
in  Fonseca's  "  Hia- 
toria  de  la  Provinda 
del  Santisimo  Ro- 
sario".  In  1611  they 
founded  the  Univer- 
sity of  Santo  Tomds 
wmch  was  confirmed 
as  a  pontifical  uni- 
versity in  1645  and 
as  a  royal  university 
in  1680.  In  1836  the 
university  petitioned 
Spain  for  authority 


HAMILi. 


Dominican  Fathers.  Like  their  eompaoiona  in  mis- 
gionary  laboura,  the  Dominicana  extended  their  eeal- 
oua  work  in  numcroua  provinces  of  the  islands, 
founding  towns,  establishing  parishes,  buildine  mag- 
nificent  churches,  opening  schools,  and  publishing 
books  in  the  native  dialects. 

The  Recollect  Fathers  were  first  established  in  the 
archdiocese  in  1600.  Besides  their  work  in  Manila, 
where  they  have  two  large  churches,  the  RecoUeets 
have  converted  the  tribes  in  Mariveles  and  Zambalea. 
Their  apostolic  laboiiis  have  been  extended  to  the 
islands  of  MIndoro,  Tablas,  Masbate,  Burias,  Ticao, 
ParagUB,  the  Calamianes,  Ff^ros,  and  Hindonao. 
lie  Lazarist  fathers  came  t«  Manila  in  1862tocar«for 
the  diocesan  seminaries  in  the  Philippines.  Since  the 
American  occupation  the  seminaries  of  the  archdio- 
cese have  been  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Jesuit  fathers. 
but  the  Lazarists  continue  in 
charge  of  the  diocesan  semi- 
naries of  Cebu,  Jaro  (Iloilo), 
and  Nueva  Caceres.  The 
Capuchin  fathers  arc  in  charge 
of  two  churches  at  Manila. 
They  came  to  the  Philippines 
in  1886  to  assume  charge  of 
the  missions  in  the  Caroline 
and  Palaos  Islands.  The  fa- 
thers of  the  Order  of  St.  Bene- 
dict were  first  established  in 
ManiU  in  !895.  In  1901  they 
founded  the  college  of  San 
Beda,  which  has  an  attendance 
of  about  400  students. 

A  community  of  cloistered 
Franciscan  nuns  waH  estab- 
liahed  at  Manila  in  1621.  The 
tisters,  Spaniards,  mesticas, 
and  natives,  occupy  the  con- 
vent of  Santa  Clara,  Manila. 
In  1694  Ignacia  del  Espiritu 
Santo  founded  the  ConBrega- 
tion  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  The  members 
are  all  natives.  They  conduct 
a  school,  to  which  is  attached  a 
home  forced  women.  A  large 
number  of  them  are  engaged 
in  teaching  in  various  mission 
Btfttions  of  Mindanao.  The 
sisters  of  St.  Dominic  opened 
their  con  vent  at  ManilainiegS. 
They  conduct  the  College  of 
Santa  Catalina.  The  Sisters  of  Santa  Rita  date  their 
origin  from  1730,  They  have  chaise  of  the  Santa  Rita 
Academy.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  are  in  charge  of  the  Colleges  of  Santa  Isabel,  of 
Concordia,  and  of  Santa  Rosa;  of  the  Hospicio  de  Han 
Jos^,  of  the  Hospital  of  San  Juan  de  Dios,  of  the 
School  and  Orphan  Asylum  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
(Looban),  all  at  Manila.  They  entered  the  archdio- 
cese in  1862.  The  establishment  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Assumption  at  Manila  was  made  in  1892.  The  sisterB 
are  in  charge  of  a  collego  for  young  ladies  and  a  free 
school  for  the  poor.  The  Augustinian  Sistera  are 
native  nuns  who  conduct  the  Academy  of  Our  Lady 
of  Consolation.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  de  Chartres 
were  established  at  Manila  in  1904.  Besides  their 
hospital  work  and  a  large  school  of  native  nurses  in 
the  city,  they  have  charge  of  several  academies  in  the 
provinces.  The  Benedictine  Sisters  came  to  the  isl- 
ands from  Germany  In  1906.  They  established  the 
college  of  St.  Scholastica,  and  have  organized  in  their 
chapel  the  devotion  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration. 

Charitable  iNSTiTnnoNB. — The  Hospital  of  San 
Juan  de  Dios,  situated  in  the  Walled  City  of  Manila, 
was  Ibunded  in  1596  by  the  Confrat«niity  of  Santa 


LBOABFI-UnDANBT. 

the  miBBioaary  w 


Misericordia.  In  1666  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  thb 
OrderofSt.  JohnofGod,  andin  1886  it  was  put  under 
the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  who  still  conduct  the 

institution.  The  hospital  was  twice  destroyed  by 
earthquake,  and  was  severely  damaged  by  the  storm 
of  1S32.  The  generosity  of  the  pious  people,  espe- 
cially of  the  governor-general  and  of  the  arcnbishops, 
restored  it;  tne  building  waa  enlarged  and  now  occu- 
pies a  large  city  square.  The  patients,  the  majority 
of  whom  are  Filipinos,  number  netween  four  hundred 
and  five  hundred,  a  fourth  of  whom  are  charitypa- 
tients,  supported  by  the  hospital,  St.  Paul's  Hos- 
pital, at  present  the  best  equipped  hospital  in  the 
Far  East,  was  founded  by  Archbishop  Harty  in  1905. 
It  is  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  de  Char- 
tres. There  are  about  200  patients.  The  Hoepido 
de  San  Joef  is  situated  on  an 
island  in  the  Pasig  River,  ad- 

Scent  to  the  Ayala  Bridge, 
anila.  It  was  founded  in 
1806,  and  is  under  the  care  of 
the  Sisters  of  Charity.  It  con- 
tains an  orphan  asylum  for 
boys  and  girls,  a  home  for  the 
aged,  a  foundling  asylum,  an 
insane  asylum  tor  men  and 
women,  a  reform  school  for 
youthful  prisoners  sentenced 
by  the  courts,  and  a  depart- 
ment for  female  prisoners  with 
children  under  two  years  of 
age.  There  are  about  600 
inmates  in  this  institution, 
which  is  supported  by  gov- 
ernment appropriation  and  by 
donations  ot  the  charitable.  A 
native  woman  who  became  a 
L  ^  Sister  of  Charity,    gave   her 

'  home   and    property  for   the 

founding  of  the  Asylum  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  which  is  con- 
ducted by  that  congr^ation. 
It  contains  an  orph^  asylum 
for  girls  and  an  academy  for 
extern  students.  The  asylum 
is  supported  by  charitable 
donations  and  by  the  sale  of 
embroidery  made  by  the  in- 
mates. The  College  of  Santa 
Isabel  was  founded  in  1632  for 
the  education  of  Spanish  or- 
phan girls.  It  was  supported 
until  1640  by  the  Confrater- 
nity of  Mercy.  In  1861  the  College  of  Santa  Poten- 
ciana  was  combined  with  that  of  Santa  Isabel.  At 
present  the  institution,  besides  providing  for  or- 
phans, conducts  a  boarding-  and  day-school,  llie 
Monte  de  Piedad  is  a  charitable  pawnbroking  eetab- 


Money  is  loaned 
annum.  (The 
ly  5  per  cent 

is  allowed  on  all  de- 


lishment  which  was  opened  ii 
to  the  poor  at  the  rate  of  6  p>er  c< 
rate  in  Manila  for  small  loans  is 

Kr  month,  and  a  much  highern 
terest  at  4  per  cent  per  annui 
posits.  The  Archbishop  of  Manila  is  the  President  of 
the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Monte  de  Piedad. 
There  are  about  2000  students  in  Manila  who  have 
come  from  the  provinces  to  attend  the  advanced 
classes  of  the  government  schools.    To  protect  these 


taiy  influence  of  home,  to  provide  them,  also,  with  the 
religious  instruction  of  which  they  are  deprived  in  the 
government  schools,  Archbishop  Harty  established  in 
1906  a  dormitory  for  boys,  and  in  1909  one  tor  girla. 
Board  and  lodgmg  are  furnished  in  theee  eetaQiah- 
ments  at  from  S7.50  to  S9.00  a  month. 

U.  8.  Bubbau  or  InnTLAR  AiTAiitB.  Official  nanibaak:  Dt- 


iiAinii4 


601 


2AAMIPLE 


tcription  of  th4  PhiUppinM,  part  I  (Manila,  1903) ;  RepoH  of  the 
PhtUppine  CommUaum  to  the  President,  1900  (Washington, 
1901):  CouTV,  StaU  of  the  PhUippinee  (Madrid,  1820),  tr. 
Walton  (London,  1821);  Atkinson,  The  Philippine  Jatanda 
(Boston,  1905) ;  Sawtkr,  The  JnhabitanU  of  the  PhUippinee 
(New  York.  1900);  Oeneral  Bulletin  of  the  Manila  Univernty  of 
Santo  Tomde^  1908-1909  (Manila,  1909);  Baranbra,  Compen- 
diode  la  Hidoria  de  Filimnae  (Manila,  1884);  Arenas,  MemO' 
ria§  Hittdrieaa  y  Eatadleticaa  de  Filipinae  (Manila,  1850); 
Dbloado,  Hielona  Oeneral  de  Uu  Idas  Ftlipinaa  (Manila,  1894) ; 
Moreno,  Hidoria  de  la  Santa  Igleeia  Metropolitana  de  FVipinae 
(Manila,  1^77):  Ck>LiN,  Labor  Evangilica,  vols.  I.  II,  HI  (Barce- 
lona, 1902);  Alcasar.  Hietoria  de  loa  daminioa  JEaiMflolee  en 
Oceania:  Fuipinae  (Manila,  1895);  Murillo,  Hidoria  de  Filir 
pinae  (Manila,  1747). 

Philip  M.  Fineoan. 

Manila  Observatory,  founded  by  Father  Frederic 
Faura,  8. J.,  in  1865;  constituted  officially  "The  Philip- 
pine  Weather  Bureau"  by  decree  of  the  American 
governor,  May,  1901. 

The  typhoon,  known  in  the  Philippines  as  a  baauio, 
is  one  of  the  worst  enemies  with  which  the  islands  have 
to  contend.  Father  Faura,  a  Jesuit  professor  at  the 
Ateneo  College,  spent  many  years  in  the  study  of 
these  dreaded  storms,  in  the  hope  of  one  day  being  able 
to  foretell  their  coming  and  thereby  avert  much  of  the 
damage  which  they  would  otherwise  cause.  On  7 
July,  1879,  he  predicted  that  a  baguio  would  pass  over 
Northern  Luzon;  the  event  justified  his  warning.  It 
was  the  first  time  that  the  existence,  duration,  and 
course  of  a  typhoon  had  been  predicted  in  the  Far 
East.  On  18  November  of  the  same  vear.  Father 
Faura  predicted  a  second  typhoon,  which  he  said 
would  pass  through  Manila.  The  announcement 
caused  great  consternation  in  the  city.  Proper  pre- 
cautions were  taken,  and  the  captain  of  the  port  for- 
bade vessels  to  leave  the  harbour.  Thanks  to  the 
warning  of  Father  Faura,  comparatively  little  damage 
was  done  in  Manila  when,  two  days  later,  the  storm 
broke  in  all  its  fury  on  the  city.  At  other  ports,  to 
which  notice  of  the  approaching  storm  could  not  be 
sent  for  lack  of  telegraphic  communication,  the  de- 
struction was  enormous.  Forty-two  vessels  were 
wrecked  in  Southern  Luzon  alone,  and  many  lives 
were  lost. 

These  successful  predictions  aroused  the  interest  of 
a  number  of  merchants  of  the  city,  who  subscribed 
money  to  enable  him  to  continue  nis  valuable  work 
on  a  larger  scale.  In  1880,  when  cable  connexions 
between  Hong-Kong  and  Manila  were  established,  the 
merchants  of  the  former  colonv  requested  that  Father 
Faura's  predictions  be  sent  tnem,  and  their  request 
was  cheerfully  granted.  For  some  time  the  Jesuit 
meteorologist  had  been  working  on  a  barometer  of  his 
own  invention,  specially  designed  to  foretell  the  ap- 
proach of  baguios.  In  1886  the  "Faura  barometer" 
was  offered  to  the  public,  and  it  passed  immediately 
into  general  use  among  the  navij^tors  of  the  Philip- 
pine waters  and  the  China  Sea.  In  1884  the  Govern- 
ment at  Madrid  declared  Father  Fauia's  weather 
bureau  an  official  institution,  to  be  known  as  the 
Manila  Observatory.  It  was  then  removed  from  the 
Ateneo  to  its  present  location  in  the  District  of  Ei^ 
mita,  Manila.  Fourteen  sub-stations,  each  equipped 
with  suitable  meteorological  instruments,  were  now 
opened  in  Luzon,  and  their  daily  observations  were 
published  in  a  monthly  bulletin.  In  1890,  at  the 
request  of  the  Japanese  Government,  observations 
began  to  be  exchanged  with  that  country.  In  1895 
the  Manila  Observatory  was  invited  to  be  one  oi  six- 
teen observatories  of  the  world  to  co-operate  in  the 
work  of  cloud-measurement,  and  it  succeeded  in  mak- 
ing the  highest  of  these  measurements.  The  photo- 
graphic observations  were  carried  on  by  the  Rev.  Jos6 
Algu^,  S.J.,  who  is  now  director  of  the  Plulippine 
Weather  Bureau.  Father  Algu^  published  a  valuable 
work,  "The  Clouds  in  the  Philippme  Archipelago",  as 
the  result  of  his  observations.  His  "Philippine  Cy- 
clones", a  volume  much  prized  by  navigators,  and 
which  has  been  translated  mto  several  languages,  was 


published  in  1897.  In  the  same  year  he  gave  the 
public  his  "barocyclonometer",  an  improvement  on 
Father  Faura's  invention,  by  which  storms  may  be 
foretold,  not  only  in  the  Philippines,  but  throughout 
the  entire  Orient. 

The  meteorological  service  of  the  Philippines  was 
reor^nized  by  Father  Algu^.  The  observatory  at 
Mamla  receives  observations  by  telegraph  three  times 
a  day  from  eight  first-class  and  nine  second-class  sta- 
tions throughout  the  islands.  Eighteen  stations  of  the 
third  class  telegraph  their  observations  twice  a  day. 
while  ten  fourth-class  stations  record  observations  ana 
telegraph  on  request.  The  observatory  has  a  branch 
atMt.Mirador,  about  5000  feet  above  sea  level,  which 
telegraphs  its  observations  three  times  a  day.  Re- 
ports are  also  received  twice  each  day  by  cable,  from 
ten  stations  in  Japan,  from  six  in  Formosa,  from  four 
on  the  Chinese  coastj  and  from  three  in  Indo-China. 
Whenever  there  are  mdications  of  a  typhoon,  cable- 
grams are  exchanged  with  the  stations  m  Guam  and 
Yap,  and  on  such  occasions  aS  many  as  half  a  dozen 
or  more  messages  may  be  cabled  on  a  single  day  to  all 
the  foreign  stations.  The  observatory,  besides  a  rich 
equipment  of  the  latest  meteorological  instruments 
and  seismographs,  possesses  a  19-inch  refracting  tele- 
scope, by  far  tne  largest  in  the  Orient.  It  has  also  its 
own  private  telegraph  and  cable  office.  The  staff  of 
the  oDservatory  at  Manila  includes  five  Jesuit  fathers 
and  twenty-five  well-trained  native  assistants. 

^iLiP  M.  Fineoan. 

Maniple. — Fornix  Material^  and  Use, — ^The  maniple 
is  an  ornamental  vestment  in  the  form  of  a  band,  a 
little  over  a  yard  long  and  from  somewhat  over  two  to 
almost  four  inches  wide,  which  is  placed  on  the  left 
arm  in  such  manner  that  it  falls  in  equal  length  on 
both  sides  of  the  arm.  It  is  worn  only  during  Mass, 
not  at  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  during 
processions,  nor  at  Benediction,  etc.  In  order  to 
fasten  the  maniple  on  the  arm  either  two  strings  are 
placed  on  the  inner  side  near  the  middle,  or  else  an 
elastic  band  is  used,  or  a  loop  is  formed  in  the  maniple 
itself  by  sewing  together  the  two  halves  which  have 
been  laid  over  each  other,  at  a  distance  of  about  six 
inches  from  the  middle.  Another  device  for  securing 
the  maniple  is  to  set  a  small  band  a  little  to  one  side 
of  the  middle  and  to  secure  this  band  with  a  pin  to  the 
alt).  The  maniple  is  made  of  silk  or  half-silk  material. 
The  colour  is  in  accordance  with  the  Uturgical  rules. 
The  ends  of  the  maniple  are  often  broader  than  the 
upper  part,  but  too  great  a  breadth  at  the  ends,  as  in 
the  so-called  pocket  or  spade-shaped  maniple,  is  ugly. 
In  the  middle  and  at  each  end  the  maniple  is  orna- 
mented with  a  small  cross;  of  these  crosses  that  in  the 
middle  is  always  necessary  as  it  is  prescribed  by  the 
rubrics  of  the  Missal.  The  maniple  is  worn  by  the  sub- 
deacon,  deacon,  priest,  and  bishop,  but  not  by  those 
who  have  only  received  minor  oraers.  For  the  sub- 
deacon  the  maniple  is  the  liturgical  sign  of  his  rank, 
and  at  ordination  is  placed  on  his  left  arm  by  the 
bishop  himself.  A  bishop  puts  on  the  maniple  at  the 
altar  after  the  Confiteor,  other  ecclesiastics  put  it  on 
in  the  sacristy  before  the  service. 

Name  and  Origin. — In  earlier  ages  the  maniple  was 
called  by  various  names:  mappuUif  sudariunij  mantilef 
fanOf  mantude,  sestace^  and  manipvlus,  appellations 
which  indicate  to  some  extent  its  original  purpose. 
Originally  it  was  a  cloth  of  fine  Quality  to  wipe  away 
perspiration,  or  an  ornamental  nandkcrchiet,  which 
was  seldom  put  into  actual  use,  but  was  generally  car- 
ried in  the  hand  as  an  ornament.  Ornamental  hand- 
kerchiefs or  cloths  of  this  kind  were  carried  by  people 
of  rank  in  ordinary  life.  Ancient  remains  show  many 
proofs  of  this:  for  instance,  the  mappa  with  which  tfaie 
consul  or  praetor  gave  the  signal  for  the  commence- 
ment of  the  games  was  a  similar  cloth.  The  name 
manipuiu9  was  given  because  it  wa/i  <Qld»d.\f^^^s^«&!^ 


ICANITOBA 


602 


MANITOBA 


and  carried  in  the  left  hand  like  a  small  bundle  (tfio- 
nipidus). 

Antiquity. — ^Without  doubt  the  nianiple  was  first 
used  at  Rome.  At  least  it  was  worn  at  Rome  early 
in  the  sixth  century,  even  though  not  by  ail  those 
ecclesiastics  who  later  used  it.  The  paUialinostima 
spoken  of  in  the  lives  of  Popes  Sylvester  and  Zosimus, 
which  appeared  at  this  date  in  the  "Liber  Pontifi- 
calis'',  can  be  explained  with  most  probabilitv  as 
references  to  the  ornamental  vestment  called  later 
mapptda  and  manipidits.  About  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century  under  the  name  of  mapjnda  it  was  also  worn 
by  the  priests  and  deacons  of  Kavenna  (cf .  the  letters 
which  passed- between  Gregory  the  Great  and  Arch- 
bishop John  of  Ravenna).  By  the  beginning  of  the 
ninth  century  the  use  of  the  maniple  was  almost  uni- 
versal in  Western  Europe,  being  customar^r  even  at 
Milan  which  had  otherwise  its  own  peculiar  rite.  This 
is  shown  by  the  relief  work  on  the  celebrated  paUioto 
(antependmm)  in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Ambrose  at  Milan, 
a  fine  piece  of  goldsmith's  work  of  the  niiddle  of  the 
ninth  century.  The  use  of  the  maniple  in  Gaul  and 
Germany  is  proved  by  the  statements  of  Amalar  of 
Metz,  Rabanus  Maurus,  Walafried  Strabo,  by  the 
"  Admonitio  synodalis'*  and  bjr  other  writing,  as  well 
as  by  various  miniature  paintings.  That  it  was  also 
worn  in  England  is  evident  from  the  elaborately 
worked  maniple  now  in  the  Museum  of  Diu-ham  cathe- 
dral which,  according  to  the  inscription  embroidered 
on  it,  was  made  by  order  of  Queen  iEthelflaed  (d.  be- 
fore 916),  wife  of  Edward  the  Elder,  for  Bishop 
Frithestan  of  Winchester.  At  Rome  in  the  ninth 
century  even  the  acolytes  wore  the  maniple.  In  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  the  singular  custom 
prevailed  at  Cluny  and  other  monasteries  that  on  the 
chief  feast  days  all,  even  the  lay  brothers,  appeared 
at  Mass  in  alb  and  maniple;  this  practice,  however, 
was  forbidden  in  11 00  by  the  Synod  of  Poitiers.  When 
in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  the  subdiaconate 
developed  into  a  higher  order,  the  maniple  became  its 
distinctive  vestment. 

Nature  and  Mode  of  Wearing. — ^The  maniple  was 
originally  a  folded  piece  of  cloth.  It  cannot  be  posi- 
tively decided  when  it  became  a  plain  band.  Proba- 
bly the  change  did  not  occur  everywhere  at  the  same 
time.  Maniples  made  of  a  fold  of  material  existed  at 
least  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century; 
this  is  proved  by  the  maniple  at  Durham  made  for 
Bishop  Frithestan.  About  the  end  of  the  first  mille- 
niiun  it  was  hardlj^  more  than  an  ornamental  band.  In 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  these  bands  were, 
as  a  rule,  very  long  and  narrow  and  had  laid  on  at  the 
ends  for  ornament  squares  or  rectangular  pieces  of 
material ;  after  a  while,  however,  this  form  of  maniple 
went  out  of  use.  In  the  sixteenth  century  it  began  to 
be  customary  to  broaden  the  ends,  giving  them  some- 
thing of  the  form  of  a  spade,  until  in  the  eighteenth 
century  the  shape  of  the  ends  became  completely  that 
of  a  spade  or  pocket.  For  the  period  up  to  the  twelfth 
century  almost  nothing  is  known  as  to  the  material  of 
which  the  maniple  was  made.  In  the  later  Middle 
Ages  it  was  generally  of  silk.  As  early  as  the  tenth 
century  much  importance  was  attached  to  its  orna- 
mentation. The  inventories  of  this  time  repeatedly 
mention  costly  maniples  adorned  with  gold  or  silver. 
In  the  succeeding  centuries  even  more  importance  was 
attached  to  the  rich  ornamentation  of  the  maniple. 
It  was  enriched,  so  the  inventories  inform  us,  with 
embroidery,  small  ornaments  of  precious  metals,  pre- 
cious stones,  and  pearls.  Maniples  of  this  period  with 
costly  embroidery  are  to  be  found  in  the  cathedral  of 
Sens,  in  the  convent  of  the  Sisters  of  Notre-Dame  at 
Namur,  at  Pontigny,  in  the  cathedral  of  Bayeux,  in 
the  Museum  of  Industrial  Art  at  Berlin^  etc.  A  favour- 
ite way  to  finish  the  ends  was  with  fnnge,  tassels,  or 
little  bells.  The  maniple  had  generally  no  crosses  at 
(Ae  ends  or  in  the  midfUe,   Originally  it  was  held  in  the 


left  hand;  from  the  eleventh  century,  however,  it  be- 
came customary  to  carrv  it  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
left  arm  and  the  usage  has  remained  the  same  up  to 
the  present  day.  Even  in  medieval  times  it  was  sel- 
dom worn  except  at  Mass.  The  ceremony  of  giving 
the  maniple  to  the  subdeacon  at  ordination  developed 
in  the  tenth  to  the  eleventh  century,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  thirteenth  century  that  the  custom  became 
universal. 

Symbolism, — In  the  Middle  Ages  the  maniple  re- 
ceived various  S3m:ibolical  interpretations.  At  a  later 
period  it  was  conunon  to  connect  this  vestment  with 
the  bonds  which  held  the  hands  of  the  Saviour.  In 
the  prayer  offered  by  the  priest  when  putting  on  the 
maniple  are  s>inbolized  the  cares  and  sorrows  of  ihia 
earthly  life  which  should  be  borne  with  patience  in 
view  of  the  heavenly  reward. 

Epigonation. — In  the  Greek  Rite  the  vestment 
that  corresponds  to  the  maniple  is  the  epigonation. 
It  is  a  square  piece  of  material  often  embroidered  with 
a  sword  and  intended  as  an  ornament;  it  is  himg  at  the 
right  side  on  the  cincture  and  falls  to  the  knee.  The 
epigonation  does  not  belong  to  all  the  clergy  but  onlv 
to  tne  bishop.  Originally  also  an  ornamental  hand- 
kerchief and  called  at  that  date  encheirion  (iyxt^iop) 
it  received  its  present  form  in  the  twelfth  century. 

SuBciNCTORiUM. — Very  similar  to  the  maniple  in 
form  and  nature  is  the  subcinctorium,  an  ornamental 
vestment  reserved  to  the  pope.  It  is  worn  on  the 
cincture;  on  one  end  is  embroidered  a  small  Agnus 
Dei  and  on  the  other  a  cross.  The  pope  wears  it  only 
at  a  solemn  pontifical  Mass.  The  subcinctorium  is 
mentioned  under  the  name  of  balteus  as  early  as  the 
end  of  the  tenth  centurv  in  a  "  Sacramentarium "  of 
this  date  preserved  in  the  BibIioth6que  Nationale  at 
Paris  (f.  lat.  12052).  It  is  mentioned  imder  the  name 
mcecinclorium  about  1030  in  what  is  known  as  the 
"Missa  Illyrica".  Later  it  was  generally  called  sub- 
cinctorium. In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  worn  not  only 
by  the  pope  but  also  by  bishops,  and  even  in  a  few 
places  by  priests.  However,  it  gradually  ceased  to  be 
a  customary  vestment  of  bishops  and  priests,  and  in 
the  sixteenth  century  only  the  popes  ana  the  bishops  of 
the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Milan  wore  it.  The  orig- 
inal object  of  the  subcinctorium  was,  as  St.  Thomas 
explicitly  says,  to  secure  the  stole  to  the  cincture.  But 
as  early  as  about  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  it 
was  merely  an  ornamental  vestment.  According  to 
the  inventories,  even  in  the  eleventh  century  much 
thought  was  given  to  its  ornamentation.  Most  prob- 
ably the  subcinctorium  was  first  used  in  France, 
whence  the  custom  may  possibly  have  spread  to  Italy 
about  the  close  of  the  first  millennium. 

Bock,  Oeachichte  der  liturgitchen  Gew&nder,  II  (Bonn,  1866); 
Duchesne,  Originea  du  cuUe  chrHxen  (Paris,  1903);  Rohaui/t 
DB  Fleury,  La  mesae,  yil  (Paris,  18i88):  Wilpert,  Die  Oe- 
wandtmg  der  ChriMen  in  den  erslen  Jahr.  (Cologne,  1808); 
Thurston,  The  VeMmerUs  of  Low  Mass  in  The  Month  (Sept., 
Oct.,  Nov^  Dec.,  1898) ;  Kleinschmidt,  Die  prienterl.  GewUnder 
in  Limer  Quartalachrift,  LII  (Linz.  1899);  Braun,  Die  prietUT' 
lichen  GetoAnder  dee  Abendlandee  (Freibui^g,  1897):  Idem,  Di€ 
liturgiache  Gewandung  im  Occident  und  Orient  (Freibuig,  1907). 

Joseph  Braun. 

Manitoba,  one  of  the  smallest,  but  economically 
and  historically  one  of  the  most  important,  of  the 
Canadian  provinces.  Its  name  is  derived  from  two 
Sauteux  words  meaning  "Manitou  Narrows",  firet 
applied  to  the  lake  of  the  same  name  which  lies  within 
the  present  boundaries  of  that  commonwealth.  These 
are:  52°  50"  N.  lat ;  95°  W.  long. ;  101°  20'  W.  long,  and 
in  the  south,  the  American  Stat^  of  North  Dakota  and 
Minnesota.  From  its  square  and  relatively  small  area, 
it  is  sometimes  jocularly  called  the  postage-stamp 
province;  yet  it  is  not  less  than  74,(X)0  square  znilw 
m  extent,  or  only  8782  less  than  England  and  Scot- 
land combined.  Physically  it  is  remarkable  for  its 
level  plains  and  the  fine,  shallow  sheets  of  water  it 
contains:  Lake  Winnipeg,  270  miles  long,  wiU)  ao 


MANIZALI8 


603 


MAHV 


average  width  of  30;  Lake  WinnipegosiSi  150  miles  by 
18;  and  Lake  Manitoba,  130  miles  by  about  10.  The 
first  named  is  the  only  lake  entirely  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  province.  These  and  other  more  or  less 
considerable  sheets  of  water,  by  the  immense  shoals  of 
white  fish  they  contain,  give  rise  to  a  remunerative 
industry.  The  only  rivers  worth  mentioning  are  the 
Red,  the  Assiniboine,  and  the  Winnipeg.  But  the 
principal  weEtlth  of  the  country  consists  m  its  fertile 
plains,  which  are  yearly  covered  with  endless  fields  of 
the  famous  hard  Canadian  wheat  and  other  cereals. 
The  area  under  crop  in  1909  was  somewhat  smaller 
than  in  preceding  years.  We  give  it  here,  together 
with  the  yields  of  the  various  grains  and  roots : 


Crop 

Area  Tilled 
in  Acres 

Average  Yield 
in  Bushels 

Total  Yield 
in  Bushels 

Wheat 

2.642,111 

1,373,683 

601.008 

25.096 

28,265 

9.876 

1733 
311 
27-31 
15- 
192-8 
2693 

45.774.707 

Oatfl 

50.983.005 

Barley. 

16.416.634 

Flax,  Rye,  and  Peas 
Potatoes 

330,056 
5,450.200 

Roots 

2,059.928 

The  climate  of  Manitoba  is  bracing  and  healthy.  Its 
winters  are  somewhat  long  and  severe;  but  the  con- 
stant dryness  of  the  atmosphere  makes  them  bearable. 
The  total  ^population  of  the  province  in  Feb.,  1910, 
was  computed  at  466,368  inhabitants,  of  whom  8327 
were  Indians.  Among  the  whites  there  were  in  May, 
1909,  51,794  Catholics,  with,  officially,  1734  Indians. 
Some  25,000  of  the  Catholics  follow  the  Grseco-Ru- 
thenian  rite.  The  capital,  Winnioeg,  contains  an 
estimated  population  of  142.000.  Its  chief  cities  are 
Brandon,  pop.  14,000  inhabitants;  St.  Boniface  (the 
cathedral  town),  pop.  6700,  and  Portage  la  Prairie, 
pop.  6500.  The  region  which  has  become  the  prov- 
ince of  Manitoba  was  discovered  and  settled  in  a 
way  by  the  Sieur  de  Lav^rendrye,  between  1732  and 
1739.  Shortly  prior  to  the  cession  of  Canada  to  Great 
Britain,  the  trading  posts  he  had  established  were 
abandoned,  and  Engush-speakins  adventurers  from 
the  East  for  the  first  time  tried  their  fortunes  on  the 
Western  plains.  These,  with  their  purveyors  in  Mon- 
treal, founded  the  famous  North-west  Company,  which 
soon  became  a  formidable  rival  to  the  long  estab- 
lished Hudson  Bay  Company^  the  representative  of 
the  English  interests.  Then  Lord  Seltcirk,  a  Scottish 
nobleman,  and  an  important  shareholder  in  the  latter 
corporation,  who  haa  secured  a  vast  tract  of  land  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Red  and  Assiniboine  Rivers, 
planted  there  (1812)  a  colony  of  Scotch  and  Irish 
settlers,  whose  presence  excited  the  hostility  of  the 
North-west  Company  and  the  numerous  French  Cana- 
dians and  half-breeds  in  its  employ.  This  culminated 
(19  June,  1816)  in  the  Battle  of  Seven  Oaks,  wherein 
Robert  Semple,  governor  for  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany and  twenty  of  his  men  fell.  The  immediate 
result  was  the  disbanding  of  the  colonists,  who,  how- 
ever, were  soon  after  recalled  by  Lord  Selkirk  at  the 
head  of  a  strong  force  of  hired  soldiers  (1817).  The 
following  year  (16  June,  1818)  there  arrived  in  the 
colony  the  first  two  resident  Catholic  priests  (see  Pro- 
vencher),  and  in  the  fall  of  1820  the  first  Protestant 
minister.  Rev.  John  West,  similarly  reached  the  Red 
River  Settlement,  as  the  country  was  long  called. 

In  March,  1821,  the  two  contending  companies  were 
united  under  the  name  already  borne  bv  the  English 
body.  Twelve  years  later,  the  increase  m  the  popula- 
tion led  to  the  formation  of  a  sort  of  home  govern- 
ment, with  a  deliberative  assembly  termed  the  Council 
of  Assiniboia,  the  name  then  assumed  by  the  settle- 
ment. Meantime  the  country  was  seriously  dissatis- 
fied at  the  severity  with  which  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company — still  practically  the  governing  body — ^was 
asserting  its  monopoly  in  the  fur  trade.  In  the  spring 
of  1849  the  Frencn  bialf-breeds,  or  Metis,  took  advan- 
tage of  the  arr€«t  of  a  few  of  their  o\imber,»acQU»9cl  of 


having  infringed  on  said  vested  rights,  to  rise  for  the 

Purpose  of  forcibly  establishing  freedom  of  commerce, 
en  years  later  whites  from  Ontario  began  to  arrive  in 
the  settlement,  established  a  newspaper,  and  waged 
war  on  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  Immediately  on 
the  formation  (1867)  of  the  Dominion  of  Ccuiada  steps 
were  taken  to  acquire  the  colony  and  the  entire  coun- 
try tributary  to  Hudson  Bay.  Without  consulting 
the  inhabitants,  now  numbering  12,000,  those  im- 
mense regions  were  sold  to  Canada  for  the  sum  of 
£300,000,  and,  even  before  their  transfer  to  the  new 
confederation,  surveyors  and  prospective  settlers  were 
dispatched  who,  by  their  arrogance,  greed,  and  lack  of 
respect  for  acquired  jights,  ^ve  rise  to  the  Red  River 
Insurrection  under  Louis  Riel.  The  outcome  of  this 
was  a  list  of  demands  from  the  federal  authorities,  prac- 
tically all  of  which  were  granted,  the  concessions  being 
embodied  in  the  Manitoba  Act.  This  Act  created  a 
province  with,  at  first  (1870),  an  area  of  only  14,340 
square  miles.    In  1881  its  limits  were  enlaiged. 

When,  however,  settlers  from  Ontario  and  Ens- 
hsh-speaking  provinces  had  outnumbered  the  Cath- 
olics, who  were  chiefly  of  the  French  race,  both  rights 
were  ignored  by  the  Provincial  Legislature  in  the  spring 
of  1890,  despite  the  unequivocal  declarations  (k  the 
Constitution.  The  Catholics  inmiediately  protested, 
especially  on  behalf  of  their  schools,  and  had  recourse 
to  various  tribunals  in  the  dominion  and  even  to  the 
Crown.  In  1895  the  Privy  Council  admitted  that  they 
had  a  real  grievance  and  that  they  were  entitled  to  re- 
dress at  the  hands  of  the  Federal  Parliament.  A  sort 
of  compromise  was  effected  which  fell  short  of  Cath- 
olic aspirations,  and  at  present,  as  a  result  of  a  kindly 
interpretation  of  the  law  by  the  Conservative  Gov- 
ernment of  Manitoba,  and  thanks  to  a  tacit  under- 
standing, which  is  liable  to  be  ignored  by  a  Liberal 
administration  of  the  province,  the  schools  in  the 
town  of  St.  Boniface  and  in  the  French  coimtry  dis- 
tricts enjoy  some  measure  of  religious  autonomy,  due 
chiefly  to  the  fact  that  the  teachers  are  mostly 
French  Canadians  who  are  allowed  to  teach  partly  in 
French  and  who  are  Catholics.  These  schoob  receive 
a  government  grant.  But  in  cities,  such  as  Winni- 
peg, Brandon,  and  Portage  la  Prairie,  those  Catholics 
who  have  made  the  greatest  pecuniary  sacrifices  for 
the  education  of  their  children  have  received  abso- 
lutely no  redress  from  the  unjust  burden  of  taxation 
for  non-Catholic  schools  and  from  the  refusal  of  gov- 
ernment or  municipal  grants  for  the  schools  which 
they  maintain  at  great  expense. 

Ross,  The  Red  River  Settlement  (London.  1856);  Haroravx, 
Red  River  (Montreal,  1871):  Hamilton,  The  Prairie  Province 
(Toronto,  1876);  Gunn.  Htetory  of  Manitoba  (Ottawa,  1880); 
Brtcs,  Manitoba;  ite  infanei/t  growth  and  preaent  condition 
(London,  1882) ;  The  Romantic  Settlement  of  Lord  Selkirk' a  Col- 
onitUa  (Toronto,  1909);  Hill.  Manitoba  (Toronto,  1890);  Begg, 
Hiatory  of  the  North-Weti  (Toronto,  1894);  Dugas,  I/Oueat 
Canadten  (Montreal,  1896);  Moricb,  Aux  Sourcea  de  VHiatoira 
Manitobaine  (Quebec.  1907) ;  DictionrMire  hiatorique  dea  Cana^ 
diena  etdea  MHia  Fran^aia  de  VOueat  (Quebec,  1908);  Hiatory 
of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Weatem  Canada  (Toronto.  1910); 
Anglin.  Catholic  EduccUion  in  Canada  in  iia  Relation  to  the 
Civil  Authority  in  The  Catholic  Educational  Aaaociation  Bui" 
letin  (Oolumbus.  Ohio.  August,  1910). 

A.  G*  MORICE. 

Manisales,  Diocese  of.  See  Medellin,  Archdio- 
cese OF. 

Mann,  Theodore  Augustine,  English  naturalist 
and  historian y  b.  in  Yorkshire,  22  Jmie,  1735;  d.  at 
Pra^e  in  Bohemia,  23  Feb.,  1800.  Little  is  known 
of  his  education  except  that  he  seems  to  have  imbibed 
deistic  ideas  in  his  youth.  He  left  England  about 
1754  and  went  to  Paris.  Here  the  study  of  Bos- 
suet's  "Discours  sur  Thistoire  universelle''  exerted  a 
profound  influence  upon  him,  and  in  1756  he  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Catholic  Church  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Paris.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between 
France  and  England  in  the  same  year,  he  went  to 
Spain,  where  he  enlisted  in  a  teiqg:c&»sQ^  ^  ^sw^y^sos^ 


icAnu 


604 


and  afterwards  became  a  student  at  the  military 
academy  of  Barcelona.  He  soon  abandoned,  how- 
ever, the  idea  of  a  military  career,  and  went  to  Bel- 
ffium,  where  he  entered  the  Chartreuse  monastery  at 
Nieuport,  the  sole  English  house  of  the  order.  After 
his  profession  his  leisure  was  devoted  to  scientific 
study,  and  his  memoir  "Thdorie  des  causes  physiques 
des  mouvements  des  corps  celestes  d'apr^  les  prin- 
cipes  de  Newton'',  won  for  him  membership  in  the 
Imperial  Academy  of  Brussels.  He  became  prior  of 
his  monastery  in  1764,  but  left  the  order  thirteen  years 
later,  after  having  obtained  a  Bull  of  secularization 
and  also  the  privilege  of  possessing  a  benefice.  He 
took  up  his  residence  at  Brussels,  and  received  a  pre- 
bend in  the  Chapter  of  Notre-Dame  de  Courtrai.  In 
1787  he  was  chosen  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Brussels 
Academy,  and  carriea  on  numerous  meteorological 
observations  under  its  auspices.  The  invasion  of  the 
French  in  1794  forced  him  to  leave  Belgium,  and, 
after  travelling  in  Germany  and  England,  he  finally 
settled  at  Pra^e,  where  ne  continued  his  literary 
labours  imtil  his  death.  Mann  was  a  laborious  stu- 
dent and  a  versatile  writer.  He  is  said  to  have  re- 
fused the  Bishopric  of  Antwerp,  oflFered  him  by  Em- 
peror Joseph  II,  rather  than  abandon  his  favourite 
studies. 

His  principal  literary  works,  conspicuous  for  their 
erudition,  were:  "M^oire  et  lettres  sur  T^tude  de  la 
langue  grecque"  (Brussels,  1781);  "M^moire  sur  la 
conservation  et  le  commerce  des  grains''  (Mechlin, 
1764);  "Abr^6  de  I'histoire  ecci^siastique,  civile,  et 
naturelle  de  la  ville  de  Bruxelles  et  de  ses  environs" 
(Brussels,  1785),  in  collaboration  with  Foppens;  **His- 
toire  du  r^gne  de  Marie  Th^rdse"  (Brussels,  1781;  2nd 
ed.,  1786);  ''Recueil  de  m^moires  sur  les  grandes 
gel^es  et  leurs  eflfets  "  (Ghent,  1792) ; "  Pnncipesm^ta- 

?hysiques  des  dtres  et  des  connaissances "  (Vienna, 
807),  and  numerous  papers  in  the  **  M^moires"  of  the 
Brussels  Academy.  He  was  also  the  translator  of  an 
English  work,  which  was  published  under  the  title 
"  Dictionnaire  des  Jardiniers  et  des  Cultivateurs" 
(Brussels,  1786-9). 

RsiFrcNBERO,  Eloqe  de  I'Abhi  Mann  in  Annnaire  de  la 
Biblioth.  rmtoLe  de  Bdgujue  (Brussels,  1850),  77;  Sbccombb  in 
JHdt.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v.;  Kbqnard  in  Nouvelle  Biogr.  O^n,,  s.  v. 

Henry  M.  Brock. 

Manna  (Heb.  }d,  Gr.  /ouiv,  /idvva;  Lat.  man,  man- 
na)^ the  food  miraculously  sent  to  the  Israelites  during 
their  forty  years'  sojourn  in  the  desert  (Ex.,  xvi; 
Num .,  xi,  6-^9) .  It  fell  during  the  night  in  small  white 
flakes  or  grains  which  covered  the  ground  and  pre- 
sented the  appearance  of  hoar  frost.  These  grains  are 
described  as  resembling  coriander  seed  and  bdellium, 
with  a  taste  like  "flour  with  honey",  or  **  bread  tem- 
pered with  oil"  (Ex.,  xvi,  31;  Num.,  xi,  7-8). 

The  manna  fell  for  the  first  time  w^hile  the 
Israelites  were  in  the  desert  of  Sin,  six  weeks  after 
their  departure  from  Egypt,  in  answer  to  their  mur- 
murs over  the  privations  of  desert  life  (Ex.,  xvi,  1  8(^.) 
and  thenceforth  fell  daily,  except  on  the  Sabbath,  till 
they  arrived  at  Galgal  in  the  plain  of  Jericho  (Jos.,  v, 
12).  During  these  years  the  manna  was  their  chief 
but  not  their  only  article  of  diet.  Their  herds  furnished 
them  some  milk  and  meat;  they  had  oil  and  flour,  at 
least  in  small  quantities,  and  at  times  purchased  pro- 
visions from  neighbouring  peoples  (Lev.,  ii,  sq.;  xvii, 
1  sq.;  Deut.,  ii,  6,  28).  Tne  manna  had  to  be  gath- 
ered in  the  morning,  as  the  heat  of  the  sun  melted  it. 
The  quantity  to  be  collected  was  limited  to  a  gomor 
Corner,  between  six  and  seven  pints)  j^er  person ;  but  on 
the  eve  of  the  Sabbath  a  double  portion  was  gathered. 
When  kept  over  night  it  putrefied  and  bred  worms,  ex- 
cept the  portion  which  was  reserved  for  the  Sabbath. 
Though  it  was  probably  eatable  in  the  natural  state, 
it  was  usually  ground  in  a  mill  or  beaten  in  a  mortar  and 
then  boiled  and  made  into  cakes.  As  a  reminder  to 
future  generations,  a  vessel  filled  with  manna  was 


placed  near  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant.  The  name  b 
connected  with  the  exclamation  "  M&n  htt",  which  the 
Israelites  uttered  on  first  seeing  it.  This  expresnoo 
since  the  time  of  the  Septuagint  is  generally  tiana- 
lated  '^What  is  this?",  tnou^  it  should  more  prob- 
ably be  translated  "  Is  tnis  manna?  ",  or  "  It  is  manna  ". 
A  substance  named  mannu  was  known  in  Egypt  at 
that  time,  and  the  resemblance  of  the  newly  fallen 
food  to  this  substance  would  naturally  call  forth  the 
exclamation  and  suggest  the  name. 

Many  scholars  have  identified  the  Biblical  mfttma 
with  the  juice  exuded  by  a  variety  of  Tamarix  gaUica 
(Tamarix  mannifera)  when  it  is  pricked  by  an  insect 
(Coccus  manniparua)  f  and  known  to  the  Arabs  as 
mannessama,  '*  gift  of  heaven  "  or  "  heavenly  manna  ". 
But  although  manna  in  several  respects  answers  the 
description  of  the  manna  of  the  Bible,  it  lacks  some 
of  its  distinctive  qualities.  It  cannot  be  ground  or 
beaten  in  a  mortar,  nor  can  it  be  boiled  and  made 
into  cakes.  It  does  not  decay  and  breed  worms, 
but  keeps  indefinitely  after  it  is  collected.  Be- 
sides, being  almost  pure  sugar,  it  could  hardly  form 
the  chief  nourishment  of  a  people  for  forty  years. 
But  even  if  the  identity  were  certain,  the  phenomenon 
of  its  fall,  as  recorded  in  Exodus,  could  not  be  ex- 
plained except  by  a  miracle.  For,  although  the 
tamarisk  was  probably  more  plentiful  in  the  days  c^ 
the  Exodus  than  it  is  now,  it  could  not  have  furnished 
the  large  quantity  of  manna  daily  required  by  the 
Israelites.  Moreover,  the  tamarisk  manna  exudes 
only  at  a  certain  season,  whereas  the  Biblical  mftnna^ 
fell  throughout  the  year;  it  exudes  every  day  during 
its  season,  while  the  Biblical  manna  did  not  fall  cm 
the  Sabbath.  Most  of  these  objections  apply  also  to 
the  juice  exuded  by  the  Camel's  Thorn  (^Alncl^  Came- 
lorum),  which  is  sometimes  considered  identuad  with 
Biblical  manna. 

Others  think  they  have  found  the  true  mannu  in 
a  lichen,  Lenora  esculenia  (also  known  as  Sphtrro- 
thaUia  eacitlenta),  met  with  in  Western  Ada  and 
North  Africa.  It  easily  scales  off.  and  being  carried 
away  by  the  wind  sometimes  falls  in  the  form  of  a 
rain.  In  times  of  famine  it  is  ground  and  mixed 
with  other  substances  to  make  a  kmd  of  bread.  But 
this  lichen  is  dry  and  insipid,  and  possesses  little  nutri- 
tive value.  The  regular  fall  in  this  case,  too,  wouJd 
be  miraculous.  The  manna  may,  indeed,  have  been  a 
natural  substance,  but  we  must  admit  a  miracle  at 
least  in  the  manner  in  which  it  was  supplied.  For  not 
only  does  the  phenomenon  resist  all  natural  ex- 
planation, but  the  account  of  Exodus,  as  well  as  the 
designation  "  bread  from  heaven",  "bread  of  angels", 
i.  e.  sent  by  the  ministry  of  angels  (Ps.  Ixxvii,  24,  25; 
Wisd.,  xvi,  20),  plainly  represents  it  as  miraculous. 

Chnst  uses  the  manna  as  the  type  and  symbol  of  the 

Eucharistic  food^  which  is  true  "  bread  from  heaven", 

and  "bread  of  hfe*',  i.  e.  life-giving  bread,  in  a  far 

higher  sense  than  the  manna  of  old  (John.  vi).    St. 

Paul  in  calling  the  manna  "spiritual  food  J*  (I  Cor.. 

X,  3),  alludes  to  its  symbolical  significance  with  regard 

to  the  Eucharist  as  much  as  to  its  miraculous  charao- 

ter.     Hence  the  manna  has  always  been  a  common 

Eucharistic  symbol  in  Christian  art  and  hturgy.    In 

Apoc.,  ii,  17,  the  manna  stands  as  the  s3^mbol  of  the 

happiness  of  heaven. 

HuMMELAUER,  Com.  in  Exod.  (Paris.  1897),  168  sq.;  Bbsrs, 
Durch  Oosen  turn  Sinai  (Leipzig,  1872),  236;  Rittxr,  Die  Erd- 
kunde  (Berlin.  1848),  xiv.  665  sq.;  Burcxhardt,  Traveie  in 
Svria  (London,  1822),  600  sq,;  LEsfexRE  in  Vio.,  Did.  de  la 
Bible,  s.  V. :  Zenker,  Afan  hu  in  Zeiteehr.  der  Kath.  TheoL,  xxm 
(1899),  164;  Peters.  Zu  Man  hu,  ibid..  371. 

F.  Bechtel. 

Manning,  Henry  Edward,  Cardinal  Priest  of  Sts. 
Andrew  and  Gregory  on  the  Ccelian  Hill  and  second 
Archbishop  of  Westminster,  b.  15  July,  1808;  d.  14 
January,  1892. 

Henry  Edward  Manning,  who  was  bom  at  his  grand- 


MANKINO 


605 


ICAMNINO 


father's  home,  Copped  Hall,  Totteridge,  Herts,  Eng- 
land, was  the  son  ot  William  Manning,  M.  P.  for  Eves- 
ham and  Lymington  and  sometime  governor  of  the 
Bank  of  England.  His  father's  family  was  of  an  old 
Kentish  stock,  and  though  bom  in  Hertfordshire,  the 
futm-e  cardinal  spent  some  years  of  his  boyhood  at 
Combe  Bank,  near  Sevenoaks  in  Kent,  whither  his 
father  had  moved  when  his  son  was  but  seven  years 
old.  His  motheir  William  Manning's  second  wife,  was 
a  daughter  of  Henrv  Lannoy  Hunter,  who  was  of  a 
French  Huguenot  family  originally  known  by  the 
name  of  Veneur.  His  father's  mother  was  a  Miss  Ry- 
an, whose  name  betrays  her  Irish  origin,  and  from 
some  old  diaries  which  have  only,  lately  come  to  life  it 
appears  that  she  was  a  Catholic  and  faithfully  prao- 
tised  the  duties  of  her  reli^on.  This  fact,  it  would 
seem,  was  never  luiown  to  Cardinal  Manning  himself, 
as  the  diaries  have  only  been  discovered  since  his 
death.  After  learning  his  first  rudiments  at  home  and 
at  a  private  school  at  Totteridge,  Henry  Manning  went 
to  Harrow,  in  1822,  and  on  leaving  school  continued 
his  studies  for  a  time  under  a  private  tutor.  It  had  at 
first  been  his  purpose  to  follow  his  father  in  the  bank- 
ing business  and  to  enter  Parliament.  But  the  banker 
having  suffered  a  reverse  of  fortune,  he  was  fain  to 
take  a  different  course.  In  1827  he  went  up  to  Ox- 
ford and  entered  at  Balliol  College.  Although  he  no 
longer  had  a  parliamentary  career  in  view,  he  con- 
tinued to  take  an  interest  m  political  questions,  and 
his  natural  powers  of  oratory  soon  made  him  con- 
spicuous in  the  debating  of  the  Union,  where  he  was 
succeeded  by  Gladstone  in  the  presidency.  In  later 
life  he  still  cherished  pleasing  recollections  of  the 
memorable  4ebate  of  1829,  when  Monckton  Milnes 
and  Hallam  and  Sunderland  came  from  Cambridge  to 
prove  the  poetical  superiority  of  SheUey  to  Byron. 

These  rhetorical  distractions,  however,  did  not  inter- 
fere with  his  studies,  and  in  1830  he  took  a  first  class  in 
classics.  On  leaving  Oxford,  he  accepted  a  subordi- 
nate post  in  the  Colonial  Office,  and  devoted  his  atten- 
tion to  questions  of  political  economy,  a  study  which 
stood  him  in  good  stead  when  in  later  years  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  practical  discussion  of  social 
problems.  But  though  Jhis  time  was  in  no  wise 
wasted,  he  had  not  yet  found  his  rightful  place  and  his 
real  work  in  life.  .  He  had  scarcely  relinquished  his 
dreams  of  political  ambition,  when  he  felt  himself 
called  to  the  service  of  God  and  his  brethren.  For 
this  reason  he  once  more  went  back  to  Oxford,  where, 
in  1832,  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  Merton  College. 
After  completing  the  course  of  reading  required  For 
orders,  he  was  oraained  to  the  Anglican  mimstry  later 
in  the  same  year  and  preached  nis  first  sermon  in 
Cuddesdon  Church  on  Christmas  Day.  Soon  after  his 
ordination  he  went  to  act  as  curate  to  the  Rev.  John 
Sargent,  Rector  of  Lavin^ton-with-Graffham,  Sussex, 
who  was  stricken  with  illness,  and  in  taking  what 
seemed  to  be  a  temporary  work  he  found  what  was  to 
be  his  home  for  the  next  seventeen  years.  On  the 
death  of  the  rector,  he  was  presented  to  the  living  in 
May,  1833,  by  the  patroness,  Mrs.  Sargent  of  Laving- 
ton,  the  mother  of  the  Rev.  John  Sargent.  In  Novem- 
ber of  the  same  year  he  married  Caroline  Sargent,  the 
third  daujghter  of  his  predecessor  in  the  incumbency. 
His  marriage  may  be  said  to  have  had  some  part,  how- 
ever indirectly,  in  leading  him  into  the  Catholic 
Church,  for  it  brought  him  into  a  family  circle  that 
was  destined  to  be  strongly  affected  by  the  rising 
Homeward  movement.  Of  the  four  famous  Sai^eent 
sisters,  Mrs.  Heni^  Wilberforce  and  Mrs.  George  Ry- 
der were  received  mto  the  Church  with  their  husbands 
and  their  children;  the  other  two,  Caroline  Manning, 
who  died  in  July,  1837,  and  her  eldest  sister,  the  wife 
of  Samuel  Wilberforce  afterwards  Bishop  of  Winches- 
ter, were  already  dead  when  the  movement  had  scarce 
begun ;  yet  one  of  them  eventually  gave  her  husband 
and  the  other  her  daughter  to  the  Church. 


In  his  coimtry  parish  at  Lavington,  though  Henry 
Manning  had  not  yet  attained  to  the  fullness  of  the 
Faith,  nor  as  yet  received  the  sacramental  grace  and 
the  spiritual  powers  of  the  Catholic  pastor,  he  was  al- 
ready, according  to  the  light  so  far  vouchsafed  him, 
serving  his  Divine  master  and  labouring  for  the  salva- 
tion of  souls  in  a  true  spirit  of  zeal  and  generous  self- 
sacrifice,  in  the  spirit  that  speaks  in  later  days  from 
the  pages  of  his  ''Eternal  Priesthood"  and  his  "Pas- 
toral Office".  In  1841,  after  some  years  of  simple 
parish  work,  a  wider  field  was  opened  to  him  by  his 
appointment  to  the  office  of  Archdeacon  of  Chichester. 
Tne  office  in  his  case  was  assuredly  no  sinecure.  The 
volume  of  charges  delivered  on  the  periodical  visita- 
tions of  the  archdeaconry  remains  to  show  the  in- 
telligent and  tireless  zeal  with  which  he  entered 
into  these  new  duties.  Here  also  we  may  find  some 
tilings  that  seem  to  foreshadow  his  larger  work  in 
later  years,  notably  the  pages  that  bear  witness  to 
his  love  for  God's  poor,  his  resolute  resistance  to 
wrong,  and  his  zeal  for  reforming  abuses.  Mean- 
while, all  this  active  work  was  accompanied  by  a 
corresponding  growth  in  the  knowledge  of  Catholic 
truth. 

The  Oxford  Movement  was  now  in  full  swing,  and 
some  of  its  leaders  were  already,  however  uncon- 
sciously, well  on  their  way  to  Rome.  Newman  had 
begun  to  see  the  light  in  1839  (two  years  before  Man- 
ning's appointment  as  archdeacon),  but  six  more  years 
had  to  elapse  before  his  final  submission  to  the  Holy 
See  in  1845.  This  fact  is  worth  recalling  here,  for  it 
reminds  us  that  a  conversion  is  often  a  matter  of  some 
time.  Between  the  beginning  of  difficulties,  misgiv- 
ings, and  fears  that  may  prove  illusory  ^  and  the  period 
when  the  misgivings  oecome  convictions,  and  duty 
becomes  clear,  a  considerable  time  may  otten  elapse. 
It  is  difficult  to  lay  down  any  general  rule;  some  may 
see  their  way  clear  more  speedily  than  others  and  may 
have  little  need  to  seek  for  outward  help  in  coming  to  a 
decision,  but  where,  as  so  often  happens,  the  process  of 
conviction  is  slow,  and  some  wise  counsel  is  needed,  it 
may  be  a  duty  to  confide  to  some  competent  adviser 
fears  and  misgivings  which  it  would  be  a  crime  to  pro- 
claim in  pubUc.  In  such  a  position  the  most  candid 
and  consistent  writer  must  needs  speak  in  a  different 
strain  in  his  confidential  letters  setting  forth  his  diffi- 
culties, and  in  letters  addressed  to  others  to  whom  it 
would  be  wrong  to  make  them  known.  And  the 
reader  who  can  appreciate  this  position  will  readily 
understand  the  seeming  inconsistency  between  tfave 
language  of  Manning's  private  correspondence  unfold- 
ing conscientious  perplexities  and  tnat  of  his  public 
utterances  at  this  time,  wherein  all  doubt  is  silenced. 
He  has  been  accused  of  remaining  an  Anglican  after  los- 
ing faith  in  Anglican  teachings;  and  it  has  been  alleged 
that  he  became  a  Catholic  for  motives  of  worldly  am- 
bition .  A  change  of  religion  for  such  unworthy  motives 
is  quite  out  of  keeping  with  the  character  of  the  man 
as  revealed  in  his  letters  and  journals  of  that  date,  and 
is  unintelligible  if  Manning  nad  been  the  astute  and 
ambitious  man  imagined  by  his  accusers.  When  he 
first  began  to  break  away  from  the  Church  of  England 
there  was  no  Catholic  hiemrchy  or  cardinal  archbishop 
in  England,  and  the  position  of  a  vicar  Apostolic 
could  not  offer  any  graat  temptation  to  an  ambitious 
Anglican  archdeacon.  And  if  we  once  suppose  him 
to  be  so  unprincipled  as  to  change  his  behef  or  pro- 
fession for  the  sake  of  preferment,  why  should  he  go  so 
far  and  get  so  little?  There  would  certainly  be  less 
trouble  and  greater  prospect  of  success  in  a  change  of 
course  within  the  Church  of  England.  An  astute  and 
ambitious  Archdeacon  of  Chichester  would  have 
broken  with  the  High  Church  party  and  taken  a  line 
agreeable  to  the  men  in  high  places.  The  real  cause 
and  motive  of  his  conversion  to  the  Church  may  be 
plainly  seen  in  the  whole  histoiy  of  the  Oxford  Mx>ve- 
ment,  as  well  as  in  his  own  published  writings  and  hj& 


ICAIININO 


606 


MAMNINO 


private  letters  and  journals.  In  common  with  the 
Tractarian  leaders  he  had  from  the  first  taken  hold  of 
great  Catholic  principles  which  he  found  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  early  Fatners.  And  in  his  case  the  truth 
that  came  home  to  him  with  special  force,  and  domi- 
nated and  moulded  his  whole  life  and  character  was 
the  abiding  presence  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  Church 
of  God .  This,  it  may  be  said ,  is  at  once  his  leading  idea 
in  his  Anglican  sermons,  his  main  motive  at  the  time  of 
his  conversion  and  in  the  course  he  took  in  the  Vatican 
Council,  and  it  forms  the  favourite  theme  in  his  later 
spiritual  and  theological  writings.  At  first^  like  other 
Anglican  divines,  he  was  able  to  satisfy  hunself  that 
the  Church  of  England  was  a  part  of  the  one  Holv 
Catholic  Apostolic  Church  of  tne  Creed,  and  as  such 
was  guided  and  quickened  by  the  presence  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  For  this  reason  he  looked  to  the  Church  to 
guard  and  cherish  the  revealed  doctrines  committed, 
as  he  supposed,  to  her  care. 

His  faith  in  Anglicanism  had  already  been  some- 
what shaken  by  other  doctrinal  or  historical  difficul- 
ties. It  was  finally  shattered  by  the  Gorham  Judg- 
ment of  1850,  when  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council  directed  the  Dean  of  Arches  to  institute 
a  clergyman  who  was  accused  of  holding  unorthodox 
views  on  the  subiect  of  Baptismal  Regeneration.  As 
Newman  had  said  of  the  Jerusalem  Bishopric,  this  act 
of  the  state  Church  was  for  Manning  ''  the  beginning 
of  the  end  ^\  Even  then  he  did  not  act  with  any  undue 
haste,  and  joined  in  an  attempt  to  free  the  Church  of 
England  from  a  compromising  association  with  heresy. 
His  zeal  and  devotion  to  the  Establishment  caused 
him  at  this  time  to  be  looked  up  to  as  the  leader  of  the 
High  Church  party  as  distinguished  from  the  Tracta- 
rians  in  the  Anglican  body.  On  23  January,  1847,  in 
reply  to  Dr.  Pusey's  lament  over  Canon  MacMullen's 
conversion  he  had  written  to  him:  "You  know  how 
long  I  have  to  you  expressed  my  conviction  that  a 
false  position  has  been  taken  up  by  the  Church  of 
England.  The  direct  and  certam  tendency  of  what 
remains  of  the  original  movement  is  to  the  Roman 
Church.  You  know  the  minds  of  men  about  us  better 
than  I  do.  and  will  therefore  know  how  strong  an  im- 
pression the  claims  of  Rome  have  upon  them.  ...  It 
IS  also  clear  that  they  are  revising  the  Reformation; 
that  the  doctrine,  ritual,  and  practice  of  the  Church  of 
England  t-aken  at  its  best  does  not  suffice  them.  .  .  . 
I  say  all  this  not  in  fault-finding  but  in  sorrow.  How 
to  help  to  heal  it  I  do  not  presume  to  say. "  Within  a 
few  days  after  the  Gorham  Judgment  (March,  1850) 
he  still  clung  to  the  Church  of  England  as  a  living 
branch  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  and  he  was  the  first  to 
sign  a  protest  calling  on  the  Church  to  free  itself  from  a 
heresy  imposed  on  it  by  the  civil  power.  A  bill  was  in- 
troduced in  the  House  of  Lords  to  provide  that  the  ul- 
timate decision  as  to  questions  of  doctrine  should  be 
transferred  to  the  Upper  House  of  Convocation,  but 
was  lost  by  84  votes  to  31,  and  Manning  was  driven  to 
consider  whether  the  Church  of  England  could  claim 
to  be  an  unerring  guide  and  teacher  of  the  Faith.  He 
took  pains  to  inform  his  friends  that  he  was  acting 
with  calmness  and  deliberation.  In  June,  1850,  he 
wrote  from  Lavington  to  his  sister,  Mrs.  Austen: 
"  Let  me  tell  you  to  believe  nothing  of  me  but  what 
comes  from  me.  The  world  has  sent  me  long  ago  to 
Pius  IX,  but  I  am  still  here,  and  if  I  may  lay  my  bones 
under  the  sod  in  Lavington  Churchyard  with  a  soul 
clear  before  God,  all  the  world  could  not  move  me." 
With  Wilberforce  and  Mill  he  circulated  a  declaration 
that  the  oath  of  supremacy  only  obliged  the  conscience 
in  matters  of  a  civil  not  of  a  spiritual  kind ;  it  was  sent 
to  17,000  clergymen,  but  only  about  18Ck)  signed  it. 
When  these  efforts  failed,  and  the  truth  was  borne  in 
upon  him  with  irresistible  force,  his  own  course  was 
at  length  clear  before  him.  At  Michaelmas  in  the 
same  year  he  took  steps  to  resign  his  living,  and  on 
Passion  Sunday,  6  April,  1851,  together  with  his  friend 


J.  R,  Hope-Scott,  Q.C.,  he  was  received  into  the  Catho- 
lic Church,  by  Father  Brownbill.  S.J. 

To  those  who  knew  the  arcndeaoon's  zeal  in  the 
pastoral  office  for  the  salvation  of  souls,  there  was  no 
doubt  of  his  call  to  the  sacred  ministry.  It  seemed 
only  a  matter  of  course  that  his  submisdon  to  the 
Church  should  be  followed,  after  the  necessary  inter- 
val of  preparation,  by  his  ordination  to  the  (!^tholic 
priesthood.  Few  coiud  have  expected  that  this  ordi- 
nation would  come  as  speedily  as  it  did.  CSaidinal 
Wiseman,  recognizing  that  the  circumstances  of  the 
case  were  exceptional,  decided  to  let  no  time  be  lost, 
and  Henry  Edward  Manning  was  ordained  priest  by 
his  predecessor  in  the  See  of  Westminster  on  Trinity 
Sunda^^,  14  June,  1851,  little  more  than  two  montte 
after  ms  reception  into  the  Church.  There  may  seem 
to  be  a  strange  irony  of  fate  in  this  hurried  promotioQ 
of  one  who  was  to  la^  so  much  stress  on  tiie  impor- 
tance of  due  preparation  for  the  priesthood.  But  the 
want  of  preparation  in  this  case  was  apparent  rather 
than  real.  Whether  we  regard  the  theological  learning 
or  the  spiritual  holiness  of  life  required  of  candidates 
for  the  priesthood,  Manning  had  already  made  no  little 
progress  in  preparation.  In  his  final  years  at  Laving- 
ton he  had  made  good  way  in  the  study  of  Catholic 
theology  and  spiritual  literature,  and.  as  Ids  journal 
with  its  searching  self-examination  and  generous  reso- 
lutions bears  witness,  the  other  side  of  that  preparation 
was  in  no  wise  wanting.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  cer- 
tainly desirable  that  some  more  systematic  training 
should  be  added  to  this  self-education.  For  this  rea- 
son his  ordination  was  followed  by  a  course  of  sUidies 
in  Rome.  These  studies,  however,  were  not  allowed 
to  prevent  that  immediate  missionary  wox^  which  had 
doubtless  been  one  of  Cardinal  Wiseman's  main 
motives  in  hastening  the  ordination  of  the  neophyte. 
During  these  years  of  Roman  study.  Manning  took 
advantage  of  the  summer  vacation  to  exercise  his 
pastoral  office  in  London,  preaching,  receiving  con- 
verts into  the  Church,  and  hearing  confessions  at  the 
Jesuit  church  in  Farm  Street.  In  this  chureh  he  had 
said  his  first  Mass  on  16  June,  1851,  assisted  by  P^re 
de  Ravignan. 

By  a  significant  coincidence  his  ordination  took 
place  on  14  June,  the  feast  of  St.  Basil,  one  of  the 
Fathers  who  was  in  a  special  manner  his^ttem.and 
who  has  left  us  a  great  work  6n  the  Holy  Gnost, 
and,  as  he  noticed  at  the  time  with  debgihty  the 
Introit  of  his  first  Mass  (on  the  feast  of  St.  Frauds 
Regis)  was  the  text:  **The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is  upon 
me;  wherefore  he  hath  anomted  me.  to  preach  the 
Gospel  to  the  poor  he  hath  sent  me  (Luke,  iv,  18; 
Isaias,  bci,  1),  words  that  bring  before  us  both  his 
active  work  for  the  poor  and  the  devotion  to  the  Holy 
Ghost,  which  was,  so  to  say,  the  soul  of  all  his  life  and 
labour.  The  priestly  labours  which  thus  began  were 
continued  on  a  large  field  and  with  fresh  advantages 
when,  in  1857,  he  founded  at  St.  Mary  of  the  Angels, 
Bayswater,  the  Congregation  of  the  Oblates  of  St. 
Charles.  This  new  community  of  secular  priests  was 
in  some  sort  the  joint  work  of  Cardinal  Wiseman  and 
Manning,  for  both  had  independently  conceived  the 
idea  of  a  community  of  this  kind,  and  Manning  had 
studied  the  life  and  work  of  St.  Charles  in  his  Andean 
days  at  Lavington  and  had,  moreover,  visited  the 
Ol^lates  at  Milan,  in  1856,  to  satisfy  himself  that  their 
rule  could  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  Westminster. 
In  the  same  year  tnat  he  became  superior  of  this  con- 
gregation another  office  was  laid  upon  him.  At  the 
instigation  of  Dr.  Whitty,  who  was  about  to  enter  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  he  was  appointed,  by  Pius  IX,  provost 
of  the  Westminster  Metropolitan  Chapter.  During  the 
eight  years  of  his  tenure  of  these  two  offices,  the  pro- 
vost and  superior  accomplished  a  great  amount  of 
work  both  for  the  diocese  and  for  his  own  community, 
and  the  eloquence  which  had  made  him  one  of  the  fore- 
most Anglican  preachers  of  the  time  now  helped  to 


HENRY  EDWARD  CARDINAL  MANNING 

FAINTINQ    BT   XDWIN   LONO.    R^. 


BCAMNINa                              607  MAXOSmXQ 

spread  and  strengthen  the  Catholic  Faith  in  England.  Birmingham.    Later  in  the  year  he  went  to  Rome  to 

His  pastoral  lalx>ur  was  now  no  lon^r  hampered  receive  the  pallium,  returning  to  England  by  Novem- 

by  inward  struggles  or  by  the  uncertainties  of  doc-  ber,  when  he  was  solemnly  enthroned,  and  set  himself 

trinal  differences  that  troubled  the  Ang^can  arch-  to  the  great  work  that  lay  before  him.    If  the  choice 

deacon.                                                                      ,  made  bjr  the  Holv  See  was  naturally  received  with 

Though  the  old  time  of  storm  and  stress  was  ended,  satisfaction  by  all  who  really  knew  him.  others  who 
he  was  now  to  have  trouble  of  another  kind;  ana  had  not  that  advantage  regarded  it  with  some  mi&- 
through  no  fault  of  his  own  he  found  himself  involved  giving.  Yet  some  who  had  hitherto  misunderstood 
in  a  domestic  controversy  which  became  the  cause  of  him  may  possibly  have  gained  a  new  sense  of  his 
considerable  misunderstanding.  In  the  circum-  power,  and  of  his  fitness  for  the  post,  from  the  sermon 
stances  of  the  time  it  was  almost  inevitable  that  the  that  he  preached  at  the  funeral  of  Cardinal  Wiseman, 
new  community,  partly  composed  of  converts  and  In  that  graphic  sketch  of  his  predecessor's  career, 
apparently  aiming  at  a  revival  in  En^ish  Catholic  wherein  he  snowed  how  the  man  had  been  fashioned 
ecdesiastical  Ufe,  should  be  a  subject  of  some  differ-  and  prepared  for  the  work  he  was  destined  to  do  in 
ence  of  opinion.  Men  of  the  old  school,  who  looked  England,  the  discerning  reader  may  see  how  well  the 
with  suspicion  on  any  novelties,  may  be  pardoned  for  preacher  had  grasped  the  needs  and  hopes  of  the  coun- 
feeling  alarm  at  the  participation  oi  the  new  com-  try,  and  mav  moreover  be  led  to  reflect  how  he,  too, 
munitv  in  the  work  of  the  diocesan  seminar}r.  Likely  though  in  other  ways  than  Wiseman's,  had  been  made 
enough,  neither  mde  quite  understood  the  ideas  and  ready  to  carry  the  Catholic  standard  forward  to  fur- 
motives  of  the  other.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  majority  ther  victories.  While  those  who  rightly  understood 
of  the  Metropolitan  Chapter  adopted  views  at  variance  Manning's  merits  may  well  have  had  high  hopes  for 
with  those  of  Wiseman  and  Manning,  and  in  the  con-  the  future,  few  if  any  can  have  anticipated  anythinjg 
troversy  that  ensued  the  canons  were  supported  by  like  the  actual  accomplishment.  For  one  thing,  his 
Archbishop  Errington,  at  that  time  Carainal  Wise-  age  and  his  apparently  frail  health  gave  Uttle  promise 
man's  coadjutor  "with  right  of  succession"  to  the  see.  of  such  a  long  lease  of  active  and  laborious  life.  He 
In  the  event  the  Oblates  had  to  retire  from  St.  Ed-  said  himself  that  he  thought  he  had  twelve  years  of 
mund's  College  (1861),  where  their  presence  had  given  work  in  him;  and  some  may  have  considered  this  over 
offence  to  the  chapter.  But  the  most  important  out-  sanguine.  Yet  he  was  to  have  a  life  full  of  strenuous 
come  of  the  stru^e  was  the  removal  of  Archbishop  and  varied  labour  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
Errington  from  his  office  of  coadjutor  cum  jure  8tu>-  tury. 

ceasionis.  And  as  this  decision  of  the  Holy  See  fol-  He  inaugurated  a  memorial  to  his  predecessor  Car- 
lowed  upon  a  controversy  in  which  Manning  took  a  dinal  Wiseman  and  determined  that  it  should  take  the 
conspicuous  part,  some  critics,  imperfectly  acquainted  form  of  a  cathedral  for  Westminster.  In  1868  he  was 
with  the  facts,  have  regarded  hun  as  an  ambitious  able  to  secure  a  site^  but  in  after  years  a  more  favour- 
aspirant  for  office  removing  a  rival  from  his  path,  able  one  was  determmed  on.  His  efforts  to  procure  edu- 
But  in  this  they  strangely  mistake  the  situation,  and  cation  for  the  poor  Catholic  children  of  London  were 
forget  or  overlook  the  fact  that  Manning's  part  in  the  unceasing;  and  in  his  Lenten  Pastoral  of  1890  he  was 
controversy  was  strictly  defensive.  This  can  hard(y  able  to  say  that  the  names  of  23,599  Catholic  children 
be  disputed  by  any  careful  and  candid  student  of  the  were  on  tne  books  of  his  parochial  schools,  and  that 
documents.  For  even  a  reader  who  shared  Arch-  during  the  previous  quarter  of  a  century  4542  children 
bishop  Errington's  unfavourable  view  of  the  Oblate  had  been  provided  for  in  the  homes  of  the  archdiocese. 
Community  and  its  position  and  influence  in  the  dio-  He  was  one  of  the  500  bishops  assembled  in  Rome  to 
oese  could  hardly  blame  the  superior  of  the  Oblates  take  part  in  the  eighteenth  centenary  of  Sts.  Peter  and 
for  writing  a  vigorous  vindication  of  himself  and  his  Paul,  and  he  was,  therefore,  present  when  Pius  IX  an- 
community.  nounoed  his  intention  of  convoking  a  General  Council. 

Though  this  struggle  was  certainly  not  of  his  seek-  He  returned  to  Rome  in  1869,  arriving  for  the  opening 
ing,  and  though  he  clearlv  had  no  thought  of  securing  of  the  Vatican  Council,  8  December,  and  was  put  on 
the  succession  for  himself;  it  is  none  the  less  true  that  the  Committee  "  De  Fide  ".  To  this  Committee,  in 
this  controversy  with  the  chapter  and  the  coadjutor  March,  1870,  was  referred  the  question  of  Papal  In- 
did  lead  in  the  event  to  his  own  elevation.  If  the  xoipt-  fallibility,  and  on  18  July  the  Decree  was  passed . 
ure  had  never  come  to  pass  there  would  have  been  no  On  his  return  to  England,  Manning  protested  in  the 
vacancy  on  Cardinal  Wiseman's  death,  since  the  coad-  press  against  the  charges  made  by  Mr.  Gladstone 
jutor  would  have  succeeded  in  due  course.  At  the  against  Catholics  who  accepted  the  Vatican  Decrees, 
same  time,  the  attack  and  the  vindication  had  the  and  his  three  pastoral  letters  published  under  the  title 
effect  of  making  Manning's  merits  and  labours  better  "Petri  Privile^um"  did  much  to  remove  prejudice 
known  in  Rome,  and  marked  him  out  as  the  man  and  misconception  even  among  Catholics.  In  1878  his 
most  in  sympathy  with  Wiseman's  policy,  and  thus  "True  Story  of  the  Vatican  Council  "appeared  in  "The 
suggested  him  as  a  suitable  successor.  Hence,  when  Nineteenth  Century"  in  reply  to  incorrect  statements 
the  vacancy  occurred  on  Wiseman's  death  in  February,  that  had  obtained  credence.  In  1875  he  was  sum- 
1865,  the  natural  result  followed.  This  was  made  moned  to  Rome  to  receive  the  caidinalate  and  the 
more  certain  when  the  chapter  sent  up  Archbishop  title  of  Sts.  Andrew  and  Gregory,  the  church  on  the 
Errington's  name  at  the  h^  of  the  tema,  and  the  Coelian,  once  the  home  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great, 
other  candidates  did  their  best  to  secure  his  appoint-  whence  St.  Augustine  and  his  companions  had  been 
ment.  As  the  Holy  See  could  hardly  accept  such  a  sent  to  convert  England.  In  1878  Cardinal  Manning 
reversal  of  the  decision  made  a  few  years  before,  it  was  took  part  in  the  conclave  that  elected  Leo  XIII,  re- 
inevitable  that  the  names  should  be  set  aside;  and  the  oeiving  a  vote  or  two  himself  in  the  scrutiny;  and 
pope  himself  decided  to  appoint  Mgr.  Manning.  While  Pope  Leo's  encyclical  "  On  the  condition  of  labour", 
the  matter  still  hung  in  the  balance,  Manning  endeav-  to  use  the  words  of  Bishop  Hedley,  "  owes  something 
oured  to  secure  the  appointment  of  another,  and,  in  a  to  the  counsels  of  Cardinal  Manning. " 
confidential  letter  to  Mgr.  George  Talbot  in  Rome,  A  matter  of  importance  which  took  up  not  a  little  of 
urged  the  claims  of  Bishop  Ullathome  and  Bishop  his  time  and  caus^  him  some  anxiety  arose  at  the  Low 
Comthwaite.  From  resolutions  which  he  made  as  to  Week  meeting  of  the  bishops  in  1877,  when  he  pro- 
his  future  conduct  towards  the  coming  archbishop  it  is  posed  that  they  should  prepare  a  petition  to  be  sent  to 
clear  that  he  did  not  anticipate  his  own  appoint-  Kome  asking  that  the  pope  should  determine  the  rela- 
naent.  tions  which  ougbt  to  exist  between  the  regulars  and 

The  new  archbishop  was  consecrated  at  St.  Mary  the  episcopate.    The  main  questions  at  issue  affected 

Moorfields,  on  8  June,  1865,  by  Bishop  Ullathome  of  the  right  of  the  bishops  to  divide  missions  already  ia 


BCAMimfO 


608 


uMsasmxa 


the  hands  of  regulars  and  the  control  bishops  had  oyer 
missions  served  by  regulars  in  matters  concerning 
visitation  and  the  auditing  of  funds  collected  intuitu 
miasionis.  After  some  necessary  delay  the  famous 
Constitution  "Romanos  Pontifices"  was  issued  in 
1881,  and  in  course  of  time  its  provisions  have  been  ex- 
tended to  nearly  all  English-speaking  countries.  It 
deals  mainly  with  matters  of  jurisdiction  and  disci- 
pline, and  trea,t8  of  many  subjects  involving  nice  and 
complicated  points  of  prudence  and  equity.  To  his 
zeal  in  the  cause  of  elementary  religious  education, 
Cardinal  Manning's  later  years  saw  added  his  efforts  on 
behalf  of  the  poor  and  outcast.  He  was  invited  to  join 
the  commission  for  the  better  housing  of  the  working 
classes,  he  founded  his  League  of  the  Cross  for  the 
promotion  of  temperance,  and  the  "  Candinal's  Peace  " 
recalls  the  success  of  his  efforts  at  mediation  between 
the  strikers  and  their  employers  at  the  time  of  the 
great  London  Dock  Strike  m  1889.  Such  are  some  of 
the  salient  works  of  Manning's  life.  And  it  may  be  re- 
mariced  that  while  any  one  of  these  various  lines  of 
activity  might  have  been  enough,  or  more  than  enough 
for  any  ordinary  man,  all  of  them  together  by  no 
means  make  up  the  whole  life  work  of  Cardinal  Man- 
ning. Besides  these  special  theological,  literary,  or 
social  labours,  there  remain  his  ordinary  pastoral 
activities.  If  he  had  done  none  of  those  things  that 
seem  at  first  sight  most  striking  and  characteristic,  his 
life  would  still  have  been  sufficiently  full  with  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  affairs  of  his  diocese,  with  his  care 
in  training  the  clergy,  his  daily  "  solicitude  for  all  the 
Churches",  with  holding  ordinations  and  presiding  at 
diocesan  synods,  with  the  building  and  blessing  of  new 
churches.  And  nothing  in  the  way  of  special  work 
could  make  him  neglect  those  primary  episcopal  du- 
ties or  perform  them  in  a  perfunctory  fashion.  These, 
it  may  be  safely  said,  came  first  and  foremost.  For 
him  the  Cathohc  bishop  was  the  father  of  the  flock, 
solicitous  in  every  way  for  the  welfare  of  his  children. 
It  was,  therefore,  as  a  bishop  sent  by  the  Holy  Ghost, 
the  "Pater  pauperum",  to  rule  the  Church  of  God, 
that  he  spent  himself  in  works  of  charity  or  social  re- 
form, or  defended  the  truth  against  attack  from  all 
forms  of  error,  or  from  the  corruptions  of  an  evil  life, 
and  spoke  in  the  same  spirit,  whether  addressing  dock- 
ers in  the  East  End,  or  agnostics  in  the  Metaphysical 
Society  or  bishops  and  theologians  in  the  Vatican 
Coimcil. 

Theological  controversy  may  be  said  to  hold  the 
first  place  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  episcopate,  culmi- 
nating in  the  Vatican  Council,  and  continuing  with 
somewhat  abated  vigour  for  a  few  years  longer.  Social 
work  gradually  becomes  more  conspicuous  in  the 
years  after  1876,  and  reaches  its  climax  in  the  Dock 
Strike  in  1889.  And  most  of  his  active  work  in  the 
League  of  the  Cross  and  amon^  working  men  comes 
after  his  elevation  to  the  cardinalate  in  1875.  For 
the  last  two  years  of  his  life,  his  failing  health  made 
him  for  the  most  part  a  prisoner.  At  length  the  end 
camC;  after  a  few  days  of  illness,  and  he  went  to  his  rest 
on  14  January,  1892.  A  striking  proof  of  the  hold  he 
had  on  the  hearts  of  the  poor  and  the  working  people 
of  London  was  given  when  thousands  thronged  to  get 
a  last  glimpse  of  him  as  he  lay  in  state  in  his  house  at 
Westminster,  and  to  follow  his  funeral  to  Kensal 
Green  Cemetery.  After  some  years  in  that  field  of  the 
dead  which  he  had  described  so  well  in  his  words  on 
Wiseman,  he  was  once  more  brought  back  to  West- 
minster and  given  his  last  earthly  resting  place  in  the 
crypt  of  the  cathedral. 

The  chief  sources  for  the  history  of  Cardinal  Manning  are  hia 
own  published  works  nnd  manuscript  notes,  reminiscences,  let- 
ters, and  journals,  which  exist  in  great  abundance.  Apart  from 
their  literary  value,  which  is  higher  than  some  hasty  critics  arc 
disposed  to  allow,  his  numerous  works,  both  Ani^lican  and 
Catholic,  throw  no  little  light  on  the  growth  of  his  opmions  and 
the  motives  of  his  active  labours,  for  from  first  to  last  there  is  a 
close  correspondence  between  his  words  and  actions.  For  his 
doctrinal  development  in  Anglican  dayv  The  Ride  of  Faith 


(1830)  and  the  Unity  of  the  Church  are  noteworthy:  but  his  best 
work  is  seen  in  the  four  vols,  of  Sermcne  (1845-60)  and  {7m«er- 
tnity  Sermons  (1844),  and  these  should  be  compared  with  such 
Catholic  works  as  The  Orounda  of  Faith  (1852),  The  Temporal 
Miasitm  of  the  Holy  Ghoet  (1865),  and  The  Eternal  Prieethood 
(1883).  This  last  book  has  been  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages and  ma3r  be  regarded  as  his  mastenpieoe;  apart  man  its 
mtnnsic  merit,  it  expresses  the  thoughts  that  dommated  all  his 
active  life.  The  greater  part  of  his  private  papen  are  still  un- 
published; but  a  great  number  of  lettera  and  autobiosraphieal 
notes  were  printed  in  the  Life  of  Cardinal  Manntng,  Archbishop 
of  Westminster,  by  Edwabd  Sheridan  Purcsll  (Ixmdon, 
1895),  2  vols.,  a  work  which  contained  much  valuable  matter, 
though  the  author's  information  on  some  points  was  very 
imperfect,  and  he  strangely  misunderstood  some  important 
episodes,  notably  the  state  of  Manning's  mind  before  nis  oon- 
▼ersion,  his  part  in  the  Eriington  case,  and  his  relations  with 
Cardinal  Newman.  Oi  these  points  see  the  Appendix  to  Car- 
dinal Manning  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1896)  by  Dr.  J.  R.  Gabqubt, 
the  cardinal's  nephew  bv  marrioc^e,  who  had  the  advantage  of 
private  papers  and  family  memories  unknown  to  FuroelL  The 
true  story  of  the  Errinffton  case  is  told,  with  the  help  of 
authentic  documents,  by  Wilfrid  Ward  in  his  Life  and  Ttmea 
of  Cardinal  Wiseman,  And  the  relation  of  Newman  and  Man- 
xung,  as  well  as  the  other  two  points,  are  treated  in  the  review 
of  ruroell's  book  by  W.  H.  Kent  in  Dublin  Review  (April. 
1896).  All  those  matters  will  be  more  fully  dealt  with  in  the 
Life  of  Cardinal  Manning  now  being  prepared  by  W.  H.  Kent. 
a  work  which  will  contain  many  important  documents  hitherto 
unpublished,  including  the  letters  to  Mr.  Gladstone  which  Mr. 
Purcell  wrongly  supposed  to  be  destroyed.  Hemknbr'b  Vie  du 
Cardinal  Manning  (1897)  may  also  be  mentioned,  as  well  as  the 
life  by  a  well  known  French  Protestant,  db  PRBSSBNst  (1806: 
tr.,  1897).  This  book,  like  a  more  recent  non-Ca4iiolio  biog- 
raphy. The  Cardinal  Democrat,  by  Miss  I.  Taylor,  pays 
special  attention  to  the  cardinal's  social  work,  a  topic  also 
treated  by  a  French  Catholic  authority,  Abb£  Lemirb,  in  Car- 
dinal Manning  et  son  ceuvre  socials.  On  this  point  the  article 
of  Sydney  Buxton,  M.  P.,  in  the  Contemporary  Review^  (1896) 
on  Cardinal  Manning  and  the  Dock  Strike  is  valuable  for  its  first- 
hand information  from  one  who  took  part  in  the  fray.  Yet 
another  non-Cathoiic  work,  the  Life  of  Cardinal  Mannina  by 
A.  W.  Button  (1892)  is  worthy  of  note  if  only  for  its  exceUoit 
bibliography.  See  also  Snead-0)X,  Life  of  Cardinal  Vaughan 
(London,  1910). 

W.  H.  Kent. 

Mazmjmg,  Robert,  of  Brunne,  poet.  He  came 
from  Bourne  in  Lincolnshire,  Englana.  From  his  own 
account  he  entered  the  house  of  the  Gilbertine  Canons 
at  Sempringham  in  1288  and  at  some  period  in  his  life 
he  was  with  Robert  Bruce  at  Cambriage.  In  1338  he 
was  living  in  another  priory  of  his  order,  but  still  in 
Lincolnshire.  The  date  of  his  death  is  imknown.  He 
was  the  author  of  two  poems,  both  free  -translations 
from  the  French:  (1)  *'  Handl>Tig  Synne",  a  very  free 
rendering  of  the  ''Manuel  des  Peschiez",  which  had 
been  written  in  poor  French  verse  by  an  Englishman, 
William  of  Wadoington,  in  the  rei^  of  Edward  I.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  a  series  of  stories  illustrating  the 
Conamandments,  the  seven  deadly  sins,  the  sin  of  sac- 
rilege and  the  Sacraments.  Mannyng  is  much  more  of 
a  story-teller  than  a  poet,  he  interpolates  tales  of  his 
own  and  illustrates  those  of  his  original  from  the  Eng- 
lish life  of  his  day.  He  is  severe  on  all  classes  of 
society,  but  is  yet  sympathetic  towards  the  poor. 
(2)  A  "Chronicle  of  England",  the  first  part  of  which 
is  a  translation,  with  some  additions,  of  Wace's  version 
of  Geofifrey  of  Monmouth,  and  the  second  is  based  on 
Peter  de  Langtoft's  An^lo-Norman  poem.  When 
Mann3rng  comes  to  the  reign  of  Edwara  I  he  inserts  a 
good  de^  of  matter  which  has  some  independent  his- 
torical value.  These  poems  are  important  because 
they  illustrate  a  growing  interest  in  "ignorant  men 
who  delieht  in  listening  to  tales  "  but  who  cannot  read 
French,  because  they  foreshadow  the  love  of  story- 
telling which  is  to  produce  the  "Canterbury  Tales"  at 
the  end  of  the  centurv  and  because  they  helped  to 
make  East-Midland  English  the  literary  dialect  of 
English.  F.  J.  Fumivall  has  edited  the  "  Handlyng 
Synne"  and  the  "Chronicle"  with  prefaces.  The 
authorship  of  "  Meditacyuns  of  the  Soper  of  our  Lord 
Jhesus  "  (edited  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society 
in  1875),  has  also  been  ascribed  to  Mannyng,  but  this 
is  by  no  means  ascertained  beyond  doubt. 

Cf.  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature,  vol.  I,  pp.  344- 
62;   Diet,  of  Nat.  Biography,  s.  v. 

F.  Urquhart. 


MAim 


609 


MAN8I 


Mans,  Lb.    See  Lb  Manb,  Dioobsb  of. 

Mansard  (Mansart),  the  name  of  two  French 
architects. — I.  FRANfois,  b.  in  Paris,  probably  of  Ital- 
ian stock,  in  1598;  d.  there,  1666.  During  at  least  t^e 
last  thirty  years  of  his  life  he  exercised  the  greatest  in- 
fluence on  the  development  of  architecture.  Among 
his  contemporaries  only  Salomon  de  Brosse  ap- 
proached him  in  ability.  Defects  and  oddities,  so 
glaring  as  even  to  provoke  published  satires,  for  some 
time  prevented  him  from  obtaining  conmiissions.  He 
had  so  hiffh  a  sense  of  true  architecture  that  he  hardier 
ever  decided  on  a  plan  definitely  at  the  outset,  antici- 
pating that  improvements  on  the  first  conception 
would  be  sure  to  surest  themselves  later  on.  Thus 
he  lost  the  commission  for  building  the  Louvre,  be- 
cause nothing  could  induce  him  to  submit  detailed 
plans.  Having  built  <me  wing  of  the  chateau  1^- 
son-Lafitte  (1642),  he  destroyed  what  had  been 
built  so  as  to  rebuUd  it  <m  what  he  thought  a  better 
plan,  the  ultimate  r^ult  being  the  finest  of  all  his 
non-ecclesiastical  works.  After  beginning  Hoe  finely 
planned  abbey  church  of  Val-de-Gr&e  (16^5),  his  fas- 
tidious self-criticism  made  him  leave  the  work,  carried 
only  as  far  as  tlie  groimd  plim,  for  others  to  finish.  He 
is  said,  however,  to  have  elsewhere  executed  what  had 
been  his  desi^  for  this  church.    These  two  are  re- 

§arded  as  his  oest  works.  To  him  are  due,  also,  the 
esign  and  construction  of  several  ch&teauz — Fresnes, 
Bemy ,  Bercy,  and  others.  At  Paris  he  built,  wholly  or 
in  part,  the  H6tels  Camavalet.  de  La  Vrillidre.  Manuin, 
de  Conti,  and  others,  and  the  lagades  of  the  Feuillants, 
Dunes  de  Ste-liarie,  and  Minimes.  His  work  is  char- 
acterized rather  by  the  essential  beauty  of  construc- 
tion than  by  the  adventitious  charm  of  ornamenta- 
tion, which,  indeed,  he  employed  sparingly.  His  style 
was  influenced  by  Salomon  de  Brosse,  but  he  also 
strove  to  follow  the  older  Italian  masters. 

II.  Jules,  grand-nephew  of  Francois,  was  originally 
Jules  Hardouin,  but  took  the  name  of  Mansara;  was 
b.  in  Paris,  1646;  d.  at  Hiarly  1708.  He  had  more  ap- 
parent success  than  Francois,  if  less  ability.  He  en- 
loyed  in  a  high  degree  the  favour  of  Louis  XIV,  who 
bestowed  on  him  numerous  titles  and  offices,  as  well  as 
the  dignity  of  Count  and  the  inspectorship  of  build- 
ings. Nearly  all  the  architectural  undertakings  of 
this  king  are  linked  with  the  name  of  Jules  Mansard, 
who,  indeed,  has  been  blamed,  rightly  or  wrongly, 
for  some  of  Loms's  extravagant  expenditures.  Few 
architects  have  ever  received  such  remunerative,  or  so 
many,  commissions.  He  sought  to  combine  the  style 
of  his  grand-uncle,  and  of  Le  Brun,  with  the  extreme 
classical  style  so  much  affected  at  that  time,  and  thus 
became  in  some  degree  an  exponent  of  the  Baroque 
style.  His  best  work  is  the  cnurch  of  the  Invalioes, 
with  its  dome  and  cupola  similar  to  St  Paul's  in  Lon- 
don, which  is  of  the  same  period,  and  designed  after 
the  plan  of  St  Petor's  at  Kome.  Mansard  generally 
laid  more  stress  on  elegance  of  effect  than  on  monu- 
mental grandeur,  so  tmit  some  of  his  effects  tend  to 
triviaUty.  The  nave  of  the  In  valides  is  merely  a  cubi- 
cal base  for  the  great  dome,  and  its  double  row  of  col- 
umns, though  graceful,  has  little  of  imposing  grandeur 
in  its  effect.  The  outer  shell  of  the  dome  is  of  wood,  a 
feature  which  this  building  shares  with  other  French 
structures  of  similar  character.  The  decoration  be- 
tween the  ribs  of  the  cupola,  the  pierced  taperinjs  lan- 
tern, encircled  with  corbels,  and  the  pointed  tip,  all 
contributed  to  its  elegance,  so  that  the  cap  of  the  dome 
seems  rather  to  soar  than  to  rest  on  its  supports.  This 
graceful  dome,  with  its  high  drum  and  attic,  forms  a 
striking  point  in  the  panorama  of  Paris.  In  the  inte- 
rior, Mansard  made  use  of  a  happy  artifice  in  order  to 
secure  the  illuminating  effect  of  the  dome  to  the  full 
without  exposing  the  painting  to  the  direct  glare  of 
day:  he  built  two  domes  the  one  over  the  other,  the 
one  above  with  attic  windows  so  placed  as  not  to  be 
visible  from  the  interior;  through  an  opening  in  the 
IX.-~.39 


inner  dome  one  sees  the  paintings  in  the  outer,  but  not 
the  windows.  In  spite  of  certam  faults  of  detail,  this 
structure  is,  on  the  whole,  one  of  the  finest  Baroaue 
buildings  in  existence.  With  Leveau,  Mansard  fin- 
ished the  ch&teauof  Versailles,  which  exercised  so  wide 
and  powerful  an  influence  on  the  architecture  of  the 
Baroque  period.  In  the  exterior,  an  effect  of  space 
and  sweep  was  sought  rather  than  pure  beauty.  TTie 
interior  more  than  satisfies  the  anticipations  raised  by 
the  exterior.  The  Grand  Trianon  and  the  Colonnades 
are  also  Jules  Mansard's,  as  well  as  many  other  build- 
ings in  and  near  Versailles.  His  work,  in  domestic 
architecture  and  public  buildings  is,  indeed,  scattered 
all  over  France,  and  what  is  known  as  the  "Mansard 
roof"  takes  its  name  from  him. 

Langs,  Diet,  dea  archUecte9  fran^is  (Paris,  1873):  ArchiveadB 
Vart  franfaU,  2nd  series,  II;  NouveUea  Archives  de  Vart  firanoaia; 
Duasxsnx,  Le  Chateau  de  VeraaiUea  (Venailles,  1881);  Our- 
LITT,  Oeeehichte  dee  BarotketUa  (Stuttgart,  1887-69). 

G.   GlETMANN. 

Mansi,  Gian  Domjsnico,  Italian  prelate  and  scholar, 
b.  at  Lucca,  of  a  patrician  family,  16  Feb.,  1692;  d. 
archbishop  of  that  city,  27  Sept.,  1769.  At  the  age  of 
sixteen  he  entered  the  Congregation  of  Clerks  Re^ilar 
of  the  Mother  of  God  and  made  his  professicm  in  1710. 
Except  for  some  journeys  made  for  purposes  of  study, 
his  wnole  life,  imtil  his  appointment  as  Archbishop  of 
Lucca  (1765),  was  spent  in  his  religious  home.  In 
1758,  after  a  sojoiim  at  Rome,  where  he  had  been  ex- 
cellently received  by  Cardinal  Passionei,  there  was 
question  of  elevating  him  to  the  Sacred  College,  but 
ms  unwise  collaboration  in  an  annotated  edition  of  the 
famous  "Encycl^>6die"  (see  Encyclopedists)  dis- 
pleased Clement  XIII.  It  should  be  remarked  that 
the  notes  in  this  edition  were  intended  to  correct  the 
text.  Three  years  after  his  elevation  to  the  episco- 
pate he  was  smitten  with  an  attack  of  apoplexy  whidi 
left  him  suffering,  deprived  of  the  power  of  motion, 
until  his  death.  Pious,  simple,  very  kindly,  very 
helpful,  and  extremely  charitable  to  the  poor,  he  made 
an  excellent  bishop,  and  his  death  caused  general  re- 
gret. His  long  career  was  filled  chiefly  with  the  re- 
editing  of  erudite  ecclesiastical  works  with  notes  and 
complementary  matter.  His  name  appears  on  the 
title-pages  of  ninety  folio  volumes  and  numerous  quar- 
tos. An  indefatigable  worker,  widely  read  and  thor- 
oughly trained,  his  output  was  chiefly  of  a  mechanical 
order,  and  unoriginal  because  hurried.  His  task  was 
most  often  limited  to  inserting  notes  and  documents 
in  the  work  to  be  reproduced  and  sending  the  whole 
result  to  the  printer.  This  left  room  for  numberless 
shortcomings;  Mansi's  publications  cannot  satisfy  the 
critical  judgment;  he  himself,  indeed,  was  a  savant 
rather  than  a  critic;  he  went  too  fast,  and  did  too 
many  things,  to  keep  his  aim  fixed  on  perfection. 

The  only  work  worth  mentioning  that  is  all  MansiVi 
own  is  a  "Tractatus  de  casibus  et  censuris  reservatis'*, 
published  in  1724,  which  brought  him  inte  difi&culties 
with  the  Index.  The  rest  are  alTannotated  editions.  In 
1726  there  was  ''Jo.  Burch.  Menckenii  De  Charlataneria 
eruditorum  declamationes  duse  cum  notis  variorum''; 
from  1725  to  1738,  an  annotated  Latin  translation 
of  the  three  works  of  Dom  Calmet — the  "  Dictionnaire 
de  la  Bible",  "Prol^gom^nes  et  Dissertations", 
and  "Commentaire  littoral".  In  1728  he  reprinted 
the"Vetus  et  nova  Disciplina"of  Thomassin;  from 
1738  to  1756  he  issued  in  twenty-eight  folio  volumes 
the  "Annales"  of  Baronius  and  those  of  Ray- 
nald,  printed  with  the  "Critica"  of  Paei;  in  1742  he 
re-edited  the  Chronicle  of  Castruccio  (1314-28);  in 
1749  Natalis  Alexander's  "Historia  ecclesiastica"; 
in  1753  a  "Diario  antico  e  modemo  delle  Chiese  di 
Lucca",  considerably  enlarged  by  himself;  in  1754, 
"Jo.  Aloerti  Fabricii  Lipsiensis  inter  suos  S.  Th.  D.  et 
professoris  publici  Bibliotheca  Latina  mediae  et  infinue 
setatis,  cum  supplemento  Christiani  Schottgenii,"  with 
his  own  notes  also,  in  three  quarto  volumes  (the  work 


MABTEOMA  61 

b  dated  1734;  Manai's  publicatian  was  re-edited  at 
Florence  in  1S58) ;  iu  1755,  the  works  of  JEneaa  Silvius 
Piccolomini  (Pius  11);  in  1758,  the  "TheoloBi»  mora- 
lig"  of  AnadetuB  ReiSenstuel,  with  an  epitome  pub- 
lished separately;  in  1760,  the  "TheoloKia  moralia"  of 
Laynmnn;  in  1761,  the  " Miscellanea  of  Baluze;  in 
1762,  the  "Hiatoria  eccleaiaatica"  of  P^re  Am&t  de 
Gravesou;  lastly,  in  1765,  the  "Memoric  della  gran 
Contessa  Matilde"  (Fiorcntini). 

The  best-know  (publication  of  Mansi  ie  his  vast— too 
vast,  indeed — edition  of  the  Councils,  "  Sacrorum  Con- 
eiliorum  nova  et  amplisKima  coUectio"  (31  vols.,  folio, 
Florence  and  Venice,  175S-98),  which  waa  stopped  by 
lack  of  resources  iii  the  middle  of  the  Council  ol  Flor- 
ence of  1438.  The  absence  of  an  index  renders  it  in- 
con  venieut,  and  in  a  critical  point  of  view  it  leaves  an 


a  MAimEaHA 

father,  who,  although  the  ftmnder  of  the  PiidaBn 
school  of  painting,  possessed  but  medioore  ability. 
Mantegna'a  earliest  known  work,  a  "Hadotma  m 
Glory  ,  was  painted  when  he  was  seventeen  for  the 

church  of  S.  Sofia  at  Padua.  This  picture  is  no  longer 
in  existenoe,  but  to  judge  from  his  next  dated  wotfc, 
a  fresco  (1452)  in  the  church  of  the  Santo,  Padua,  this 
first  achievement  must  have  exhibited  almost  incredi- 
ble maturity  of  talent.  In  1454  he  was  employed  in 
the  church  of  S.  Giustina,  Padua,  where  be  painted 
the  Ancona,  which  is  now  in  the  Brera,  at  Mil&n. 
Squarcione  had  been  commissioned  by  uie  Ovetari 
family  to  decorate  the  Church  of  the  Eremitani,  Padua, 
and  he  had  deputed  s  portion  of  the  task  to  Mantegna. 
By  these  frescoes,  which  attest  a  steady  development 
in  his  manner,  he  is  doubtless  best  known.    The 


Accademlk  Rede.  Venic* 


immensity  to  be  desired.  Mansi  saw  only  fourteen 
volumes  of  it  published,  the  others  were  finished  from 
hlB  notes.  In  1748  the  savant  began  to  publish  the 
first  volume  of  a  collection  which  waa  presented  as  a 
supplement  to  that  of  Coleti;  the  sixth  and  last  volume 
of  It  appeared  in  1752.  This  supplement  contains,  to- 
Eetlier  with  various  dissertations,  many  recently  pub- 
Fishcd  documents,  and  many  unpublished,  which  wer« 
lacking  in  the  previous  collections — 330  letters  of 
popes,  200  new  councils,  mention  of  380  otihers— be- 
sides notj?s.  The  success  of  this  publication  induced 
Mansi  to  undertake  a  recasting  of  Coleti,  with  his  sup- 
plement, adding  to  it  documents  discovered  since  his 
time.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  "Amplissima". 
The  Paris  publishing-house  of  Welter  undertook,  in 
1900,  a  hefioeravure  reproduction  of  it  with  a  con- 
tinuation and  supplement  bv  the  AbbC  J.  B.  Martin. 
TKAHcoiCBim,  Biognipliical  Notice  of  Mmn.  prefixed  to  tbe 
Amplittima.  XLX;  Pacchius,  J.  D.  Mann  I'iia.  prefilfU  to 
Foiricim,  Bitlinlhrra  lalina  (Florence,  IS5H1;  Ql-kntih. /.  D. 
Uanri  rf  Irt  oramJfi  eollfcliem  tmnlmirm  (Paris,  1900); 
Hepels,  Hi"(mV«JfiConn7M,  KnewFr.  tr.,  Purw,  1W)7),  110. 

A.  BouDiNuoN. 

HaDtagna,  An-drea,  Italian  painter;  b.  according 
t«  some  authorities,  at  Vicenza,  according  to  others  at 
Padua,  in  1431;  d.  at  Mantua,  13  September,  1506. 
Little-,  is  known  of  Ws  origin  save  that  he  came  of 
honourable  parentage  and  wusadoptedatanearij'age 
\n'  Francesco  Squarcione  who  reared  him  as  his  son. 
Everything  tends  to  show  that  his  artistic  education 
began  very  early,  for  he  was  at  work  upon  master- 
pieces at  an  age  when  most  artists  are  still  under 
tuition.    Heowedlittleof  what  heknew  tohisfosfe^- 


Erobable  dates  are  1448-55  and  the  frescoes  due  to 
im  are;  on  the  left  wall,  "  Baptism  of  Hermogenes", 
"St,  James  before  Caisar",  "St.  James  led  to  execu- 
tion", and  "The  Martjrdom  of  St.  James";  on  tits 
right  wall,  "The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Chr7stopher",  and 
"The  Removal  of  his  Body".  These  works  estab- 
lished his  fame  as  the  foremost  painter  of  the  Paduaii 
school,  and  among  those  who  recognised   and   ap- 

S lauded  his  genius  was  Jacopo  Bellini,  whose  dau^ter, 
icolosia,  Mantegna  married  in  1454.     This  brougiit 
about  a  rupture  with  Squarcione  which  was  final. 

At  the  height  of  his  fame  he  painted  the  portrait  of 
Cardinal  Scarampi  (1459),  the  altar-piece  of  the 
Church  of  San  Zeno,  Venice,  and  the  "Agony  in  the 
Garden".  In  1457  Lodovico  GonzaRa,  Marquess  of 
Mantua,  invited  Mantegna  to  enter  his  service,  but  it 
was  two  years  before  the  successful  artist  could  be  per- 
suaded to  accept.  In  1459  he  went  to  Mantua,  and 
here,  save  for  the  inter\ai  of  his  stay  in  Home,  whither 
he  went  at  the  request  of  Innocent  VIII  todecorate  the 
new  chapel  in  the  Vatican,  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  He  was  held  in  great  honour  but  treated  with 
only  spasmodic  liberality,  his  salary  being  irregularly 
paid.  Lodovico  was  succeeded  in  1478  by  his  son 
Federigo,  who  died  in  14K4,  and  Francesco  Goniaga 
succeeded  him  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  Francesco  was 
betrothed  to  the  beautiful  and  accomplished  Isabella 
d'S^te,  one  of  the  women  whose  appreciation  and 
encouragement  of  art;  and  letters  did  so  much  to  make 
the  Renaissance  what  it  was.  In  1 486  Mantegna  was 
ordered  by  Goniaga  to  paint  a  Madonna  for  Isabella's 
mother,  the  Duchess  of  Ferrara,  to  do  which  he  inter- 
rupted a  seriesof  paintings.  "  The  Triumph  of  Ctesar", 


UAKTELLETTA  0 

now  at  Humplon  Court,  wliich  bo  liiul  iH'Kiin  lUHiii 
after  bis  arrival  in  Muntua.  IVm  work  in  thu  Vaticuii 
was  another  interruption,  but  onhia  return  to  Mantiu 
in  1490  he  continu^  thifl,  thn  greatest  of  his  worka, 
which  was  completed  in  140-1. 

In  1-195  he  painted  an  ultur-piece  in  conuncmonitiuQ 
of  tbe  marquess's  victory  at  Fornovo.  Tliia  nicture, 
tlie  "Madonna  dclla  Vittorja",  is  now  at  tlie  Louvre. 
The  "  Madonna  and  Saints  ",  painted  for  the  church  of 
<>anta  Maria  in  Organo,  Verunu,  waa  liniHlied  in  1497. 
Another  ser^  of  paintings  was  tliat  executed  for  tlie 
Marchioness  laaliclla  aa  decorations  tor  lier  studv. 
These  were  "  The  Triumph  of  Wisdom",  "  Pamaasua'', 
and  "The  Masque  of  Comus",  the  last-nanie<l  being 
finished  by  Lorenzo  Costa.  To  the  laitt  period  of  hia 
bfe  l>elon(;  ilie  "iSIadonna  and  Saints",  now  in  the 
National  Ualleiy,  the  "Dead  Christ",  in  tbe  Brera, 
Milan,  and  "  The  Triumph  of  Sdpio",  in  tlie  Nulional 
(iallerv.  Mantegna's  work  is  gnincily  conceived  and 
severely  beautiful.  His  manner  has  been  called  dry 
and  liaid,  but  he  exhibits  inan-ellous  art  in  his 
modelling  of  form 
and  disposing  of 
drapery,  as  well  as 
great  knowledge  of 
design.  lie  was  one 
of  the  earliest  I  tali;iD 
engravers  on  copper, 
1  lut  few  of  the  pLites 
attributed    to    him 

V  ASAM,  A  ndna  Man- 
(4fu,eil.  S«NBoKi(Floi- 
en(w.l878}lCRt>WKAHD 
C*TAl,CAliriJ.E.  Hi*,  o/ 
painting  in  N.  Italy,  I 
<Loa(lun.  1871)-,  CHtti^ 
WELL,  iianlmia  (Lon- 
dnn,  1001):  WA.«iir.H, 
I/bn-LtAm  md  H'lnten 

<LdpriR,    ISM)!     Vbi- 
ARTE,  Manlnma  (FarU, 

1001). 

B.  M.  Kellt. 

HanteUatta,  an 
outer  vestment 
reaching  .  ^ 
knees,  open  in  front, 
with  shts  insteA<l  of  sleeves  on  the  sides.  It  is 
worn  by  cardinals,  bishope,  and  prelates  di  man' 
lellflla.  For  cardinals  the  colour  is  ordinarily  red, 
in  penitential  seasons  and  for  times  of  mourning 
it  is  violet,  on  Gautlete  and  Ljctare  Sundays  roae> 
colour;  for  tbe  other  dignitaries,  the  Kime  distinctions 
lM.'ing  made,  tbe  ct^our  is  violet  or  bl:ick  with  a  violet 
border.  Curdinals  and  liJHlinps  Iwloiiping  to  oniera 
whieb  have  a  distinctive  dress,  also  alilHila -who  arc  en- 
titled to  wvar  the  manlellctin,  retain  for  it  the  colour 
of  the  huliit  of  liie  onler.  The  vestment  is  made  of 
silk  only  wlien  it  is  worn  liy  eutilinnU  or  liv  bishops  or 

E relates  lielonginR  to  the  napal  court.  The  niaiitel- 
tta  isproliablyconnectnl  with  llie  mantrJlum  of  the 
canlinals  in  tlic  "Ortio"  of  Crcgorj-  X  (1271-127(1) 
and  with  the  ntind-HMm  of  the  prelates  in  tlie  "Ordo" 
of  I'etrus  Amelius  (d.  1401),  which  was  a.  vestment 
similar  to  a  scapular. 

Tbe  mnnielhne,  the  outer  vestment  of  the  prelates, 
differs  from  tlie  mantelletta  by  Iteing  longer  and  hav- 
ing wiiiK-like  sleeves. 

Barbikh  ns  UoTTAULT,  Traitf  ptali/iur  dr  la  eonrlrui-liiin  dn 
igliict,  II,  517  an. 

Joseph  Bkavx. 

Huitiut,  DiorESE  OF  (Mas'titana),  in  Lombordy. 
The  city  is  situated  on  the  Mincio  Kivcr,  which  sur- 
rouniLt  it  entirely,  and  forms  the  sn-ampy  lowlands 
that  help  to  make  Mantua  the  strongest  fortrc^  in 
Italy,  but  infect  its  atmosphere.     Maiitunisof  l-;tru3- 


k^ll   ' 

Li 

k. 

K^^ 

..^Jk^m-->X^3B 

1  HAHTUA 

i-aii  origin,  and  prescrvetl  its  ICtrusean  charotter  aa 
lateas  the  timeof  I'liiiy;  even  now  KOine  ruins  of  t hut 
period  are  found.  The  possession  of  Mantua  was  eon- 
tested  for  a  long  lime  by  the  Ryiantines  and  tbe 
Ijomlmrds;  in  tiOl  tlic  latt«r,  banng  obtained  definite 
success  in  that  struggle,  establisbeu  the  capital  of  one 
<if  thoir  eountiesnt  Abiutuu.  I'rom  the  ninth  centun', 
oA  elsewhere  in  Northern  Italy,  the  authority  of  the 
bishop  ediiL<ed  that  of  the  count,  and  the  emperors 
gave  to  tlie  bisliops  nuiny  sovereign  rights,  e^pci'ially 
that  of  coiiii[ig  nioiiev.  In  the  eleventh  century 
Mantua  was  under  the  Counts  of  Canosaa,  and  became 
involved  in  the  wars  lictwccu  tbe  popes  and  the  cm- 
pirc;  in  lODl  Henry  IV  took  possesc^ion  of  the  city, 
after  a  sie^gc  of  scvx'Ti  montlis.  At  the  death  of 
Countess  Matilda  ( 11 1.5),  Mantua  became  a  commune, 
"salva  imperial!  justitia".  In  the  wars  of  the  Lom- 
Itard  cities  against  Frederick  Burliuros^a,  Mantua 
was  at  first  on  the  side  of  the  empire,  led  by  Bishop 
Ciarsendouio,  who  in  eansequenee  was  driven  from  the 
city  and  deposed  by  Alexander  III.  after  which  (1161) 
Mantua  formed  port 
of  the  Lombard 
League.  After  the 
poace  of  Venice, 
tiaiBendonio  was  sJ- 
lowed  to  return,  and 
then  began  a  period 
of  economical  pn^ 
Teas,  manifested 
more  especially  in 
the  changing  of  the 
course  of  the  Mincio, 
the  buildi[ig  of  the 
Palazzo  deila  Rog- 
ione(I19S),  and  tlie 
construction  of  the 
covered  bridiie 
(1188).  Mantua 
took  part  in  tbe 
second  Lombard 
League  against 
Frederick  II,  was 
besieged  by  him  in 
Mantua  123A,    and'  surren- 

Cuinpiinile  XII  wniuw  dered  In  the  follow- 

ing ye-ir.  Eszelino 
da  Romano  also  besieged  the  city  in  V2'>R,  and  tbe 
Mantuans  bad  a  considerable  part  in  the  war  that 
overthrew  that  tyrant  in  1259.  There  followed  a 
period  of  internal  struggle  for  predominance  among 
the  families  of  Casalolili,  Arlotti,  Uonoccorsi,  and 
Zanecalli.  In  127ii,  Uvo  captains  of  the  people 
were  created  for  the  administration  of  justice,  but 
one  of  tiiem,  Pinamonte  Ilonacrolsi,  nut  to  death 
his  colleague,  Ottonello  Zanecnili,  and  thereby  re- 
mained sole  master  of  the  city,  the  government  of 
which  he  left  to  his  son;  the  latter,  howe\-cr,  was 
obliged  to  resign  in  favour  of  his  cousin  Guido,  thence- 
forth known  as  Siijnnre  (lord).  Guido  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  Kinalilo,  who  conquered  Modcna,  but 
he  made  himself  odious,  and  was  murdered,  while  the 
lonlsbip  iiosseil  t-O  Lodovico  Luigi  (Jiinxaga  (1328),  in 
whose  family  it  remained  until  1708.  Luigi  became 
imperial  vicar  in  i:i29;  ho  van  a  protector  of  letters, 
e:>[x.-ci:illv  of  Petran-Ji;  Ubc  his  successors,  Luigl  it 
{i;i6()-!>2),  and  Cianfrincesco  I  {13S2-1407).  he  had 
to  cont-end  with  the  Viseuntl  of  Milan,  Ciianfnin- 
ci-sco  II  ilH>7-U),  on  tbe  other  hand,  after  bavinj 
comniandud  the  Venetian  troops  against  the  Vis- 
conti,  entcTed  the  service  of  tbe  latter,  thereby  be- 
coming arbiter  of  the  situation,  and  assuring  great 
tranquillity  to  bis  state,  which  conscrjuently  began 
to  flourish.  He  was  also  a  friend  of  letters.  In 
142.3  Vittorino  da  Feltre  established  at  Muntua  tba 
famous  school  known  as  "Casa  Giocosa".  In  1432, 
(ii.aiifraiiccHco  rei-ei  ved  tbe  title  of  marquess  from  Ebv 


MASTUA  61 

peror  Sigismund.  His  son  Ludovico  III,  "il  Turoo", 
who  reigned  from  1444  to  1478,  divided  the  marques- 
aat«  between  his  two  sons,  leaving  Mantua  to  Feder- 
i^I  (1478-84),  and  creating  the  marquesBate  of  Sab- 
bioneto,  which  became  a  duchy,  and  the  Principality 
of  Bortolo  for  Gianfrancesco,  whose  line  became  ex- 
tinct in  1591.  The  third  sou  Rodolfo  was  made 
Prince  of  CaBtiglione.  Under  Ludovico  III,  in  1459, 
was  held  the  famous  "congress  of  princes",  to  con- 
eider  a  common  action  against  the  Turks,  proposed 
by  Piua  II.  Francesco  Goneaga  (1484-1519)  was  a 
captain  of  the  league  against  Charles  VIII  (1495),  and 
commanded  at  the  battle  of  Fomovo,  Federigo  11 
(1619-1540)  was  made  Duke  of  Mantua  by  Charles  V, 
and  received  the  Marquessate  of  Caaaie  Monferrato. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  two  aons  Francesco  III 


count  of  this  transaction,  and  because  Carlo  had  ^vtat 
assistance  to  France  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Sue- 
oesBJon,  Joseph  I  in  1708  took  the  Duchy  of  Mantua 
and  annexed  it,  together  with  Milan,  to  the  Austrian 


1 

! 

I 

;l  I  M. 

\y',' 

a 

km 

_ 

-F^^m 

~ 

SrATUB  or  St.  Lonoihu. 

—  ■-"-' 

Tt>e  (oldier  who  p 


1  in  Mou 


(1540-50),  and  Guglielmo  (1550-87);  the  second  shel- 
tered Torquato  Toeso.  Vincenzo  I  (1587-1612),  in 
bis  turn  also  left  the  duchy  <tivided  between  two  sons, 
Francesco  III  (1612)  and  Ferdinando  (1612-1626), 
the  latter  of  whom  resigned  the  cardinalate,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  VincenEO  II  (1626-27),  who 
also  was  a  cardinal,  and  by  whose  death  the  direct  line 
of  the  Gonzaga  of  Mantua  became  extinct;  Jta  rights 
were  inherited  by  Carlo  Goniaga  (1827-1637).  who 
was  a  son  of  Luigi  the  brother  of  Francesco  III,  and 
who,  having  married  the  heiress  of  the  Duchy  of  Ne- 
ver3,  v/na  acceptable  to  the  Frencli;  hut  Carlo  Ema- 
nucle  of  Savoy  was  a  pretendant  to  the  Marquessate 
ot  Casalc,  while  Cessre  Goniaga,  Duke  of  Guastalla, 
mshed  to  possess  the  entire  du'ehy;  and  this  situation 
gave  riso  to  the  war  of  the  succession  of  Monfcrmto.  in 
which  Savoy  received  the  support  of  Spain  and  of 
Austria,  and  Carlo  Gonznga  that  of  Frauee.  The 
Austrians  sacked  Mantua  in  1G29,  but  the  treaty  of 
Cheraaco  (1630)  putanend  to  the  war,and  secured" the 
possession  of  Mantua,  and  of  Casale  to  Carlo  of  Ne- 
vers.  The  latter  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Carlo 
HI  (1637-65),  who  wns  a  son  of  Carlo  II.  deceased  in 
1631;  Carlo  III  sold  the  Duchy  of  Ncvers  to  Cardinal 
Ma*arin.  Carlo  IV  (1665-1708)  was  a  libertine;  he 
united  the  Lordship  of  Guastalla  t«  Mantua,  but  sold 
the  marquessate  of  Casale  to  France  (1681);  on  ao- 


after  a  siege  of  eight  months,  but  it  was  ret&ken  by 
Kray  for  Austria  m  1799;  at  the  Peace  cif  Lun^ville, 
however,  it  was  annexed  to  the  Itahan  Republic 
(1801).  Fram  1814  to  1366,  it  belonged  to  Austria, 
and  was  besie^;©''  in  1848  by  the  Piedmontese. 

The  cathedral  of  Mantua  is  the  ancient  church  of 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul  transformed,  and  was  be|^  by 
Pietro  Romano  in  1544  by  order  of  Cardinal  Ercole 
Gonzaga,  it  remained  unfinished,  but  its  stucco  work 
by  Primaticcio  is  famous,  as  are  also  a  statue  of  Hoses 
and  one  of  Aaron  by  Bemero  and  several  beautiful 
pictures,  among  them  a  Madonna  by  Mantegos,  whose 
art  is  abundantly  ce presented  in  the  other  churches 
and  in  the  palaces  of  the  city.  The  chapel  of  the  In- 
coronata  is  by  Leon  Battista  Alberti;  its  belfry  is 
Romanesque.  The  church  of  Sant'  Andrea  is  by  the 
same  architect;  it  has  a  single  nave  over  300  feet  iL 
length,  while  its  cupola,  by  Juvara,  is  about  250  feet 
high.  The  tomb  of  Mantegna  is  in  this  church. 
Outside  the  city  is  the  sanctuary  of  the  Madonna  delle 
Grazie,  founded  by  Francesco  Goniafa  in  1390. 
Other  fine  churches  are  that  of  Ognissanti,  that  of  San 
Bamaba,  which  contains  the  tomb  of  Giulio  Romano, 
the  church  of  Son  Maurizio,  where  there  are  punt- 
ings  by  Ludovico  and  Annibale  Caracci;  lastly,  the 
church  of  San  Sebastian. 

The  secular  building  arethe  PalaszodellaRaKionei 
which  houses  the  communal  government  (1198  and 
1250) ;  the  Ducal  Palace,  begun  in  1302  by  the  Bonac- 
colsi,  and  enlarged  at  different  times  by  the  Gonnga 
(ducal  apartments,  the  tapestries  of  Paradise,  of  Troy; 
painting  by  Mantegna,  Giulio  Romano,  and  othera); 
the  Castello,  built  for  the  defence  of  the  Ducal  Palace, 
containing  archives  that  date  from  1014;  the  Accade> 
mia  delle  Scienze  cd  Arti,  founded  by  Maria  ThNesa; 
the  Palazzo  degli  Stuili,  formerly  a  Jesuit  college;  the 
"T"  palace,  a  trilleggialura  of  the  dukes,  the  work  <rf 
Giulio  Romano;  the  episcopal  palace,  and  several 
private  ones;  the  ancient  synagogue  in  the  ghett«,  etc. 

Among  the  famous  men  of  Mantua  are:  the  poets 
Virgil,  SordcUo  (thirteenth  century),  G.  Pietro  Ar- 
rivabene,  author  of  the  "Gonz^s",  Vittorio  Vet- 
tori  (d.  1763),  and  Folengo,  the  first  of  the  eo-called 
macaronicwritcrsjthe  jtuist  Piacentino  (twelfth  cen- 
tury), Baldnssare  Caatiglione  (il  Cortigiano) ;  the  phi- 
losopher Pomponazzi,  the  Jesuits  Antonio  Poesevino 
and  Ognibetie,  the  physician  Matteo  Selvatico  (thir- 
teenth century),  etc.  Amonp  women  of  letters  are  Ca- 
milla Valenti.  Ippolita,  Giulia,  and  Lucrezia  Gonsa^ 

The  Gospel  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to  Mantua 
by  St.  Longinus,  the  soldier  who  pierced  the  aide  of 
Our  Lord;  tradition  also  says  that  he  brou^t  with 
him  the  relic  of  the  Precious  Blood,  preserved  in  a 
beautiful  reliiiuary  in  the  crypt  of  the  church  of  Sant' 
Andrea.  Originally  Mantua  formed  part  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Milan;  later  it  belonged  to  tnat  of  Ravftnna 
(about  585),  and  in  729  it  was  attached  to  the  Diooese 
of  Aquileia.  In  804  Leo  III  made  Mantua  &  diocese^ 
of  which  a  certain  Gregory  was  the  first  Imown  bishop. 
The  relic  of  the  Precious  Blood,  which  had  been  lost, 
was  found  in  1048,  and  was  recognized  asauthentic  by 
Leo  IX  in  1053.  The  Bishops  Garsendomo  (1165) 
and  Enrico  (1193-1225)  bad  the  title  of  imperial 
vicar  in  Italy;  Guidotto  da  Corregio  (1231)  was  aasas- 
sinated  by  the  Avvocati  faction  in  1235;  other  bishops 
of  this  diocese  were  Cardinal  Martino  de  PuioWiO 
(1252);  the  Blessed  Jacopode'  Benfatti.O.P,  (1304); 
Guido  d'Arezzo  {1306),  who  died  of  the  plague,  which 


MANU                                613  MANU 

he  contracted  through  his  care  of  the  sick.  From  had  to  know  by  heart.  Every  Vedic  school  of  im* 
1466  to  1584,  the  see  of  Mantua  was  occupied  by  portanoe  had  its  appropriate  aUtrcu,  among  whidi 
bishopsofthe  House  of  Gonzaga:  Cardinals  Francesco,  were  the  ''Grihya-«Otras",  deahng  with  domestic 
Ludovico,  Sigismondo,  Ercole,  Federigo,  Francesco  II,  ceremonies,  and  the  *'  Dharma-sQtras  ",  treating  of  the 
Marco  Fedele;  only  in  1566  was  this  series  interrupted,  sacred  customs  and  laws.  A  fair  mmiber  of  these 
by  the  Dominican  Gr^orio  Boldrino.  After  Ales-  have  been  preserved,  and  form  part  of  the  sacred 
sandro  Andreasi  (1584-97),  who  founded  a  house  for  Brahmin  literature.  In  course  of  time,  some  of  the 
Jewish  converts  and  a  hospital  for  8ick  pilgrims,  the  more  ancient  and  popular  ''Dharma-sQtras'[  were  en- 
diocese  was  once  more  governed  by  a  Gonzaga,  Car-  larged  in  their  scope  and  thrown  into  metrical  form, 
dinal  Francesco  III  (1587-1620),  a  Franciscan  whose  constituting  the  so-called  ''Dharmansastras".  Of 
secular  name  was  Annibale.  Mention  should  be  made  these  the  most  ancient  and  most  famous  is  the  **  Laws 
also  of  Mgr  Pietro  Rota  (1871-79),  who  was  the  ob-  of  Manu",  the  "Mftnava  Dharma-sastra '*,  so  called, 
ject  of  much  persecution  at  the  hands  of  the  govern-  as  scholars  think^  because  based  on  a  "  Dharma- 
ment,  and  of  Uiuseppe  Sarto  (1884-05),  now  Pius  X.  sQtra"  of  the  ancient  M&nava  school.    The  associa- 

A  synod  was  held  at  Mantua  in  827,  to  settle  a  con-  tion  of  the  original  suira  "with  the  name  M&nava 

troversy  between  the  metropolitan  bishops  of  Aquileia  seems  to  have  suggested  the  myth  that  Manu  was 

and  of  Urado,  one  in  1053  for  disciplinary  reform,  an-  its  author,  and  this  myth,  incorporated  in  the  metri- 

other  in  1064,  in   relation   to  the   controversy  be-  cal  "Dharma-sfistra",  probably  availed  to  secure  the 

tween  Alexander  II  and  the  antipope  Honorius  II.  new  work  universal  acceptance  as  a  divinely  revealed 

At  first  (1537)  it  was  proposed  to  hold  the  Coimcil  of  book. 

Trent  iit  Mantua.  The  "Laws  of  Manu"  consists  of  2684  verses,  di- 

The  diocese  was  once  su£fragan  of  Aquileia,  but  in  vided  into  twelve  chapters.     In  the  first  chapter  is 

1452  it  became  immediately  dependent  on  the  Holy  related  the  creation  of  the  world  by  a  series  of  emanar 

See;  in  1803,  however,  it  was  made  a  suffragan  of  tions  from  the  self-existent  deity,  the  mythical  origin 

Ferrara,  and  in  1819  of  Milan.     It  has  153  parishes,  of  the  book  itself ,  and  the  great  spiritual  advantage  to 

and  257,500  inhabitants;  there  are  3  religious  houses  be  gained  by  the  devout  study  ot  its  contents.    Chap- 

of  men,  and  21  of  women;  4  educational  establish-  ters  two  to  six  inclusive  set  forth  the  manner  of  life 

ments  for  boys,  and  10  for  girls,  and  one  Catholic  daily  and  regulat  ion  of  conduct  proper  to  the  members  of  the 

paper.  three  upper  castes,  who  nave  been  initiated  into  the 

DoNmuoNDj.Ddlai^maeaUs.diMantovai^^  Brahmin    religion    by    the    sin-removing    ceremony 

iSl'e''^S"a'iS£?d/ilf^;iS;;  fM^a^ru A?^f i(Iif?SS,SrS  ^o^  ?f  the  rnvesUture  with  the  sacred  cord.    First 

municipio  di  Mantova  (Mantua.  1871-74);   Volta,  Compendio  IS  descnbed  the  period  of  studentship,  a  time  of  as- 

deUa  atoria  di  ^ontowo  (Mantua.  1807-38),  6  V9to,;  Davahi.  cetic  discipline  devoted  to  the  Study  of  the  Vedas 

i^J^i^^  cWte  cttta  di  Mantova  n«  ^h  is^is  ^j^^  ^  Brahmin  teacher.    Then  the  chief  duties  of 

XJ.  B£2>nGNi.  the  householder  are  rehearsed,  his  choice  of  a  wife, 

marriage,  maintenance  of  the  sacred  hearth-fire,  sao- 

ManUfTHELAWsoF. — "The  Laws  of  Manu  "is  the  rifices  to  the  gods,  feasts  to  his  departed  relatives, 

English  designation  commonly  applied  to  the  "Ma-  exercise  of  hospitality.    The  numerous  restrictions, 

nava  Dharma-sdstra",  a  metrical  Sanskrit  compen-  also,  regulating  nis  daily  conduct,  are  discuussed  in  de- 

dium  of  ancient  sacred  laws  and  customs  held  in  the  tail,  especially  in  regard  to  his  dress,  food,  conjugal 

highest  reverence  by  the  orthodox  adherents  of  Brah-  relations,  and  ceremonial  cleanness.    After  this  comes 

minism.    The  Brahmins  themselves  credit  the  work  the  description  of  the  kind  of  life  exacted  of  those  who 

with  a  divine  origin  and  a  remote  antiquity.    Its  re-  choose  to  spend  their  declining  years  as  hermits  and 

puted  author  is  Manu,  the  mythical  survivor  of  the  ascetics.    The  seventh  chapter  sets  forth  the  divine 

Flood  and  father  of  the  human  race,  the  primitive  dignity  and  the  manifold  duties  and  responsibilities  of 

teacher  of  sacred  rites  and  laws,  now  enjoying  in  kings,  offering  on  the  whole  a  high  ideal  of  the  kingly 

heaven  the  dignity  of  an  omniscient  deity.    The  open-  office.    The  eighth  chapter  treats  of  procedure  in 

ing  verses  of  the  work  tell  how  Manu  was  reverently  civil  and  criminal  lawsuits,  and  of  the  proper  punish- 

approached  in  ancient  times  by  the  ten  great  sages  and  ments  to  be  meted  out  to  different  classes  of  crim- 

asked  to  declare  to  them  the  sacred  laws  of  the  castes,  inals.    The  next  two  chapters  make  known  the  cua- 

and  how  he  graciously  acceded  to  their  request  by  toms  and  laws  governing  divorce,  inheritance,  the 

having  the  learned  sage  Bhrigu,  whom  he  had  care-  rights  of  property,  the  occupations  lawful  for  each 

fully  taught  the  metrical  institutes  of  the  sacred  law,  caste.    Chapter  eleven  is  chiefly  occupied  with  the 

deliver  to  them  this  precious  instruction.    The  work  various  kinds  of  penance  to  be  undergone  by  those 

thus  pretends  to  be  the  dictation  of  Manu  through  the  who  would  rid  themselves  of  the  evil  consequences  of 

agency  of  Bhrigu;  and  as  Manu  learned  it  himself  from  their  misdeeds.    The  last  chapter  expounds  the  doo- 

the  self-existent  Brahma,  its  authorship  purports  to  trine  of  karma,  involving  rebirths  in  the  ascending  or 

be  divine.    This  pious  Brahmin  belief  regarding  the  descending  scale,  according  to  the  merits  or  demerits 

divine  origin  of  the  "  Laws  of  Manu"  is  naturally  not  of  the  present  life.    The  closing  verses  are  devoted  to 

shared  by  the  Oriental  scholars  of  the  western  world,  the  pantheistic  scheme  of  salvation  leading  to  ab- 

Even  the  rather  remote  date  assigned  to  the  work  by  sorption  into  the  all-embracing,  impersonal  deity. 

Sir  William  Jones,  1200-500  b.  c.  has  been  very  gen-  The  "Laws  of  Manu"  thus  offers  an  interesting 

erally  abandoned.     The  weight  ot  authoritjyr  to-day  is  ideal  picture  of  domestic,  social,  and  religous  life  in 

in  favour  of  the  view  that  the  work  in  its  present  India  under  ancient  Brahmin  influence.    The  picture 

metrical  form  dates  probably  from  the  first  or  second  has  its  shadows.    The  dignity  of  the  Braimiin  caste 

century  of  the  Christian  era,  though  it  may  possibly  be  was  greatly  exaggerated,  white  the  Sudra  caste  was  so 

a  century  or  two  older.     Most  of  its  contents,  however,  far  despised  as  to  be  excluded  under  pain  of  death 

may   be   safely   given   a   much   greater  antiquity,  from  participation  in  the  Brahmin  religion.     Punishr 

Scholars  are  now  pretty  well  agreed  that  the  work  is  an  ments  for  crimes  and  misdemeanours  were  lightest 

amplified  recast  in  verse  of  a  "Dharma-sQtra",  no  when  applied  to  offenders  of  the  Brahmin  caste,  and 

longer  extant,  that  may  have  been  in  existence  as  increased  in  severity  for  the  guilty  members  of  the 

eariy  as  500  b.  c.                                             '  warrior,  farmer,  and  serf  caste  respectively.     Most 

The  siUras  were  manuals  composed  by  the  teachers  forms  of  industry  and  the  practice  of  medicine  were 

of  the  Vedic  schools  for  the  guidance  of  tlwir  pupils,  held  in  contempt,  and  were  forbidden  to  both  Brah- 

They  summed  up  in  aphorisms,  more  or  less  methodi-  mins  and  warriors.    The  mind  of  woman  was  held  to 

cally  arranj^ed,  the  enormously  complicated  mass  of  be  fickle,  sensual,  and  incapable  of  proper  self-direo- 

rult's,  l;iws,  cii^tdins,  rites,  that  the  Brahmin  student  tion.    Hence  it  was  laid  down  tlmt  women  wore  to  be 


BCANUAL 


614 


MANUSCRIPTS 


held  in  strict  subjection  to  the  end  of  their  lives. 
They  were  not  allowed  to  learn  any  of  the  Vedic  texts, 
and  their  participation  in  religious  rites  was  limited 
to  a  few  insignificant  acts.  Guilt  involving  penances 
was  attributed  to  unintentional  transgressions  of  law, 
and  there  was  a  hopeless  confusion  of  duties  of  con- 
science with  traditional  customs  and  restrictions  in 
large  part  superstitious  and  absurd.  Yet,  with  all 
this,  tne  ethical  teachings  of  the  "Laws  of  Alanu"  is 
very  high,  embracing  almost  every  form  of  moral 
obligation  recognized  in  the  Christian  religion. 

Tne  "Laws  of  Manu"  is  accessible  to  modem 
readers  in  a  number  of  good  translations.  It  was  pub- 
lished in  English  dress  under  the  title,  "The  Insti- 
tutes of  Manu"^  by  Sir  William  Jones  in  1794,  being 
the  first  Sanskrit  work  to  be  translated  into  a  Euro- 
pean tongue.  This  version  is  still  recognized  as  a 
work  of  great  merit.  In  1884  a  very  excellent  trans- 
lation, begun  by  A.  C.  Bumell  and  completed  by 
Professor  E.  W.  Hopkins,  was  published  in  London, 
with  the  title,  "The  Ordinances  of  Manu".  Two 
years  later  appeared  Professor  George  Buhler's  able 
version  with  a  lengthy  introduction,  constituting 
volume  XXV  of  the  "Sacred  Books  of  the  East". 
In  1893  Professor  G.  Strehly  published  in  Paris  a  very- 
elegant  French  translation,  "Les  Lois  de  Manou' , 
forming  one  of  the  volumes  of  the  "  Annales  du  Mus4e 
Guimet". 

Macdonell,  Santkrit  Literature  (New  York;  1900) ;  Frazer, 
A  Literary  Hikorv  of  India  (New  York.  1898);  Monikr  Wii/- 
UA118,  Jridian  madom  (4th  ed..  London,  1893);  Jouantoen, 
U^er  daa  OesettUntch  des  Manu  (Leipzig.  1863). 

Charles  F.  Aiken. 
Manual  Masses.    See  Mass. 

Manuel  Ohysoloras,  first  teacher  of  Greek  in 
Italy,  bom  at  Constantinople  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  centuiy;  died  at  Constance,  Germany,  and 
was  buried  there,  15  April,  I4rl5.  His  first  visit  to 
Italy  was  at  the  time  ot  the  siege  of  Constantinople, 
when  he  was  sent  to  Venice  by  Emperor  Palseologus  to 
implore  the  aid  of  the  Christian  pnnces.  He  returned 
to  Constantinople.  In  1396  he  went  to  Florence  at 
the  invitation  of  the  humanists  of  that  city,  Salutato, 
Niccolo  de  Niccoli,  and  their  friends,  as  professor  of 
Greek  literatiu^.  He  severed  his  connexion  with  the 
Florentine  government,  however,  before  the  time  for 
the  end  of  the  agreement  had  expired,  owing  either 
to  intrigues  which  Bruno  and  Filolfo  attributed  to 
Niccoli,  or  perhaps  to  his  own  moodv  temperament. 
He  was  then  engaged  in  teaching  at  Milan  and  after- 
wards at  Pavia.  In  1404  he  was  Manuel  Palseolo- 
gus's  ambassador  in  Venice  and  visited  Rome  and 
England  in  the  same  capacity.  He  was  also  actively 
employed  in  promoting  a  umon  of  the  Greek  with  th^ 
Latin  Church,  and  with  that  object  in  view  returned 
once  more  to  Constantinople.  In  1413  John  XXIII 
chose  him  to  accompanj^  the  cardinals  sent  as  dele- 
gates to  the  emperor  Sigismund  to  fix  a  place  for  the 
assembling  of  a  general  council.  Constance  was 
chosen.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  Bull  of  convocation. 
He  probably  accompanied  John  XXIII  to  Constance 
(1414)  and  died  there  the  following  year.  His  death 
gave  rise  to  commemorative  essays  of  which  Guarino 
of  Verona  made  a  collection  in  "Chrysolorina'*. 

Chrysoloras's  works  include  opuscules  on  the  Pro- 
cession of  the  Holy  Ghost; "  Epistolai  tres  de  compara- 
tione  veteris  et  nova*  Romae";  letters  to  his  brothers, 
to  L.  Bruni,  to  Guauni,  to  Traversari,  to  Pallas 
Strozzi.  He  also  translated  Plato's  "Republic"  into 
Latin.  Finally  he  is  the  author  of  the  first  modern 
Greek  grammar,  the  "Erotemeta"  printed  for  the 
first  time  at  Florence  in  1484,  and  immediately  studiecl 
by  Linacre  at  Oxford  and  by  Erasmus  at  ('ambridge. 
lie  was  chiefly  influential  through  his  teaching  in 
familiarizing  men  such  as  Bnmi,  Salutato,  Giacomo  da 
Scarparia,  Roberto  de'  Rossi,  Carlo  Mai-suppini,  Xer- 
gerio,  Decembrie,  Guauni,  Poggio,  with  tne  master- 


pieces of  Greek  literature.  As  an  oral  teacher  he 
too  verbose  and  diffuse.  As  a  man,  however,  such  no- 
bility of  character  and  integrity  was  rarely  met  with 
in  the  Greek  teachers  who  succeeded  him  in  Italy. 

Leorand,  Bibliograpkie  helUnioue  (Paris,  1884).  I.  2L1X.  and 
5:   Sandys,  A  history  of  dasaieal  xholarvtip.  It  (Cambridce, 

Paul  Lejat. 

Manumission  of  Christian  Slaves.    See  Slavery. 

Manuscripts. — ^Every  book  written  by  hand  on 
flexible  material  and  intended  to  be  placed  in  a  library 
is  called  a  manuscript.  We  must  therefore  set  aside 
from  the  study  of  maniuscripts  (1)  books  graven  on 
stone  or  brick  (Library  of  Assurbanipal  at  Ninive; 
^ven  documents  discovered  at  Cnossus  or  Phse8U>s 
m  Crete);  (2)  ail  public  acts  (diplomas,  charters,  etc.), 
the  study  of  which  constitutes  the  object  of  diplomat- 
ics. Manuscripts  have  been  composed  from  the  most 
remote  antiqmty  (Egyptian  papyri  of  the  Memphite 
epoch)  down  to  the  period  of  the  invention  of  printing. 
However,  Greek  manuscripts  were  still  copied  until 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  in  the  monaste- 
ries of  the  East  (Mount  Athos,  Syria,  Mesopotamia, 
etc.),  the  copving  of  manuscripts  continued  well  into 
the  nineteenth  century.  On  tne  other  hand  the  most 
recent  Western  manuscripts  date  from  Hie  last  years 
of  the  fifteenth  century. 

I.  Materials  and  Form  of  Manuscripts. — ^The 
principal  materials  employed  in  the  making  of  manu- 
scripts have  been  papyrus,  parchment,  and  paper.  In 
exceptional  cases  other  materials  have  been  used  (e.  g. 
the  linen  books  of  Etruria  and  Rome,  a  specimen  of 
which  was  found  on  an  Egyptian  mummy  in  the  mu- 
seum of  Agram;  the  silken  books  of  China,  etc.).  Be- 
sides, in  ancient  times  and  during  the  Middle  Ages  tab- 
lets dipped  in  wax  on  which  characters  were  traced 
with  a  stylus  were  made  use  of  for  furtive  writings,  ac- 
coimts,  etc.;  these  might  be  folded  m  two  (diptychs), 
or  in  three  (triptychs),  etc.  Papyrus  {charta  ceffyp- 
tica)  was  obtaiuecffrom  a  long-stemmed  plant  termi^ 
nating  in  a  large  and  elegant  umbrella;  this  was  the 
Cyperus  Papyrus,  which  grew  in  the  marshes  of  Egypt 
and  Abvssinia.  The  stem  was  cut  in  long  strips  vi^ch 
were  placed  one  beside  the  other.  On  the  vertical 
strips  others  were  placed  horizontally;  then  after  they 
had  been  wet  with  the  water  of  the  Nile  they  were  sub- 
mitted to  strong  pressure,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  rubbed 
with  shells  to  render  them  solid.  To  make  a  book  the 
separate  pages  (ffeXldet^  pagina)  were  first  written  on, 
then  they  were  put  end  to  end,  the  left  margin  of  each 
page  being  made  to  adhere  to  the  right  margin  of  the 
preceding  page.  A  roil  {volumen)  was  thus  secured, 
of  which  the  dimensions  were  sometimes  considerable. 
Some  Eg>- ptian  rolls  are  forty-six  feet  long  by  nine  or 
ten  inches  wide,  and  the  great  Harris  papyrus  (British 
Museum)  is  one  hundred  and  forty-one  feet  long.  The 
end  of  the  last  page  was  fastened  to  a  cylinder  of  wood 
or  bone  (6ti<pa\6i,  umbilicus),  which  gave  more  consist- 
ency to  the  roll.  The  page  having  been  ruled,  the  writ- 
ing was  done  with  a  sharpened  reed  on  the  horizontal 
portion  of  the  fibres.  From  being  almost  exclusively 
used  in  Eg^'pt,  the  use  of  papyrus  spread  to  Greece 
about  the  fifth  century,  then  to  Rome  and  throughout 
the  West.  Its  price  remained  very  high;  in  407  b.  c.  a 
roll  of  twenty  leaves  was  worth  twenty-six  drachmas, 
or  about  five  dollars  (Corp.  Insc.  Attic,  1, 324).  Pliny 
the  Elder  (Hist.  Nat.,  XIII,  11-13)  gives  a  list  of  its 
various  grades  (charta  Augusta^  Liviana,  etc.).  Ee^t 
retained  the  monopoly  of  the  manufacture,  whicniur- 
thermore  belonged  to  the  State.  Alexanoria  was  the 
principal  market.  In  the  first  centuries  of  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  exf)orted  to  the  West  by  the  "Syrians". 
but  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Arabs  (640)  stopped 
the  trade.  However  it  still  continued  to  be  used  for 
diplomas  (at  Ravenna  until  the  tentli  centur>';  in  the 
papal  chancer>'  until  1057).  The  Arabs  had  attempted 
to  cultivate  the  plant  in  Sicily. 


MMUWlEiCTS  61 

Poichment  {diarta  pergamena),  made  of  the  Bkin  of 
•heep,  Koata',  ixXvea  (B«&uni),  ums,  etc.,  woe  med  by 
the  lonianH  and  the  Asiatics  as  early  as  the  rizih  osn- 
tury  ».  c.  (Herodotus,  V,  58) ;  the  anecdote  related  by 
Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.,  XIII,  11),  according  to  wbjoh  it  was 
Invented  at  Pergamus,  seems  li^endaiy;  it  would  seem 
that  its  maDufacture  was  simply  perfected  there.  Im- 
ported to  Rome  in  ancient  times,  parchment  sup- 
planted pspyrus  but  elowly.  It  wasonly  at  theendof 
the  third  century  a.  ».  that  it  was  preferred  to  papyrus 
for  the  making  of  books.  Once  prepared,  the  paroh' 
ment  (membrana)  was  cut  into  leaves  which  were 
folded  in  two;  four  leaves  together  formed  a  book  of 
Jcht  folios  {quaternio) ;  all  the  books  fonnod  «  tvdex. 
-.'^ere  was  no  paging  before  the  fifteenth  century; 
writera  merely  numbered  first  the  books  (signature), 
then  the  foiios.  The  dimensions  of  the  leaves  varied; 
that  most  in  use  for  literary  texts  was  the  large  quarto. 
An  Urfoino  oatalogue  (fifteenth  century)  mentions  a 


S 


HunreoKipn 


16)  oonfesses  that  he  n«ver  saw  a  papj^rus  MS.      

wera  euoh,  nevertheless,  in  sotoe  archives,  but  it  was 
only  in  the  eighteenth  century,  after  the  discovery  of 
the  papyri  of  Herculaneum  (1762)  that  attention  was 
devoted  to  this  class  of  documents.  The  first  dis- 
covery took  place  in  Egypt  at  Gizeh  in  1778,  then 
from  1816  the  discoveries  m  the  tombs  have  succeeded 
one  another  without  interruption,  espedally  since 
1880.  The  hieroglyphic,  demotic,  Creek,  and  I«tin 
papyri  are  at  present  scattered  among  the  great 
librarieB  (Turin,  Rome,  Paris,  Lejfden,  Strashur^ 
Berlin,  London,  etc.).  The  publication  of  the  princn- 
pal  collections  has  been  begun  (see  l>elow),  and  the 


served  at  Stockholm  a  gi^ntlc  Bible  written  on  i  . 
skin,  the  dimensions  of  which  have  won  for  it  the  name 
of  "  Gigaa  librorum".  The  page  was  ruled  in  dry  point 
so  deeply  tliat  the  mark  was  visil)le  on  the  other  side. 
Parchments  were  written  on  both  sides  (opistographs) . 
As  parchment  became  very  rare  and  eoatly  during  the 
MiadleAges,  it  became  the  custom  in  some  monasteries 
to  scratch  or  wash  out  the  old  text  in  order  to  replace 
it  with  new  writing.  Those  erased  manuscripts  ore 
called  palimpsests.  With  the  aid  of  reacting  chemi- 
cals the  old  writing  bos  been  made  to  reappear  and  lost 
texts  have  been  thus  discovered  (the  Codex  Vaticonus 
8757  contains  under  a  text  of  St.  Augustine  the  "De 
Republica"  of  Cicero,  recovered  by  Cardinal  Mai). 
Manuscripts  thus  treated  have  been  nearly  always  in- 
complete or  mutilated;  a  complete  work  has  never 
been  recovered  on  a  palimpsest.  Finally,  by  sewing 
strips  of  parchment  together,  rolls  (ratali)  were  made 
similar  to  those  formed  of  papyrus  (e.  a.  Hebrew  Pen- 
tateuch of  Brussels,  ninth  century,  on  fifty-seven  sewn 
skins,  forty  yards  in  length;  "rolls  of  the  dead", 
used  by  the  associations  irf  prayer  for  the  dead  i 


ment,  ete.). 

Paperissaid  tohavebeeainvent«dinChinain  A.  a. 
105  by  a  certain  Tsai-Louen  (Chavannes,  "Joum. 
Asiatique",  1805,  1).  Specimens  of  paper  of  Uie 
fourth  century  a.  d.  have  been  found  in  Eastern 
Turkestan  (expeditions  of  Stein  and  Sven  Hedm).  It 
was  after  the  tAkinK  of  Samarkand  (704)  that  the 
Arabs  learned  to  make  paper,  and  mtroduced  it  to 
Bagdad  (795),  and  to  Damascus  laharta  damtueena). 
It  was  known  in  Europe  as  early  as  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century,  and  at  this  early  date  it  was  used  in 
the  Norman  chancery  of  Sicily;  in  the  twelfth  century 
it  began  to  be  used  for  manuscripte.  It  was  sold  even 
then  in  quires  and  reams  (Arabic,  raxmah)  and  in  the 
thirteentn  century  appeared  the  liligranea  or  water- 
marks. According  to  cheniical  analyses,  the  paper  of 
the  Middle  Ages  was  mode  of  hempen  or  linen  rags. 
The  expression  "charta  Bombyoma"  ocaoBa  from  the 
Arab  manufactory  of  Bombyce,  between  Antioch  aiul 
Aleppo.  The  copyist  of  the  Middle  Ages  used  chieflv 
blank  mk,  incmikvm,  composed  of  a  mixture  of  ^1 
nuts  «id  vitriol-  Red  ink  was  reserved  from  ancient 
times  for  titles.  Gold  and  silver  ink  were  used  for  man- 
uHcripta  de  luxe  (see  Evanoeuaria).  The  method 
of  binding  oodices  has  varied  little  since  ancieat 
times.  The  books  were  sewn  on  ox  sinews  placed 
in  rows  of  five  or  six  on  the  back.  These  sinews 
{chorda)  served  to  attach  to  the  volume  wooden  oov- 
era,  which  were  covered  with  panhmmt  or  dyed  diin. 
Covers  of  the  manuscripts  de  luxe  were  made  of 
ivory  or  braae.  ornamented  with  carvings,  precious 
atones,  cut  and  uncuf. 


lt.-««l1^  tfwJaiiU  ,p^ft~.,, 


f  Mi<L4>i/<wflifir>n-u»  If -v 


-^-.,sfc:.-.,^ 


<.4. 


edition  of  a  "Corpus  papyrorum"  is  projected,  which 
may  be  one  of  the  greatest  undertakings  of  eruditioD 
of  the  twentieth  century.  The  importance  of  theae 
discoveries  may  be  estimated  from  the  consideration 
of  the  chief  kinds  of  papyrus  published  to-dav. 

(1)  Egyptian  Fapyri.^~'Tim  greater  number  are 
religious  documents  relating  to  the  veneration  of  the 
dead  and  the  future  life.    The  most  anoieat  date  from 


celebrated  is  the  "Book  of  the  Dead",  of  which  sev- 
eral copies  have  been  recovered.  Moml  and  philt^ 
sophical  treatises  have  also  been  found  (the  Prisse 
Papyrus,  in  the  Biblioth^ue  Nat.,  Paris)  as  well  as 
sdentifio  treatises,  romances  and  teles,  and  popular 
songs. 

(2)  Greek  Papyri.— They  are  distributed  over  ten 
centuries  (third  century  b.  c.-seventh  century  a.  D.) 
and  oontaln  registers  from  archives  (giving  a  very 
exact  idea  of  the  administration  of  Eg;i-pt  under  the 
Ptolemies  and  the  Roman  and  Byiantiiie  em^rors; 
their  study  has  given  rise  to  a  new  diplonu-ti^ieiKtAiiKi 


1SAVI780BIPT8 


616 


MJOnJSORZPTS 


literary  worics  (the  finest  discovered^  are  the  ora- 
tioos  of  Hyperiaes  found  on  papyii  in  the  British 
Museum  in  1847,  1858,  1891,  and  in  the  Louvre  in 
1889;  Aristotle's  ''Republic  of  Athens"  on  a  papyrus 
of  the  British  Museum  in  1891;  the  "Mimes"  of  Her- 
ondas,  lyric  poems  of  Bacchylides  and  Timotheus;  and 
lastly,  m  1905,  1300  verses  by  Menander  at  Kom 
Ishkaou  by  G.  Lefebvre),  and  religious  documents 
(fragments  of  Gospels,  of  which  some  remain  uniden- 
tified, religious  poems,  hymns,  edifying  treatises,  etc., 
e.  g.:  the  Greek  Psalter  of  the  British  Museum,  of  the 
thmi  century  a.  d.,  which  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
Biblical  manuscripts  we  possess;  the  "  Logja  "  of  Jesus, 
published  by  Grenfell  and  Himt;  a  hymn  in  honour  of 
the  Holy  Trinity  similar  to  the  "Te  Deimi",  discov- 
ered on  a  papyrus  of  the  sixth  century;  etc.). 

(3)  Latin  Papyri. — ^These  are  rare,  at  Herculan- 
eum  as  well  as  in  Egypt,  and  we  possess  only  frag- 
ments. A  i)apyrus  of  Ravenna  dated  551  (Library  of 
Naples)  is  in  Ostrogothic  writing  (Catal.  of  Latin 
papyri  in  Traube,  ''BibUoth.  Ecole  des  Chartes", 
iSlV,  455). 

Ckief  CoUecUona. — ^Louvre  (Brunet  de  Presle, 
"Not.  et  ext.  des  BISS.",  XVIII);  Turin  (ed.  Pey- 
ron,  1826-27);  Leyden  (ed.  Leemans,  1843);  British 
Museimi  (ed.  Kenyon,  1898);  Flinders  Petrie  (ed. 
Mahafify,  Dublin,  1893-94);  University  of  California 
(Tebtunis  Papjrriis,  ed.  Grenfell  and  Hunt,  London 
and  New  York,  1902) ;  Berlin  ([Berlin,  1895-98) ;  Arch- 
duke Renier  (ed.  Wessely,  Vienna,  1895) ;  Strasburg 
(ed.  Keil,  1902);  Oxyrhyncos  excavations  (Grenfell 
and  Hunt,  London,  smce  1898) ;  Th.  Reinach  (Paris, 
1905). 

ni.  The  Maxinq  of  Manuscripts. — In  ancient 
times  the  copyists  of  manuscripts  were  free  worlonen 
or  slaves.  Athens,  which  was  before  Alexandria  a 
great  Ubrary  centre,  had  its  B</SXio7/Hi^i,  copyists, 
who  were  at  the  same  time  librarians.  At  Home 
Pomponius  Atticus  thought  of  competing  with  book- 
sellers by  training  slaves,  for  the  most  part  Greeks,  to 
copy  manuscripts,  their  work  to  be  afterwards  sold. 
Some  booksellers  were  at  once  copyists,  calligraphers, 
and  even  painters.  To  the  great  libranes  founded  by 
the  emperors  were  attached  rooms  for  copyists;  in  372 
Valens  attached  to  that  of  Constantinople  four  Greek 
and  three  Latin  copyists  (Theod.  code,  XIV,  ix,  2). 
The  edict  of  Diocletian  fixing  the  maxima  of  prices 
sets  down  the  monthly  salary  of  the  Ubraritu  at  fifty 
denarii  (Corp.  Inscript.  Latin,  IIP  831).  Unfor- 
tunately, except  for  the  Egyptian  papyri,  none  of  the 
works  copied  in  ancient  times  has  come  down  to  us, 
and  our  oldest  manuscripts  date  only  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourth  century.  The  copyists  of  this  cen- 
tury, several  of  whom  were  Christian  priests,  seem  to 
have  displayed  great  activity.  It  was  oy  transcribing 
on  parcnment  the  works  hitherto  written  on  papyrus 
and  in  danger  of  being  destroyed  (Acacius  and  Eu- 
soTusat  Csesarea;  cf.  St.  Jerome,  "Epist.",  cxli),  that 
they  assured  the  preservation  of  ancient  literature  and 
prepared  the  work  of  the  copyists  of  the  Middle  A^s. 
The  most  ancient  and  the  most  precious  manuscnpts 
of  our  collections  date  from  this  period ;  Biblical  MSS. : 
Codex  Sinaiticus,  a  Greek  fourth  century  MS.  discov- 
ered by  Tischendorf  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Catherine 
of  Sinai  (1844-59),  now  at  St.  Petersburg;  Codex 
Alexandrinus,  a  Greek  Bible  executed  at  Alexandria 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  now  in  the  British 
Museum;  Codex  Ephraemi  Rescriptus,  a  palimpsest  of 
the  Biblioth^que  Rationale  of  Paris,  containing  frag- 
ments of  a  New  Testament  written  in  the  fifth  century; 
Latin  Bible  of  CJuedlinburg,  fourth  century,  in  the 
Library  of  Berlin;  Fragments  of  the  Cotton  Latin 
Bible  (Brit.  Mus.),  fifth  century.  Profane  authors: 
The  seven  manuscripts  of  Virgil  in  capitals  [the  most 
famous  is  that  of  the  Vatican  (Lat.  3225),  fourth  cen- 
tury]; the  "Iliad"  of  the  Ambrosian  Library,  fifth 
oentujy;  the  Terence  of  the  Vatican  (Lat.  3226)  in 


capitals,  fifth  century;  the  "Calendar"  of  PhOocalut 
wntten  in  354,  known  only  by  modem  copies  (Brus- 
sels. Vienna,  etc.). 

The  barbarian  invasions  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies brought  about  the  destruction  of  the  libraries 
and  the  scattering  of  the  books.  However,  in  the 
midst  of  barbarism,  there  were  a  certain  number  of 
privileged  refuges,  in  which  the  cop}ring  of  books 
went  on.    It  is  to  these  copyists  of  tne  B&iddle 


that  modems  owe  the  preservation  of  the  Sacred 
Books  as  well  as  the  treasures  of  classical  antiquity; 
they  veritably  saved  civilization.  The  chief  of  these 
copying  centres  were:  Constantinople,  where  the  li- 
brary and  schools  continued  to  exist;  the  monasteries 
of  the  East  and  West,  where  the  copying  of  books  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  essential  labours  of  monastic  life ; 
the  s}magogues  and  schools  of  the  Jews,  to  which  we 
owe  the  Hebrew  MSS.  of  the  Bible,  the  most  ancient 
of  which  date  ordyr  from  the  ninth  century  (British 
Museum,  MSS.  Orient,  4445,  ninth  century;  Codex 
Babylonicus  of  St.  Petersburg,  copied  in  916);  the 
Mussulman  schools  (Medresaef^),  provided  with  large 
libraries  (that  at  Cordova  had  400,000  vols.)  and  copy- 
ing rooms,  in  which  were  transcribed  not  only  the 
Koran  biit  also  theological  works  and  Arabic  trans- 
lations of  Greek  authors  (Aristotle,  Ptolemy.  Hippoc- 
rates, etc.).  The  most  important  work  uncfoubtedly 
was  done  by  the  monasteries;  ito  history  is  identical 
with  the  history  of  the  transmission  of  sacred  and  pro- 
fane texts  of  antiquity. 

(1)  Oriental  Chrietendom— From  the  very  begin- 
ning of  Egyptian  monastidsm  copying  rooms  were 
installed  in  the  monasteries,  as  is  shown  by  the  Coptic 
chronicle  on  papvrus  studied  by  Strzygowski  (*'£ine 
Alexandriniscne  Weltchronik",  Vienna,  1905).  In 
Palestine,  S3rria,  Ethiopia,  and  Armenia,  in  Melchite, 
Jacobite,  or  Nestorian  monasteries,  the  copying ^of 
manuscripts  was  held  in  esteem.  We  know  the  name 
of  one  scnbe,  Emmanuel,  of  the  monasterv  of  Qartamin 
on  the  Tigris,  who  copied  with  his  own  hand  seventy 
manuscripts  (one  of  tnem  the  Berlin  Nestorian  Evan- 
geliarium;  Sachau,  304,  tenth  century).  At  the  Nes- 
torian school  of  Nisibis  the  students  copied  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  the  text  of  which  was  afterwards  explained 
to  them.  Indeed  the  Bible  was  copied  by  preference, 
hence  the  numerous  Biblical  MSo.,  whetner  Syriac 
(text  of  the  "  Peshitto  "preserved  at  Milan;  end  ot  the 
fifth  century),  Coptic  (fragments  discovered  bv  Mas- 
pero  at  Akhmin;  see  "Journal  Asiaticiue",  1892, 126). 
Armenian  (Gospel  in  capitals.  Institute  Lazarev  of 
Moscow,  dated  887;  the  most  ancient  complete  Bible 
belongs  to  the  twelfth  century) ,  Ethiopian,  etc.  Com- 
mentaries on  Holy  Scripture,  liturgical  books,  trans- 
lations from  the  Ureek  Fathers,  theological  or  aaoei- 
ical  treatises,  and  some  universal  chronicles  constitute 
the  greater  number  of  these  MSS.,  from  which  the 
classic  writers  are  excluded. 

(2)  Greek  Church. — In  the  Greek  monasteries  St 
Basil  also  recommended  the  copying  of  manuscripts, 
and  his  treatise  *'  On  the  usefulness  of  reading  profane 
authors"  bears  sufficient  witness  that  side  by  side 
with  the  religious  texts  the  Basilian  monks  assigned 
an  important  place  to  the  copying  of  classical  authors. 
That  a  large  number  of  texts  have  perished  is  not  the 
fault  of  the  monks,  but  is  due  to  the  custom  of  Bysan- 
tine  scholars  of  composing  **  Excerpta"  from  the  prin« 
cipal  authors,  and  afterwards  neglecting  the  originals 
(e.  g.  Encyclopedia  of  Constantino  Porph3rrQgenitU8, 
in  the  library  of  Photius.  See  Krumbacher,  "Gesch. 
der  Byzant.  Litter.",  p.  505).  Wars,  and  especially  tha 
taking  of  Constantinople  in  1204,  also  brou^t  about 
the  destruction  of  a  great  number  of  libraries.  The 
work  of  the  Byzantine  copyists  from  the  sixth  to  the 
fifteenth  centuries  was  considerable;  and  to  con  vines 
ourselves  it  is  enough  to  peruse  the  list  of  three  thou- 
sand names  of  known  copyists  recovered  by  Maria 
Vogel   and   Gardthausen   from  Greek  manuscripts 


HAHUaOBlPTS  6 

("Beibefto  lum  Zentralblatt  ftir  BibUotbekwemn", 
XXXIII,  Ledpiig,  1900).  It  wiU  be  seen  that  the 
neater  number  of  copyiatA  ue  monks;  at  the  end  of 
the  manuBcript  they  often  place  thetr  signature  and 
the  name  of  uieir  monastery.  Some  of  tbiem  through 
humUity  preserve  anonymity:  r^^«  rlt;  olSt  Wt 
"Who  wrote  this?  God  knows."  Othera  on  the  con- 
trary inform  posterity  concerning  the  rapidity  with 
which  they  have  completed  their  task.  The  scribe 
TheophiluB  wrote  in  thirty  days  the  Gospel  of  St.  John 
(985).  A  manuscript  of  St.  Basil  begun  on  Pentecost 
(28  Hay)  of  1105  was  ended  8  August  of  the  same  year. 
With  the  monks  there  were  some  secular  copyists 
known  as  nofan'i,  labvlani,  among  them  a  tax  collector 
of  the  eleventh  century  (Montfaucon,  "PalBog.  gr.", 


17  MAHnS0BIPT8 

ures  of  sacred  and  profane  literature  which  are  stin 
preserved  there,  there  is  not  a  library  of  Greek  HSS. 
which  djee  not  poBsees  some  examples  of  their  work. 

Finally  the  monasteries  founded  in  the  Slav  countries, 
in  Russia,  Bulgaria,  Servia,  on  the  model  of  the  Greek 
convents,  also  nad  their  copying  rooms,  in  which  were 
translated  into  tJie  Slavonic  language,  with  the  help  oi 
the  alphabet  invented  in  the  ninth  century  by  St. 
Cyril,  the  Holy  Scripture  and  the  most  important 
works  of  the  ecclesiastical  hterature  of  the  Greeks. 
It  was  also  in  these  monastic  study  halls  that  the  first 
monuments  of  the  national  literature  of  the  Slavs  were 


dosiuB  II  (408-450)  had  earned  the  surname  of  "Cal- 
ligrapber"  (Codinus  ed.  of  Bonn,  151)  and  John  V 
Cantacuzenus,  having  in  1355  retired  to  a  monastery, 
copied  manuscripts.  Among  copyists  is  also  men- 
tioned the  Patriarch  Methodius  (843-847),  who  in  one 
week  copied  seven  psalters  for  the  seven  weeks  of  Lent 
(Pat.  Or.  G.  1253). 

The  monasteries  of  Constantinople  remain  the  chief 
centres  for  the  copying  of  manuscriptH,  From  them 
^rhape  proceeded  in  the  sixth  century  the  beautiful 
GoBpels  on  purple  parchment  in  letters  of  gold  (see 
MANcacRiFTB,  iLLUumATBD).  In  the  ninth  century 
the  reform  of  the  Studites  was  accompanied  by  a 
veritable  renascence  of  calligraphy.  St.  Plato,  uncle 
and  master  of  Theodore  of  Studion,  andTheodore  him- 
self copied  many  books,  and  their  biographies  extcd 
the  bniuty  of  their  wnting.  Theodore  installed  at 
Studion  a  scriptorium,  at  the  head  of  which  was  a 
"  protocailigra^her  "  charged  with  preparing  the  parch- 
ment and  distributing  to  each  one  his  task.  In  Lent 
the  copyists  were  dispensed  from  the  recitation  of  the 
Psalter,  but  rigorous  discipline  reigned  in  the  work- 
room. A  stain  on  a  manuscript,  an  inexactness  in 
copy  was  severely  punished.  All  the  monasteries 
which  came  under  the  influence  of  Studion  also 
adopted  its  method  of  copying;  all  had  their  libraries 
and  their  copying  rooms.  In  the  eleventh  century 
St.  ChristodouIoB, another  monastic  reformer,  founder 
of  the  convent  of  St.  John  of  Patmos,  ordained 
that  all  monks  "skillful  in  the  art  of  writing  should 
with  the  authoriiiation  of  the  heaoumenos  make  use 
of  the  talents  with  which  they  had  been  endowed 
by  nature  ".  There  has  been  preserved  a  catalogue  of 
the  library  of  Patmos,  dated  1201;  it  oomprisee  two 
hundred  and  sixty-seven  manuscripts  on  parchment, 
and  sixty-t^ree  on  paper.  The  majority  are  religious 
works,  among  them  twelve  Evangeliaries,  nine  Psal- 
ters, and  many  Lives  of  the  saints.  Among  the  seven- 
teen profane  manuscripts  are  works  on  medicine  and 
grammar,  the  "  Antiquities"  of  Joeephus,  the  "Cate- 
gories" of  Aristotle,  etc. 

In  tbc  monasteries  located  at  the  extremities  of  the 
Hellenic  worifl  are  found  the  same  occupations.  The 
monastic  colony  of  Sinai,  which  has  existed  since  the 
fourth  century,  formed  an  admirable  library,  of  which 
the  present  remains  (1220  MS8.)  afford  but  a  faint 
idea.  In  Byzantine  Italy  from  the  tenth  to  the  twelfth 
century,  the  Basilian  monks  also  cultivated  calligraphy 
at  Grottaferrata,  at  St.  Salvatore  at  Messina,  at  Stilo 
in  Calabria,  at  the  monastery  of  Cassola,  near  Otran to, 
at  St.  Elios  at  Carbone,  ana  especially  at  the  Patir  of 
Rossano,  founded  in  the  eleventh  century  by  St. 
Bartholomew,  who  bought  books  at  Constantinople 
and  copied  several  MSS.  The  library  of  Itoesano  be- 
came one  of  the  sources  from  which  the  manuscripts 
of  the  Vatican  hbrary  weredrawn.  Besides,  from  the 
end  of  the  tenth  century  the  great  mtmasteriss  of  Hi. 
Athoa,  the  great  lattra  of  St.  Athanasius,  Vatopedi, 
E^phigmenou,  etc.,  became  most  important  centres  for 
the  copying  of  MSB.    Without  speaking  of  the  trM^ 


S'-fff'^lVftTIT^  ■        tfy^t  ■ 


tHiKW-  i^^Vf^pi.  JuE  VTftttTlF . 


Mi-btrausun :  , .    ^  .. 

6.«B(M™.I>rppn^p,„D„5  ^U.  «^""^W 

It  eaixKa-.  iiLt-uuXU-n^       ■ 

llriftiB'iiTiMt  eaMucraolJinj  oJapf  L™^aji^ 

OBifptOJ*  jiL(^^funt  LiIB  caltpjon.  toplikuo^ 

DpiiVIC^  a^[mTf>fIc^Q^piii[Dj-nll  ^.rpLrTpi.-'>V^1S 


copied,  such  as  the  "  Chronicle  of  Nestor",  the  "  S<»ig 
of  Igor",  ete. 

(3)  The  IFegi.— The  work  of  the  Western  copyists 
begins  with  St.  Jerome  (340-420),  who,  in  his  solitude 
of  ChaJois  and  later  in  bis  monastery  of  Bethlehem, 
copied  books  and  commended  this  eKeroise  as  one 
most  becoming  bo  monastic  life  (Ep.  cxxiii).  At  the 
same  time  St.  Martin  of  Tours  introduced  this  rule 
into  his  monastery.  The  copvinff  of  USS.  appears  as 
one  of  the  occupations  of  all  tine  founders  of  monastic 
institutions,  of  St.  Honoratus  and  St.  Capresius  at 
I4rins,  of  Caselan  at  St.  Victor's  at  Uorseiiles,  of  St. 
Patrick  in  the  monasteries  of  Ireland,  of  Casalodorua 
in  his  monasteries  of  Scyllactum  (Squillace) .  In  his 
treatise  "De  Institutione  divinarum  litterarum" 
(643-G45)  Cassiodorus  has  left  a  description  of  his 
library  with  its  nine  ormaria  for  HSS.  of  the  Bible; 
he  also  describes  the  copying  room,  the  scriptorium, 
directed  by  ibe  antiquarius.  He  himself  set  the  exam- 
ple by  copying  the  Scriptures  and  he  believed  that 
'■  each  word  of  the  Saviour  written  by  the  copyist  is  a 
defeat  inflicted  on  Satan"  ("De  Instltut.",  I,  30). 
The  work  of  the  copyists  was  also  considered  merit^ 
rious  by  Bt,  Benedict.  In  the  sixth  century  copying 
rooms  existed  in  all  the  monasteries  of  the  West. 

Since  the  time  of  Damasus,  the  popes  had  a  library 
which  was  profaiably  pro^'ided  wiui  a  copying  room. 


MAirusoams 


618 


ItAHUSO&IPTS 


The  missionaries  who  left  Rome  to  evangelize  the 
Germanic  peoples,  such  as  Augustine  in  597,  brought 
with  them  manuscripts  which  they  were  to  reproduce 
in  the  monastericE  foimded  by  them.  In  the  seventh 
century  Benedict  Biscop  made  four  journeys  to  Rome 
and  brought  thence  numerous  MSS.;  in  682  he 
founded  the  monastery  of  Jarrow  which  became  one 
of  the  chief  intellectual  centres  of  England.  Theodore 
of  Tarsus  (668-680)  accomplished  a  similar  work  when 
he  reorganized  the  AnglcnSaxon  Church.  The  first 
period  of  monastic  activity  (sixth-seventh  centuries) 
18  represented  in  our  libraries  by  a  larse  number  of 
Biblical  MSS.,  many  of  which  come  Trom  Ireland 
("Liber  Armachanus"  of  Dublin),  England  ("CJodex 
Amiatinus"  of  Florence,  copied  at  Wearmouth  under 
Wilfrid,  and  offered  to  the  pope  in  716; "  Harley  Evan- 
geliary",  Brit.  Mus.,  seventh  century),  some  from 
Spain  (''Palimpsest  of  Leon'',  cathedral  archives, 
seventh  century).  Finally  the  library  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Upsala  possesses  the  "(Dodex  Argenteus'',  on 
purple  parchment,  written  in  the  fifth  century,  which 
contains  the  Bible  of  Ulphilas,  the  first  translation 
into  a  (jermanic  language  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

At  the  end  of  the  seventh  and  during  the  eighth 
century  Gaul  became  more  and  more  barbarous; 
monasteries  were  destroyed  or  ravaged,  culture  dis- 
appeared, and  when  Charlemagne  undertook  the  re- 
organization of  Eiux)pe  he  addressed  himself  to  the 
coimtries  in  which  culture  was  still  flourishing  in  the 
monasteries,  to  England,  Ireland,  Lombardy.  The 
Carolingian  renaissance,  as  the  movement  has  been 
called,  nad  as  its  principle  the  establishment  of 
copying  rooms  at  the  imperial  court  itself  and  in  the 
monasteries.  One  of  the  most  active  promoters  of  the 
movement  was  Alcuin  (735-804),  wiio  after  having 
directed  the  library'  and  school  of  York,  became  in  793 
Abbot  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours.  Here  he  founded  a 
school  of  calligraphy  which  produced  the  most  beauti- 
ful MSS.  of  the  Carolingian  epoch.  Several  specimens 
distributed  by  Charlemagne  among  the  various  mon- 
asteries of  the  empire  became  the  models  which  were 
imitated  everywhere,  even  in  Saxony,  where  the  new 
monasteries  founded  by  Charlemagne  became  the  fore- 
most centres  of  Germanic  culture.  M.  L.  DeUsIe 
(M^m.  de  I'Acad.  des  Inscript.,  XXXII,  1)  has  com- 
piled a  list  of  twenty-five  MSS.  which  proceeded 
from  this  school  of  Tours  (Bible  of  Charles  the  Bald, 
Paris,  Bib.  Nat.,  Lat.  No.  1;  Bible  of  Alcuin,  Brit. 
Mui>.,  10546;  manuscripts  at  Quedlinburg  relating 
to  the  life  of  St.  Martin;  Sacramentaries  of  Metz  and 
Tours  of  the  Paris  Bibliothdque  Nationale,  etc.). 

Among  the  works  proceeding  from  the  imperial 
scriptorium  attached  to  the  Palatine  School  is  men- 
tioned the  Evangeliary  copied  for  Charlemagne  by  the 
monk  Godescalc  in  781  (now  at  the  Biblioth^que  Na- 
tionale), and  the  Psalter  of  Dagulf  presented  to  Adrian 
I  (now  at  the  Imperial  Library  of  \  ienna) .  Other  im- 
portant scriptoria  were  established  at  Orleans  by 
binhop  Theodulfe  (whence  issued  the  two  beautiful 
Bibles  now  kept  in  the  treasurN'  of  the  cathedral  of  Puy 
and  of  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  I^t.  9380).  at  St. 
Ainand  (where  tlie  copvist  Hucbald  contrijjutea  eight- 
een volumes  to  the  uorarv),  at  St.  Gall,  under  the 
Abbots  Grimaldus  (841-872)  and  Ilardmut  (872-883), 
who  caased  the  making  of  a  complete  Bible  in  nine  vol- 
umes; there  are  extant  ten  Biblical  MSS.  iMitten  or 
corrected  by  Hardmut.  At  St.  Gall  and  in  many 
otlier  monasteries  the  influence  of  Irish  monks  is  very 
marked  (M8S.  of  Tours,  Wurzburg,  Berne,  BobUo, 
etc.) .  Besides  numerous  Biblical  MS»S.  there  are  found 
among  the  works  of  tlie  Carolingian  epoch  many  MSS. 
of  the  classical  authors.  Hardmut  nad  had  copied 
Josephus,  Justin,  Martianus  Capella,  Oosius,  Isidore 
of  Seville:  one  of  the  most  beautiful  MSS.  of  the  school 
of  Tours  is  the  Virgil  of  tlie  library  of  Berne,  copied  by 
the  deacon  Bemon.  Many  of  these  works  were  even 
ftnuuJated  into  the  \'ulgar  tongue:  at  St.  Gall  there 


were  Irish  translations  of  Galen  and  Hippocrates,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  King  Alfred  (849-000) 
translated  into  English  the  works  of  Boethius,  Ore- 
sius,  Bede,  etc.  At  this  epoch  many  monasteries  pos- 
s^sed  libraries  of  considerable  size:  when  in  906  the 
monks  of  Novalaise  (near  Susa)  fled  bef(U«  the  Sara- 
cens they  carried  to  Turin  a  library  of  six  thousand 
MSS. 

The  period  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries 
may  be  considered  as  the  golden  age  of  monastic 
manuscript  writing.  In  each  monastery  there  was  a 
special  hall,  called  the ''  scriptorium '',  reserved  for  the 
labours  of  the  copyists.  On  the  ancient  plan  of  St. 
Gall  it  is  shown  beside  the  church.  In  the  Benedic- 
tine monasteries  there  was  a  special  benediction  for^ 
mula  for  this  hall  (Ducange,  "Glossar.  niedisB  et  inf. 
latin.",  s.  v.  Scriptorium).  Absolute  silence  reigned 
there.  At  the  head  of  the  scriptorium  the  bibUothe- 
cariua  distributed  the  tasks,  and,  once  copied,  the  MSS. 
were  carefully  revised  by  the  corredcMres,  In  the 
schools  the  pupils  were  often  allowed  as  an  honour  to 
copy  MSS.  (for  instance  at  Fleury-sur-Loire) .  Every- 
where the  monks  seem  to  have  given  themselves  with 
great  ardour  to  the  labour  which  was  considered  one 
of  the  most  edifying  works  of  the  monastic  life.  At 
St.  Evroult  (Normandy)  was  a  monk  who  was  saved 
because  the  number  of  letters  copied  by  him  equalled 
the  number  of  his  sins  (Ordericus  Vitafis,  III,  3);  In 
the  "explicit"  which  concluded  the  book  the  scribe 
often  gave  liis  name  and  the  date  on  which  his  work 
ended :  he  sometimes  declared  that  he  wrote  "  for  the 
salvation  of  his  soul "  and  commended  himself  to  the 
prayers  of  the  reader.  Division  of  labour  seems  as 
yet  not  to  have  been  fully  established,  and  there  were 
monks  who  were  both  scribes  and  illuminators  (Ord. 
Vital.,  Ill,  7).  The  Bible  remained  the  book  whidi 
was  copied  by  preference.  The  Bible  was  c<^]ed 
either  entire  {btblwthe^a)  or  in  part  (Pentateuch, 
the  Psalter,  Gospels  and  Epistles,  Evangeliaria,  in 
which  the  (jospels  followed  the  order  of  the  feasts). 
Then  came  the  commentaries  on  the  Scriptures,  the 
liturgical  books,  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  worlm  of 
dogmatic  or  moral  theology,  chronicles,  annals,  lives 
oi  the  saints,  histories  of  churches  or  monasteries,  and 
lastly  profane  authors,  the  study  of  which  never 
ceased  entirely.  Rather  a  large  number  of  them  are 
found  among  the  one  thousand  MSS.  in  the  library  of 
Cluny.  At  St.  Denis  even  Greek  MSS.  were  comd 
(Paris,  Bib.  Nation.,  gr.  375,  copied  in  1022).  The 
newer  religious  orders,  Cistercians.  Carthusians^  etc., 
manifested  the  same  zeal  as  the  Benedictines  m  the 
copying  of  MSS. 

Then  beginning  with  the  thirteenth  centurv  the 
labour  of  copyists  began  to  be  secularized.  About 
the  universities  such  as  that  of  Paris  were  a  large  num- 
ber of  laymen  who  gained  a  livelihood  by  c<»ying;  in 
1275  those  of  Paris  were  admitted  as  agents  cm  the  uni- 
versity; in  1292  we  find  at  Paris  twenty-four  book- 
sellers who  copied  MSS.  or  caused  them  to  be  copied. 
Colleges  such  as  the  Sorbonne  also  had  their  cc^ying 
rooms.  On  the  other  liand  at  the  end  of  the  thii^ 
teenth  centu^^'  in  the  greater  number  of  monasteriet 
the  copying  ot  MSS.  ceased.  Although  there  were  still 
monks  who  were  copyists,  such  as  Giles  of  Mauleoo, 
who  copied  the  "Hours"  of  Queen  Jeanne  of  Bur- 
gundy (1317)  at  St.  ^nis,  the  copWng  and  the  illu- 
mination of  SiSS.  became  a  lucrative  craft.  At  this 
juncture  kings  and  princes  l>egan  to  develop  a  taste 
for  books  and  to  form  libraries;  that  of  St.  Louis  was 
one  of  the  earliest.  In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  these  amateurs  had  in  their  pay  veritable 
armies  of  copyists.  Thenceforth  it  was  they  who  di- 
rected the  movement  of  tlie  production  of  MiSS.  The 
most  famous  \*-ere  Popes  John  XXII  (1316-34),  Bene- 
dict XII  (13;J4-42);  the  poet  Petmrch  (1304-74),  who 
was  not  satisfied  with  purchasing  the  BlSS.  in  convents 
but  himself  formed  a  school  of  copyists  in  order  to  have 


MAMUSORIPTS 


(ill) 


MANUSCRIPTS 


accurate  texta.  the  King  of  P^raiicc,  Charles  V  (13()4- 
1380),  who  collected  in  tlie  Louvre  a  library  of  twelve 
hundred  volumes,  the  French  princes  Jean,  Duke  of 
Berry,  a  forerunner  of  modern  bibliophiles  (1340- 
1416),  Louis  Duke  of  Orl(^ans  (1371-1407)  and  his  son 
Charles  of  Orleans  (d.  1467),  the  dukes  of  Burgundy, 
the  kings  of  Naples,  and  Matthias  Corv^inus.  Also 
worthy  of  mention  are  Richard  of  Bury,  Chancellor  of 
England,  Louis  of  Bruges  (d.  1492),  and  Cardinal 
Georges  d'Amboise  (1460-1510). 

The  cop>'ing  rooms  were  made  more  perfect,  and 
Trithemius,  Abbot  of  Spanheim  (1462-1513),  author 
of  "  De  laude  scriptorum  manualium",  shows  the  well- 
established  division  of  labour  in  a  studio  (preparation 
and  polishing  of  parchment,  ordinary  writmg,  red  ink 
titles,  illumination,  corrections,  re  vision,,  each  task 


pletod  their  tasks  in  lK'(}ueathing  to  the  niodcrn  world 
the  sacre<l  and  profane  works  of  antiquity. 

IV.  PREap:NT  Location  ok  MSJS.—  Save  for  some  ex- 
ceptions, which  ai-e  Ixjcoming  more  and  more  rare,  the 
MbS.  copied  during  the  Middle  Ages  are  ai  present 
stored  in  the  great  public  libraries.  The  private  col- 
lections which  have  been  formed  since  the  sixteenth 
century  (Cotton,  BcKlley,  Christina  of  Sweden,  Pei- 
resc,  Gaignidres,  Collxjrt,  etc.)  have  eventually  l)een 
fused  with'  the  great  repositories.  The  suppression  of 
a  great  number  of  monasteries  (England  and  Germany 
in  the  sixteenth  centurj',  France  in  1790)  has  also 
augmented  the  importance  of  storehouses  of  MSS.,  the 
chief  of  which  are,  Italy:  Rome,  Vatican  Library-, 
founded  by  Nicholas  V  (1447-55),  which  has  acquired 
successively  the  MSS.  of  the  Elector  Palatine  (given 


filunfi^nt«lHrlf1v^l'^bet|i^^  • 

.  .   ■  ■       ■    ■  r      . 


Skction  page  of  Petrarch's  Sonnets 
From  tho  MSS.  written  in  part  by  the  poet  himself,  begun  between  1366  and  1368,  Vatican  Library,  Rome 


was  given  to  a  specialist).  Among  these  copies  reli- 
gious MSS.,  Bibles,  Psalters,  Hours,  lives  of  the  saints, 
were  always  represented,  but  an  increasingly  impor- 
tant place  was  accorded  the  ancient  authors  and  the 
works  of  national  literature.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
a  great  many  Greek  refugees  fleeing  Ix^fore  the  Turks 
came  to  Italy  and  copied  the  MSS.  they  brought  with 
them  to  enrich  the  libraries  of  the  collectors.  A  num- 
ber of  them  were  in  the  service  of  Cardinal  Bessarion 
(d.  1472),  who  after  collecting  five  hundred  Greek 
MSS.,  l)equeathed  them  to  the  Republic  of  Venice. 
Even  after  the  invention  of  printing,  Greek  copyists 
continued  to  work,  and  their  names  are  found  on  the 
most  beautiful  Greek  manuscripts  of  our  libraries^  for 
instance  Const  ant  ineLascaris  (1434-1501),  who  live<l 
a  long  time  at  Mea^na;  John  Lascaris  (1445-1535), 
who  came  to  France  under  Charles  VIII ;  Constant ine 
Palflpocappa,  a  former  monk  of  Athos,  who  entered  the 
service  of  Canlinal  de  Lorraine;  John  of  Otrartto,  the 
mast  skilful  coj^yist  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

'  But  the  copying  of  manuscripts  had  ceased  long  be- 
fore in  coaseqiience  of  the  invention  of  printing.  The 
copyists  who  had  toiled  for  long  centuries  hod  com- 


by  Tilly  to  Gregory  XV),  of  the  Duke  of  Urbino 
(1655),  of  Christina  of  Sweden,  of  the  Houses  of  Cap- 
poni  and  Ottoboni,  in  185t5  the  collections  of  Cardinal 
Mai,  and  in  1891  of  the  Borghese  library:  45,000  MSS. 
(ccxlices  Vatican! ,  and  according  to  tneir  particular 
foundation,  Palatini,  Urbinates, etc.);  Florence:  Lau- 
nmtian  Library,  ancient  collection  of  the  Medici;  9693 
MSS.  largely  of  the  Greek  and  I^tin  classical  authors 
(Codices  Laurentiani) ;  National  Library  (formerly  the 
Uffizi),  founded  in  1860, 20,028  MSS.;  Venice,  Marcian 
Library  (collection  of  Petrarch,  1362,  of  Bessarion, 
1468,  etc.)j  12,096  MSS.  (Codices  Marciani);  Verona: 
Chapter  Library,  1114  MSS.;  Milan,  Ambrosian  Li- 
brary, founded  1609  by  C'ardinal  Federigo  Borromeo, 
8400  MSS.  (Codices  Ambrosiani) ;  Turin,  National  Li- 
brary, foimded  in  1720,  collection  of  the  Dukes  of 
Savoy.  I n  Jan . ,  1 904  a  fire  destroyed  most  of  its  3979 
MSS.,  nearlv  all  of  them  of  the  first  rank  (Codices  Tau- 
rinenses);  Naples,  National  Library'  (ancient  collec- 
tion of  the  Bourbon  family),  7990  MSS. 

•SDaiw;  Library  of  the  Escorial,  founded  in  1575  (one 
of  the  principal  constituents  is  the  collection  of  Hui?- 
tado  de  Mendoza,  formed  at  V«.vi'5»  Vs^  'O0&  ^ss^w^^ar 


BCAMUSOKiyTS  6^ 

dor  of  Philif)  II),  4927  MSS.  (Codices  Escorialensefi). 
France:  National  Library  (had  its  origin  in  the  royal 
collections  gathered  at  Fontainebleau  aa  early  aa 
Fraacis  I,  and  contains  the  libraries  of  Mazarin,  Col- 
bert, etc.,  and  those  of  the  monu$t«nca  confiscat«d  in 
1790)  102,000  MSS.  (Codices  Parisini).  England: 
Britisb  MuBeum  (contains  the  collections  of  Cotton, 
Sloane  Harley,  etc.)^  founded  in  1753,  55,000  MSS.; 
Oxford,  Bodleian  Library,  founded  in  1597  by  Sir 
Thomas  Bodley,  30  000  MSS.  Bd^wn:  BrusseU, 
Royal  Library,  founded  in  1S3S  (the  principal  baaia  is 
the  library  of  the  Dukes  of  Burguncfy),  28,000  MSS. 
Holland:  Leyden, Library oftheUniveraity, founded  in 
1675,d400MSS.  GennoTiy;  Berlin  Royal  Library,  30,- 
000  MSS.;  Gattingen  University,  6000  MSS,;  Leip- 
Hg,  Albertioa  Library,  founded  in  1543,  4000  MSS.; 
Dresden,  Royal  Library  60,000  MSS.  Austria:  Vi- 
enna, Imperiat  Library,  founded  in  1440  (collections 
ot  llatthias  Corvinus  and  of  Prince  Eueene),  27,000 
HSS.  Scandinavian  countries:  Stockholm,  royal  Li- 
biary,  10,435  MSS. ;  Upsala,  University,  1.1,637  MSS. ; 
Copenhagen,  Royal  Library,  20,000  MSS.  Russia: 
St.  Petersbui^,  Imperial  Library,  35,350  MSS.;  Mos- 
cow, Library  ol  the  Holy  Synod,  513  Greek  MSS.,  1810 
SUvic  MSS.  United 
SUUea:  New  York  Public 
Library,  founded  1850 
(Astor  collection,  40 
HSS.;  Lenox  collection, 
500  MSS.);  Pierpont 
Morgan  collection,  115 
MSS.,  illuminated  minia- 
tures. Orient:  Constan- 
tinople, Library  of  the 
Seraglio  (cf.  Ouspensky, 
Bulletin  of  the  Russian 
Archeological  Institute, 
XII,  1907) ;  Monasteries 
of  Athos  (13,000  MSS.), 
of  Smyrna,  of  St.  John  of 
Patmoa  at  Athena,  the 
Librap-  of  the  Senate — 
at  Cairo,  the  Library  ot 

the  Khedive  (found»l  in  Fnoy  the  vat 

1870,    14000    Arabic 

MSS.)  and  the  Patriarchal  Library  (Greek  and  Coptic. 
BISS.).  The  Library  of  the  Monastery  ot  St.  Catherine 
o(  Sinai,  the  patriarchal  libAtries  of  Etscbmiadzin 
{Armenian  MSS.)  and  of  Mossoul  (Syriac  MSS.). 

The  dangers  of  all  kinds  which  threaten  MSS.  have 
induced  the  greater  number  of  these  libraries  to  under- 
take the  reproduction  in  facsimile  of  their  most  pre- 
dous  MSS,  In  1905  an  international  congress  assem- 
bled at  Brussels  to  study  the  best  practical  means  of 
reproduction.  This  is  a  great  undertaking,  the  ac- 
complishment of  which  depends  on  the  progress  of 
photography  and  of  colour  photography.  By  this 
means  will  the  worka  of  the  copyista  of  the  Middle 
Ages  be  preserved.    (See  Libraries.) 

Sflnif  det  bibliethtvua  (Paris,  since  ISBO),  b  periodical  devo- 
ted to  bibliotrsphy.  contalos  nuinenius  unedited  cstAlocues, 
■od  crilical  itudiu  ol  MSS.;  Zentralblall  fUr  BibliolhitutKn 
(Leipiig,  since  1S§4),  tmats  of  periodical  bibUosmphy  in  the 
■uppkineat:  Qraesei..  Fr.  tr.  Lavde.  Manud  3e  BiUialkfro- 
nonu  IPuis,  18^7).  deals  with  Ihe  msterial  Bmngemcnls  of 
msauBcript  cabinets;  Ehhle  (preFect  ot  the  Vutican),  ^ur  In 
"""^^rvatum  el  natauniion  i/ft in^Tra  \rfi.<i.  in  Rev.  d^a  Biblialh. 
I.  ISZ;  OuoHT.  LMt  det  r 


BiUtrallat  der  devtiditn 

On  Iho  history  of  gopyisia  a 
BibliotAigue  df  VEcolt  da  ChnHr. 
numeroua  bibliogmplilca)  artinlr^ 
tPttrin  ft  Isff  caUiaraphw  in  /■' 


E  La  Mar 


Sl^};    DEUSI.E.  u 

the  history  of  medievu  uunin'-.,  <*  ljiu-iuaube.*,  ^/l 
Srhreihrr  dim  MiHsJaWm-s  unJ  d<ir  lOjwiuana  (Leipi 
SsitOER,  HUloin  de  la  Vitl^U  pctidani  la  premittn 
•umitu  -V<  (Kwcy,  1893);    F:iDroN,  La  librairit 


SUXnsOBIFTS 


/%  jiuKv  auiuuat  of  infonnBtioa  coacemin^  papyri  will  be  fcruiul 
in  Arihiv  far Papurui/drnJmn^i  (Leipiig.  ainco  1900).  See  alio 
HoiiLiiUN.LopaiiifroIoeMtn'^iqueCLouvain.  IBOJS):  SluditnttBr 
PaloMffrapkie  md  papi/ruiutkundt  (Ldpiifc  nuee  1901,  edited 
by  Wissilt). 

LoDis  BafiHiEii. 

HftntuciiptB,  Iij,TiuiNATED.  I.  Obigin.—A  laije 
number  of  MSS.  are  covered  with  painted  omanients 
which  may  be  presented  under  several  forma:  (l) 
initials  of  chapters  or  paragraphs,  ornamented  some- 
times very  simply,  sometimes  on  the  other  hand  with  ft 
great  profusion  of  interlacings,  foliage,  and  flowers; 
these  are  developed  along  the  whole  length  of  the  page 
and  within  are  sometimes  depicted  persons  or  scenes 
from  everyday  life;  (2)  paintings  on  the  margin,  in 
which  some  scene  ia  earned  over  several  paees;  (3), 
borders  around  the  text  (interlacing  colonnades,  etc.), 
the  most  remarkable  example  is  that  of  the  evangelis- 
tic canons  of  the  Middle  Agea;  (4)  full-paee  paintings 
(or  such  as  cover  only  a  part  of  the  page),  but  forming 
real  pictures,  similar  to  ireecoee  or  easel  pictures ;  these 
are  chiefly  found  on  veiy  ancient  or  veiy  recent  MSS, 
(fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuriea) ;  (6)  finally,  there 
exist  rolls  of  parchment 
wholly  covered  with 
paintmgs  (Roll  of  Joeue 
m  the  Vatican;  £xu]tet 
Roll  of  S,  lUly;  see  be- 
low). All  these  oma- 
mentsarecalled"en  lumi  - 
nurea",  illuminationa,  or 
miniatures,  a  word  used 
since  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  At  firat 
the  "miniator"  was 
charged  with  tracing  in 
red  minium  the  titles  and 
initials.  Despite  its  limi- 
tations, the  art  of  Ulumi- 
nation  is  one  of  the  moet 
eliarmiiig  ever  invented; 
it  exacts  the  same  quali- 
CAH"ViKaii."  ficationH    and    produces 

almost  as  powerful  ,^- 
fecta  as  painting;  it  even  calls  for  a  delicacy  of 
touch  all  its  own.  And  whereas  moet  of  the  paint- 
ings of  the  Middle  Ages  have  perished,  these  little 
works  form  an  almost  uninterrupted  series  which 
afford  us  a  clear  idea  of  the  chief  schools  of  painting  of 
eachepoch  and  each  region.  Finally,  in  tbehiatoiy  (^ 
art  the  rdle  of  illuminated  MSS.  was  considerable;  by 
treating  in  their  works  scenes  of  sacred  history  tJie 


Orient  must  be  sought  the  origin  of  this  art, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  MSS.  themselves.  The  most 
ancient  examples  are  found  on  Egj'ptian  papyri ,  where 
in  the  midst  of  the  text,  and  not  separated  from  it, 
portraits  arc  painted,  most  frequently  in  profile,  ac- 
cording to  the  Egyptian  mctliod.  After  having  drawn 
the  outline  in  black  ink  the  artist  filled  in  the  diawing 
in  colours.  The  art  seems  to  have  been  also  cultivated 
bjr  the  Greek  artists  of  Alexandria.  The  papyrus  con- 
taining the  poems  of  Timothcus  (fourth  centuiy  b.  c.) 
foundatAbou9ir,hasalon^-lcggcdbirdin  the  body  of 
the  text  as  a  mark  of  division.  A  fragment  of  a 
romance  on  a  papyrus  (Paris,  Bib.  Nat.,  supp.  Gr. 
1294;  first  century  a.  d.)  displays  a  text  brol^n  by 
groupeof  miniatures:  men  and  women  in  bluish-giay 
or  puik  costumes  stand  out  in  relief  from  the  back- 
ground of  the  papyrus  itself.  Latin  writers  show  ua 
that  the  miniature  was  introduced  into  Rome  as  earlu 
the  first  wntury  B,  c.  (Pliny,  "Hist.  Nat.",  XXV, 


8), 


Jib  first  century  B,  c.  (Pliny,  "Hist.  Nat.",  XXV, 
Martial  (XIV,  1865)  mentions  a  portrait  of  Viigil 


MAHU8CBIPT&  6i 

painted  OD  a  parchment  MS  ,  and  Vorro  collectedieven 
busdred  sucfi  portraits  of  illustrioua  men.  (Th*  por- 
traits of  Vbe  Evangelista  in  medieval  MSS.  result  from 
this  tradition.)  None  of  these  works  remains  and  the 
only  traces  of  the  illumination  a  of  antiquity  are  found 
in  the  following  MS8.  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries: 
(1)  the  "Vir«ir  of  the  Vatican  (Lat.  3225),  written  by 
a  single  hand,  has  fifty  miniatures  which  appear  to  he 
the  work  of  at  least  three  different  painters.  These  are 
small  pictures  bordered  by  colourwi  hands  (six  of  them 
fil!  a  whole  page);  some  of  them,  especially  in  the 
"OeorKios",  represent  countiy  landscapes  the  fresh- 
ness of  which  IS  worthy  of  the  text  they  illustrata. 
The  background  of  buildings  and  temples  recalls  the 
paintings  at  Pompeii;  (2)  the  "  Iliad"  of  Milan  (similar 
technic);  (3)  the  Bible  of  Quedhnbijrif  (Berlin),  con- 
taining the  most  ancient  Christian  miniatures  known; 
(4)  the  "Calendar"  of  Philocalus,  composed  in  364, 
the  original  of  which,  acquired  by  Peirese,  has  disap- 
peared, but  the  copies  at  Brussels,  Vienna  and  the 
Barberini  Library  evidence  a  work  of  a  purity  thor- 
oughly  antioue;  the  most  curious  portion  is  an  illus- 
trated calendar  in  which  each  month  is  eymbolized  by 
a  scene  of  country  life;  this  is  a  species  of  illustration 
of  ancient  origin  which  recurs  very  frequently  in  the 
miniatures  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

II.  Eastehn  MiNiATUREB. — Eg'jpt.—The  tradition 
of  miniatures  on  rMipyrus  was  preserved  till  the  Chris- 
tian era.  On  a  Berlin  papyrus  (Emperor  Frederick 
Museum)  wefindapictureofChristcuringademoniao. 
In  the  Goleniscev  collection  there  are  sixteen  leaves  of 
a  universal  Coptic  chronicle  on  papyrus,  dated  392  and 
decorated  witn  miniatures  in  a  very  barbarous  style, 
intended  as  illustrations  of  the  text.  In  the  margin 
are  seen  successively  the  months  (women  crovmed 
with  flowers),  the  provinces  of  Asia  (fortified  gate- 
ways), the  prophets,  the  kings  of  Rome,  Lydia,  Mace- 
donia, Roman  emperors,  and  perhaps  the  Patriarch 
Theophilus  presiding  at  the  destruction  of  the  Scra- 
peum.  The  author  was  a  native  monk  and  a  complete 
stranger  to  Hellenic  art.  Syria  and  Afesopotamta. — 
TTie  existence  of  Persian  MSS.  on  parchment  very  rich 


!i  auMuaoazFTs 

with  a  decorative  frame  formed  of  zign^,  curves, 
rainbows,  etc.    The  Gospel  canons  are  set  m  arcades 

ornamented  with  flowers  and  birds.  The  scene  of  the 
Crucifixion  is  treated  with  an  abundance  of  detail 
which  is  very  rare  at  this  period.  The  works  of  the 
Syro-Mesopotamian  School  seem  to  have  missed  the 
meaning  of  the  Hciienic  figures   (figures  in  flowing 


1 

^M 

1 

^^^m 

^^ 

t 

4 

MuiATuKa 
From  ibe  "H&quaaitt"  of  Hariri 

,e  of  th. 


from  Greek  art  (dr«ped    at  present 


figures),  but  relied  mainly  on  the  ornamental  tradi- 
Itotis  of  the  ancient  Orient,  The  masterpiece  of  this 
school  is  the  Syriac  Evangeliary  written  m  586  at  the 
Monastery  of  Zagba  (i^sopotamia)  by  the  monk 
Rabula  (since  the  fifteenth  century  in  the  Laurentian 
Library,  Florence).    The  miniatures  arc  real  picturea 


pAHABLi  or  THE  Wui  AND  FoousB  Vnaim 
From  tha  EvangeUvium  of  Hobbdo 

draperies)  of  which  they  retained  the  tradition.  On  a 
Syriac  evangeliary  in  the  Boi^ian  Museum  (MSS.  Syr., 
14,  f.  k.)  men  and  animals  are  painted  in  unreal  colours 
and  are  bordered  with  black  lines  which  give  to  the 
illuminationB  the  appearance  of  eloisonnfi  enamels. 
The  work,  which  is  dated  1546,  eoems  to  have  been 
inspired  by  an  older  model. 

Armenia.— The  Armenian  School  of  illuminating 
also  belong  to  Syria.  It  is  represented  by  the  evan- 
geliary of  Etschmiadzin  (tenth  century),  the  minia- 
tures of  which  are  derived  from  a  sixth-century  model; 
the  evangeliary  of  Queen  Mike  (Venice,  Monastery  of 
the  Mechitarists,  dated  902),  and  the  evangeliary  of 
To  bin  gen,  dated  U13.  In  ail  these  works  the  richneaa 
of  the  framework  and  the  hieratic  character  of  the 
human  face  are  noteworthy,  fl/ussufman  Arl. — All 
the  above  characteristics  carried  to  extremes  arc  found 
b  the  Mussulman  schools  of  miniatures  (Arabic,  Turk- 
ish, and  Persian  MSS.);  tbe  oldest  date  only  from  tiie 
thirteenth  century.  Together  with  copies  of  the  Koran, 
admirably  illuminated  with  purely  geotnetrical  figures 
radiating  symmetrically  around  a  central  imifi/like  the 
design  ofacarpet,  there  is  found  especially  in  Persia,  B 
fruitful  school  of  painters  which  did  not  fear  to  depict 
the  human  face.  Nothing  is  more  picturesque  than  the 
varied  scenes  intended  to  illustrate  the  books  of  chron- 
icles, legends,  etc.  Besides  fantastic  scenes  ("Apoca- 
lypse of  Mahomet",  Paris,  Bib.  Nat.,  supp.  Turk., 
190)  are  found  contemporary  reproductions  of  scenes 
from  real  life  which  take  us  into  the  streets  of  Bagdad 
in  the  thirteenth  century  or  permit  us  to  follow  an 
army  or  a  caravan  on  the  march  ("Maq&mdt"  of 
Hanrij  Bib.  Nat.,  Paris,  supp.  Arab..  161S).  Eastern 
artists,  whether  Christian  or  Mussulman,  frequently 
portray  their  subjects  on  backgrounds  of  gold;  in 
Persian  MSS.,  however,  are  found  attempts  at  land- 
scape backgrounds,  several  of  which  betray  a  Chinese 
influence. 

III.  BrzANTiNTi  HiNiATTntBS. — The  history  of  By- 
Bontine  miniatures  is  yet  to  be  written;  it  is  impossible 
at  present  to  determine  its  origin  or  to  study  its  devel- 
opment. It  seems  more  and  more  evident  that  Bysaa- 
tineart,  far  from  bein^  an  original  creation,  is  no  more 
than  a  prolonged  survival  of  the  Hellenic-oriental  art 
of  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  centuries.  The  Greek  monhl 
chai|^  with  the  illumination  of  MSS.  never  ceased  to 
copy  models,  but,  following  the  fashion  ai\dtb!>>««:R>^ 


MAHUSORIPTS 


022 


MAHUSORIPTS 


patioD  of  the  time,  the^  modclii  xometiiuus  variiHl;  the  rpproduction   from  an   ancient   origiiial   of   the 

Lence  Byiaiitiiie  art  has  luidcrgonc  a  dcvelopmtMit  third-fourth  century;  eome  pictures,  Buca  aa  th&t  irf 

more  apparent  tlian  real.    Under  present  conditions,  David  tending  his  flocks,  have  a  quite  Poropeianfreah- 

without  seeking  to  determine  the  M'houlH.  wc  must  i>e  ness.     Antique  influence  uuikcs  itself  felt  by  a  lar^ 

content  to  indicate  the  jirini'liiu]  groujM  of  MS.S.    Fiflk  nunilier  of  HllcBories  personified  and  draped  in  Heilemc 


i-  (2J  the 


nnil  theological  psalter 
which  the  iiiiniaturcs  placed 
in  the  margin  follow  the  text 
Btep  by  step.  The  Chloudov 
Psulter  of  Moscow  (ninth 
cent.),tho(ieof  Vatopcdi  (tenth 
cent.),  the  Vatican  (Barberini 
I.il.rary:  dated  1059),  etc. 
are  ihe  principal  apecimena 
oFlhisclass.  Some miniatui^s 
of  thc'Chloudov  Psalter  rep- 
resent episo<]e8  of  the  Icono- 
clastic conflict,  Another  MS. 
often  illustrated  at  this  period 
WHS  the"Menolo^on",  which 
contained  sometimes  Ijosidea 
the  liturgical  calendar,  on  ab- 
lircviulion  of  the  lives  of  the 
saints  for  each  day.  The  most 
ct-lfhrated  is  tliat  of  the  Vat- 
ican, decorated  for  Basil  II 
(!)7t)-llL'5)  by  seven  artisU 
who  left,  tlieir  names  attached 
to  each  miniature.  A  great 
variety  of  colours  relieved  a 
rather  extreme  monotony  of 
iiispinition;  everj'whcre  are 
htlectural  Inickicrounds,  tlie  same 
...       -  iKt  of  thesanie  landscopcs.    The 

Indicopleastes  (Vatican),  a  monk  of  Sinai:  in  thiM,t4i-     Ijcautifiil  MS.  of  the  "Homilies  "of  Gre^oiy  of  Naci- 

gether  with  symbolic  rciwcsenlalioiis  of  various  purls    enzus  (Paris.  Bib.  Nat.,  (ir.  510:  end  of  nmth  century) 

of  the  worl<.t,~are  many  kcciics  and  iierBOiiagi^  of  the     won  composed  fur  Basil  II;  it  isunfortunatelydamaeed 

Bible,  painted  opposite  (he  text,  with  the  MS.  it«elf  aa    but  it  presents  a  remarkable  series  of  the  most  varied 

bocksround.      veiy   difTcrcnt  U   the   illustration   of     pictures   (portniils  of  St.  Ciregor)-  of  Naiienkusand 

ncdical  MSS..  such  as  the      paM^ "^  Busil  I ;  sessions  of  Coun 

"  Diowsirides     of   Vifiinu, 

exocul«d  alMut  the  yi-ar 

6UI),  for  Juliana.  ilauglitiT 

of  Flocidia.       Ilereiiu   itrr 

found  real  pictures  {'(niii'd 

from  ancient  originals  (juir- 

trait.s  of  jjhy.-iiciatis  and  cif 

Juliaiiii). 

EigliA  lo   Eleventh  Ccii- 

hi(T(.— Tlie  Iconocliisiic 

crisis  was  fatal  to  lllunii- 

natioHj  aiul  tininted  MSS. 

were  either  mutilated  or  de- 

atroved.     Ait  attempt  was 

inuile  to  substitute  fur  re- 
reptewnt: 


(aid  iSixlh  Cewfurics.— .Sevtml  of  tlie  Biblical  tiSA. 
gold  letters  on  purple  [Mrch- 
m(»it  havf  lieen  rightly  com- 
pared with  one  another,  viz. 
the  fjcnesis  of  the  Imperial 
library  of  Vieima,  the  Kvaii- 
seliarium  of  Hossano,  and  the 
Iragmeikt  of  the  Go'iiiel  of  St. 
Matthew  discovered  at  Sino|)e 
(dnce  1900  in  the  Bib.  Nat., 
Paris).  In  these  three  MSS. 
the  painting  lia.s  an  anecdotic 
character:  it  is  intended  lo 
illustrate  the  text,  and  eomo- 
tinwH  two  pcriod.4  of  a  scene 
are  represented  in  a  picture. 
Botli  tlie  e^'angeliaries  show  a 
bearded  face  of  Cluist.  ma- 
jestic and  severe,  whicli  already 
suggests  tiie  "  Pantocrutor"  of 
church  cupolas.  From  the 
same  period  date  two  works 
which  appear  to  lie  f  hn  tran- 
scription on  parcliinent  of  lui 
oricinal  on  papyrus:  one  in  tho 
Roll  of  Josue  in  the  Vatican 
Library,  w  h  ich  displays  a  scries 
ofmi[iiaturc9i,elevoiiyar(Ubng,n'latiiigto  the  histoiy  found  the  s 
of  Josue;  (lie  olJier  Is  the  MS.  nf  tliewyageofCosnuis     aulIeriiiKs  ir 


purely  < 
Prolwbl, 


ital  a 


Proliably  lo  this  scliool  be- 
longs an  evangeliuiy  of 
Paris(Bib.  Nat.,  Ur.G:{),in 
wliich  tlie  motifs  of  deco- 
ration are  borrowed  from 
flora  and  fauna.  The  tri- 
umph d  images  in  the  elev- 
enth ccnturj-  wiis  also  the 
triumph  iif  n-ligious  ntin- 
iatuR!  painting,  which 
together  with  calligniphy 
underwent  git'at  development 


cils;  BibUcal  scenes,  etc.). 
Tliis  period  was  decidedly 
the  gol<len  age  of  Byzantine 
illumination.  The  MSS., 
even  those  which  lack  pic- 
tures, liavc  at  least  oma- 
mcnted  initial  letters,  which 
in  the  earlier  examples  are 
verj-  simple,  but  in  course 
of  tmie  became  surrounded 
with  foliage,  in  the  midst  of 
which  animals  or  small 
figures  <lisported  them- 
selves. (These  initials,  how- 
ever, never  attains  the 
SH  me  dimensions  as  in  West- 
cm  MSS.) 

Turlfih      Cenlurv.— The 
lofty  IradhifT        '  " 


were  upheld  until  the  fall 
<if  Constiintinople  in  1201. 
A  group  of  the  Octateuch 
(Smyrna,  Athos,  Vatican, 
ind  Seraglio  libraries)  seems 
to  have  the  same  origin. 
DAvin  AM.  OoLiATH  .    „   ,  Tlicarlists  wcTC  chicHv  coH- 

r..n.  P«Jtw  130,  In  liil.liothi-.ii.c  NationiJc,  Pan,  ^^^  ^jj^  illustrating  tho 

,.     llic  scriptcirium  of  text,  fiiUowini!  it  step  by  sU^p;   siime  of  the  scenes 

Studion.     One  of  the  books  iliitslrutcd  by  jirefcn-nce  are  spirited  ancl  pictiiresnue,  but  the  inspiration  seems 

by  the  nionkM  was  llii>  Psalter,  uf  which  the  )iiiintJnRS  derivedfrom  ancient  models  (suchaatheRoll of  Joeuc). 

C(xn[>riso  two  elements:  iIh-  scenes  of  t\w  history  of  TJu'  specimen  at  the  Seraglio  was  coinposeil  for  Prince 

David,  aiui  the  s^-mholie  allusiimK  to  the  life  of  Christ  Isaac,  sonnfAlexiusICumnenus,  AMS.whosepictures 

ermtiiineil  iTi  tlie  Psahns.     Tlu-n*  are  lo  1*  disiin-  exerejsrd  grciil  influenre  on  By;!unline  art  is  lliat  of 

gui.^lKilfn  theiirlstiicniiiiri'willer.  n-prescnlcil  livlhe  Ihe  "  II'lmili(■^  un  tlic  Vin-nn"!  bv  .I:inie',  a  monk  of 

I'salli-r  ..f  I'lris  (t !r.  ];!ilj:  (he  miniatures  extend  over  Cosynoly.iphd-^  (Vatican.  1  H>2;  Paris,  VJOS).    Tlie  ui- 

i/ic  rrifu7e/Mi£(;  within  a  rich  border,  and  appear  to  bu  itiuls  are  remarkable  for  richness,  and  the  p  ' 


develop  all  the  eventa  of  the  life  of  the  Bleaaed  Virgin 
untU  the  birth  of  Christ  (cf.  the  mosaics  in  the  narthex 
of  the  KahriiS-Djarai  at  Conatantinople).  Thir- 
tomA  to  Fifteenth  Century.— The  studios  of  iniiiiu- 
ture  paintings  for  a  long  time  felt  the  effects  of  tlie 
catastrophe  of  1204,  and  after  the  thirteenth  century 
the  monks  ceased  to  iUuminate  luxuriously  liturgical 
M8S.  One  of  the  AIS8.  mtat  characteriiitic  of  this 
period  is  that  of  the  "Chronicle"  of  Skylities  (Madrid, 
National  Library,  tliirteenlh  century).  The  colour* 
are  clear  in  tone  and  very  fresh,  but  the  artist  liavuig 
no  ancient  model  before  him  and  left  to  his  own  nv 
sources,  has  executed  veritable  bona-hommes,  which 
nevertheless  charm  by  the  vivacity  of  their  movc- 
ntentu  and  their  picturesque  attitudes.  The  imitation 
of  antiquity  however  was  not  abandoned,  as  is  shown 
by  the  portraits  of  Doaiades  aiid  of  Theocrilua  (Cod. 
Paris,  Ur.  28-.'i2)  composed  iu  the  fourteenth  century, 
but  probably  copied  from  Alexandrian  originals  of  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries.  Lastly  attention  is  culled 
to  certain  fourteenth-century  MSS.  of  Western  or  even 
Italian  inspiration  (Cod.  Pans,  Gr.  135:  dated  l:(02 ;  on 
thisMS.,  written  by  ascribeof  JohnVCantacuzcnus, 
there  ia  a  Gothic  monster,  a  knight  with  buckler  orna- 
mented with  fleur-de-lis,  etc.).  In  the  ijlavic  coun- 
tricBj  the  illuminated  MSS.  of  the  Bulgarian,  Kuiisian  or 
Servian  monasteries  belong  to  the  Byzantine  school, 
but  have  also  been  directly  inRueuccd  by  the  Orient, 


3  HAHUSORIPTS 

of  the  human  form  in  Irish  M^^S.  miiy  be  compared  to 
what  we  find  on  certain  ('optic  monuments,  buildings, 
or  l^a-reliefs.  In  Ireland  as  in  the  Orient,  itncient 
ornamentation  finds  little  place;  foliage  is  entirely  ab- 
sent   from    this 


.clui 


ely<if 


gcometriral  ele- 
ments. The  kin- 
ship of  these 
matifi  with  those 
found  on  thi"  bar- 
iMiric  jewels  or 
the  stone  sculp- 
tures  of  Ireland  i« 
evident.    .\mnnK 


the 


the 


■'Bookof  Kelis" 
(Trinity  College, 
Dublin),  the 
transcription  of 
which  Li  ascribed 
to  8t.  Columba, 
but  which  in 
reality  belongs  t< 
gelianiiin   of   Durham ' 


edpecially  bv  Syria.  Some  Russian  MSS.  were  illu- 
mmated  in  the  sixteenth  century  (e.  g.  the  Book  of  the 
Tsars,  ir>;j5-53).  Scandinavian  influences  appear  in 
Russian  MS3.  (monsters  and  intcrlacings  of  initials); 
and  one  of  the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  Slavic 
miniature  painting  is  the  Servian  Psalter  of  Munich, 
in  which  the  paintings  are  executed  by  an  impression- 
istic artist,  who  uses  contmating  colours  instead  of 
pen  designs. 

IV.  WBSTERN  MisiATUttEB,— The  cvolution  of  min- 
iature fainting  in  the  Occident  n-aa quite  different;  the 
imitation  of  ancient  models  was  never  as  complete  as  in 
tho  Orient,  and  as  in  all  other  arts,  the  time  came 
when  the  illuminator  of  MSS.  abandoned  tradition  and 
attempted  to  copy  nature.  In  the  Occident  even 
more  than  in  the  Orient,  it  is  possible  to  follow  a  real 
development  of  illuminated  books.  Sixth  U>  Eighth 
Cenlant- — Until  the  Carlovingian  epoch  the  sole  orig- 
inal school  of  illumination  is  to  be  sought  in  the  Irish 
monasterie.s,  or  in  those  founded  on  the  Continent  by 
Irish  monks.  The  works  of  the  Irish  school  are  char- 
acterized by  wonderful  decorative  sense,  far  removed 
from  naturalism.  Nothing  ia  moic  graceful  than  the 
lar^  initials  formed  by  libbtHis  ornamented  with  inter- 
lacings,  in  the  midst  of  which  are  sometimes  human 
heads  or  animals.    Some  borders  decorated  with 


tillibrord"  {d.  730),  Apoft- 


ils,  rose-work,  and  interlacings  recall,  hy  their  lUa- 
ay  of  fancy,  pages  of  the  illuminated  Korans.  Jn- 
l«eil  there  are  m  Irish  art  elements  which  are  frankly 


Slay  of  fancy,  pages  of  the  illuminal 
eeil  there  are  in  Irish  art  elements  t .^ 

Oriental,  and  the  geometrical  and  symmetrical  aspect 


'venth  century;  the  "Evan- 
,  belonging  to  the  Diocese 
Lindisfame  (British  Museum,  Cotton  M^., 
Xcro  D.  IV),  copied  in  honour  of  St.  Cuthljcrt 
bv  Bishop  Eadfnth  (fia3-721),  Imund  by  Bishop 
j^thilwatcl,  and  ornamented  with  precious  stones  by 
the  monk  Billfrith,  is  also  of  great  value.  Althouga 
copied  in  an  English  monastery  it  possesses  all  Iho 
chanicterislicH  of  Irish  art;  l:irg<;  initials  ilccoratcd 
with  iaterlacings  and  without  foliage,  tltc  predomi- 
nance of  simple  colours  (violet,  green,  yellow,  red) 
absence  of  gold  and  silver,  portraits  of  the  evangelists 
similar  to  those  on  Byzantme  MSS.  Beginning  with 
the  sixth  century  this  art  of  illumination  was  brought 
by  Irish  monks,  not  only  to  England  but  also  to  the 
Continent,  where  the  mona.<leries  of  Ijuxeuil.  W'ilri- 
hurg,  St.  Gall,  and  Bobliio  bec:imc  centrw  of  Irish  art. 
.\a  specimens  of  this  pxii^msinn  may  be  citc<t:  the 

"  Evnngeliarium  of  St.  Will ~ 

tie  of  the  Frisians 
(Cod.  Paris,  supp. 
Lat.  693), of  which 
the  initials  resem- 
ble those  of  the 
MS.  of  Durham; 
the  "  Evangeliar- 
iumof  Macsevck" 
(Belgium)  eighth 
century;  the  MS. 
of  the  Bible  called 
Codex  Bigotianus 
(Cod.  Pans,  Lat. 
281  and  298),  the 
work  of  the  Abbey 
of  Fecamp,  eighth 
centuty;  the  so- 
called  St.  Cainim 
MS.  (now  with  the 
Franciscans  of 
Dublin,  but  origi- 
nating in  Italy), 
in  reality  of  the 
t«nth  and  ele  venth 
centuries.  Several 
MSS.  of  St.  Gall 
contain  miniatures  of  thissclKH>l,  but  nhowing foreign 
inHuonw. 

Ill  the  re-it  uf  ICuroi>e,  ;<i[iuni;  tin'  Visigoths,  ths 
Franks,  anii  tlic  Burguiirliuns,  there  w.'«^«  v^<bk^  4. 


MAirrrsoBiPTS 


624 


lUHUUBim 


calligraphy  simikr  to  those  of  Ireland,  with  more  posed  for  ■overeigns,  whose  portmits  were  piesentod 
marked  traces  of  ancient  art  (abaence  of  interiaciiiiis  Dathe6ntpageinalItheirro^apparel;theyBreoft«D 
which  were  replaoed  by  garlands,  sturdy  foliage,  etc.).  Burraunded  by  allegorical  figures  borrowed  from  antiq- 
As  an  example  may  be  mentioned  the  ini^  of  the  uity.  Beside  these  full-paee  paintings  we  find  above 
Burgundian  p^  all  in  these  KSB.  beautiful  initials  of  extraordinarv 
pyri  of  Geneva,  variety;  Irish  interlacings  alone  or  oombined  witn 
sixth  century  antique  foliage,  purely  loomorphic  initials,  etc.  Tbe 
niomihea  of  St.  principal  MSS.  of  this  period  are:  the  Evangeliary  of 
Avitus).  A  cele-  Godescalc,  made  for  Charlemagne.  781-83  (Paris), 
brated  Bible,  the  t«xt  in  gold  letters  on  purple  gronna  with  a  decorative  > 
ornamentation  of  framework  which  is  different  on  each  page;  Bibles  of 
which  remains  a  Theodulf,  Bishop  of  Orleans  (Paris  and  Le  Puy); 
problem,  must  be  Evangeliary  of  Charlemagne  (Vienna) ;  Bibles  rf 
considered  apart.  Alcuin  (Zurich,  Bamberg,  ValUcella,  Touia);  Bibles 
This  is  the  famous  of  Charles  the  Bald  (Paris);  Sacramentary  (rf  Drogo 
MB,  of  St.  Gatien  (Paris);  Sacramentary  of  Gellone  (Paris),  has  ini- 
atTours.Htoienby  tials  uniquely  formed  with  fishes  or  birds;  Evanoeli- 
Libri  about  1846,  ary  of  Lothaire  (Paris);  Bible  of  St.  Martial  of 
and  returned  Limoges  (Paris,  tenth  cent.);  Evangeliary  of  Civi' 
to  the  Paris  Bib-  dale  (Friuli);  Codei  Egberti  (Trier),  presented  to 
lioth^que  Nation-  Egbert,  Arcnbishop  of  Trier,  by  two  monks  of  Reich- 
ale  in  1888,  after  enau  in  980.  To  the  same  school  belong  the  MSS. 
having  figured  in  composed  in  the  German  monasteries  for  the  Ottoe. 
the  A^bumham  Moreover,  Irish  or  Anglo-Saxon  art  also  produced 
collection.  This  remarkable  monuments,  among  which  may  be  men- 
I^ntateuch, writ-  tioned  the  Psalter  of  Utrecht  (tenth  cent.),  the 
ten  in  aeventh-  Psalters  of  Winchester  (British  Museum),  and  the 
century  uncials,  Benedictionarieg of  Jumi^gea  (Rouen), 
is  adorned  with  TenUi  to  Ttvdfth  CerUury, — At  the  beginning  of  the 
large  full-page  miniatures  framed  in  red  bands,  and  pie-  eleventh  century  the  fictitious  unity  in  the  artistic  and 
senting  a  number  of  scenes  arranged  on  different  mar-  intellectual  sphei«  eataUished  by  Charlemagne  gave 
'     '      '*'  way  to  the  diversity  of 


SniBOUCiU.  RXPRBSBNTATION  O 

From  s  Cukivisgiaa  MS. 


gins,  but  without  sym- 
metry. What  is  striking 
about  the  MS.  is  its  aim 
at  pictureaqueneBB  and 
movement,  and  the 
wholly  Oriental  character 
of  the  design  and  espe- 
cially of  the  costumes  of 
the  personages  (the  wo- 
men wear  the  tall  head- 
dress and  veil  of  the  bas- 
reliefs  of  Palmyra)  and  of 
the  architectural  back- 
grounds (bulbous  cupolas 
alternating  with  pedi- 
mented  buildings).     The 

arrangement  of  the  scent „__ 

century  Persian  MSS.     In  this  instance  we  have  U>  do 
perhaps  with  the  reproduction  of  a  cycle  of 


provincial  schools,  but  if 
the  boundaries  of  these 
schools  may  ^moet  be 
traced   when    them    is 

riation  of  architecture, 
task  is  more  difficult 
in  the  study  of  nuoia- 
tures;  researches  in  this 
field  have  scarcely  com- 
menced. The  illumi- 
nated MSS  tA  this  period 
were  made  in  tM  mo- 
nastic studios.  AaageD' 
i*t™«  or  TBI  EvANoEu™  gral    thing    the   wTiteis 

From  a  C»rk.vmr»ii  MS.  ^^^e    at    once    painters 

recalls  certain  fourteenth-    and  calligraphers,  such  as  Guillaume  de  St.  ElvrouU, 


MS.  of  Pl__ 

other  arts.     Thanks  to  the  initiative  of  Chariemagne  Lombard     (Va- 

and   his   chief  assistants,   Alcuin,  Theodulfus,   etc.,  lendennea,  178) 

•ehools  of  miniature  painting  were  formed  in  the  prin-  bears     the     in- 

dpal  monasteries  of  the  empire,  and  our  libraries  pes-  scription  "8eg- 

•ess  a  targe  number  of  their  works.    The  elements  harus  me  scrip- 

wluch  compose  this  art  were  most  varied;  the  influ-  sit"    and    on 

enoe  of  Irish  and  Anglo-Saxon  illuminations  is  ungues-  the  frontispiece 

tionable,  and  to  it  was  due  the  partiality  for  large  "Sawalo     me 

InitialawfaicbuntilthefifteenthcentuiywereaDeiJthe  fecit".   Sawalo, 

favourite  ornaments  of  Western  MSS.    Carlovingian  a   monk   of  St. 

art  was  not  exclusively  Irish,  and  in  the  MSS.  of  this  Amand,    is   the 

period  are  found  traces  of  ancient  art  and  Oriental  in-  illuminator  and 

fluencea  (evangeliary  canons,  symbolical  motif)  such  his    name    is 

as  the  fountain  of  hfe,  etc.).     With  the  assistance  of  found  elsewhere. 

these  MSS.   a   whole   iconographical  cycle   may  be  This    period    is 

formed, encyclopedicincharacter.inwhichsidebyside  marked  by  the 

with  religious  history  occur  figures  from  the  profane  extraordinary 

sciences  (liberal  arts,  calendars,  lodiaca,  virtues  and  development  of  i 

vices,  etc.).     Ornamentation  is  more  luxurious,  the  lar^   initials 

colours  are  more  vigorous  and  decided  in  tone,  silver  while   the  fuU- 

and  gold  have  not  been  spared  and  there  is  even  a  re-  page  miniatures 

turn  to  MSS.  in  gold  letters  on  a  purple  ^ound.  Many  disappeared.    Illustrations  on  several  scales  ar«  still 

of  them  Sthiea,  Psalters,  or  Evangeliaries  were  com-  found  in  tbe  mar^n.    These  initials  of  tbe  Romanio 


625  lumnoftzm 

period  follow  the  traditioiu  of  C«rlovingian  illumi-  tween  the  Bodleian  Library,  tbe  Biblioth^ue  Nation- 
natioD,  but  they  are  eveu  more  complex  and  the  ale  (rf  Paris,  and  tbe  Britiah  Museum.  The  Psalter  of 
human   figure    ■■■■iinwi    an    inereaflingly  important     Ingeburg  (Huafe  Condd  at  Cbantill;^)  and  that  of  Sts. 


plAoe.  S<nite  o!  them  are  ful. 
length  portTftits  of  prophets 
orapoBtlee;  in  othera  complete 
scenes  (battles,  besieged  cities, 
etc.)  aredeveloped  in  tbe  midst 
of  pillars.  The  great  differ- 
ence between  this  and  the  Car- 
lovingian  period  lies  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  naturalism  and  of 
anachrooism  (prophets  with 
pointed  shoes,  etc.).  Lastly 
there  ate  many  points  of  re- 
semblance between  tbe  develop- 
ment of  miniature  painting  and 
that  of  other  arts  of  dcilgn. 
The  abort  and  badly  drawn 
figures  were  succeeded,  at  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century,  bv 
more  slender  portraits  whicn 
resemble  tbe  elongated  statues 
of  Charties.  Such  ia  the  char- 
acter of  the  ornamental  school 
which  produced  innumerable 
works  in  France,  Germany, 
Northern    Italy,   Spaij 


piliMUsltBttuiHtitijrriutgrrtTiisrtf 

(ntdo«iiTiwiiftnnic()rtliatnnhj  rr 
otniiitri  obnnuic  m 


Louis  and  Blanche  <rf  Castile 
(Arsenal  Library)  belong  by 
their  ornamentation  to  the 
monastic  art  of  the  twelfth 
century.  On  the  other  hand 
new  tendencies  appear  in  the 
worlLS  of  the  second  half  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  e.  g.  the 
Evangeliarium  of  the  Saint«- 
Chapelle  (Bib.  Nat.),  the  two 
Psalters  of  St.  Louis  (Paris, 
Bib.  Nat.,  and  collection  <rf  H. 
Y.  Thompson),  the  works  (rf 
profane  literature  (chansons  de 
geste,etc.).  Gothic  ornamenta- 
tion with  its  wealth  a!  roee  and 
quatrefoil   decoration,  gables, 

Rinnacles,    and    foliage    often 
>rms  the  framework  for  these 
'    vignettes.       The    gold    back- 
grounds are  almoet  always  cov' 
I  ered  with  designs,  sometimes 
in   relief.      Instead   of  foliage 
and  fantastic  animals  tbe  hu* 
man  figure  holds  the  predomi- 
painting  as  in  the  sculpture 


aeriiKint  -  FnTud  Bible  (7CII  centucT) 

the  Two  Biciliee.     (Here  it  is  difficult  to  trapse  tbe    nantplace.  ^..        „ 

boundary  between  Western  miniature  painting  and     of  the  thirteenth  century  may  be  observed  tbe  li_ 
the  Bysantine  which  made  its  influence  felt  in  tbe     gress  of  realism  and  the  exact  obitervation  of  tbe  living 
workrooms  of  Monte  Cassino  and   especially  in  the     model.  ■  These  beautiful  miniatures  of  the  Books  m 

beautiful  paintings  of  the  rolls    —   -— —  -      Hours  revive  for  us  with  their 

------'ning  the  toxtof  the  "Ex-     |  ...... JIIS'WI^  i|     still  admirable  eoloure  the  coe^ 


ullet"  of  Holy  Saturday.)  Also 
worthy  of  mention  is  an  attempt 
of  the  Cistercians  to  infuse  more 


at  Clteaux,  in  which  gold  and 
painting  were  replaced  by  a 
calligraphic  decoration  in  perfect 
taste.  There  is  an  intimate  rela- 
tion between  this  severe  elegance 
and  Cistercian  architecture. 

.ThirU^nth  Ciniu™.— In  the 
thirteenth  century  iuumination, 
like  calligraphy,  ceased  to  be  the 
specialty  of  the  monasteries.  Id 
France  and  about  the  Univer- 


minated  MSS.  spread  more  and 
more,  and  important  studios  of 
illuminators  arose,  the  heads  of 
which  often  furnished  sketches 
of  miniatuivs  to  be  executed. 
On  tbe  other  hand  the  illumina- 
tions took  a  more  and  more  im- 
portant place  at  the  expense  of 
the  text.  Tbe  artists  were  no 
longer  satisfied  with  ornamented 
initials,  but  in  a  series  of  medal- 
lions arran)^  like  those  deco- 
rating the  stained  glass  windows 
they  developed  whole  cycles  of 
sacred  or  profane  history.  There 
were  then  composed  Rcture 
Bibles  "  made  up  of  a  continuous 
series  of  miniatures  (Bible  of  Sir 
Thomas  Philippe),  or  "Serm<xi 
Bibles"  ventable  illustmted 
theological  summaries,  giving  for 


rd^l'i'lhiW-uiiv" 
tiiUnKi'iii'dii.iiit  JiiKii 

Ljiiwulr,iu«».'mj'i 
.ni4Uifl.'UUi«.IJirdu)'i.n4i'ini(>iiiAi 
itwffll  moniiW:  iniCfliB-Otmif  .itui 
ftanrl'mnifirin.d.ilijn.'iicili.l  tiui'Ti 
4ii!Dnin1iuiiuiianiiu^i]rnlteiVi''( 
nxtmrun.^ni'i.aBMcu.  * 

flMila<mic>tciit>lui0ii<inm'ni'>  Qu* 
Brwn.1  or  St.  Jauks 
From  ChrBuiit-Ferruid  Bibia  (XII  caaturyl 

each  verse  of  Scripture  the"  literal,  symbolical,  and    same  period  the  I 
moral  interpretations.  This  immense  work,  which  mu*t    markaole  works 
have  eontamed  5000  figures,  has  not  reached  us  com- 
plete. AMS.inSvols.ofaSermoD  Bible  isdividedbe- 


tumes  of  the  contemporaries  of 
St.  Louis  and  Philip  the  Fair. 
Such  is  the  style  which  hence- 
forth dominates  French  mini- 
ature painting  and  which  speed- 
ily spread  throughout  Europe, 
especially  Ed  gland. 

Early  FourUenlh  Century. — 
This  period  is  represented  chiefly 
by  the  Parisian  illuminator  Jeao 
Pucelle,  whose  name  has  been 
discovered  on  several  HSS.  One 
of  the  most  beautiful  <d  his  works 
is  the  Breviary  of  Belleville  (Bib. 
Nat.Ut.  104S3-S4),  executed  in 
collaboration  with  Mabiet  Anoe- 
let  and  J.  Chevrier.  The  new 
school  was  remarkaUe  for  its 
borders,  formed    of    wonderful 

S»riwKls  of  interlaoed  fcdiage  and 
ewers,  no  longer  eonvvntiooal 
as  f  ormedy,  but  copied  from  na- 
ture. Between  the  border  and 
tbet« 


■  piper  pla^g  for  dancing  p^s- 
ants,  or  animals,  birds,  monkeys, 


sculptured  paneb  of  the  oathe- 
drali  of  the  same  period.  Tmeesof 
Italian  inspiration  appear  in  the 
architecture,  which  is  of  a  mixed 
Gothic  character.  Among  the 
works  of  this  school  the  "  Bo<^ 
of  the  Miracles  of  Our  Lady" 
(Seminary  of  Soissons)  is  one  of 
the  most  exquisite.  During  the 
D^ish  miniaturists  produced  re- 
"Oueen  Mary's  Psalter" 


HAinTSOaXPTB  621 

tuiy.  It  contains  first  more  than  two  hundred 
scenes  from  the  Old  Testament  bordered  with  a  smpla 
framework  of  foliage.  The  figures  are  graceful  uid 
elegant.    Then  come  scenes  from  the  life  of  Christ  exe- 

'd  tiackgrounds  with  much  greaterrichneBs 

in  the  miHRt  of   innumerable 

-^■fiies    of    tl]p    chase,    tourney, 

's,  grotesque  Hubjeota,      The 

Anglian    iibbeys   (Norfolk, 

SiitTiilk)    produced     niagnificent 

p.-v:illprs  during  the  lame  period 

'■^Iter  of  I'eterboroughatBnw- 

■  ;  PsaH 


MAKUSORmv 


«.  In  this  respect  the 
)uke  of  Berry  (Cbantilly, 
«n  attributed  to  Pol  d 


"Trt« 
ij^Husfe 


months  are  represented  all  the  chAteaux  of  the  prinoe 
in  the  midst  of  surprisinriy  true  landscapes.  Loog 
before  the  Van  Eycks,  Pol  de  limbourg  r 


p,    Robert  of  Ormes- 

^«^«rQ^  by  at  Oxford) 
*''*'*""^**  which  belong  to 
tlic  same  echoed. 
lu  (lermany  the 
mini.ituriats  had 
lone  been  imitat- 
ig  Bysantine  art; 
beginning  with 
the  fourteenth 
century  they  also 
'    I  i  t  a  t  e 


the    mon- 

asteiy  of  St.  Florian  is  found  the  moat  ancient  exam- 
ple of  the  Biblia  Pauperum,  executed  about  lUOO  ac- 
cording to  the  same  method  as  theScrmon  Bibles.  The 
taste  for  miniaturea  was  so  keen  at  this  period  that  they 
even  went  so  far  as  to  illuminate  some  important  char- 
ters. A  copy  of  the  house  rulea  of  the  kings  of  Majorca 
showB  each  of  the  ofEciala  in  the  exerciae  of  his  funo- 
tiona  (reproduced  in  "Acta  SS.  BoUand.",  June,  I; 
cf.  list  given  by  Dclaborde  ia  "  Centenaire  de  la  Soci- 
^t^  dcs  Antiquairea  de  France  ",  93). 

I^e  Fourteenth,  and  Fifteenth  Century.— It  was  in 
the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  the  art  of 
miniature  painting  n-aa  most  profoundly  changed.  It 
m.iy  even  be  said  that  the  illuminators  of  this  period 
were  to  a  certain  extent  the  precursors  of  modem 
painting.  This  new  transformation  seems  to  have 
.  been  largely  the 
work  ot  the  power- 
ful" Ghildes"  of 
the  Flemish  mas- 
ters, versatile  art- 
ists, many  of  them 
skilled  like  Andr^ 


obUged  b;^  stress 
of  competition  to 
leave  their  own 
country  in  order 
to  offer  their  ser- 
vices to  the  lovera 
of  beautiful  MSS. 
They  are  found 
scattered  through- 
out  Europe,   and 

Italy.     Andr^ 


artists  in  Ihe  em- 

Sloy  of  Jean  Duke  of  Berry.  He  made  a  Psalier  {Bib. 
at..  Paris)  in  which  figures  of  propheta.  and  Apostles 
iilti'mated  in  quiet  tones.  It  was  at  this  lime  that 
miiiiuscripts  bejian  to  he  painted  in  grisaille.  The 
goliJ  baekgroundg  WCTC  np\&vni  by  designs  in  coloure, 


quainted  with  aerial  perspective.  In  his  works  an 
found  the  effects  t^  snow,  of  starry  nights,  of  daiiUng 
muniner  li^ta,  the  grey  tones  of  autumn,  all  of  which 
mre  new  m  art.  Persons  were  treated  with  the  same 
love  of  truth.  Physiognomies  copied  from  nature 
without  disguise  of  any  defect,  intensity  of  look  (never 
was  religious  sentiment  expressed  with  such  power), 
minute  truthfulness  as  to  costumes  and  details  of  fur- 
nishing, such  were  the  characteristics  of  this  art.  Hav- 
ing arrived  at  this  perfection  miniature  painting  eeued 
to  be  a  merely  decorative  art  and  was  confounded 
with  painting  on  a  large  scale.  The  anachronism  of 
costumes  belonging  to  the  fifteenth  century,  wbetber 
they  have  to  do  with  characters  from  Terence  or  soenes 
from  the  Goepels,  is  not  one  of  the  least  charms  of 
these  beautiful  works.  Simitar  are  the  other  MSS.  of 
Jean  de  Beny,  the  "Grandes  Heures",  ascribed  to 
Jacquemart  de  Hesdin,  the  "Trfe  Belles  Heurea" 
(Brussels)  by  the  same  artist,  the  "Dukes'  Terence" 
^aris),  which  first  belonged  to  the  Duke  of  Ouyenne. 
The  "Heures  de  Turin"  (destroyed  by  the  fire  of 
1901),  made  for  William  IV,  Count  irf  Holland,  belcaw 
to  the  same  school.  About  1450  we  can  distingui^ 
the  Flemish- Burgundian  school  (works  executed  for 
the  Dukes  of  Burgundy)  from  the  French  schod, 
whose  chief  representative  is  Jean  Fouquet  of  Tours 
(1415-80).  Flemish  and  Italian  influence  are  con- 
fused in  his  works:  "Jewish  Antiquities"  (Paris); 
"Book  of  Hours"  of  Etienne  Chevaher  (Chantilly); 
" Grandea  Chronioues  de  France "  (Paris),  et«.  After 
him  Jean  Bourdichon,  who  about  1508  decorated  the 
"Hours"  of  Anne  of  Brittany  (Paris),  may  be  consid- 
ered the  lost  representative  of  the  great  scnool  of  min- 
iature painting.  The  progress  of  wood-engraving  was 
as  fatal  to  it,  as  was  that  of  printing  to  calligraphy. 
Until  modem  times  Books  of  Hours,  works  of  nep- 
atdiy,  etc.  have  continued  to  be  illuminated,  but  these 
miniatures  do  not  possess  a  single  personal  quality. 

Sl..vl,iTHt.  Faltoa^^iihie  unir^MfHo  {Taiii,  ISSB-tl).  400; 
Mli>nr,i:TON»  lllvminited  Munvfiriplt  in  Clatncat  and  Mrdim^ 
pal  Tima  (Cunbrldse,  IS92];  Rtpmductiom  /mm  iUuminaltd 
man^urriplsefthsantuh  Mu-tam  (Iadcjod,  ISM-lMS);  Bau- 
LET,  A  Dictionary  o]  ilinvOmiti.  fUuminnliiHi,  CtalKrrapAin 
and  Capf/uli  <Londan.   ISfiT)^  Lscox  Di  1.*  UiUHsa,  La 

it  la  ontrr  (&<■,' IW3v'  MaktiH.'Lm  pti 
< Hla minimum tnFmnatPtlit.  mm;  Knw 
lailik  (Weiawr.  1S8S):  Zoamoa,  Bitbina  A 

rum  picionim  (Leipu«,  1743):  Bbissbi.,  OoMAH  At  £Mni- 
sW>«n6cMer  >n  d<r  mttn  fflttU  da  Mittt^aUin  (FMban  b 
Br..  1906);  db  HousilC.  Lt  Virgilt  du  Vatiem  tf  wt  piSwt 
(Piris.  t8S7);  M<I,  IHadit  fratmBita  .  .  .  mm pietivH ODba. 
1S19I;  Stbetoowui.  StntAlaaiiAimttAtWtltAniult  (VisuK, 
IBOS):  Idbu.  Dot  BUcimiadan  EmnfiSaT  (Vlouia,  ISBl): 
Idkh,  KMUfammitAt  MiniMtirwia$errt  im  YtrHfaiMdHatiit 
«T  UnintnilatibMiaatli  n>  reMwoi.  1:  Uionst,  ifaaul 
d'a'rlMiattlman,U(PMit.lW7),K-60:  Blocret,  Lea  faota  ^ 
printurt  m  Prrte  in  Ret:  AirliMoo.  (Ju[y.  1005);  Kohdako**. 
Ili-'.-ir/  d,  r.„!  '.ii:.,„t:,i  ,C,ii-r,s  I,-.-  .;,  i -,-)!„-,■.  I  F>  Ir,  FatM. 
ISSS-Sn^  Ouatn.  Mi^ia!tIral^rtmanltlC^il^BTladI^aB^Ui^■ 
!.  HiOBXTC  dii  fart   I,  II! 


'saky 


ISSG);  I 


rr.Coda 


'^eZ^ 


r.  Die  Wia 


I.  Uathi 


litu&t 


_ AfonunwnnPirf,  VII  (1901); 

btaantina  dt  Berlin  in  Revut  Anhlolog.  (July,  1901):  CcxfuM  a 
Va^ni  Select*  .  .  .  VIII.  II  Mmoloay,  di  BaMie,  II  (ToiId, 
1907);  OcspBNKT.  Le  manoKrit  de  rOdalntue  du  SJnQ  ia 
Bnlltiin  de  flmlUul  AnAA)l.  rutte  de  ComUntinopU,  XII. 
(1007)1  anuTOOWBEi.  Dm  miniaiuren  dee  eerbitch^n  Fnltdri 
tVi»DnkISOe>:  GiLBcnr.  Fac-timileeofnatiimalmiaitucrirllof 
Ireland  (London.  1H74-18S4):  Wmtwood,  Fa^^imUm  of  Ike 
rtinialurei  and  omameiUt  of  Anglo-Saam  and  /rtrt  mamaPipJl 
(London,  18631:  rNCER,  La  miniatwe  iriandaiie  in  An.  Cd- 
(iqu«(lSTO);  The  Lindiifame  and  RutkwrVt  (htpiit  tSu^fM* 
SoclETT.  4S.  ISaS):  ns  Butaxd.  Pcinlum  et  oriMiMK*  dtt 
manuKrite  (Pfttii,  1888.  intomplttol ;  LiiTSCaraH,  0mA.  drr 
Karolineinchen  Malerei  (Berlin,  1804);  tlEKUU  Di*  Tritrtr 
Ada-Bandtckrifl  (Ldpiii,  1889) ;  db  Babtabd,  FfkUum  di  Is 


BCANUSORIPTS 


627 


UAinJSORIPTS 


Bible  de  Charlea  le  Chauve  (Paris.  1883);  BRimBR.  La  Bible 
hidori^e  de  Clermont  in  Etudes  archiol,  (Clermont,  1010) ;  Vm- 
THUM,  Die  Parieer  Miniqiurmalerei  (Leipsig,  1007);  Delulk. 
Fac-eimUee  de  livrea  copiie  et  enluminde  pour  le  rot  Charlea  V 
(Paris,  1003);  dk  LAanrrRiB,  Lee  tniniatttrea  d  Andri  Beaw 
neveu  et  de  Jacquemart  de  Heedin  in  Monumente  pict..  Ill; 
DuRBZEU,  Heuree  de  Turin  (Paris,  1002);  Lee  Trie  Richee 
Heures  du  due  de  Berry  (Paris,  1004) ;  Rsznach,  MinitUurea  dee 
Orandee  Chroniquea  de  Philippe  le  Ban  in  Monumente  pict.,  XI; 
DE  Laborde,  Lee  Manueerita  h  peinture  de  la  CiU  de  Dxeu  (Paris, 
1010) ;  Omont.  Reproduction  rMuite  dee  manueerita  et  minxaiurea 
de  la  Bibliolh^ue  Nationale  (Paris,  s.  d.),  contains  Psalter  of  St. 
Louis,  Book  of  Hours  of  Anne  of  Brittany,  Grande  CThroniques 
de  France  «f  Jean  Fouquet,  etc. 

Louis  BRismEB. 

ManuBCiipts  of  the  Bible  are  written,  as  opposed 
to  printed,  copies  of  the  original  text  or  of  a  version 
either  of  tne  whole  Bible  or  of  a  part  thereof.  After 
introductory  remarks  on  MSS.  in  general^  we  shall 
take  up  in  detail  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  Syriac, 
Armenian,  and  Coptic  MSS.  of  the  Bible;  MSS.  of  other 
versions  are  not  important  enough  to  come  within  the 
scope  of  this  article. 

1.  In  General. — ^MSS.  may  be  conveniently  di- 
vided into  papyrus  and  vellum  MSS.  (1)  Papyrus 
MSS. — In  tne  Roman  Empire  of  the  first  three  cen- 
turies of  our  era,  papyrus  was  the  ordinary  writing 
n^terial.  Made  out  of  strips  of  pith  taken  from  the 
stem  of  the  Egyptian  water-plant  of  the  same  name, 
papyrus  was  very  fragile,  became  brittle  in  air,  crum- 
olecl  with  use,  could  not  resist  the  disintegrating 
force  of  moisture,  and  was  quite  impracticable  for 
book-form.  All  papyrus  MSS.  of  every  sort  are  lost 
to' us  save  such  as  were  buried  in  exceedingly  dry  soil, 
like  that  of  Upper  and  Middle  Eg>'pt.  Here  the  igno- 
rant fellaheen  at  one  time  wantonly  destroyed  vast 
quantities  of  papyrus  MSS.  Egyptian  excavators 
now  prevent  such  destruction  and  keep  on  adding  to 
our  very  considerable  collections  of  papyri.  It  is 
more  than  likely  that  the  New  Testament  sacred 
writers  or  their  scribes  used  ink  and  rolls  of  fragile 
papyrus  for  their  autoarapha  (II  (Dor.,  iii.  3;  II  John, 
12).  These  original  BASS,  probablv  perisned  towards 
the  end  of  the  first  or  opemng  of  the  second  century. 
We  find  no  trace  of  them  in  either  the  Apostolic  or  the 
apologetic  Fathers, — unless  we  except  TertuUian's 
words,  ''the  authentic  letters  of  the  Apostles  them- 
selves'', which  are  now  generally  set  aside  as  rhetori- 
cal. A  si^ficant  proof  of  the  early  loss  of  the*auto- 
graph  copies  of  the  New  Testament  is  the  fact  that 
Irenseus  never  appeals  to  the  original  writings  but 
only  to  all  the  painstaking  and  ancient  copies  (ip  ira^c 
rocs  ffirovSalois  Kal  dpxalois  dmypdiftois),  to  the  witness 
of  those  that  saw  John  face  to  face  {Kal  fiapTvpoirrav 
aihOv  iKtltwv  tOp  Kardrf/iw  rhv  'Itad^niP  iopaicSTUfp)^  and 
to  the  internal  evidence  of  the  written  word  (imU  roO 
\brfOv  diddffKOPTOS  ^/xas). 

(2)  Vellum  MSS. — Egypt  clung  to  her  papyrus 
rolls  until  the  eighth  century  and  even  later.  VeUum 
had  been  used  before  the  time  of  Christ  (cf.  PKny, 
"Historia  Naturalis",  xiii^  11),  and  during  the  time 
of  the  Apostles  (II  Tim.,  iv,  13).  Itf  the  third  cen- 
tury, it  began,  outside  of  Egypt,  to  supersede  papyrus; 
in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century  vellum  and 
the  codex,  or  book-form,  gained  complete  victory 
over  papyrus  and  the  roll-form.  When  Constantine 
founded  his  capital  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  he 
ordered  Eusebius  to  have  fifty  MSS.  of  the  Bible 
made  on  vellum  ((rcu^ria  ip  dt^ipats)  for  use  in  the 
churches  of  Byzantium  (Vita  Constant.,  IV,  36).  To 
the  fourth  century  belong  the  earliest  extant  Biblical 
MSS.  of  anything  but  fragmentary  size. 

(3)  Po/impseste .-—Some  vellum  MSS.  of  the  greatest 
importance  are  palimpsests  (from  Lat.  pcXimmestum, 
Gr.  iraXlfjapriffTos^  "  scraped  again  "), — ^that  is,  they  were 
long  ago  scraped  a  second  time  with  pumice-stone  and 
written  upon  anew.  The  discovery  of  palimpsests  led 
to  the  reckless  and  bigoted  charge  ot^wholesale  de- 
struction of  Biblical  MSS.  by  the  monks  of  oM.   That 


there  was  some  such  destruction  is  clear  enough  from 
the  decree  of  a  Greek  synod  of  a.  d.  691,  which  forbade 
the  use  ofpalimpsest  manuscripts  either  of  the  Bible 
or  of  the  Fathers,  unless  they  were  utterly  unservice- 
able (see  Wattenoach,  "  Das  Schriftwesen  im  Mittel- 
alter",  1896,  p.  299).  That  such  destruction  was  not 
wholesale,  but  had  to  do  with  only  worn  or  damaged 
MSS.,  is  in  like  manner  clear  enough  from  the  signifi- 
cant fact  that  as  yet  no  complete  work  of  any  kind  has 
been  found  on  a  palimpsest.  The  deciphering  of  a 
palimpsest  may  at  times  be  accomplished  merely  by 
soaking  it  in  clear  water;  generally  speaking,  some 
chemical  rea^nt  is  required,  in  order  to  bring  back  the 
original  writmg.  Such  chemical  reagents  are  an  in- 
fusion of  nutc^dls,  Gioberti's  tincture  and  hvdrosul- 
E buret  of  ammonia;  all  do  harm  to  the  MS.  Watten- 
ach,  a  leading  authority  on  the  subject,  says:  "More 
precious  manuscripts,  in  proportion  to  the  existing 
supply,  have  been  destroyed  by  the  learned  experi- 
menters of  our  time  than  by  the  much  abused  monks 
of  old." 

II.  Hebrew  MSS. — (1)  Age. — (a)  Pre-Massoretic 
text. — ^The  earliest  Hebrew  ft®,  is  the  Nash  papyrus. 
There  are  four  fragments,  which,  when  pieced  to- 
gether, give  twenty-four  lines  of  a  pre-Massoretic  text 
of  the  Ten  'Commandments  and  the  shema*  (Ex.,  xx, 
2-17;  Deut.,  v,  6-19;  vi,  4-5).  The  writing  is  with- 
out vowels  and  seems  palseographically  to  be  not  later 
than  the  second  century.  This  is  the  oldest  extant 
Bible  MS.  (see  Cook,  "A  Pre-Massoretic  Biblical 
Papyrus"  in  "Proceed,  of  the  Soc.  of  Bib.  Aroh.**, 
Jan.,  1903) .  It  agrees  at  times  with  the  LXX  a^inst 
the  Massorah.  Another  pre-Massoretic  text  is  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch.  The  Samaritan  recension  is 
probably  pre-exilic;  it  has  come  down  to  us  free  from 
Massoretic  influences,  is  written  without  vowels  and  in 
Samaritan  characters.  The  earliest  Samaritan  MS. 
extant  is  that  of  NablAs,  which  was  formerly  rated 
very  much  earlier  than  all  Massoretic  MSS.,  but  is  now 
assigned  to  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  a.  p. 
Here  mention  should  be  made  of  the  non-Massoretic 
Hebrew  MSS.  of  the  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus  (q.  v.). 
These  fragments,  obtained  from  a  Cairo  genizah  (a  box 
for  womout  and  cast-off  MSS.),  belong  to  the  tenth  or 
eleventh  century  of  our  era.  They  provide  us  with 
more  than  a  haft  of  Ecclesiasticus  and  duplicate  cer- 
tain portions  of  the  book.  Many  scholars  deem  that 
the  (Jairo  fragments  prove  Hebrew  to  have  been  the 
original  language  of  Ecclesiasticus  (see  "Facsimiles 
of  the  Fragments  hitherto  recovered  of  the  Book  of 
Ecclesiasticus  in  Hebrew",  Oxford-find  Cambridge, 
1901). 

(b)  Massoretic  text. — All  other  Hebrew  MSS.  of  the 
Bible  are  Massoretic  (see  Massorah),  and  belong  to 
the  tenth  century  or  later.  Some  of  these  MSS.  are 
dated  earlier.  Text-critics  consider  these  dates  to  be 
due  either  to  intentional  fraud  or  to  uncritical  tran- 
scription of  dates  of  older  MSS .  For  instance ,  a  codex 
of  tne  Former  and  Latter  Prophets,  now  in  the  Karaite 
synagogue  of  Cairo,  is  dated  a.  d.  895;  Neubauer  as- 
signs it  to  the  eleventh  or  thirteenth  century.  The 
Cambridge  MS.  no.  12,  dated  a.  d.  856,  he  marks  as  a 
thirteenth-century  work;  the  date  a.  d.  489,  attached 
to  the  St.  Petersburg  Pentateuch,  he  rejects  as  utterly 
impossible  (see  Studia  Biblica,  IIL  22^.  Probably 
the  earliest  Massoretic  MSS.  are:  "rrophetarum  Pos- 
teriorum  Codex  Babylonicus  Petropolitanus",  dated 
A.  D.  916;  the  St.  Petersburg  Bible,  written  by  Samuel 
ben  Jacob  and  dated  a.  d.  1009;  and  '^Codex  Oriental. 
4445"  in  the  British  Museum,  which  Ginsburg  (Intro- 
duction, p.  469)  assigns  to  a.  d.  820-50.  Tiie  text- 
critics  differ  very  widely  in  the  dates  they  assign  to 
eertain  Hebrew  MSS.  De  Rossi  is  inclined  to  think 
that  at  most  nine  or  ten  Massoretic  MSS.  are  earlier 
than  the  twelfth  century  (Vari®  Lectiones,  I,  p.  xv). 

(2)  Number. — ^Kennicott,  the  first  critical  stuuent  of 
the  Massoretic  text,  either  examined  ot  V^s^si^^^^cKc^^ss.* 


HAVUaOBIPTS  6: 

uidne  16  Samaritiui  HSS.,  some  40  printed  tozta  and 
638  Ifassoretio  HSS.  (tee  "DisBerUtJo  Ge&eralis  in 
Vetus  TutEtm.  Hebraicum",  Oxford,  1780).  He 
nunibei«d  these  MSS.  in  six  groups;  nos.  1-88,  Oxford 
HSS.;  noB.  89-144,  other  MSS.  of  English-speaking 
countries;  nos.  145-254,  MSS.  of  continental  Europe; 
nos.  255-300,  printed  texts  and  various  MSS.;  nos. 
301-694  ti^S.  collated  by  Brunsius.  De  Rossi 
(VariEe  Lectiones  Vet.  Test.)  retained  the  numeratioa 
ofKennicottandaddeda  list  of  479  MSS.,  all  his  own 
pergonal  property,  (rf  which  unfortunately  17  had  al- 
ready received  aumbers  from  Kennicott.     De  Roasi 


UAHUaOBXPTB 

jot  and  tittle  of  the  text  wa«  almost  absolutely 

ajid  uered.    R.  Aqiba  aeenu  to  have  been  the 

head  of  this  Jewish  school  of  the  second  century.  Un- 
precedented means  were  taken  to  keep  the  text  fixed. 
The  scholars  counted  the  words  and  consoniuits  of 
each  book,  the  middle  word  and  middle  conaonanta, 
the  pecularities  of  script,  etc.  Even  when  such  pecu- 
liarities were  clearly  due  to  error  or  to  accident,  they 
were  perpetuated  and  interpreted  by  a  mystical  mean- 
ing. Broken  and  inverted  letters,  conaonanta  that 
were  too  small  or  too  large,  dots  which  w«tc  out  of 
place — all  these  oddities  were  banded  down  as  God- 


I 


Cool 


a  PiTTHci 


Ui.  1-3 


Saction  of  Page  (Reduced)— Anna,  ii,  11-13,  biU  Abdiaf 
MS.  in  tmpertBl  Library.  St.  Peteraburi 
lateradded  four  Bupplementary  Hats  of  110,52, 37, and  intended.  In  Gen.,  ii,  4,  □tnSTIS  ("when  they  w«n 
76&^S.  He  brought  the  number  of  Maasoretic  MSS.  created"),  all  MSS.  have  a  small  n.  Jewish  sdiolara 
up  to  1375.  No  one  has  since  undertaken  so  colossal  a  looked  upon  this  peculiarity  as  inspired;  they  inter- 
critical  study  of  the  Hebrew  MSS.  A  tew  of  the  chief  preted  it:  "In  the  letter  n  he  created  them";  and  then 
MSS.  are  more  exactly  collated  and  compared  in  the  set  themselves  to  find  out  what  that  meant.  This 
critical  editions  of  the  Massoretic  text  which  were  lack  of  variants  in  Massoretic  MSS.  leaves  ua  bopelew 
done  by  S.  Baer  and  Er.  Delitzsch  and  by  Ginsburg.  of  reaching  back  to  the  original  Hebrew  text  oave 
To  the  vast  number  of  Hebrew  MSS.  examined  by  throng  the  versions.  Kittel  in  his  splendid  Hebrew 
Kennicott  and  De  Rossi  must  be  added  some  2000    text  gives  such  variants  as  the  versions  suggest. 


USS.  of  the  Imperial  Library  of  St.  Petersburg,  which 
Firkowitsch  collated  at  Tschutut-Kale  ("  Jews' 
Rook")  in  the  Crimea  (see  Struck,  "Die  biblisehen 
und  massoretischen  Handschriften  zu  Tschufut- 
Kale"  in"ZeiU.  fOrluth.  Theol.  und  Kirche",  1876). 
(3)  Worth. — The  critical  study  of  this  rich  assort- 
ment of  about  aiOO  Massoretic  rolls  and  codices  is  not 
ao  promising  of  important  results  as  it  would  at  first 
thou^t  seem  to  be.  The  MSS.  are  all  of  quite  receut 
date,  it  compared  with  Greek,  latin,  and  Syriac  cod- 
ices. They  are  all  singularly  alike.  Some  few  vari- 
ants are  found  in  copies  made  for  private  use;  copies 
made  for  public  service  in  the  synagogues  are  so  uni- 
form as  to  deter  the  critic  from  comparing  them. 
Massoretic  MSS.  bring  us  back  to  one  editit 
ft  textual  tradition  which  probably  began 


Hahkavt,  Colaloe  Art  bibr.  BOoUoiKlKAn/M 

_.     .1  BAlialick   (Leipiig.   18751:  NsnaADxa,  Fa^ 

similaof  Hrbrm  MSS.  ill  till  Bedt^n  Library  (Oxioni,  IS06): 
Nbdbacbr.  CatalBs^i  ofOieHrbrea  UmiucTipl*  in  Iha  BmfMaa 
Librarv  and  in  tin  CoUrge  Libraria  a)  Oifor^  (Oxford,  IBH): 
Khaft  AMD  DEirracn,  Bit  handttJiri/a.  htbrOitdun  Wtrir  iit 
K.  K.  HBfbihtioOiiie  (Vienna,  1857);  t^EiNBCBHDDBB.  £>»  W- 
bmitch.  Handarhriflm  dtr  K.  Ho/,  und  SlaatMtiliiiOitk  (MimMk 
isas):  ScuiLuiR-SiiNEssi.  Calaloffut  of  tht  HtbraB  USS.  pr*- 
ttrvrd  in  Ui4  UniBtrritu  Library  (Cambridge,  1878);  AmmMtMU 
Biblialhtfa  AtiotlaJioi  Vaticana  codicrt  Oruralaia  (Ron*, 
1750):  Mai,  Appendix  Is  Avnnani  (Rome,  1831). 

III.  Greek  MSS.— (1)     In  General.— Greek  MSS. 

are  divided  into  two  classes  according  to  their  style 

of  writing— uncials  and  minuscules,     (a)  Uneiala  were 

...     __..     written  fetween  the  fourth  and  tenth  oenturiee,  with 

■that  of    large  and  disconnected  letters.    These  lettera  were  not 

'     "  "      capital8,buthadadiatinctivefonn:ep3iloE  "'"        "   "" 


ood  txDtiay  and  became  more  and  more  minute  imtil     omega  were  not  written  £,  X,  (I,  a 


e  those  oaEat«lt 


liANtJSOBIPTS 


629 


HANtJSORIPTS 


in  inscriptione;  p,  ^,  ^,  and  at  times  v  were  prolonged 
above  or  below  the  line.  Words  were  not  separated; 
neither  accents  nor  punctuation  marks  were  used; 
paragraphs  were  marked  off  only  by  a  very  small  la- 
cuna; the  letters  were  uniform  and  artistic;  ligatures 
were  used  onlv  for  th£_most  ordinary  words — ic 
('I^<roOt),  ice  (K^ptot),  xc  (Xpto-Tos),  ica  ('ly/wi^X), 
ilNA  (irrevfja),  aaa  (Aow/J),  aNOC  {JwBpwroi),  pHP 
(irar-fip),   mHP   (awTI^P),   YO   (»'t^«)>  CHP   (<rwTi>p),  OYNOC 

(o^pai^f).  In  the  sixth  century,  began  a  decadence 
of  the  elegant  uncial  writing.  Twists  and  turns 
were  given  to  certain  letters.  In  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, more  letters  received  flourishes;  accents  and 
breathings  were  introduced;  the  writing  leaned  to  the 
right,  (b)  Minuscules. — While  uncials  held  sway  in 
Biblical  MSS.,  minuscules  were  employed  in  other 
works.  During  the  ninth  century,  both  uncial  and 
minuscule  MSS.  of  the  Bible  were  written.  The  latter 
show  a  form  of  writing  so  fully  developed  as  to  leave 
no  doubt  about  its  long  standing  use.  The  letters  are 
small,  connected,  and  written  with  a  running  hand. 
After  the  tenth  century,  minuscules  were  used  until, 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  MSS.  were  superseded  by 
print. 

(2)  Old  Testament  MSS.— (a)  LXX.— There  are 
three  families  of  LXX  MSS., — the  Hexaplaric,  Hesy- 
chian,  and  Lucianic.  MSS.  of  Origen's  Hexapla  (q.  v.) 
and  Tetrapla  were  preserved  at  Csraarea  by  his  disciple 
Pamphilus.  Some  extant  MSS.  (v.  g.  M  and  Q)  refer 
in  scholia  to  these  gigantic  works  of  Origen.  In  the 
fourth  century,  Pamphilus  and  his  disciple  Eusebius 
of  Ccesarea  reproduced  the  fifth  column  of  the  Hexa- 
pla, i.  e.  Origen's  Hexaplaric  LXX  text,  with  all  his 
critical  si^s.  This  copy  is  the  souree  of  the  Hexa- 
plaric family  of  LXX  M^.  In  course  of  time,  scribes 
omitted  the  critical  signs  in  part  or  entirely.  Pas- 
sages wanting  in  the  LXX,  but  present  in  the  Hebrew, 
and  conseouently  supplied  by  Origen  from  either 
Aqjuila  or  Theodotion,  were  hopelessly  commingled 
with  passa^s  of  the  then  extant  LXX.  Almost  at 
the  same  time  two  other  editions  of  the  LXX  were 

Eublished — those  of  Hesychius  at  Alexandria  and  of 
ucian  at  Antioch.  From  these  three  editions  the  ex- 
tant MSS.  of  the  LXX  have  descended,  but  by  ways 
that  have  not  yet  been  accurately  traced.  Veiy  few 
MSS.  can  be  assigned  with  more  than  probabih^  to 
one  of  the  three  families.  The  Hexaplaric,  Hesy- 
chian,  and  Lucianic  MSS.  acted  one  upon  the  other. 
Most  extant  MSS.  of  the  LXX  contain,  as  a  result, 
readings  of  each  and  of  none  of  the  great  families. 
The  tracing  of  the  influence  of  these  three  great  MSS. 
is  a  work  yet  to  be  done  by  the  text-critics. 

(i)  Papyrus. — About  sixteen  fra^ents  on  papyrus 
are  extant.  Of  these,  the  moat  important  are:  (o) 
Oxyrhyncus  Pap.  656  (early  third  cent.),  containing 
parts  of  Gen.,  xiv-xxvii,  wherein  most  of  the  great 
vellum  MSS.  are  wanting.  (/3)  British  Museum  Pap. 
37,  at  times  called  U  (seventh  cent.),  containing  part 
of  Psalms  (Hebrew)  x-xxxiii.  (7)  A  Leipzig  Pap. 
(fourth  cent.)  containing  Psalms  xxix-liv.  These 
two  Psalters  give  us  the  text  of  Upper  Egypt.  (3)  A 
Heidpllxjrg  Pap.  (seventh  cent.)  containing  S^ach.,  iv, 
6-Mal.,  iv,  5.  (e)  A  Berlin  Pap.  (fourth  or  fifth  cent.) 
containing  about  thirty  chapters  of  Genesis. 

(ii)  Vellum  Uncial. — Parsons  collated  13  imcial  and 
298  minuscule  MSS.  of  the  LXX;  the  former  he  desie- 
nat<»d  with  Roman  numerals,  I-XIII,  Hie  latter  with 
Arabic  numbers,  14-311  (cf.,  *'V.  T.  Grsecimi  cum 
Variis  Lectionibus'*,  Oxford,  1798).  Lagarde  desig- 
nated the  uncials  by  Roman  and  Greek  capitals.  This 
designation  is  now  generally  accepted  (cf .  Swete,  "  In- 
troduction to  the  Old  Testament  in  Greek",  Cam- 
bridge, 1902,  148). 

M — S,  Cod.  SinaiHcus  (q.  v.)  (fourth  century;  43 
leaves  at  Leipzig,  156  together  with  N.  T.  at  St. 
Petersburg)  contains  fragments  of  Gen.  and  Num. :  I 
Par.,  ix,  27-xix,  17;  Em.,  ix.  9-end;  Esth.;  Tod.; 


Judith;  landlVMach.;  Isa.;  Jer.;  Lam.,  i,  1-ii,  20; 
Joel;  Abd.-Mal.;  the  Poetical  Books;  the  entire  New 
Testament;  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  part  of  the 
"Shepherd"  of  Hennas.  The  text  is  mixed.  In 
Tobias  it  differs  much  from  A  and  B.  Its  origin  is 
doubtful.  Two  correctors  (C»  and  Cb)  are  of  the 
seventh  centurv.  Ca  tells  us  at  the  end  of  Esth.  that 
he  compared  tiiis  MS.  with  a  very  early  copy,  which 
Pamphilus  testified  had  been  taken  from  and  corrected 
according  to  the  Hexapla  of  Origen. 

A,  or  Cod.  Alexandrtnua  (q.  v.)  (fifth  century;  in 
British  Museum)  contains  complete  Bible  (excepting 
Ps.  1,  20-lxxx,  11,  and  smaller  lacunae)  and  includes 
deuterocanonical  books  and  fragments,  the  apocry- 
phal III  and  IV  Mach.,  also  I  and  II  Clem.  Its  origin 
IS  Egyptian  and  may  be  Hesychian.  It  differs  much 
from  B,  especially  in  Judges.  Two  scribes  wrote 
the  MS.  Tne  corrector  belonged  to  about  the  same 
time. 

B^  or  Cod.  Vaticanua  (q.  v.)  (fourth  century;  in  the 
Vatican)  contains  complete  Bible.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment lacks  Gen.,  i,  1-xlvi,  28;  I  and  II  Mach.;  por- 
tions of  II  Kings,  ii;  and  Psalms,  cv-cxxxvii.  The 
New  Testament  wants  Heb.,  ix,  14;  I  and  II  Tim.; 
Titus.;  Apoc.  Its  origin  is  iiower  Egyptian.  Hort 
thinks  it  akin  to  the  text  used  by  Origen  in  his  Hex- 
apla. 

C,  or  Cod.  EphrcBtni  Rescnptus  (q.  v.)  (fifth  century 
palimpsest;  in  National  Library,  Paris)  contains  64 
leaves  of  Old  Testament;  most  of  Eccl.;  parts  of 
Ecclus.;  Wisd.;  Prov.  and  Cant.;  145  out  of  238  leaves 
of  NiBW  Testament. 

D,  or  The  Cotton  Genesis  (fifth  century;  in  British 
Museum)  contains  fragments  of  Gen.:  was  almost  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1731,  but  had  been  previously 
studied. 

E,  or  Cod.  Bodleianus  (ninth  or  tenth  century;  in 
Bodl.  Libr.,  Oxford)  contains  Heptateuch,  fragments. 

F,  or  Cod.  Ambrosianus  (fifth  century;  at  Milan) 
contains  Heptateuch,  fragments. 

G,  or  Cod.  Satravianus  (fifth  century;  130  leaves  at 
Leyden,  22  in  Paris,  one  in  St.  Petersburg)  contains 
the  Hexaplaric  Octateuch  (fragments)  with  some  of 
the  asterisks  and  obeli  of  Origen. 

H,  or  Cod.  PetropolUanus  (sixth  century;  in  Im- 
perial Libr.,  St.  Petersburg)  contains  portions  of 
Numbers. 

I.  or  Cod.  Bodleianus  (ninth  century;  in  Bodl.  Libr., 
Oxford)  contains  the  Psahns. 

K,  or  Cod.  Lipsiensis  (seventh  century;  in  Univ.  of 
Leipzig)  contains  fragments  of  Heptateuch. 

L,  or  The  Vienna  Genesis  (sixth  century;  in  Imperial 
Libr.,  Vienna)  contains  incomplete  Genesis,  written 
with  silver  letters  on  purple  vellum. 

M,  or  Cod.  Coislinianus  (seventh  century;  in  Na- 
tional Library,  Paris)  contains  Heptateuch  and  Kings. 

N-V,  or  Cod.  Basiliano-Venettis  (eighth  or  ninth 

century;  partly  in  Venice  and  partly  in  Vatican)  con- 

,  tains  complete  Cren.,  Ex.,  and  part  of  Lev.,  and  was 

used  with  B  in  the  critical  edition  of  LXX  (Rome, 

1587). 

O,  or  Cod.  Dtiblinensis  (sixth  century;  in  Trinity 
College,  Dublin)  contains  fra^ents  of  Isaias. 

Q,  or  Cod.  Marchalianus  (sixth  oentmy;  in  Vatican) 
contains  Prophets,  complete;  is  very  important,  and 
originated  in  Eg5rpt.  The  text  is  proDablv  Hesv- 
chian.  In  the  margins  are  many  readings  from'  the 
Hexapla;  it  also  gives  manv  Hexaplaric  signs. 

R,  or  Cod.  Veronensis  (sixth  century;  at  Verona) 
contains  Or.  and  Lat.  Psalter  and  Canticles. 

T,  or  Cod.  Zxtriceneis,  the  Zurich  Psalter  (seventh 
century)  shows,  with  R,  the  Western  text;  silver  let- 
ters, gold  initials,  on  purple  vellum. 

W,  or  Cod.  Parisiensis  (ninth  century;  in  National 
Library,  Paris)  contains  fragments  of  Psalms. 

X,  or  Cod.  VoHcanus  (ninth  century;  in  Vatican)  co»^ 
tains  the  Book  of  Job. 


MANUSCRIPTS 


mo 


MANUSOaiPTS 


Y,  or  CfHl.  Taitrinensis  (iiintli  century;  iu  National 
Library',  Turin)  contains  I/Csscr  Prophets. 

Z,  or  Cod,  Tischendorf  (ninth  century)  contains 
fragments  of  Kings;  published  by  Tischendorf. 

r,  or  Cod.  Cryptoferratensis  (eighth  or  ninth 
century;  at  Grot taf errata)  contains  fragments  of 
Prophets. 

A.  or  C(td.  Bodleianus  (fourth  or  fifth  centiuy;  Ox- 
forUi  in  Hodl.  Libr.)  contains  a  fragment  of  Daniel. 

6,  or  Cod,  Washington  (fifth  or  sixth  century,  to 
be  in  Smithsonian  Institution),  contains  Deut. — Jos., 
found  in  Egj'pt,  one  of  the  Freer  MSS.  There  are 
likewise  seven  uncial  Psalt<;rs  (two  complete)  of  the 
ninth  or  t^nth  century  and  eighteen  rather  unim- 
portant fragments  listed  by  Swete  (op.  cit.,  p.  140). 

(iii)  Vellum  Minuscule. — More  than  300  are  known 
but  unclassified.    The  Cambridge   Septuagint  pur- 


xcviii,  3;  ci,  16-cii,  13)  published  by  Taylor  (op.  cit.), 
(v)  The  fourth-centunr  papyrus  fragments  of  Gen.,  i, 
1-5,  published,  1900,  bv  Grenfell  and  Hunt. 

(c)  Theodotion  (see  versions  of  the  Bible). — The 
Book  of  Daniel  of  Theodotion  is  found  in  the  IJCX 
MSS.  previously  mentioned.  The  Milan  palimpsest 
contains  his  text  in  part. 

(d)  Symmachus  (see  Versions  of  the  Bible). — 
MS.  sources  are  the  Milan  palimpsest,  Cambridge 
fragment,  and  Hexaplaric  marginal  notes,  all  of  which 
arc  MS.  sources  of  Aquila. 

Swete,  Introduction  to  the  O.  T.  in  Greek  (1900);  Kenton. 
Our  Bible  and  the  Ancient  MSS.  (1898);  Nestle,  Srpttiaffintor 
aludien  (1886-1007);  Field,  Origenia  Hexaplorum  qua  aupernaU 
(Oxford.  1875). 

(3)  New  Testament  MSS,— (a)  In  General. — ^Tbere 
are,  according  to  the  latest  authority  on  this  subject, 


•LiTllpOVNlAI      :    KAIPrcWVo AVION  .   ., 

tioroYeceAiAiAr*i»Ki<'i»"r»^"»»^  '.' 

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-i-oY«*<""^x  V  At- KAi  ^«  oxoM  n-c- rAiexrjFriKj 

Hi*OIOM       S-«|sH»lAH«li|sl4»A|»lt'Am»M 

c  Aci  or^AY  «''^*  •  iArTii»o\oYt'iN  oi 
MAiM* < A iro\  roK cAhft Ar iMooYKoyt'cnihi 

AUdKrlOC'If'Al  01H4  OAf  f-CMIipACAYToY*'     ' 

oyAt " o  If ■mY  •  ^  AN<-rM*i»rAi oc iioiM»-rN 
ikAY^iA   oirriiriMAfCNAY'*'*'^       '"'  '  " 
KAiqU'V^^Y  '"*"'*'*'*^*"*'^*'**''^'*^®****  ' ' 

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cJ»AieMKAHAn>K-rMKAllOICMrl'AYl'*r**'  ■ 

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•I  iisiAr|ir-A:;«iMrr>*oiMfinrAnPiATtiifinrMAYt*" 
AiMn|*i>ifiic-  f'lMrMoiAAiTniow^ir  •■• 

MAKAl'inrt^l  riAt'MMOlA  AC  OflK*ATArATOtT 

KAii»A|'AriArm'i-»i«Y^^**'^**V  *'  . 

kAii-i»-cAouiMrtMAYi»>Y'»»A^»*^^»''^"^    J^*# 

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AYTOtslOirpAMMArrir  VAIOl^AfK'AlQI- 

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KAl  Hl-nriif  AiAY  rtiYAYToCA^  jcAfriMtwrt* 

roVf\  lA  Aori»'MoY«'AY  noMA^rKfiax*^*" »'  • 
1  HNxr  ii-AtxoMri'Hux^  ereifoYKA^'TMA** 

(KlliltlVir  i-4ii  KAiAMAC'TAC*«-CTAit>ll 

(■»iu  MNCoiii<in»orAVV«Y*'  C'lifptnTtirui    "* 
YMAtririt»'TiM*l"inrA5nAVui    AFAao  • 
llniiK  Al  liKAKniiitilirAi>^yx»fMCiui'Al 
HAiioAtoAi  uiArrc'iiinitiiisj 


Ml" 


ItnAft^ 


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f^cn.\c|5iliAi  rip^iAici^Ari  '« 

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Arr(ivAK«  f-tun  ij»v<*Aiii«  u>.Y*"f  »*\^^-^,^ 
forriAriciMf  \%  niEticnilit't  nil  i 
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MCfn-Aui  ctiAU  f-A^VBf  AMimAUiVA," 


kl 


\ 


Codex  Bsz.fs 
Opix)aite  PaRos,  CJrcok  and  l4itin  (Kftducetl; — Luke,  vi,  1-9 
his.  iu  Cambridge  University  Library 


poses  to  collate  the  chief  of  these  minuscules  and  to 
group  them  with  a  view  to  discriminating  the  various 
recensions  of  the  LXX.  More  than  half  of  these 
MSS.  are  Psalters  and  few  of  them  eive  the  entire 
Old  Testament.  In  editing  his  Alcald  Polyglot, 
Cardinal  Ximcnes  used  minuscules  108  and  248  of 
the  Vatican. 

(b)  A(iuila  (see  Vkrsions  of  the  Bible). — MS. 
traces  of  the  text  of  Aquila  are  found  in:  (i)  frag- 
ments of  Origen's  third  columns,  written  as  mar^nal 
notes  to  some  MSS.,  such  as  Q;  (ii)  the  Milan  palimp- 
sest of  the  Hexapla,  a  most  important  tenth  century 
copy  found  by  Mercati  in  189G.  It  contains  about 
elev'en  Psalms,  has  no  Hebrew  column,  and  uses  the 
space  thereof  for  variant  readings ;  (iii)  the  Cambridge 
fragment,  seventh  oentur^^  di.scovored  in  a  Cairo  geni- 
zah.  It  contains  parts  of  Ps.,  xxi  (see  Taylor,  "  Cairo 
Genizah  Palimpsests",  1000).  The  name  Jahweh  is 
written  in  old  Hebrew  letters,  (iv)  The  Cairo  frag- 
ments of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries:  three  palimp- 
sests (containing  III  Kings,  xx,  7-17;  IV  Kings,  xxiii, 
Xl-27)  published  by  Burkitt  in  1897;  and  four  portions 
<rf  tlie  Tsalms  (Ixxxix,  17-xci,  10;  xcv,  7-xcvi,  12; 


von  Soden  ("Die  Schriften  des  N.  T.  in  ihrer  Altesieo 
erreichbaren  Textgestalt",  Berlin,  1902),  2328  New- 
Testament  MSS.  extant.  Only  about  40  contain, 
eitlier  entire  or  in  part.,  all  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. There  are  1716  MS.  copies  of  the  Gospels.  531 
'  of  the  Acts,  628  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  219  of  the 
Apocalypse.  The  commonly  reoeive<l  numeration  of 
the  New  Testament  MSS.  is  tliat  of  Wettstein;  unciab 
are  designated  by  Homun  and  Greek  capitals,  minus- 
cules by  Arabic  numbt^rs.  These  MSS.  are  divided 
into  the  a l)ove- mentioned  four  groups-— Gospels. 
Acts,  Pauline  Epistles,  Apocalvpse.  In  the  case  oi 
imcials,  an  exponent  is  used  to  designate  the  group  re- 
ferred to.  D  or  Dev  is  Cod.  Beza>,  a  MS.  of  tlie  Gos- 
pels; D3  or  Dpaw' is  Cod.  Claromontanus,  a  MS.  of  the 
Pauline  Epistles;  Eg ^r  ^^'  ^^  ^9^*  Laudianus,  a  MS.  of 
the  Acts.  The  nomenclature  is  less  clear  for  minus- 
cules. Each  group  has  a  different  set  of  numbers.  If 
a  minuscule  Ix?  a  complete  MS.  of  the  New  Testament, 
it  is  designated  bv  four  different  numbers.  One  and 
the  same  MS.  at  Leicester  is  Evan.  69,  Act.  31,  Paul. 
37,  Apoc.  14.  Wettstein's  lists  of  New-Testament 
MSS.  were  supplemented  by  Birch  and  Schols;  later  on 


MAHUSCEIPTS  Ch 

Scrivener  ami  Gregory  continunl  tlic  lists,  caHi  wilh 
his  own  nomenclature.  Von  ijoden  baa  introduced  a 
new  numeration,  so  as  to  indicate  tlie  content  and  date 
of  tiie  MSS.  If  the  content  be  more  tban  the  Gospels, 
it  is  marked  S  (that  ia,  S>a0i)int,  "  testonient ") ;  if  only 
the  Gospels,  i  (i.e.,  tAay-fiXior,  "  gospel");  if  aught  elM 
save  the  Gospels,  o  (that  is,A'ifTo\ai).  B  b  i,;  tt  is 
I,;  Q  is  I,,  etc.  No  distinction  is  made  between  un- 
cials and  minueculot.  Scholars  admit  the  logic  and 
Hcientinc  worth  of  thin  new  numeration,  but  find  it  too 
unwieldy  and  impracticable. 

(b)  Papyrus. — In  the  Archduke  Raiaer  collectioa, 
Vienna,  are  several  very  fragmentary  bits  of  New  Tes- 
tament Greek  phrases,  which  Wesseiy,  the  curator  of 
that  collection,  assigns  to  the  second  century.  The 
Grenfell  -  and  Hunt  excavationa  in  Oxyrbyncus 
brought  to  tigtit  vnrioua  fragments  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment which  Kenyon,  the  assistant  keeper  of  the  MSS. 
of  the  British  Museum,  asngns  to  the  latter  part  of  the 
third  century.  Only  one  papyrus  MS.  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament is  important  to  the  text-critic — Oxyrhyncus 
Pap.  057,  third-fourth  oenturv;  it  preserves  to  us 
about  a  third  of  the  Epistle  to  tne  Hebrews,  an  epistle 
in  which  Cod.  B.  is  defective. 

(c)  Vellum  Uncials. — There  are  about  160  vellum 
uncials  of  the  New  Testament;  some  110  contain  the 
Gospels  or  a  part  thereof.  The  diicfcst  of  these  un- 
cials are  the  four  great  codioes  of  the  entire  Greek 
Bible,  tt,  A,  B,  G,  for  which,  see  above.  The  Vatican 
(B)  is  the  oldest  and  probably  tlie  beat  New  Te^ita- 
mcnt  MS. 

p.  or  Corf.  Bear  (q.  v.)  (fifth  or  sixth  century;  in 
University  Library,  Cambridge)  contains  Gospels  and 
Ads  in  Gr.  and  Lat.,  excepting  Acts,  xxii,  2\)  to  the 
end;it  isa  unique  specimen  ofa  Greek  MS.  whose  text 
is  Western,  i.  e.  that  of  the  Old  Latin  and  Old  Syriac. 

Dj  or  Cod.  Clarvmontanua  (probably  sixth  centun*; 
in  \at.  Libr..  ParisJ  contains  Pauline  Epistles  in  Or. 
and  Lat.,  each  text  independent  of  the  other.  Before 
Hebrews  is  a  list  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
and  the  number  of  lines  Utickni)  in  each;  this  list  omits 
Thess.,  lieb.,  and  Phil.,  includes  tour  apocryphal 
books,  and  follows  an  unusual  order;  Hatt.,  John, 
Mark.  Luke,  Rom^  I  and  II  Cor,,  Gal.,  Eph.,  I  an.l  II 
Tim.,  TituB,  Col.,  Philem.,  I  and  II  Pet.,  James,  I,  II, 
and  III  John,  Jude,  Barnabas,  Apoc.,  Acts,  Hermas, 
Acts  of  Paul,  Apoc.  of  Peter. 

E,  or  Cod.  BtxnUeneit  (eighth  century;  in  Univ. 
Iiibr.,  Basle)  contains  the  Gospels. 

£,.  or  Cod.  Laudianus  (sixth  century;  Oxford^in 
Bodl.  Library)  contains  Acte  in  Gr.  and  Lat.  The 
former  is  somewhat  like  D. 

Ej,  or  Cod.  SangermanensU  (ninth  ceotuiy ;  in  Imper. 
Libr.,  St,  Pctemburg)  coritains  Pauline  Epistles  in 
Or.  and  Lat.;  of  same  family  as  D,. 

F,  or  Cod.  Boreeli  (ninth century;  at  Utrecht),  con- 
tains Gospels. 

F„  or  Corf,  ji  ijffi'eiisM  (ninth  century;  in  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge),  contains  Pauline  Epp,  in  Gr.  and 
tilt.;  of  the  tome  family  as  Dj,E„  and  C.,, 

jrC'orf.Boernerianus  (ninth  century;  at  Dresden), 
us  Paul,  Epp.  in  Gr.  and  Lat.;  text  of  D,  tj-pe. 

H,  or  Cod.  Wotni  B  (ninth  or  tenth  century;  at  Cam- 
bridge and  Hamburg),  contains  the  Gospels, 

H„  or  Cod.  Mutinenaia  (ninth  century;  at  Modena), 
contains  Acts, 

H„orCod.  CoisHiiianus  (sixth  century;  originally  at 
Mt.  Athos  where  8  leaves  remain.  Other  parts  were 
used  for  binding  AISS;  22  leaves  thus  reached  Paris;  3 
each  were  discovered  at  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow  and 
Kieff ;  1  in  Turin).  This  MS.  gives  us,  m  great  part,  a 
fourlh-century  text  of  Euthalius  of  Sulca. 

K.  or  Cod.  Cyvriut  (ninth  century;  in  Nat.  Libr., 
Paris),  eonteins  tne  Gospels. 

K.,  or  Cod.  Motquensit  (ninth  century;  in  Holy 


1  flUHUSOBIPTS 

Synod  Librorj-,  Moscow),  contains  Acta,  Cath.,  and 


Pans),  contains  Gospels, 

L,,  or  Corf,  Angdicus  (ninth  century;  in  Rome),  con- 
tains Acts,  Cath.,  and  Paul,  T 


M,,  or  Cod.  Hamlnvgensi.1  (ninth  century;  in  Ham- 
burg and  London),  contains  Paul.  Epp. 

N,  or  Cod.  Purpureius,  calleil  also  Petropalilanua 
(sixth  century),  contains  Gospels  in  silver  on  purple 
vellum.  About  half  the  MS.  is  extant:  1S2  leaves 
(found  in  Asia  Minor.  IttOQ)  are  iu  St,  Petersburg,  '.i'd  at 
Patrnos,  6  in  the  Vatican,  4  in  British  Museum,  and  2 
in  Vienna. 

P,  or  Cod.  Guel/rrbytanus  A  (sixth  century;  Wolfen- 
bQttel),  contains  Gosp,  fragments. 

P„  or  Cod.  PorptiyHanua  (riinth  century;  in  St. 
Petersburg),  contains  Acts,  C^th.  and  Paul.  Epp. 


:fU>UKflt*Krt)>»«t^lVpOdMT|:  ■■    .'1 

■  i>JAK4p(oJ«jpHc(i)M('inVi;ib<<n' 
-nAii-roYHoMovtiitrieVio  i.  i;n 

.HyMi'lAi'KATHfi-HUHMei  I 

Anc>Tt>>-Nb  Ml>Y'' vVuAM  A-|iuy. 

CMcuicrmxoMt'OA- '  •'■I  I.- 

ti>t-ri!AovAt'yi'i(VMMJiiuMKViniTJrnr*4 

^.*'OY.'«**'"'r»rKii,T4M**rofiH.<„.,j 

UN0M«(UM4|rn:A4tHrX»4Urftk.,.»i 
AAAAT>lmMi^r'''''AM(JYN$rMUIMri^ll 
eiKft^lAH,0>|OY'.  '  .ulnftoMAiiuitiiii 

e(MIIOHdMtX:yAC=IX3M*.  IK-./  ;  rVl.V'f 


Q,  or  Cod.  Gudferbytamis  B  (fifth  centuo';  Wolfen- 
bilttel),  contains  Gosp.  fragments, 

R,  or  Cod.  Nitrientit  (sixth  century;  in  Brit,  Mus., 
London),  a  palimpsest  copy  of  Luke. 

T,  or  Cod.  Borgianus  (fifth  century;  in  Vatican),  Gr. 
and  Sahidic  fragments.  One  Itus  tlie  double  ending  of 
Mark;  another  has  17  leaves  of  Luke  and  Jiihii,  anil  a 
text  akin  to  Baud  K. 

Z,orCod,OuWincn)ii«  (sixth  centurj';  in  Trinity  Col., 
Dublin),  a  palimpsest  containing  2!lii  verses  of  Mutt.; 
text  probably  Egyptian,  akin  to  «, 

4,  or  Corf.  SaTigallenau  (ninth  or  tenth  centurj';  at 
Saint-Gall),  contains  Gospels  in  Gr.  and  T.At. 

A,  or  Cod.  Tiecliendorjianus  HI  (ninth  centurj-), 
Luke  and  John  iu  Boilleian,  Oxford;  Mult,  and  Mark, 
written  in  cursives  (E\-an.  Gfl6),  at  St.  Petersburg. 

Z,  or  Cod.  Raaaanengit  (sixth  century:  at  Ros.sano, 
in  Calabria),  contains  Matt,  and  Mark,  in  silver  letters 
on  purple  vellum  with  illustrations.  N',  Z,  ZK  and  t 
are  all  akin  and  were  probably  produced  at  Constan* 
tinople  from  a  single  ancestor, 

Z",  or  Cod.  Sinopenain  (sixth  century;  in  Kat. 
Libr.,  Paris),  consists  of  43  leaves  (Malt.,  vii-xxiv),  in 
gold  letters  on  purple  vellum  with  5  illustrations;  it 
was  bought  by  a  French  navni  officer  for  a  few  francc, 
at  Sinope,  in  189B,  and  is  called  also  O  and  n. 


UAsxjMtam 


632 


MAMXTSOftmS 


^2  or  Cod.  BeraHnus  (sixth  century;  at  Berat  in  Al- 
bania), contains  Matt,  and  Mark. 

1,  or  Cod.  Patirensia  (fifth  century;  in  the  Vatican), 
contains  Act.,  Cath.  and  Paul.  Epp. 

The  American  MS,  of  the  Gospds  (fifth  century), 
found  in  Egypt,  1907,  has  not  yet  been  published;  nor 
have  the  f ra^ents  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  (sixth  cen- 
tury) which  were  foimd  at  the  same  time. 

(d)  Vellum  minuscules. — ^The  vast  nimibers  of  minus- 
cule witnesses  to  the  text  of  the  New  Testament  would 
seem  to  indicate  a  rich  field  of  investigation  for  the 
text-critic.  The  field  is  not  so  rich  at  all.  Many  of 
these  minuscules  have  never  been  fully  studied. 
Ninety-five  per  cent,  of  them  are  witnesses  to  the  same 
type  of  text,  that  of  the  textus  recejdtta.  Only  those 
mmuscules  interest  the  text-critic  which  are  distinctive 
of  or  akin  to  one  of  the  great  uncials.  Among  the 
Gospel  minuscules,  according  to  Gregory's  numeration, 
the  type  of  Bk  is  seen  more  or  less  in  33;  1,  118,  131. 
209;  59,  157,  431,  496,  892.  The  type  of  D  is  that  of 
235,  431,  473,  700,  1071;  and  of  the  "Ferrar  group", 
13,  69, 124,  346, 348,  543,  713,  788,  826,  828.  Among 
the  Acts  minuscules,  31  and  61  show  some  kinship  to 
B;  137,  180,  216,  224  to  D.  15,  40,  83,  205,  317,  328, 
329, 393  are  grouped  and  traced  to  the  fourth  century 
text  of  Euthalius  of  Sulca.  Among  the  Pauline  minus- 
cules, this  same  text  (i.  e.  that  of  H.)  is  found  in  81, 83, 
93,  379,  381. 

(e)  Lectionaries. — ^There  are  soi^e  1100  MSS.  of 
readings  from  the  Gospels  (Evangdia  or  Evangdiaria) 
and  300  MSS.  of  readings  from  Acts  and  Epistles 
(Praxapostoli),  Although  more  than  100  of  these 
lectionaries  are  imcials,  they  are  of  the  ninth  century 
or  later.  Verv  few  of  these  books  of  the  Epistles  and 
Gospels  have  been  critically  examined.  Such  exami- 
nation may  later  on  serve  to  group  the  New  Testa- 
ment minuscules  better  and  help  to  localize  them. 

Scrivener,  IrUroduetum  to  the  CrittcUm  of  the  New  TeatamerU 
(1894):  Greoort.  TextkrUik  des  N.  T.  (1900):  Die  Oriechiechen 
Handechriften  dee  N.  T.  (1908);  Harris,  Further  reeearehea  into 
the  hutory  of  the  F error-group  (1900). 

IV.  Latin  MSS. — Biblical  MSS.  are  far  more  imi- 
form  in  Greek  than  in  Latin  script.  Palseography 
divides  the  Greek  into  uncials  and  minuscules;  the 
Latin  into  uncials,  semi-uncials,  capitals,  minuscules 
and  cursives.  Even  these  divisions  have  subdivisions. 
The  time,  place  and  even  monastery  of  a  Latin 
MS.  may  be  traced  by  the  very  distinct  script  of  its 
text. 

(1)  Old  Latin. — Some  40  MSS.  have  preserved  to  us 
a  text  which  antedates  the  translation  of  St.  Jerome; 
they  are  designated  by  small  letters.  Unfortunately 
no  tw  D  of  these  MSS.  represent  to  us  quite  the  same 
text.  Corrections  introduced  by  scribes  and  the  in- 
evitable influence  of  the  Vulgate  have  left  it  a  very 
difficult  matter  to  group  the  Old  Latin  MSS.  Text- 
critics  now  agree  upon  an  African,  a  European  and  an 
Italian  type  of  text.  The  African  text  is  that  men- 
tioned by  Tertullian  (c.  150-220)  and  used  by  St.  Cy- 
prian (c.  200-258);  it  is  the  earliest  and  crudest  in 
style.  The  European  text  is  less  crude  in  style  and 
vocabulary,  and  may  be  an  entirely  new  translation. 
The  Italian  text  is  a  version  of  the  European  and  was 
revised  by  St.  Jerome  in  parts  of  the  Vulgate.  The 
most  important  Old  Latin  MSS.  are  the  bilingual  New 
Testament  MSS.  D,  D,,  E-,  E3,  F3,  Gj,  A. 

a,  or  Cod.  Verceliensis  (fourth  century;  at  Vercelli), 
containing  the  Gospels. 

b,  or  Cod.  Veronenaia  (fifth  century;  at  Verona), 
containing  Gospels  on  purple  vellum,  a  and  b  are  our 
chief  witnesses  to  the  European  text  of  the  Gospels. 

e,  or  Cod.  Palatinus  (fifth  (jentury;  at  Vienna, — one 
leal  is  in  Dublin),  contains  the  Gosp.  For  Acts,  e  is 
lAt.  of  Ej;  for  Paul.  Epp.,  e  is  Lat  of  E3. 

f,  or  Cod.  Brixianus  (sixth  century;  at  Brescia),  con- 
tains Gosp.  on  purple  vellum;  Italian  type,  thought  by 
Wordsworth  and  White  to  be  the  best  extant  repre- 


sentative of  the  Old  Latin  text  which  St.  Jerome  used 
when  revising  the  New  Testament. 

ffj,  or  Cod.  Corbeiensia  (fifth  century;  at  Paris),  con- 
tains the  Gospels. 

g,  or  Cod.Cfigaa  (thirteenth  century;  at  Stockholm), 
a  complete  Bible;  Acts  and  Apoc.  are  in  Old  Latin 
text  and  are  the  chief  representative  of  the  European 
type. 

n,  or  Palimpsest  de  Flewry  (sixth  century;  at  Paris), 
contains  fragments  of  Acts,  Cath.,  Ep.  and  Apoc.; 
African  type. 

k^  or  Cod.  Bolnensis  (fourth  or  fifth  oentuoy;  at 
Turm),  contains  Mark,  viii-xvi.  Sand  Matt.,  i-xv; 
earliest  form  of  Old  Latin,  African  type,*  closely  akin 
to  text  used  by  Saint  Cyprian. 

q,  or  Cod.  Monacensis  (sixth  or  seventh  century;  at 

Munich),  contains  Gospels;  Italian  type  of  text. 

BuRKiTT,  The  Old  Latin  and  the  Itata  (Cambridce,  1806); 
Wordsworth,  San  day,  and  White,  Old  Latin  BibReal  TexU 
(Oxford,  1883-97) ;  Gregory,  TextkrUik  dee  N.  T.  (1900). 

(2)  Vttlgate  (a.  v.). — It  is  estimated  that  there  are 
more  than  8000  MSS.  of  the  Vulgate  extant.  Most  of 
these  are  later  than  the  twelfth  century  and  have  very 
little  worth  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  text.  Tisch* 
endorf  and  Berger  designate  the  chief  MSS.  by  abbre- 
viations of  the  names:  am.= Amiatinus;  fu.  or  fuld.» 
Fuldensis.  Wordsworth  and  White,  in  their  critical 
edition  of  the  Gospel  and  Acts  (1899-1905),  use  Latin 
capitals  to  note  the  40  MSS.  on  which  their  text  de- 
pends. Gregory  (Textkritik,  II,  634)  numbers  2369 
MSS.  The  most  logical  and  useful  grouping  of  these 
MSS.  is  genealogical  and  geographical.  The  work  of 
future  critics  will  be  to  reconstruct  the  text  by  recon- 
structing the  various  types,  Spanish,  Italian,  Irish, 
French,  etc.     The  chief  Vulgate  MSS.  are: — 

A,  or  Cod.  Amiatinus  (q.  v.)  (eighth  century;  at 
Florence),  contains  complete  Bible;  text  probably 
Italian,  best  extant  MS.  of  Vulgate. 

C,  or  Cod.  Cavensis  (ninth  century;  at  La  Cava,  near 
Naples),  a  complete  Bible;  best  representative  of 
Spanish  type. 

A^^or  Coa.  Dundmensis  (seventh  or  eighth  centmy; 
in  vurham  Cathedral,  England),  Gospels;  text  akm 
to  A. 

F,  or  Cod.  Fuldensis  (a.  d.  641-546;  at  Fulda,  in 
Germany),  a  complete  New  Testament;  Gospels  are  in 
form  of  Tatian's  ''Diatessaron".  Bishop  Victor  of 
Capua  found  an  Old  Latin  version  of  Tatian's  ar- 
rangement and  substituted  the  Vulgate  for  the  Old 
Latm. 

G,  or  Cod.  Sangermanensis  (ninth  century;  at  Paris), 
contains  the  Bible.  In  Acts,  Wordsworth  uses  it 
more  than  any  other  MS. 

H,  or  Cod.  Hubertianus  (ninth  century;  in  Brit. 
Mus.,  London),  a  Bible;  Theodulfian  type. 

$f  or  Cod.  Theodulfianus  (ninth  century;  at  Paris),  a 
Bible;  Theodulfian  type. 

K,  or  Cod.  Karolinus  (ninth  century;  in  Brit.  Mus., 
London),  a  Bible;  Alcuin's  type.     See  V. 

O,  or  Cod.  Oxoniensis  (seventh  century;  at  Oxford, 
in  Bodl.),  contains  Gosp.;  text  English,  affected  by 
Irish  influences. 

O2,  or  Cod.  Oxoniensis,  or  Selden  Acts  (eighth  cen- 
tury; at  Oxford,  in  Bodleian),  contains  Acts;  Irish 
type. 

Q,  or  Cod.  Kenanensis,  Book  of  Kdls  (q.  v.)  (eighth 
century;  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin),  contains  Gosp.; 
Irish  type. 

S,  or  Cod.  StonyhuTstensis  (seventh  century;  at 
Stonyhurst  College,  England),  contains  John;  text 
akin  to  A  and  probably  written  near  Durham. 

V,  or  Cod.  VaUicellianus  (ninth  century;  at  Rome, 
in  Vallicelliana),  a  Bible;  Alcuin's  type.     See  K. 

Y,  or  Cod.  lAndisfamensis  (seventh  century;  in 
Brit.  Mus.,  London),  Gospels.  Liturgical  directions  in 
text  show  it  is  a  copy  of  a  MS.  written  in  Naples;  text 
akin  to  A. 


BCAMUTIRGI 


633 


HAMUTIUB 


Z,  or  Cod,  HcarleianuB  (sixth  or  seventh  century;  in 
Brit.  Mus.,  London),  coi^tains  Epist.  and  Apoo. 

Wordsworth  and  WHtra,  Bdiiion  of  <A€  KtiiSoto  (1889- 
1906). 

V.  Syriac  MSS.--(1)  Old  Synac  (OS).— The  Cure- 
Ionian  and  Sinaitic  Syriac  MSS.  represent  a  version 
older  than  the  Pe^tto  and  bear  witness  to  an  earlier 
text,  one  closely  akhi  to  that  of  which  D  and  the  Old 
Latin  are  witnesses. 

(a)  The  Curetonian  Syriac  (Syr-Cur)  MS.  was  dis- 
covered in  1S42,  among  MSS.  brought  to  the  British 
Museum  from  the  monastery  of  S.  Maria  Deipara  in 
the  Nitrian  desert  in  Egyi>t,  and  was  published  by 
Cureton  in  1858.  It  contains  five  chapters  of  John, 
large  portions  of  Matt,  and  Luke,  and  Mark,  xvi,  17-20, 
enou^  to  show  that  the  last  twelve  verses  were  origi- 
nally in  the  document,  (b)  The  Sinaitic  Syriac  (Syr- 
Sin)  was  found  by  Mrs.  Lewis  and  Mrs.  Gibson,  during 
1892,  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Catherine  on  Mount 
Sinai.  This  palimpsest  contains  the  Four  Gospels  in 
great  part,  though  not  entire;  it  is  an  earlier  recension 
of  the  same  version  as  Syr-Cur.  Both  are  assigned  to 
the  fifth  century  and  represent  a  Syriac  version  which 
cannot  be  later  than  a.  d.  200. 

(2)  The  Diatessaron. — ^This  harmony  of  the  Gospels 
was  written  by  Tatian,  an  Assyrian  and  the  disciple  of 
Justin  Mao-tyr,  about  a.  d.  170,  and  was  widely  used  in 
Syria.  Our  MS.  records  are  two  Arabic  versions,  dis- 
covered one  in  Rome  the  other  in  Egypt;  and  pub- 
lished 1888.  A  Latin  translation  of  an  Armenian  edi- 
tion of  St.  Ephraem's  commentarj^  on  the  Diatessa- 
ron  is  in  like  manner  witness  to  this  early  version  of 
the  Gospels.  Scholars  are  inclined  to  make  Tatian 's 
to  be  the  earliest  Syriac  translation  of  the  Gospel. 

(3)  The  PeshiUo,— The  earliest  MS.  of  this  Syriac 
Vulgate  is  a  Pentateuch  dated  a.  d.  464;  this  is  the 
earliest  dated  Biblical  MS. ;  it  is  in  the  British  Museum. 
There  are  two  New  Testament  MSS.  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. In  all,  the  Peshitto  MSS.  number  125  of  Gos- 
pels, 58  of  Acts  and  Cath.  Epp.,  67  of  Paul.  Epp. 

(4)  The  Philoxenian  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament has  come  down  to  us  only  in  tiie  four  minor 
Catholic  Epistles,  not  included  in  the  original  Peshitto, 
and  in  a  single  MS.  of  the  Apoc.,  now  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin. 

(5)  The  Harkkan  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  represented  bv  some  35  MSS.  dating  from  the 
seventh  century  and  later;  they  show  kinship  with  a 
text  like  to  D. 

(6)  The  Palestinian  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment has  reached  us  by  lectionaries  and  other  frag- 
mentary MSS.  discovered  within  the  past  sixteen 
years.  The  three  principal  MSS.  are  dated  a.  d.  1030, 
1104,  and  1118. 

Lbwu,  Th»  Four  QotpoU  trandaied  from  ike  Sinaitic  Palimp- 
9MI  (1804);  Woods  and  Qwiluam  in  Sludia  Bibliah  vob.  I  and 

VI.  Armenian  MSS.  date  from  a.  d.  887,  and  are 
numerous. 

VII.  Coptic  MSS.— -(1)  Sahidic,— The  Apocalypse  is 
the  only  book  of  the  Old  Testament  which  has  come 
down  to  us  complete  in  a  single  MS.  of  this  dialect  of 
Upper  Egypt.  Many  isolated  fragments  have  of  recent 
years  been  recovered  by  excavation  in  £^pt;  from 
these  it  may  soon  be  possible  to  reconstruct  the  Sa- 
hidic  New  Testament.  The  earliest  fragments  seem  to 
belong  to  the  fifth  centuiy.  Some  of  these  MSS.  are 
bilinjgual  (see  T  of  N.  T.  MSS.).  (2)  BoAatric.— This 
version  in  the  dialect  of  Lower  £%ypt  is  well  repre- 
sented by  MSS.  of  the  same  character  as  Bk.  ^Hie 
Curzon  Catena  is  the  earliest  extant  Boh.  MS.  of  the 
Gospels;  it  is  dated  a.  d.  889  and  is  in  the  Parham  Li- 
brary. Others  are  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies. None  is  at  all  so  old  as  the  Sah.  fragments. 
(3)  Middle  Egyptian  fragments,  on  vellum  and  papy- 
rus, have  l)eon  found  in  FayMm  anc)  near  to  Aknmim 


and  to  Memphis.  The  largest  of  these  fragments  is  a 
Brit.  Mus.  sixth-century  palimpsest  of  John,  iii  and 
iv. 

Crum,  Caiahoue  of  Coptic  MSS.  in  the  BriHA  Miueum  (Lon- 
don, 1005):  Htvsrnat,  iBtwU  wr  lea  vtrncfM  coptet  de  la  Btble 
in  Rev.  BiW.  (1806).  „,  ^ 

Wai/ter  Drum. 

Manaterff6.-~The  name  given  to  the  tpwel  used  by 
the  priest  when  engaged  liturgicaUy.  There  are  two 
idnda  of  manuterges.  One  serves  the  needs  of  the 
sacristy.  The  priest  uses  this  at  the  washing  of  hands 
before  Mass,  before  distributing  Communion  outside 
of  Mass,  and  before  administenng  baptism.  It  can 
also  be  used  for  drying  the  hands  after  they  have  been 
washed  on  occasions  not  prescribed  by  the  rubrics,  but 
still  customary  after  Mass.  There  are  no  prescrip- 
tions as  to  material  and  form  for  the  towel  used  in  the 
sacristy.  It  is  usual  to  have  it  hanging  over  a  roller, 
the  two  ends  beinesewti  together  so  as  to  make  it  into 
a  circular  band.  The  custom  of  washing  the  hands 
before  Mass  appears  to  go  back  to  the  early  days  of 
Christianity;  the  ceremon3r  is  expressly  mentioned  in 
the  sacramentaries  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries. 

The  other  manuterge  is  used  in  the  Mass  for  drying 
both  hands  at  the  Lavabo,  an  action  performed  by  the 
priest  after  the  Offertorjr  as  he  recites  the  psalm,  "  La- 
vabo ",  and  also  by  the  bishop  before  the  OJBFertory  and 
after  the  Communion.  It  is  kept  on  the  credence 
table  with  the  finger-bowl  and  cruete.  There  are  no 
ecclesiastical  regulations  regarding  the  form  and  ma- 
terial of  this  manuterge.  The  towel ,  which  is  used  after 
the  Offertory  during  the  recital  of  the  psalm  **  La- 
vabo ",  is  usually  small  ( 18  in.  by  1 4  in. ),  only  the  points 
of  the  thumb  and  two  fingers,  and  not  the  whole  nand, 
being  usually  washed  (Kitus  celebr.,  VII,  n.  6).  It 
ususSly  has  lace  or  embroidery  at  the  ends.  This  sec- 
ond manuterge  is  mentioned  in  chap,  v  of  the  **  Statuta 
antiqua''  (fifth  century) : "  Subdiaconus  cum  ordinatur 
.  .  .  accipiat  .  .  .  de  manu  archidiaconi  urceolum, 
aquamanile  et  nlanutergium''  (when  a  subdeacon  is 
ordained  he  shall  receive  from  the  hand  of  the  arch- 
deacon a  water-piteher,  a  finger-bowl,  and  a  manu- 
terge) is  written  regarding  the  rite  used  in  bestowing 
the  subdiaconate,  a  ceremony  in  practice,  of  course, 
to-day. 

Braun,  Winke  f&r  die  AnfeHiguno  det  ParamerUe  (Freibuig 
im  Br.,  1904),  72,  76;  Bock,  GeachiehU  der  liturgiechen  QewUn- 
der  (Bonn,  1871),  23  aq. 

Joseph  Braun. 

ManutiuB,  Aldus  (Aldo  Manuzio),  scholar  and 
printer;  b.  in  1450,  at  Sermoneta,  near  Rome;  died 
m  1515.  He  studied  Latin  at  Rome  and  Greek  at 
Ferrara.  In  1482  he  went  to  Mirandola,  where  he 
Uved  with  Ins  old  friend,  Giovanni  Pico,  continuing 
his  Greek  studies  there  for  two  years.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  Pico  tutor  to  the  latter's  nephews,  Alberto 
and  Idonello  Pio,  I^ces  of  Oarpi. 

At  (3arpi,  in  1490,  Aldus  conceived  his  brilliant 
and  original  project  of  establishing  a  Greek  press  at 
Venice.  The  funds  for  this  great  undertaking  were 
supplied  by  his  former  pupil,  Alberto  Pio.  Between 
the  vears  1494  and  1515  tnirty-three  first  editions  of 
all  the  greatest  Greek  authors  were  issued  from  the  Al- 
dine  press.  Aldus's  house  became  a  gathering-place 
for  the  learned  Greek  scholars  of  the  time.  The  men 
emp^yed  by  him  in  his  work  were  almost  all  Greeks, 
ana  the  prefaces  to  his  great  editions  were  almost  al- 
ways wntten  in  Greek.  Aldus's  aim  was  to  publish 
the  best  possible  books  at  the  lowest  possible  prices. 
The  type  used  for  his  great  library  of  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Italian  authors,  begun  in  1501,  was  the  italic,  known 
as  the  Aldine,  and  said  to  have  been  adapted  from  the 
handwriting  of  Petrarch.  It  was  cut  by  Francesco  da 
Boi(M;na,  and  had  already  been  used  (for  the  first 
time)  in  the  edition  of  Virgil  published  in  1500.  In 
1493,  or  before  tliat,  the  "Iiero  and  Leander"  of 
Mqsfl^us  was  published.    This  wan  (olVaw^wS.  Vs^  *<>c«a^ 


Plato,  Pindar,  and  othera 


fttmoiu  first  edition  of  Aristotle,  the  first  volume  ap- 
peariDg  in  1495,  sad  the  remaining  four  volumea  in 
1497  and  149S.  The  work  was  dedicated  by  Aldus 
to  his  patron,  Alberto  Pio. 

In  1499  AlduB  married  the  daughter  of  Andrea  Tor- 
resano,  of  Asola,  a  Venetian  printer.  The  two  print- 
ing establishments  were  then  combined  and  after  that 
date  the  names  of 
Aldus  and  AHoUnus 
appeared  on  the 
title-pages  of  works 
from  the  Aldine 
Preaa.  The  device 
adopted  by  Aldus 
for  the  title-pagee  of 
bis  publicatjons  was 
the  dolphin  sjid 
anchor,  with  the 
motto ,  FtsHna  Icnte. 
Within  the  next  few 
years  first  editions 
of  Aristophanes, 
Tbucydides,  Soph- 
ocles, Herodotus, 
Xenophon,  Euripi- 
des, Demosthenes, 
produced  at  Venice.  Be- 
sides these  Greek  authors,  many  Latin  and  Italian  pub- 
lioatjons  were  put  forth.  In  1508  the  groat  Dutch 
scholar,  Erasmus,  wrent  to  Venice  and  assisted  in  the  pub- 
licationofhis"  Proverbs"  by  the  Aldine  Press.  In  order 
to  promote  tlie  study  of  Greek  literature  and  the  pub- 
lication of  Greek  authors,  Aldus,  in  1500,  founded  the 
New  Academy,  or  Aldine  Academy  of  HclenistB.  The 
members  of  this  academy  were  required  to  speak 
Greek,  and  its  rules  were  written  in  Greek.  The  or- 
ganixation  comprised  the  tnost  distinguished  Greek 
scholars  in  Italy,  who  assisted  Aldus  in  publishing  the 
works  of  Greek  and  Ijitin  authors.  Under  their  di- 
rection the  first  Latin  and  Greek  lexicon  n'as  given  to 
the  world. 

Aldus  was  succeeded  in  the  management  of  his  great 
printing  establishment  by  his  son,  Paulua  Manutius 
(Paolo  ftlariuiio),  b.  at  Venice  in  1512.  Ho  died  in 
1574.  The  work  was  then  carried  on  by  the  latter's 
son,  Aldus,  until  his  death  in  1597. 

Stuonhh.  Rrrmitmicr  in  Ilaly.  II  (London.  189S);  Rwdt^ 
BiHQTV  otClainral  Scholarthip,  II  (Cambridge,  1908),  OS  i 

Dtdot,  Aldi  Man<Kt  <Paria,  IK75).    For  chrc--' '  "" 

AldioM,  soo  CuHlsTIE,  Baiiograpli'ica.  I  (ISt 

Eduund  Burke. 

Huuoiii,  Albbs&ndbo.  Italian  poet  and  novelist, 

b.  at  Milan.  7  Mareh,  178.J;  d.  22  May,  1873.  He  was 
the  son  of  Pietro  Manzoni,  the  representative  of  an  old 
feudal  family  of  provincial  landowners  with  estates 
near  Lecco,  and  Ills  wife  Giulia,  the  daughter  of  Ce- 
sare  Bcccaria,  the  famous  writer  on  political  economy. 
Donna  Giulin  was  separated  from  her  hiisliaml  in  1702. 
After  his  school-days  under  the  Bomaschi  and  the 
Bamabites,  and  a  short  stay  at  the  University  of 
Pavia,  the  poet  grew  up  at  Milan  in  mingled  study  and 
dissipation.  In  1805,  he  joined  his  mother  at  Paris, 
where  be  imbibed  Voltnirean  principles,  and  l)ecaine 
intimate  with  Fauriol  and  others.  At  Milan,  in  I80S 
he  married  Henriettc-Louise  Blondel,  the  daughter  of 
a  Swiss  bunker,  who  was  a  Protestant,  and  when,  in 
IHIO,  she  beenme  a  Catholic  at  Paris,  Manzoni  fol- 
lowed her  back  into  the  Church.  Thenceforth  his  life 
was  consecrated  to  religicai,  patriotism,  and  literature. 
He  settled  at  Milan,  the  neighbourliood  of  which  he 
pmctically  never  loft,  save  for  a  visit  to  Tuscany  in 
1827  for  the  purpose  of  making  himself  better  ao- 

Juainted  with  what  he  regarded  as  the  idea!  form  of  the 
taliuti  languace.  His  creative  work  was  all  done  be- 
tween ISI'3  and  1827,  ttft«r  which  he  was  mainly 
alwoiliwl  in  linguistic  siudies.  Am<mg  liis  chief 
fiwBds  vKTe  the  Milanese  romantic  writer,  Tonunasii 


iSsqa.; 


Grom.  the  Piedmontcm  novelirt  and  statesiiuii,  Mu- 
simo  d'AMglio,  who  married  his  daughter,  and  tbs 
philosopher  Autooio  Rosmini,  with  whom  he  wai 
cloaeiy  associated  from  1827  until  the  lattor's  death  b 
1855.  An  ardent  patriot,  Manzoni  was  in  the  fulkst 
sympathy  with  the  movement  for  the  liberation  and 
unification  of  Italy.  After  the  occupation  erf  Rome  in 
1870,  he  was  made  a  Roman  citisen;  but,  whether 
from  old  age  or  the  religious  difficulty,  he  never 
went  to  the  Eternal  City  to  take  his  seat  as  a  sena- 
tor. 

Manzoni'searliestpoem,  "IlTrionfodella  Uberti" 
(1801),  on  allegorical  vision  in  the  Petrarchian  maimer 
of  liberty  triumphing  over  tyranny  and  superstition, 
is  markedly  influenced  by  Vinccnio  Monti,  whom  be 
claims  as  his  master  and  hails  as  the  greatest  poet  of 
the  age.  This  and  the  poems  that  followed,  "In 
mode  di  Carlo  Imbonati"  (1806)  and  "Urania" 
(ISOO),  belong  to  the  classical  school  of  which  Monti 
was  the  recognized  head,  and  show  the  influence  like- 
wise of  Panni  and  Alfieri.  After  hie  conversion, 
Manxoni's  art  changed  no  less  than  his  life,  and  he  be- 
came the  chief  representative  of  tlie  romantic  school, 
the  principles  of  which  he  defended  later  in  his  letter 
"Sul  Romanticisrao"  (182.3  and  1871).  At  the  same 
time  he  desired  to  make  bis  work  a  literary  defence  of 
the  Catholic  Faith.  He  began  a  series  of  twelve  "Inni 
Sacri"  to  celebrate  the  chief  feasts  of  the  Church,  of 
which  only  five  were  written:  "La  Resurmiione" 
(1812),  "II  Nome  di  Maria"  and  "II  Natale"  (1813), 
"La  Passione"  (1815),  "La  Penteeoata"  (1822).  In 
these  he  brought  back  the  old  medieval  simplicity  into 
Italian  religious  poetrv,  freeing  it  from  the  conven- 
tionalities that  nad  become  traditional  since  the 
Renaissance.  Two  patriotic  lyrics,  celebrating  the 
Milanese  insurrection  of  1814  and  Hurat's  proclama- 
tion of  Italian  nationality  at  Rimini  in  1815,  beloiigta 
the  same  epoch.  His  two  tragedies,  "IlContediCkr- 
magnola"  (1820)  and  "L'Adelchi"  (1822),  are  noble 
works,  but  somewhat  lacking  in  true  dramatic  qual- 
ities; inspired  in  part  by  Schillerand  Goethe,  they  pve 
expression  to  the 

tions  of  the  Ital- 
ians at  a  timewhen 
these  seemed  far 
off  from  realisa- 
tion. This  poetic 
period  closes  with 
II  Cinigue  Mag- 
gie" (1822),  an 
ode  on  the  death  of 
Napoleon     which 

ficpular  Italian 
yno  of  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

"IPromessi 
Sposi ",  Manzoni 's 
great  masterpiece, 
was  wYitten  be- 
tween 1821  and 
1825,  and  rewritten  A""*"-"..  M««,n. 

in  1840.  t^ir  Walter  Scott  was  not  alone  in  ragardbif 
it  as  the  ^atest  romance  of  modem  times.  AgaiDSt 
the  historical  l>ackeround  of  the  Spanish  oppresauHi  in 
Milan  and  the  war  of  the  Mantuan  succwsion  (1628- 
1630),  we  have  the  story  of  the  love  and  fortunes  of  two 
young  peasants,  and  a  whole  series  of  inimitable  por- 
traits of  men  and  women  painted  with  the  art  of  a 
realist  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word.  Eameatnett 
of  purpose  is  combined  with  a  peouUariy  delicate 
humour  and  the  author's  moral  intention,  the  applica- 
tion of  Catholic  moralitv  to  the  study  of  Itfo  and  his- 
tory, is  Imrmonized  with  his  artistic  instincts,  and  in 
no  wise  olitnidcs  itsi-lf  upon  the  reader.  Amon^ 
minor  prose  works  are  the  "Osaervaxioqi 


Maiuoni's 


MAP                                   635  MAPHRIAN 

Bulla  morale  cattolica"  (1819),  a  defence  of  Catholicism  siastical  digaity  goes  back  certainly  to  the  seventh 

against  the  attacks  of  Sismondi;  the  ''Storia  dellaCo-  century  and  perhaps  to  the  closing  years  of  the  sixth, 

lonna  infame  **  (1840),  an  historical  appendix  to  his  ro-  When  the  theological  school  of  the  Persians  at  Ede^a 

mance;  the  dialogue  "Dell'  Invenxione  (1845);andan  had  been  closed,  first  by  Nonnus,  successor  of  Ibas 

essajr  on  the  unity  of  the  Italian  language  (1868).  (457),  and  definitivel^r  oy  the  Monophysite,  CVrus 

In  his  private  life,  Manzoni  was  under  every  aspect  (489),  Nestorianism  triiunphed  in  the  Empire  of  the 

most  aamirable  and  exemplary;  as  a  public  character,  Sassanides.   The  few  Persian  Monophysitcs,  like  Xen- 

hc  is  the  noblest  figure  in  the  Italian  literature  of  the  aias  (Philoxenus)  of  Tahal,  were  forced  to  go  into 

nineteenth  century."  exile.    Xenaias  became  Bishop  of  Mabug  (Hierop- 

.xm9P^\^A^^J?  ^<^r»o2}**  ed.  ScHEHiLLo  AND  Sfoma.  olis).    lu  Pcrsla,  the  town  of  Tagrit  alone  did  not 

(Milan,  1905.  etc.);  Opere  tnedtte  o  rare  at  AleMondro  Maruoni,  aAfXT^  ^U^  Tx«<»«ro;ii*.»  waI:^*;^*^  .  i*  u^^-,^^  fK^  «.^nf ..»  ^f 

ed.  BoKOHi  (Milak.  1883-1808);  Sfoma.  Seritti  pottumi  di  fdopt  the  prevailmg  lebgion;  it  became  the  centre  of 

i4/Mmn<fyt)jlfonAmi  (Milan.  1000);  Bovoui,,  Carteagio  fra  Ale»-  the  Monophysite  missions  at  the  Commencement  of 

aandro  Manzoni  e  Antonio  ^ojwntnt  (Milan,  1001);   Pmna.  the  sixth  Century.    The  energetic  James  Barad£eus 

i&f  JJStSSriJSTFtoS  i^rs^'^'^n'i^^i  5ri**°«'  f?'  %  fep^  f  tXp  Ahudenuneh  who 

onni  di  AletMondro  Manzoni  (new  ed.,  Milan.  1894):  Pbtkoo-  died  a  martyr  m  575.    But  the  efforts  of  the  monk  Ma- 

?^\\  IS^^^^"^^^  ^'*  «^«»to<»  ««%  .<<««  edizioni  dd  l8B5j  ruthas  Were  to  be  crowned  with  greater  success.    At 

i^^S^^ISSS  cniiiSTi^r*  ^^  «««  *™^  ^^^  ^^e  monastery  <5  Mar  Mattai  (near 

Edmund  G.  Gakdner.  Nineveh),  at  another  from  Tagrit  itself,  he  under- 

^  took  fruitful  missionary  work  among  the  Arabs  and 

Map  (sometimeB  wrongly  written  Mapis),  Walter,  throughout  the  valley  of  the  Tigris.    He  relied  on  the 

Aichdeaoon  of  Oxford,  d.  at,  or  in  the  vicinity  of,  influence  of  Chosroes  IPs  physician,  Gabriel  de  Shig- 

Herefoid,  o.  1140;  d.  between  1208  and  1210.    Be-  ^'  ^^^  ^^^^  completely  won  the  confidence  of  the 

longing  by  birth  to  the  Welsh  Marches,  he  was  in  all  Christian  queen,  Shirin. 

probability  Welsh  by  extraction,  though  the  two  Ian-  J^^m  time  to  time  the  Persian  armies,  which  in- 
guages  tlupough  which  he  has  be(^ome  known  in  litera-  vaded  the  Koman  territories  so  often  at  this  period, 
ture  are  memeval  church  Latin,  and  the  soHjalled  would  bring  back  a  multitude  of  captives,  Byaan- 
Norman-French  spoken  at  the  Court  of  Henry  II  of  *>n®8,  Egyptians,  Euphratesians  or  Edessans,  mostly 
England  as  well  as  in  the  law  courts  of  that  age  and  Jacobites.  So  in  628-9  it  was  ludged  suitable  to 
countiy.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  Walter  went  to  oi^nize  the  Monophysite  Church  in  Persia.  The 
the  University  of  Paris  where  he  studied  until  1160  Jacobite  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Athanasius  the  Chan- 
under  Girard  la  Pucelle.  In  1162  he  was  at  the  Court  cellpr,  saw  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  grant  the 
of  England.  Henry  made  him  a  clerk  of  his  household,  Syrians  in  the  Persian  Empire  a  large  ecclesiastical 
which  implies  that  Map  had  received,  or  was  about  to  autonomy.  In  fact  one  of  the  most  serious  objecticms 
receive,  Holy  orders.  After  this  the  road  to  other  raised  by  the  Nestorians  against  the  Monoph^ites 
preferments  was  open  to  him.  He  was  ^e  King's  rei>-  was  that  the  latter  obeyed  a  spiritual  head  residing  in 
resentativeattheThirdLateran  Council  (1179),  where  Byxantine  territory  and  that  thev  were  therefore 
he  waa  appointed  to  dispute  with  the  Waldensians.  inclined  to  become  the  subjects  of  the  Emperor  of 
He  held  various  benefices  and  at  last,  in  1197,  he  was  Constantinople.  Hence  the  Monophysites  were  fre- 
made  Archdeacon  of  Oxford.  An  unsuccessful  effort  Quently  denounced  at  the  Court  of  Seleucia  as  con- 
to  obtain  the  See  of  Hereford  brou^t  him  into  con-  spirators  favouring  the  Romans.  The  Sassanides 
tact  with  St.  Hush,  Bishop  of  Lincoln.  would  then  become  incensed  and  persecute  the  Jacob- 

The  place  of  mdter  Map,  however,  is  rather  in  the  i*^-    Athanasius    moreover   knew    certain    canons 

history  of  profane  literature   than  in  ecclesiastical  which  prescribed  that  the  head  of  the  "Oriental" 

history.    As  a  churchman,  though  his  life  must  have  Christians,  namely  the  Persians,  was  alone  entitled 

been  respectable  enough,  his  conversation  can  hardly  to  consecrate  '*  Oriental "  bishops,  and  he  was  aware 

have  tended  to  edification,  and  he  was  the  avowed  ^at  these  canons  dated  back  to  the  very  beginning  of 

enemy  of  the  White  Monks.    Girakius  Cambrensis,  J^e  Syrian  Churches.    He  decided  that  the  metropol- 

his  fnend  and  admirer,  states  that  in  his  oath  as  a  ^^ans  of  Tagrit,  when  ordained  by  him,  would  become 

king's  justice,  to  do  ]ustu»  to  all  men,  Map  made  a dis-  autonomous  and  be  sole  rulers  of  the  Monophysite 


observation,  written,  regardless  of  form,  on  the  sug-  ^hne  which  cannot  be  definitely  fixed  the  title  of 

^estion  of  one  Geoffrey,  to  set  down  his  (Map's)  say-  *'Mafriano". 

mgs  and  doings  that  had  not  been  committed  to  "^^  relations  of  the  maphrian  and  the  Jacobite 

writing.    It  is  also  implied  by  Map  that  he  wrote  at  Patriarch  of  Antioch  were,  despite  several  schisms, 

the  wish  of  Hennr  II,  at  whose  court  the  work  was  maintained  harmoniously.    In  869  it  was  decided 

composed.    Besides  this  woric  in  Latin,  there  is  good  that  just  as  the  patriarch  consecrated  the  maphrian  so 

reason  to  believe  that  the  earliest  prose  "  Lancelot"  the  consecration  of  a  new  patriarch  would  be  reserved 

was  based  on  a  French  poem  of  Walter  Map  (see  to  the  maphrian.    Within  their  own  circumscriptions 

Legends,  Arthur),    Lastly^  much  of  the  "  Goliardic"  the  maphrians  had  often  disputes  with  the  metropol- 

Latin  satire  on  the  clergy  of  that  period  has  without  ^tan  of  the  monastery  of  Mar  Mattai  (near  Nineveh) 

sufficient  reason  been  ascribed  to  him,  the  most  noted  who  was  jealous  of  the  preponderating  influence  of 

amone  that  class  of  writing  being  the  "Confessio  Tagrit.    In  1089  the  churches  of  that  town  having 

Golise^'  from  which  is  taken  Uie  famous  bacchanalian  ^^^  destroyed  by  the  Mussulmans,  the  maphrians 

lyric  be^ining  "  Mihi  est  propositum  in  tabema  mori".  abandoned  it  and  settled  in  Mosul.    From  a.  d.  1155 

The  chief  original  sources  are  the  D»  nim  eurialiwn  and  Gi-  they  generally  resided  at  Mar  Mattai  while  retaining 

r„Tr^^/i^15."X,ote)e^2^ral£Ji?i„^{i^^  ^  Immediate  jurtadiction  over  Tagrit  and  Nineveh'! 

Idem  m  Preface  to  Latin  Poemz  attributed  to  Walter  Map  (Lon-  "■^"®  ^^7  nu^hnan  worthy  of  bemg  specially  men- 
don,  1841);  KntoaroKD  in  Diet,  of  NaL  Bioor.,  B,  y.  tioned  is  the  celebrated  Gregory  Abulfaraflj,  sur- 

E.  Macphebson.  named  Bar  Hebrseus  (q.  v.)  (d.  1286),  the  most  highly 
.  cultured  man  of  his  age.    There  has  been  preserved  a 
Maplinan.--The  Synac  word  mafriano  signifies  history  bv  him  of  his  predecessors.    Thb  work  was 
one  who  fnictifies,  a  consecrator.    It  is  used  to  desig-  continuea  by  his  brother,  and  later  by  unscholarly  an- 
nate the  prelate  who  holds  the  second  rank  after  the  nalists,  and  stops  in  the  fifteenth  centurj-  (1490).    I- or 
patnarch  among  the  Jacobite  Syrians.    This  ecclc-  a  long  time  past  the  Jacobite  Chriat\aja£»^^^5asi^^^^'t 


of  the  Tigris  have  seriously  deoreaaediniiumberB.  The 
title  ot  mftphrian  still  exists,  but  the  office  has  loat  all 
ita  unportance  and  dignity. 

AWBUAHI,  BiUimhtca  Onentalii.  I,  ITS;  II.  liv.  209. 214,  21S: 
Bah  Heboaids.  Chnmiam  taUria^icum.  ed.  Abbeloos  «hd 
Lamt,  1L  parti.piTif-,p.  xviii;  part  ui,  epiloffue;  ViedtMandOt 
•d.  by  N*u;  Laboubt,  Le  chriiliani'me  Oant  rrmpin  Prrm 
(Fuii.  IBM). 

J,  Labourt. 

Harui,  Prudbntius,  a  learned  Benedictme  of  the 
Uaurist Congregation  b.  140ctober,ie83,atS^aniie, 
in  the  Department  of  Mame;  d.2  April,  1762,  at  Paris. 
After  studying  humanities  at  PanB  he  became  a  Bene- 
dictine at  the  abbey  of  St.  Faron  near  Meaux  on  30 
Januaiy,  1703,  and  continued  hLs  studies  at  the  abbey 
of  St.  Denis.  He  was  then  sent  to  tjt.  Germain-de»- 
Prts  to  collaborate  with  his  confrere  Toutt^  in  the 
edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem.  In 
1734  he  was  forced  to  leave  St.  Germain-des-Pr^  at 
the  instance  of  Cardinal  Bisay,  who  suspected  htm  of 
keeping  his  confreres  from  accepting  the  Bull  "  Uni- 
genitus".  After  spending  a  year  at  the  abbey  of  Or- 
bais,  he  was  sent  to  St.  Martin  de  Poiitoise  and  in  1737 
he  was  transferred  to  the  abbey  of  Blaacs-Manleaux. 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  profound 
knowledge  of  theology  and  patriHlics  is  attested  by  the 
learned  and  exhaustive  introductions  which  he  pre- 
fixed  to  his  critical  editions  of  Grceic  and  Latin  Fa- 
thers as  well  as  by  hia  other  literary  productions. 

His  masterpiece  is  the  cditiuD  of  the  works  of  St. 
Justin:  "  Justini  philos.  ot  martyris  opera  qum  extant 
omnia  necnon  TatiiLni,  Athcnagonc,  S.  Theophili, 
Hermiie"  (Paris,  1742;  l".  G.,  IV).  He  further  edited 
the  works  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  which  had  been 

frepared  by  Touttfe:  "S.  Cyriili  Hieroa.  opera" 
Paris,  1720;  P.  G.,  XXXIII);  the  works  ot  St.  Cyp- 
rian which  had  been  begun  by  St.  Baluie:  "8.  Cyp- 
riani  opera",  to  which  he  prefixed  a  basic  life  of  St. 
Cyprian  (Paris,  1726,  P.  L..  IV);  the  third  volume  of 
the  works  of  St.  Basil,  the  two  firat  volumes  of  which 
had  been  completed  by  Gamier  (Paris,  1730).  His 
other  works,  aft  anonymous,  are  "  Dissertation  but  les 
Simiariena"  (Paris,  1722);  "Divinitas  domini  noHtri 
Jeeu  Christi  manifeata  in  scripturis  et  traditione" 
tParis,  1746;  new cd.,Wiir!burg,  1859);  "Ladivinit* 
de  J^us  Christ  prouvte  contre  tes  h^r^tiques  ct  les 
d6i3t«s",3  vols.  (Paris,  1751);  "La  doctrine  de  I'^cri- 
ture  et  dea  p^res  aur  les  ^u^risons  miraculeitsea " 
(Paris,  1754) ;  "  Los  grandeurs  de  JiiauB  Christ  aveo  la 
defense  de  sa  divinity"  (Paris,  1756). 

Tavih.  Hilt.  lilt,  dt  !a  eonorfe.  dn  SaitU-Maar  (Bruaula, 
1770).  741-e  (Gonn.  tr..  FranWurt,  1773>,  II,  541-553:  Le 
Cbhf.  StMioCAiW  Aisf.  rtcril.  itaaalcuride  lacoagrfa.  ilc,<!iiinl- 
UauT  (The  Hseur.  1726),  ^<-H;  Laha.  fiAI.  da  /criramida  Id 
Conerlg.  de  Saint-Maur  (Munich  and  Paris,  1HS2),  180-2; 
Hdhter,  NomntdatoT  Lifrmnui,  IV,  ;ird  ed.  (Inaibnick.  1910), 
1462-5. 

MlCHABL  OtT, 

Haranatba.    See  Anatiieua. 

Haranbao.    See  Sao  Luiz  do  Makanuao,  Dio- 

Haiuta,  an  Armenian  Catholic  Diocese.  The  an- 
dent  name  of  this  village  was  most  probably  Ger- 
manida,  the  seat  of  a  titular  see  (see  Vol.  VI,  475). 
A  patriarch  resided  here  under  Afens  Comnenus, 
shortly  after  which  the  country  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Armenian  princes.  It  (hen  passed  into  the  power 
of  the  Crusaders,  who  established  there  a  countship 
dependent  on  tltat  of  Edeeaa.  The  Seljuks  captured 
it  in  1155,  and  after  various  changes  of  masters  it 
belonged  from  the  sixteenth  century  to  the  OamanU 
Turks.  The  town,  built  on  the  slopes  of  Ahour-dagh. 
is  watered  by  numerous  water-courses,  tributaries  ot 
Pyrnmus.  It  numbers  52,(K)0  inhabitants,  nearly 
l:i,0()0  of  whom  are  Catholics:  Armenians,  Chaldeans, 
I.iitins,  Melchites,  and  Syrians;  there  are  besides 
about  lO.OftO  schii^niatic  Clirisliaiis,  llie  greal«r  nuis- 
hi'r  lioiti/f  Anifniunn.    Many  of  these  depend  on  the 


AmecicaQ  Prot«etant  miaaion.  The  Catholic  dioceie 
ocmtaiDi  6000  faithful.  12  native  priests,  6  pajishea  or 
stations,  5  schools.  The  Armenian  Sistere  oi  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  have  an  establishment,  aa  have 
the  Franciscans  for  the  Latin  Catholics.  The  t«wn, 
which  is  a  sandjak  of  the  vilayet  of  Aleppo,  has  a  very 
bad  reputation.  The  Christians  suffered  partdculariy 
at  the  hands  of  the  Mussulmans  in  1895  and  ld09. 

CuiNET,  La  Tunpiie  iTAiU,  II  (Parii.  1802),  Z2ft-4B:  Dv 
CAHas,  LttJan^Ut  d-otart-mtr  (Part,  1809),  S«l  aq.;  Ui»- 
timtt  aUAoIica  (Rome,  1907).  7fiS. 

S.  VxiLHi. 

Hvatta,  CkB-io,  Italian  painter,  b.  at  Oatnerini^ 
in  the  March  of  Ancons,  13  May,  1625;  d.  in  Rome, 
15  December,  1713.  From  very  early  years  Maratta 
showed  an  extraordinary  skill  in  design,  and  was  sent 
by  his  patrons  to  Rome  to  study  under  Andrea  Sacchi, 
with  wnom  be  re- 
mained for  many 
years,  and  for  the 


rded 


hia 


greatest  fr  .  _ 
and  benefactor. 
After  a  while  be 
returned  to  his 
own  part  of  Italy, 
and  then  in  1650, 
in  company  with 
the  governor  of 
Ancona,  iCardinal 
Albriaio,  who  had 
very  much  ad- 
mired his  talent, 
he  came  again  to 
Rome,  and  was 
introduced  to 
Alexander  VTI, 
who  at  once  gave 
him    many   com- 

eventually,  at  the  request  of  Sacchi,  the  important 
one  for  a  painting  of  Constantine  destroying  the 
idols  for  the  Baptistery  of  the  Lateran.  Tim 
was  one  of  bis  greatest  works,  and  inninawKl  fail 
popularity  at  the  Vatican.  In  1704  he  was  knigktad 
by  Clement  XI,  and  given  the  Onler  ol  Chriat,  iriiik 
in  the  same  year  he  was  created  painter  ia  onii- 
nary  by  Louis  XIV  of  France,  who  had  wen  bia  pie- 
ture  of  Daphne  and  greatly  admired  it.  It  ma  am^ 
ing  his  residence  in  Rome  that  Maratta  was  atyltd 
Maratti  by  the  Romans,  and  his  name  it  frequently 
writtan  in  that  form,  althou^  originally  it  ynm  aa  iM 
have  given  it.  The  painter  was  a  member  of  thftAaad- 
emy  of  St.  Luke  in  Rome,  and  was  not  only 
artist  but  extremely  clever  at  cleaning  ana  i__. 

frescoes,  and  was  employed  by  Clement  XI  to , 

out  such  work  as  was  necessary  for  the  Raphael  liM- 
coesin  the  Vatican.  He  was  also  a  clever  etcber.uaBC 
the  tool  with  much  freedom  and  spirit. 

His  pictures  are  very  numerous.  There  are  •even] 
in  the  Louvre  and  others  in  Berlin,  Munich,  Vienna, 
Brussels,  Rome,  Florence,  St,  Pelersburg,  and  in  tha 
National  Gallery,  Hampton  Court.,  and  at  DevoOaUn 
House  in  England.  As  a  portrait  painlfr  he  takM 
high  place.  He  was  also  a  skilful  architect,  and  re- 
sponsible for  the  designs  of  several  buikiinga,  Ba 
religious  pictures  are  marked  by  a  certain  strength  and 
nobility,  coupled  with  a  gracious  harmony.  He  was 
not  so  skilful  in  arranging  drapery,  and  was  a  little 
disposed  to  exaggerate  the  details  and  acceasoriea, 
breaking  in  upon  the  gcneml  effect  of  his  pictures,  but 
this  fiiult  is  less  seen  in  his  portraits  than  in  his 
Madonna  groups  and  religious  compositions. 

Vabari.  Lt  Viu  dri  Pillon  (MiUnae  ed..  Florence.  1S78, 
ISSr.i:  Aavfi:,n«n  Kvn-lltr-LaKOn  (Fnukfoit.  1898):  I^akd, 
Sloriii  FiOunea  dtlla  llaliii  (BuHsniio,  1806);  DoutHId,  Vilrdi 
Pillori  (Naiilm,    174'.i);    Uont:*.   Oimriimnt   OtUporictt  ddt* 


CARDINAL  GItTLlO  ROSPIGLIOSI,  AFTERWARDS  POPE  CLEMENT  IX 

CARLO     UARATTA,    PINAKOTHEK,    MUNICH 


iAABBODina                   637  utABoiSLLnnm 

Swiona  (Palma,  1793):  Palomino  db  Castro  t  Vbijiboo,  El  anonymous,  defending  the  Crown.    After  the  submis- 

tf  uMo  Pictorico  V  Emx^  (Madrid^^  1715).  ^^  ^nd  resignation  of  Cardinal  de  Retz,  Marca  was 

Geobgb  Charles  Wiluamson.  ^^^^  ^^^  Archbishopric  of  Paris^  but  died  about  three^ 

MMbodiua,  Bishop  of  R^cmese^^  tT^^'l^^MrtSjuri^^^d  canonist!  Sft^hkth^ 

and  hymnologist  b.  about  1035  at  Angers,  Fra^ce^d-  logical  learning  wis  deficient,  and  his  subservience  to 

there  11  September,  1123^   He  received  his  early  edu-  ^j^^          .        *^  excessive.    He  displayed  a  certain 

Motion  at  Angers  under  Ramaldus,  a  disciple  of  Ful.  inconstancyin  his  opinions,  and  too  much  ambition 

bert  of  Chartres.    After  teaching  some  time  at  the  ^^^  attachment  to  his  own  interests, 

^thedrnl  school  of  Angers  he  was  put  at  the  head  of  ^^        ^^  numerous  publications  the  most  impor- 

the  educational  system  of  the  cit;r  and  Diocese  of  ^^^  ^^  "Histoire  de  Wm",  folio  (Paris,  1640); 

Angers  by  Bishop  Eusebius  Bnmo  in  1067.    Later  he  .  ^^  concordia  sacerdotii  et  imperii  seu  de  libertatibui 

became  archdeacon  and  m  1096  Urban  II  appointed  ^^^  gallican®-,  foHo  (PariST  1641)  (and  other  edi- 

him  Bishop  of  ^nnes.    In  hw  youth  he  mdu^ m  tions) ;  "Marca  his^ca seu  limes  hlspanicus ",  pub- 

many  excesses  but  from  the  time  be  became  bishop  ^y^^  '^^    ^^^        ^^^  (P^^i3  l^j     g^^^  u  ^Xtr^ 

his  life  was  without  reproach,    In  IIM  he  w^  present  in^ites'de  Marci"  have  been  published  by  Tarizey 

at  the  Council  of  Tours,  and  in  1109  Bishop  Ramaldus  ^    Larroque  (Paris,  1881)  and  by  J.  Bonnet  in  the 

of  Martigne  made  him  administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  uRevue  de  Gascogne",  January-^une.  1910. 

Angers  while  he  himself  made  a  journey  to  Rome.    At  baluze.  Vita  iUustrUsimi  viH  PhH  de  Marca  anhiepUcopi 

the  age  of  eighty^eight  he  resigned  his  diocese  and  Parm«?m«,  at  the  banning  of  the  editions  of  Concord%a  after 

withdrew  to  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St.  Aubin  1?63;    de  Facet,  Vtta  illuMHssimi  et  reverendisnmiPeln  ds 

^4.  A^^^^  «rU»..»  u«  Air^A  o^^»  »f4o.«      tli'a  o.f^.L-a  «r<«Mv  MoTca  lu  PHtx  ««  MaTca  d\%9ertal%onea  posthuma:  DubaraTi 

at  Angers  where  he  died  soon  after.    His  works  were  NoticebiooraphiquesurPierredeMarcaiPiixi,  1S96). 

first  published  at  Rennes  in  1 524.   A  new  and  enlarged  Antoine  Dsqert. 
edition  was  published  by  Beaugendre  (Paris,  1708), 

reprinted  in  P.  L.   They  comprise  many  lives  of  saints,  Marcellina,  Saint,  only  sister  of  St.  Ambrose  of 

various  epistles  and  some  elegantly  written  hymns.  Milan,  b.  about  330-5;  d.  about  398.    She  was  older 

A  French  translation  of  his  hymns  was  edited  by  than  St.  Ambrose,  and  was  bom  most  probably  at 

Ropartz  (Rennes,  1873).  Trier,  where  her  father  resided  as  prcefectus  pratorio 

Ernault,  Marhode,  6vfque  de  Rennes,  aa  vie  el  ses  ouvragea  GcUliarum.    Even  before  her  fathers  dfeath  sne  went 

i^«?6i'??ii»^^"^)f'»'Sj^Yfer7l'^^^  to  Rome,  the  home  of  her  f^nily   and.  before  her 

343-392.    Concerning  his  hymns  see  Blumb  and  Dreyks,  mothers  arrival  at  the  capital  With  her  two  sons,  had 

Analecta  hymnica,  I  (Leipug*  1907),  388  s<^                ^^  already  forsaken  the  world,  elected  to  live  a  life  of 

Michael  Ott.  Christian  virginity,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  prac- 
tices of  piety  and  asceticism.    On  Christmas  Day. 

Marca,  Pierre  de,  French  bishop  and  scholar,  b.  probably  in  353,  she  received  the  veil  of  consecrated 

at  Gan  in  B6am,  24  Jan.,  1594,  of  a  family  distin-  vir^nity  from  the  hand  of  Pope  Liberius.   The  advice, 

guished  in  the  magistracy;  d.  at  Paris,  29  June,  1662.  which  the  pope  addressed  to  her  on  this  occasion,  has 

After  studying  letters  at  the  college  of  Auch  and  law  been  preserved  by  St.  Ambrose  (De  viiginibus.  III. 

in  the  University  of  Toulouse,  he  became  councillor  i-iii),  especially  emphasized  being  the  obligations  of 

(1615),  and  then  president  (1621),  of  the  Parliament  Christian  virgins  to  preserve  vircinal  purity.    After 

of  Pau,  and  finally  intendant  of  B^am  (1631),  where  Ambrose  had  become  Bishop  of  Milan  (374),  he  sum- 

his  influence  greatly  helped  to  restore  the  Catholic  moned  his  sister  thither,  and  found  in  her  a  zealous 

religion  almost  extmguished  by  the  queen,  Jeanne  assistant  in  fostering  and  extending  the  ascetic  life 

d'Albret.    His  wife,  who  had  borne  him  four  children,  among  the  maidens  of  Milan.    To  her  Ambrose  dedi- 

died  in  1631,  and  from  that  moment  he  used  all  his  cated  his  work  on  virginity,  written  in  377  ("Libri 

spare  time  in  studying  and  in  writing  works  on  reli-  III  de  virginibus  ad  Marcellinam"  in  P.  L.,  XVI,  187- 

gious  controversy,  history — ^notably  the  "Histoire  de  232).    Marcellina  survived  her  brother,  and  died  in 

B^rn  " — and  canon  law.    For  the  sake  of  utilizing  his  398  or  shortly  afterwards.     She  also  was  buried  in  the 

ecclesiastical  learning,  Louis  XIII  summoned  him  to  crypt  under  the  altar  of  the  Ambrosian  Basilica,  and 

Paris  to  be  a  member  of  the  Coimcil  of  State  (1639).  was  honoured  as  a  saint.    Her  feast  is  celebrated  on 

At  Cardinal  Richelieu's  request  he  published  the  17  July. 

treatise  "Concordia  sacerdotii  et  imperii"  (1641),  in  ^ Lawrfo/w Mon^ina in Mombritius. 55., H. 95-7;  AetaSS., 

which  he  aeu  forth  hb  Gajlican  views.   After  ten  yea«  ^'J^^^^^TrA^S^S^^^VSr.^S^^^rt^ 

of  pious  and  laborious  life  as  a  widower,  be  aeciaed  timius  a  Lacdb  bt  Alanus  i>^  MACfCLANzs,  Diaaert.  hiaL  da 

to  enter  the  priesthood.     On  28  Dec.,  1641,  the  king  twnuhS.  Maro^iwa  wm   aorom  5.  Ambrosii  in  eiuadem  im- 

made  him  Bishop  of  Couserans  (Gascognv^,  but  he  SS2SiJ)KSAr^'' ^         *        ^*   See  abo  bibhogntphy  to 

was  not  preconized  until  ten  years  later,  after  having  *          *                                     J,  P.  Kibsch. 
seen  his  "  Concordia  "  placed  on  the  Index  and  having 

signed  a  retractation  ot  the  views  there  expressed.  Sent  MarceUinus,  Saint,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown; 
as  intendant  to  Catalonia,  which  had  submitted  to  elected  30  June,  296;  died  304.  According  to  the. 
France  (1644),  he  wrote  its  history,  under  the  title  "  Liber  Pontificalis'' he  was  a  Roman,  son  of  a  certain 
of  "  Marca  Hispanica " ;  this  work  was  published  after  Projectus.  The  Liberian  Catalogue  of  popes  (ed. 
his  death  by  his  secretary,  the  learned  Baluze.  Shortly  Duchesne,  "Lib.  Pont.'^  I,  6-7)  gives  30  June  as  the 
after  his  return  from  Catalonia,  Marca  was  made  Arch-  day  of  his  election,  and  the  years  296r-304  as  the  time 
bishop  of  Toulouse  (28  May,  1652) .  and  when  Innocent  of  his  pontificate.  These  dates,  accepted  by  the  au* 
X  condemned  Jansenism  in  1653,  ne  used  his  influence  thor  of  the  *'  Idber  Pontificalis  ,  are  verified  by  that 
to  have  the  condemnation  accepted.  After  that  he  ancient  source.  Nothing  has  been  handed  down  con- 
inspired  the  chief  measures  taken  against  this  heresy  ceming  the  activities  of  this  pope  in  his  reign  of  eight 
in  the  general  assemblies  of  the  clergy  (1655-60)  and  years.  We  learn  from  the  Roman  deacon  Severus's 
received  from  Pope  Alexander  VII  (1656)  a  highly  epitaph  in  the  Catacomb  of  Callistus  (De  Rossi, 
commendatory  letter.  Less  commendable,  however,  ''Roma  Sotterranea'',  III,  46  tav.  V)  that  at  that 
was  his  attitude  when  Louis  XIV  caused  the  arrest  of  time  new  burial  chambers  were  made  in  the  chief 
Cardinal  de  Reta,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  for  his  share  in  oemeterv  of  the  Roman  Church.  Severus  says  that  he 
the  uprising  of  the  Fronde.  In  opposition  to  the  pope  had  laid  out  a  double  ctUnculum  with  luminare  and 
and  cler^  who  were  offended  W  this  violation  of  arcosolium,  "jussu  pape  sui  Marcellini".  This  hap- 
ecclesia^itical  immunities,  Marca  oeeame  the  king's  pened  before  the  outbreak  of  the  great  Diocletian  per- 
cou  n  sp]  I  or.  and  i\Tote«;vpral  pamphlets,  some  of  them  secution;   for  in  this  the  Callistus  Catacomb  waa 


HAKCELLIXUS 


638 


BfiABOELLUnni 


confiseatod,  like  the  other  public  meeting-places  of 
the  Roman  community,  be  Rossi  assumes  that 
the  Christians  blocked  up  the  principal  galleries  of  the 
catacomb  at  this  time,  to  protect  from  ofesecration  the 
tombs  of  the  numerous  martyrs  buried  there.  The 
Diocletian  persecution,  whose  severe  edicts  against 
the  Christians  were  executed  by  Maximianus  Hercu- 
leus,  caused  tiie  greatest  confusion  in  the  Roman 
Church  after  303.  Marcellinus  died  in  the  second 
year  of  the  persecution  and,  in  all  probability,  a  nat- 
ural death.  No  trustworthy  sources  of  the  fourth  or 
fifth  century  mention  him  as  a  martyr.  His  name 
does  not  occur  either  in  the  list  of  martyrs  or  the 
bishops  in  the  Roman  "Chronograph  "  of  the  year  364. 
Neither  is  he  mentioned  in  the  "  Martjrrologium  Hie- 
ronymianum".  The  "Marcellinus  episcopus"  on  4 
Oct.  in  "Codex  Bemensis"  (ed.  De  Rossi-Duchesne, 
129)  is  probably  not  identical  w^ith  the  pope.  In  men- 
tioning Marcellinus,  Eusebius  uses  an  obscure  expres- 
sion; he  merely  says:  "the  persecution  also  affected 
him"  (dp  Kcd  ainhv  KaT€CKii<^v6duiyfibs  "Hist.  Eccl.", 
VII,  32).  From  this  one  must  obviously  conclude 
that  the  pope  did  not  suffer  martyrdom,  other- 
wise Eusebius  would  have  distinctly  stated  ?.t.  There 
were  even  later  reports  in  circulation  that  accused  him 
of  having  given  up  the  sacred  books  after  the  first 
edict,  or  even  of  having  offered  incense  to  the  gi>d8; 
to  protect  himself  from  the  persecution.  But  vhe 
sources  in  which  this  reproach  is  clearly  stated  are 
very  questionable. 

The  Donatist  Bishop  Petilianus  of  Constantine  m 
Africa  asserted,  in  the  letter  he  wrote  in  400  and  410, 
that  Marcellinus  and  the  Roman  priests  Melchiades. 
Marcellus,  and  Sylvester  (his  three  successors)  had 

S'ven  up  the  sacred  books,  and  had  offere<l  incons.?. 
ut  he  could  not  adduce  any  proof.  In  the  Acts  of 
confiscation  of  the  church  buildings  at  Rome,  which 
at  the  great  Carthaginian  conference  between  Cath- 
olics and  Donatists,  were  brought  forward  by  the  lat- 
ter, only  two  Roman  deacons,  Straton  and  Cassius, 
were  named  as  traitors.  St.  Augustine,  in  his  re- 
plies to  Petilianus.  disputes  the  truth  of  the  latter's 
report  ("Contra  litteras  Petiliani",  II,  202:  "De 
(]uibus  et  nos  solum  respondemus:  aut  non  probatis  et 
ad  neminem  pertinet,  aut  probatis  et  ad  nos  non  perti- 
nct";  "De  imico  baptismo  contra  Petilianum",  cap. 
xvi: "  Ipse  scelestos  et  sacrilegos  fuisse  dicit;  ego  inno- 
centes  fuisse  resj)ondco").  One  can  only  conclude 
from  Petilianus's  accusation  that  such  rumours  against 
Marcellinus  and  Roman  priests  were  circulated  m  Af- 
rica; but  that  they  could  not  be  proved,  otherwise  St 
Augustine  would  not  have  been  able  to  assert  the 
innocence  of  the  accused  so  decidedly,  or  safely  to  have 
referred  to  the  matter  at  the  Carthii^nian  conference. 
But  even  in  Rome  similar  stories  were  told  of  Marcel- 
linus in  certain  circles,  so  that  in  two  later  legendary 
rej)ort8  a  formal  apostasy  was  attributed  to  this  poixj, 
of  course  followccf  by  reixiiitance  and  penance.  1  he 
biography  of  Marcellinus  in  the  "Liber  Pontificalis ", 
which  probably  alludes  to  a  lost  "passio*'  of  his,  re- 
lates that  he  was  led  to  the  sacrifice  that  he  might 
scatter  incense,  which  he  did.  But  after  a  few  davs  he 
was  seized  with  remorse,  and  was  condemned  to  death 
by  Diocletian  with  three  other  Christians,  and  Ixj- 
headed.  It  is  clear  that  this  report-  attempts  to  com- 
bine a  rumour  that  the  pope  had  offered  incense  to  the 
gods,  with  the  fact  that,  in  other  circles  he  was  re- 
gardoii  as  a  martyr  and  his  tomb  venerated. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  rather  later 
than  this  "passio  Marccllini",  a  collection  of  forged 
documents  appeare<l,  which  were  manufactured  in  the 
dispute  lx?tween  Pope  Symmachus  and  Laurentius. 
Among  them  are  also  found  apocryphal  Acts  of  an 
alleged  s>Tiod  of  300  bishops,  wnich  took  place  in  303 
at  ^inuessa  (between  Rome  and  Capua),  in  order  to 
inquire  into  the  accusation  against  Marcellinus  that  he 
had  sacrificed  at  I)io(?letian'3  order.     On  the  first  two 


days  Marcellinus  had  denied  everything,  but  on  tht 
third  day  he  admitted  his  lapse  and  repented;  how- 
ever the  synod  passed  no  sentence  on  him  * '  Quia  prima 
sedes  non  judlcatur  a  quoquam''.  When  Diocietiazi 
learnt  of  the  occurrence,  he  had  the  pope  and  several 
bishops  of  this  synod  executed  (Hefele,  "Konsilien- 
geschichte",  I,  2  Aufl.  143-45).  The  spuiiousness  of 
these  acts  is  almost  certain.  Tlie  foraer  has  made  the 
most  of  the  rumour  of  Mareellinus's  Eipse  for  his  own 
purposes  in  a  different  way  from  the  author  of  the 
^'passio",  which  crept  into  the  "Liber  Pontificalia ". 
These  apocryphal  fragments  cannot  by  themselves  be 
considered  as  historical  proofs,  any  more  than  the 
rumours  in  Donatist  circles  in  Africa.  It  is  accepted 
as  certain  that  the  pope  did  not  comply  with  the  im- 
perial edict  by  any  overt  act,  such  as  the  surrender  of 
the  sacred  writings,  or  even  the  offering  of  incense  be- 
fore the  statue  of  a  god.  Such  an  apostasy  of  a  Ro- 
man bishop  would  without  a  doubt  nave  been  fiven 
the  greatest  prominence  by  contemporary  auUiors. 
Euseoius  has  not  made  use  of  the  aoeve  mentioned 
idea.  And  later,  Theodoret  was  still  less  in  a  position 
to  state  in  his  "Church  History",  that  Marcellinus 
had  been  prominent  in  the  persecution  row  iw  rf 
8itayfi$  iiairphl/arra  (Hist.  Eccl.,  I,  2).  And  Augustine 
also  would  not  have  been  able  to  assert  so  curtly  in 
answer  to  Petilian,  that  Marcellinus.  and  the  pnests 
accused  with  him  as  traitors  and  "lapei  "  were  inno- 
cent. 

On  the  other  hand  it  is  remarkable,  that  in  the 
Roman  "Chronograph "  whose  first  edition  was  in  336, 
the  name  of  this  pope  alone  is  missing,  while  all  other 
popes  from  Lucius  I  onwards  are  forthcoming.  In 
the  MS.  there  is  indeed  under  16  Jan.  (XVI n  kaL 
I'v*b.)  the  name  Marcellinus,  but  this  is  clearly  a  slip 
of  the  pen  for  "Marcellus";  for  the  feast  of  this  pope  is 
found  rx)th  in  the  "  Marty rologium  HieronjTnianum" 
and  in  the  old  liturgical  Roman  books  under  this  date, 
while  in  the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  and,  in  connection 
therewith,  in  the  historical  martyrologies  of  the  ninth 
century,  the  feast  of  Marcclliniis  is  transferred  to  26 
April  (ActaSS.,  June,  VII,  185).  By  certain  investiga- 
tors (Mommsen,  de  Smedt)  the  lack  of  Marc^linus's 
name  was  traced  to  the  omission  of  a  copyist,  owing  to 
the  similaritv  of  the  names,  and  in  the  "  Deposit io  £pis- 
coporum"  they  claimed  to  supplement  the  "Chiono- 

Eiph":  XVII  kal.  Febr.  Marcelli  in  Priscillie;  VI 
1.  Mali  Marcellini  in  Priscillse  (de  Smedt,  "  Introdue- 
tio  in  hist.  eccl.  critice  tractandam''  612-13).  But 
this  hypothesis  is  not  accepted.  The  dates  of  the 
death  ot  the  poises,  as  far  as  Svl  vester  in  the  list  of  suo- 
cessions,  are  identical  with  the  days  of  the  month  on 
which  their  feasts  are  celebrated.  Thus  Marcellinuf 
must  come  first  after  Gains,  whose  name  is  quoted 
imder  the  date  X  kal.  Maii.  Tlien  Marcellinus  is  lack' 
ing  not  only  in  the  ''Chronograph'',  but  also  in  the 
''Martyrologium  Hieronymianum",  and  in  all  fifth 
and  sixth  century  lists  of  popes.  This  omission  if 
therefore  not  accidental,  but  intentional. 

In  connection  with  the  above  mentioned  rumoun 
and  the  narratives  of  apocryphal  fragments,  it  must 
indeed  be  admitted  that  in  certain  circles  at  Rome  the 
conduct  of  the  pope  during  the  Diocletian  persecution 
was  not  approved.  In  this  persecution  we  know  of 
only  two  Roman  clerics  who  were  mart)rred:  the  priest 
Marcellinus  and  the  exorcist  Petrus.  The  Roman 
bishop  and  the  other  memliers  of  the  higher  clexgy, 
except  the  al>ove  clerics,  were  able  to  elude  the  per- 
secutors. How  tliis  happened  we  do  not  know.  It 
is  passible  that  Pope  Marcellinus  was  able  to  hide 
himself  in  a  safe  place  of  concealment  in  due  time,  as 
many  other  bishops  did.  But  it  is  also  possible  that 
at  the  publication  of  the  edict  he  sccurecf  his  own  im- 
munity; in  Roman  circles  this  would  have  been  im- 
puted to  him  as  weakness,  so  that  his  memory  suf- 
fered thereunder,  and  he  was  on  that  account  omitted 
by  the  author  of  the  "Depositio  Episcoporum"  from 


MiJtOXLLnrUB                    639  makoeluhus 

the  " Chronograph '^  while  he  found  a  place  in  the  Donatist^  falsely  accused  him  out  of  hatred  (Adv. 

''CatologusLiberianus",  which  was  ahnoBtcontempo-  Pelagium,  III,  (3).    Although  St.  Augustine  intor- 

rary.     But  his  tomb  was  venerated  by  the  Christians  ceded  for  him,  and  several  other  African  bishops  came 

of  Rome,  and  he  was  afterwards  recognized  as  a  forward  in  his  favour,  he  was  beheaded  12  September, 

martyr,  as  the  "passio"  shows.    MarcelOnus  died  in  413,  by  order  of  Marinus;  the  latter  was  soon  after 

304.    The  dav  of  his  death  is  not  certain ;  in  the  "  li-  called  away  from  Africa,  and  in  the  edict  of  30  August, 

ber  Pontificaus"  his  burial  is  wrongly  placed  at  26  414,  which  regulated  the  carrying  out  of  the  decrees 

April,  and  this  date  is  retained  in  the  historical  mar-  against  the  Donatists,  Marcellinus  was  referred  to  with 

tyrologies  of  the  ninth  centuxy,  and  from  them,  in  the  honour.    His  name  b  in  the  Roman  Martvrology,  and 

later  martyrologies.     But  if  we  calculate  the  date  of  his  feast  is  celebrated  on  6  April  as  that  of  a  martyr, 

his  death.from  the  duration  of  his  office  given  in  the  Ada  8S.,  April,  X,  639^2;  Did.  Chriu.  Biog.,  Ill,  806-7; 

Liberian  Catalogue,  he  would  have  died  on  24  or  25  "LmcLBRCfipUAfriquechritienne,  II  (Paris,  1904),  lo^,  139-40. 

Oct.,  304.    His  body  was  mterred  in  the  Catacomb  of  J-  P-  Kibsch. 
Priscilla  on  the  Via  Salaria,  near  the  crypt  where  the 

martyr  Cre»centius  found  his  resting-plaice.  The  Cata-  MarceUinui  Oomes,  Latin  chronicler  of  the  sixth 

comb  cd  Callistus,  the  official  bunal  place  of  the  century.    He  was  an  Illyrian  by  birth,  but  spent  his 

Roman  Church,  where  the  predecessors  of  Marcellinus  life  at  the  court  of  Constantinople.    Under  Justin  I 

were  buried  during  several  decades,  was  evidently  con-  (518-527)  Marcellinus  was  chancellor  to  Justinian,  the 

fiscated  in  the  persecution,  while  the  Catacomb  of  Emperor's  nephew  already  chosen  as  his  successpr. 

Prisciila,  belongmg  to  the  Acilii  Qlabriones,  was  still  When  Justinian  succeeded  to  the  throne  (527-565), 

at  the  disposal  of  the  Christians.  his  chancellor  remained  in  favour  and  obtained  va- 

The  tomb  of  Marcellinus  was  venerated  at  a  very  nous  high  places  in  the  government.  Otherwise  little  or 
early  date  by  the  Christians  of  Rome,  llie  precise  nothing  is  Known  of  his  life.  He  died  apparently  soooa 
statements  aoout  its  position,  in  the  *'  Liber  Pontifi-  after  534.  Tlie  only  surviving  work  of  Slarcelhnus  is 
calls'' ,  indicate  this.  In  one  of  the  seventh  century  his  chronicle  (Annales),  one  of  the  many  continuations 
itineraries  of  the  graves  of  the  Roman  martyrs,  in  the  of  Eusebius.  It  covers  the  period  from  379  to  534. 
"  Epitome  de  locis  ss.  martyrum",  it  is  expressly  men-  first  he  brought  it  down  to  518,  then  he  added  a  cou- 
poned among  the  sacred  graves  of  the  Catacomb  of  tinuation  to  534,  as  he  says  himself  in  the  work.  An 
Priscilla  (De  Rossi,  "Roma  sotterranea'',  I,  176).  unknown  writer  added  a  continuation  down  to  566. 
In  the  excavations  at  this  catacomb  the  crypt  of  St.  Although  the  work  is  in  Latin,  it  describes  almost  ex- 
Crescentius,  beside  which  was  the  burial  chamber  of  clusively  the  affairs  of  the  East.  The  author  says 
Marcellinus,  was  satisfactorily  identified.  But  no  truly  that  he  has  "followed  only  the  Eastern  Em- 
monument  was  discovered  which  had  reference  to  this  pire  ".  The  few  facts  about  Western  Europe,  taken 
pope.  The  precise  position  of  the  burial  chamber  is  from  Orosius's  **  Historia  adv.  paganos "  and  Genna- 
therefore  still  uncertain.  The  lost  ''passio"  of  Mar-  dius's  "De  viris  illustribus",  are  introduced  onl^  in  as 
cellinus  written  towards  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  much  as  they  relate  in  some  way  to  Constant mople. 
which  was  utilized  by  the  authorof  the ''Liber  Pontifi-  On  the  other  hand  the  chronicle  is  filled  with  umm^ 
calis",  shows  that  he  was  honoured  as  a  mart}^*  at  portant  details  and  anecdotes  about  that  city  and  its 
that  time;  nevertheless  his  name  appears  first  in  the  court.  Contemporary  Church  history  is  described 
"Martyrology"  of  Bede,  who  drew  nis  account  from  fully  as  far  as  tne  East  is  concerned.  Marcellinus  is 
the  '*  Liber  Pontificalis"  (Quentin,  *'  Les  martyroloees  uncompromisin^y  orthodox  and  has  no  good  word  to 
historiques'',  103,  sq.).  This  feast  is  on  26  April.  Tne  say  of  any  of  the  heretics  who  appear  in  his  pages, 
earlier  Breviaries,  which  follow  the  accoimt  of  the  He  is  often  inaccurate.  He  mentions  Theodoret  of 
"  Liber  Pontificalis"  concerning  his  lapse  and  his  re-  Cyrus  in  466,  whereas  that  person  died  ten  years  ear- 
pentance,  were  altered  in  18S3.  lier.    Cassiodorus  (De  Institut.  divims,  XVII)  men- 

Liber  PoniUUxaia,  ed.  DucRBairs,  I.  6,  7, 162-lM;  cf. /n^  tions  two  Other  Works  of  this  author,  four  books  "  De 

^*?55l^  cS^I'Sje.^^'SS^i^^  1:  Si'^^i'i:  temporum  qualitatibus  et  pasitionibus  locorum '' ;  and 

P<mt.  Rom.  (Rome,  1819);   L\norn,  Oeaehichu  der  riymitchm  a  "most  exact  descnption  of  tlie  Cities  of  Constanti- 

Kvpche^,  370-872;  Allard.  Hittoirt  des  penicutioiu,  TV,  37d-  nople  and  Jerusalem  m  four  little  books  *\    Both  are 

379;     DucaiBaNB,  Htttaire  anctenne  de  VEglue,  II,  92  sq.;  i^ 

^KKXjccau  II  aepoUro  dd  papa  Marcdlino  nd  Hmitero  di  Pn»-  ii         ,,.        ,     «.         i     „               ^    j.        1 1*  i    j      . 

ciUa  in  NuovoBuU.diardieol.end,  {1907),  lis  a<i.  Maroelhnus's  "Annales"  were  first  pubhshed  at 

J.  P.  K1B8CH.  Paris  in  1546  (by  A.  Schonhovius) ;  again  by  J.  Sir- 

mond  (Paris,  1619);  in  the  Lyons  "Maxima  Biblio- 

MaroeUinns,  Flavius,  date  of  birth  unknown ;  d.  12  theca  veterum  Patrum  "  (1677) ,  IV,  517 ;  in  Gallandi's 

September,  413.    He  was  a  high  official  (trtbunu8  el  "Bib^otheca   veterum   Patrum"^   X,   343;   and   in 

noUinus\  at  the  court  of  Emperor  Honorius,  and  po»-  "P. L,'*  LI,  917.    The  best  text  is  that  of  Mommsen 

sessed  the  confidence  of  his  imperial  master  owing  to  in  his  "Chronica  minora"  in  "Monum.  Germ.  hist. 

Us  good  sense,  and  unblemished  conduct.     In  411  auct.  antiquiss."  (Berlin,  1894),  IX,  pp.  37  sq.    The 

Honorius  sent  him  to  Africa  as  plenipotentiary  judge,  work  is  used  by  Jordanis  the  Goth  (d.  c.  560). 

to  preside  and  pass  sentence  at  the  great  conference  HoLOBR-EaoBR.  Die  Chronik  des  MareeUinua  comen  in  Neuea 

between  the  representatives  of  the  Catholics  and  the  Archivfar  alure  deuteche  Gesehichte  (1876).  250-253;  Idbm,  Die 

Donatists,  whiA  began  on  1  June  of  the  same  year  and  ?^i??;^J^i^r'^^rH'S!:VfrHeti^'''^^T^^f^^ 

lasted  several  days.    Marcellinus,  who  had  conducted  don,  1889);   Krumbacher,  Oeeeh.  d.  hyzant.  Lit.  (2nd  ed., 

the  negotiations  with  great  patience  and  entire  impar-  Munich,  1^96). 

tialit  y,  decided  in  favour  of  the  Catholics,  whereupon  Adrian  Fortescue. 
new  imperial  decrees  were  published  against  the  Dona- 
tists. The  great  interest  which  the  imperial  envoy  MarceUinti0  of  Oivesjsa  (in  the  world  Pietro 
showed  in  theolo^cal  and  religious  questions,  brou^t  Ranise),  O.F.M.,  modem  Franciscan  author,  bom  at 
about  close  and  friendly  relations  between  him  and  St.  Civezza  in  Liguria,  Italy,  29  May,  1822 ;  d .  at  Leghorn, 
Augustine,  who  wrote  him  several  letters,  and  dedi-  27  March,  1900.  He  entered  the  order  of  the  Friars- 
cated  various  books  to  him  ("  De  peocatorom  meritis  Minor  in  the  Roman  province,  receiving  the  habit  at 
et  remissione",  "De  baptismo  parvulorum",  the  first  Cori,  1  Feb.,  1838.  He  completed  his  philosophical- 
three  books  of  "De  Civitate  Dei")-  St.  Jerome  also  theological  studies  at  Tivoli  and  Lucca.  In  1844  he 
wrote  him  a  letter.  In  413  MarceUinus  and  his  brother  obtained  the  degree  of  Lector  (Professor)  in  philoso- 
Apringius  were  imprisoned  by  Marinus,  who  had  phy,  and  in  the  following  year,  17  May,  was  ordained 
crushed  the  rising  of  Heradianus,  as  being  alleged  sup-  pnest.  For  some  years  he  taught  at  Tivoli ,  Ferentino, 
porters  and  partisans  of  the  latter.    Jerome  says  the  Viterbo,  Aracceli  in  Rome;  ir  1^54  he  retired  to  Recco 


ItmoXLLO  640  MAEOfLLim 

in  his  native  province  of  Genoa.    By  order  of  Bemar-        Marcellns  I,  Saint,  Popb,  date  of  Urth  unknown; 

dino  Tricmfettiy  minister-general  of  the  Friars-Minor,  elected  pope  in  May  or  June,  308;  d.  in  309.    For  some 

Marcellinus  in  1856  was  entrusted  with  the  ^gantio  time  after  the  death  of  Maroellinus  in  304  the  Diocle- 

task  of  writing  the  history  of  the  Franciscan  missions,  tian  persecution  continued  with  imabated  severity, 

to  which  the  greater  part  of  his  life  was  devoted,  ana  After  the  abdication  of  Diocletian  in  305,  and  the  ao- 

for  which  he  undertook  great  journeys  all  over  Eu-  cession  in  Rome  of  Maxentius  to  the  throne  of  the 

rope,  brin^g  home  great  literary  treasures,  especially  Caesars  in  October  of  the  following  year,  the  Christians 

from  the  hbraries  and  archives  of  Spain.    Later  on  he  of  the  capital  again   enjoyed   comparative   peace, 

resided  n(iostly  at  Frato  and  at  Rome,  engaged  in  the  Nevertheless,  neany  two  years  passed  before  a  new 

publication  of  his  works.    From  1881  to  1889  Mar-  Bishop  of  Rome  was  elected.    Then  in  308,  according 

oellinus  was  definitor-general  of  his  order,  and  finally  to  the  ''Catalogue  Liberianus^',  Pope  Maroellus  first 

in  1899  he  retired  to  the  convent  of  Leghorn,  where  he  entered  on  his  office : ' '  Fuit  temporibus  Maxenti  a  ochis. 

peacefully  died.    During  his  long  literary  career  Mar-  X  et  Maximiano  us<fue  post  consulatum  X  et  septi- 

oellinus  made  the  acquaintance,  of  many  prominent  mum"  ("Liber  Pontif.".  ed.  Duchesne,  1, 6-7).    This 

men,  with  whom  he  carried  on  a  large  correspondence,  abbreviated  notice  is  to  be  read:  "  A  cons.  Maximiano 

preserved  in  the  convent  of  Leghorn.    He  enjoyea  Herculio  X  et  Maximiano  Galerio  VII  lSOS\  usque 

also  the  hiph  esteem  of  Leo  XIII,  to  whom  he  dedicated  post  cons.  Maxim.  Hierc.  X  et  Max1n\.  Gafer.  Yll 

some  of  his  works.  [309]"   (cf.   de  Rossi,   "  Inscriptiones    chriat.    urbie 

The  total  nmnber  of  books  and  brochures  published  Ilomffi",  I,  30).  At  Rome,  Maroellus  found  the 
by  Marcellinus  amounts  to  between  seventy  and  Church  in  the  greatest  confusion.  The  meeting- 
eighty.  Though  his  method  was  not  always  strictly  sci-  places  and  some  of  the  burial-places  of  the  faithful 
entific,  he  has  the  undeniable  merit  of  having  aroused  had  been  confiscated,  and  the  ordinarv  life  and 
interest  in  Franciscan  historv  and  literature,  which  of  activity  of  the  Church  was  interrupted.  Added 
late  has  spread  so  widely.  Only  a  few  of  his  most  im-  to  this  were  the  dias^isions  within  the  Church  itself, 
portant  works  can  be  mentioned  here:  (1)  ''Storia  caused  by  the  large  number  of  w^dcer  members  idio 
universale  delle  Mission!  Francescane  "  (Rome,  Frato.  had  fallen  away  during  the  long  period  of  active  pene- 
Florence,  1857-1895), 11  vols.  in8vo.  A  French  version  cution  and  later,  under  the  leadership  of  an  apostate, 
of  thisworkwasbegunby  Victor-BemardindeRouen^  violently  demanded  that  they  should  be  readmitted 
O.F.M.,  4  vols.  (Paris,  1898-99) ;  (2)  "  Saggio  di  to  communion  without  doing  penance.  Ac(x>rdmg  to 
Bibliografia  geografica,  storica,  etnografica  Sanfran-  the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  Mi^ellus  divided  the  teiri- 
cescana"  (Prato,  1879),  8vo;  (3)  ''Epistolse  Missiona-  tonal  administration  of  the  Church  into  twen^-five 
riorum  Ordinis  8.  Francisci  ex  Frisia  et  Hollandia ''  districts  (tihdi),  appointing  over  each  a  preebyter, 
(Quaracchi,  1888), 8vo;  (4)  two  periodicals:  (a)  "Cro-  who  saw  to  the  preparation  of  the  catechumens  for 
naca  delle  Missioni  Francescane'',  6  vols.  8vo  (Rome,  baptism  and  directed  the  performance  of  public  pen- 
1860-66;  Fr.  trans.,  Louvain,  1861-67);  (b)  "Le  Mis-  ances.  The  presbvter  was  also  made  respociAble  for 
sioni  Francescane  in  Palestina  ed  in  altre  regioni  the  burial  of  the  dead  and  for  the  celebratiosiB  oanh 
della  Terra".  8  vols.  8vo  (Rome,  Florence,  Assisi,  memorating  the  deaths  of  the  martyrs.  The  pope 
1890-97) ;  (5)  ''  U  Romano  Pontincato  nella  Storia  also  had  a  new  burial-place,  the  Ccaneteriufn  Novium 
d'ltalia",  3  vols.  8vo  (Florence,  1886-87) ;  (6)  "  Fra-  on  the  Via  Salaria  (opposite  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Pm- 
tris  Johaimis  de  Serravalle  Ord.  Min.  . .  .  translatio  et  cilia),  laid  out.  The  '^  Liber  Pontificalis"  (ed.  Ducheflne; 
commentum  totius  libri  Dantis  Aldi^herii,  cumtextu  I,  164)  says:  '^Hic  fecit  cymiterium  Novellae  via  Sa- 
italico  Fratris  Bartholomsi  a  Colle  eiusdem  Ordinis  "  laria  et  XXV  titulos  in  urbe  Roma  constituit  quaa 
(Prato,  1891), in  foL;  (7)  "La  Leggenda  di  San  Fran-  dioecesis propter baptismumetpcBnitentiammultonuD 
cesco,  scritta  da  tre  suoi  Compagni  (legenda  trium  qui  convertebantur  ex  paganis  et  propter  sepultuns 
Sociorum)  pubblicata  per  la  pnma  volta  nella  vera  martyrum'\  At  the  begimiine  of  the  seventh  oentmy 
sua  integrity"  (Rome,  1899;  Fr.  trans,  by  Arnold  there  were  probably  twenty-nve  titular  churches  in 
Coffin,  Brussels,  1902).  Numbers  (3)^  (4b),  (6),  (7)  Rome;  even  granting  that,  perhaps,  the  compiler  of 
were  published  with  the  collaboration  of  Father  the  "Liber  Pontifioalis''  referred  this  number  to  the 
Theopnil  Domenichelli,  O.F.M.,  his  inseparable  friend,  time  of  Marcellus,  there  is  still  a  clear  historical  tradi- 

DoMEmcHELu,  In  Memoria  del  P.  MarceUino  da  Civexta  tion  in  support  of  his  declaration  that  the  ecclefliastiesi 

(Florence..  1906);    Acta  Ordinis  Fratrum  Minorum,  XXV  administration  in  Rome  was  reorganised  by  this  Dooe 

tauantcchi.  1906).  263HJ4,  t  IVARIU8  Oliger  after  the  great  persecution.  *^^    ^  ^^ 

LivARius  UUGER.  rj,^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  howcvcr,  quickly  inter- 

__  ^    „     ^  ..-_..     ,.^.     ,     ^  rupted  by  the  controversies  to  which  the  question  ol 

MarceUo,  Benedetto  b.  in  yemce  m  1696;  d.  at  the  readmittance  of  the  lapsi  into  the  Chuit^  cave 
Brescia  m  July,  1739.  MarcoUo  s  life  was  a  strange  rise.  As  to  this,  we  ^ther  some  light  from  the  poetic 
mixture  of  the  political  and  the  artLstic.  In.  1730  he  tribute  composed  by  Damasus  in  memory  of  his  wede- 
became  Proveditore  of  Pola,  but  his  health  failed  here  cesser  and  placed  over  his  grave  (De  Ro^,  '^bct. 
and  he  assuined  the  duties  of  Camerlengo  at  Brescia,  christ.  urbis  Rom©",  II,  62,  103,  138:  csf.  Idon. 
He  furnished  the  hbretto  of  Ruggien  s  "  Arato  in  "Roma  sotterranea",  II,  204-6).  Damasus  relates 
Sparta  .  The  hbrary  at  San  Marco  m  Venice  pos-  that  the  truth-loving  leader  of  the  Roman  Church  was 
sesses  the  manuscript  copy  of  his  well  known  looked  upon  as  a  wicked  enemy  by  all  the  lapsed,  be- 
"Teona  Musicale'  and  m  the  Royal  Library  of  Dres-  cause  he  msisted  that  they  should  perform  ^^  pre- 
den  are  original  copies  of  "II  Timoteo'  and  "La  scribed  penance  for  theu-  guilt.  As  a  result  senow 
Cassandra  .The  Royal  Library  at  Brussels  has  pre-  conflicts  arose,  some  of  which  ended  in  bloodshed,  and 
ser\'ed  the  MS.  copy  of  "  II  Tnonf o  della  Musica  nel  every  lx>nd  of  peace  was  broken.  At  the  head  of  this 
celebrarsilamortediMariayergjne'  .^Hisgreat  'Para-  Imnd  of  the  unfaithful  and  rebellious  stood  an  imostate 
phrase  of  the  Psalms"  is  his  be^  work  though  his  ^ho  had  denied  the  Faith  even  before  the  outbreak  of 
settmgs  of  the  Salve  Regma.  the  Miserere,  and  the  La-  persecution.  The  tyrannical  Maxentius  had  the  pope 
mentations  of  Jeremias  contain  features  of  deep  inter-  seized  and  sent  into  exile.  This  took  place  at  the  end 
est  to  the  student  of  the  history  of  music.  The  7  Para-  of  308  or  the  beginning  of  309  accordmg  to  the  pas- 
phrase  appeared  m  instahnents,  the  first  pubhcation  gages  cited  above  from  the  ''Catalogue  liberianuT, 
being  in  1724.  His  collaborator  was  the  poet  Gius-  which  gives  the  length  of  the  pontificate  eb  no  more 
tiniani.                            ^w    •  rv  n         rw-*.-          /  ^^^  ^^®  y^**"'  ®**  (°'*  seven)  months,  and  twenty 

Bttrsky,  General  Hialorv  of  Munc,  TV:  Quoyk,  Dichonary  of  A^vf.      MaropUiifl  Hiwi  shnrtJv  tdi^r  lAAvm»  DA«n» 

Mwic;   BiNOLBT.  Hidorv  of  the  Muaidana  of  idth  A  17th  ^y°'    J*iarce"us  <"ea  snortiy  wter  leaving  Rome, 

Centuriee,  II.  And  was  venerated  as  a  samt.    His  feast-day  was  16 

William  Finn.  January,  according  to  the  **  Depositio  eptsooporum" 


HABOELLUS 


641 


HABOELLUS 


if  the  "  Chronography"  of  ^54  tutd  every  other  Roman  pointed  the  adviser  and  prii-ate  secretary  of  the  youBg 
authority.     Nevertheless,  it  is  not  known  whether    and  inexperienced  cardinal  and  as  such  had  a  neat  in- 

this  is  the  date  of  hia  death  or  that  of  tlie  burial  of  his  fluence  in  the  papal  curia.  He  accompanied  Faraese 
rentains,  aft^r  these  had  been  brought  back  from  the  on  bis  various  legations,  and  in  order  that  he  might 
unknown  quarter  to  which  he  had  been  exiled.  He  take  actual  part  ia  the  consultations  and  negotiations 
was  buried  in  the  catacomb  of  St.  Priscilla,  where  his  between  Famese  and  the  monarchs  of  Europe,  he  was 
nave  is  mentioned  by  the  itineraries  to  the  graves  of  created  cardinal-priest  of  the  title  of  Santa  Croce  in 
the  Ronian  martyrs  as  existing  in  the  basilica  of  St.  Gerusalemme,  19  December,  1539.  He  had  already 
Silvester  (De  Rossi,  "Roma  sotterranea",  I,  176)  been  appointed  to  the  See  of  Nicastro,  in  addition  to 

Afifth-century"PaasioHarcelli",  which  is  included  which  he  became  administrator  of  the  Diocese  of 
in  the  leeendary  account  of  tiw  martyrdom  of  St.  Reggio  the  following  year  and  that  of  Gubbio  in  1644. 
Cyriacus  (cf.  Acta  Sanct.,  Jan.,  II,  369)  and  is  followed     In  1539  he  accompanied  Farnese  on  an  important  lo- 

"     ■""     .—         .  Ration  to  Ctiarles  V  of  Germany  and   Francis  I  of 

France.   The  purpose  of  this  legation  was  to  induce  the 

two  monarchs  to  send  the  prelates  of  their  countries 

to  the  intended  General  Council  of  the  Church  and  to 

gainst  Henry  VIII  of  England 


by  the  "Liber  Pontificalis",  gives  a  different  account 
or  the  end  of  Marcellus.     According  (     ''  ' 


at  a  station  on  the  public  highway  (cata&uiiim).  At 
the  end  of  nine  months  he  was  set  free  by  the  clergy; 
but  a  matron  named  Lucina  having  had  her  house  on 
the  Via  Lata  consecrated  by  him  as  "  titulus  Marcelli " 
he  was  again  con- 
demned to  the  work 
of  attending  to  the 
horses  brought  into 
the  station,  in  which 
menial  occupation  he 
died.  All  this  is  prob- 
ably legendary,  the 
reference  to  the  res- 
toration of  ecclesi- 
astical activity  by 
Marcellus  alone  hav- 


Thcy  had  an  audience  with  Francis  I  at  Amiens  on 
9  February,  1540,  and  with  the  emperor  at  Ghent  on 
the  twenty-fourth  of  the  same  month,  but  their  mis- 
■"  already  returning  to 

Rome  when  Cervini 
received  orders  from 
the  pope  to  stay  as 
legate  at  the  impe- 


ing  . 


1  hiator 


.  The  tradition 
related  in  the  verses 
of  DamasuB  seems 
much  more  worthy 
of  belief.  The  feast 
of  St.  Marcellus, 
whrae  name  is  to  this 
day  borne  by  the 
church  at  Rome  men- 
tioned in  the  above 
legend,  ia  still  cele- 
brated on  1 6  JanuBiy. 
There  Btill  re-    "     '- 


;seiit  him  at  the 
Diet  which  the  em- 
peror wished  to  con- 
vene at  Speyer. 
When,  however,  it 
became  evident  that 
the  Protestants 
would  be  mBdomi- 
nant  at  the  Diet  and 
had  no  desire  to  come 
to  an  understanding 
with  the  Catholics, 
the  pope  counter- 
acted his  order  and 
sent  no  represen- 
tative to  the  Diet 
which  in  the  mean- 
time had  been  trans- 
ferred to  Hagenau. 
In  October,  1540, 
Cervini  returned  to 
bementionedMonimsen'Bpeculiar  view  that  Marcellus  Rome,  not,  however,  before  he  had  ui^ntly  re- 
was  not  really  a  bishop,  but  a  simple  Roman  presbyter  quested  the  pope  to  send  a  representative  to  the 
to  whom  was  committed  the  ecclesiastical  administra-  intended  Diet  of  Worms.  In  a  consistory  held  at 
tion  during  the  latter  part  of  the  period  of  vacancy  of  Rome  on  6  February,  1545,  hewaa  appointed  one  of 
the  papal  chair.  According  to  this  view,  16  January  the  three  presidents'of  the  Council  of  Trent.  His  two 
was  really  the  date  of  Marcellinus's  death,  ijie  next  colleagues  were  Cardinals  Giovanni  Maria  del  Monte 
occupant  of  the  cliuir  being  Eusebius  (Neues  Archiv,     (afterwards  Julius  III)  and  Reginald  Pole.     On  13 


Vdtit 


This  hypothesis  has,  however, 

,  ,_.   .,  IM-A:    cf.  Introduction, 

J.,  Jan.,  II.. MO;  L*noeh.  OmcA.  der  iVSn.  Kircht, 


March,  1645,  he  arrived  at  Trent  During  the  first 
period  of  the  Council,  i.  e.  from  its  opening  session  on 
13  December,  1545,  until  its  prorogation  for  an  indefi- 
nite period  at  Bologna  on  14  September,  1547,  he 
fearlessly  represented  the  interests  of  the  pope  and 
the  Church  against  all  opposition  from  the  emperor, 
whose  extreme  hatred  he  in  consequence  incurred. 
In  1548  he  succeeded  Aeostino  Steuco  as  librarian  of 
the  Vatican  with  the  title  of "  Bibliothecte  Apostolicte 
ir_,: !.__. __.__„      Under  bis  protectorate  the 


.  Hwcellus  H,  Pope  (Marcbllo  Cervini   oequ 

SPANNOCm),  b.  6  May,  1501    at  Montepulciano  it      __ 

Tuscany;  d.  6  May,  1555,  at  Rome.    His  father,  Ri-  Vaticana!  Protector 

cardo  Cfervini,  was  .\poatolic  treasurer  in  the  March  of  Vatican  library  was  soon  put  in  a  flounshing  condition. 

Ancona.     Atteratudyingsome  time  at  Siena,  became  More  than  500  I^tin,  Greek  and  Hebrew  volume* 

to  Rome,  shortly  after  the  accession  of  Clement  VII,  were  added,  and  new  catalogues  of  the  Greek  and 

inl523,  to  continue  hiastudies,  and  through  his  purity  Latin  manuscripts  were  prepared.     As  early  aa  1539 

of  life  and  longing  for  knowledge  gained  the  respect  he  had  induced  the  pope  to  have  printed  at  least  the 

and  friendship  of  many  peraona  of  high  influence,  moat  valuable  Greek  manuscripts.     Ccrvini'a  pubUc 

Paul  III,  who  had  succeeded  Clement  VII  in  1534,  ap-  activity  was  less  prominent  during  the  pontificate  of 

pomted  him  prothonotary  apostolic  and  papal  secre-  Julius  III  (1550-5).     He  was  replaced  aa  president  of 

tary.     When,  in  1538,  Paul  III  entrusted  hia  youthful  the  Council  of  Trent  bv  Marcel lo.Crescenii  in  the  hope 

nephew.CardinalAlessandroFameae, with  practically  that  the  emperor  would  give  his  support  to  the  presi- 

the  complete  management  of  the  temporal  affairs  of  dents  of  the  Council. 

the  Church,  the  prudent  and  virtuous  Cervini  was  ap-  After  the  death  of  Julius  III  (23  March,  1555),  tha 
IX.— 41 


BiABOELLUS 


642 


ICA&OHAKD 


cardinals  present  in  Rome,  39  in  number,  entered  the 
conclave  on  4  April,  and  four  days  later  Cardinal  Mar- 
cello  Cervini  was  elected  pope,  although  the  emperor 
had  instructed  his  cardinals  to  prevent  his  election. 
Contrary  to  custom,  Cervini,  like  Adrian  VI,  retained 
his  old  name  of  Marcello  and  was  called  Marcellus  II. 
On  the  following  day,  10  April,  he  was  consecrated 
bishop,  for,  though  he  had  administered  the  Dioceses 
of  Nicastro,  Reggio,  and  Gubbio,  he  had  not  yet  re- 
ceived episcopal  consecration.  He  was  crowned  pope 
on  the  same  day,  but  without  the  customary  solem- 
nity, on  account  of  the  Lenten  season.  The  new  pope 
had  been  one  of  those  cardinals  who  were  desirous  of 
an  inner  reform  of  the  Church.  While  administrator 
of  Reggio  he  undertook  a  thorough  visitation  of  the 
diocese  in  1543,  and  abolished  abuses  wherever  thev 
were  found.  Immediately  upon  his  accession  he  took 
the  work  of  reform  in  hand;  he  died  after  a  reign  of 
only  22  days,  of  a  sickness  resulting  from  over- 
exertion duringthe  pontifical  functions  of  Holy  Week 
and  Easter.  Falcstrina  entitled  one  of  his  famous 
polyphone  masses  "Missa  Papee  Marcelli^'  in  his 
nonour.  This  mass  was  not,  however,  as  is  often  as- 
serted, chanted  in  the  presence  of  Marcellus  II;  it  was 
not  composed  until  after  the  death  of  this  pope. 

PoLTDORUS,  De  vUa  gettis  el  moribua  MarceUi  IT,  Papa 
(Kome,  1744) ;  Pastor,  Oetchichte  der  Paepste  seit  dem  Atugang 
dea  MiUdaUera,  V  (Freibunt  im  Br.,  1900),  passim;  Ehseb, 
Conct7tum  Trideniinum,  I  (Fr^burg  im  Br.,  1900),  IV  (1904), 
passim;  NtmtiaturberichU  aua  DeiUachland  nebal  ergaemenden 
AHmduecken,  Y,  October,  1539-November.  1540  (Qotha, 
1908),  passim,  especially  249  sq.;  see  also  bibliography  under 
Trent,  Ck>UNaL  or. 

Michael  Ott. 

MarcelluB  of  Anc3rra,  one  of  the  bishops  present  at 
the  (Jounciis  of  Ancvra  and  of  Nicsea,  a  strong  oppo- 
nent of  Arianism,  but  in  his  zeal  to  combat  Arius 
adopting  the  opposite  extreme  of  modified  Sabellian- 
ism  and  being  several  times  condemned,  dying  de- 

S rived  of  his  see  c.  a.  d.  374.  A  few  years  after  the 
buncil  of  Nicsea  Marcellus  wrote  a  book  against 
Asterius,  a  prominent  Arian.  In  this  work  he  main- 
tained that  the  trinity  of  persons  in  the  Godhead  was 
but  a  transitory  dispensation.  God  was  originalljy 
only  One  Personality,  but  at  the  creation  of  the  uni- 
verse the  Word  or  Logos  went  out  from  the  Father 
and  was  God's  Activity  in  the  world.  This  Logos 
became  incarnate  in  Christ  and  was  thus  constituted 
Son  of  God.  The  Holy  Ghost  likewise  went  forth  as 
third  Divine  Personality  from  the  Father  and  from 
Christ  according  to  St.  John,  xx,  22.  At  the  consum- 
mation of  all  things,  however  (I  Cor.,  xv,  28),  Christ 
and  the  Holy  Ghost  will  return  to' the  Father  and  the 
Godhead  be  a^ain  an  absolute  Unity.  The  bishops  at 
Jerusalem  havmg  condemned  his  works,  Marcellus  was 
firstdeposed  at  Constantinople  in  336  at  a  council  imder 
the  presidency  of  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  the  Arian, 
and  Basil  of  Ancyra  appointed  to  his  sec.  Marcellus 
sought  redress  at  Rome  from  Julius  I,  who  in 
the  autumn  of  340  declared  Marcellus  innocent  of  the 
charges  brought  against  him,  and  reinstated  him  in 
his  see.  Constantius,  when  threatened  by  his  brother, 
allowed  the  restoration  of  Athanasius,  Marcellus 
and  others  to  their  sees  in  348.  Marcellus'  re- 
turn was  resisted  by  the  populace  of  Ancyra,  but  he 
succeeded  in  occupying  his  see  for  a  few  years,  only  to 
be  finally  deposed  by  the  Macedonian  faction  at  Con- 
stantinople and  succeeded  by  Basil,  c.  353.  St. 
Athanasius  himself  at  last  recognized  Marcellus'  heter- 
odoxy; Pope  Damasus  likewise,  in  380,  and  the  Second 
General  Council  pronounced  against  him.  Eusebius  of 
Giesarea  wrote  against  him  two  works:  '*  Contra 
Marcellum",  an  exposition  of  Marcellus'  doctrine,  and 
"On  the  Theology  of  the  Church,"  a  refutation  of 
Marcellus. 

Zahn,  Marcellus  of  Ancyra  (Gotha,  1867);   Loors.  SUzber. 
dtr  Berlin.  Academie  (Berlin,  1902),  764  sqq. 

J.  P.  Arendzen. 


March,  Auzias,  Catalan  poet,  b.  perhaps  in  the 
last  quarter  of  the  fourteenth  century,  at  Valencia; 
d.  there  in  1458.  He  is  the  greatest  lyric  poet  of  the 
older  period  of  Catalan  literature,  and  among  for- 
eigners is  one  of  the  best  to  realise  the  spirit  of 
Petrarch's  love  lyric.  A  knowledge  of  Dante^s  work 
is  also  apparent  in  his  poetical  imagery,  which  rises 
superior  to  that  of  the  troubadour  poetry  still  written 
by  March's  contemporaries.  According  to  report, 
March  was  a  soldier  of  fame  and  took  part  in  the  expe- 
dition of  Alfonso  V  of  Aragon  against  Naples;  this 
report  needs  verification.  He  certainly  came  of  a 
noble  stock,  and  seems  to  have  contracted  marriage 
twice.  His  extant  poems  consist  of  ninety-three  love 
songs  (or  Cants  d  amor)  and  eight  death  songs  or 
elegies  {Cants  de  mart),  besides  some  moralising  poems 
{Cants  morals),  a  long  Cant  espiritual,  and  a  brief 
"Demanda  fcta  a  la  Senyora  Na  Tecla  de  Borja". 
The  lady  celebrated  in  the  love  lyrics  is  said  to  have 
been  a  fair  gentlewoman  of  Valencia,  Teresa  Bou  (or 
Monboy),  whom  March  met  for  the  first  time — even  as 
Petrarch  had  met  his  Laura — in  church  on  a  Good 
Friday.  Following  Petrarch's  example,  the  Catalan 
poets  sings  her  not  only  in  life,  but  also  in  death.  In 
these  compositions  March  reveals  himself  as  a  genuine 
poet,  in  spite  of  the  occasional  obscurity  of  his  Jines. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  also  to  his  credit  that  the 
Catalan  language  was  a  very  imperfect  medium  for 
poetical  expression  when  he  began  to  write,  so  that  he 
had  many  difl^culties  to  overcome  when  seeking  to 
give  utterance  to  subtle  poetic  thought  such  as  IV 
trarch  had  set  down  in  the  far  more  supple  Italian.  In 
the  ''Cants  morals"  he  brings  an  indictment  agAJnat 
the  contemporary  society  for  its  materialism  aim  am- 
fulness;  while  in  the  "Cant  espiritual  he  arraiAiui 
himself  for  his  own  shortcomings.  The  "DemanSi^ 
is  a  poetical  epistle  of  slight  account.  It  is  a  notahh 
fact  that  in  his  own  time  Mareh  was  already  lauded  m 
a  great  poet  by  the  well-informed  Castilian,  the  Mmt-' 
quis  of  Santillana.  In  the  sixteenth  century  his  lyiici 
were  translated  twice  into  Castilian,  first  by  Haltaaar 
de  Romani  (printed  in  1539,  four  years  before  the  fini 
edition  of  the  original  Catalan  text),  and  again  bj 
Jorge  de  Montemayor.  His  influence  is  clear  in  a 
number  of  the  leading  poets  writing  in  Spanish  in  thtt 
same  century,  such  as  Boscan,  Garcilaso  de  la  Vegm 
and  Mendoza. 

Among  modem  editions  of  the  work  of  March  see  that  off 
Barcelona,  1864.  and  that  also  of  Barcelona,  of  1888,  aeitber  off 
which  is  very  good.  Cf.  Rubio  t  Ors,  Atitiaa  M.  y  tu  4poem 
(Barcelona,  1862);  Paqes,  DocumenU  irUdita  reltUifa  it  ia  wU 
(TA.M.  in  Romania,  XVII,  186;  Morel-Patio  in  QrAbbk, 
Orundriaa  der  roman.  Philologie,  II,  ii,  79;  and  Dbnk,  EinftUk- 
rttng  in  die  Geachichte  der  altcatalaniachen  LiUeratitr  CHunidl. 
1893),  567  sqq.  (a  book  to  be  used  with  caution). 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 
March,  John.    See  Harbor  Grace,  Diocese  of. 

Marchand,  Jean  Baptiste,  second  prmcipal  in 
order  of  succession  of  the  Sulpician  College  of  Montreal 
and  missionary  of  the  Detroit  Hurons  at  Sandwich 
Ont.;    b.  at  Verch^res,  Que.,  25  Feb.,  1760,  son  of 
Louis  Marchand  and  Marguerite  de  Niverville;   d.  at 
Sandwich,  14  Apr.,  1825.    Marchand  was  ordained  11 
March,  1786,  affiliated  to  the  Sulpician  Seminary  of 
Montreal,  21  Oct.,  1788,  and  thereupon  named  pnn* 
cipal  of  what  is  now  called  Montreal  Collep;e.     This 
institution  was  cradled  in  the  presbytery  oi  M.  Jean 
Baptiste  Curateau  de  la  Blaiserie,  S.S.,  parish  priest 
at  Longue  Pointe,  an  outlying  village;  the  first  stu* 
dents  having  been  received  there  about  the  year  1767. 
It  was  removed  to  the  city  1  Oct.,  1773,  and  installed 
in  the  old  Chateau  Vaudreuil,  Jacques  Cartier  Souare, 
where  it  was  known  as  St.  Raphael  s  College  untu  1803 
when  the  Chdteau  was  destroyed  by  fire.     M.  Mar- 
chand's  administration  of  St.  Raphaers  lasted  till 
1796,  when  the  death  occurred  of  M.  Francois  Xavier 
Dufaux,  S.S.,  missionary  to  the  Hurons  at  Assimiption 
Parish  opposite  Detroit,  at  what  is  now  Sandwich,  and 


MABOHAItr  6- 

U.  M&rch&nd  was  ohoaen  to  succeed  turn.  It  waa  dur- 
ing H.  Marchond'a  adminiatration  In  1801,  that  Ii^. 
D«ukUt,  Bishop  of  Quebecj  made  the  firat  episcopal  visi- 
tation recorded  in  thepansh,  and  confirmed  some  five 
hundred  peraoDH.  He  at  the  same  time  gave  H. 
Harchand  an  assistant  in  the  person  of  Rev.  F^lix 
Gratien,  who  was  recalled  in  1^06  to  fill  the  chair  of 
pbiloaophy  in  the  Quebec  Seminary.  M.  Marchand 
toiled  on,  unaided  for  the  most  part,  for  ail  but  thirty 
years,  and  died  abhis  post  among  his  beloved  Indians. 

TAKaCAT,  Appertain  Otnfnd  dti  CUrgt  CaruuHtn;   HiranBr- 
Latocb,  Ann-uairt  dr  VUlx  Mant. 

AsTHCR  Edwabd  Jongs. 

Hardumt,  Peter,  theologian,  b.  at  Couviu,  a  vil- 
lage in  the  principality  of  Lifige,  in  1585;  d.  at  Ghent, 
11  Nov.,  1661.  His  brother  James  Vbs  the  author 
of  the  well-known  work  "Hortus  Paatorura",  Peter 
entered  the  Franciscan  Order  in  1601.  He  led  an 
austere  life  and  was  a  strict  observer  of  the  Fianciscan 
Rule.  He  acquired  a  profound  knowledge  of  Scholas- 
tic philosophy  and  theology  and  for  several  years 
taught  in  the  schools  of  his  order.  In  1G25  he  was 
elected  definitor  general  of  the  order  at  the  genera! 
chapter  held  in  Rome;  and  in  lfi39  was  appointed 
commissBiy  geaeral  over  the  provinces  of  Germany, 
Belgium,  Holland,  Great  Britain,  and  Ireland.  Ilis 
duties  as  commissary  general  brought  him  into  con- 
tact with  Irish  politics  during  the  troublesome  times 
of  the  "Confederation  of  Kilkenny",  Unfortunately 
he  allowed  himseu 
to  be  deceived  by 
false  reporta  on 
the  true  state  of 
affairs  in  Ireland 
and  he  took  sides 
with  the  Ormond- 
ists  and  gave  en- 
couragement to 
Peter  Walah  and 
his  supporters  in 
their  opposition  to 
the  nuncio  Rinac- 
cini.  He  was  called 
upon  by  the  au- 
thorities of  the 
order  to  justify 
his  conduct  in  con- 
ncKJon  with  the 
Irish  question,  and 
in  1661  he  ad- 
dressed to  the  gen- 
eral chapter  Uien 
assembled  in 
Rome  hia  apologia  under  the  title  of  "  Relatio  veridica 
et  sincera  status  Provinciae  Hibemis  ",  etc.  This  is  a 
very  rare  book,  as  it  waa  never  widely  circulated  and 
was  condemned  by  the  general  chapter  and  ordered  to 
be  destroyed. 

Marchant  waa  a  voluminous  author,  Hia  chief  work 
is  "Tribunal  Sacramentale"  (3  vols.,  Ghent,  1642; 
Antwerp,  1673),  for  the  use  of  confessors.  It  contains 
a  fuU  exposition  of  moral  theology.  He  puts  aside  all 
disputed  opinions,  and  simply  states  the  doctrinal 
teaching  of  the  Church,  drawing  hia  proofa  from  Edy 
Scripture,  the  dccisiona  of  councils,  the  constant  tradi- 
tion of  the  Church,  and  the  writings  of  the  saints. 
The  treatise  on  Probabilism  is  lucid  and  complete. 
Ita  principlea  are  in  accordance  with  the  restrictions 
placed  on  the  doctrine  later  on  by  the  decrees  of  Alex- 
ander VII  and  Innocent  XI;  and  in  many  points  is 
identical  with  the  doctrine  subsequently  propounded 
by  Daniel  in  hia  refutation  of  the  "Lettres  Provin- 
cialea".  Marchant  wrote  sevenl  worka  on  the  oultua 
of  St.  Joseph.  His  work  intituled  "Ssncti6catia9, 
Joseph  Spons)  Virginia  in  utero  asserts"  (Bi 
d.),  was  placed      ■■    >    ■      •"■»     ■    -■""- 


n  the  Index,  19  March,  1633.  &alao 


wn>t«  "  Baoulus  Pastoralis  aive  Potestas  flpiscoporura 
in  Regulares  exemptoa  ab  originibus  aula  espUcata" 
(Bruges,  1638);  Resolutiones  notabiles  variorum 
casuumet  gusstionumamultishactenuadestderatffi" 
(Antwerp.  1655),  Many  of  hia  works  are  on  the  his- 
tory and  legislation  of  the  Franciscan  Order. 

WADDDfo-SBAnALEX^m'stsru  Ord.  Uin.  (Rome,  1806); 
JOANHU  \  3.  Ant,,  Bibtieaeea  Univ.  Francitama  (Hadrid, 
1732);  FoPFi»(B,  BMioUuea  BOgica  (BiubhIs,  1739);  Dirks, 
Hidoirt  liatnart,  etc,  (Antwerp,  ISSS):  ConUmporani  fTuMv 
of  Affairtinlnland,  ad.  GlI^Ka,T  IDahUu.  1870-60), 

Gbbgory  Cleaht, 

Haicheai,  Pomfeo,  a  Lombard  sculptor  of  the  neo- 
classic  school,  b.  at  Saltrio,  near  Milan,  7  August, 
1790;  d.  at  Milan,  6  February,  1858.  He  studied  in 
Rome  under  Canova  and  ret^ived  much  encourage- 
ment from  his  master.  The  greater  part  of  his  life  waa 
spent  in  ^lilan,  where  for  many  years  he  waa  profeasor 
of  aeutpture  at  the  Academy.  He  executed  a  gi«at 
number  of  groups  in  marble  and  portrait  buata.  One 
of  his  earliest  works  was  a  colossal  statue  of  St.  Am- 
brose, patron  of  the  city-  for  the  Arco  della  Faos 
(Simplon  commemorative  arch),  completed  1838,  he 
made  the  relieta  of  Terpsichore  and  Venus  Urania. 
He  decorated  the  facade  of  the  Castillo  with  twelvo 
figures  of  great  Italian  captains,  and  that  of  the  Palauo 
Saporiti  with  reliefs  in  modem  classic  style.  One  of 
his  best-known  compositions  is  the  group  of  the 
"Mater  Dolorosa",  in  the  church  of  San  Carlo,  at 
which  he  laboured  many  yeai^.  Works  outside  of  Milan 
are  the  colossal  statue  of  Charles  Emmanuel  III  at  N»> 
vara;  that  of  Philibert  Emanuel  of  Savoy  at  Turin; 
the  sitting  figure  of  Goethe  for  the  library  at  Frank- 
tort;  two  statues  of  the  Emperor  Francis  I  of  Austria, 
one  made  with  the  assistance  of  Manfredoni,  for 
Goritz,  and  another,  unasaisled,  for  the  Hofburg  at 
Vienna.  He  also  executed  the  monument  to  Volta  at 
Como;  the  monument  of  the  aingerMalibmn;  others 
to  Beccaria  and  Ilellini  and  a  bust  of  Professor  Zuccala 
for  the  Alheneum  of  Bergan 

M.    L.    H ANOINT. 

Marchi,  Giusbpfe,  archxologist,  b.  at  Tolmezzo 
nearUdine,  22Feb,,  1795;  d,  at  Rome,  10  Feb.,  1850. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Home  12  Novem- 
ber, 1814,  shortly  after  the  re-eatabilshment  of  the 
order  and  was  professor  of  humanities  successively  in 
the  colleges  of  Temi,  Reggio-Emitia,  Modena,  and  St. 
Andrew  of  the  Quirinal.  After  completing  his  couna 
and  making  his  religious  profession  (1833)  he  became 
professor  ^  rhetoric  in  the  Roman  College  and  held 
this  position  until  1842.  Meanwhile,  he  devoted  hil 
leisure  to  study,  applying  himself  throueh  choice  to 
profane  antiquities.  In  1838  he  waa  made  prefect  of 
the  Kircher  Museum  which  office  he  retained  until  his 
death.  He  soon  gave  special  attention  to  Christian 
antiquities,  hoping  thus  to  find  a  means  of  restoring 
Christian  art.  In  1840  he  announced  his  intention  at 
collecting  into  one  large  publication  the  monuments  of 
Christian  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture.  His 
archsological  pursuits  recommended  him  to  Gregory 
XVI  aa  qualified  to  succeed  Settete  in  the  position  ot 
"Conservatore  dei  sacri  cimiteri  di  Roma"  (1842). 
About  this  time  Marchi  made  the  acquamtance  of 
youthful  Giovaimi  Battista  Dc  Rossi,  who  accepted 
him  as  master  and  thenceforth  accompanied  him  on 
his  visits  to  the  catacombs.  These  ancient  cemet«riea 
had  been  deplombly  abandoned  but  thereafter  were 
more  accessible  and  could  be  studied  on  the  ground. 
In  1844  AUrchi  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
"Monument)",  devoted  to  the  construction  of  the 
catacombs,  especially  that  of  St.  Agnes,  He  proved 
the  Christian  origin  of  these  ancient  burial-places  and, 
through  his  studies,  was  brought  about  (21  March, 
1S45]  the  discovery  of  the  crypts  of  Saints  Peter  and 
HyacinUi  in  the  catacomb  of  St.  Hennea.    ToD« 


HAttOIAM  644  lUBOIAM 

Rossi,  however,  was  reserved  the  honour  of  the  great  under  Theodosius,  had  been  Anthemius.     As  soon  as 

discoveries  in  the  Roman  catacombs.    He  knew  bet-  he  became  emperor  he  began  a  policy  of  moderation, 

ter  than  Marchi  how  to  make  use  of  ancient  topograph-  especially  in  taxation,  that  maae  his  reign  prosperous 

ical  data  and  all  the  resources  of  learning.   Marchi  was  and  himself  popular,  though  he  did  UtUe  by  force  of 

appointed  Consultor  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Index  arms  to  repress  the  ever-encroaching  Huns  and  other 

in  1847  a,nd  several  years  later  (1864)  he  took  part  in  enemies  ot  Rome. 

the  creation  of  the  liateran  Museum  of  which,  with  de  He  reduced  the  expenses  of  the  treasury  and  Court, 
Fabris,  he  became  director.  In  Julv,  1855,  his  labours  and  did  away  with  l^e  gl^f  or foUiSf  an  oppressive  tax 
were  interrupted  for  the  first  time  by  a  stroke  of  apo-  on  properly  that  was  specially  obnoxious  to  the  upper 
plexy,  to  which  he  succunibed  in  1860.  The  notes  classes.  There  was  a  harsh  system  by  which  any 
mtended  for  the  continuation  of  the  ''Monumenti''  senator  mieht  be  forced  to  accept  the  imwelcome 
were  lost,  but  some  of  them  were  found  by  Father  honour  of  the  prcetura.  As  a  praetor  he  was  obliged  to 
Bonayenia  and  made  known  at  the  Second  Congress  of  live  at  Constantinople  during  his  time  of  office,  and 
Christian  Archeology  at  Rome  (1900).  These  recov-  ^pend  large  sums  on  providing  games  and  shows, 
ered  documents  were  destined  for  the  second  volume  This  was  specially  hard  on  senators  who  lived  in  ibe 
of  the  "Monument!",  which  was  to  treat  of  the  non-  provinces,  who  had  therefore  to  come  to  the  capital 
oemeterial  Christian  architecture  of  Rome.  The  full  and  live  for  months  there  at  ruinous  expense.  Mar- 
titles  of  his  works  are:  "Musei  Kirchemiani  Inscrip-  cian  modified  this  law  so  as  to  excuse  people  living 
tiones  ethnicce  et  christians  "  (Milan,  1837) ;  "  L'aes  away  from  the  city,  and  he  ordered  the  consms  to  take 
g^ve  del  Museo  Kircheriano,  ovyero  le  monete  primi-  their  share  of  the  expenses.  He  reformed  the  navy 
Uye  dei  popoli  dell'  Italia  media''  in  collaboration  on  a  more  economical  basis.  There  were  at  that  time 
with  P.  Tessieni  (Rome,  1839) ;"  Monumenti  delle  arti  frequent  earthquakes,  by  which  whole  cities  were 
cristiane  primitive  nella  metropoli  del  cristianesimo:  destroyed.  In  these  cases  Marcian  and  Pulcheria 
I.  Archittetura  della  Roma  sotteranea  cristiana"  came  to  the  help  of  the  sufferers  generously  with  sup- 
(Romo,  1844).  plies  from  the  imperial  treasury. 

Ceu,  Oiuaeppe  Marchi,  SJ".  dono  einqiumt*  onnt  in  CiviUii         Marcian  had  a  conscientious  idea  of  the  responsi- 

Cattoliea,  1. 1§10.  308-322;  447-446.  bilities  of  his  office.     In  the  second  novella  of  hiicodc 

R.  Maehe.  he  defines  his  view  of  an  emperor's  duty:  *'It  is  our 

business  to  provide  for  the  care  of  the  human  race. " 

Mardan  (Marcianus,  MapKiavos),  Roman  Emperor  And  he  was  conscious  of  the  distress  caused  by  the  ex- 
at  Constantinople,  b.  in  Thrace  about  390;  d.  January,  cessi  ve  taxation  and  general  maladministration  of  his 
457.  He  became  a  soldier;  during  his  early  life  he  was  predecessors.  The  nirst  novella  announces  that  com- 
poor,  and  it  is  said  that  he  arrived  at  Constantinople  plainants  have  fiocked  to  the  Government  from  all 
with  only  two  hundred  pieces  of  gold,  which  he  had  sides,  there  are  "  endless  crowds  of  petitioners";  this 
borrowed.  He  served  in  the  army  imder  Ardaburius  is  because  of  the  want  of  "integrity  and  severity"  in 
the  Alan  and  his  son  Aspar;  he  distinguished  himself  the  judges.  Marcian's  laws  are  well-meant  andi  suo- 
in  the  wars  against  the  Persians  and  Huns.  Aspar  was  cessful  attempts  to  cope  with  these  difficulties.  Aveiy 
a  kind  of  king-maker,  and  general-in-chief  for  tne  East  popular  measure  was  his  refijsal  to  pay  to  Attila  the 
(magister  mmtumper  orientem) ,  also  for  a  time  the  most  tribute  that  had  been  paid  regularly  by  Theodosius  H. 
powerful  man  at  Constantinople.  But  since  he  was  a  This  refusal  both  saved  a  great  expense  and  restored 
foreigner  and  an  Arian  he  could  not  be  emperor  him-  the  dignity  of  the  empire  that  had  been  degraded  by 
self.  Instead  he  placed  a  succession  of  his  favourites  so  great  a  humiliation.  As  the  Huns  were  just  begin- 
on  the  throne.  One  of  these  was  Marcian.  At  Con-  ning  their  quarrel  with  the  Franks,  they  cotdd  not 
stantinople  Marcian  became  a  senator  and  was  a  well-  afford  to  go  to  war  with  the  empire.  No  doubt  Mar- 
known  and  popular  person.  He  was  a  widower;  his  cian  knew  this  when  he  defied  them, 
daughter  by  the  first  marriage,  Euphemia,  afterwards  But  the  chief  event  of  this  reign  was  the  beginning 
married  Anthemius,  Emperor  in  the  West  (467-472).  of  the  great  Monophysite  quarrel  and  the  Coundi  oi 
He  was  about  sixty  years  old  when  Theodosius  II  died  Chalcedon.  Marcian  was  conspicuously  pious  and 
(450).  orthodox.     As  soon  as  he  was  crowned  he  wrote  a 

Tlieodosius  II  (40S-450)  had  succeeded  his  father,  very  friendly  and  respectful  letter  to  Pope  Leo  I  (440- 
Arcadius  (395-408),  as  a  youne  child.     During  the  461),  whom  he  calls  the  guardian  of  the  Faith,  asking 
greater  part  of  his  reign  his  elder  sister  Pulcneria  for  his  prayers,  and  declaring  himself  anxious  to  sup- 
managed  the  Government.     Already  during  the  reign  port  the  council  proposed  by  the  pope  (aoO  a^^OtwroOrm) 
of  Theodosius  Pulcheria  was  "Augusta".  With  her  two  m  order  to  settle  tne  question  raised  by  Eutyches, 
sisters,  Arcadia  and  Marina,  she  made  a  public  vow  Dioscurus,  and  their  friends  (ep.  Ixxiii  among  St.  Leo's 
of  celibacy.    When  her  brother  died  all  difficulty  letters;  Mansi,  VI,  94).    On  22  November,  450,  he 
about  the  succession  was  ended  by  the  unanimous  writes  again  in  the  same  way,  and  speaks  of  the  pleasure 
choice  of  her  (who  had  long  really  guided  the  State)  with  which  he  had  welcomed  the  pope's  legates.     He 
as  empress.    Thus  began  the   reign   of  Pulcheria.  hopes  that  Leo  will  be  able  to  come  to  the  council  him- 
Wishinjg  to  strengthen  her  position  (it  was  the  first  self;  if  not  he,  Marcian,  will  sunmion  it  to  some  con~ 
case  of  a  woman  succeeding  to  the  Roman  throne)  she  venient  place;  it  shall  define  the  Faith  according 
at  once  made  a  nominal  marriage  with  Marcian.     He  to  Leo's  letter  to  Flavian  of  Constantinople  (ibid., 
seems  to  have  be^n  the  best  person  she  could  have  Ixxxvi;  Mansi,  VI,  99).     Pulcheria  also  wrote;  she  too 
chosen;thefriendshipof  Aspar  as  well  as  his  own  repu-  says  that  that  the  coimcil  shall  be  sununoned  by 
tation  had  long  pointed  him  out  for  som^  high  place,  the  pope's  authority.     Leo  had  already  asked  Theo- 
It  is  said  that  Theodosius  on  his  death-bed  haa  told  dosius  II  to  summon  the  council  (ep.  xliv,  3;  P.  L., 
him:  "It  has  been  revealed  to  me  that  you  will  sue-  LIV,  826);  Marcian  clearly  only  meant  to  cany* out 
ceed  me. "    Marcian  was  crowned  by  the  patriarch,  this  commission  as  Theodosius's  successor.     Mean- 
25  August,  450.     It  is  the  first  instance  of  the  religious  while  Dioscurus  and  his  party  knew  Quite  well  that 
ceremony  of  coronation,  imitated  later  in  the  West,  Marcian  would  not  be  their  friend.     They  had  tried 
and  was  to  have  far-reaching  consequences.     The  and  failed  to  prevent  his  recognition  in  Egypt;  the 
&st  act  of  the  new  reim  was  the  trial  and  execution  of  attempt  only  made  their  case  worse  with  the  Govem- 
Chrysaphiua»  a  eunuch  and  court  favourite  long  im-  ment. 

popular,  who  had  brought  Theodosius  to  a  humiliating        The  Eastern  Church  had  been  disturbed  by  the 

apoloey  and  the  payment  of  a  large  fine  by  an  unsuc-  teaching  of  Eutyches  since  inmiediately  after  the 

cessful  conspiracy  to  murder  Attila.     Marcian  be-  Council  of  Ephesus  (431)  and  the  Nestorian  troubles. 

longed  to  the  party  of  reform,  of  which  the  founder.  In  448  Eusebius  of  Dorylceum  had  accused  Eutyches 


MABOIAMB                            645  BiABOIONim 

and  his  formula  "one  nature  after  the  union"  (jurii  riage,  the  last  emperor  of  the  House  of  Theodoeius  I 

T^p  (puHTiy  Ida  <ff6int)  at  Constantinople.    Dioscunis  The  Orthodox  have  canonized  him  also,  and  keep  his 

of  Alexandria  had  taken  up  the  cause  of  Eutyches,  and  feast  (with  Pulcheria)  on  17  February. 

had  condemned  Dyophvsism  at  the  Robber  Council  of  Evagrius,  Higt.  EccL,  U;  Tillbmont,  Hiatoire  de9  Empe- 

Ephesus  in  449  (for  all  this  see  Mongphysitism).  TSS^i^J???!*^*^'^*'^^^^;*^,^^'^^^ 

Pope  Leo  hoped  for  a  time  to  restore  peace  without  Z^X]^ii^%^''^r'Tnou^  in'^(i:,^nf 'iso'/)!^!^^^?? 

another    general    council    (his    letters    to    Marcian,  Hsraui,  tr.  Leclercq,  Uiataire  des  Coneilea,  II  (Paris,  1908)! 

Ixxviii,  to  Pulcheria,  Ixxix,  and  to  the  Patriarch  Adrian  Fobtescub. 

Anatolius  of  CJonstantinople,  Ixxx).     But  meanwhile  m*™i^«^     x-x  i            *  t     •        a            e  \r 

Marcian.  acting  on  Leo's  former  proposal,  summoned  a  -^  Mardane,  a  titular  see  of  Ljrcia,  suffragan  of  Myra. 

council  on  17  May,  451,  by  lettera  addressed  to  all  the  l^  ^,F^f^!^.^J^^u.l^''^'ll^J^'^^^^^             ^  w  u^® 

metropoUtans  of  the  empire.     It  is  clear  that  he  ^""^^  to  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  centuries,  but  it  is 

acted  in  a  misunderstanding,  and  had  not  yet  received  not  mentioned  by  any  author  and  its  situation  remams 

the  pope's  later  letter   (Hefele-I^clercq,   II,   639).  unknown    LeQmen  (OrieM  christ.  J,  983)  cites  three 

Leo  th^  accepted  what  had  happened,  aid  ap-  bjshops:  Januarius,  who  attended  m  448  the  Council 

pointed  as  his  legates  Paschasinus,  Bishop  of  Lilir-  of  Constantinople  against  Eutyches;  Augustine  who 

t»um  m  Sicily,llnd  a  priest  Boniface  (ep.  bcxxix;  signed  in  459  the  synodal  decree  of  Gennadius  of  Con- 

Mansi,  VI,  125).     The  council  was  to  have  met  at  ^^^^''^  ^^^ITl^^'^T^'^A  Marcian  who  signed  m 

Nic»a;  many  bishops  had  already  arrived  there  in  the  ^^^-^^  ^ecretal  letter  of  the  Council  of  Constantmople 
summer  of  451,  when  the 
to  wait  till  he  could  join  them 
553).     He  was  busy  at  the  fr< 

ranging  its  defence  against  the  Huns.    The  bishops  Marcianopolis.  a  titular  see  in  Lower  Moesia,  on 

wrote  to  complain  of  the  delay,  and  Marcian  answered  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  so  called  by  Trajan 

their  letter  telling  them  to  go  to  Chalcedon,  opposite  after  his  sister  Marciana  ( Amm.  Marcellmus,  XX VII, 

the  capital  on  the  other  side  of  the  Bosphorus  (Mansi.  2)  and  previously  known  as  Parthenopolis.    Eir.peror 

V,  657);  in  this  way  he  could  attend  to  the  coimcii  Claudius  II  repeatedly  repulsed  the  Uoths  near  this 

without  leaving  Constantinople.  town  (Trebellius  Pollio,  *'  Claudius  ",9 ;  ZQsimus,  1, 42)  ; 

The  council  opened  in  the  church  of  St.  Euphemia  Valens  made  it  his  winter  Quarters  in  368  and  succeed- 
at  Chalcedon  on  8  October,  451,  and  lasted  till  I  ing  years  (Amm.  Marcel!.,  XXVII,  5;  Theophanis, 
November.  About  600  bishops  attended.  The  im-  "Chronographia".  a.  m.  6859,  5860,  6861).  In  687 
penal  commissioners  were  present  and  regulated  the  it  was  sacked  by  the  kine  of  the  Avars,  and  at  once  re- 
exterior  business  at  each  session.  The  papal  legate,  taken  by  the  Romans  (Theophanis,  *'Chronographia", 
Paschasinus,  opened  the  council.  Marcian  and  Pul-  a.  m.  6079).  The  Roman  army  quartered  there  in 
cheria  assisted  at  the  sixth  session  (25  October).  The  596  before  crossing  the  Danube  to  assault  the  Avars 
emperor  opened  the  proceedings  that  day  with  a  (op.  cit.,  a.m.  6088).  Marcianopolis  was  the  home  of 
speech  in  Latin  (Mansi,  VII,  129).  One  notices  that  many  saints  or  martyrs,  e.  g.,  St.  Meletina,  whose  feast 
what  was  still  the  official  language  of  the  empire  was  is  kept  on  15  Sept.,  and  whose  remains  were  carried  to 
used  on  specially  solemn  occasions.  His  speech  was  I^enmos;  St.  Alexander,  martyred  imder  Maximianus, 
then  repeated  in  Greek.  At  this  session  the  decree  of  and  whose  feast  is  kept  on  2  Febr.  Saints  Maximus, 
the  council  was  read  (see  Chalcedon).  On  27  Feb-  Theodotus,  Asclepiodotus,  martyred  at  Adrianople 
ruary,  452,  Marcian,  together  with  his  Western  col-  underMaximianus,and  whose  feast  is  kept  on  15  Sept., 
league,  Valentinian  III  (423-455),  made  a  lawenforc-  were  bom  at  Marcianopolis.  The  "Ecthesis"  of  the 
ing  the  decree  and  canons  of  the  council  as  the  law  pseudo-Epiphanius  (c.  640)  gives  the  Metropolitical 
of  the  empire,  and  threatening  heavy  penalties  See  of  Marcianopolis  in  the  Balkans  five  suffragans 
against  all  who  disputed  them.  Marcian  alone  re-  (Gelzer,  '*  Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der  Notitise  Epis- 
peated  the  same  law  on  13  March  (Mansi,  VII,  475-  copatuum",  542).  The  "Notitia  Episcopatuum "  of 
480).  The  famous  twenty-eighth  canon  (giving  Con-  the  Armenian  cleric,  Basil  (c.  840)  confirms  this  (Gel- 
stantinople  rank  immediately  after  Rome)  and  the  zer,  "GeorgiiCypriidescriptio  orbisromani'',  25).  Oa 
pope's  protest  against  it  caused  further  correspon-  the  other  hana  Marcian opoUs  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
dence  between  him  and  the  emperor  and  empress  "Notitia"  of  Leo  the  Wise  (c.  900),  nor  in  that  of 
(Ep.  LeonisI.,cv,  cvi;  Mansi,  VI,  187, 195),  but  did  not  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  (c.  940),  because  the 
disturb  their  good  relations.  Marcian's  laws  pro-  region  had  at  that  time  been  overrun  oy  the  Bulga- 
duced  uniformity  at  Constantinople  and  in  the  neigh-  rians.  Le  Qaien  (Oriens  Christ.,  I,  1217-1220)  men- 
bourhood  of  the  Government,  but  he  could  not  en-  tions  many  bishops  of  Marcianopolis  and  Preslau,  er- 
force  them  so  successfully  in  Syria  and  Egypt.  The  roneously  identifying  these  two  towns.  The  Preslau 
rest  of  his  reign  was  troubled  by  the  revolution  in  these  of  the  Middle  Ages  remains  Preslau  to  this  day,  and 
provinces,  which  remained  one  of  the  chief  difficulties  his  Marcianopolis  is  now  the  village  of  Devna,  a  little 
of  the  Government  under  his  successors  for  two  cen-  to  the  west  of  Varna  in  Bulgaria.  This  name  imder 
turies.  Marcian  made  no  concessions  towards  the  the  form  Diabaina  is  mentioned  by  Pachymeros  on 
Syrian  and  Egyptian  Monophysites.  His  Govern-  account  of  something  that  took  place  there  in  1280 
ment  carried  out  the  deposition  of  Dioscurus,  and  an  (De  Michaele  Palaeologo,  VI,  49). 
edict  of  28  July,  452,  insisted  under  heavy  penalties  Farlati, /Wyricufn  Sacrum.  VIII,  85-105;  Tomabchex.  Zur 
on  the  recognition  of  Proterius,  the  Orthodox  Patri-  ^""^  ^  Hmmua-IIalbinsd  (Vienna,  1887).  28 
arch  of  Alexandria.  A  large  force  (2000  soldiers)  was  °*  ^^^*^- 
sent  to  Egypt.  It  was  not  until  after  Marcian's  death  Marcionites. — Heretical  sect  founded  in  a.  d.  144 
that  a  party  at  Constantinople  under  Aspar  and  Ana-  at  Rome  by  Marcion  and  continuing  in  the  West  for 
tolius  began  to  compromise  with  the  heretics.  300  years,  but  in  the  East  some  centuries  longer,  espe- 

In  the  year  453  Attila  died.  It  is  said  that  Marcian  cially  outside  the  Byzantine  empire.  They  rejected  the 
dreamed,  at  the  moment  of  Attila's  death,  that  he  saw  writings  of  the  Old  Testament  and  taught  that  Christ 
the  bow  of  his  great  enemy  broken.  The  Empress  was  not  the  Son  of  the  god  of  the  Jews,  but  the  Son  of 
Pulcheria  died  in  the  same  year.  She  is  canonised  the  good  God,  who  was  different  from  the  god  of  the 
by  both  Catholics  and  Orthodox;  her  feast  is  on  10  Anciciiit  Covenant.  They  anticipated  the  more  con- 
September  in  both  calendars.  Marcian  survived  his  sistent  dualism  of  Manichteism  and  were  finally  ab- 
wife  four  years.  The  end  of  his  reign  was  occupied  sorbed  by  it.  As  they  arose  in  the  very  infancy  of 
by  the  increasing  troubles  in  Egypt.  He  was  huc-  Christianity  and  adopted  from  the  l)eginning  a  strong 
ceeded  by  Leo  I  (457-474).     Marcian  was,  by  nuir-  ecclcsiasticul  organization,  parallel  to  that  of  tlveC^W 


]I4ftOIOirZTI8 


646 


KAAoionm 


otfe  Church,  they  were  perhaps  the  most  dangerous  foe 
CSiristiaiiity  has  ever  known.  The  subject  will  be 
treated  under  the  following  heads:  I.  Life  of  Marcion; 
II.  Doctrine  and  Discipline;  III.  History;  IV,  Muti- 
lation of  the  New  Testament;  V.  Anti-Marcionlte 
Writers. 

I.  Life  op  Marcion. — Marcion  was  son  of  the 
Bishop  of  Sinope  in  Pontus,  bom  c.  a.  d.  110,  evidently 
from  wealthy  parents.  He  is  described  as  tm&rfp, 
naudems,  a  shipowner,  by  Rhodon  and  TertuUian,  who 
wrote  about  a  generation  after  his  death.  Epiphanius 
(Hseres.,  XLII,  ii)  relates  that  Marcion  in  ms  youth 

Erofessed  to  lead  a  life  of  chastity  and  asceticism, 
ut  in  spite  of  his  professions  fell  into  sin  with  a  young 
maiden.  In  consequence  his  father,  the  bishop,  cast 
him  out  of  the  Church.  He  besought  his  father  for 
reconciliation,  i.  e.  to  be  admitted  to  ecclesiastical 
penance,  but  the  bishop  stood  firm  in  his  refusal.  Not 
Deing  able  to  bear  with  the  laughter  and  contempt  of 
his  fellow  townsmen,  he  secretly  left  Sinope  and  trav- 
elled to  Rome.  The  story  of  Marcion's  sin  is  rejected 
by  many  modem  scholars  (e.  g.  G.  KrOger)  as  a  piece 
of  malicious  gossip  of  which  tney  say  Epiphanius  was 
fond;  others  see  in  the  young  maiden  but  a  metaphor 
for  the  Church,  the  then  young  bride  of  Christ,  whom 
Marcion  violated  by  his  heresy,  though  he  made  great 
professions  of  bodily  chastity  and  austerity.  No  accu- 
sations of  impurity  are  brought  against  Marcion  by 
earlier  church  writers,  and  Marcioir  s  austerity  seems 
aclmowledged  as  a  fact.  Irenseus  states  that  Marcion 
flourished  under  Pope  Anicetus  (c.  155-166)  [invalmt 
9ub  Aniceto].  Thougn  this  period  may  mark  Marcion's 
greatest  success  in  Rome,  it  is  certain  that  he  arrived 
&ere  earlier,  i.  c.  a.  d.  140,  after  the  death  of  Hyginus, 
who  died  that  year  and  apparently  before  the  accession 
of  Pius  I.  Epiphanius  says  that  Marcion  sought  ad- 
mittance into  the  Roman  Church  but  was  refused.  The 
reason  given  was  that  they  could  not  admit  one  who 
had  been  expelled  by  his  own  bishop  without  previous 
communication  with  that  authority.  This  story  has 
likewise  been  pointed  out  as  extremely  unlikely,  im- 
plying, as  it  does,  that  the  great  Roman  Church  pro- 
fessed itself  incompetent  to  override  the  decision  of  a 
local  bishop  in  Pontus.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  Marcion  arrived  at  Rome  sede  vacante, 
"after  the  death  of  Hyginus",  and  that  such  an 
answer  sounds  natural  enough  on  the  lips  of  presbyters 
as  yet  without  a  bishop. 

Moreover  it  is  obvious  that  Marcion  was  already  a 
consecrated  bishop.      A  layman  could  not  have  dis- 

Euted  on  Scripture  with  the  presbyters  as  he  did,  nor 
ave  threatened  shortly  after  his  arrival:  "  I  will  divide 
your  Church  and  cause  within  her  a  division,  which 
will  ]&at  for  ever",  as  Marcion  is  said  to  have  done;  a 
layman  could  not  have  founded  a  vast  and  world-wide 
institution,  of  which  the  main  characteristic  was  that 
it  was  episcopalian;  a  layman  would  not  have  been 
proudly  referred  to  for  centuries  by  his  disciples  as 
their  first  bishop,  a  claim  not  disputed  by  any  of  their 
adversaries,  though  many  and  extensive  works  were 
written  against  them;  a  ia3rman  would  not  have  been 
permanently  cast  out  of  the  Church  without  hope  of 
reconciliation  by  his  own  father,  notwithstanding  his 
entreaties,  for  a  sin  of  fornication,  nor  therefore  nave 
become  an  object  of  laughter  to  his  heathen  fellow 
townsmen,  if  we  accept  the  story  of  Epiphanius.  A 
la3rnian  would  not  have  been  disappointed  that  he 
was  not  made  bishop  shortly  after  his  arrival  in  a  city 
whose  see  was  vacant,  as  Marcion  is  said  to  have  lx?en 
on  his  arrival  at  Rome  after  the  death  of  Hyginus. 

This  stoiy  has  been  held  up  as  the  height  of  absurd- 
ity and  so  it  would  be,  if  we  ignored  the  facts  that 
Marcion  was  a  bishop,  and  that  according  to  TertuUian 
(De  Praescr.,  xxx)  he  made  the  Roman  community  the 
gift  of  two  hundred  thousand  sesterces  soon  after  his 
arrival.  This  extraordinary  gift  of  £1400  (7000  dol- 
lars), a  huge  sum  for  those  days,  may  be  ascribed  to 


the  first  fervour  of  faith,  but  is  at  least  as  oatim% 
ascribed  to  a  lively  hope.  The  money  was  returned  to 
him  after  lus  breach  with  the  Church.  This  again  ia 
more  natural  if  it  was  made  with  a  tacit  condition, 
than  if  it  was  absolute  and  the  outcome  of  pure  chal^ 
ity.  Lastly  the  report  that  Marcion  on  his  arrival  at 
Itome  had  to  hand  in  or  to  renew  a  oonf ession  of  faith 
(Tert.,  "De  Praescr.",  xxx;  "Adv.  Mar.",  I,  xx;  "De 
came  Christ! ",  ii)  fits  in  naturally  with  the  suppositioo 
of  his  being  a  bishop,  but  would  be,  as  G.  KrCkger  points 
out,  unheard  of  in  the  case  of  a  layman. 

We  can  take  it  for  granted  then  that  Marcion  was 
a  bishop,  probably  an  assistant  or  suffragan  of  his  fa- 
ther at  Sinope.  Having  fallen  out  with  his  father  he 
travels  to  Rome,  where,  being  a  seafarer  or  shipowner 
and  a  great  traveller,  he  may  already  have  been 
known  and  where  his  wealth  obtains  him  influence  and 
position.  If  Tertullian  supposes  him  to  have  been  ad- 
mitted to  the  Roman  Church  and  Epiphanius  B&ys 
that  he  was  refused  admittance,  the  two  statements 
can  easily  be  reconciled  if  we  understand  the  former  of 
mere  membership  or  communion,  the  latter  of  the  ac- 
ceptance of  his  claims.  His  episcopal  dignity  has  re- 
ceived mention  at  least  in  two  early  writers,  wno  speak 
of  him  as  having  "from  bishop  become  an  apostate" 
(Optatus  of  Mileve,  IV,  v),  and  of  his  followers  as  be- 
ing sur named  after  a  bishop  instead  of  being  called 
Christians  after  Christ  (Adamantius,  "  DiaL",  I,  ed. 
Sande  Bakhuysen).  Marcion  is  said  to  have  asked 
the  Roman  presbyters  the  explanation  of  Matt.,  ix, 
16,  17,  whicn  he  evidently  wished  to  understand  as 
expressing  the  incompatibility  of  the  New  Testament 
with  the  Old,  but  which  they  interpreted  in  an  ortho- 
dox sense.  His  final  breach  with  the  Roman  Churdi 
occurred  in  the  autumn  of  144,  for  the  Marcionites 
counted  115  years  and  6)  months  from  the  time  of 
Christ  to  the  beginning  of  their  sect.  Tertullian 
roughly  speaks  of  a  hundred  years  and  more.  Mar- 
cion seems  to  have  made  common  cause  with  Cerdo 
(q.  v.),  the  Syrian  Gnostic,  who  was  at  the  time  in 
Rome ;  that  his  doctrine  was  actually  derived  from  that 
Gnostic  seems  unlikely.  Irenseus  relates  (Adv.  Hser., 
Ill,  iii)  that  St.  Polycarp  meeting  Marcion  in  Rmne 
was  asked  by  him:  Dost  thou  reco|^ize  us?  and  gave 
answer:  I  recognize  thee  as  the  nrst-bom  of  Satan. 
This  meeting  must  have  hanpened  in  154,  by  which 
time  Marcion  had  displayed  a  great  and  successful 
activity,  for  St.  Justin  Martyr  in  his  ^  First  Apology 
(written  about  150),  describes  Marcion 's  heresy  as 
spread  everywhere.  These  half  a  dozen  years  seem  to 
many  too  short  a  time  for  such  prodigious  success,  and 
they  believe  that  Marcion  was  active  in  Asia  Minor 
long  l)efore  he  came  to  Rome.  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(Strom.,  VII,  vii,  106)  calls  him  the  older  contempo- 
rary of  Basilides  and  Valentinus,  but  if  so,  he  must  have 
been  a  middle-aged  man  when  he  came  to  Rome,  and  a 

Previous  propaganda  in  the  East  is  not  impoMssible. 
hat  the  Chronicle  of  Edessa  places  the  beginning  of 
Marcionism  in  138,  strongly  favours  this  view.  Ter- 
tullian relates  in  207  (the  date  of  his  Adv.  Marc.,  IV, 
iv)  that  Marcion  professed  penitence  and  accepted  as 
condition  of  his  readmittance  into  the  Chiu-ch  that  he 
should  bring  hack  to  the  fold  those  whom  he  had  led 
astray,  but  death  prevented  his  carrying  this  out. 
The  precise  date  of  his  death  is  not  known. 

II.  Doctrine  and  Discipline. — We  must  distin- 
guish between  the  doctrine  of  Marcion  himself  and 
that  of  his  followers.  Marcion  was  no  Gnostic 
dreamer.  He  wanted  a  Christianity  untrammelled 
and  undefiled  by  association  with  Judaism.  Chris- 
tianity was  the  New  Covenant  pure  and  simple  Ab- 
stract questions  on  the  origin  of  evil  or  on  the  essence 
of  the  Godhead  interested  him  httle,  but  the  Old  Tes- 
tament was  a  scandal  to  the  faithful  and  a  stumbling- 
block  to  the  refined  and  intellectual  Gentiles  by  its  cru- 
dity and  cruelty,  and  the  Old  Testament  had  to  be  set 
aside.    The  two  great  obstacles  in  his  way  he  removed 


MABOIONins  64/  BCAR0IONITB8 

by  drastic  measures.  He  had  to  account  for  the  ex-  Sent,  suddenly  Christ  I"  Maroion  admitted  no  proph« 
istence  of  the  Old  Testament  and  he  accounted  for  it  ecy  of  the  Coming  of  Christ  whatever;  the  Jewish 
by  postulating  a  secondary  deity,  a  demiurgus,  who  prophets  foretold  a  Jewish  Messias  only,  and  this  Mes- 
was  god  in  a  sense,  but  not  the  supreme  Goa;  he  was  sias  had  not  yet  appeared.  Marcion  used  the  story  of 
just,  rigidly  just,  he  had  his  good  qualities,  but  he  was  the  tliree  angels,  wno  ate,  walked  and  conversed  with 
not  the  good  God,  who  was  Father  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Abraham  and  yet  had  no  real  human  body,  as  an  iilus- 
Christ.  The  metaphysical  relation  between  these  two  tration  of  the  life  of  Christ  (Adv.  Marc,  III,  ix). 
gods  troubled  Marcion  little;  of  divine  emanation.  Tertullian  says  (ibid.)  that  when  Apelles  and  seceders 
fieons,  syzygies,  eternally  opposed  principles  of  gooa  from  Marcion  began  to  believe  that  Christ  had  a  real 
and  evil,  he  knows  nothing.  He  may  oe  almost  a  body  indeed,  not  by  birth  but  rather  collected  from 
Manichee  in  practice,  but  in  theory  he  has  not  reached  the  elements,  Marcion  would  prefer  to  accept  even  a 
absolute  consistency  as  Mani  did  a  hundred  years  putative  birth  rather  than  a  real  body.  Whether  this 
later.  Marcion  had  secondly  to  account  for'  those  is  Tertullian 's  mockery  or  a  real  change  in  Marcion's 
passages  in  the  New  Testament  which  countenanced  sentiments,  w^e  do  not  know.  To  Marcion  matter  and 
the  Old.  He  resolutely  cut  out  all  texts  that  were  flesh  are  not  indeed  essentially  evil,  but  are  contempti- 
contrary  to  his  dogma;  in  fact,  he  created  his  own  ble  things,  a  mere  production  of  the  Demiurge,  and  it 
New  Testament,  aomitting  but  one  Gospel,  a  mutila-  was  inconceivable  that  God  should  really  have  made 
tion  of  St.  Luke,  and  an  Apostolicon  containing  ten  them  His  own.  Christ's  life  on  earth  was  a  continual 
epistles  of  St.  Paul.  The  mantle  of  St.  Paul  had  fallen  contrast  to  the  conduct  of  the  Demilune.  Some  of 
on  the  shoulders  of  Marcion  in  his  struggle  with  the  the  contrasts  are  cleverlv  staged:  the  Demiurge  sent 
Judaisers.  The  Catholics  of  his  day  were  nothing  but  bears  to  devour  children  for  puerile  merriment  (Kings) 
the  Judaisers  of  the  previous  century.  The  pure  Paul-  — Christ  bade  children  come  to  Him  and  He  fondfed 
ine  Gospel  had  become  corrupted  and  Marcion  not  ob-  and  blessed  them;  the  Demiurge  in  his  law  declared 
scurely  hinted  that  even  the  pillar  apostles,  Peter,  lepers  imclean  and  banished  them  —  but  Christ 
James  and  John,  had  betrayed  their  trust.  He  loves  to  touched  and  healed  them.  Christ's  putative  passion 
speak  of  "false  apostles",  and  lets  his  hearers  infer  and  death  was  the  work  of  the  Demiurge,  who  in  re- 
who  they  were.  Once  the  Old  Testament  has  been  venge  for  Christ's  abolition  of  the  Jewish  law  delivered 
completely  got  rid  of,  Marcion  has  no  further  desire  for  Him  up  to  hell.  But  even  in  hell  Christ  overcame  the 
change.  He  makes  his  purely  New  Testament  Demiurge  by  preacliing  to  the  spirits  in  Limbo,  and  by 
Church  as  like  the  Catholic  Church  as  possible,  consist-  His  Resurrection  He  founded  the  true  Kingdom  of  the 
ent  with  his  deep-seated  Puritanism.  The  first  de-  good  God.  Epiphanius  (Hser.,  xlii,  4)  sayS  that  Mar- 
scription  of  Marcion's  doctrine  dates  from  St.  Justin:  cionites  believed  that  in  Limbo  Christ  brought  salva- 
*'  With  the  help  of  the  devil  Marcion  has  in  every  coun-  tion  to  Cain,  Core,  Dathan  and  Abiron.  Esau  and  the 
try  contributed  to  blasphemy  and  the  refusal  to  ac-  Gentiles,  but  left  in  damnation  all  Old  Testament 
knowledge  the  Creator  of  all  the  world  as  God.  He  saints.  This  may  have  been  held  by  some  Marcion- 
recognizes  another  god,  who,  because  he  is  essentially  ites  in  the  fourth  century,  but  it  was  not  the  teaching  of 
greater  (than  the  W' orld-maker  or  Demiurge)  has  done  Marcion  himself,  who  had  no  Antinomian  tendencies, 
greater  deeds  than  he  (wf  ttn-a  fielj^ova  t4  yxl^ova  irapA  Marcion  denied  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  "for 
rovTov  veroiriKivai).  The  Supreme  God  is  diyaObi,  good,  flesh  and  blood  shall  not  inherit  the  Kingdom  of  God  ", 
kind;  the  inferior  god  is  merely  BiKaiOi,  just  and  ri^ht-  and  he  denied  the  second  coming  of  Christ  to  judge  the 
eous.  The  good  God  is  all  love,  the  inferior  god  gives  living  and  the  dead,  for  the  good  God,  being  all  good- 
way  to  fierce  anger.  Though  less  than  the  good  God,  ness,  does  not  punish  those  who  reject  JHim;  He  simply 
yet  the  just  god,  as  world-creator,  has  his  indepen-  leaves  them  to  the  Demiurge,  who  will  cast  them  into 
dent  sphere  of  activity.    They  are  not  opposed  as  Or-  everlasting  fire. 

muzd  and  Ahriman,  though  the  good  Goa  interferes  in  With  regard  to  discipline,  the  main  point  of  differ- 
favour  of  men,  for  He  alone  is  all- wise  and  all-powerful  ence  consists  in  his  rejection  of  marriage,  i.  e.  he  bap- 
and  loves  mercy  more  than  punishment.  All  men  are  tized  only  those  who  were  not  living  in  matrimony: 
indeed  created  by  the  Demiurge,  but  by  special  choice  virgins,  widows,  ceUbates  ancl  eunuchs  (Tert.,  "Adv. 
he  elected  the  Jewish  people  as  his  own  and  thus  be-  Marc.",I,xxix);  all  others  remained  catechumens.  On 
came  the  god  of  the  Jews.  the  other  hand  the  absence  of  division  between  cate- 
His  theological  outlook  is  limited  to  the  Bible,  his  chumens  and  baptized  persons  in  Marcionite  worship, 
struggle  with  the  CathoHc  Church  seems  a  battle  with  shocked  orthodox  Christians,  but  it  was  emphatical^ 
texts  and  nothing  more.  The  Old  Testament  is  true  defended  by  Marcion's  appeal  to  Gal.,  vi,  6.  According 
enough,  Moses  and  the  Prophets  are  messengers  of  the  to  Tertullian  (Adv.  Marc,  I,  xiv)  ne  used  water  in 
Demiurge,  the  Jewish  Messias  is  sure  to  come  and  baptism,  anointed  his  faithful  with  oil  and  gave  milk 
found  a  millennial  kingdom  for  the  Jews  on  earth,  but  and  honey  to  the  catechumens  and  in  so  far  retained 
the  Jewish  Messias  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  orthodox  practices,  although,  says  Tertullian,  all 
the  Christ  of  God.  The  Invisible,  Indescribable,  these  things  are  "  beggarly  elements  of  the  Creator. " 
Good  God  (d^parof,  dKardwoftaaTos,  dya&6s  SeSs),  for-  Marcionites  must  have  been  excessive  fastens  to  pro- 
merly  utterly  unknown  to  the  creator  as  well  as  to  his  yoke  the  ridicule  of  Tertullian  in  his  Montanist  davs. 
creatures,  has  revealed  Himself  in  Christ.  How  far  Epiphanius  says  they  fasted  on  Saturday  out  of  a 
Marcion  admitted  a  Trinity  of  persons  in  the  Supreme  spirit  of  opposition  to  the  Jewish  God,  who  made  the 
Godhead  is  not  known;  Christ  is  indeed  the  Son  of  Sabbath  a  day  of  rejoicing.  This  however  may  have 
God,  but  He  is  also  simply  "God"  without  further  been  merely  a  western  custom  adopted  by  them, 
qualification ;  in  fact,  Marcion's  Gospel  began  with  the  III.  HisTOKY.—It  was  the  fate  of  Marcionism  to 
words :  "  In  the  fifteenth  year  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius  drift  away  almost  immediately  from  its  founder's  ideas 
God  descended  in  Caphamaum  and  taught  on  the  towards  mere  Gnosticism.  Marcion's  creator  or  Jew- 
Sabbaths".  However  daring  and  capricious  this  ma-  ish  god  was  too  inconsistent  and  illogical  a  conception, 
nipulation  of  the  Gospel  text,  it  is  at  least  a  splendid  he  was  inferior  to  the  good  God,  yet  he  was  inoepen- 
testimony  that  in  Christian  circles  of  the  first  half  of  dent;  he  was  just  and  yet  not  good;  his  writings  were 
the  second  century  the  Divinity  of  Christ  was  a  central  true  and  yet  to  be  discarded ;  he  had  created  all  men 
dogma.  To  Marcion  however  Christ  was  God  Mani-  and  done  them  no  evil,  yet  they  had  not  to  worship 
fest,  not  God  Incarnate.  His  Christoloipr  is  that  of  and  serve  him.  Marcion's  followers  sought  to  be  more 
theDocetffi  (q.  v.)  rejectine  the  inspired  history  of  the  logical^  they  postulated  three  principles:  good,  just 
Infancy,  in  fact  any  childhood  of  Christ  at  all;  Mar-  and  wicked,  opposing  the  first  two  to  the  last;  or  one 
cion's  Saviovu-  is  a  "deus  ex  machina"  of  which  Ter-  principle  only,  the  just  god  being  a  mere  creation  of 
tulUan  mockingly  says:  "Suddenly  a  SoDi  suddenty  the  ^(xxi  God.    The  first  opinion  was  maintAix\s^Vsi^ 


BC^ROIONITES 


648 


MA&OIOMim 


Syneros  and  Lucanus  or  Lucianus.  Of  the  first  we 
know  nothing  beyond  the  mention  of  him  in  Rhodon : 
of  the  second  we  possess  more  information,  ana 
Epiphanius  has  devoted  a  whole  chapter  to  his  refuta- 
tion. Both  Origen  and  Epiphanius,  however,  seem  to 
know  of  Lucanus'  sect  only  bv  hearsay;  it  was  there- 
fore probably  extinct  towards  the  end  of  the  third 
century.  Tertullian  (de  Resur.  Cam.,  ii)  says  that  he 
outdid  even  Marcion  in  denying  the  resurrection  not 
only  of  the  body  but  also  of  the  soul,  only  admitting 
the  resurrection  of  some  tertium  quid  {irvtvfia  as  op- 
posed to  ^ux^  ?) .  Tertullian  says  that  he  had  Lucanus' 
teaching  in  view  when  writing  his  "  De  Anima  ".  It  is 
possible  that  Lucanus  taught  transmigration  of  souls; 
according  to  Epiphanius  some  Marcionites  of  his  day 
maintained  it.  Though  Lucanus'  particular  sect  may 
have  soon  died  out,  the  doctrine  comprised  in  the 
three  principles  was  long  maintained  by  Marcionites. 
In  St.  Hippolytus'  time  (c.  225)  it  was  held  by  an 
Assyrian  called  Prepon,  who  wrote  in  defence  of  it  a 
work  called  "  Bardesanes  the  Armenian  "  (Hipp.,  "Adv. 
HaBr.",  VII,  xxxi) .  Adamantius  in  his  "  Dialogue"  (see 
below)  introduces  a  probably  fictitious  Marcionite  doc- 
trine of  three  principles,  and  Epiphanius  evidently 
puts  it  forward  as  the  prominent  Marcionite  doctrine 
of  his  day  (374).  The  doctrine  of  the  One  Principle 
only,  of  which  the  Jewish  god  is  a  creature,  was  mam- 
tained  by  the  notorious  Apelles,  who,  though  once  a 
disciple  of  Marcion  himself,  became  more  of  a  Gnostic 
th^  of  a  Marcionist.  He  was  accompanied  by  a  girl 
called  Philumena,  a  sort  of  clairvoyante  who  dabbled 
in  magic,  and  who  claimed  frequent  visions  of  Christ 
and  St.  Paul,  appearing  under  the  form  of  a  boy. 
Tertullian  calls  this  Philumena  a  prostitute,  and  ac- 
cuses Apelles  of  unchastity,  but  Khodon,  who  had 
known  Apelles  personally,  refers  to  him  as  "  venerable 
in  behaviour  and  age".  Tertullian  often  attacks  him 
in  writings  ("De  Pra?scr.",  Ixvii;  "Adv.  Marc.,"  Ill, 
g.  11,  IV,  17)  and  even  wrote  a  work  against  him: 
"Adversus  Apclleiacos",  which  is  unfortunately  lost, 
though  once  known  to  St.  Hippolytus  and  St.  Augus- 
tine. Some  fragments  of  Apelles  have  been  collected 
by  A.  Hamack  (first  in  "Texte  u.  Unters.",  VI,  3, 
1890,  and  then  ibid.,  XX,  or  new  ser.^  V,  3,  1900), 
who  wrote  "De  Apelles  Gnosi  Monarchica"  (I^ipzig, 
1874),  though  Apelles  emphatically  repudiated  Mar- 
don's  two  gods  and  acknowledged  "  One  good  God, 
one  Beginning  and  one  Power  beyond  all  description 
(djrarar6/ia<rro}) . 

This  "Holy  and  Good  God  above",  according  to 
him,  took  no  notice  of  things  below,  but  made  another 
god,  who  made  the  world.  Nor  is  this  creator-god  the 
only  emanation  of  the  Supreme  God;  there  is  a  fire- 
angel  or  fire-god  ("  Igneus  Prajses  mali "  according  to 
Tertullian,  "De  Came",  viii)  who  tampered  with  the 
souls  of  men;  there  is  a  Jewish  god,  a  law-god,  who 
presumably  wrote  the  Old  Testament,  which  Apelles 
neld  to  be  a  lying  production.  Possibly,  however,  the 
fire-god  and  the  law-god  were  but  manifestations  of 
the  creator-god.  Apelles  wrote  an  extensive  work 
called  ^vWoyia/Mt  to  prove  the  untrustworthiness  of 
the  Old  Testament,  of  which  Origen  quotes  a  charac- 
teristic fragment  (In  Gen.,  II,  ii).  Apelles'  Antido- 
cetism  has  been  referred  to  above.  Of  other  followers 
of  Marcion  the  names  only  are  known.  The  Marcion- 
ites differed  from  the  Gnostic  Christians  in  that  they 
thought  it  unlawful  to  deny  their  religion  in  times  of 
persecution,  nobly  vying  with  Catholics  in  shedding 
their  blood  for  the  name  of  Christ.  Marcionite  martyrs 
are  not  infrequently  referred  to  in  Eusebius'  "Church 
History"  (IV,  xv,  xlvi;  V,  xvi,  xxi;  VII,  xii).  Their 
nimiber  and  influence  seem  alwavs  to  have  l^cen  less  in 
the  West  than  in  the  East,  and  in  the  West  they  soon 
died  out.  Epiphanius,  however,  testifies  that  in  the 
East  in  A.  D.  374  they  had  deceived  "a  vast  numlwr  of 
men"  and  were  found  "not  onlv  in  Rome  and  Italy 
but  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  Arabia,  Syria,  Cj'prus  and  the 


Thebaid  and  even  in  Persia  ".  And  Hieodoret,  Bishop 
of  Cyrus  in  the  Province  of  the  Euphrates  from  423  to 
458,  in  his  letter  to  Domno,  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch, 
refers  with  just  pride  to  his  having  converted  one  thou- 
sand Marcionites  in  his  scattered  diocese.  Not  far 
from  Theodoret's  diocese,  near  Damascus,  an  inscrip- 
tion was  found  of  a  Marcionite  church,  showing  that  m 
▲.  D.  318-319  Marcionites  possessed  fretMlom  of  wor- 
ship (Le  Boss  and  Waddington,  "  Inscr.  Grec",  Paris, 
1870).  Constantine  (Eusebius,  "Vita",  III,  Ixiv)  for- 
bade all  public  and  private  worship  of  Marcionism. 
Though  the  Paulicians  are  always  designated  by  their 
adversaries  as  Manich^ans,  and  though  their  adoption 
of  Manichsean  principles  seems  imdeniable,  yet  ao-* 
cording  to  Petrus  Siculus,  who  lived  amongst  Paulh 
cians  (868-^869)  in  Tibrike  and  is  therefore  a  trust- 
worthy witness,  their  founder,  Constantine  the 
Armenian,  on  receiving  Marcion's  Gosp>el  and  Apostol-  • 
icon  from  a  deacon  in  Syria,  handed  it  to  his  followers, 
who  at  first  at  least  kept  it  as  their  Bible  and  repudi- 
ated all  writings  of  Mani.  The  refutation  of  Marcion- 
ism by  the  Armenian  Archpriest  Eznic  in  the  fif^ 
century  shows  the  Marcionites  to  have  been  still 
numerous  in  Armenia  at  that  time  (Eznik,  "  Refuta- 
tion of  the  Sects  ",  ly,  Ger.  tr.,  J.  M.  Schmid,  Vienna, 
19G0).  Ermoni  maintains  that  Eznik's  descriptiim 
of  Marcion's  doctrine  still  represents  the  ancient  form 
thereof,  but  this  is  not  acknowledged  by  other  scholars 
("Marcion  dans  la  Utt^rat.  Armlnienne"  in  "Revue 
de  I'Or.  Chr^t.",  I). 

IV.  Mutilation  op  the  New  Testament. — Mar- 
cion's name  appears  prominently  in  the  discussion  cC 
two  important  questions,  that  of  the  Apostles'  Creed 
and  that  of  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament.     It  is 
maintained  by  recent  scholars  that  the  Apostles'  Creed 
was  drawn  up  in  the  Roman  Church  in  opposition  to 
Marcionism  (cf.  F.  Kattenbusch,  "Das  Apost.  Sym- 
bol", Leipzig,  1900;  A.  C.  McGiffert,  "The  Apostles' 
Creed",  New  York,  1902).     Passing  over  this  point, 
Marcion's  attitude  towards  the  New  Testament  must 
be  further  explained.     His  cardinal  doctrine  was  the 
opposition  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  New,  and  this 
doctrine  he  had  amply  illustrated  in  his  great  (lost) 
work 'Avrt^^crets  or  "Contrasts".     In  order^  however. 
to  make  the  contrast  perfect  he  had  to  omit  much  ol 
the  New  Testament  writings  and  to  manipulate  the 
rest.    He  took  one  Gospel  out  of  the  four,  and  ac- 
cepted only  ten  epistles  of  St.  Paul.    Marcion's  Gospd 
was  based  on  our  canonical  St.  Luke  with  omission  ol 
the  first  two  chapters.    The  text  has  been  as  far  as 
possible  restored  by  Th.  Zahn.  "Geschichte  d.  N.T. 
kanons",  II,  455^494,  from  all  available  sources,  es- 
pecially Epiphanius,  who  made  a  collection  oi  78 
passages.    Marcion's  changes  mainly  consist  in  omis- 
sions, where  he  modifies  the  text.    The  modifications 
are  slight,  thus:  "  I  give  thee  thanks,  Father,  God  of 
heaven  and  earth ",  is  changed  to  "I  give  thanks,  Fa- 
ther, Lord  of  heaven  ".     "  O  foolish  and  hard  of  heart 
to  believe  in  all  that  the  prophets  have  spoken",  is 
changed  into:  "O  foolish  and  hard  of  heart  to  believe 
in  all  that  I  have  told  you."    Sometimes  slight  adcli- 
tions  are  made :  "  We  found  this  one  subverting  our  na- 
tion" (the  accusation  of  the  Jews  before  Pilate)  re- 
ceives the  addition:  "and  destroying  the  law  and  the 
grophets".     A  similar  process  was  followed  with  the 
Ipistle  of  St.  Paul.     By  the  omission  of  a  single  prepo- 
sition Marcion  had  coined  a  text  in  favour  of  his  doo^ 
trine  out  of  Ephes.,  iii,  10:  "the  mystery  which  from 
the  beginning  of  the  world  has  been  hidden /r<>m  the 
god  who  created  all  things "  (omitting  ip  before  0ef). 
However  cleverly  the  changes  were  made,  CathoUes 
continued  to  press  Marcion  even  with  the  texts  which 
he  retained  in  his  New  Testament,  hence  the  continual 
need  of  further  modifications.     The  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul  which  he  received  were,  first  of  all,  Galatians, 
which  he  considered  the  charter  of  Marcionism,  then 
Corinthians  I  and  II,  Romans  I  and  II,  Thessalonians, 


MAROOPOLIS 


649 


MAROOSIANS 


Ephesians  (which,  however,  he  knew  under  the  name  of 
Laodiceans),  Colossians,  rhilippians  and  Philemon. 
The  Pastoral  Epistles,  the  Catholic  Epistles,  Hebrews 
and  the  Apocalypse,  as  well  as  Acts,  were  excluded. 
Recently  de  Bruyne  ("Revue  Benedictine",  1907, 
1-16)  has  made  out  a  good  case  for  the  supposition 
that  the  short  prefaces  to  the  Pauline  epistles,  which 
were  once  attributed  to  Pelagius  and  others,  are  taken 
out  of  a  Marcionite  Bible  and  augmented  with  Catho- 
lic headings  for  the  missing  Epistles. 

V.  Anti-Marcionite  Writers. — (1)  St.  Justin  the. 
Martyr  (150)  refers  to  the  Marcionites  in  his  first  Apol- 
ogy; he  also  wrote  a  special  treatise  against  them. 
This,  however,  mentioned  by  Irenseus  as  ^^vr ay iul  irpbs 
MapKlupa,  is  lost.  Irenaaus  (Hcer.,  IV,  vi,  2)  quotes 
short  passages  of  Justin  containing  the  sentence:  "I 
would  not  have  believed  the  Lord  himself  if  he  had 
announced  any  other  than  the  Creator'';  also  V,  26, 2. 
(2)  Irenseus  (c.  176)  intended  to  write  a  special  work 
in  refutation  of  Marcion,  but  never  carried  out  his 

Surpose  (Haer.,  I,  27,  4;  III,  12,  13);  he  refers  to 
[arcion,  however,  again  and  again  in  his  great  work 
against  Heresies,  especially  III,  4,  2;  III,  27,  2;  IV, 
38,  2  sq.;  Ill,  11,7,25,  3.  (3)  Rhodon  (180-192) 
wrote  a  treatise  against  Marcion,  dedicated  to  Callis- 
tion.  It  is  no  longer  extant,  but  is  referred  to  by 
Eusebius  (H.  E.,  V,  13)  who  gives  some  extracts.  (4) 
TertuUian,  the  main  source  of  our  information,  wrote 
his  "Ad versus  Marcionem'*  (five  books)  in  207,  and 
makes  reference  to  Marcion  in  several  of  his  works: 
"DePraB8criptione","DeCame  Christi",  "DeResur- 
rectione  Camis  ",  and  "  De  Anima".  His  work  against 
Apelles  is  lost.  (5)  Pseudo  Tertullian  (possibly  Com- 
modian.  See  H.  Waitz,  "  Ps.  Tert.  Gedicht  Adv.  M.", 
Darmstadt,  1901)  wrote  a  lengthy  poem  against  Mar- 
cion in  doggerel  hexameters,  which  is  now  valuable. 
Pseudo  Tertullian's  (possibly  Victorinus  of  Pettau) 
short  treatise  against  all  heresies  (c.  a.  d.  240)  is  also 
extant.  (6)  Adamantius. — \\Tiether  this  is  a  real  per- 
sonage or  only  a  nom  de  plume  is  uncertain.  His  Dia- 
logue, "De  itecta  in  Deum  Fide'*,  has  often  been 
ascribed  to  Origen,  but  it  is  beyond  doubt  that  he  is 
not  the  author.  The  work  was  probably  composed 
about  A.  D.  300.  It  was  originally  written  in  Greek 
and  translated  by  Rufinus.  It  is  a  refutation  of  Mar- 
cionism  and  Valentinianism.  The  first  half  is  directed 
against  Marcionism,  which  is  defended  by  Megethius 
(who  maintains  three  principles)  and  Marcus  (who 
defends  two).  (Berlin  ed.  of  the  Fathers  by  Sande 
Bakhuysen,  Leipzig,  1901.)  (7)  St.  Hippolytus  of 
Rome  (c.  220)  speaks  of  Marcion  in  his  Kefutation 
of  all  Heresies",  Book  VII,  ch.  17-26,  and  X,  15. 
(8)  St.  Epiphanius  wrote  his  work  against  heresies  in 
374,  and  is  the  second  main  source  of  information  in 
his  Ch.  xUi-xliv.  He  is  invaluable  for  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  Marcion's  Bible  text,  as  he  gives  78  and  40 
passages  from  Marcion's  New  Testament  where  it 
differs  from  ours  and  adds  a  short  refutation  in  each 
instance.  (9)  St.  Ephraem  (373)  maintains  in  many  of 
his  writings  a  polemic  against  Marcion, as  in  his  "Com- 
mentary on  tne  Diatessaron"  (J.  R.  Harris,  "Frag- 
ments of  Com.  on  Diates.**,  London,  1895),  and  in  his 
"Metrical  Sermons"  (Roman  ed..  Vol.  II,  437-560, 
and  Overbeck's  Ephrem  etc.,  Opera  Selecta).  (10) 
Eznik,  an  Armenian  Archpriest,  or  possibly  Bishop  of 
Bagrewand  (478),  wrote  a  "Refutation  of  the  Sects", 
of  which  Book  IV  is  a  refutation  of  Marcion.  Trans- 
lated into  German,  J.  M.  Schmid,  Vienna,  1900. 

Meyboom.  Marcion  en  de  Marcionieten  (Leyden,  1888);  Idbm, 
Hft  Christendom  der  tweede  Eeuw  (Qmningfin,  1897);  KrCoew, 
extensive  article  in  Hauck,  Real  Encyclop.  derProt.  Theol.,  XII 
(1903).  8.  v.;  Harnack,  Oeschichie  d*r  altchrial.  Lit.,  I,  191-197, 
839-840;  Texte  und  Unterauehung,  VI.  3  pp.,  109-120;  XX,  3, 
pp.  93-100  (1900);  2nd  II,  2,  537;  Bardenhewer.  GeBch.  der 
aUkirchL  lit..  II  (1902);  Zahn.  OenchiefUe  dea  N.  T.  Kanone,  I 
and  II  (1888):  Dae  Apoat.  Symbol  (Leipzig.  1893):  Hilobnfeij>, 

Ur-Chrtkenthume  (LJpxig,  1884). 


KeUergeachichte  dea 


J.  P.  Arendzen. 


Marcopolifl,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan 
of  Edesaa.  The  nati  ve  name  of  this  city  is  not  known , 
but  it  owes  its  Greek  name  to  the  Emperor  Marcus 
Aurelius.  Marcopolis  is  described  at  the  beginning 
of  the  seventh  century  by  the  geographer  George  oi 
Cyprus  ("Descriptio  orbis  romani  ,  ed.  Gelser,  46), 
ana  in  the'^Notitiseepiscopatuum"  of  Antioch  (sixth 
century)  is  alluded  to  as  a  see  of  Osrhoene  (Echos 
d'Orient,  X,  145).  Two  of  its  early  bishops  are  known : 
Cyrus,  who  attended  the  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431 
(Mansi,  "ConciUorum  coUectio",  IV,  1269;  V,  776, 
797)  and  Caioumas,  present  at  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don  in  451  (Mansi,  "Cone.  coll.".  VI,  572,  944;  VII, 
148).  Eubel  O'Hierarchia  catnolica  medii  aBvi", 
Munich,  I,  341)  mentions  four  other  titulars  between 
1340  and  1400,  and  a  fifth  from  1441  to  1453  (ibid., 
II,  204).    The  site  of  this  city  has  not  been  found. 

S.  VailhI:. 

Marco  Polo.    See  Polo,  Marco. 

Marcosians,  a  sect  of  VaUentinian  Gnostics, 
founded  by  Marcus  (q.  v.)  and  combated  at  length 
by  Irenseus  (Haer.,  I,  xii-xxiii).  In  the  district  of 
Ly[ons,  the  Rhone  Valley  and  Spain,  they  continued  to 
exist  till  well  into  the  fourth  century.  They  main- 
tained their  Gnostic  system  not  merely  in  theory  but, 
forming  Gnostic  confmunities,  they  were  addicted  to 
Gnostic  practices.  In  their  conventicles  prophecy  was 
habitually  practised;  not  only  men  but  women  wer6 
bidden  by  their  leaders  or  by  lot  to  stand  up  in  the 
congregation  and  prophesy.  The  incoherent  gibber- 
ish they  uttered  was  taken  for  the  voice  of  God. 
Women  were  likewise  bidden  to  utter  the  Eucharistic 
formula  over  the  elements.  The  wine  was  then 
poured  in  a  larger  cup  and  by  a  chemical  trick  in- 
creased 'in  volume.  Irenceus  scornfully  repeats  that 
the  sect  was  an  affair  of  silly  women,  ruining  their 
souls  and  their  bodies,  and  narrates  that  women  who 
repented  and  returned  to  the  Church  confessed  their 
past  degradation. 

The  Marcosian  system  was  a  degraded  variety  of 
that  of  Valentinus  (q.  v.).  It  retained  the  30  i^ns, 
but  called  them  "  Greatnesses  "  and  gave  them  numer- 
ical values.  It  kept  the  myth  of  the  fall  of  Sophia  but 
called  it  a  "Divine  Deficiency*'.  Peculiar  to  it  was 
the  adaptation  of  the  Pythagorean  number  theory  to 
Gnosticism.  The  30  iEons  are  obtained  by  adding  the 
numbers  of  the  Ogdoad  together:  1  +  2  +  3  +  4  +  5  +  7 
+  8  =  30.  The  6  is  purposely  omitted  for  it  is  the 
iirlffrjfiop  and  not  a  letter  of  the  usual  Greek  alphabet. 
The  fall  of  Sophia  is  clearly  shown  by  the  fact  that  A 
which  equals  30,  or  the  complete  set  of  Greatnesses,  ia 
really  only  the  eleventh  letter  of  the  alphabet,  but  to 
make  up  for  this  deficiency  it  sought  a  consort  and  so 
became  M  (=  AA).  The  episemon,  or  6,  is  a  number 
fuU  of  potency;  the  name  'I1^^ovf  consists  of  six  letters, 
hence  the  name  of  the  Saviour.  When  the  Propator, 
who  is  the  M6yaf,  willed  the  Unspeakable  to  be 
spoken,  He  uttered  the  Word  which  has  4  syllables  and 
30  letters.  The  plenitude  of  Greatness  is  2  tetrads,  a 
decad  and  a  dodecad  (4  +  4  +  10+12  =  30);  the  2 
tetrads  are  the  Unspeakable,  Silence,  Father  and 
Truth  followed  by  Logos,  Life,  Man  and  Church. 
These  form  the  Ogdoad.  The  mutes  of  the  Greek 
alphabet  belong  to  Father  and  Truth  (The  Unspeak- 
able, and  Silence,  of  course,  do  not  count) ;  these  being 
mute  reveal  nothing  to  man.  The  semivowels  belong 
to  Word  and  liife,  but  the  vowels  to  Man  and  Church, 
for  through  Man  voice  gave  power  to  all.  The  7 
Greek  vowels  go  through  the  seven  heavens,  which 
thus  sing  the  Great  Doxology  in  harmony.  Even 
numbers  are  female,  odd  numbers  male,  by  the  union 
of  the  first  of  these,  2X3,  was  begotten  the  ejnsemorif 
or  6,  the  number  of  our  Salvation.  G .  Salmon  well  re- 
marks that  Marcus's  system  is  the  most  worthless  of  all 
that  passed  under  the  name  of  knowled  ge  in  second  cen- 
tury literature.  Irenceus  (I.  c.)  is  practically  our  only 
authority.    (See  Gnosticibm.)     J.  P.  Abendzek^ 


liABOOUX 


650 


MAftDIN 


Mareoux,  Joseph,  missionary  among  the  Iroquois, 
b.  in  Canada,  16  March,  1791;  d.  there  29  May,  1855. 
He  was  ordained  12  Januanr,  1813,  and  spent  the  re- 
maining forty-two  years  of  his  life  evangelizing  the 
Iroquois,  first  at  St.  Regis  and  later  at  Caughnawaga, 
or  »ault-St-Louis.  In  addition  to  his  fruitful  efforts 
towards  the  betterment  of  the  spiritual  and  social 
condition  of  the  Indians,  he  acquired  such  proficiency 
in  the  Iroquois  tongue  as  to  attain  a  high  rank  among 
philologists  throu^  his  Iroquois  grammar  and  his 
French-Iroquois  dictionary.  For  fis  flock,  whom  he 
had  provided  with  church  and  schools  (1845),  he 
translated  into  Iroquois  P^re  de  Ligny's  '*Life  of 
Chnsf ,  and  published  in  their  own  language,  a  col- 
lection of  prayers,  hymns,  and  canticles  (1852),  a 
catechism  (1854),  a  calendar  of  Catholic  ritual,  and 
a  number  of  sermons.  He  died  in  1855  of  typhoid 
fever,  at  that  time  epidemic  among  the  Iroquois. 

Afpleton,  Cyclopadxa  of  American  Biography,  s.  v.;  Tan- 
GUAT,  Rip,  gHUral  du  cUrg^  canadien. 

Florence  Rudge  McGahan. 
Marculf.    See  Formularies. 

Marcus  y  the  name  of  three  leading  Gnostics. 

I.  The  founder  of  the  Marcosians  (q.  v.)  and  elder 
contemporary  of  St.  Irenseus,  who,  c.  a.  d.  175.  in  his 
refutation  addresses  him  as  one  apparently  still  living 
(Adv.  Hser.,  I,  xi,  3,  where  the  "clarus  magister"  is 
Marcus,  not  Epiphanes;  and  I,  xiii,  21).  Irenseus, 
from  whom  St.  Epiphanius  (Hcer.,  xxxiv)  and  St. 
Hippolytus  (Hser.,  VI,  xxxix-lv)  quote,  makes  Mar- 
cus a  disciple  of  Valentinus  (q.  v.),  with  whom  Mar- 
cus's aeonology  mainly  agrees.  St.  Jerome  (Ep.  75,  3) 
makes  him  a  follower  of  Basilides  (q.  v.),  confusing 
him  no  doubt  with  Marcus  of  Memphis.  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  himself  infected  with  Gnosticism,  ac- 
tually uses  Marcus's  number  system  though  with- 
out acknowledgment  (Strom.,  VI.  xvi).  Marcus  first 
taught  in  Asia  Minor  and  possibly  later  in  the  West 
also.  His  immoralities  and  juggling  tricks  (colouring 
the  contents  of  the  cup  and  increasing  the  quantitjO 
are  described  by  IrensDus  and  Hippolytus.  (For  his 
system  see  Marcosians.) 

II.  One  of  the  two  defenders  of  Marcionism  in  Ada- 
mantius's  Dialogue  "De  Recta  in  Deum  fide";  the 
other  is  called  Mcgethius;  but  whether  these  are  ficti- 
tious or  real  personages  is  uncertain.  Marcus's  dual- 
ism is  more  absolute  than  that  of  Marcion  himself:  the 
demiurgus  is  the  absolute  evil  principle.  He  inclines 
further  towards  Apellea,  accepting  salvation  neither  for 
the  body  nor  the  psyche  but  only  for  the  pneuma. 

III.  A  Manichean  Gnostic,  a  native  of  Memphis, 
who  introduced  dualistic  doctrines  into  Spain  aoout 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  His  precise  activity 
was  unknown  even  to  Sulpicius  Severus  (Hist.  Sacr., 
II,  xliv),  c.  A.  D.  400,  who  only  knows  that  he  had  two 
hearers  or  disciples:  Agape,  a  wealthy  matron,  and 
the  orator  Elpidius,  who  became  the  instructors  of 
Priscillian  ("  ab  his  Priscillianus  est  institutus  ")  when 
still  a  layman.  Elpidius  and  Priscillian  were  both 
condemned  by  the  Council  of  Saragossa,  but  Elpidius 
did  not  share  Priscillian's  tragic  fate  in  a.  d.  385. 

J.  P.  Arendzen. 

Marcus  Aurelius.  See  Aurelius  Antoninus 
Marcus. 

Marcus  Diaconus.  See  Porpiiyrius,  Bishop  of 
Gaza. 

Marcus  Diadochus  (MdpKos  6  SidSoxos),  an  ob- 
scure writer  of  the  fourth  century  of  whom  nothing  is 
known  but  his  name  at  the  bead  of  a  "Sermon  against 
the  Arians",  discovered  by  Wetsten  in  a  manuscript 
codex  of  St.  Athanasius  at  Basle  and  published  by  him 
at  the  end  of  his  edition  of  Origen:  "De  oratione" 
(Basle,  1694).  Another  version  of  the  same  work  was 
lent  by  Galliciollus  to  Galland  and  published  in  the 
"Veterum  Patrum  Bibliotheca",  V  (Venice,  1765- 
1781).    This  is  the  text  in  P.  G.,  LXV,  1149-1166. 


The  sermon  quotes  and  expounds  the  usual  texts, 
John,  i,  1;  Heb.,  i,  3;  Ps.  cix,  3-4:  John^  xiv,  6,  2.3, 

ftc,  and  answers  difficulties  trom  MAtk,  xiii,  32;  x,  10; 
fatt.,  XX,  23,  etc. 
A  quite  different  person  is  Diadochus,  Bishop  of 
Photike  in  Epirus  in  the  fifth  century,  author  of  a 
"Sermon  on  tne  Ascension"  and  of  a  hundred  ** Chap- 
ters on  Spiritual  Perfection"  (P.  G.,  LXV,  1141-1148, 
1167-1212),  whom  Victor  Vitensis  praises  in  the  pro- 
logue of  his  history  of  the  Vandal  persecution  (Kuin- 
art's  edition,  Paris,  1694,  not.  3).    The  two  are  often 

confounded,  as  in  Migne. 

P.  (?..  LXV,  1141-1212;    JuNGMAim-FESSLER.  InMHtutiona 
Patrologia  (InnBbnick,  1896),  lib,  147-148;  Cbsvaubr.  Btb- 

Bt6i..  8.V.  Adrian  Fortescue. 

Marcus  Eremita  (MdpKot  6  ip-nfjUrrit,  or  puovax^t  or 
dtf-iriTr^s),  a  theologian  and  ascetic  writer  oif  some  im- 
portance in  the  fifth  century.  Various  theories  about 
nis  period  and  works  have  been  advanced.  These 
seem  now  to  be  supplanted  by  J.  Kunze  in  his  study 
of  this  writer. 

According  to  Kunze,  Mark  the  Hermit  was  sup^ 
rior  of  a  laura  at  Ancyra;  he  then  as  an  old 
man  left  his  monastery  and  became  a  hermit,  prob- 
ably in  the  desert  east  of  Palestine,  near  St.  Sabas. 
He  was  a  contemporary  of  Nestorius  and  died  prob- 
ably before  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (461).  Nice- 
phorus  Callistus  (fourteenth  centuiy)  sa^s  he  was 
a  disciple  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  ("Hist.  Eccl." 
in  P.  G.,  CXLVI,  XIV,  30).  Cardinal  Bellannine 
[de  Script,  eccl.  (1631),  p.  273]  thought  that  this  Mark 
was  the  monk  who  prophesied  ten  more  years  of  life 
to  the  Emperor  Leo  VI  in  900.  He  is  refuted  by 
Tillemont  [Mdmoires  (1705),  X,  456  sq.].  Another 
view  supported  by  the  Byzantine  "Menaia"  (Acta 
Sanct.,  March  1)  identifies  him  with  the  Egyptian 
monk  mentioned  in  Palladius,  ''Historia  Laiisiaca". 
XX  (P.  G.,  XXXII),  who  lived  in  the  fourth  century! 
The  discovery  and  identification  of  a  work  by  him 
against  Nestorius  by  P.  Kerameus  in  his  ArdXeirrci 
UpoffoX,  araxvoXoyias  (St.  Petersburg,  1891),  I,  pp. 
89-113,  makes  his  period  certain,  as  defended  by 
Kmize. 

Mark's  works  are:  (1)  Of  the  spiritual  law;  (2)  Con- 
cerning those  who  think  to  be  justified  through  works 
(both  ascetic  treatises  for  monks);  (3)  Of  penitence; 
(4)  Of  baptism;  (5)  To  Nicholas  on  refraining  from 
anger  and  lust;  (6)  Disputation  against  a  scholar 
(against  appealing  to  civil  courts  and  on  celibacy); 
(7)  Consultation  of  the  mind  with  its  own  soul  (re- 
proaches that  he  makes  Adam,  Satan  ^  and  other  men 
responsible  for  his  sins  instead  of  himself);  (8)  On 
fasting  and  humility;  (9)  On  Melchisedek  (against 
people  who  think  that  Melchisedek  was  an  apparition 
of  the  Word  of  God).  Ml  the  above  works  are  named 
and  described  in  the  "  Myrobiblion  "  (P.  G.,  CIII,  668 
sq.)  and  are  published  in  Gallandi's  collection.  To 
them  must  be  added:  (10)  Against  the  Nestorians  (a 
treatise  against  that  heresy  arranged  without  order). 
Mark  is  rather  an  ascetic  than  a  donnatic  writer.  He 
is  content  to  accept  dogmas  from  tne  Church;  his  in- 
terest is  in  the  spiritual  life  as  it  should  be  led  by 
monks.  He  is  practical  rather  than  mystic,  belongs 
to  the  Antiochene  School  and  shows  himself  to  be  a 
disciple  of  St.  John  Chrysostom. 

G ALLAN ni,  Bibliotheca  vet'crum  Patrum ^  WTl  (Venice,  1788), 
1-104.  reprinted  with  Gallnndi's  prolegomena  in  P.  O.,  LXV» 
893-1140:  Fabricius-Harles,  Bibliotheca  arveca,  IX  (Ham- 
burg. 1R04),  267-269;  Junqmann-Fessler,  fn^iittitionf  Patrxh- 
lopia,  II  (Innsbruck,  1892).  143-146;  Kunze,  Marcu9  EremUa, 
ein  neuer  Zeuye  fiir  das  altkirchliche  Taufbekennfy^is  (LeipaJA 
1896). 

Adrian  Fobtebcux. 

Mardin,  a  residential  Armenian  archbishopric,  a 
Chaldean  bishopric,  and  a  residential  Syrian  bish- 
opric; moreover  it  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Capuchin 
mission  of  Mardin  and  Amida. 

The  ancient  Syriac  name  was  Mardaj  which  meant 


MABDOOHAI 


651 


MABSNOO 


fortress.  It  is  mentioned  as  earlv  as  the  time  of  Em- 
peror Constantius  (Amm.  Murcell.  xix,  9. 4)  and  again 
m  the  year  506  (Theophanis,  "  Chronogr/'  a.  m.,  6998). 
The  town  became  Christian  under  Tiridates  II,  King 
of  "Armenia,  at  the  close  of  the  third  century,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  churches,  mausoleums,  and  houses, 
the  ruins  of  which  have  been  discovered,  belong  to  this 
period.  It  played  an  important  part  in  the  religious 
controversies  between  the  Catholics  and  Monophy- 
sites,  Who  made  it  one  of  their  principal  monasteries. 
It  had  a  Jacobite  bishop  in  0:^4  (see  tne  list  of  Syrian 
titulars,  in  Lequien,  "  Oriens  Christ r,"  II,  1457-14G2; 
also  "Revue  de  I'Orient  Chretien",  VI,  200;  also  the 
list  of  Chaldean  titulars  given  in  Lequien,  op.  cit..  II. 
1321).  After  1166  the  Jacobite  patriarch,  who  had 
hitherto  resided  at  Diarbekir,  took  up  his  residence  in 
Maniin.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  thanks  to  its  strong 
position,  the  town  escaped  the  attacks  of  Houla- 
gon,  grandson  of  Genghis  Khan,  and  of  Tamerlane. 
Since  1574  it  has  belong  to  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
and  is  a  sanjak  in  the  vilayet  of  Diarbekir.  It  is  sit- 
uated at  about  3600  feet  above  sea-level,  on  a  rugged 
browed  and  impregnable  green  hill;  the  grassy  plam  in 
the  valley  below  is  known  as  the  Sea  of-Mardin.  The 
population  is  computed  at  25,000,  of  whom  15,500  are 
Mussulmans,  the  remainder  being  Christians.  The 
number  of  Catholics  of  various  rites  is  about  3000. 
In  the  Armenian  archdiocese  there  are  8000  faithful, 
16  native  priests,  8  churches  or  chapels,  5  central  sta- 
tions, and  10  chapels  of  ease.  The  Syrian  Catholic  dio- 
cese has  existed  since  1852,  and  its  title  has  been  joined 
with  that  of  Amida  since  1888.  The  patriarch  ought 
to  reside  at  Mardin,  but  for  some  years  past  he  has  pre- 
ferred Beirut  on  account  of  facility  of  communication 
with  Europe.  In  the  Syrian  diocese  there  are  3500 
Catholics,  25  priests,  8  churches  and  chapels,  1 1  sta- 
tions, and  the  monastery  of  St.  Ephraim.  Tne  Chaldean 
diocese,  which  is  Hmited  to  the  town  of  Mardin,  has 
750  faithful,  4  native  priests,  1  parish,  and  3  stations. 
The  Capuchin  mission  dates  from  the  seventeenth 
century^  but  its  headquarters  have  been  changed 
many  times.  It  consists  of  15  religious,  of  whom  11 
are  priests,  and  it  has  6  houses  (Diarbekir  or  Amida, 
Orfa  or  Edessa^  Malatea  or  Melitene,  Kharpout, 
Mamouret-ul-Aaiz  or  Mozera,  and  Mardin).  The  mis- 
sion owns  6  churches  and  5  chapels;  it  carries  on  18 
primary  schools,  a  college  at  Mamouret-ul-Aziz,  2 
orphanages.  The  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Lons-le-Sau- 
nier  have  three  establishments  for  ^rls,  one  at  Diar- 
bekir, one  at  Orfa,  and  one  at  Mardm.  The  superior 
of  the  mission  is  Rey.  J.  Antonius  a  Mediolano,  O.M.C. 
There  is  moreover  a  schismatic  Armenian  archbishop 
in  the  town,  and  an  American  Protestant  mission  is 
in  activity. 

AasEMANi,  Bibliotheca  orientalia,  11,  470;  Chapot,  Im  firon- 
Hh-e de  VEuphraie  (Paris.  1907) . 312;  Cuinet,  La  Turquxe d'Asie, 
II,  494-502;  Piolkt,  Lea  tnisnona  catholiqtiee  frarifaieea  au 
XIX'  eiMe,  I  ^aria).  274-294;  Muaiones  Caiholica  (Rome, 
1907)  161,  756,  S05,  810. 

S.  Vailh6. 
Mardochai.    See  Esther. 

Mar^chaly  Ambrose,  third  Archbishop  of  Balti- 
more; b.  at  Ingres  near  Orl^ns,  France,  28  August, 
1764;  d.  at  Baltimore,  29  January,  1828.  Yielding  to 
his  parents'  desires  hcstudied  for  the  legal  profession, 
but  later  entered  the  Sulpician  seminarv  at  Orl^ns, 
where  he  received  tonsure  towards  the  close  of  1787. 
Owing  to  the  chaotic  condition  of  France,  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  Paris  for  Bordeaux,  where  he  was 
ordained  in  1792.  On  the  day  of  his  ordination,  and 
at  the  risk  of  his  life,  accompanied  by  Abb^  Richard, 
Martignon,  and  Cicquard,  he  sailed  for  America  and 
arrived  at  Baltimore  (24  June,  1792^,  where  he  offered 
his  first  Mass.  He  was  sent  ou  the  mission  in  St. 
Mary's  County,  and  later  to  Bohemia  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  Maryland .  In  1 799,  he  was  teaching  theology 
at  St.  Mary's  College,  Baltimore:  in  1801  he  was  on 
the  staff  of  Georgetown  College,  but  after  a  while  re- 


turned to  St.  Mary's,  which  was  then  in  the  hands  of 
the  Sulpicians,  of  which  order  he  was  a  member.  Civil 

fovemment  having  been  restored  in  France  under 
fapoleon.  Father  Mar^chal  was  summoned  by  his 
superiors  to  teach  at  Saint- Flour,  Lyons,  Aix  and 
Marseilles.  His  pupils  at  Marseilles  presented  him 
with  the  marble  altar  which  now  stands  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Baltimore^  and  Louis  XVIII  also  testified  his 
regard  by  presenting  him  with  several  paintings,  which 
also  remam  in  Baltimore  Cathedral. 

In  1812  he  was  again  teaching  in  Baltimore;  in  1816 
he  was  nominated  Bishop  of  Philadelphia^  but  at  his 
request  the  nomination  was  withdrawn;  m  1817,  on 
24  July,  he  was  appointed  coadjutor  to  Archbishop 
Neale  ot  Baltimore,  and  Titular  of  Stauropolis.  The 
Brief  of  appointment  had  not  reached  Baltimore  when 
Archbishop  Neale  died,  and  the  Titular  of  Stauropolis 
was  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  by  Bishop 
Cheverus  of  Boston,  14  December,  1817.  He  soon  had 
to  face  serious  dissensions  over  the  claim  by  the  laity 
to  a  voice  in  the  appointment  of  clergy;  he  tactfully 
induced  his  flock  to  yield,  and  established  the  right  of 
the  ordinary  to  make  all  such  appointments.  The 
building  of  the  Cathedral  which  had  oeen  begun  imder 
Archbishop  Carroll  in  1806,  was  now  resumed  and 
completed  so  that  the  edifice  was  consecrated  31  May, 
1821.  In  that  year  Archbishop  Marshal  went  to 
Rome  on  business  of  his  diocese,  and  in  connexion  with 
the  White  Marsh  plantation  .which  the  Archbishop 
claimed  as  Diocesan  property,  but  which  had  been 
devised  to  the  Jesuits  (17  Feb.,  1728),  and  was  claimed 
by  them  as  property  of  the  society  to  be  employed  in 
the  interests  of  the  Church  of  Maryland.  'The  arch- 
bishop secured  from  Rome  a  Bull  in  his  favour.  (See 
Society  op  Jesus,  in  the  United  States.)  From  his 
"Relatio  Status"  for  1821-1822  we  learn  that  in  the 
United  States  as  they  then  existed  there  were  9  dio- 
ceses and  117  priests,  including  the  Archdiocese  of  Bal- 
timorCj  which  had  40  priests,  52  churches,  80,(XX) 
Catholics,  1  seminary,  1  Sulpician  college,  1  Jesuit 
college,  1  Carmelite  convent,  1  Convent  of  St.  Vincent 
of  Paul  nuns,  and  1  convent  of  Ursulines.  In  1826 
Archbishop  Mar^chal  made  a  journey  to  Canada,  and 
on  his  return  fell  ill .  H  is  coad  i  utor.  Key.  James  Whit- 
field, who  succeeded  him  as  Archbishop,  had  not  yet 
been  consecrated  when  death  came.  His  writings 
consist  almost  entirely  of  letters  and  documents  schol- 
arly in  style  and  are  to  be  f  oimd  in  "  The  History  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus  In  North  America"  by  Hughes. 

Clarxjb,  LiveM  of  Deceased  Biehopa,  I  (New  York,  1872)  23S- 
255:  Hughes,  Hiatorupf  the  Society  of  Jetua  in  North  Ameriea, 
1  (Cleveland,  1910)  Part  II:  Shea,  History  of  the  Cathoiie 
Church  in  the  U.  S,  (New  York,  1886-1892). 

J.  P.  W.  McNeal. 

Marenco,  (1),  Carlo,  Italian  dramatist,  bom  at 
Cassolo  (orCassolniioyo)in  Piedmont  in  18()0;  died  at 
Savona  in  1846.  He  studied  law  for  a  while,  but 
finally  determined  to  devote  himself  to  literature.  To 
make  sure  of  a  competency  he  applied  for  and  ob- 
tained a  public  post  ccmnected  with  the  Treasury  De^ 
Eartment  of  Savona.  As  a  writer.  Carlo  Marenco 
elongs  to  the  Romantic  school,  for  he  rejects  the 
unity  of  time  in  his  plays  and  gives  to  his  plots  a 
more  ample  development  than  the  classic  rules  allow. 
In  general  his  characters  ard  lifelike  and  his  style  ele- 
gant. Perhaps  it  may  be  urged  against  his  tra^c 
plots  that  they  tend  unduly  to  the  sentimental.  For 
some  of  his  tragedies  he  derived  inspiration  from 
Dante,  as  in  the  "Pia  de'  Tolomei  ,  the  "Corso 
Donati",  and  the  "Conte  UgoHno".  In  the  "Pia" 
we  observe  traits  of  the  Roman  Lucretia  and  the  Su- 
sannah of  the  Bible  combined  with  characteristics  of 
the  Dantesque  figure.  Of  other  plays  bearing  upon 
more  or  less  historical  personages  there  may  be  listed 
"Amoldo  da  Brescia'',  "Berengario",  "Arrigo  di 
Syeyia",and  "Corradino"  (8eehis''Tragedie",Turin, 
1837-44,  and  "  Tragedie  inedite  ",  Florence,  Va5fi\. 


MABKNZIO  Qi 

(2)  Lbopou>o,  Italian  dramatic  poet,  b.  at  Ceva  in 
1831 ;  d.  1899,  SOD  of  Carlo  Marenco.  Like  his  fattier 
he  held  a  government  post  under  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment, one  wliich  toolchimtoSardinia.  In  ItiQO  be  be- 
came Professor  of  Latin  literature  at  Bologna  and  later 
occupied  aaimilarcbair  at  Milan.  In  1871  he  retired  to 
Turin.  Hia  plays  in  verse,  written  after  I860,  are 
more  notable  for  their  lyrical  qtialities  than  they  are 
tot  excellence  of  dramatic  technique.  Among  them 
are  "Celeste",  "Tempeate  alpine",  " Maroeliina ", 
"H  falconiere  cli  Pietra  Ardena",  "Adelasia",  "La 
fami^ia".  "Carmela".  "Piccarda  Dorati",  "Saffo", 
"  Ro^liuda  ",  etc.  SuDJects  from  modem  and  medie- 
val history  'were  treated  by  him,  and  he  followed  his 
father's  example  in  drawing  from  Dante.  See  the  coU 
lection  of  his  plays,  "Teatro  di  L,  M."  (Turin,  1884). 
J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Hamulo,  Luca,  musical  composer,  b.  in  1550  at 
Coccaglia,  near  Brescia;  d.  at  Rome  1599.  Hia 
chief  legacy  to  the  musical  world  are  his  books  of 
madrigals.  His  first  collection  was  published  in  IS81 
and  was  dedicated  to  Alphonse  d'Este,  the  duke  of 
Ferrsra.  Many  of  bis  159  Madrigals  and  Motets 
have  been  translateil  into  modern  notation  by  Proske. 
A  number  of  madrigals  were  published  in  15S3  in 
"Musica  Trans-Alpina";   this  collection  became  fm- 


of  more  illustrious  church  musicians.  In  a  collec- 
tion tailed  "Viilanelle  e  Arie  alia  NapoUtana"  he 
has  left  113  exquisite  madrigals  and  motets  for  three 
and  four  voices.  The  most  notable  of  his  composi- 
tions may  be  found  printed  in  modern  notation  by 
Proske  in  "Musica  Di>nna",  II  (Ratisbon,  1853), 

ROBU,  Eloai  Iliilorici  lit  Bretciani  illuatri  (Braacia,  1620): 
PucHA-j,  Tin  CompUatGtrUUman  (Isndon,  1022). 

WiLUAM  Finn. 

Margaret,  Saint,  Virgin,  and  Mahtyr,  also  called 
Marina,  belonged  to  Pisidian  Antioch  in  Asia  Minor, 
where  her  father  was  a  pagan  priest.  Her  mother  dy- 
ing soon  after  her  birtti.  Margaret  was  nursed  by  a 
pious  woman  five  or  six  leagues  from  Antioch.  Hav- 
ing embraced  Christianity  and  consecrated  her  vir- 
ginity to  God,  she  was  disowned  by  her  father  and 
adopted  by  her  nurse.  While  she  was  one  day  en- 
raged in  watching  the  flocks  of  her  mistress,  a  lustful 
Roman  prefect  named  Olybrius  faught  sight  of  her, 
and  attracted  by  her  great  beauty  sought  to  make 
her  his  concubine  or  wife.  When  neither  cajolery 
nor  threats  of  punishment  coutd  succeed  in  moving 
her  to  yield  to  his  desires,  he  had  her  brought  be- 
fore him  in  public  trial  at  Antioch.  Threatened  with 
death  unless  she  renounced  the  Christian  faith,  the 
holy  virgin  refused  to  adore  the  gods  of  t  he  empire,  and 
an  attempt  was  made  to  bum  her,  but  the  Ramcs, 
we  are  told  in  her  Acts,  left  her  unhurt.  She  was 
then  bound  hand  and  Coot  and  thrown  into  a  cauldron 
of  boiling  water,  but  at  her  prayer  her  bonds  were 
broken  and  she  stood  up  uninjured.  Finally  the  pre- 
fect ordered  her  to  be  (jeheaded.  The  Greek  Church 
honours  her  under  the  name  Marina  on  13  July;  the 
Latin,  as  Margaret  on  20  Julv.  Her  Acta  place  her 
death  in  the  persecution  ot  t)ioclelian  (a.  d.  303-5), 
bat  in  fact  even  the  century  to  which  she  belonged 
is  uncertain.  St.  Margaret  is  represented  in  art  some- 
times asa  shepherdess,  or  as  leading  a  chained  d rages, 
again  carrying  a  little  cross  or  a  girdle  in  her  hand,  or 
standing  by  a  large  vessel  which  recalls  the  cauldron 
into  which  she  was  plunged.  Relics  said  to  belong  to 
the  saint  are  venerated  in  ve^  many  parts  of  Europe: 
at  Rome,  Monfefiascone,  Brussels.  Bruges.  Paris, 
Froidmont,  Troves,  and  various  other  places.  Cu- 
riously enough  this  virgin  has  been  widely  venerated 
for  many  centuries  as  a  special  patron  of  women  who 
are  pnganut. 


n,  XXIX,  24-44:  La  PHiii  BoUaadiMtt.  Vllt, 


Saintt,  20  July. 


J.  UacRoby. 


Margaret  Ooloona,  Blbbsed,    Poor  Clare,  b.  in 

Rome,  date  uncertain;  d.  there,  20  September,  1284. 
Her  parents  died  in  Rome  when  she  was  still  a  young 
girl,  and  she  was  left  to  the  care  of  her  two  brothers, 
the  youngest  of  whom  was  raised  t«  the  cardinalate 
by  Nicholas  III  in  1278.  Having  resolutely  refused 
the  proposal  of  mard^o  made  to  her  by  the  chief 
magistrate  of  Rome,  she  retired  to  a  lonely  retr^t 
near  Palestrina  where  she  passed  her  time  in  prac- 
tices of  piety  and  penance.  Her  charity  towards  the 
poor  was  unbounded,  and  was  more  than  once  mi- 
raculously rewarded.  Through  the  influence  of  her 
brother.  Cardinal  Coloima,  Blessed  Margaret  obtained 
the  canonical  erection  of  a  community  of  Urbanist 
ftwrCiarcsat  Palestrina,  of  which  she  most  probably 
became  superioress.  Seven  j'ears  before  her  death  she 
was  attacked  njth  a  fearful  and  painful  ulcer  which  till 
the  end  of  her  life  she  bore  w  ith  the  most  sublime  and 
generous  resignation.  After  the  death  of  Blessed  Mai^ 
garet,  the  commui>itj-  of  Palestrina  was  transferred  to 
the  convent  ot  San  Sdvestro  in  Copite.  The  nuns  were 
driven  from  their  cloister  by  the  Italian  Goverijment  at 
the  time  of  the  suppression;  and  the  monastei^-  has 
since  been  used  as  the  central  posUoffice  of  Rome. 
The  exiled  religious  found  shelter  in  the  convent  of 
Santa  Cecilia  in  Tmsteverc,  to  which  place  tlie  body  of 
Blessed  Margaret  was  removed. 

Leo,  Lica  oft'"  Sainti  oiid  BlrurdofVit  Thra  Order*  ot  St. 
Fnneit  [TBuntoD.  18S7)  IV,  TO-73.  ' 

STErHEN  M,  Donovan, 


as  she  was  familiarly  styled,  b.  in  Cavan,  Ireland, 
about  1814;  d.  at  New  Orleans,  Louioana,  9  February, 
1882.  Herparenls, 
Charles  and  Mar- 
garet O'Rourke 
Gaffncy,  died  at 
Baltimore,  Mary- 
land, in  1822  and 


i  left  to  her 
□  resources  and 
was  thus  deprived 
of  acquiring  a 
knowled  ge  of  read- 
in  g  and  writing. 
A  kind  -  hearted 
family    of    Welsh 

tered  the  little  or- 
phan  in  their 
home.  In  1835 
she  there  married 
Charles  Haughery 
and  went  to  New 
Orleans  with  him. 
Within  a  year  her 
husband  and  in- 
fantdled.  It  was 
then  she  began  her 
great  career  of  charity.  She  \.  „3emploj;ed  in  theorphao 
asylum  and  when  the  orphans  were  without  food  she 
bouRht  it  for  them  from  her  earnings.  The  Female  Or- 
phan Asylum  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  built  in  1840  waa 
practically  her  work,  for  she  cleared  it  of  debt*.  _  Dui^ 
mg  the  yellow  fever  epidemic  in  New  Orleans  in  the 
fifties  she  went  about  from  house  to  house,  without 
regard  to  race  or  creed,  nursing  the  victims  and  con- 
soling the  dying  mothers  with  the  promise  to  look 
after  their  little  ones.  St.  Teresa's  Church  was  prac- 
tically buiit  by  Margaret,  in  conjunction  with  Sister 
Francis  Regis.  Margaret  first  established  a  dairy  and 
drove  around  the  city  delivering  the  milk  beraelf; 


MAROABIT 


653 


MARGABBT 


afterwards  she  opened  a  bakery,  and  for  years  con- 
tinued her  rounos  with  the  bread  cart.  Although  she 
provided  for  orphans,  fed  the  poor,  and  gave  enor- 
mously in  charity,  her  resources  grew  wonderfully  and 
Margaret's  bakery  (the  first  steam  bakery  in  the  South) 
became  famous.  She  braved  General  Butler  during 
the  Civil  War  and  readily  obtained  permission  to  carry 
a  cargo  of  flour  for  bread  for  her  orphans  across  the 
lines.  The  Confederate  prisoners  were  the  special  ob- 
ject of  her  solicitude. 

Seated  in  the  doorway  of  the  bakery  in  the  heart  of 
the  city,  she  became  an  integral  part  of  its  life,  for 
besides  the  poor  who  came  to  her  continually  she  was 
consulted  by  the  people  of  all  ranks  about  their 
business  aflfairs,  her  wisdom  having  become  pro- 
verbial. "  Our  Margaret"  the  people  of  New  Orleans 
called  her,  and  they  will  tell  you  that  she  was  mas- 
culine in  energy  and  courage  but  gifted  with  the 
gentlest  and  kindest  manners.  Her  death  was  an- 
nounced in  the  newspapers  with  blocked  columns  as 
a  public  calamity.  All  New  Orleans,  headed  by  the 
archbishop,  the  governor,  and  the  mayor  attended 
her  funeral.  She  was  buried  in  the  same  grave  with 
Sister  Francis  Regis  Barret,  the  Sister  of  Charity  who 
died  in  1862  and  with  whom  Margaret  had  co- 
operated in  all  her  early  work  for  the  poor.  At  once 
the  idea  of  erecting  a  public  monument  to  Margaret  in 
the  city  arose  spontaneously  and  in  two  years  it  was 
unveiled,  9  July,  1884.  The  little  park  in  which  it  is 
erected  is  officially  named  Margaret  Place.  It  has 
often  been  stated  that  this  is  the  first  public  monu- 
ment erected  to  a  woman  in  the  United  States,  but 
the  monument  on  Dustin  Island,  N.  H.,  to  Mrs. 
Hannah  Dustin  who,  in  1697,  killed  nine  of  her  sleep- 
ing Indian  captors  and  escaped  (Harper's  Encyclo- 
paedia of  American  History,  New  York,  1902)  ante- 
dates it  by  ten  years. 

(iiiACK  kiNo.  iV'ir  Orleans,  the  Place  and  the  People  (New 
York.  Ici90'.  272-S;  Notable  Americans,  V  (Boston,  1904);  Ap- 

Slctons"   Cyclono'Jia  of  American   Biography,  s.   v.;  The  Ave 
faria,  LVl.  7:  The  files  of  the  iVeir  Orleans  Picayune  and  other 
New  Orleans  newspapers.  RegINA  RANDOLPH. 

Margaret  Mary  Alacoque,  Blessed,  religious  of 
the  Visitation  Order,  Apostle  of  the  Devotion  to  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  d.  at  Lhautecour,  France,  22 
July,  1647 ;  d.  at  Paray-le-Monial,  1 7  Oct.,  1690.  Her 
parents,  Claude  Alacoque  and  Philiberte  Lamyn,  were 
distinguished  less  for  temporal  possessions  than  for 
their  virtue,  which  gave  them  an  honourable  position. 
From  early  childhood  Margaret  showed  intense  love 
for  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  preferred  silence  and 
prayer  to  childish  amusements.  After  her  first  com- 
munion at  the  age  of  nine,  she  practised  in  secret  se- 
vere corporal  mortifications,  until  paralysis  confined 
her  to  bed  for  four  years.  At  the  oi  d  of  this  period, 
having  made  a  vow  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  to  conse- 
crate herself  to  the  religious  life,  she  was  instantly 
restored  to  perfect  health.  The  death  of  her  father 
and  the  injustice  of  a  relative  plunged  the  family  in 
poverty  and  humiliation,  after  which  more  than  ever 
Margaret  found  her  consolation  in  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, and  Christ  made  her  sensible  of  His  presence  and 
protection.  He  usually  appeared  to  her  as  the  Cruci- 
ned  or  the  Ecce  Homo,  and  this  did  not  surprise  her,  as 
she  thought  others  had  the  same  Divine  assistance. 
When  Margaret  was  sever  teen,  the  family  property  was 
recovered,  and  her  mother  l>esought  her  to  establish 
herself  in  the  world.  Her  filial  tenderness  made  her 
betteve  that  the  vow  of  childhood  was  not  binding,  and 
that  she  could  serve  God  at  home  by  penance  and 
charity  to  the  poor.  Then,  still  bleeding  trom  her  self- 
imposed  austerities,  she  began  to  take  part  in  the 
pleasures  of  the  world.  One  night  upon  her  return 
from  a  ball,  she  had  a  vision  of  Christ  as  He  was  during 
the  scourging,  reproaching  her  for  infidelity  after  He 
had  given  her  so  many  proofs  of  HLs  love.  During 
her  entire  Hfe  Margaret  mourned  over  two  faults  com- 


mitted at  this  time — the  wearing  of  some  super- 
fluous ornaments  and  a  mask  at  the  carnival  to  please 
her  brothers. 

On  25  May,  1671,  she  entered  the  Visitation  Con- 
vent at  Paray,  where  she  was  subjected  to  many 
trials  to'  prove  her  vocation,  and  in  Nov.,  1672,  pro- 
nounced her  final  vows.  She  had  a  deUcate  constitu- 
tion, but  was  gifted  with  intelligence  and  good  judg- 
ment, and  in  the  cloister  she  chose  for  herself  what 
was  most  repugnant  to  her  nature,  making  her  life  one 
of  inconceivable  sufferings,  which  were  often  relieved 
or  instantly  cured  by  our  Lord,  Who  acted  as  her 
Director,  appeared  to  her  frequently  and  conversed 
with  her,  confiding  to  her  the  mission  to  establish  the 
devotion  to  His  Sacred  Heart.  These  extraordinary 
occurrences  drew  upon  her  the  adverse  criticism  of  the 
community,  who  treated  her  as  a  visionary,  and  her 
superior  commanded  her  to  live  the  common  life. 
But  her  obedience,  her  humility,  and  invariable  char- 
ity towards  those  who  persecuted  her,  finally  pre- 
vailed, and  her  mission,  accomplished  in  the  crucible 
of  suffering,  was  recognized  even  by  those  who  had 
shown  her  the  most  bitter  opposition. 

Margaret  Mary  was  inspired  by  Christ  to  establish 
the  Holy  Hour  and  to  pray  lying  prostrate  with  her 
face  to  the  ground  from  eleven  till  midnight  on  the  eve 
of  the  first  Friday  of  each  month,  to  share  in  the  mor- 
tal sadness  He  endured  when  abandoned  by  His 
Apostles  in  His  Agony,  and  to  receive  holy  Commun- 
ion on  the  first  Friday  of  every  month.  In  the  first 
great  revelation,  He  made  known  to  her  His  ardent 
desire  to  be  loved  by  men  and  His  design  of  manifest- 
ing His  Heart  with  all  Its  treasures  of  love  and  mercy, 
of  sanctification  and  salvation.  He  appointed  the 
Friday  after  the  octave  of  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christ! 
as  the  feast  of  the  Sacred  Heart;  He  called  her  "the 
Beloved  Disciple  of  the  Sacred  Heart  ",and  the  heiress 
of  all  Its  treasures.  The  love  of  the  Sacred  Heart  was 
the  fire  which  consumed  her,  and  devotion  to  the 
Sacred  Heart  is  the  refrain  of  all  her  writings.  In 
her  last  illness  she  refused  all  alleviation,  repeating 
frequently:  "  W^hat  have  I  in  heaven  and  what  do  I 
desire  on  earth,  but  Thee  alone,  O  my  God  ",  and  died 
pronouncing  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus.  The  discus- 
sion of  the  mission  and  virtues  of  Margaret  Mary 
continued  for  years.  All  her  actions,  her  revela- 
tions, her  spiritual  maxims,  her  teachings  regard- 
ing the  devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart,  of  which  she 
was  the  chief  exponent  as  well  as  the  apostle,  were 
subjected  to  the  most  severe  and  minute  examination, 
and  finally  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  passed 
a  favourable  vote  on  the  heroic  virtues  of  this 
servant  of  God.  In  March,  1824,  Leo  XII  pro- 
nounced her  \enerable,  and  on  18  Sept.,  1864,  Fius 
IX  declared  her  Blessed.  When  her  tomb  was 
canonically  opened  in  July,  1830,  two  instanta- 
.  neous  cures  took  place.  Her  body  rests  under  the 
altar  in  the  chapel  at  Paray,  and  many  striking 
favours  have  been  obtained  by  pilgrims  attracted 
thither  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Her  feast  is  cele- 
brated on  17  October. 

The  Letters,  Instructions,  and  Autobiography  of  BI.  Mar-^ 
Karet  Marv  are  included  in  Vie  el  (Euvrea  var  Us  Vontemporains 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1901);  Lanouet,  La  Vie  de  la  Vin.  Marguerite" 
Marie  (Paris,  1729),  tr.  (London,  1850);  Hamon,  Vie  de  la  b, 
M.  d'aprcs  les  manitsc.  et  lea  docum.  orig.  (Paris,  1907); 
BouGADD,  Revelations  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  tr.  (New  York,  1890).  • 
8ee  also  biographies  by  Gauthky  (Paris,  1890);  Boulangbr 
(Paris,  1847);  Da.viel,  tr.  by  a  Sister  or  Mercy  (New  York); 
TlCKELL  (New  York.  19(X));  Life  of  the  Blessed  Margaret  Mary 
Alacoque  in  The  Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (1905),  seriatinu 

Sister  Mary  Bernard  Doll. 

Margaret  of  Oortona,  Saint,  a  penitent  of  the 
Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  bom  at  Laviano  in  Tus- 
cany in  1247;  died  at  Cortona,  22  February,  1297. 
At  the  age  of  seven  years  Margaret  lost  her  mother  and 
two  years  later  her  father  married  a  second  time.  Be- 
tween the  daughter  and  her  .step -mother  there  seems 
to  have  been  but  little  sympathy  or  affectioiXv  «a&^ 


tbrg&ret  was  one  of  thooe  nftturM  who  cnve  affection. 
When  About  wventeen  yean  of  acje  she  nude  the  ac- 
quaintance of  a  young  cavaher,  who.  some  say,  was  a 
■on  of  Guff lielmo  di  Pecora,  lord  of  Valiano,  with  whom 
she  one  night  fled  from  her  father's  house.  Margaret  in 
bercmifeaaionsdoeBnot  mention  her  lover'sname.  For 
nine  years  she  lived  with  him  in  liia  castle  near  Monte- 

Ciano,  and  a  son  waa  born  to  them.  Frequently  she 
light  lier  lover  to  marry  her;  he  as  of  ten  promised 
to  do  90,  but  never  did.  In  her  confeasiona  ahe  ex- 
piemly  says  that  she  consented  to  her  lover'a  impor- 
tunities unwillingly.  Wadding  and  others  who  have 
described  her  in  theae  early  years  as  an  abandoned 
woman,  either  had  not  rightly  read  her  legend,  or  had 
deepened  the  shadows  of  her  early  life  to  make  her 
conversion  seem  the  more  wonderful.  Even  during 
this  period  Margaret  was  very  compiaaaionate  towards 


the  poor  ajid  relieved  thi 
tomed  to  seek  out  quiet  places 
where  she  would  dream  of  a 
life  given  to  virtue  and  the 
love  of  God.  Once  some  of 
her  neighbours  bade  her  look 
to  her  soul  before  it  was  too 
late.  She  replied  that  they 
need  have  no  fear  of  her,  tor 
that  ahe  would  die  a  aaint  and 
that  her  critics  would  come  aa 
pilgrima  to  her  shrine. 

She  waa  at  last  set  free  from 
her  life  of  ain  by  the  tragic 
death  of  her  lover,  who  waa 
murdered  whilst  on  a  journey. 
Margaret's  first  intimation  of 
his  death  was  the  return  of  hia 
favourite  hound  without  its 
master.  The  hound  led  her  M 
his  body.  It  was  character- 
istic of  her  generosity  that  she 
blamed  herself  for  hiij  irregular 
life,  and  began  to  loathe  her 
beauty  which  had  fascinated 
bim.  She  returned  to  his  relo- 
tivea  all  the  jewels  and  prop- 
erty he  had  given  her  and  left 
his  home;  and  with  her  little 
son  set  out  for  her  father's 
house.  Her  father  would  have 
received  her,  but  hia  wife  re- 
fused, and  Margaret  and  her 

child  were  turned  adrift.    For    . — 

a   moment   ahe  felt  tempted  ^-  MABOAErr 

to    trade    upon    her    beauty;  Giovmnni  Barbieri  (Gui 

but  she  prayed  earnestly  and  in  her  aoul  she 
seemed  to  hear  a  voice  bidding  her  go  («  the  Fran- 
ciscan Friars  at  Cortona  and  put  heraelf  under  their 
spiritual  direction.  On  her  arrival  at  Cortona,  two 
ladies,  noticing  her  loneliness,  offered  her  assistance 
and  took  her  home  with  them.  They  afterwards  intro- 
duced her  to  the  Franciscan  FriorB  at  the  church  of 
San  Francesco  in  the  city.  For  three  years  Margaret 
had  to  Htrugele  hard  with  temptations.  Naturally  of  a 
gay  spirit,  ahe  felt  much  drawn  to  the  world.  But 
temptation  only  convinced  her  the  more  of  the  nccea- 
sity  of  self-discipline  a.nd  an  entire  consecration  of  her- 
self to  religion.  At  times  remorse  for  the  past  would 
have  led  her  into  intemperate  self -mortifications,  but 
for  the  wise  advice  of  her  confeMors.  As  it  was,  she 
fasted  rigorously,  abataining  altogether  from  fJeah- 
meat,  and  generally  subsisting  upon  bread  and  herbs. 
Her  great  phyaical  vitality  made  such  penance  a 
necessity  to  her. 

After  three  veara  of  probation  Margaret  waa  admit- 
ted to  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  and  from  this 
time  she  Iive<l  in  strict  poverty.  Following  the  exam- 
ple of  St.  Francis,  she  went  and  begged  her  bread. 
But  wbHat  thus  living  on  alms,  she  gave  her  services 


freely  to  Others;  especially  to  the  Biek.poor  whom  ^ 
nuiaed.  It  waa  about  the  time  that  she  became  a 
Franciscan  tertiary  that  the  revelationa  began  which 
form  the  chief  feature  ia  her  story.  It  was  in  the  year 
1277,  as  she  was  praying  in  the  church  of  the  Franciscan 
Friars,  that  she  seemed  to  hear  these  words:  "Wliatis 
thy  wish,  povereUat"  and  she  rephed:  "  I  neither  seek 
nor  wiah  for  aught  but  Thee,  my  Lord  Jeeus."  Frmn 
this  time  forth  she  lived  in  intimate  commiminK  with 
Christ.  At  first  He  always  addressed  her  as  ptn»- 
rella  ",  and  only  aft«r  a  time  of  probation  and  purifi- 
cation did  He  call  her  "My  child".  But  Margaret, 
though  coming  to  lead  more  and  more  the  life  of  a 
recluse,  was  yet  active  in  the  service  of  others.  She 
prevailed  upon  the  city  of  Cortona  to  found  a  boepital 
for  the  sick-poor,  and  to  supply  nurses  for  the  hospital, 
ahe  instituted  a  congregation  of  Tertiary  Sisters, 
known  as  ie  povertile.  She  also  establiahed  a  confra- 
ternity of  Our  Lady  of  Mert^; 
the  members  of  which  bound 
themsei  vea  to  support  the  boe- 
pital, and  to  h^p  the  needy 
wherever  found,  and  particu- 
larly the  respectable  poor. 
Moreover  on  several  occasicmf 
Margaret  intervened  in  pubhc 
affairs  for  the  sake  of  putting 
an  end  to  civic  feuds.  Twice 
in  obedience  to  a  Divine  ctHn- 
mand,  she  upbraided  Gugliel- 
mo  Ubertini  Paui,  Bishop  of 
Areiio,  in  which  diocese  Coi^ 
tona  was  situated,  because  he 
lived  more  like  a  secular 
prince  and  soldier,  than  like  a 
pastor  of  soula.  This  prelate 
was  killed  in  battleat  Bibbiena 
in  1289.  The  year  previous  to 
this,  Margaret  for  the  sake  til 

S;reater  auiet  hod  removed  her 
odging  from  the  hospital  she 
hadfounded  to  near  the  ruined 
church  of  St.  Basil  above  the 
city.  Thia  church  she  now 
caused  to  be  repaired.  It  wal 
here  that  she  spent  her  last 
years,  and  in  tlua  church  she 
was  buried.  But  after  her 
death  it  was  rebuilt  in  more 
magnificent  style  and  dedi- 
cated in  her  own  name.  There 
her  body  remains  enshrined 
to  thia  day,  incorrupt,  in 


as  a  beata  from  the  ti 

not  canonized  until  16  May,  1728. 

The  original  "Legend  of  St.  Margaret"  was  written 
by  her  director  and  friend,  Fra  Giunta  Beve^ati.  It 
is  almost  entirely  taken  up  with  her  revelations,  and 
was  mainly  dictated  by  Mar^ret  herself,  in  obedience 
to  her  directors.  It  is  published  by  the  BoUandists  in 
"ActaSS.,  mense  Fobruarii,  die  22".  The  most  nota- 
ble edition  of  the  "  Legend  "  however  is  that  published 
m  1793  by  da  Pelago,  together  with  an  Italian  transla- 
tion and  twelve  learned  dissertations  dealing  witb  the 
life  and  times  of  the  saint.  In  1897  a  new  edition  of 
da  Pelago'a  work,  but  without  the  dissertations,  was 
published  at  Siena  by  Crivclli.  An  English  veraicn  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  "  Legend  ",  with  an  mtroductory 
es-suv.  has  lioen  published  hy  Fr.  Cuthbert,  O.S.F.C. 
(London.  19061. 

See  aim  Mahcbebe.  Vila  di  3.  MaT^herila  ^ome,  1074): 
CtlfcHANCE,  Samic  Marsuirilt  de  Carione.  ti,  O'CoHNOB  tLoo- 


Father  Citthbeet, 


King  Bela  I  of  Hungary  and  h 


MAROABBT 


655 


MARGABIT 


bom  1242;  died  18  Jan.,  1271.  According  to  a  vow 
which  her  parents  made  when  Hungary  was  liberated 
from  the  Tatars  that  their  next  chud  should  be  dedi- 
cated to  religion,  Margaret,  in  1245,  entered  the  Do- 
minican Convent  of  Veszpr^m.  Invested  wilii  the  habit 
at  the  age  of  four,  she  was  transferred  in  her  tenth  year 
to  the  Convent  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  founded  by  her 
parents  on  the  Hasen  Insel  near  Buda,  the  Margareten 
insel  near  Budapest  to-day,  and  where  the  ruins  of 
the  convent  are  still  to  be  seen.  Here  Margaret  passed 
all  her  life,  which  was  consecrated  to  contemplation 
and  penance,  and  was  venerated  as  a  saint  during  her 
lifetime.  She  strenuously  opposed  the  plans  of  her 
father,  who  for  political  reasons  wished  to  marry  her 
to  King  Ottokar  II  of  Bohemia.  Margaret  appears  to 
have  taken  solenm  vows  when  she  was  eighteen.  All 
narratives  call  special  attention  to  Margaret's  sanctity 
and  her  spirit  of  earthly  renunciation.  Her  whole  life 
was  one  unbroken  chain  of  devotional  exercises  and 
penance.  She  chastised  herself  unceasingly  from 
childhood,  wore  hair  garments,  and  an  iron  girdle 
round  her  waist,  as  well  as  shoes  spiked  with  nails;  she 
was  frequently  scourged,  and  performed  the  most 
menial  work  in  the  convent. 

Shortly  after  her  death,  steps  were  taken  for  her 
canonization,  and  in  1271-1276  investigations  refer- 
ring to  this  were  taken  up;  in  1275-1276  the  process 
was  introduced,  but  not  completed.  Not  till  1640  was 
the  process  again  taken  up,  and  again  it  was  not  con- 
cluded. Attempts  which  were  made  in  1770  by  Count 
Ignatz  Batthydnyi  were  also  fruitless;  so  that  the 
canonization  never  took  place,  although  Margaret  was 
venerated  as  a  saint  shortly  after  her  death;  and  Pius 
VI  consented  on  28  July,  1789,  to  her  veneration  as  a 
saint.  Pius  VII  raised  her  feast  day  to  a  festum 
duplex.  The  minutes  of  the  proceedings  of  1271-1272 
record  seventy-four  miracles;  and  among  those  giving 
testimony  were  twenty-seven  in  whose  favour  the 
miracles  had  been  wrought.  These  cases  refer  to  the 
cure  of  illnesses,  and  one  case  of  awakening  from 
death.  Margaret's  remains  were  given  to  the  Poor 
Clares  when  the  Dominican  Order  was  dissolved;  they 
were  first  kept  in  Pozsony  and  later  in  Buda.  After 
the  order  had  been  suppressed  by  Joseph  II,  in  1782, 
the  relics  were  destroyed  in  1789;  but  some  portions 
are  still  preserved  in  Gran,  Gyor,  Pannonhalma.  The 
feast  day  of  the  saint  is  18  January.  In  art  she  is 
depicted  with  a  lily  and  holding  a  book  in  her  hand. 

N£mstht-Frakn6i,  ArptidhAzi  b.  Margit  tHriineiihex  (Buda- 
pest, 1885),  beiog  oontributioaa  on  the  history  of  Blessed  Mar- 
garet of  the  House  of  Arpaden;  Demk6,  Arpddhdzi  b.  MaraU 
ilete  (Budapest,  1895),  a  hfe  of  the  saint.    Further  bibliqgrapn- 


ih 


ogr 


ical  particulars  in  Arpdd  and  the  Arpaden^  edited  by  (JsXnki 
(Budapest,  1908),  387-388;  minutes  of  the  proceedings  of 
1271-72,  published  in  MonumerUa  Romana  Episeopaiua  t^M- 
yrimienain,  I  (Budapest,  1896).  - 

A.  AldXst. 

Marp^aret  of  Lorraine,  Blessed,  Duchess  d'Alen- 
9on,  religious  of  the  order  of  Poor  Clares^  bom  in  1463  at 
the  castle  of  Vauddmont  (Lorraine) ;  died  at  Argentan 
(Brittany)  2  November,  1521.  The  daughter  of  Fern 
de  Vaud^mont  and  of  Yolande  d'Anjou,  little  Mar- 
garet became  an  orphan  at  an  early  age  and  was 
brought  up  at  Aix-en-Proven^e,  by  King  Ren6  of 
Anjou,  her  grandfather.  The  latter  dying  in  1480  she 
was  sent  back  to  Lorraine  to  her  brother,  Ren6  II, 
who  gave  her  in  marriage  at  Paris,  in  1488,  to  the 
Duke  d'Alen9on.  Left  a  widow  in  1492  she  busied 
herself  in  the  administration  of  her  duchy  and  the 
education  of  her  children.  When  she  was  relieved 
of  the  duties  imposed  on  her  by  her  position  she  de- 
cided to  renounce  the  world  and  retired  to  Mortagne, 
to  a  monastery  of  religious  women  who  followed  the 
rule  of  Saint  Elizabeth.  Later  having  brought  with 
her  to  Argentan  some  of  these  nuns  she  founded 
there  another  monastery  which  she  placed,  with  the 
authorization  of  the  pope,  under  the  rule  of  Saint 
Clare,  modified  by  the  Minor  Observants.     She  her- 


self took  the  relifflous  habit  in  this  house  and  made  her 
vows  on  11  October,  1520,  but  on  2  November,  1521. 
after  having  lived  for  a  year  in  the  most  humble  and 
austere  manner,  she  died  a  most  holy  death  in  her 
modest  cell  at  tne  age  of  sixty-two.  Her  body,  pre- 
served in  the  monastery  of  the  Poor  Clares,  was  trans- 
ferred when  that  monastery  was  suppressed  to  the 
church  of  St.  (3ermain  d'Argentan,  but  in  1793  it  was 
profaned  and  thrown  into  the  common  burying- 
place. 

The  memory  of  Margaret  of  Lorraine  is  preserved  in 
the  ''Martjrrologium  Frandscanum"  and  in  the 
"  Martvrologium  gallicanum".  After  an  invitation 
made  by  the  Bishop  of  S^z,  Jacques  Calamus  de  Pont- 
carr^,  Louis  XIII  begged  Pope  Urban  VIII  to  order  a 
canonical  inquiry  into  the  virtues  and  the  miracles  of 
the  pious  Duchess  d'Alen^on;  unfortunately  in  the 
political  agitations  of  the  time  the  realization  of  this 

Slan  was  lost  sight  of.  At  the  initiative  of  the  present 
►ishop  of  S6ez  an  effort  is  being  made  to  obtain  recog- 
nition at  the  Court  of  Rome  of  her  cultus.  The  pro- 
cess is  well  on  its  way. 

Hameau,  Laviede  Maryueriie  de  Lorraine j  ducheeae  d^AUnctm 
(Paris,  1628) ;  Lambel,  Marguerite  de  Lorraine,  ducheaee  d'Alen^ 
pon  (lille,  1862);  Laurent,  Hiatoire  de  Marguerite  de  Lorraine^ 
ducheaee  tTAlenQon,  fondatrice  ei  religieuae  du  monaaUre  de  Ste. 
Claire  d' Argentan  (Paris,  1854);  Serrb,  Vie  de  la  B.  Marguerite 
de  Lorraine,  ducheaae  d'Alenpon  (Paris,  1652). 

Li:oN  Clugnbt. 

Margaret  of  Savoy,  Blessed,  Marchioness  of  Mont- 
ferrat,  bom  at  Pignerol  in  1382;  died  at  Alba,  23  No- 
vember, 1464.  She  was  the  only  daughter  of  Louis  of 
Savoy,  Prince  of  Achaia,  and  of  Bonne,  dau^ter  of 
Amadeus  VI,  Count  of  Savov,  and  was  given  m  mar- 
riage in  1403  to  Theodore,  Marquis  of  Montferrat,  a 
descendant  of  the  Greek  emperors,  the  Palseologi,  and 
widower  of  Jeanne,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Bar  and  of 
Lorraine.  Her  piety,  already  great,  increased  after 
she  had  heard  tne  preaching  of  St.  Vincent  Ferrer, 
who  spent  several  months  in  Montferrat.  Therefore, 
when  she  was  left  a  widow  in  1418,  she  decided  to  aban- 
don the  world.  Leaving  the  direction  of  the  affairs 
of  the  marcjuisate  to  Jean-Jacques,  the  son  of  her  hus- 
band by  his  first  marriage,  she  retired  to  Alba  where 
she  joined  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic.  A  little 
later,  Philip  Maria,  duke  of  Milan,  asked  her  hand  in 
marriage  and  begged  the  pope  to  relieve  her  of  her 
vow.  But  Margaret  opposed  a  formal  refusal  to  this 
request  and  thorougiily  resolved  to  give  herself  en- 
tirely to  God:  with  several  young  women  of  rank,  she 
foimded  a  monastery  and  placed  it  under  the  rule  of 
the  order  of  St.  Dominic.  Redoubling  her  mortifica- 
tions she  made  rapid  progress  in  the  way  of  perfection 
and  died  in  a  saintly  manner.  On  13  DeoemDer,  1464, 
her  remains  were  placed  in  a  simple  tomb;  in  1481 
they  were  transferred  to  a  different  and  much  more 
beautiful  sepulchre  built  in  her  monastery  at  the  ex- 
pense of  William,  Marquis  of  Montferrat. 

Allaria,  Storia  deUa  B.  Margherita  di  Savota,TnareKe»a  di 
Montferrato  (Alba,  1877);  Baresiano,  Viia  deUa  B.  MargherUa 
di  Savoia,  domenicana,  prineipeaaa  di  Piemonte  (Turin,  1638)^ 
Barisano,  Viia  delta  B.  Margherita  di  Savoia,  Mareheaa  da 
Montferrato  (Turin,  1602;  ibid.,  1892);  Cabbara,  Vita  civile  e 
religioaa  delta  B.  Margherita  di  SavoiOf  marcheaa  at  Montferrato 

S'urin,  1833);  0>drbtto,  Vita  e  miracoloai  portenti  della  B, 
argherita  di  Savoia  (Turin;  1653):  Rschac,  Lee  eaintee  de 
Vordre  de  SL  Dominique  (Pans,  1635) :  Rstnaud.  Vie  dela  B, 
Marguerite  de  Savoie  de  Vordre  de  St.  Dominique  (Paris,  1674); 
Sbmbria,  Vita  della  B.  Margherita  di  Savoia  (Turin,  1833). 

L±os  Clugnbt. 

Margaret  of  Scotland,  Saint,  b.  about  1045,  d.  16 
Nov.,  1093,  was  a  daughter  of  Edward  "Outremere", 
or  "the  Exile *',  by  Agatha,  kinswoman  of  Gisela,  the 
wife  of  St.  Stephen  of  Hungary.  She  was  the  grand- 
daughter of  Edmund  Ironside.  A  constant  tradition 
asserts  that  Margaret's  father  and  his  brother  Edmund 
were  sent  to  Hungary  for  safety  during  the  reign  of 
Canute,  but  no  record  of  the  fact  has  been  foimd  m 
that  country.  The  date  of  Margaret's  birth  cannot  ba 


MABGABIT 


656 


MABGABIT 


ascertained  with  accuracy,  but  it  must  have  been  be- 
tween the  years  1038,  when  St.  Stephen  diecL  and 
1057,  when  her  father  returned  to  England.  It  ap- 
pears that  Marearet  came  with  him  on  that  occasion 
and,  on  his  deam  and  the  conquest  of  England  by  the 
Normans,  her  mother  Agatha  aecided  to  return  to  the 
Continent.  A  storm  however  drove  their  ship  to  Scot- 
land, where  Malcolm  III  received  the  party  imder  his 
protection,  subsequently  taking  Margaret  to  wife. 
This  event  had  been  delayed  for  a  while  by  Margaret's 
desire  to  enter  religion,  but  it  took  place  some  time 
between  1067  and  1070. 

In  her  position  as  queen,  all  Margaret's  great  influ- 
ence was  thrown  into  the  cause  of  religion  and  piety. 
A  s^od  was  held,  and  among  the  special  reforms 
instituted  the  most  important  were  the  regulation  of 
the  Lenten  fast,  observance  of  the  Easter  communion, 
and  the  removal  of  certain  abuses  concerning  marriage 
within  the  prohil^ited  degrees.  Her  private  life  was 
given  up  to  constant  prayer  and  practices  of  piety. 
She  founded  several  churches,  including  the  Abbey  of 
Dunfermline,  built  to  enshrine  her  greatest  treasure,  a 
relic  of  the  true  Cross.  Her  book  of  the  Gospels, 
richly  adorned  with  jewels,  which  one  day  dropped 
into  a  river  and  was  according  to  legend  miraculously 
recovered,  is  now  in  the  Bodleian  Rbrary  at  Oxford. 
She  foretold  the  day  of  her  death,  which  took  place  at 
Edinburgh  on  16  Nov.,  1093,  her  body  being  buried 
before  the  high  altar  at  Dunfermline. 

In  1250  Margaret  was  canonized  by  Innocent  IV, 
and  her  relics  were  translated  on  19  June,  1259,  to  a 
new  shrine,  the  base  of  which  is  still  visible  beyond  the 
modem  east  wall  of  the  restored  church.  At  the  Ref- 
ormation her  head  passed  into  the  possession  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  and  later  was  secured  by  t^e  Jesuits  at 
Douai,  where  it  is  believed  to  have  perished  during  the 
French  Revolution.  According  to  George  Conn,  ''De 
duplici  statu  religionis  apud  Scotos"  (Rome,  1628), 
the  rest  of  the  relics,  together  with  those  of  Malcolm, 
were  acquired  by  Philip  II  of  Spain,  and  placed  in  two 
urns  in  the  Escorial.  When,  however,  Bishop  Gillies 
of  Edinburgh  applied  through  Pius  IX  for  their  resto- 
ration to  Scotland,  they  could  not  be  found. 

The  chief  authority  for  Margaret's  life  is  the  con- 
temporary biography  printed  in  *' Acta  SS.",  II,  June, 
320.  Its  authorship  has  been  ascribed  to  Turgot,  the 
saint's  conTessor,  a  monk  of  Durham  and  later  Arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrews,  and  also  to  Theodoric,  a  some- 
what obscure  monk;  but  in  spite  of  much  controversy 
the  point  remains  quite  unsettled.  The  feast  of  St. 
Margaret  is  now  observed  by  the  whole  Church  on  10 
June. 

Acta  SS.,  II,  June,  320;  Capqrave,  Nova  Legenda  Angliof 
(London.  1515),  225;  Wiluam  ok  Malmesburt.  Gcsta  Regum 
in  P.  L.,  CLXXIX,  alao  in  Rolls  Series,  ed.  Stubbs  (London, 
1887-9);  Challoner,  Britannia Sancta,  I  (London,  1745),  358; 
Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  10  June;  Stanton,  Menologj/  of 
England  and  Wales  (London,  1887),  544:  Forbes-Leith,  Life 
of  St.  Margaret  .  .  .  (London,  1885);  AIadan.  The  Evangdis- 
tarium  of  St.  Margaret  in  Academy  (1887);  Bcllesheim,  His- 
tory of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Scotland,  tr.  Blair,  III  (Edin- 
buigh,  1890).  241-03. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Margaret  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  Carmelite  nun, 
b.  in  Paris,  6  March,  1590;  d.  there  24  May,  1660. 
She  was  the  second  daughter  of  the  celebrated 
Madame  Acarie,  otherwise  Imown  as  Blessed  Marie  de 
rincamation  (q.  v.),  who  introduced  the  Reformed 
CarmeUtes  into  France.  Carefully  reared  by  her 
mother  and  directed  by  M.  de  B6rulle,  she  took  the 
religious  habit  at  the  first  Carmelite  convent,  Rue  St. 
Jacques,  Paris,  15  September,  1605.  On  21  Novem- 
ber, 1606,  she  made  her  vows  privately,  and  on  18 
March,  1607,  she  made  them  solemnly,  under  the  care 
of  Mother  Anne  de  Saint-Barth^lemi.  In  1615  she  was 
made  sub-prioress,  and  in  1618.  prioress  of  the  convent 
of  Tours.  In  these  offices  she  showed  such  ability  that 
she  was  sent  in  1620  to  restore  harmony  in  the  convent 
^t  Bordeaux.   Shortly  after  this  she  was  ordered  to  the 


convent  of  Saintes,  where  she  remained  eighteen 
months,  and  in  1624  was  recalled  to  Paris,  to  replace 
as  prioress  Mother  Madelcuie  de  Saint-Joseph  in  the 
convent  situated  in  the  Rue  Chapon.  After  having 
been  several  times  prioress  of  the  convent  of  the  Rue 
Chapon,  where  she  edified  the  conmiunity  by  a  zeal 
for  bodily  mortification  that  her  superiors  had  some- 
times to  moderate,  she  was  attacked  by  dropsy,  to 
which  she  succumbed.  Her  heart  was  taken  to  the 
monastery  of  Pontoise,  where  her  saintly  mother  had 
been  buried,  and  her  body  remained  in  the  convent  of 
the  Rue  Chapon,  where  it  was  kept  until  1792. 

See  bibliorraphy  of  article  Marie  de  l*Incarnation  and 
Boucher,  Hist,  de  la  Bienheureiuie  Marie  de  rincamation,  U, 
(Paris.  1854),  168-80. 

LtoN  Clugnet. 

Margaret  Pole,  Blessed,  Countess  of  Salisbury, 
martyr;  b.  at  Castle  Farley,  near  Bath,  14  August, 
1473;  mart>Ted  at  East  Smithfield  Green,  28  May, 
1541.  She  was  the  daughter  of  George  Plantagenet, 
Duke  of  Clarence,  and  Isabel,  elder  daughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Warwick  (the  king-maker),  and  the  sister  of 
Edmund  of  Warwick  who,  under  Henry  VII,  paid 
with  his  life  the  penalty  of  being  the  last  male  repre- 
sentative of  the  Yorkist  line  (28  Nov.,  1499).  About 
1491  Henry  VII  gave  her  in  marriage  to  Sir  Richard 
Pole,  whose  mother  was  the  half-sister  of  the  king's 
mother,  Margaret  Beaufort.  At  her  husband's  death 
in  1505  Margaret  was  left  with  five  children,  of  whom 
the  fourth,  Reginald,  was  to  become  cardinal  and 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  also  the  indirect  cause 
of  his  mother's  martyrdom.  Henry  VIII,  on  his  acces- 
sion, reversed  her  brother's  attainder,  created  her 
Countess  of  Sallsljury,  and  an  Act  of  Restitution  was 
passed  by  which  she  came  into  possession  of  her  ances- 
tral domains:  the  king  considered  her  the  saintliest 
woman  in  England,  and,  after  the  birth  of  the  Princess 
Mary,  Margaret  of  Salisbury  became  her  sponsor  in 
baptism  and  confirmation  and  was  afterwards  ap- 
pomted  governess  of  the  princess  and  her  household. 
As  the  years  passed  there  was  talk  of  a  marriage  be- 
tween the  pnncess  and  the  countess's  son  Reginald, 
who  was  still  a  layman.  But  when  the  matter  of  the 
king's  divorce  l^egan  to  be  talked  of  Reginald  Pole 
boldly  spoke  out  his  mind  in  the  affair  and  shortly 
afterwaixis  withdrew  from  England.  The  princess  was 
still  in  the  countess's  charge  when  Henry  married 
Anne  Boleyn,  but  when  he  was  opposed  in  his  efforts 
to  have  his  daughter  treated  as  illegitimate  he  removed 
the  countess  from  her  post,  although  she  begged  to  be 
allowed  to  follow  and  serve  Mary  at  her  own  charge. 
She  returned  to  court  after  the  fall  of  Anne,  but  in 
1530  Reginald  Pole  sent  to  Henry  his  treatise  "  Pro 
ecclesiasticaj  unitatis  defcnsione*',  in  answer  to  ques- 
tions propounded  to  him  in  the  king's  behalf  by  Cromr 
well,  Tunstall,  Starkey,  and  others.  Besides  being  a 
theological  reply  to  the  questions,  the  book  was  a 
denunciation  of  the  king's  courses  (see  Pole,  Regi- 
nald). Henry  was  lx?si(le  himself  with  rage,  and  it  soon 
became  evident  that,  failing  the  writer  of  the  "  Defen- 
sio",  the  royal  anger  was  to  be  wreaked  on  the  host- 
ages in  England,  and  this  despite  the  fact  that  the 
countess  and  her  eldest  son  had  written  to  Reginald  in 
reproof  of  his  attitude  and  action. 

In  November,  1538,  two  of  her  sons  and  others  of 
their  kin  were  arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason,  though 
Cromwell  had  previously  written  that  they  had  *'  htue 
offended  save  that  he  [the  Cardinal]  is  of  their  kin  ", 
they  were  committed  to  the  Tower,  and  in  January, 
with  the  exception  of  Geoffrey  Pole,  they  were  exe- 
cuted. Ten  days  after  the  apprehension  of  her  sons 
the  venerable  countess  was  arrested  and  examined  by 
Fitzwilliam,  Earl  of  Southampton,  and  Goodrich, 
Bishop  of  Ely,  but  these  reported  to  Cromwell  that 
although  they  had  "travailed  with  her  "  for  many  hours 
she  would  **  nothuig  utter  ",  and  they  were  forced  to  con- 
clude that  either  her  sous  had  not  made  her  a  sharer 


BCABGARITJB 


657 


BCABOOTTI 


in  their  "treason"  or  else  she  was  "the  most  arrant 
traitress  that  ever  lived  '\  In  Southampton's  custody 
she  was  committed  to  Cowdray  Park,  near  Midhurst, 
and  there  subjected  to  all  manner  of  indignity.  In 
May  Cromwell  introduced  against  her  a  Bill  of  Attain- 
der, the  readings  of  which  were  hurriedly  got  over,  and 
at  the  third  reading  Cromwell  produced  a  white  silk 
tunic  found  in  one  of  her  coffers,  which  was  embroid- 
ered on  the  back  with  the  Five  Wounds,  and  for  this, 
which  was  held  to  connect  her  with  the  Northern  Up- 
rising, she  was  "  attainted  to  die  by  act  of  Parliament  , 
The  other  charges  against  her,  to  which  she  was  never 
permitted  to  reply,  had  to  do  with  the  escape  from 
England  of  her  chaplain  and  the  conveying  of  mes- 
sages abroad.  After  the  passage  of  the  Act  she  was 
removed  to  the  Tower  and  there,  for  nearly  two  years, 
she  was  "tormented  by  the  severity  of  the  weather 
and  insufficient  clothing".  In  April,  1541,  there  was 
another  insurrection  in  Yorkshire,  and  it  was  then 
determined  to  enforce  without  any  further  procedure 
the  Act  of  Attainder  passed  in  1539.  On  the  morning 
of  28  May  (de  Marillac;  Gairdiier,  following  Chapuys, 
says  27)  she  was  told  she  was  to  die  within  the  hour. 
She  answered  that  no  crime  had  been  imputed  to  her; 
nevertheless  she  walked  calmly  from  her  cell  to  East 
Smithtield  Green,  within  the  precincts  of  the  Tower, 
where  a  low  wooden  block  had  been  prepared,  and 

there,  by  a  clumsy  novice,  she  was  beheaded. 

Db  Castillon  and  db  Marillac,  Correapondance  politique: 
Morris  in  The  Month  (April,  1889);  Camm,  Lives  of  the  English 
Martyrs,  I  (Londoa,  1904),  502  sqqj  Gairdnbu  in  Diet.  Nat. 
Biog.t  8.  V.  Pole;  Gillow,  Did.  Eng.  (Jath.,  s.  v. 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

Margaritfld  (Decreti  Decretorum,  Decretauum). 
— ^The  canonists  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies who  taught  canon  law  by  commenting  on  the 
Decretum  of  Gratian  and  on  the  various  collections  of 
the  Decretals,  gave  the  most  varied  forms  and  diverse 
names  to  their  treatises.  The  "  Margaritse "  are  col- 
lections specially  intended  to  help  the  memory.  In 
them  are  arranged,  either  in  alphabetical  order  or  ac- 
cording to  the  subject  matter,  the  more  important 
propositions,  r^um^,  and  axioms ;  some  of  them  con- 
sisted of  more  or  less  felicitous  mnemonic  verses.  A 
number  of  these  "Margaritas"  have  been  preserved, 
but  not  all  the  authors  are  known  with  certainty. 
Some  of  the  treatises  have  been  printed  with  the 
Decretum  or  the  Decretals.  Thus  several  editions  of 
the  Decretum  contain  the  "Modus  legendi"  in  verse, 
beginning: 

CoUi^  versibus  quid  vult  distinctio  qusevis, 
Ut  videat  quisquis  divinum  jus  hominisque. 
Another,  as  yet  unpublished,  which  may  be  the  "  Bre- 
viarium  pauperum  metrice  compilatum",  contains  in 
verse  the  five  books  of  the  Decretals  and  ends  thus: 
•*  Hos  quinque  libros  metrice  conscribere  tempto." 

ScHULTE.  Geschichte  der  Quellen  des  canoniachen  Rechts  (Stutt- 
gart. 1875).  I.  218;  II,  490.  492.  495. 

A.   BOUDINHON. 

Margil,  Antonio,  b.  at  Valencia,  Spain,  18  August, 
1657;  d.  at  Mexico,  6  Aug.,  1726.  He  entered  the 
Franciscan  Order  in  his  native  city  on  22  April,  1673. 
After  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  he  volunteered 
for  the  Indian  missions  in  America,  and  arrived  at 
Vera  Cruz  on  6  June,  1683.  He  was  stationed  at  the 
famous  missionary  college  of  Santa  Cruz,  i^uer^taro, 
but  was  generally  engaged  in  preaching  missions  all 
over  the  country,  in  Yucatan,  Costa  Rica,  Nicaragua, 
and  especially  in  Guatemala,  where  he  merited  the 
name  of  Apostle  of  Guatemala.  He  always  walked 
barefooted,  without  sandals,  fasted  every  day  in  the 
year,  never  used  meat  or  fish,  and  applied  the  disci- 
pline as  well  as  other  instruments  of  penance  to  him- 
self unmercifully.  He  slept  very  little,  but  passed  in 
prayer  the  greater  part  of  the  night,  as  well  as  the 
time  allotted  for  the  siesta.  The  result  was  that  his 
efforts  for  the  salvation  of  Indians  and  colonists  were 
IX.— 42 


crowned  with  extraordinary  success.  On  25  June. 
1706,  he  was  appointed  first  guardian  of  the  newly- 
erected  missionary  college  of  Guadalupe,  Zacatecas. 
In  1716  he  led  a  band  of  three  fathers  and  two  lay- 
brothers  into  Texas,  and  founded  the  missions  of 
Guadalupe  among  the  Nacogdoches,  Dolores  among 
the  Ays,  and  San  Miguel  among  the  Adays.  When 
the  French  destroyed  these  missions,  Father  Margil 
withdrew  to  the  Rio  San  Antonio,  and  remained  near 
the  present  city  of  San  Antonio  for  more  than  a  year. 
He  then  returned  with  his  friars  to  the  scene  of  his 
former  activity,  restored  the  missions,  and  even  gave 
his  attention  to  the  French  settlers  in  Louisiana. 
In  1722  he  was  elected  guardian  of  his  college  and 
compelled  to  leave  his  beloved  Indians.  At  the  close 
of  his  term  of  office  he  resumed  missionary  work  i» 
Mexico.  He  died  at  the  capital  in  the  famous  Con- 
vento  Grande  de  San  Francisco,  in  the  odour  of  sanc- 
tity. Gregory  XVI  in  1836  declared  Father  Antonio 
Margil's  virtues  heroic. 

EspiNOSA,  Crdnica  ApodrUica  y  Senifica  (Mexico.  1746); 
ViLAPLANA.  Vida  del  V.  P.  Fr.  Antonio  Margil  (Madrid,  1775); 
Arricivita,  Crt'mica  Scrdfica  y  Apoatdlica  (Mexico,  1792);  Soto- 
MATOR.  Hi^ria  del  Apo8l6lico  Colegio  de  Guadalupe  (Zacatecas, 
1874);  Shea,  Catholic  Church  in  Colonial  Days  (New  York, 
1886). 

Zephyrin  Engelhardt. 

Margotti,  Giacomo,  a  Catholic  publicist,  bom  11 
May,  1823;  died  6  May,  1887.  He  was  a  native  of 
San  Remo,  where  his  father  was  president  of-  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  there  he  studied  the  clas- 
sics and  philosophy,  after  which  he  entered  the  semi- 
nary of  Ventimiglia;  in  1845,  he  obtained  the  doctor- 
ate at  the  University  of  Genoa  and  was  received  into 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Superga,  where  he  remained 
until  1849.  Already  in  1848,  in  company  with  Mgr. 
Moreno,  Bishop  of  Ivrea.  Professor  Audisio,  and 
the  Marquis  Birago,  he  liad  established  the  daily 
paper  "L'Armonia",  which  soon  had  other  distin- 
guished contributors;  among  them,  Rosmini  and 
Slarquis  Gustavo,  brother  of  Cavour;  the  managing 
editor,  however,  and  the  soul  of  the  publication,  was 
Margotti,  whose  writings  combined  soundness  of  phi- 
losophy and  of  theological  doctrine  with  rare  purity  of 
style,  while  his  ready  ability  for  reply,  and  the  bril- 
liancy of  his  polemics  made  him  feared  by  the  sects 
and  by  the  Sardinian  government,  which  at  that 
moment,  in  furtherance  of  its  policy  of  territorial  ex- 
pansion, had  entered  upon  a  course  of  legislation  that 
was  hostile  to  the  Church  and  at  variance  with  the 
wishes  of  a  great  majority  of  the  people.  As  a  result, 
Margotti  underwent  frequent  trials,  and  was  often 
subjected  to  fines  and  to  other  impositions;  and  in 
1859^  Cavour  suppressed  the  "L' Armenia".  This 
pubhcation  was  replaced  by  "II  Piemonte";  but 
when  the  period  of  agitation  passed,  "L' Armenia" 
reappeared ;  its  name  was  chan^d,  however,  conform- 
ably with  the  wish  of  Pius  IX,  on  the  twenty-fifth  of 
December,  1863,  after  which  date  it  was  called 
"L'Unit^  Cattolica".  On  the  other  hand,  Margotti 
continued  to  be  the  object  of  attacks  and  of  plots, 
and  once,  at  Turin,  an  attempt  was  made  upon  his 
life;  but  nothing  intimidated  nim;  while  his  journal- 
istic proficiency  was  eulogized  by  the  "British  Re- 
view" in  its  issue  for  August^  1865. 

For  a  long  time,  the  opinion  of  Margotti  on  ques- 
tions of  Catholic  interest  had  the  force  of  oracle  for 
Italian  Catholics;  and  if  he  was  not  the  author  of  the 
axiom  "  n^  eletti,  n^  elettori " — "  be  neither  elector  nor 
elected  " — he,  more  effectually  than  any  one  else,  pre- 
sented its  truth  to  the  Catholics,  to  convince  them 
that,  in  the  face  of  r(»volutionary  triumphs,  it  was  idle 
to  hope  for  a  successful  reaction  through  parliament ; 
in  which  he  was  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  Pius 
IX,  who,  in  1868,  said  to  Margotti  that  Catholics 
should  not  go  to  the  ballot-box:  "  Non  si  vada  alle 
ume",     He  was  foreign  to  all  sense  of  personal  ag- 


MABIA-LAAOH 


658 


MABIiL-LAAOB 


grandizement ;  Pius  IX,  referring  to  this  fact,  once  said: 
''Margotti  never  asked  me  for  anything:  he  was  nght; 
for  any  dignity  that  I  could  have  conferred  upon  him 
would  have  been  inferior  to  his  merits  ".  By  his  will, 
Margotti  left  nearly  100,000  lire  for  charitable  pur- 
poses. Besides  the  articles  in  "L'Unita",  Margotti 
wrote  "II  process©  di  Nepomuceno  Nuytz,  prof,  di 
Diritto  Canonico  nella  Umversit^  di  Tormo"  (1851); 
"  Consideraasioni  sulla  separazione  dello  Stato  dalla 
Chiesa  in  Piemonte  "  (1855) ;  *'  Le  vittorie  della  Chiesa 
nei  primi  anni  del  Pontificato  di  Pio  IX"  (1857); 
"Memorie  per  la  storia  dei  nostri  tempi"  (1863,  6 
vols.);  "Le  consolazioni  del  S.  P.  Pio  IX"  (1863); 
"  Pio  IX  e  il  suo  episcopate  nelle  diocesi  di  Spoleto  e 
d'Imola"  (1877). 
.  CiviiUi  CaUolica  (Rome),  ser.  XIII,  vol.  VI,  p.  485;  vol.  VH, 
p.  1  sq.;  Della.  Casa,  I  Nostri  (Treviso,  1903),  31  sq. 

U.  Beniqni. 

Maria-Laach  (Abbatia  Beat^  Mabi.c  Virginis 
AD  LACUM,  or  Beat^  Mari^  lacensis),  a  Benedictine 
abbey  on  the  south-west  bank  of  Lake  Laach,  near 
Andemach  in  Rhineland,  Germany.  It  was  founded 
in  the  year  1093  by  the  Palsgrave  Henry  II  of  Lorraine 
who  probably  was  a  descendant  from  the  line  of  the 
Counts  of  Hochstaden  (P.  Adalbert  Schippers,  O.S.B., 
"The  Palsgrave  Henry  IPs  Charter  of  Foundation  for 
Laach"  in  the  "Trierisches  Archiv",  XV,  1909  53 
sq.).  In  the  year  1112  his  stepson  Siegfried  of  Ballen- 
stadt  renewed  the  foundation  (P.  Ildefons  Herwegen, 
O.S.B.,  "The  Palsgraves  of  Lorraine  and  the  Ben- 
edictine monasteries  of  the  Lower  Rhine"  in  "An- 
nalen  der  historischen  Vereins  fiir  den  Niederrhein  ", 
LXXXIX,  1910,  40  sq.).  The  monastery,  which  was 
handed  over  to  the  Cluniac  Benedictines  from  the 
abbey  of  Afflighem  in  Belgium,  welcomed  its  fu^t  ab- 
bot in  the  accomplished  Gilbert,  in  1127,  and  thus 
became  independent.  His  memorial  tablet  in  mosaic 
with  portrait  and  epitaph  is  in  the  Rhine  Provincial 
Museum  at  Bonn.  A  facsimile  of  the  same  has  found 
a  place  in  the  cloister  at  Maria-Laach.  Until  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourteenth  century  disci})line  was  severe. 
Abbot  Fulbert  (1152-1177)  did  good  work  for  the 
library  and  promoted  scientific  activity,  while  the 
Abbots  Albert  (1199-1217)  and  Theoderich  II  (1256- 
1295)  directed  their  energies  towards  the  structural 
embellishment  and  artistic  decoration  of  the  church 
and  monastery.  The  last  named  erected  the  tomb  of 
the  founder,  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of  thirteenth  cen- 
tury sculpture  on  the  Rhine  (Hasak,  "Gesch.  der 
deutschen  Bildhauerkunst  im  13.  Jahrhundert", 
Berlui,  1899,  page  92  sq.).  He  also  succeeded  in  ti- 
ding over  a  serious  economic  crisis. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  there  began  in  Germany, 
owing  to  the  unfavourable  conditions  of  the  time,  a 
deterioration  in  the  spiritual  life  of  the  Benedictine 
Order.  Under  the  thirteenth  ablx)t,  Johannes  I  (1328- 
1333),  it  came  gradually  into  notice  in  Maria-Laach  as 
well.  It  was  only  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth 
centurv.  through  an  alliance  with  the  congregation  of 
Bursfela,  that  the  monastic  spirit  began  once  more  to 
flourish.  A  number  of  the  monks  held  out  against 
reform,  but  the  sagacity  and  energ>'  of  the  celebrated 
Abbot  Johannes  IV  of  Deidesheim  (1409-1491)  pre- 
vailed finally  on  the  side  of  discipline.  With  improve- 
ment in  discipline  there  came  a  new  literary  life.  The 
Humanities  were  ably  represented  by  Siberti,  Tilmann 
of  Bonn,  Benedict  of  Munstereifel,  and  above  all  by 
Prior  Johannes  Butzbach  (1526).  Most  of  Butzbacl/s 
poetical  and  prose  works  remain  in  manuscript  in  the 
University  Library  at  Bonn,  and  have  not  all  ])ecn 
published.  His  best  known  work  is  his  "  Hodoipsori- 
kon  ",  an  account  of  his  years  of  travel  before  his  eutrv' 
into  the  monastery  at  Laach,  issued  by  D.  J.  Becker 
(Ratisbon,  1869)  as  the  "Chronicle  of  a  Travelling 
Scholar".  His  "Auctarium  in  librum  Johannis  Tri- 
themii  de  scriptoribus  ecclesiasticis",  a  supplement 
to  the  Abbot  von  Sponheim's  "Scholars'  Catalogue", 


is  also  noteworthy.  The  abbey  chranicle  written  bf 
Butzbach  has  unfortunately  been  lost.  The  world- 
famous  story  of  Genevieve,  the  scene  of  which  is  at 
Lake  Laach,  goes  back,  in  the  oldest  form  that  has 
come  down  to  us,  to  Johannes  von  Andemach,  a  con- 
temporary monk  at  Laach  (BruU,  "Andemach  I^ 
gramme,  189&-97";  Idem,  "Pnmun  Programme, 
1898-99 ").  The  Ablwt  Johann  Augustin  (1562-1568) 
left  behind  a  book  on  "The  practices  and  customs  of 
Laach"  (Rituale  monastics  HyparchisB  coenobii  laoen* 
sis)  that  is  now  numbered  among  the  manuscripts  in 
the  library  of  Bonn  University. 

Until  the  dissolution  of  the  abbey  in  the  great 
secularizing  movement  of  the  year  1802,  Itfaria-Laach 
remained  a  centre  of  religious  and  Uterazy  activity. 
The  church  and  monastery  went  first  to  the  Frendi 
and  then,  in  1815,  to  the  Prussian  government.  In  the 
year  1820  the  monastery  became  private  property  and 
m  1863  was  acquired  by  the  Society  of  Jesus.  The 
abbey  church  has  remained  to  this  day  the  property 
of  the  Prussian  Exchequer.  The  Jesuits  maae  Maria- 
Laach  a  home  of  learning.  It  became  a  place  of  study 
for  the  scholastics  and  a  meeting  place  for  the  leading 
savants  of  the  Society  Among  tnem  P.  Schneemann 
distinguished  himself  as  chief  worker  on  the  **  Collectio 
lacensis"  ("Acta  et  decreta  sacrorum  concilionim 
recentiorum  ",  7  volumes,  Freiburg,  1870-1890),  which 
represents  a  valuable  continuation  of  the  older  coUee- 
tions  of  the  Councils.  P.  Schneemann  issued  vols.  I  to 
VI  (1682-1870);  P.  Granderath  vol.  VII  (1870-1882) 
dealing  with  the  Vatican  Coimcil.  Here  also  was  be- 
gun the  "  Philosophia  lacensis",  a  collection  of  learned 
books  on  the  different  branches  of  philosophy  (logic. 
cosmologv,  psvchology,  theodicy,  natural  law)  ana 
published  at  Freiburg,  1880-1900.  The  "Stimmen 
aus  Maria-Laach",  however,  bore  the  name  of  the 
monastery  farthest.  Lender  the  direction  of  P.  Schnee- 
marm  the  first  series  be^n  in  1865,  and  appeared  as 
occasional  pamphlets.  They  were  undertaken  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  provincial,  P.  Anderledy,  in  defence 
of  the  Encyclical  *'  Quanta  cura",  and  the  Syllabus  of 
Pius  IX  (1864)  against  the  attacks  of  Liberalism.  P. 
Florian  Riess  had  a  meritorious  share  in  the  publica- 
tion of  a  second  series  at  the  time  of  the  Vatican 
Council.  Since  1871  the  "  Stinmien"  has  been  a  regu- 
lar periodical  dealing  with  every  department  of  knowl- 
edge.  The  "Stimmen"  retained  its  old  name  when 
the  Jesuits  were  banished  from  Maria-La^ch  during 
the  Kiilturkampf  in  1873. 

The  Benedictines  of  the  Bemt)n  Congregation  moved 
into  the  monastery  in  1892.    In  the  year  1893  Maria- 
Laach  was  canonically  raised  into  an  abbey.    The  first 
Ablx)t,  Willibrod  Benzler,  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Metz  in  1901.    Fidelis  von  Stotzingen  succeeded  nim 
as  second  abbot  (1901).     The  community  numbers 
(1910)  41  monks  and  74  lay-brothers.    The  new  ten- 
ants of  the  abbey  have  been  allowed  the  use  of  the 
church  by  the  state,  but  in  return  have  been  made 
responsible  for  the  upkeep  and  furnishing  of  the  build- 
ing stripped  as  it  is  of  all  its  appointments.    The  resto- 
ration was  inaugurated  l)y  Kaiser  William  II,  in  1897, 
through  the  gift  of  a  high  altar.    At  the  present  time 
the  monks  are  engaged  in  decorating  the  east  apse 
with  mosaics.    The  church  is  in  basilica  style  witn  a 
transept  and  double  choir.    The  east  choir  is  flanked 
by  two  square  towers,  while  the  west  facade  shows  a 
square  central  tower  with  a  graceful  balcony  supported 
on  twin  columns.    This  rich  group  of  towers,  to  which 
must  l>e  added  an  imposing  cupola,  gives  the  church  an 
exceedingly  picturesque  appearance.    The  east  and 
west  choir  as  well  as  the  sides  of  the  church  end  in  an 
apse.    Under  the  east  choir  lies  a  crypt;  opening  on 
tne  west  choir  there  is  a  vestibule,  or  paraaisus,  with 
open  arcades,  the  arches  resting  on  slender  twin  col- 
umns.    The  doors  of  the  church  and  vestibule  are 
ornamented  with  sculpture.    In  the  west  choir  stands 
the  sarcophagus  of  the  founder  under  a  Barocco  stone 


TMffAftTAT.gft 


659 


MARTAWA 


canopy.  Near  this  on  the  pillars  are  several  fifteenth 
century  paintings.  The  abbey^hurch  is  a  masterpiece 
of  Romanesque  architecture,  and  marks  a  new  phase 
in  the  history  of  Grerman  architecture,  since  it  is  the 
first  columned  basilica  built  with  arches  (Schippers,  in 
"Christian  Art",  IV,  1907-1908,  266,  in  reply  to 
Schmitt,  ibid.,  1  sq.).  Drawings  of  its  architectural 
features  are  given  in  Greier  and  Uorz,  *' Monuments  of 
Roman  Architecture  on  the  Rhine"  (Frankfort.  1874). 
The  St.  Nicholas  Chapel  in  the  monastery  garden  was 
built  during  1756-1766;  its  tower  belongs,  however, 
to  the  twelfth  century.  Several  tombstones  of  earUer 
abbots  grace  the  cloisters  of  the  monastery.  Only  the 
portrait  in  relief  of  the  Abbot  Simon  von  der  Leyen 
(1491-1512)  has  however  any  claim  to  art. 

Weoeler.  Dcu  Ktoater  Loach,  Oeschichte  und  Urkunden 
(Bonn,  1854);  Richter,  Die  Benedikttner-  Abtei  Maria-Loath 
(HamburK.  1896);  Idem.  Die  Schriftsteller  der  Benediktiner- 
Abtei  Maria-Loach  in  WestdetUache  ZeiiaeJirift,  XVII  (1898).  41 

a.,  277  sq.;  Kniel,  Die  Benedihtiner-  Ahtei  Maria-Loach  (3rd 
..  Cologne,  1902).  See  also  bibliography  in  Studien  vnd 
MiUeUungen  aue  dem  Benedikttner-  una  Cxatercieneer  Orden,  IX 
(1896).  277  sq. 

Ildefonbus  Herwegen. 

MarialeSy  X antes,  Dominican,  b.  about  1580;  d. 
at  Venice  in  April,  16(K).  He  was  of  a  noble  Venetian 
family.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  Dominican 
convent  of  Sts.  John  and  Paul.  Remarkable  for  his 
versatility  and  prodigious  memory,  he  was  soon  sent 
to  Spain,  where  he  completed  his  studies.  He  first 
taugnt  at  Venice,  then  at  Padua  where  he  thrice  exer- 
cised the  office  of  regent.  From  1624  onwards  he  led 
a  most  retired  life  at  Venice,  devoting  his  time  exclu- 
sively to  prayer,  reading,  and  study.  He  possessed  in 
a  high  degree  the  more  kindly  and  winsome  external 
accomplisnments.  In  his  writings  he  displayed  such 
zeal  for  the  Holy  See  that  he  was  twice  exiled  bv  the 
Venetian  senate.  At  Milan,  Ferrara,  and  Bologna 
where  lie  took  refuge,  he  was  ercatly  esteemed  for  his 
learning  and  holiness.  He  died  at  Venice  from  a  stroke 
of  apoplexv.  The  obsequies  were  honoured  by  the 
presence  of  the  Venetian  nobility.  Among  his  works 
the  following  are  noteworthy:  " Controversize  ad 
universam  Summam  theol.  S.  Th.  Aq. "  (Venice,  1624) ; 
"Amplissimum  artium  scientiarumque  omnium  am- 

phitheatrum"  (Bologna.  1658). 

HuRTER,  Nomenclator,  who  summarizes  **Scriptoree  O.  P.", 
II  fParis.  1721).  600;  ''Elogium"  in  "Acta  Cajntuli  Oeneralia 
O.  Pr  (Rome.  1970). 

Thos.  X  K.  Reillt. 

Maxiana,  Juan,  author  and  Jesuit,  b.  at  Talavera, 
Toledo,  Spain,  probably  in  April,  1536;  d.  at  Toledo, 
16  February,  1624. 

He  is  one  of  the  most  maligned  members  of  the 
Jesuit  order,  owing  to  the  opinions  expressed  in  his 
book  "  De  rege  et  regis  institutione  ",  on  the  killing  of 
despots.  He  joined  the  order  1  January,  1554.  Noth- 
ing more  is  known  of  his  parentage  or  his  family  his- 
tory. 

It  is  an  evidence  of  his  talent  that,  as  early  as  1561, 
after  finishing  his  studies,  he  was  called  by  his  superi- 
ors to  Rome,  where  he  taught  theology  for  four  years. 
After  a  further  short  sojourn  in  Sicily  he  occupied  the 
chair  of  theology  in  Paris  (1569-1574),  but  was  obliged 
through  illness  to  return  to  Spain.  There  he  spent  a 
great  number  of  years  at  Toledo,  occupied  almost  ex- 
clusively with  literary  work. 

Among  his  literary  labours  the  most  important  is 
undoubtedly  his  great  work  on  the  history  of  Spain, 
which  is  still  remembered  to-day.  There  was  pub- 
lished as  late  as  1854,  in  Madrid,  an  improved  and 
richly  illustrate  edition  continued  up  to  that  year. 
The  work  first  appeared  as  "Historiae  de  rebus  His- 

EanisB  libri  XX,Toleti,  typis  P.  Roderici.  1592'*.  A 
iter  edition  of  the  compiler  himself,  carried  on  still 
further,  is  the  "De  rebus Hispani®  libri  XXX",  pub- 
lished at  Mainz  in  1605.  This  edition  bears  the  im- 
primatur of  the  order  for  the  thirty  books,  given  by 


Stephen  Hojeda,  visitor  from  Dec.,  1598,  and  of  the 
provincial  from  1604.  The  author  had  in  the  mean- 
time converted  the  Latin  edition  into  Spanish  and 
this  appeared  complete,  containing  the  thirhr  books  of 
the  Latin  edition,  at  Toledo  in  1601.  This  went 
through  a  number  of  editions  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
author  and  through  others  after  his  death. 

The  second  work  published  is  that  mentioned  above, 
"  De  Rege  et  Regis  institutione  libri  III  ad  Philippum 
III  Hispaniae  Re^em  CathoUcum,  1 599 '  * .  The  work  was 
written  at  the  sohcitation  of  the  tutor  of  the  royal  princes 
and  at  the  expense  of  Philip  II  (Garcias  de  Loaysa), 
but  was  dedicated  to  Philip  III,  who  had  become  kiii^ 
in  the  meantime.  It  was  not  objected  to  by  the  king 
nor  anywhere  else  in  Spain;  it  was  obviously  calcu- 
lated to  bring  up  the  king  as  the  true  father  of  his  peo- 
ple and  as  a  pattern  of  virtue  for  the  whole  nation. 
The  Protestant  Dr.  Leutbecher  (Erlangen,  1830)  ex- 
pr^sed  his  judgment  of  the  book  in  the  following 
terms:  ''Mariana's  excellent  mirror  for  kings  .  .  .  con- 
tains more  healthy  materials  for  the  education  of  fu- 
ture kings  than  any  other  existing  princely  mirror,  and 
is  worthy  of  all  respect  as  much  from  kings  themselves, 
as  from  their  educators.  .  .  .  Would  that  all  kings 
were  as  Mariana  wanted  them  to  be." — ^The  book  cer- 
tainly contained  a  misconstrued  observation  in  favour 
of  the  assassination  of  Henry  III  of  France,  and  de- 
fended, though  with  many  restrictions  and  precau- 
tions, the  deposition  and  killing  of  a  tyrant.  This  did 
not  escape  the  Jesuits  in  France  and  they  drew  the  at- 
tention of  the  general  of  the  order  to  it.  The  general 
at  once  expressed  his  regret,  stating  that  the  work  had 
been  published  without  his  knowledge  and  that  he 
would  take  care  that  the  book  should  l^  corrected.  In 
1605  there  really  appeared  a  somewhat  altered  edition 
at  Mainz;  to  what  degree  the  book  had  been  corrected 
by  the  order  is  hard  to  discover.  Mariana  himself  had 
not  prepared  another  edition.  But  in  1610  a  real 
storm  broke  loose  against  the  book  in  France;  by 
the  order  of  Parliament  the  book  was  publicly  burnt 
by  the  hand  of  the  public  executioner,  while  in  Spain 
it  continued  to  enjoy  the  royal  favour.  The  general 
of  the  order  forbade  membfers  to  preach  that  it  is 
lawful  to  kill  despots. 

There  was  still  a  whole  scries  of  smaller  works  from 
the  pen  of  Mariana;  many  of  them  are  only  in  manu- 
script. Some  of  his  published  works  are  not  without 
value  in  political  economy — ^his  work, "  De  ponderibus 
et  mensuris,''  for  example,  which  appearea  at  Toledo 
in  1599  and  at  Mainz  in  1605,  and  his  little ''  De  mone- 
tae mutatione'',  which  appeared  in  a  general  collection 
of  his  works  in  1609.  In  a  criticism  of  this  small  pub- 
lication, Pascal  Duprat  (Sommervogel,  V,  562),  a 
French  economist,  declared  as  late  as  1870  that  Mari- 
ana had  set  forth  the  true  principles  of  the  money 
question  ^  far  better  than  his  contemporaries.  This 
work,  however,  proved  fatal  to  the  author.  The  fact 
that  he  had  opposed  with  genuine  courage  the  depre- 
ciation of  the  currency  laid  him  under  a  charge  of 
treason  to  the  king,  and  Mariana,  then  seventy-three 
years  old,  was  actually  condemned  to  lifelong  impris- 
onment, which  took  the  form  of  committal  to  a  Fran- 
ciscan convent.  He  was  only  to  be  allowed  freedom 
shortly  before  his  death. 

The  vehement  character  of  Mariana,  that  strove 
against  real  or  intended  wron^,  had  also  its  dark  side. 
The  period  of  his  old  age  coincided  with  a  stormy  time 
in  the  history  of  the  order.  In  the  order,  which  had 
just  then  b^un  to  flourish,  there  were  a  number  of 
members  who  were  not  satisfied  with  the  approved 
principles  of  the  founder  and  the  Holy  See,  especially 
as  there  was  a  good  deal  in  them  that  did  not  corre- 
spond with  the  principles  of  the  older  orders.  Even 
tne  solemn  BuUs  of  Gregory  XIII,  which  again  ex- 
pressly confirmed  the  points  criticised  from  within  and 
without  the  order,  did  not  altogether  bring  quiet,  so 
that  in  the  year  1593,  under  the  government  of  Aqua- 


MARIANA 


660 


MARIANA 


viva,  there  was  a  general  congregation  for  the  purpose 
of  expellmg  some  of  the  members.  Juan  Mariana,  for 
a  loi^  period  at  least,  was  numbered  among  the  dis- 
satisned  and  the  advocates  of  change.  In  the  year 
1589  Mariana  had  already  prepared  a  manuscript  to 
defend  the  order  against  the  attacks  of  some  of  his  op- 
ponents; the  general,  Aqua\iva,  was  inch'ned  to  have 
it  published,  but  as  it  was  desirable  not  to  disturb  the 
momentary  calm  that  had  come  in  Spain,  this  **  Defen- 
sorium'*  was  never  printed.  Some  time  later  Mari- 
ana, when  internal  dissensions  prevailed  in  the  order, 
was  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  a  memorial,  which 
it  is  highly  probable  he  intended  to  forward  to  Rome. 
According  to  Astrain  ("Historia  de  la  compania  de 
J^us",  III,  417),  it  must  have  been  written  in  1605. 
The  author  took  great  care  of  the  manuscript;  there 
are  no  indications  that  it  was  ever  intended  to  be  pub- 
lished. But  on  his  arrest  in  1610  all  Mariana's  papers 
were  seized,  and  in  spite  of  his  request  nothing  was  re- 
turned. After  his  aeath  the  memorial  was  published 
at  Bordeaux  by  the  opponents  of  the  order  in  1625 
under  the  title  ''Discursus  de  erroribus  qui  in  forma 
gubemationis  Societatis  occurrunt".  After  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Jesuits  from  Spain  it  was  often  printed 
again  (1468,  1841)  in  Spanish,  and  named  '^Discorso 
de  los  enfermedades  de  la  Compania".  Since  the 
publication  of  all  these  editions  was  the  work  of  oppo- 
nents of  the  order,  there  is  no  guarantee  that  the  origi- 
nal text  had  been  reproduced  whole.  Astrain,  never- 
theless, showed  (op.  cit.,  Ill,  560,  note  3)  that  the 
copies  of  the  manuscript  which  had  pa&sed  through  his 
hands  agreed  with  the  printed  work.  The  original  text 
was  thus  published  without  being  essentially  altered. 
It  is  but  the  effusion  of  a  dissatisfied  member  of  the 
order.  The  further  development  of  the  order  and 
the  further  papal  confirmation  of  the  principle  of  the 
order  show  Mariana  to  have  been  wrong  in  his  criti- 
cisms, though  his  subjective  culpability  is  much  les- 
sened by  the  circuiAstances.  He  never  left  the  order; 
and  there  seems  to  have  been  an  entire  reconciliation 
in  his  last  years. 

iSoMMERVOGEL,  Bib.  de  la  Comp.  de  Jesus  (Brussels  and  Paris, 
1894),  1547  sqa;]  Casbani,  Varones  ilustrcs,  V,  8H-98;  Duhr, 
JesuUenfabcln  (FreiburK,  1899),  n.  25;  Astrain,  Historia  de  la 
Compania  de  Jesus,  Hf  (Madrid,  1909). 

Aug.  Lehmkuhl. 

Mariana,  Archdiocese  op  (Marianensis),  situ- 
ated in  the  centre  of  Minas  Geraes,  the  great  mining 
state  of  Brazil,  is  bounded  on  the  north,  south,  and 
west  respectively  by  its  suffragan  sees,  Diamantina, 
Pouso  Alegre,  uoyaz,  and  Uberaba.  The  city  of 
Mariana,  formerly  Ribeirao  do  Carmo  (population 
over  6000),  established  in  1711,  lies  about  seven  miles 
east  of  Ouro  Proto,  the  former  capital  of  the  state.  A 
bishopric  was  erected  there  in  Deceml:)er,  1745,  by 
Beneaict  XIV,  the  first  occupant  of  the  see  l^ing  Frei 
Manoel  da  Cruz  (1745-1764),  who  was  translated  from 
the  Diocese  of  Maranhfio.  For  over  a  century  Mari- 
ana was  the  ecclesiastical  centre  of  Minas  Geraes.  In 
1854  some  parishes  were  detached  from  it  to  form  part 
of  the  new  Diocese  of  Diamantina,  and  others  in  19(X) 
on  the  establishment  of  that  of  Pouso  Alegre.  In 
May,  1906,  Mariana  was  made  an  archdiocese,  having 

ErevioiLsly  been  a  suffragan  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  em- 
races  an  area  of  110,(XK)  square  miles,  nearly  one-half 
of  Minas  Geraes,  and  contains  over  2,(XX),C)(X)  Catho- 
lics, there  being  only  about  2QO0  Protestants,  mostly 
foreigners  in  the  mining  centres.  It  has  311  parishes, 
and  611  churches  or  chapels,  served  by  545  secular 
and  104  regular  priests.  The  theological  s(»minary  is 
under  the  care  of  the  Lazaristjj.  The  present  occu- 
pant of  the  see  who  is  the  ninth  ordinary'  of  Mariana 
and  the  first  archbishop,  Mgr.  Sil  verio  Gomes  Pimenta, 
was  bom  at  Conpjonhas  do  Campo,  near  the  celebrated 
shrine  of  Mattosinho.«,  on  12  January.  1840:  he  was  or- 
dained on  20  July.  1862,  at  Sabani.  by  Bishop  Vic.-oso, 
and  for  many  years  professed  history  and  philosophy 


in  the  diocesan  seminary;  named  coadjutor  to  the 
Bishop  of  Mariana,  he  was  consecrated  at  Sdo  Paulo  by 
the  Archbishop  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  on  31  August,  1890, 
as  Titular  Bishop  of  Camachus  in  Armenia.  On  16 
April,  1897,  he  succeeded  to  the  see  on  the  death  of 
Mgr.  Corr^  de  Sd  y  Benevides.  Mgr.  Pimento  is  the 
firet  native  of  Minas  Geraes  to  rule  this  bishopric,  ail 
his  predecessors  except  Mgr.  Benevides,  having  been 
Portuguese  by  birth. 

From  1711  till  1897  the  capital  of  the  state  was  at 
Ouro  Preto  near  Mariana,  but  it  has  now  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  new  and  rapidly  growing  city  of  Belle 
Horizonte,  founded  in  February,  1894.  It  is  situated 
on  the  west  side  of  the  valley  of  the  Rio  das  Velhas, 
and  lies  390  miles  northwest  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  has 
a  population  of  about  17,615,  of  whom  17,490  are 
Catholics.  It  has  five  churches,  and  a  college  in 
charge  of  nuns  for  the  higher  education  of  women.  A 
large  cathedral  is  being  erected  there.  Many  laymen 
and  clerics  distinguished  in  science  and  literature  are 
natives  of  or  have  laboured  in  the  Diocese  of  Mariana. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  following;  priests: 
Jos6  &silio  da  Gama  (1740-95),  the  author  of  the  epic 
'*  Uruguay",  a  work  which  unfortunately  pays  no  trib- 
ute to  the  labours  of  the  Jesuits,  of  which  body  da 
Gama  was  a  member  l>efore  the  suppression ;  Jos^  da 
Santa  Rita  Durao  (1737-83),  a  Jesuit  born  in  Infec- 
gaoado,  Minas  Geraes,  a  brilliant  novelist  and  author 
of  the  famous  poem  **Caramuni";  Felix  Lisboa,  the 
sculptor;  Jos6  Mariano  da  ConcecySo  Velloso  (1742- 
1811),  the  great  botanist,  author  of  **  Flora  Flumi- 
nese";  Jos^  Corr^a  de  Almeida,  b.  4  September,  1820, 
at  Barbacena;  d.  there,  5  April,  1905,  poet  (23  vol- 
umes published)  and  historian;  Bishop  de  Sousa, 
of  Diamantina,  author  of  "  O  Lar  Catholieo  "  and  other 
works  well  known  in  Brazil,  is  also  a  native  of  the 
diocese. 

DioGO  DE  Vabconellas,  Historia  antiga  daa  Minas  Gents 
(Bello  Horizonte,  1907);  Miguel,  Cartas  sertanejas  (Mariana, 
1905);  Renault,  Jndiffcnas  de  Minas  Geraes  (Bello  Horizont«, 
1904);  DE  Senna,  Annuario  de  Minas  Geraes  (Bello  liorixonte, 
1906,  etc.);  Idem,  Notas  e  chronicas  (S&o  Paulo,  1907 J. 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Mariana  Islands,  Prefecture  Apostouc   of. — 
The  Marianas  Archipelago  (also  called  the  Ladrone 
Islands)  is  a  chain  of  fifteen  islands  in  the  Northern 
Pacific,  situated  between  13°  and  21°  N.  I.at.  and  144* 
and  146°  E.  long.    The  islands  were  first  discovered  in 
1521  by  Magellan,  who  called  them  Las  Islas  de  lot 
Ladrones  (Thieves'  Islands)  on  account  of  the  predilec- 
tion of  the  natives  for  thieving.    In  1G67  the  Spanish 
established  a  regular  colony  there,  and  gave  the  islands 
the  official  title  of  Las  Marianas  in  honour  of  Queen 
Maria  Anna  of  Austria.    They  then  possessed  a  popu- 
lation of  40-60,000  inhabitants^  but  so  fierce  was  the 
opposition  offered  to  the  Spanianls  that  the  natives 
were  almost  exterminated  lx?fore  Spanish  rule  was 
made  secure.    The  Marianas  remained  a  Spanish  col- 
ony under  the  general  government  of  the  Philippines 
until  1898,  when,  as  a  result  of  the  Spanish-American 
War,  Guam  was  ceded  to  the  United  States.     By 
Treaty  of  12  Feb.,  1899,  the  remaining  islands  (to- 
gether with  the  Carolines)  were  sold  to  Germany  for 
about  $4, 100,0(X).    Guam  is  32  miles  long,  from  3  to  10 
miles  broad,  and  about  200  sq.  miles  in  area.    Of  its 
total  population  of  11,490  (11,159  natives),  Agana,  the 
capital,  contains  al>out  7,000.    Possessing  a  good  har- 
bour, the  island  serves  as  a  United  States  naval  sta- 
tion, the  naval  commandant  acting  also  as  governor. 
The  products  of  the  island  are  maize,  copra,  rice,snjrRr, 
and  valuable  timl^er.    The  remaining  islands  of  tlie 
archipelago  l)elong  to  the  German  Protectorate  of  New 
Guinea;    their  total  pop\dation  is  only  2,646  inhf>bi 
tants,  the  ten  most  northerly  islands  being  aotivrly 
volcanic  and  iminhabited.    The  prefecture  Apostolic 
was  erected  on  17  Sept.,  1902,  by  the  Constilutioo 


ACARIAMNHILL 


661 


TWTAl^TAiar 


'*  Qus  mari  sinico  "  of  Leo  XIII.  The  islands  had  pre- 
viously formed  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Cebu.  By  T)e- 
cree  of  18  June,  1907,  thev  were  entrusted  to  the 
Capuchin  Fathers  of  the  Westphalian  Province,  to 
which  order  the  present  prefect  Apostolic,  Very  Rev. 
Paul  von  Kirchhausen  (appointed  August,  1907;  resi- 
dence in  Saipan,  Carolina  Islands) ,  belongs.  There  are 
two  public  schools,  but  accommodation  is  so  inade- 
quate that  the  boys  attend  in  the  morning  and  the 
girls  in  the  evening.  The  instruction  is  given  in  Eng- 
Gsh,  and,  in  addition  to  the  usual  elementary  subjects, 
carpentry  and  other  trades  are  taught.  Two  priests 
are  stationed  at  Agana;  one  in  each  of  the  smaller 
settlements,  Agat  and  Merizo.  In  addition  to  the 
churches  at  these  places,  there  is  a  church  at  Sainay 
and  several  little  cnapels  in  the  mountains.  A  priest 
from  Agana  visits  each  month  the  colony  where  the 
lepers  are  segregated,  to  celebrate  Mass  and  ad- 
nunister  the  sacraments.  Catholicism  is  the  sole  re- 
ligion of  the  islands.  Until  1908  the  Institute  of 
the  Mission  Helpers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  had  a  house 

at  Agana. 

Battandxer,   Annuaire  Pontificale   (1010):     Report  of  the 
Smithsonian  Inatittdion  (1903);  Stateeman's  Year-Book  (1910). 

Thomas  Kennedy. 

Mariazmhill,  Congregation  of  the  Missionaries 
OF. — Mariannhill  is  located  in  Natal,  near  Pinetown, 
15  miles  from  Durban,  and  56  from  Pietermaritzburg. 
In  1882  the  Rev.  Francis  Pfanner,  then  prior  of  the 
Trappist  (Reformed  Cistercian)  Monastery^  of  Maria- 
stem  (Bosnia),  at  the  invitation  of  the  late  Bishop 
Ricards,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  general  chapter 
of  that  branch  of  the  order  called  the  Congregation  of 
De  Ranc^,  volunteered  to  establish  a  monastery  in 
Cape  Colony,  in  order  to  try  to  adapt  their  rule  to  the 
missionary  life.  He  landeid  at  Port  Elizabeth  with 
thirty-one  companions  in  July,  1880,  and  settled  in  a 
place  he  called  Dimbrody,  after  an  old  Irish  monastery. 
This  he  had  to  abandon  in  1882;  and  at  the  solicita- 
tion of  the  late  Bishop  Jolivet,  O.M.I. ,  transferred  his 
community  to  Mariannhill.  Upon  arrival  there  he  set 
to  work  with  indefatigable  energy  in  the  missionary 
field,  and  was  blessed  with  such  success  that  in  1885 
Mariannhill  was  erected  into  an  abbey,  and  Father 
Pfaimer  was  imanimously  elected  its  first  abbot, 
receiving  the  abbatial  bleasing  on  the  third  anniver- 
sary of  the  founding  of  the  monastery,  27  Dec.,  1885. 
The  same  year  Abbot  Pfanner  had  started  a  branch 
of  missionary  sisters  called  "Sisters  of  the  Precious 
Blood"  to  take  charge  of  the  native  children  and 
women;  this  congregation  flourished  abundantly,  and 
was  approved  by  Rome  in  1907. 

Mariannhill  was  too  restricted  for  the  zeal  of  Abbot 
Pfanner,  so  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  he  founded 
seven  mission  stations,  scattered  over  Natal,  from 
Transvaal  (Ratschitz)  to  Cape  O)lony  (Lourdes)  in 
Griqualand.  Each  of  these  stations  had  a  small  com- 
munity of  monks,  and  another  of  sisters,  with  church, 
school,  etc.,  according  to  the  needs  of  the  natives.  In 
1892  Abbot  Pfanner,  who  was  then  sixty-seven  years 
of  age,  resigned  and  retired  to  Emmaus,  one  of  the 
stations,  where  he  died  on  24  May,  19()9.  He  was 
immediately  succeeded  by  Dom  Amandus  Schoelzig 
as  administrator,  and  in  1894  as  abbnot.  Under  his 
wise  administration  nine  stations  were  founded  in 
Natal  and  Cape  Colony,  and  two  houses  in  German 
East  Africa.  Abbot  Amandus  died  in  January,  1900, 
a  martyr  to  the  great  work  and  its  many  cares.  In 
Sept.  of  the  same  year  he  was  succeeded  by  Abbot 
Gerard  Wolpert,  who  had  spent  the  greater  part  of  his 
missionary  life  at  the  Czenstochau  Station.  He 
founded  a  station  in  Mashonaland,  Rhodesia,  and  two 
more  in  Natal,  so  that  his  activity  was  divided  be- 
tween German  East  Africa,  Rhodesia,  Natal  and  Cape 
Colony.  This,  however,  w^  too  much  for  his  strengtn; 
Mb  health  gave  way,  and  being  anxious  to  return  to 


his  mission  life  at  Czenstochau,  he  resigned  his  posi- 
tion in  1904. 

During  the  general  chapter  of  the  order  held  that 
year  at  Citeaux,  the  Rt.  Kev.  Edmond  M.  Obrecht, 
Abbot  of  the  Abbey  of  Gethsemani,  U.  S.  A.,  was  ap- 
pointed, with  the  approbation  of  the  Holy  See,  Admin- 
istrator of  Mariannhill.  His  principal  labour  was  to 
enquire  into  the  adaptability  of  the  Cistercian  to  the 
missionary  life;  after  three  years  of  work  in  Africa  the 
Abbot  of  Gethsemani  submitted  his  report  to  Rome 
and  the  general  chapter,  from  which  it  was  decided 
that  Mariannhill  should  become  an  independent  con- 
gregation, as  otherwise  either  the  monastic  observ- 
ances or  the  missionary  labour  had  to  suffer.  Conse- 
Suently  Propaganda  delegated  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Miller, 
►.M.I.,  Vicar- Apostolic  of  Transvaal,  to  arrange  for 
such  independence,  according  to  the  wishes  of  the 
Reformed  Cistercians,  and  the  members  of  Mariann- 
hill. Finallv  the  Congregation  of  Regulars,  on  2  Feb., 
1909,  issued  a  decree  separating  Mariannhill  from  the 
Order  of  Reformed  Cistercians,  forming  of  it  the 
*' Congregation  of  the  Mariannhill  Missionaries''  and 
erecting  their  church  into  a  Collegiate  Church,  under 
the  guidance  of  a  provost.  The  members  of  the  con- 
gregation take  simple,  but  perpetual,  vows;  and  are 
exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Ordinary  of  tiie 
diocese.  They  at  present  number  about  60  priests, 
with  260  choir-religious  and  lay-brothers.  From  its 
foundation  until  1  Jan.  1910,  nearly  20,000  persons, 
the  greater  number  adults,  have  been  baptized  In  the 
55  churches  and  chapels  scattered  throughout  the  26 
missions  and  stations. 

Trappielen  Miiaions  Kloater  MariannhiU  (Freiburg,  1907); 
Vergissmeinnickt,  Zeitachrift  der  Mariannhiller  Mvuion,  188S~ 
1910;  Maxiati/ahiUer  KaUnder,  1888-1910;  Ada  S.  Sedie,  20 
Dec.,  1909;  Aaiea  du  Chapitre  06n.  dee  Cisterciena  Riformis 
(1904-1907)1  Utippislen  imd  ihre  Miaaion  in  MariannhiU;  Abt 
Franz  Pfatmer  Q8o5);  Boek£n.  Um  und  in  Afrika  (O}logne, 
1903). 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Marian  Pnests. — ^This  term  is  applied  to  those 
English  priests  who  being  ordained  in  or  before  the 
reign  of  Queen  Mary  (1553-1558),  survived  iaifi  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth.  The  expression  is  used  in  contra- 
distinction to  "Seminary  Priests"  by  which  was 
meant  priests  ordained  at  Douai,  Rome,  or  other 
English  seminaries  abroad.  Shortly  after  Elizabeth's 
accession  ordinations  ceased  altogether  in  England  in 
consequence  of  the  imprisonment  of  the  surviving 
bishops,  and  unless  the  Seminary  priests  had  begun 
to  land  in  England  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  priests 
who  were  dying  off,  the  Catholic  priesthood  would 
have  become  e^inct  in  England.  There  was  an  im- 
portant distinction  between  the  Marian  priests  and  the 
Seminary  priests  in  the  fact  that  the  penal  legislation 
of  the  rigorous  statute  27  Ehz.  c.  2  only  applied  to 
the  latter  who  were  forbidden  to  come  into  or  remain 
in  the  realm  under  pain  of  high  treason.  Therefore 
the  Marian  priests  only  came  under  the  earlier  statutes. 
e.  g.  1  Elizabeth  c.  1  which  inflicted  penalties  on  all 
who  maintained  the  spiritual  or  ecclesiastical  author- 
ity of  any  foreign  prelate,  or  5  Eliz.  c.  1  which  made 
it  high  treason  to  maintain  the  authority  of  the  Bishop 
of  Rome,  or  to  refuse  the  Oath  of  Supremacy.  The 
recent  researches  of  Dom  Norbert  Birt  have  shown 
that  the  number  of  Marian  priests  who  were  driven 
from  their  livings  was  far  greater  than  has  been  com- 
monly supposed.  After  a  careful  study  of  all  available 
sources  of  information  he  estimates  the  number  of 
priests  holding  livings  in  England  at  Elizabeth's  acces- 
sion at  7500  (p.  162).  A  large  number,  forming  the 
majority  of  these,  accepted,  though  unwillingly,  the 
new  state  of  things,  and  according  to  tradition  many 
of  them  were  in  the  habit  of  celebrating  Mass  early, 
and  of  reading  the  Church  of  England  service  later  on 
Sunday  morning.  But  the  number  of  Marian  priests 
who  refused  to  conform  was  very  large,  and  the  fre- 
quently repeated  statement  that  only  two  hundred  of 


MABUMirS 


662 


BIABIA 


them  refused  the  Oath  of  Supremacy  has  been  shown 
to  be  misleading,  as  this  figure  was  given  originally  in 
Sander's  list,  which  only  included  dignitaries  and  was 
not  exhaustive.  Dom  Norbert  Birt  has  collected  in- 
stances of 'nearly  two  thousand  priests  who  were  de- 
prived or  who  abandoned  their  livings  for  conscience' 
sake.  As  years  went  on,  death  thinned  the  ranks  of 
these  faithful  priests,  but  as  late  as  1596  there  were 
nearly  fifty  of  them  still  working  on  the  English  mis- 
sion. Owing  to  their  more  favourable  legal  position 
they  escaped  the  persecution  endured  by  the  Seminary 
priests,  and  only  one — the  Venerable  James  Bell — is 
known  to  have  suffered  martyrdom. 


Birt,  The  Elizabethan  RdipiouB  SeUlemerU  (London,  1907); 

"    alAloroni'  _~  \ 

don,  1005);    Ftr<<  and  Second  Douay  Diaries:  Appendix  LIV 


Sander,  Report  to  Cardinal 


in  CcUh.  Record  Soc.,  I  (Lon- 


(London,  1878). 


Edwin  Burton. 


Marianas  of  Florence,  Friar  Minor  and  historian, 
b.  at  Florence  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, exact  date  of  birth  uncertain ;  d.  there,  20  July, 
1623.  Very  little  is  known  of  the  life  and  personality 
of  this  great  chronicler  of  the  Franciscan  Order.  That 
his  writings  should,  likewise,  share  in  this  general  ob- 
livion is  due  to  a  number  of  causes,  principal  among 
which  is  the  diflBculty  of  procuring  them,  not  any  of 
his  chronicles  or  other  works  ever  having  been  pub- 
lished. In  his  most  noted  work  entitled  "Fasciculus 
Chronicarum",  there  is  contained  a  history  of  the 
Franciscan  Order  from  the  beginning  up  to  the  year 
1486.  That  Marianus  should  nave  written  three  cen- 
turies after  the  death  of  St.  Francis  in  no  way  tells 
against  his  trustworthiness  as  a  historian,  for  he  had 
access  to  original  sources  now  lost,  of  which  some 
precious  fragments  have  been  passed  on  to  us  through 
nim.  The  crudeness  and  inelegance  of  his  style  of 
which  Wadding  complains  may,  perhaps,  have  been 
due  to  the  impatience  of  the  good  nun  Dorothea 
Broccardi  (Dorothea  scripsit  appears  on  all  her  handi- 
work) ,  who  offered  to  be  his  amanuensis  and  who  was 
continually  pressing  him  for  copy.  Marianus  fell  a 
victim  to  the  plague  while  engaged  in  administering 
the  last  sacraments  to  the  stricken  inhabitants  of  his 
native  city.  Besides  the  '*  Fasciculus  Chronicarum", 
he  is  the  author  of  a  **Catalogu8  sen  brevis  historia 
feminarum  ordinis  Sanctse  ClarsB"  which  contains  bio- 
graphical sketches  of  more  than  150  illustrious  women 
of  the  Second  Order  of  St.  Francis.  Among  his  other 
writings  may  be  mentioned  "Historia  Montis  Alver- 
niae", "  Historia  Provinciae  Etruriae  Ordinis  Minonim", 
"Itinerarium  Urbis  Rohmb",  and  "Historia  Trans- 
lationis  Habitus  Sancti  Francisci  a  Monte  Acuto  ad 
Florentiam"  which  has  been  translated  into  Italian 
and  published  by  Fr.  Roberto  Razzoli  in  his  mono- 
graph, "La  Chiesa  d'Ognissanti  in  Firenze,  Studi 
storicocritici "  (Florence,  1898). 

Wadding,  Scriploree  Ordinie  Minorum  (Rome,  1907),  167; 
Bartholi,  Tractatua  de  Indvlgentia  S.  Maria  de  Portiuncula,  ed. 
Sabatier  (Paris,  1900),  136-164;  Golubovich,  Biblioteca  Bio- 
Bibliografica  della  Terra  Santa  (Quaracchi,  1906),  77-80;  Rob- 
inson, A  Short  Introduction  to  Franciscan  Literature  (New  York, 
1907),  17,  42. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

MarianuB  Scotus. — There  were  two  Irish  scholars 
of  this  name  who  attained  distinction  in  the  eleventh 
century.  Both  spent  the  greater  part  of  their  lives  in 
Germany. 

(1)  Marianus  Scotub,  the  chronicler,  whose  Irish 
name  was  Maelbrigte,  or  "Servant  of  Brigid",  b.,  ac- 
cording to  his  own  * 'Chronicle",  in  Ireland  in  1028;  d.  at 
Mainz,  1082.  From  the  same  source  we  leam  also  that 
in  1052  he  became  a  monk,  assuming  the  name  Mari- 
anus, and  that  in  1056  he  went  to  Cologne,  where  he 
entered  the  Irish  monastery  of  St.  Martin.  Two  years 
later,  he  tells  us,  he  went  to  Fulda,  visited  Paderbom, 
and  in  1059  was  ordained  priest  at  WOrzburg.  In  1060 
he  became  a  hermit,  or  recluse,  at  Fulda,  whence  in 
1070  he  moved  to  Mainz  in  obedience  to  an  order  from 


his  former  abbot,  Siegfried,  who  was  now  arohbiahop 
of  that  see.  His  remains  were  interred  in  the  monaa- 
tery  of  St.  Martin  at  Mainz.  The  only  work  which  can 
with  certainty  be  ascribed  to  Marianus  is  the  * '  Univer- 
sal Chronicle^'  (the  incipit  has  the  title  **  Mariana  Scoti 
cronica  clara"),  a  history  of  the  world,  year  by  year, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  down  to  1082. 
It  has  been  published  in  various  editions,  the  best  of 
which  are  the  Waitz  edition  in  the  '^Moniimenta  Ger- 
manias"  (V,  481  sqq.)  and  Migne's  (P.  L.,  CLXVII, 
623  sqq.).  It  exists  in  at  least  two  eleventh-century 
manuscripts,  one  of  which  (Vatican,  830)  has  stronc 
claims  to  be  considered  an  autograph.  The  materiu 
which  Marianus  gathered  tc^ether  with  a  great  deal  of 
intelligent  industry  was  used  very  freely  by  subsequent 
chroniclers,  such  as  Florence  of  Worcester  and  Sieg- 
bert  of  Gembloux.  The  chronological  system,  how- 
ever, which  Marianus  defended  as  preferable,  and 
which  was  based  on  his  contention  that  the  date  of 
Christ's  birth  given  by  Dionysius  Ebciguus  was  twenty- 
two  years  too  late,  did  not  meet  with  general  accept- 
ance. He  himself  gives  both  systems.  Besides  the 
"Chronicle"  several  other  works  were  ascribed  to  Mari- 
anus owing  to  a  confusion  of  his  name  with  that  of  his 
countryman,  Marianus,  Abbot  of  St.  Peter's  at  Ratis- 
bon. 

P.  L.,  CXLVII,  602  sqq.;  Mon.  Oerm.  Hist.:  ScripL,  V,  481 
sqq.;  Hauasen,  Diss,  eritica  de  antiquisa.  cod.  chroniei  Mar. 
Scoti  (Frankfort,  1782);  Wattenbach,  Deutachlands  Oe- 
achichtequeUen,  II  (Berlin,  1874),  83  sqq. 

(2)  Marianus  Scotus,   Abbot  of  St.  Peter's  at 
Ratisbon,  b.  in  Ireland  before  the  middle  of  the  elev- 
enth century;  d.  at  Ratisbon  towards  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century,  probably  in  1088.    In  1067  he  left 
his  native  country,  intending  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to 
Rome.    Like  many  of  his  countrymen,  however,  who 
visited  the  Continent,  he  decided  to  settle  in  Germany, 
and  did  not  return  to  Ireland.   At  Bamberg  he  became 
a  Benedictine  monk,  and  thence  he  went  with  some 
companions  to  Ratisbon  (or  Regensburg),  where  he 
founded  the  monastery  of  St.  Peter  and  became  its 
first  abbot.     After  his  death  he  was  honoured  as  a 
saint,  his  feast  being  observed  on  17  April,  4  July,  or, 
according  to  the  Bollandists,  on  9  Feoruary.     Mari- 
anus devoted  himself  to  transcribing  and  glossing  the 
text  of  the  Scriptures.    His  success  as  a  scribe,  and 
the  exceptional  beauty  of  his  calligraphy  may  be 
judged  by  a  specimen  of  his  work  which  has  come 
down  to  us.     This  is  Codex  1247  of  the  Imperial 
Library  of  Vienna  containing  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul 
with  glosses,  some  of  which  are  in  Latin  and  others  in 
Irish.     The  latter  were  collected  and  pubHshed  by 
Zeuss  in  his  **Grammatica  Celtica"  (p.  xxiv).     The 
manuscript  ends  with  the  words  *'  In  honore  individus 
trinitatis  Marianus  Scotus  scripsit  hunc  Ubrum  suis 
fratribus  peregrinis  ..."  (the  date  given  is  16  May, 
1078).     Over  the  words  "Marianus  Scotus"  is  the 
gloss:  "Muirdach  trog  mace  robartaig,  i.  e.  Marianus 
miser  filius  Robartaci."    The  Irish  form  of  his  name 
was,  therefore,  Muirdach  (from  the  root  muir;  hence, 
instead  of  the  Latin  form  Marianus,  there  sometimes 
occurs  Pelagius),  and  his  family  name  was  Robartaig, 
or  Rafferty. 

Acta  SS.,  Feb.,  II,  361  sqq.;  Revue  celtioue,  I  (1870).  262 
oqq.;  Proceed.,  Royal  Irish  Acad.,  VII,  290  sqq.;  Verfumdl, 
hxat.  Ver.  Oberpfalz-Reoenaburg  (1879),  XXVI. 

WiLUAM  Turner. 

Maria  Theresa,  Queen  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia, 
Archduchess  of  Austria,  Roman-German  Empress, 
bom  1717;  died  1780. 

I.  From  1717  to  1745. — Maria  Theresa  was  bom  on 
13  May,  1717,  the  daughter  of  the  German  Emperor 
Charles  VI  (1711-1740)  and  his  wife  Elizabeth  von 
Braunschweig-WolfenbOttel.     Her  elder  brother  Leo- 

{)old  had  died  a  short  time  before  and  the  emperor  was 
eft  without  male  issue.    As  early  as  1713  he  had  pro- 
mulgated a  family  law,  the  Pmgmatic  Sanction,  by 


MA&IA  66 

virtue  of  which  the  possession.^  of  the  Hapsburgi  were 
to  remain  undivided  and,  in  default  (d  a  male  lieir,  fall 
to  his  eldest  daughter.  He  was  constantly  negotiating 
with  foreign  powers  to  secure  their  lecognition  of  this 
Pragmatic  Sanction.  Maria  Theresa  was  endowed 
with  brilliant  gifts,  with  beauty,  amiability  and  intelli- 
gence, and  was  universally  admired  as  a  girl.  On  14 
February,  1736,  she  married  Duke  Francis  Stephen  of 
Lorraine,  who  by  the  Peace  ot  Vienna,  in  1738,  re- 
ceived Tuscany  instead  of  Lorraine.  Charles  VI  died 
unexpectedly  on  20  October,  1740,  at  the  age  of  56, 
and  Maria  Theresa  came  into  possession  of  the  terri- 
tories of  Austria  without  having  any  political  training. 
Her  husband  was  an  amiable  man,  but  of  mediocre 
mental  endowments  and  consequently  of  little  assist- 
ance to  her.  Charles,  moreover,  left  the  internal 
affairs  of  his  monarchy,  particularly  the  finances  and 
the  anny,  in  a  lamentalDle  condition.  His  family  re- 
sided the  future  with  miagivine  and  perplexity. 
Maria  Theresa  waa  the  first  to  recover  her  self-poa- 
session  and  to  appreciate  the  problems  before  her. 
On  the  very  day  oflier  father's  death,  she  received  the 
homage  o(  Privy  Councillors  and  nobility  as  Queen  of 
Hungary,  Queen  of  Bohemia,  and  Archduchess  of 
Austria,  and  at  her  first  cabinet  meeting  expressed  her 
determination  to  uphold  to  the  full  every  right  she  had 
inherited.  AH  admired  her  firmness,  dignity  and 
strength  of  spirit.  Certainly  they  were  few  who  be- 
lieved she  would  succeed. 

At  Vienna  men  were  familiarizing  themselves  with 
the  idea  "of  becoming  Bavarian".  The  Elector 
Charles  Albert  of  Bavaria,  who  had  never  recognized 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  laid  claim  to  Austria  as  the 
descendant  of  a  daughter  of  Emperor  Ferdinand  I 
(1556-1564),  and  referred  to  a  testament  of  1547,  in 
which  mention  was  made  however  not  of  the  failure  of 
"male"  but  of  "legitimate"  issue.  He  secured  the 
support  of  France,  which  induced  Spain  and  Saxony 
also  to  lay  elaima  to  the  succession.  A  greater  peril 
appeared  in  a  quarter  where  it  was  least  expected; 
King  Frederick  11  oF  Prussia  laid  claim  to  Silesia.  He 
promised  to  lielp  Maria  Theresa,  provided  she  ceded 
to  hira  liagerndorf,  Brieg,  Wohlau  and  Liogniti,  to 
which  he  pretended  to  have  hereditary  claims.  Other- 
wise he  would  ally  himself  with  France,  Bavaria  and 
Saxony  and  make  war  on  her.  He  wanted,  like  a  good 
merchant,  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity,  and 
proposed  a  deal  by  which  Maria  Theresa  and  him- 
self could  settle  the  account  between  them.  For  in 
case  of  her  acceptance  of  bis  proposal,  Maria  Theresa 
would  have  been  spared  the  war  arising  out  of  the 
Austrian  succession.  Maria  Theresa  was,  however,  as 
convinced  of  her  rights  as  she  v&e  determined  to  en- 
force them  by  action.  That  Prus.iia  had  a  right  to 
expect  concessions  from  Austria,  since,  in  1686,  in- 
demnilication  had  been  promised  her  for  the  Duchies 
of  Silesia,  Maria  Theresa  did  not  take  into  account, 
Tlie  kinK  hastily  invaded  Silesia  and  dispatched  a  dis- 
agreeable, conceited  courtier  as  his  representative. 
Thus  the  first  Silesiim  war  came  about  (1740-1742). 
Frederick  II  gained  a  great  victory  at  Mollwilz  (10 
'April,  1741).  On  4  June  he  allied  himself  with  France 
wnich  now  gave  its  support  to  the  Elector  of  Ba- 
varia, who  a.jpired  to  the  imperial  dignity  and  won 
most  of  the  electors  to  his  side,  Maria  Theresa  vainly 
strove  to  secure  the  crown  for  her  spouse  Franca 
Stephen.  In  her  hereditary  lands  she  found  her  prin- 
cipal support  against  the  threats  of  her  foes.  The 
energetic  bearing  of  the  princess  roused  general  enthu- 
siasm. When  in  Prcssburg  she  appealed  to  the  chiv- 
alry of  the  Hungarians,  the  nobles  cried  out  that  they 
were  ready  to  give  their  blood  and  life  for  their  queen 
(September,  1741).  However,  as  the  Bavarians, 
French  and  Saxons  were  advancing  against  her,  she 
was  compelled  to  arrange  a  truce  with  Prussia  in  order 
to  avoid  danger  from  that  side. 

Charles  Albert  of  Bavaria  with  the  French  hod  oc- 


cupied Passau  on  31  July  and  Lini  on  15  September, 
and  had  been  acknowledged  by  the  Upper  Austrian 
Diet.  On  26  November  he  surprised  Prague  with 
Saxon  assistance,  and  had  himself  crownad  King  of 
Bohemia  on  7  December.  On  24  January,  1742  he 
was  abo  elected  Roman  emperor  as  Charles  VlL  His 
success  however  was  short-lived.  The  queen's  forces 
had  already  made  an  entry  into  his  own  country. 
Still,  what  was  most  needful  was  to  rid  herself  of  her 
mast  dangerous  antagonist.  Frederick  II  had  broken 
the  truce,  had  entered  Moravia  "to  pluck  the  Mora- 
vian hens",  and  won  a  victory  at  Chotusitz  (17  May, 
1742).  Maria  Theresa  concluded  the  peace  of  Breslau 
(OJune,  1742)  and  ceded  to  him  Silesia  except  Teschen, 
Troppau  and  Jftgcmciorf .  She  now  turned  against  the 
Bavarians  and  the  French.    Bohemia  was  retaken  and 


Maria  Theresa  crowned  queen  {May,  174.'t).  Her  ally, 
King  George  II  of  England,  inarched  forward  with  the 
"pragmatic  army"  and  defeated  the  French  at  Det- 
tingen  (27  June,  1743).  The  emperor  became  a  fugi- 
tive in  Frankfort.  His  rival's  advantageous  position 
inspired  Frederick  II  with  the  fear  that  he  might  again 
lose  his  recent  conquests  in  Silesia.  He  therefore 
again  allied  himself  with  France  and  the  emperor  and 
broke  the  peace  by  invading  Bohemia.  But  as  the 
French  failed  to  send  the  promised  army  and  Charles 
VII  died  on  20  January,  1745,  the  King  of  Prussia  was 
compelled  to  rely  upon  his  own  forces  and  to  retreat  to 
Siiesui,  The  Bavarians  made  peace  with  Austria  and 
in  Dresden  (May,  1745)  Bavana,  Saxony  and  Austria 
agreed  to  reduce  Prussia  to  its  former  condition  as  the 
Electorate  of  Brandenburg.  The  Prussian  victories 
at  Hohenfriedberg,  Soor-Trautenau  and  Kesselsdorf 
(June,  September  and  December,  1745)  overthrew  the 
allies,  and  the  second  Silesian  war  had  thus  to  be  set- 
tled by  the  Peace  of  Dresden,  where  Prussia  was  coo- 
firmed  in  its  po39es.iion  of  Silesia.  Meanwhile  Maria 
Theresa's  husband,  Francis  Stephen,  was  chosen  em- 
peror on  4  October,  1745.  Prussia  acknowledged  him. 
He  took  the  name  of  FrnncU  I  (1745-1765),  Thus  tha 
high-spirited  woman  had  obtained  what  it  was  possible 
for  her  to  obtain;  the  imperial  dignity  remained  ia 
her  family,  and  the  pragmatic  sanction  was  practically 


BIABIA  664  BIABIA 

confirmed.  War  continued  to  be  waged  in  the  Neth-  also  for  political,  reasons.  The  Jews  were  not  regarded 
erlands  and  Italy,  but  this  conflict  was  no  longer  by  her  with  favour.  After  1751  Protestants  were  not 
formidable.  The  conclusion  of  peace  at  Aix  la  Cha-  permitted  to  sell  their  property  and  emigrate,  but  all, 
pelle,  in  1748,  put  an  end  to  the  war  of  the  Austrian  who  declined  solemnly  to  become  Catholics,  were  re- 
succession.  The  relations  of  the  European  Powers  quired  to  emigrate  to  Transylvania  where  the  Evan- 
were  not  vitally  altered.  What  was  important  was  gelical  worship  was  {>ermitted.  "Transmigration" 
that  Prussia,  though  not  recognized  as  a  great  power,  took  the  place  of  '^ emigration".  Later  she  came  to 
had  to  be  tolerated  as  such.  the  conclusion  that  compulsion  ought  to  be  avoided, 

II.  The  Peace  Interval  (174S-1756). — Directly  but  that  those  who  had  gone  astray  should  be  led  to 
after  the  Peace  of  Dresden  the  empress  applied  her-  conversion  by  argument  and  careful  instruction.     At 
self  to  the  reform  of  the  administration.     In  a  memo-  court  she  was  strict  in  regard  to  attendance  at  church, 
randum  dated  1751  she  herself  says:  "Since  the  Peace  frequent  communion,  and  fasting.    She  broke  up  the 
of  Dresden  it  has  been  my  sole  aim  to  acquaint  myself  Freemason  lodges  by  force  in  1743. 
with  the  condition  and  strength  of  my  states,  and  then        III.  The  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-1763) . — Maria 
honestlv  to  become  acquainted  with  the  abuses  exist-  Theresa  would  have  carried  out  many  more  useful 
ing  in  them  and  in  the  Dicasteriis  (courts  of  justice)  measures  had  she  not  again  turned  to  foreign  politics. 
where  everything  was  found  to  be  in  the  utmost  con-  But  she  was  irresistibly  impelled  to  punish  Prussia 
fusion."    The  initiative  came  from  the  aueen  herself,  and  to  reconauer  Silesia.     Her  court  and  state  chan- 
Her  assistant  was   Count   Frederick   William   von  cellor,  Coimt  Kaunitz  (since  1753)  recognized  at  times 
Haugwitz.    Finances  and  the  army  were  in  sorest  that  it  was  better  to  come  to  an  agreement  with 
need  of  reorganization.    The  greatest  necessity  was  Prussia,  but  he  had  not  the  courage  to  oppose  the  em- 
the  raising  of  the  money  needed  for  a  standing  army  press's  designs.    The  opportunity  of  taking  revenge 
of  108,000  men  in  the  hereditary  states  and  in  Hun-  on  Prussia  came  when  England  and  France  made  war 
gary.    For  this  purpose  14  millions  of  gulden  were  on  each  other  in  North  America  and  looked  about  for 
required.    The  diets  were  to  raise  them  by  regular  European  allies.     In  1755  England  received  the  assur- 
grants  for  a  number  of  years,  and  in  return  would  be  ance  of  aid  from  Russia.    To  make  Russia's  assistance 
free  from  all  taxes  in  kind.    The  rights  of  the  several  useless  and  in  fact  to  paralyze  her,  Frederick  the 
diets  were  thus  restricted  for  the  benefit  of  the  coun-  Great  made  the  Westminster  Treaty  of  Neutrality  in 
try.    Against  this  opposition  arose.     Maria  Theresa,  January,  1756  with  England,  by  which  the  two  Pow- 
however,  came  f orwara  energetically  in  support  of  the  ers  bound  themselves  to  prevent  their  respective  al- 
authority  of  the  government  and  by  her  personal  in-  lies,  namely  France  and  Russia,  from  attacking  the 
fluence  carried  out  the  project.    For  the  present  the  territory  of  the  Confederates.    This  allowed  the  old 
pNBople  of  the  several  coimtnes  made  grants  for  a  pe-  rivals,  Austria  and  France,  to  combine.    Maria  Ther- 
rioa  of  ten  years,  and  when  these  had  passed  the  new  esa  was  annoyed  that  England  had  joined  Prussia,  and 
conditions  had  become  habitual  and  become  settled.  France  was  disgusted   with   Prussia's   independent 
To  the  credit  of  the  empress  it  ought  not  to  be  for-  policy,  for  she  had  reckoned  upon  Frederick's  help, 
gotten  that  in  the  levying  of  this  contribution  for  the  Thus  France  and  Austria  made  the  defensive  treaty 
army  she  did  not  permit  any  oppression  of  the  work-  of  Versailles  on  1  May,  1756.     As  tathe  origin  of  the 
ing  class.    A  much  more  important  measure  from  Seven  Years'  War,  whether  it  was  an  offensive  or  de- 
the  point  of  view  of  the  well-being  of  the  state  was  fensive  war  on  the  part  of  Frederick  the  Great,  this 
the  separation  of  administration  and  justice.    The  has  been  the  subject  of  much  dispute.     It  must  be 
Austrian  and  Bohemian  court  chancelleries,  hitherto  granted  that  Austria  called  upon  France  to  participate 
separate,  were  combined  into  a  single  supreme  admin-  actively  in  a  war  against  Prussia,  and  in  return  had 
istrative  office.     On  the  other  hand,  for  the  adminis-  offered  concessions  in  the  Low  Countries.     She  had 
tration  of  the  Law,  the  supreme  court  was  established,  also  come  to  a  similar  agreement  with  Russia.    The 
In  1753  the  empress  appointed  a  commission  to  com-  new  war  was  an  unfortunate  undertaking.    The  pros- 
pile  a  new  civil  code.     It  was  only  in  1811,  however,  pects  of  regaining  Silesia  were  not  great,  and  the  nope 
that  it  was  published.     During  her  reign  (1768)  the  of  weakening  Prussia  was  an  absolute  chimera.     Be- 
"Constitutio  criminalis  Theresiana"  was  also  pro-  sides,  France  had   no  great  interest  in  weakening 
mulgated  for  criminal  law.     Up  to  that  time  a  heter-  Prussia,  and  her  active  participation  was  doubtful 
ogeneous  procedure  prevailed  in  the  different  countries,  from  the  beginning.     In  Russia  the  death  of  the  em- 
Centralization  was  also  aided  by  the  creation  of  new  press  and  a  consequent  change  of  policy  was  imminent, 
district  officials  who  were  to  carry  out  the  measures  of        Frederick  the  Great  foresaw  the  intentions  of  Maria 
the  government  in  the  several  countries.    As  they  had  Theresa  in  good  time,  and  anticipated  her  before  the 
often  to  protect  the  subjects  against  the  oppression  of  preparations  of  his  enemy  were  completed.     As  the 
the  lords,  the  people  became  much  more  devoted  to  empress  made  an  evasive  reply  or  no  reply  at  all  to  his 
the  government.  enquiries  as  to  her  aims  he  entered  Saxony  on  28 

For  the  promotion  of  trade  and  industry  a  bureau  August,  1756,.  and  Bohemia  in  September  and  de- 

of  commerbe  was  established  in  1746,  but  its  develop-  feated  the  Austrians  on  1  October,  at  Lobositz.    The 

ment  wsis  hindered  by  the  internal  duties.    The  over-  attack,  which  was  clearly  a  breach  of  the  peace, 

sea  trade  greatly  increased.    The  army  was  improved,  brought  about  the  immediate  conclusion  of  the  aUi- 

the  Prussian  army  being  taken  as  a  model;  in  1752  a  ances.     Frederick  made  an  alliance  with  England  in  ' 

military  academy,  and  in  1754  an  academy  of  engi-  January,  1757.    France  and  Austria  came  to  an  agree- 

neering  science  were  established.    The  empress  also  ment  (on  1  May,  1757)  in  regard  to  the  partition  of 

gave  her  attention  to  education  and  especially  to  the  Prussia,  after  Austria  had  come  to  an  understanding 

middle  and  higher  schools.    The  gymnasia  received  a  with  Russia  in  January.    Frederick  had  to  defend  him- 

new  curriculum  in  1752.    The  medical  faculty  of  the  self  on  every  side.     He  was  on  the  offensive  only  in 

University  of  Vienna,  after  being  long  neglected,  was  1757  and  1758.     Later  he  had  to  confine  himself  to 

raised  to  greater  efficiency.    The  legal  faculty  also  be-  acting  on  the  defensive.    The  Seven  Years'  War  was  a 

came  a  strong  body.     Moreover,  the  empress  founded  long  struggle  in  which  fortune  alternately  favoured 

the  academy  of  the  nobles  (Theresianum)  and  the  either  side.     In  contrast  with  Frederick  the  Great's 

academy  for  Oriental  languages  as  well  as  the  archives  victories  at  Prague  (6  May,  1757),  at  Rossbach  (5  No- 

for  the  imperial  family,  court  and  state,  which  since  vember,  1757),  at  Leuthen  (15  December,  1757),  at 

1749,  had  oeen  a  model  of  its  kind.     In  her  dealings  Torgau  (3  November,  1760)  stand  his  serious  defeats 

with  Catholicism  the  empress  adopted  the  principle  at  Kolin  (18  June,  1757),  at  Hochkirch  (14  October, 

"  cuj us  regio,ej us  religio",  and  defended  unity  of  faith  1758),  and  at  Kunersdorf  (12  August,  1759).      In 

in  the  State  not  only  for  Christian  and  religious,  but  the  West  the  allies  effected  very  little  against  th« 


BffABIE  665  MABIE 

Enc^lu  In  the  East  on  the  other  hand,  Frederick  oppression  of  the. landlords.  When  she  sought  to 
seemed  on  the  point  of  succumbing  (1761).  The  Eng-  abolish  the  serfdoin  in  Bohemia  she  encoimtered  un- 
lish  did  not  renew  the  agreement  to  subsidize  Fred-  expected  opposition  from  the  emperor,  whom  the  land- 
erick.  His  opponents,  it  is  true,  were  equally  ex-  owners  had  caused  to  hesitate, 
hausted  financially,  as  well  as  weary  and  disappomted.  She  was  tireless  in  her  care  for  the  welfare  and  edu- 
The  decisive  turn  of  events  was  brought  about  by  cation  of  her  children.  When  they  were  at  a  distance 
the  death  of  the  Russian  Empress  Elizabeth  (1762).  she  carried  on  a  busy  correspondence  with  them  and 
Her  successor^  Peter  III,  an  admirer  of  Frederick's,  gave  them  wise  instruction  and  advice.  Marie  Antoi- 
made  peace  with  him  and  even  sought  his  alliance  and  nette,  the  Dauphiness,  and  afterwards  Queen,  of 
sent  him  20,000  men.  When  Peter  lost  his  throne  France,  with  her  light  and  thoughtless  temperament, 
and  life,  the  Empress  Catharine,  it  is  true,  withdrew  her  frivolous  disregard  of  dignity,  her  love  of  pleasure 
from  the  Prussian  alliance,  but  the  last  successes  of  and  her  extravagance,  caused  her  much  anxiety. 
Frederick  were  lar^ly  due  to  the  Russians  (Burkers-  Nearest  to  her  heart  was  her  daughter  Maria  Christina 
dorf,  21  July;  Freiberg,  29  October).  As  France  and  who  was  happily  married  to  Prince  Albert  of  Saxony- 
England  concluded  peace  in  Paris  on  10  February,  Teschen.  Death  was  made  hard  for  the  courageous 
1763,  the  empress  was  compelled  to  do  the  same.  The  woman.  On  15  October,  1780,  she  made  her  wifl  and 
Peace  of  Hubertsburg  (15  February,  1763)  restored  to  in  it  directed,  which  was  characteristic  of  her,  be- 
each  belligerent  the  possessions  he  had  held  before  sides  generous  bequests  to  the  poor,  the  granting  of  a 
the  war.  But  apart  from  the  loss  in  men  and  treasure,  month's  pay  to  the  soldiers.  On  8  November  she  waa 
the  war  injured  the  policy  of  the  empress  and  Count  present  at  a  hunt  and  appears  to  have  caiight  a  cold  in 
Kaunitz  by  strengthening  the  position  of  Prussia  as  the  pouring  rain.  Night  and  day  she  su&red  from  a 
a  great  power.  Frederick  the  ureat  had  maintained  rackmg  cough  and  choking  fits,  nevertheless  she  was 
Prussia's  power  in  a  severe  ord^.  but  little  in  bed,  but  busied  herself  by  putting  her 
IV.  The  Evening  of  Life  (1763-1780). — ^The  papers  in  order,  and  consoling  her  children.  On  the 
empress  had  still  seventeen  years  to  rule.  However.  25th  she  received  Communion;  on  the  28th  extreme 
this  period  no  longer  exclusivelv  bore  the  impress  oi  unction  was  eiven  to  her,  and  with  her  own  hand  she 
her  personality.  Sne  did  not  indeed  give  up  the  reins,  put  certain  bequests  on  paper,  among  them,  again 
but  she  could  not  make  headway  against  the  passion-  characteristic  of  her  disposition,  100,000  florins  for  the 
ate  impulses  of  her  son  Joseph  II,  or  entirelv  carry  out  funds  of  the  normal  schools.  During  the  night  of  29 
her  own  views.  Thus  the  Theresian  period  gradually  November,  1780,  she  died,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three 
became  the  **  Josephine*'  period.    On  27  March,  1763,  years. 

Joseph  was  chosen  as  Roman  king.  Francis  I  to  whom  She  was  the  last  and  beyond  doubt  the  greatest  of 
Theresa  was  really  devoted,  and  to  whom  she  had  the  Hapsbuigs.  She  is  not  only,  as  Sonnenfels  de- 
borne  sixteen  children  (eleven  daughters  and  five  scribed  her  as  early  as  1780,  the  restorer,  but  rather  the 
sons),  died  suddenly,  fifty-seven  years  old  (1765),  foimdress  of  the  Austrian  monarchy,  which  with  a 
Joseph  II  became  emperor  (1765-1790),  and  in  Aus-  skilful  hand  she  built  up  out  of  loose  parts  into  a  well 
tria  co-regent  with  his  mother.  To  her  ambitious  son,  rivetted  whole,  while  in  all  essential  respects  she  left 
brimful  of  projects,  the  liberal-minded  autocrat  who  the  administration  radically  improved.  In  her  per- 
with  the  noblest  intentions  was  able  to  effect  nothing,  sonal  character  she  was  a  thorough  German,  always 
she  could  not  transmit  her  political  talent.  In  many  proud  of  her  German  descent  and  nationality,  intelii- 
respects  their  views  differea,  particularly  on  religious  gent,  affable,  cheerful,  pleasant,  fond  of  music,  and  at 
affairs.  Joseph  had  entirely  different  ideas  on  the  the  same  time  thoroughly  moral  and  deeply  religious, 
treatment  of  non-Catholics.  Indeed  even  under  Maria  In  her  character  were  united,  as  v.  Zwiedmeck-SUden- 
Theresa  the  politico-ecclesiastical  policy  known  as  horst  says,  all  that  was  amiable  and  honourable,  all 
''Josephinism^haditsrise,  though  the  empress  was  a  that  was  worthy  and  winning,  all  the  strength  and 
pious  woman  and  attended  strictly  to  her  religious  eentleness  of  wmch  the  Austrian  character  is  capable, 
duties.  Papal  Bulls  were  only  to  be  made  public  with  Klop^tock  was  right  when  he  appraised  her  as  *Hhe 
the  consent  of  the  government,  and  intercourse  with  greatest  of  her  line  because  she  was  the  most  himian", 
Rome  was  to  be  conducted  through  the  Foreim  OflSce.  and  even  Frederick  the  Great  recognized  her  merits 
Festivals  were  reduced  in  number.  The  jurisdiction  of  when  he  said :  *'  She  has  done  honour  to  the  throne  and 
the  Church  over  the  laity  ceased,  as  well  as  the  im-  to  her  sex;  I  have  warred  with  her  but  I  have  never 
munity  from  taxes  enjoyed  by  the  clergy.    The  num-  been  her  enemy." 


ber  of  monasteries  was  restricted.     The  Jesuits  lost  vok Arnbtb. GeachidUe MaHaTheresias, I-X (Vienna,  1803- 

their  standing  as  confessora  at  the  court  as  well  as  Uie  ^  i^.^J^jJ^jpfr^i^fl'^X^T^yXli 

direction  of  the  theological  and  philosophical  faculties  Arnkth  in  the  AUg.  detdaehe  Biographie,  XX  (Leipaig.  1884). 

at  the  University  of  Vienna,  and  were  confined  to  the  p.  340-365:   Khuen  in  Wetzer  and  Weltb,  Kirchenlex,, 

InwprflphnnU  ^d   ed.,   VIII    (Freiburg,    1891),  777-786;   v.  Zwiedinbck- 

lower  scnoois.           ....             .     ,     ....     ,     .            ,  S^dewhorst,  Maria  Theresia  (Bielefeld  and  Leipzig,   1905); 

The  empress  mamtamed  a  neutral  attitude  towards  The  Cambridoe  Modem  HUlory,  vol.  VI  (Cambridge,  1909). 

the  dissolution  of  the  Jesuit  Order.  Her  fortune  was  Klemens  L6ffler, 
devoted  to  the  care  of  souls  and  to  education.  In  for- 
eign politics  a  conflict  of  views  between  mother  and  Marie  Antoinette,  Queen  of  France,  b.  at  Vienna, 
son  arose  on  the  occasion  of  the  first  Partition  of  2  November,  1755;  executed  in  Paris,  16  October, 
Poland.  The  empress  not  only  doubted  that  the  ac-  1793.  She  was  the  youngest  daughter  of  Francis  I, 
quisition  of  Polish  territory  would  be  an  advantage,  German  Emperor,  and  of  Maria  Theresa.  The  mar- 
but  she  also  recoiled  from  doing  wrong  to  others.  At  riage  of  Louis  XVI  and  Mane  Antoinette  was  one  of 
last  she  yielded  to  the  pressure  of  her  son  and  Count  the  last  acts  of  Choiseul's  policy  (see  Choiseul)  ;  but 
Kaunitz,  but  later  she  often  regretted  having  given  the  Dauphiness  from  the  first  shared  the  impopularity 
her  assent.  Nor  did  she  approve  of  the  War  of  the  attaching  to  the  Franco-Austrian  alliance.  Ambas- 
Bavarian  Succession,  clearlv  foreseei^  that  Prussia  sador  Mercy  and  Ahh6  de  Vermond,  the  former  tutor 
would  interfere.  She  could  not  sufficiently  thank  of  the  archduchess  in  Austria  and  now  her  reader 
Providence  for  the  fortunate  issue  of  the  affair.  In  iJie  in  France,  endeavoured  to  make  her  follow  the  pru- 
last  ten  years  of  her  life  she  developed  an  unremitting  dent  counsels  as  to  her  conduct  sent  by  her  mother, 
activity  on  behalf  of  the  improvement  of  the  primary  Maria  Theresa,  and  to  enable  her  thus  to  overcome  all 
schools.  The  excellent  Abbot  Felbiger,  the  father  of  the  intrigues  of  the  Court.  Marie  Antoinette's  dis- 
the  Catholic  primary  schools  of  Germany,  was  sum-  dain  of  Madame  du  Barr^-,  the  mistress  of  Louis  XV, 
moned  from  Silesia.  She  also  tried  to  improve  the  was  perhaps,  from  a  political  standpoint,  a  mistake, 
condition  of  the  peasantry,  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  but  it  is  an  honourable  evidence  of  tne  high  character 


and  »elf-rwpect  of  the  Dauphiness,  Having  became 
qneua  on  10  May,  1774,  ene  adopted  an  imprudent 
course  ot  action,  Doth  in  ber  political  and  private  life. 
In  politics  she  was  always  so  uncompromislnely  at- 
tached to  the  Franco-Austrian  alliance  that  she  was 
nicknamed  "L'Autricbienne"  by  Mmc  Adelaide  and 
the  Due  d'Aiguillon'a  party.  Her  unpopularity 
reached  a  climax  when,  in  1778,  Austria  laid  claim  to 
the  throne  of  Bavaria  and  she  tried  to  bring  about 
French  mediation  between  Austria  and  Prussia.  In 
truth,  it  was  to  the  interest  of  France  not  to  permit  the 
indefinite  growth  of  the  Prussian  power;  but  the 
routine  diplomats,  believing  that  Au.'dria  wiis  to  be 
forever  the  enemy  of  France,  and  the  philosophers, 
who  were  favourably  disposed  towards  1'rus.sia,  as  a 
Protestant  nation,  abhorred  any  display  of  Bvmpathy 
for  Austria. 

In  her  private  life,  Marie  Antoinette  may  justly  be 
blamed  for  her  prodigality,  for  having,  between  1774 

and  1777,  byoertain  notorious  

escapades  (sleieh  racing, 
opera  balls,  hunting  in  the 
Bois  de  Boulogne,  gambling) 
and  by  her  amusements  at 
the  Trianon  (see  Vbrsah-i-es), 
pven  occasion  for  calumnious 
reports.  But  she  confeeaed 
to  MtTcy  thut  she  indulged 
in  this  dissipation  to  con- 
sole herself  for  having  nochil- 
dren;and  the  tales  ot  Bescn- 
val,  Lauzun,  and  Soulavie, 
about  the  amours  of  Mane 
Antoinette,  cannot  stand 
against  the  testimony  of  the 
Prince  de  Lignc:  ''Her  pre- 
tended gallantry  was  never 
any  more  than  a  very  deep 
friendship  for  one  or  two  in- 
dividuals, and  the  ordinary 
coquetry  of  a  woman,  or  a 
queen,  trying  to  please  every- 
one."  De  Golti,  the  Prus- 
sian minister,  also  wrote  that 
tboiigh  a  malicious  person 
might  interpret  the  queen's 
conduct  unfavourably,  there 
was  nothing  in  it  beycmd  a 
desire  to  please  everybody. 
Besides,  the  queen  continued 
to  give  edification  by  her 
TWiTar  practice  ot  her  religious  duties.  "If  I  were 
only  a  mother,  I  should  be  considered  a  French- 
woman", wrote  Marie  Antoinette  to  Mercy  in  1775. 
She  became  the  mother  of  Madame  Royale  in  1778, 
in  1781  of  a  Dauphin  who  was  to  die  eight  years 
later,  and  of  little  Louis  XVII  in  17S5.  But  the 
ill-teelinK  towards  "L'Autricbienne"  was  stirred  up 
by  the  lamentable  "Affair  of  the  Diamond  Neck- 
lace" (1784-86).  Cardinal  de  Rohan,  grand  aatn/>- 
nier  of  France,  deceived  by  an  adventuress,  who 
called  herselt  Comtesse  de  la  Motte-Vatois,  purchased 
for  1,600,000  livres  a  necklace  which  he  believeil  the 
queen  wished  to  have;  the  lawsuit  begun  by  the  un- 
paid jewellers  resulted  in  the  acquittalot  Cardinal  de 
Rohan,  while  the  publicity  of  the  allegations  of  Mrae 
de  la  Motte,  who  pretended  that  the  queen  was  aware 
of  the  transaction,  and  the  romantic  story  ot  a  noc- 
turnal rendezvous  at  the  Tuileries,  were  exploited 
by  Marie  Antoinette's  enemies.  The  Comte  d  Artois 
compromised  her  by  hia  intimacy,  scurrilous  pam- 
phletg  were  circulated,  and,  particularly  in  certain 
court  circles,  that  abominable  campaign  of  mendacity 
was  inaugurated  to  which  the  queen  icll  a  victim  at  a 
later  pcnod. 

In  1789,  at  the  opening  of  the  States-General,  the 
crowd,  acclaiming  the  queen's  enemy,  shouted  in  her 


6  Auaix 

bearing:  "Long  live  the  Due  d'OrWanel"  The  «varti 
of  October,  1789,  which  forced  the  Court  to  return 
from  Veraaillea  to  Paris,  were  directed   eepeciaUT 

rinsther.  In  June,  1791,  the  projected  flight  wh^ 
had  planned  with  the  assistance  of  Feraen  and 
Bouill^,  failed,  the  royal  couple  being  arrested  at 
Varennes.  Marie  Antoinette  secretly  negotiated  wiUi 
foreign  powers  tor  the  king's  safety;  but  wben,  on  27 
August,  1791,  Leopold  ot  Austria  and  Frederick  Wii- 
liam  of  Prussia  bound  themselves,  by  the  Declaratim 
of  Pilhiitz,  never  to  allow  the  new  French  Constitu- 
tion to  be  established,  she  wrote  to  Mercy  that  "each 
one  is  at  liberty  to  adopt  in  his  own  country  the  do- 
mestic  laws  that  please  him",  and  she  r^retted  the 
extravagances  of  the  dnigrit.  She  wished  the  powen 
to  hold  a  kind  of  "armed  t^mgress"  which,  without 
making  war  on  France,  should  give  moral  support  to 
the  French  king,  and  inspire  the  better  class  of  bis  aub^ 
jecta  with  courage  to  rally  round  him.  But  the  Revo- 
lution was  hastening:  on  13 
August,  171*2,  Marie  AnttH- 
nette  was  shut  up  in  the  Tem- 
ple; on  1  August,  1793,  she 
was  sent  to  the  Coneiergerie; 
her  trial  took  place  on  14 
October.  Accused  by  Fou- 
quier-Tinville  of  having  tried 
to  foment  both  war  with 
foreign  nations  and  civil  war, 
the  Widow  Capet"  was  de- 
fended by  Chauvcau-Lagarde 
and  Tronson  Ducoudray,  who 
were  forthwith  caat  into 
prison,  ISbe  may  have  re- 
ceived alMolution  from  the 
Cur£  of  St«-Marguerite,  who 
was  in  a  cell  opposite  to 
hers ;  at  all  eventa,  she  refused 
to  make  her  confession  to. 
the  Abb^  Girard,  a  "  constitu- 
tional "  priest,  who  offered  lier 
hisservices.  ^he  mounted  the 
scaffold  undauntedly.  Her 
historian,  M.de  la  Kocheterie, 
says  ot  ber:  "She  waa  not  a 
giiilty  woman,  neither  was  she 
a  saint;  she  was  an  upright, 
charming  woman,  a  htlle 
frivolous,  somewhat  intpul- 
sive,  but  always  ^ure;  she 
was  a  queen,  at  times  ardent 
in  her  fancies  for  ber  favourites  and  thou^tkes  in 
her  policy,  but  proud  and  full  ot  energy-  a  thor- 
ough woman  in  her  winsome  ways  and  t«ndenieHS  of 
heart,  until  she  became  a  martyr- " 

De  Biadcooht  and  he  la  Rocbeterie,  cd*.,  Ltitm  d* 
Marie-Antointtle  {2  \o\a..Pana,  IBB5.  1890)  (the  onb' editioD  to 
consult,  since  GeOioy  has  coDvicled  Fcuilict  de  CoDchea'  rat- 

AHD  GErFnoT,  eda. ,  Corrnpondance  tKrUt  mtn  UariirThtrit  ^ 
Uercu  Aroenteau  IPaha.  18741;  Ahnetij  %r  Flahheiuiokt, 
eds.,  Coirfspondanrc  de  Joeeph  II  ovrc  le  prince  de  XaufeiCt 
(Paris,  1889-91);  Afnetii,  ed.,  M<ini-A  nloindlr,  Jmrph  II.  und 
Lfopold  II..  Oir  Bnefwtchid  tLiiiiiiig.  18fiai:  latjt,  ed..  Mario- 
Tkeretia  und  Marie-Anloinitlf,  lAr  BHiftcKtucl  (leipjig,  1866); 

De  NoLHic,  La  rknt  Maric-AntaintOe  (Pnria.  1898)-,'  Ipuil 
Morit  AnlBxntUf.Oir  Dauphinr,  tr,  {ram  tliePreDch{Ioba,  Puia. 
1S97);  Idem.  Vcriailla  ou  tempi  dc  Maru-AnlaineUe  (Puris. 
1892);  De  S£acrH,  Au  atvchant  de  la  mananhit  (Paris,  lOiO); 
BiCKUELL,  The  Slow  of  Marie  AnIointlU  {London,  1807):  Blk*- 
'.  Marie-Anloinrtte  Kmii/in  von  Ftanknack  (Bi«l»- 


excoltent  gtudy  of  the  bia- 
te  a  ToDBNEiTi.  Marit- 
biblwffmphujxu    t2Dd  ed„ 

Geobqes  Gotau. 

Marie  Ohristine  of  Savoy,  Blessed,  h.  at  Gag- 
liari,  Sardinia,  14  November,  1812;  d.  at  Naples,  31 
January,    1S36.    She  was  the  daughter  of  Vietcf 


VlR^eLebnin 


loriciil  sources   on    Marie-Ai 


667 


^AI^TK 


Emanuel  I,  King  of  Sardinia,  and  oi  Maria  Teresa  of 
Austria,  nieoe  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  She  lost  her 
father  in  1824  and  her  mother  at  tne  beginning  of  the 
year  1832.  Charles  Albert,  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Sardinia,  insisted  upon  her  appearing  at  the 
court  of  Turin,  and  she  married  Ferdinand  II,  King 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  (21  November.  1832).  She  died 
at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  after  naving  given  birth 
fifteen  days  before  to  a  son,  Francesco-Maria-Leopold. 
Duke  of  Calabria.  The  renown  of  her  virtues  had 
been  so  great  during  her  brief  life,  and  after  her  death 
the  graces  obtained  by  her  intercession  were  so  nu- 
merous, that  the  Italian  episcopate  and  many  CathoUc 
sovereigns  obtained  from  Pius  IX  the  signature,  on  9 
February,  1859,  of  the  decree  by  which  tne  process  of 
her  canonization  was  introduced:  before  the  Congre^ 
tion  of  Rites.    This  resulted  in  her  name  being  m- 

scribed,  in  1872,  in  the  list  of  the  Blessed. 

Vie  de  la  vhUrable  aervante  de  Dieu  Marit-Chrit/tine  de  Savoie, 
reine  dea  Deux-Siciles  (Paris,  1872) :  Gu£rim,  Lea  PetUa  BoUan- 
diatea,  XV  (BaMe-Duo.  1874),  37-51. 

Leon  Clugnet. 

Marie  de  France,  a  French  poetess  of  the  twelfth 
century.  She  has  this  trait  in  common  with  the 
other  trouv^res,  that  she  had  no  biographer;  at  least 
no  biography  of  her  has  come  down  to  us,  and  it  is 
mostly  by  inference  that  scholars  have  been  able  to 
gather  the  meagre  information  that  we  possess  about 
ner.  In  one  of  her  verses,  she  tells  us  her  name  and 
that  of  her  native  country:  Marie  at  nun,  si  sui  de 
France  (Roquefort,.  "Poesies  de  Marie  de  France", 
II,  p.  401).  Her  lays  are  dedicated  to  a  King  Henry, 
and  her  "Ysopet"  to  a  Count  WillianL  Who  were  this 
King  Henry,  and  this  Count  William?  This  question, 
whicn  puzzled  scholars  for  a  long  time,  has  been  set- 
tled only  recently  by  a  careful  philological  study  of 
her  works.  She  was  a  native  of  Normandy  and  lived 
in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century,  because  she 
uses  the  pure  Norman  dialect  of  that  time,  and  the  two 
personages  alluded  to  in  her  works  were  Henry  II 
of  England  and  his  son  William,  Coimt  of  Salisbury. 
Marie  was  then  a  contemporary  and,  very  likely,  a 
habitual  guest  of  the  brilliant  court  of  troubadours 
and  Gascon  knights  who  gathered  in  the  castles  of 
Anjou  and  Guyenne  around  Henry  II  and  Queen 
Eleanor;  a  contemporary,  too,  of  Clu-^tien  de  Troyes, 
who,  about  that  time,  was  writing  the  adventures  of 
Yvain,  Erec  and  I>ancelot  for  the  court  of  Champagne. 
Marie's  contributions  to  French  literature  consist  of 
lays,  the  *'Ysopet",  and  a  romance  published  by 
Roquefort  under  the  title,  "Legend  of  tne  Purgatory 
of  Saint  Patrick". 

The  lays,  which  number  fifteen,  belong  to  the  Bre- 
ton Cycle,  or  more  accurately,  to  what  might  be 
termed  the  "love  group"  of  that  cycle.  Thev  are 
little  poems  in  octosyllabic  verses,  in  which  are  told  the 
brave  deeds  of  Breton  knights  for  the  s^e  of  their 
lady-love.  These  little  tales  of  love  and  knightly 
adventure  show  on  the  part  of  the  writer  a  sensibility 
which  is  very  rare  among  trouvdres.  The  style  is  sim- 
ple and  graceful,  the  narrative  clear  and  concise. 
The  *' Ysopet"  is  a  collection  of  103  fables  translated 
into  French  from  the  English  translation  of  Henry 
Beauclerc.  In  the  '* Pureatory  of  Saint  Patrick"  the 
author  tells  us  of  the  adventures  of  an  Irish  knight 
who,  in  atonement  for  his  sins,  descends  into  a  cavern 
where  he  witnesses  the  torments  of  the  sinners  and  the 
happiness  of  the  just. 

Bedier,  Lea  hxia  de  Marie  de  France  in  Revue  dea  Deux 
Mondea  (Paris,  15  Oct.,  1891);  Hiatoire  liUiraire  de  la  France, 
XXX  (Paris,  1888);  Pams  in  Romania  (Paris,  1872,  1907); 
Roquefort,  Poiaiea  de  Marie  de  France  (Paris,  1820) ;  'Vv  arnkb, 
Marie  de  France  und  die  Ananjfmen  lata  (Cobuig,  1892). 

P.  J.  Mariqxje. 

Marie  de  Tlncamation,  Blessed,  known  also  as 
Madame  Acarie,  foundress  of  the  French  Caimel,  b.  in 
Paris,  1  February,  15(W;  d.  at  Pontoise,  April,  1618. 


By  her  family  Barbara  Avrillot  belonged  to  the  higher 
bourgeois  society  in  Paris.  Her  father,  Nicholas  Av* 
rillot  was  accountant  general  in  the  Chamber  of  Paris, 
and  chmicellor  of  Marguerite  of  Navarre,  first  wife  of 
Henri  IV;  while  her  mother,  Marie  Lhuillier  was  a 
descendant  of  Etienne  Marcel,  the  famous  privdi  dt9 
marchatids  (chief  municipcd  maostrate).  She  was 
placed  with  the  Poor  Clares  of  Longchamp  for  her 
education,  and  acquircKl  there  a  vocation  for  the 
cloister,  which  subsequent  life  in  the  world  did  not 
alter.  In  1684,  through  obedience  she  married  Pierre 
Acarie,  a  wealthy  young  man  of  hieh  standing,  who 
was  a  fervent  Christian,  U>  whom  shelx)re  six  children. 
She  was  an  exemplary  wife  and  mother. 

Pierre  Acarie  was  one  of  the  staunchest  members  of 
the  League,  which,  after  the  death  of  Henry  III,  op- 
posed the  succession  of  the  Huguenot  prince,  Henry 
of  Navarre,  to  the  French  throne.  He  was  one  of  the 
sixteen  who  organized  the  resistance  in  Paris.  The 
cruel  famine  which  accompanied  the  siege  of  Paris 
gave  Madame  Acarie  an  occasion  of  displaying  her 
charity.  After  the  dissolution  of  the  League,  brought 
about  by  the  abjuration  of  Henry  IV,  Acarie  was  ex- 
iled from  Paris  and  his  wife  had  to  remain  behind  to 
contend  with  creditors  and  business  men  for  her  chil- 
dren's fortime,  which  had  been  compromised  by  her 
husband's  want  of  foresight  and  prudence.  In  ad- 
dition she  was  afflicted  with  physical  sufferings,  the 
consequences  of  a  fall  from  her  horse,  and  a  very  se- 
vere course  of  treatment  left  her  an  invalid  for  the  rest 
of  her  life. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  Madame 
Acarie  was  widelv  known  for  her  virtue,  her  super- 
natural gifts,  ana  especially  her  charity  towards  tiie 
poor  and  the  sick  in  the  hospitals.  To  her  residence 
came  all  the  distinguished  and  devout  people  of  the 
day  in  Paris,  among  them  Mme  de  Meignelay,  n^  de 
Gondi,  a  model  of  Christian  widows,  Mme  Jourdain 
and  Mme  de  Br^aut^,  future  Carmelites,  the  Chancel- 
lor de  Merillac,  Pdre  Coton  the  Jesuit,  St.  Vincent  of 
Paul,  and  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  who  for  six  monUis  was 
Ikime  Acarie's  director.  The  pious  woman  had  been 
living  thus  retired  from  the  world,  but  sought  by 
chosen  souls,  when,  toward  the  end  of  1601,  there  ap- 
peared a  French  translation  of  Ribera's  life  of  St. 
Teresa.  The  translator,  Abb6  de  Br^tigny,  was  known 
to  her.  She  had  some  portions  of  the  work  read  to 
her.  A  few  days  later  St.  Teresa  appeared  to  her  and 
informed  her  that  God  wished  to  make  use  of  her  to 
found  Carmelite  convents  in  France.  The  apparitions 
continuing,  Mme  Acarie  took  counsel' and  o^an  the 
work.  Urille  de  Longueville  wishing  to  defray  the  cost 
of  erecting  the  first  monastery,  in  Rue  St.  Jacques, 
Heniy  IV  granted  letters  patent,  18  July,  1602.  A 
meeting  in  which  Pierre  de  B^rulle,  future  founder  of 
the  Oratory,  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  Abbd  de  Br^tigny, 
and  the  Marillacs  took  part,  decided  on  the  foundation 
of  the  "Reformed  Carmel  m  France",  27  July,  1602. 
Hie  Bishop  of  Geneva  wrote  to  the  pope  to  obtain  the 
autiiorization,  and  Clement  VIII  granted  the  Bull  of 
institution,  23  November,  1603.  The  following  year 
some  Spanish  Carmelites  were  received  into  the  Car- 
mel of  Rue  St.  Jacques,  which  became  celebrated. 
Mme  de  Longueville,  Anne  de  Gonzague,  Mile  de  la 
Vallieres,  withdrew  to  it;  there  also  Bossuet  and  Fen- 
ek>n  were  to  preach.  The  Carmel  spread  rapidly  and 
profoundly  influenced  French  society  of  the  day.  In 
1618,  the  year  of  Mme  Acarie's  death,  it  numbered 
fourteen  houses. 

Mme  Acarie  also  shared  in  two  foundations  of  the 
day,  that  of  the  Oratory  and  that  of  the  Ursulines. 
She  urged  De  B^rulle  to  refuse  the  tutorship  of  Louis 
XIII,  and  on  11  November,  1611  she,  with  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul,  assisted  at  the  Mass  of  the  installation  of  the 
Oratorv  of  France.  Among  the  many  postulants 
whom  Mme  Acarie  received  for  the  Carmel,  there  were 
some  who  had  no  vocation,  and  she  conceived  the  idea 


668 


SffABIENBERO 


of  getting  them  to  undertake  the  education  of  young 
girls,  and  broached  her  plan  to  her  holy  cousin,  Mme. 
de  Sainte-Beuve.  To  establish  the  new  order  they 
brought  Ursulines  ta  Paris  and  adopted  their  rule  and 
name.  M.  Acarie  having  died  in  1613,  his  widow  set- 
tled her  afiFairs  and  begged  leave  to  enter  the  Carmel, 
asking  as  a  favour  to  be  received  as  a  lay  sister  in  the 
poorest  community.  In  1614  she  withdrew  to  the 
monastery  of  Amiens,  taking  the  name  of  Marie  de 
.  rincamation.  Her  three  daughters  had  preceded  her 
into  the  cloister,  and  one  of  them  was  suo-prioress  at 
Amiens.  In  1616,  by  order  of  her  superiors,  she  went 
to  the  Carmelite  convent  at  Pontoise,  where  she  died. 
Her  cause  was  introduced  at  Rome  in  1627;  she  was 
beatified,  24  April,  1791;  her  feast  is  celebrated  in 
Paris  on  18  April. 

Du  Val,  La  vie  admirable  de  la  aervante  de  Dieu,  eoeur  Marie 
de  V  Incarnation  connue  dans  le  monde  aou8  le  nam  de  Mdme 
Acarie  (Paria,  1621;  latest  edition,  Paris,  1893);  Hodssate. 
M,  de  BSruUe  et  lea  CarmSlitea  de  France  (Paris,  1875);  de 
Broqlie,  La  bienheureuae  Marie  de  V Incarnation,  Madame 
Acarie  (Paris,  1903). 

A.  FOURNET. 

Marie  de  rincamation,  Venerable  (in  the  world 
Marie  Guyard),  first  superior  of  the  Ursulines 
of  Quebec,  b.  at  Tours,  France,  28  Oct.,  1599;  d.  at 
Queoec,  Canada,  30  April,  1672.  Her  father  was  by 
birth  a  bourgeois;  her  mother  was  connected  with  the 
illustrious  house  of  Barbon  de  la  Bourdaisidre.  From 
infancy  Marie  gave  evidences  of  great  piety  and  de- 
tachment from  the  world.  At  the  age  of  seventeen ,  in 
obedience  to  her  parents,  she  was  married  to  a  silk- 
manufacturer  of  the  name  of  Martin,  and  devoted  her- 
self without  reserve  to  the  duties  of  a  Christian  wife. 
The  union  was  a  source  of  trials:  the  only  consolation 
it  brought  her  was  the  birth  of  a  son,  who  afterwards 
became  a  Benedictine  as  Dom  Claude,  wrote  his 
mother's  biography,  and  died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity. 
Left  a  widow  after  two  years  of  married  life,  she  enter- 
tained the  idea  of  joining  the  Ursulines,  but  the  care 
which  her  child  required  of  her  delayed  the  realization 
of  this  project,  until  he  had  reached  the  age  of  twelve, 
when  she  followed  her  vocation  unhesitatingly.  The 
Ursuline  Order  had  recently  been  introduced  into 
France  by  Madame  de  Sainte-Beuve,  and  Madame 
Martin  took  the  veil  in  the  house  of  that  order  at 
Tours.  The  care  of  the  novices  was  confided  to  her 
two  years  after  her  entry  into  the  convent.  She  al- 
ways felt  intense  zeal  for  saving  souls,  and  at  the  age 
of  about  thirty-four  she  experienced  new  impulses  of 
"the  apostolic  spirit  which  transported  her  soul  even 
to  the  ends  of  the  earth  " ;  and  the  longing  for  her  own 
sanctification,  and  the  salvation  of  so  many  souls  still 
under  the  shadows  of  paganism  inspired  her  with  the 
resolution  to  go  and  live  in  America.  She  communi- 
cated this  desire  to  her  confessor,  who,  after  much 
hesitation,  approved  it.  A  pious  woman,  Mme  de  la 
Peltrie,  provided  the  means  for  its  execution.  This 
lady,  better  known  as  Marie-Madeleine  de  Chauvigny, 
by  her  generosity,  and  the  sacrifice  she  made  in  leav- 
ing her  family  and  her  country,  deserved  to  be  called 
the  co-worker  of  Marie  de  I'lncamation  in  Canada. 
Sailing  from  Dieppe  3  April,  1639,  with  a  few  sisters 
who  had  begged  to  be  allowed  to  accompany  her,  Marie 
de  rincamation,  after  a  perilous  voyage  of  three 
months,  arrived  at  Quebec  and  was  there  joyfully 
welcomed  by  the  settlers  (4  July).  She  and  her  com- 
panions at  first  occupied  a  little  house  in  the  lower 
town  (Basse- Ville).  In  the  spring  of  1641  the  founda- 
tion-stone was  laid  of  the  Ursuline  monastery,  on  the 
same  spot  where  it  now  stands.  Marie  de  1  Incarna- 
tion was  acknowledged  as  the  superior.  To  be  the 
more  useful  to  the  aborigines,  she  had  set  herself 
to  learn  their  languages  immediately  on  her  ar- 
rival. Her  piety,  ner  zeal  for  the  conversion  and 
instruction  of  the  young  aborigines,  and  the  wis- 
dom with  which  she  ruled  her  community  were 
aiike  remarkable.    She  suffered  great  tribulations 


from  vue  Iroquois  who  were  threatening  the  colony, 
but  in  the  midst  of  them  she  stood  firm  and  was  able 
to  comfort  the  downcast.  On  29  December,  1650,  a 
terrible  conflagration  laid  the  Ursuline  monastery  in 
ashes.  She  simered  much  from  the  rigours  of  winter, 
and  took  shelter  first  with  the  Hospitali^res  and  then 
with  Mme  de  la  Peltrie.  On  29  May  of  the  following 
year  she  inaugurated  the  new  monastery.  The  rest  of 
her  hfe  she  passed  teaching  and  catechizing  the  young 
Indians,  and  died  after  forty  years  of  labours,  thirty- 
three  of  them  spent  in  Canada. 

Marie  de  rincamation  has  left  a  few  works  which 
breathe  imction,  piety,  and  resignation  to  Divine 
Providence.  "Des  Lettres"  (Paris,  1677-1681)  ctm- 
tains  in  its  second  part  an  account  of  the  events  which 
took  place  in  Canada  during  her  time,  and  constitute 
one  of  the  sources  for  the  history  of  the  French  colony 
from  1639  to  1671.  There  are  also  a  "  Retraite  ",  with 
a  short  exposition  of  the  Canticle  of  Canticles,  and  a 
familiar  "  Explication"  of  the  mysteries  of  the  Faith — 
a  catechism  which  she  compiled  for  young  religious 
women. 

Casqrain,  Histoire  de  la  Vfn.  Mire  Marie  de  V  Incarnation, 
(Quebec,  1888) ;  Chapot,  Hist,  de  la  Vhi.  Mire  Marie  de  V  Incar- 
nation (Paris,  1892);  Rxchaudeau,  Lettrea  de  la  rSv.  Mhre  M.  de 
VI  (Paris.  1876). 

A.  FoURNET. 

Marienberg,  Benedictine  abbey  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  St.  Joseph  near  Mais,  Tvrol  (in  Vintschgau). 
The  history  of  tne  founding  goes  back  to  Charlemagne, 
who  established  between  780  and  786  a  Benedictine 
monastery  near  Taufers  (Tuberis)  in  Graubunden  (in 
Upper  Vintschau),  which  later  (after  880)  was  dis- 
solved and  then  became  a  convent  for  both  sexes. 
Two  hundred  years  later  there  was  a  reorganization: 
Eberhard  of  Tarasp  built  for  the  male  portion  the 
little  monastery  of  Schuls  in  the  Engaaine,  conse- 
crated by  Cardinal  Gregor  in  1078  or  1079,  while  tlie 
female  inmates  remained  at  Taufers  (later  called 
Mtinster).  Destroyed  by  lightning,  Schuls  was  re- 
built, and  consecrated  in  1131.  Ulrich  IV  of  Tarasp 
shortly  after  called  monks  from  Ottobeuem  to  Schuls 
to  instil  new  Hfe  into  the  monastery.  At  the  same 
time  the  monastery,  which  till  then  had  been  merely  a 
priory,  was  made  an  abbey.  In  1146  he  removed  the 
community  to  St.  Stephen  in  Vintschgau,  and  in  1150 
to  the  hill  near  the  village  of  Burgeis,  where  the  abbey 
has  since  continued  under  the  name  of  Marienbei^g. 
Ulrich  himself  later  assumed  the  habit  of  the  order 
(about  1164)  in  Marienberg,  and  died  on  14  December, 
1177.  Under  Abbot  Konrad  III  (1271-98)  Marien- 
berg was  sacked  by  two  nobles,  and  in  1304  Abbot 
Hermann  was  killed  by  Ulrich  of  Matsch.  In  1 348  the 
plague  carried  away  every  inmate  of  the  monastery 
except  Abbot  Wyho,  a  priest,  one  lay  brother,  and 
Goswin,  later  a  chronicler.  Goswin  became  a  priest 
in  1349,  and  compiled  new  choir-books,  two  estate 
registers  (Urbare)^  and  the  chronicle  of  the  monastery. 
The  chronicle,  most  of  which  Goswin  had  finished  in 
1374,  is  divided  into  three  books,  the  first  of  which 
gives  the  story  of  the  founding  and  donations,  the 
second  the  history  of  the  abbots,  and  the  third  the 
privileges  conferred  by  popes  and  princes.  It  gives 
an  account,  without  regara  for  order  or  chronology, 
of  the  founders,  fortunes,  benefactors,  and  oppressors 
of  the  monastery.  Documents  take  up  the  greater 
part,  and  the  narrative  is  poor.  Under  Abbot  Nicho- 
las (1362-88)  Goswin  became  prior,  while  in  1374  he 
was  appointed  court  chaplain  to  Duke  Leopold  III  of 
Austria.  In  1418  Marienberg  was  burned  down.  After 
a  period  of  decline  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Abbot 
Mat  bias  Lang  (1615-40),  from  Weingarten  monastery, 
became  the  reformer  of  the  abbey.  In  1634  Marien- 
berg joined  the  Benedictine  Congregation  of  Swabia*. 
Lang  8  successor,  Jacob  Grafinger  (1640-53),  enlarged 
the  lib^ar>^  and  made  the  younger  members  finish 
their  education  at  schools  of  repute.      In  1656  the 


MAam                              669  MABINI 

abbey  was  again  burned  down.  Abbot  Johann  Bap-  posed  the  famous  Roman  Catechism,  "Catechismus 
tist  Murr  (1705-32)  founded  in  1724  the  g^rmnasium  at  Romanus  vulgo  dictus  ex  decreto  Concilii  Tridentini 
Meran,  still  administered  by  the  monks  of  Marienber^.  compositus  et  Pii  V  jussu  editus  *'  (Rome,  1566).  He 
Abbot  Pacidus  Zobel  (1782-1815)  compiled  a  chrom-  was  also  a  member  of  the  commission  of  theologians 
ole  of  the  abbots.  In  1807  Marienberg  was  dissolved  appointed  by  Pius  V  to  prepare  a  new  and  improved 
by  the  Bavarian  government,  but  was  again  restored  edition  of  the  Breviary  (1568)  and  of  the  Missal  (1570). 
by  Emperor  Francis  II  inr,  1816.  In  the  nineteenth  By  order  of  Pius  IV  he  revised  also  the  Rules  and  Con- 
century  the  followingwell-known  scholars  were  monks  stitutions  of  the  Bamabite  Order, 
of  Marienberg:  (1)  Beda  Weber  (1798-1858),  from  Qvimr-EcBAMD,  Script.  Ord,  Prod.,  U,   228:    Touron. 

noted  as  historian,  homilist,  gifted  poet,  and  energetic  i,  696;  II,  69,  98, 276. 

Driest;  member  of  the  Academy  in   Munich  and  (g)  Tommaso  Marini,  grand-nephew  of  the  forego- 

Vienna;  (2)  Albert  Jfiger  (1801-91^,  professor  of  his-  -^^^  ^ate  of  birth  unknown;  d.  1635  at  Naples.    He 

tory  at  Innsbruck,  jprmnasium  director  at  Meimi,  was  of  an  exceptionaUy  reUgious  family,  of  which  three 

from  1851  professor  m  Vienna  and  memb«r  of  the  ^^^  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic  and  four  daugh- 

Academy;  (3)  Pius  Zmgerle  (1801-81),  professor  m  ters  took  the  religious  habit.    Tommaso,  the  eldest 

Meran,  in  1862  prof^r  at  tiie  Sapienza  m  Rome,  ^^^^  ^is  novitiate  and  studies  in  the  Minerva  convent 

^^u'^P^  a     •       rJ^^^^^'^^'^^^J^^^f®^  at  Rome.    In  1608  he  was  made  master  of  sacred  theol- 

authonty  on  Syrian  hterature.    The  monastery  ha?  ^gy  ^nd  was  assigned  the  chair  of  that  science  in  his 

now  52  inembers  (40  pnests).     Apart  from  the  gym-  convent.    He  was  secretary  at  three  general  chapters 

nasium  at  Meran  it  has  the  care  of  four  parisnes.  ^f  ^x.^  ordpr    In  Ifil  1  Ha  hAAAmA  unritLn  i€\  t ho  ffpnpml 

GoswiN.  Chivnik  des  Stiftes  M..  ed.  Schwitzer  in  TirolUche  ^JuK^k^TuV^  V\>J^!i  ^  Decame  «0CIU«  tO  tne  genem 

OeMhichuqueUen.  II  (Innabruck,  1880);  Goswin.  Urbare,  ed.  With  the  title  of  Provincial  of  the  Holy  Land.   In  1615 

BoHwrrzKR,  ibid..  Ill  (1891):   Sxdlbr,  Mntuier-Tuberia,  eine  and  1622  he  Was  defimtor  at  the  chapters  of  Bologna 

^^^TK^ i?^V£S?  m  JoArftucA  far  Schweueritche  Qt^ch.,  ^nd  MUan  respectively,  and  in  1618  was  appointed 

XXXI  (Zurich.  1906).  207-348.       j^^^^^  LoFFLER.  "^^"^^^  ^^^  ^^^  German  and  Bohemian,  and  in  1634  for 

the  Sicilian,  provinces.   In  1623  and  1624  he  was  vicar 
--,.,      ^,  V  -  -xjLiOf  the  Roman  provinces,  in  which  he  succeeded  in 

Marini  (pEMARiNis),  name  of  an  ancient  and  noble  introducmg  a  severer  diswplme. 

family  of  the  Repubhc  of  Genoa,  distinguished  ahke  m  Mon.  OrdTPrad.  Hitt.,  XI.  lbs.  161. 186. 239. 304. 319. 321, 

the  Island  of  Chios,  one  of  its  dependencies,  where  it  350;  XII.  352. 

possessed  many  beautiful  and  valuable  estates.  Be-  (3)  Giovanni  Baptista  Marini.  brother  of  the  fore- 
sides  giving  to  the  Church  one  pope,  Urban  VTI,  it  going,  b.  28  Nov.,  1 597,  at  Rome  ,d.  there,  6  May,  1669. 
adorned  the  Dominican  Order  with  several  eminent  He  entered  the  Domimcan  order  at  the  age  of  sixteen, 
theologians  and  distinguished  religious.  and,  after  his  religious  profession,  studied  philosophy 
(1)  Leonardo  Marini.  archbishop,  b.  1509  on  the  and  theology  at  the  universities  of  Salamanca  and  Al- 
island  of  Chios,  in  the  iEgean  Sea;  d.  11  June,  1573,  cald.  On  the  completion  of  these  he  returned  to  Rome, 
at  Rome.  He  entered  the  order  in  his  native  place,  taught  theology  at  the  Minerva  convent,  obtain^  the 
and,  after  his  religious  profession,  made  his  studies  in  degree  of  Master  of  Theology,  and  was  appointed  by 
the  Convent  of  Genoa  with  great  distinction,  obtaining  Urban  VIII  in  1628  secretary  of  the  Congregation  of 
finally  the  degree  of  Master  of  Sacred  Theology.  He  the  Index.  In  the  long  conscientious  management  of 
was  a  man  of  deep  spirituality,  and  was  esteemed  the  this  office  he  received  not  a  little  abuse  from  censured 
most  eloquent  of  contemporary  orators  and  preachers,  authors,  being  especially  persecuted  by  the  learned 
Paul  III,  recognizing  his  piety  and  extraordinary  ex-  but  bitter  opponent  of  the  Index,  Theophilus  Ray- 
ecutive  ability,  decided  to  choose  him  as  coadjutor  naud,  S.J.,  who,  in  the  pseudonymous  work  "De  im- 
with  the  right  of  succession  to  the  Bishopric  of  Peru-  munitate  Cyriacorum  («c.  the  Dominicans)  a  censura 
giaj  but  death  frustrated  his  plans.  On  5  March,  1550.  diatribae  Petri  a  Valleclausa  ",  published  a  pungent 
Julius  III  created  him  titular  Bishop  of  Laodicea  and  satire  replete  with  personal  invectives  agamst  the 
administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  Mantua.  In  1553  he  Dominicans,  the  alleged  controlling  element  of  the 
was  appointed  papal  nuncio  to  the  court  of  Charles  V  Inquisition  and  the  Index,  but  prinapally  against  the 
of  Spam,  where,  by  his  fearless  defence  of  the  rights  secretary  of  the  latter.  The  work  was  condemned  on 
and  authority  of  the  Holy  See,  he  effected  a  complete  20  June,  1662.  On  17  Nov.,  1664,  a  similar  fate  befell 
adjustment  of  the  religious  troubles  of  the  country,  two  works  published  by  Dominicans  in  reply  to  Ray- 
On  26  Feb.,  1562,  Pius  IV  elevated  him  to  the  metro-  naud  and  in  defence  of  themselves,  the  Index,  and  its 
politan  See  of  Lanciano,  and  the  same  year,  at  the  secretary.  The  first  of  these  was  that  of  Vincent 
request  of  Cardinal  Hercules  Gonza^,  appomted  him  Baron,  "Apologia  pro  sacra  Congregatione  Indids 
papal  legate  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  m  all  the  delibera-  ejusque  secretanoac  Dominicanis  "  (Rome,  1662),  the 
tions  of  which  he  took  a  prominent  part.  On  the  ter-  other  that  of  John  Casalas,  "  Candor  lilii  seu  Ordo  FF. 
raination  of  the  council,  after  visitmg  his  archdiocese,  Prsedicatorum  a  calumniis  et  contumeliis  Petri  a  Val- 
he  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Maximilian  II  to  adjust  cer-  leclausa  vindicatus  "  (Paris,  1664).  During  his  office 
tain  ecclesiastical  matters,  and,  on  his  return  the  pope  as  secretary  he  providM  for  the  publication  of  "  Index 
determined  to  raise  him  to  the  cardinalate,  but  death  Ubrorum  prohibitorum  cum  decretis  omnibus  a  S. 
prevented  him  from  carrying  out  his  plans.  Marini  Congregatione  emanatis  post  indicemClementis  VIII". 
now  resigned  his  diocesan  duties  and  retired  to  the  jn  1650  he  was  elected  general  of  the  order,  which 
castle  of  his  brother  to  combat  bv  pen  and  prayer  the  office  he  held  till  his  death.  At  the  request  of  Alex- 
errors  of  the  reformers.  Pius  V,  however  not  slow  in  ander  VII,  he  composed  also  a  " Tractatus  de  Concep- 
recogmzmg  his  bnlliant  talents,  appointed  him  to  the  tione  B.  M.  Virginis  ",  which  still  remains  unpublished. 
See  of  Alba  and  made  him  Apostohc  Visitor  of  twenty-  Qotnr-EcHARD.  Script.  Ord.  Prcsd..  11. 661, 615;  Afon.  Ord, 
five  dioceses,  a  proof  of  the  anxiety  of  the  pontiff  to  Prod,  Hist.,  XII.  126,  276,  375;  Der  Katholik,  I  (1864),  433. 
carry  into  effect  the  Tridentine  reforms.  In  1572  he  (4)  Domexico  Marini,  theologian  and  brother  of 
was  sent  by  Gregory  XIII  on  a  mission  to  Philip  II  of  the  two  preceding,  b.  21  Oct.,  1599,  at  Rome;  d.  20 
Spain  and  Sebastian  of  Portu^l  to  secure  from  these  June,  1669,  at  Avignon.  On  2  Feb.,  1615.  he  followed 
monarchs  a  renewal  of  their  alliance  against  the  Turks,  his  two  brothers  into  the  Dominican  oraer,  where  he 
His  mission  was  successful.  He  returned  to  Rome  to  soon  became  noted  for  his  piety  and  learning.  Having 
be  elevated  to  the  cardinalate,  but  died  two  days  after  filched  his  acadeinic  stuaies  m  Rome,  he  was  sent  for 
his  return.  By  order  of  the  pope  and  the  Council  of  his  theological  studies  to  the  universities  of  Salamanca 
Trent,  Marini,  with  the  assistance  of  two  of  his  breth-  and  AlcaU.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  he  was  assigned 
ren,  Egidio  Foscarari  and  Francesco  Foreiro,  com-  the  chair  of  theology  in  the  Minerva  convent,  but,  lean^ 


MAEIMI 


670 


idAEiKns 


ingthat  a  severer  discipline  prevailed  in  the  convent 
at  Toulouse,  he  went  there,  taught  theology  for  some 
ttme,  and  was  then  appointed  to  teach  the  same  in  the 
convent  of  St.  Honong  at  Paris.  Recalled  to  Rome  by 
the  general,  Nicolao  Ridolphi,  he  was  made  master  of 
theology  and  regens  primarius  of  studies  in  his  former 
convent.  Later  he  became  prior,  and  in  that  capacity 
demolished  the  old,  and  in  its  olace  erected  the  present 
Minerva  convent.  On  18  Oct.,  1648,  Innocent  X 
created  him  Archbishop  of  Avignon.  His  attention 
here  was  first  directed  towards  providing  the  univer- 
sity— ^which,  since  the  return  of  the  popes  to  Rome, 
had  practically  lost  all  significance^with  a  represen- 
tative theological  faculty.  From  his  private  funds  he 
founded  chairs  of  philosophy  and  theology  and  sup- 
plied them  with  professors  of  his  own  order,  thus 
restoring  to  the  institution  the  teachings  of  St.  Augus- 
tine and  Aquinas.  He  is  the  author  of  "Expositio 
oommentaria  in  I,  II  et  III  partem  S.  Thomai "  (Lyons, 
1663-5). 

QutTiF-EcBARP,  Script.  Ord.  Prced.,  II,  627:  Hcrter, 
Nomend.,  II  (2nd  ed.),  15;  Afon.  Ord.  Pnxd.  Hist.,  XII.  75.  78, 
341;  Bbrthikr,  VEgliBe  de  la  Minerve  a  Rome  (Rome,  1910). 

Joseph  Schroeder. 

Marini,  Luigi  Gaetano,  natural  philosopher,  ju- 
rist, historian,  archeologist,  b.  at  Sant'  Orcangelo 
(pagus  Acerbotanus),  18  Dec,  1742;  d.  at  Paris,  7 
Iday,  1815.  Having  received  a  comprehensive  pre- 
paratory education  at  the  College  of  San  Marino  and 
at  the  seminary  at  Rimini,  he  was  able  to  pass  through 
the  legal  and  philological  studies  at  Bologna  Univer- 
sity brilliantly,  and  to  graduate  at  Ravenna  in  utroque 
jure  (in  both  branches  of  law).  He  went  to  Rome  in 
Dec,  1764,  where  he  gained  the  friendship  of  Cardinal 
Alessandro  Albani  and  Garampi.  He  entered  into  re- 
lations with  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of  his  day, 
and  maintained  with  them  an  extensive  correspond- 
ence. In  1772  he  was  appointed  coadjutor  to  Marino 
Zampini,  prefect  of  the  archives;  and  was  also  given 
the  position  by  the  Roman  Republic  of  prefect  of  the 
archives  at  the  Vatican  and  the  Castle  of  bt.  Angcio,  as 
well  as  that  of  president  of  the  Vatican  Museum  and 
the  Vatican  Library.  On  18  Aug.,  1800,  Pius  VII 
made  him  primus  custos  of  the  Vatican  Library  and 
also  prefect  of  the  archives.  In  Jan.,  1805,  he  was 
made  a  cameriere  d*onore  to  the  pope. 

When  the  archives  of  the  Curia  were  carried  off  to 
Paris  by  Napoleon,  he  accompanied  them,  and  reached 
Paris,  1 1  April,  1810.  After  Napoleon's  fall  the  Count 
of  Artois,  viceregent  and  brother  of  the  king,  issued  a 
decree  on  19  April,  1814,  directing  the  restitution  to 
the  Holy  See  of  the  archives,  of  all  documents  and 
MSS.,  and  of  several  other  collections.  On  28  April 
the  papal  conmiissioners,  Mgr.  de  Gre^orio,  Mgr.  Gae- 
tano Marini,  and  his  nephew  Don  Manno  Marini.  took 
change  of  the  whole  of  this  property;  but  before  it  had 
reached  Rome  Gaetano  Marini,  who  had  long  Ix^en  an 
invalid,  died  at  Paris.  He  was  a  scholar  of  eminent 
parts,  a  thorough  master  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  He- 
Drew;  and  possessed  profound  legal  knowledge.  By 
choice  he  took  up  Questions  of  natural  philosophy;  as 
an  archseologist  ana  historian  he  is  esteemed  even  to- 
day. His  great  work  on  papyrus  records  is  a  standard 
work  on  the  investigation  of  papyri.  His  book  on  the 
Arval  Brothers  of  ancient  Rome,  showed  great  erudi- 
tion and  brought  to  light  so  much  that  was  new,  that 
its  appearance  created  considerable  stir.  His  classifi- 
eation  of  five  thousand  inscriptions,  both  Christian 
and  heathen,  in  the  Galleria  Lapidaria  at  the  Vatican, 
is  a  masterpiece,  and  earned  for  him  the  honorary  title 
of  "Restorer"  of  Latin  epigraphies  [" Inscriptiones 
(onlv  preserved  in  MS.)  christianse  Latinse  et  GrcBcae 
evi  Muliarii  conlegit  digcssit  adnotationibusque  auxit 
Gaictanus  Marinus  a  Bibliotheca  Vaticana  item  a 
■criniis  sedis  apoBtolicg.  Dues  partes ''].  Marini  was 
~  deriiSiJillHI^  priest.    He  was  distinguished  for 

'ng  for  hours  before  uie  Blessed 


Sacrament.  He  went  to  commtinion  three  times  a 
week.  During  his  residence  in  Paris  he  gave  away 
alms  to  the  extent  of  3000  scudi  (dollars). 

Marino  Marini,  Deoli.  AneddoU  di  Oaelano  Marini:  Com- 
mentario  di  avo  nipote  (Rome,  1822);  Moroni,  DiHonano  ii 
Erudizione  Slorico-EeeUaitUica,  IV,  286;  Marino  Hardti. 
Memorie  Storiehe  ddC  occuptuione  e  rettituHone  dei^i  Arekkm 
deUa  S.  Sede  e  dd  riacquiMo  de'  Qodici  e  Muto  NumiamaUeo  dd 
Vaticano  e  de'  ManoacriUi  e  parte  del  Mumo  di  Storia  Naiunle  di 
Bohfftia  (Rome.  1885).       Paul  Maria  Baxjmqarten. 

Marinas  I,  Pope  (882-4).— There  is  reason  for  be- 
lieving that  Marinus  I  was  elected  on  the  very  day  of 
the  death  of  John  VIII  (16  Dec,  882),  and  that  he  was 
consecrated  without  waiting  for  the  consent  of  the 
incompetent  emperor,  Charles  the  Fat.  If  the  actual 
date  of  his  election  is  uncertain,  that  of  his  death  is 
still  more  so;  but  it  was  perhaps  15  May,  B84.  In  the 
seventh  century  there  was  a  pope,  St.  ftfartinus  I,  and, 
owing  to  the  smiilarity  between  the  names  Martinus 
and  Marinus,  some  cnroniclers  called  Pope  Marinus 
MarHnus.  Hence,  some  modem  historians  have  errone- 
ously described  the  two  popes  Mannus  as  Martinus  II 
and  Martinus  III  resi)ectively,  and  the  successor  of 
Nicholas  III  culled  himself  Arlartinus  IV.  Marinus. 
about  whom  but  little  is  known^  had  a  distinguishea 
career  before  he  became  pope.  lie  was  the  son  of  the 
priest  Palumbo,  was  bom  at  Gallese,  and  was  attached 
to  the  Roman  Church  at  the  age  of  twelve.  Leo  IV 
ordained  him  sub-deacon,  and,  after  he  had  been  made 
a  deacon,  he  was  sent  on  three  important  embassies  to 
Constantinople.  The  second  time  he  went  there  (869) 
to  preside,  as  one  of  the  legates  of  Adrian  II,  avtt 
the  Eightn  General  Council.  John  VIII,  who  made 
him  Bishop  of  Caere  (Cervetri),  treasurer  (arearius)  of 
the  Roman  Church,  and  archdeacon,  despatched  him 
on  that  mission  to  Constantinople,  which  resulted 
in  his  imprisonment  for  his  firmness  in  carr3ring 
out  his  instructions.  Although  a  bishop,  he  was 
elected  to  succeed  John  VIII,  whose  policy  he  partly 
abandoned  and  partly  followed.  In  the  hope  of  fessen- 
ing  the  factions  in  Rome,  he,  most  unfortunately  as 
the  sequel  proved,  reversed  the  action  of  his  predeces- 
sor regarding  Bishop  Formosus  of  Porto,  whom  he 
absolved  from  all  censures,  and  permitted  to  return 
to  Rome.  But  Marinus  vigourously  upheld  the  poli^ 
of  John  VIII  with  regard  to  Photius,  whom  he  hunseu 
condemned .  Tmsting  to  get  supi>ort  from  Charles  the 
Fat,  he  met  that  useless  emperor  in  833.  But,  unable 
to  help  himself,  Charles  could  do  nothing  for  others. 
Marinus  sent  the  pallium  to  the  distinguished  FuDc  of 
Reims,  and,  at  the  request  of  King  Alfred  of  England, 
freed  from  all  taxes  the  Schola  Anghrumf  or  nead- 
c}uarters  of  the  English  in  Rome.    Marinus  was  buried 

in  the  portico  of  St.  Peter's. 

Jaffe.  Regeata  Pont.  Rom.,  I  (Leipsig,  1885);  Liber  PtmUf^ 
II,  cd.  Duchesne;  Annals  of  Fulda  and  other  aimali  in  Man. 
Germ.  Script.,  I;  Dcchesse,  The  Bemnnino  of  the  Temoorai 
Sovereignty  Of  the  Popes  (London,  1908),  187  sq.;  BIann*  lAwea 
of  the  Popes  tn  the  Early  Middle  Ages,  III,  353  sqa. 

Horace  K.  BIann. 

Marinus  II,  Pope  (942-946),  d.  in  April  or  liav, 
946.  A  Roman,  and  a  cardinal  of  the  title  of  &L 
Ciriacus,  he  was  one  of  the  popes  nlaced  on  the  thnvie 
of  St.  Peter  by  the  power  of  Alberic,  Prince  of  the 
Romans,  and  who,  tnough  virtuous  ''durst  not  put 
their  hands  to  an>^hing  without  his  permission. ** 
Consequently  Marinus  II  made  little  impression  on  the 
world.  In  an  unassuming  manner  he  worked  for  re- 
form— abroad  bv  his  legates,  at  home  b^  his  own 
exertions.  He  also  favoured  that  monastic  devel(H>- 
ment  which  had  already  set  in,  and  which  through  the 
influence  especially  of  the  Congregation  of  Cluny,  was 
to  refomt  Europe.  He  is  also  said  to  have  devoted 
himself  to  the  repair  of  the  basilicas,  and  to  the  care 
of  the  poor. 

Jaffk,  Regesta  Pont.  Rom.  (2nd  ed.);  Liber  Pontif.,  IT.  ad. 
Ddcresne  :  a  few  Privileges  for  monaateries  in  P.  L..  CXXXUI; 
Mann,  Lives  of  the  Popes  in  the  Early  Middle  Ag^  IV,  218  ■Q^ 

Horace  K.  BiaMN* 


MAftXOTTE 


671 


MAftlVS 


Mariotte,  Edme,  French  physicist,  b.  at  Dijon, 
Prance,  about  1620;  d.  at  Paris,  12  May,  1684.  His 
residence  was  at  Dijon,  and  some  of  his  works  are 
dated  from  that  place.  He  was  ordained  and,  as  a 
reward  for  his  successful  scientific  labours,  was  made 

Srior  of  Saint-Martin-sous-Beaune  near  Dijon.  Con- 
orcet  remarks  on  that  crubject  that  *'no  profane  use 
is  made  of  the  property  of  the  Church,  when  it  goes  to 
reward  services  rendered  to  humanity".  Mariotte  is 
pronounced  the  first  in  France  to  "bring  into  the 
study  of  physics  a  spirit  of  observation  and  of  doubt, 
and  to  inspire  that  caution  and  timidity  so  necessary 
to  those  who  question  nature  and  who  try  to  interpret 
her  answers."  In  his  "Essay  on  Logic"  he  enu- 
merates rules  of  reasoning  as  well  as  the  fundamental 
principles  themselves,  especially  in  the  case  of  what  he 
calls  the  natural  and  tne  moral  sciences.  He  there 
teaches  a  method  of  experimental  research  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  truth,  so  that  we  are  thus  able  to  study 
the  methods  which  he  used  himself  to  obtain  those 
great  results  from  his  experiments. 

His  fame  rests  on  his  work  on  hydrostatics  and  on 
the  establishment  of  the  law  of  gases  that  bears  his 
name.  This  was  first  published  in  an  essay  on  the 
nature  of  air  in  1676.  "The  diminution  of  the  volume 
of  the  air  proceeds  in  p^portion  to  the  weights  with 
which  it  is  loaded. "  This  law  is  now  stated  as  fol- 
lows: The  volume  of  a  gas,  kept  at  a  constant  tem- 
perature, changes  inversely  as  the  pressure  upon  the 
fas.  This  is  uie  fundamental  generalization  of  our 
knowledge  concerning  gases.  He  invented  a  device 
for  proving  and  illustrating  the  laws  of  impact  be- 
tween bodies.  The  bobs  of  two  pendulums  are  struck 
against  each  other,  and  the  resultant  motions  are 
measured  and  studied.  He  added  to  tiie  mathemat- 
ical deductions  of  Galileo,  Pascal,  and  others,  a  num- 
ber of  experimental  demonstrations  of  the  laws  of  the 
Eendulum,  of  the  flow  of  water  through  orifices,  of 
ydrostatic  pressure  ete.  Mariotte's  uask  is  an  in- 
genious device  to  obtain  a  uniform  flow  of  water.  His 
work  included  experiments  on  heat  and  cold,  light, 
sight,  and  colour.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Science  from  its  foundation  in  1666.  His 
contributions  ((Euvres)  were  collected  and  published 
at  Leyden  in  1717,  and  again  at  The  Hague  in  1740. 
They  include  reprints  of  the  following:  "Nouvelles 
d^couvertes  toucnant  la  vue"  (Paris,  1668);  "Expe- 
riences sur  la  congelation  de  Teau"  (Paris,  1682); 
"Traite  du  niveUement"  (Paris,  1672-4);  "Traits  de 
la  percussion  des  corps  "  (Paris,  1676) ;  "  Essais  de  phy- 
sique" (4  vols.,  Paris,  1676-81);  "De  la  vegetation 
des  plantes  "  (Paris,  1679  and  1686) ;  "  De  la  nature  de 
Fair"  (Paris.  1679);  "Traite  des  couleurs"  (Paris, 
1681);  "Essai  de  logique"  (Paris,  1678);  "Traite  du 
mouvement  des  eaux  et  des  autres  corps  fluides" 
(Paris,  1686;  2nd  ed.,  1700). 

Merueux  in  Nouv.  Biogr.  G&n.,  b.  v.;  Condorcet  in  (Euvres, 
I,  61-75.  Eioge  (Brunswick  and  Paris,  1804). 

William  Fox. 

Maris.  Martha,  Audifaz,  and  Abachmn,  Saints, 
martvrea  at  Rome  in  270.  Maris  and  his  wife  Martha, 
who  belonged  to  the  Persian  nobility,  came  to  Rome 
with  their  children  in  the  reign  of  Emperor  Claudius  II. 
As  zealous  Christians,  they  sympathized  with  and  suc- 
coured the  persecuted  faithful,  and  buried  the  bodies 
of  the  slain .  This  exposed  them  to  the  imperial  venge- 
ance; they  were  seized  and  delivered  to  the  judge 
Muscianus,  who,  unable  to  persuade  them  to  abjure 
their  faith,  condenmed  them  to  various  tortures.  At 
last,  when  no  suffering  could  subdue  their  courage. 
Maris  and  his  sons  were  beheaded  at  a  place  callea 
Nymphae  Catabassi,  thirteen  miles  from  Rome,  and 
their  bodies  burnt.  Martha  was  cast  into  a  well.  A 
Roman  lady  named  Felicitas,  having  succeeded  in  se- 
curing the  half-consumed  remains  of  the  father  and 
sons  and  also  the  mother's  bod^  from  the  well,  had  the 
sacred  relics  secretly  interred  in  a  catacomb,  on  the 


thirteenth  before  the  Kalends  of  February  (20  Jan- 
uary). The  commemoration  of  these  four  martyrs, 
however,  has  been  appointed  for  19  February,  doubt- 
less so  as  to  leave  tne  twentieth  for  the  feast  of  St. 
Sebastian. 

Acta  SS.  (1643),  II  Jan.,  214-6;  Baroitiub,  Annalea  (1589), 
270,  2-0,  12-16;  Bosco,  Utm  famiglia  di  martiri  osaia  vita  de% 
SS,  Mario,  Maria,  Audiface  ed  Abaco  (Turin,  1892);  Mombri- 
TIU8,  Sanctuarium  (1479),  II,  cxxxi-iii;  Surius,  De  vitxs  9anc- 
torum  (Venice,  1581),  I,  309-10;  Txllbmont,  Mhn,  pour  aervir 
ii  Vhitt.  eceUa.  (1606).  IV.  675-7. 

L6oN  Clugnet. 

Marisco.  Adam  de  (or  Adam  Marsh),  Franciscan. 
He  probably  came  from  the  county  of  Somerset,  but 
the  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown;  d.  at  the  end  of  1257 
or  the  beginning  of  1258.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, where  he  acquired  a  great  reputation.  He  had 
been  for  three  years  rector  of  Wearmouth,  in  Durham, 
when  he  joined  the  Friars  Minor  about  1237.  He  suc- 
ceeded Robert  Grosseteste  as  lecturer  at  the  Fran- 
ciscan house  in  Oxford,  and  soon  became  acauainted 
with  many  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  tne  time. 
The  extent  and  character  of  his  correspondence  shows 
how  widespread  was  his  personal  influence,  and  is  a 
striking  illustration  of  the  moral  force  exerted  b^  the 
early  Franciscans  in  England.  Adam  was  intimate 
with  Grosseteste  and  Archbishop  Boniface,  with 
Richard  of  Cornwall  and  Simon  de  Montfort.  Always 
a  reformer  himself,  he  must  have  helped^  give  Earl 
Simon,  who  began  his  career  in  End  f elf  M  a  forei^ 
favourite,  his  deep  patriotic  and  roLe  OaiiKnterest  m 
the  cause  of  reform.  Over  Henry  III  ne  had  no  direct 
influence,  but  he  had  friends  at  Court  and  he  was  most 
anxious  to  combine  peace  and  reform.  Unfortunately 
he  died  just  when  the  great  political  crisis  of  the  reign 
was  beginning.  Before  his  death  his  name  was  pro- 
posed by  Archbishop  Boniface  for  the  See  of  Ely, 
where  uiere  had  beien  a  disputed  election,  but  he 
seems  to  have  been  opposed  by  the  monastic  interest. 
As  a  man  of  learning  Adam  had  much  to  do  with  the 
organization  of  studies  at  Oxford,  and  as  "Doctor 
Iflustris"  was  known  throughout  Europe.  Roger 
Bacon  professed  for  him  the  same  perhaps  rather  ex- 
cessive admiration  with  which  he  regarded  Grosse- 
teste, calling  them  the  ''greatest  clerks  in  the  world". 
Among  the  works  attributed  to  Adam  are  commen- 
taries on  the  Master  of  the  Sentences,  on  parts  of 
Scripture,  and  on  Dionysius  the  Areopagite. 

The  chief  source  of  information  is  Adam's  own  correspond- 
ence published  in  Brewer,  Monumenta  Franeiacana  \RoUa 
Seriea),  Ecct.bston,  De  Adventu  Minorum,  GROSSBrasTE's 
Lettera  and  Matthew  Paris's  Chronicle  should  also  be  con- 
sulted. Modem  works:  Brewer.  Preface  to  Monumenta; 
Rasbdall.  Univeraitiea  of  the  Middle  Agea,  II  (Oxford,  1895;; 
Stevenson.  Life  of  Oroaaeteate  (London,  1899);  Crbiobton  m 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v.  Adam  de  Mariaco. 

F.  F.  Urquhart. 
Marist  Brothers.    See  Mart,  Little  Brothers 

OF. 

MaristB.    See  Mart,  Societt  of. 

MariuB  AventicuB  (or  Aventicensis),  Saint, 
Bishop  of  Avenches  (Switzerland)  and  chronicler,  b. 
about  530  in  the  present  Diocese  of  Autun;  d.  at  Lau- 
sanne, 31  December,  594.  Of  the  events  of  his  life 
little  is  known.  From  an  inscription  on  his  tomb  in 
the  church  of  St.  Thyrsius  in  Laxisanne  (pubUshed  in 
the  "Monumenta  Germ.  Scriptores",  XXIV,  795). 
we  learn  that  he  came  of  a  distinguished,  rich  and 

Erobably  Roman  family,  and  at  an  early  age  em- 
raced  the  ecclesiastical  state.  In  574  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Avenches,  took  part  in  the  Council  of  M4^ 
con  in  685,  and  shortly  afterwards  transferred  hie 
episcopal  see  from  Avenches,  which  was  rapidly  de- 
clining, to  Lausanne.  He  is  extolled  ae  an  ideeJ 
bishop;  as  a  skilled  eoldsmith  who  made  taef-  * 
vesse&  with  his  own  nands;  as  a  protector  aod^ 
factor  of  the  poor;  as  a  man  of  prayer,  and  ae  a  -' 
full  of  Anf.hiifliaiim  for  aerious  mtellectual 


fltndfaa.    la 


587  he  consecrated  St.  Mary's 


MABIUS 


672 


ISABX 


which  had  been  built  at  his  expense  and  through  his 
efforts.  After  his  death  he  was  venerated  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Lausanne  as  a  saint,  and  his  feast  was  cele- 
brated on  9  or  12  Februarv.  The  church  of  St.  Thyr- 
sius  received  at  an  early  date  the  name  of  St.  Marius. 
A  chronicle  of  his  is  still  preserved,  and  purports  to  be 
a  continuation  of  the  chronicle  of  Prosper  Tiro,  or 
rather  of  the  "Chronicon  Imperiale".  It  extends 
from  455  to  581,  and,  although  consisting  only  of  dry, 
annahstic  notes,  it  is  valuable  for  Burgundian  ana 
Franconian  history,  especially  for  the  second  half  of 
the  sixth  centur}'.  This  explains  the  fact  that,  not- 
withstanding its  brevity,  it  nas  been  frequently  pub- 
lished— first  by  Chifflct  in  Andr^  Duchesne's  "His- 
torisB  Francorum  Scriptores",  I  (1636),  210-214; 
again  by  Migne  in  P.  L.,  LXXII,  793-802,  and  finaUy 
by  Mommsen  in  '*Mon.  Germ.,  Auctores  antiqui  , 
XI  (1893).  232-9. 

Arndt,  Bischof  Marina  von  Aventicum.  Sein  Leben  u.  seine 
Chronik  (Leipzig.  1875):  Mommrkn  in  his  edition,  PrcBfatio, 
227-31;  FoTTHAST,  Bibl.  hist.  med.  ccvi,  I  (Berlin.  1896).  667. 

Patkicius  Schlager. 

MariuB  Mazimus,  Lucius  Pehpktuus  Aureli- 
ANUS,  Roman  historian,  lived  c.  165-230.  No  con- 
nected account  of  his  life  exists,  but  he  is  frequently 
quoted  as  an  authority  in  the  first  half  of  the  *'  Historia 
Augusta",  and  Valesuis  and  Borghesi  have  identified 
him  (Fragm.  hist.  Rom.,  p.  xxv  sq.)  with  the  prefect  of 
the  same  nagT»**eientioncd  both  in  the  inscriptions  and 
by  Dion  ^a&m^According  to  these  he  served  in  the 
Roman  army^W^ved  praetorian  rank  at  Rome,  took 
part  as  conmiandcr  in  the  campaigns  in  Gaul,  Belgium, 
Germany,  and  Cccle-Syria,  and  was  employed  in  high 
offices  of  administration.  During  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Septimius  Severus  (193-211)  he  was  made 
consul  for  the  first  time  short) v  after  197,  and  in  217 
Macrinus  appointed  him  prefect.  In  the  reign  of 
Alexander  Severus  (222-235)  he  was,  in  223,  appointed 
consul  for  the  second  time  and  governed  the  Provinces 
of  Asia  and  Africa  as  proconsul,  thesg  offices  being 
due  to  the  special  favour  of  the  emperor.  Later, 
Marius  Maximus  devoted  himself  to  historical  writing 
and  wTote  biographies  of  the  emjxjrors  from  Nerva 
(96-98)  to  Ileliogabalus  (d.  222).  As  the  biographies 
stop  with  Ileliogabalus,  althouch  Maximus  was  inti- 
mately connected  with  Alexander  Severus,  it  is  sup- 
posed that  he  did  not  survive  the  latter  emperor  dur- 
ing whose  reign,  it  is  thought,  his  work  was  prol^ably 
written.  The  history  of  the  earlier  emperors  is  not 
extant,  but  it  can  be  inferred  from  the  fragments  pre- 
served that  he  adopted  the  method  and  views  of  Sue- 
tonius of  whose  biographies  of  the  emperors  his  work 
was  a  continuation.  His  description  of  the  lives  and 
acts  of  the  emperors  is  influenced  by  his  friendliness 
towards  the  senate.  His  style  is  diffuse  and  detailed. 
Often  he  introduces  personal  occurrences,  and  offers 
official  instruments  and  records  of  the  senate  as  docu- 
mentary proof.  The  biographies  of  Marius  Maxi- 
mus were  greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries  and 
were  especially  read  by  the  Roman  senators.  Some 
of  the  biographies  were  continued  and  enkrged  by  other 
writers,  ^lius  Junius  Cordus  WTote  supplementary 
lives  of  the  usurpers,  Ca?sar3,  and  coadjutor-emperors, 

up  to  Alexander  Severus. 

Herrmann,  Scriptores  hist.  Aug.  (Leipzig.  1865);  Idem,  Die 
geschichUiche  Litemtur  iiber  die  rornische  Kaiserzeit  bis  Tfieoilo~ 
aius,  II  (LeipziR,  1897);  Plew,  Marius  Maximus  als  direkte  und 
indirckte  quelle  d.  scriptorcji  hist.  Auo.  (1878);  MCller,  Der 
Geachichtschreiber  Marius  Maximus  in  Bi' dinger,  Untersuch- 
ungen  zur  riimischen  KaisertQsch,  III;  Tecffel,  Gesch.  demim, 
Literatur,  new  ed.  Schwabs  (Leipzig,  1890). 

Karl  Hoeder. 

Marius  Mercator,  ecclesiastical  writer,  b.  prolm- 
bly  in  Northern  Africa  alwut  390;  d.  shortly  after  451. 
In  417  or  418  he  was  in  Rome  where  he  wrote  two  anti- 
Pelagian  treatises,  which  he  suhmitt^ni  to  St.  Augus- 
tine (Ep.  ad  M.  M.,  no.  193).  From  429  till  about  448 
he  was  in  Constantinople.    His  works,  mostly  transla- 


tions ftnd  compilations  of  excerpta  from  heretical  a 
well  as  orthodox  Greek  theological  writers,  were  edited 
by  Gamier  (Paris,  1673),  reprinted  in  Migne  (P.  L, 
XI.VIII,  Paris,  1846).  They  were  also  edited  Ij 
Baluze  (Paris,  1684),  reprinted  with  corrections  m 
Galland  ,  '^Bibliotheca  veterum  Patnim",  VIII  (Vot- 
ice,  1772),  613-738.  His  treatises  "  Commonitorium 
super  nomuie  Cselestii",  and  "Commonitoriumadvo^ 
sus  hseresim  Pelagii  et  Cffilestii  vel  <etiam  scripts 
Juliani''  are  against  the  Pelagians.  The  former  Ob 
Mi^e,  loc.  cit.,  63-108)  effected  the  expulsioo  of 
Julian  of  Eclanuin  and  Cslestius  from  Constantinopk 
and  their  condemnation  at  Ephesus  in  431.  The  latter 
is  in  Migne,  loc.  cit.,  109-172.  Against  the  Nestoriiu 
he  WTote  **Epistola  de  discrimine  inter  hseresim  Kes- 
torii  et  dogmata  Pauli  Samosateni,  £bioni8,  Photisi 
atque  Marcelli"  (Mi^e,  loc.  cit.,  773)  and  "Nestoro 
blasphemiarum  capitula  XII  '*  (Migne,  loc.  cit.,  907- 
932).  Among  his  translations  are  extracts  from  Cyii 
of  Alexandria,  Nestorius,  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia, 
Theodoret,  Pelaeius,  and' others. 

Bardeniiewer,  ratrologie,  tr.  Shahan  (FreiburK  im  Br  Md 
St.  Louis.  1908),  .508-10;  Kiiin.  Patrolopie  (Padertx>m,  190S), 
356-«;  Koch  in  Theologiscfie  QuartalscJinft,  LXXXI  (TabiBia» 
1899),  396-433;  Puillott  in  Dirt.  ChrifJ.  Biog.,  a.  v.;  LoSn^ 
Nestoriana  (Halle,  1905),  34  sq.,  120  sq.  The  second  part  of  tk 
lost  mentioned  work  contains  the  Nestorian  fragments  that  ovi 
their  preservation  to  Marius  M  creator. 

MiCHABL  On. 

Marius  Victorinus.    See  Victorinus. 

Mark  (Mdp/cos,  Maiicus),  Saint  and  SvANOXiiBr. 

— It  is  assumed  in  this  article  that  the  individual  re- 
ferred to  in  Acts  as  John  Mark  (xii,  12,  25;  xv,  37), 
John  (xiii,  5,  13),  Mark  (xv,  39),  is  identical  with  the 
Mark  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  (Col.,  iv,  10;  II  Tim  iv, 
11;  Philcm.,  24)  and  by  St.  Peter  (1  Peter,  v,*13). 
Their  identity  is  not  questioned  by  any  ancient  writer 
of  note,  while  it  is  strongly  suggested,  on  the  one  hand 
by  the  fact  that  Mark  of  the  PauUne  Epistles  was  the 
cousin  (6  di^i6s)  of  Barnabas  (Col.,  iv,  10),  to  whom 
Mark  of  Acts  seems  to  have  been  bound  by  some 
special  tie  (Acts,  xv,  37,  39) ;  on  the  other  by  the  prob- 
auility  that  the  Mark,  whom  St.  Peter  calls  his  son  (I 
Peter,  v,  13),  is  no  other  than  the  son  of  Mary,  the 
Apostle's  old  friend  in  Jerusalem  (Acts,  xii,  12)/  To 
the  Jewish  name  John  was  added  the  Roman  pre- 
nomen  Marcus,  and  by  the  latter  he  was  commonly 
known  to  the  readers  of  Acts  (xv,  37,  xAr  xoXo^iw 
Mdp/cov)  and  of  the  Epistles.  Mark's  mother  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  infant  Church  at  Jerusalem; 
it  was  to  her  house  that  Peter  turned  on  his  release 
from  prison;  the  house  was  approached  by  a  poidi 
(TTuXtiv),  there  was  a  slave  girl  (iraiStaKrj)^  probabiythe 
portress,  to  open  tlie  door,  and  the  house  was  a  meel- 
mg-place  for  the  brethren,  ''many*'  of  whom  were 
praying  there  the  night  St.  Peter  arrived  from  nrison 
(Acts,  xii,  12-13).  ^ 

When,  on  the  occasion  of  the  famine  of  a.  d.  45-46, 
Barnabas  and  Saul  had  completed  their  ministration 
in  Jerusalem,  they  took  Mark  with  them  on  their  re- 
turn to  Antioch  (Acts,  xii,  23).  Not  long  after  when 
they  started  on  St.  Paul'sfirst  Apostolic  journey  they 
had  Mark  with  them  as  some  sort  of  assi.stant  (^lyp/r^ 
Acts,  xiii,  5) ;  l)ut  the  vagueness  and  variety  of  mean- 
ing of  the  (ireek  term  makes  it  uncertain  in  what  pre- 
cise capacity  he  acted.  Neitlier  selected  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  nor  delegated  by  the  Church  of  Antioch  as  were 
Barnabas  and  Saul  (Acts,  xiii,  2-4),  he  was  probaUy 
taken  by  the  Apostles  as  one  who  could  be  of  general 
help.  The  context  of  Acts,  xiii,  5,  sugpgests  that  he 
helped  even  in  preaching  the  Word.  When  Paul  and 
Bama})as  resolved  to  push  on  from  Perga  into  central 
Asia  Minor,  Mark  depart erl  from  them,  if  indeed  he 
had  not  already  done  so  at  Paphos,  and  returned  to 
Jenisalem  (Acts,  xiii,  13).  What  his  reasons  were  for 
turning  back,  we  cannot  say  with  certainty;  Acts  xv 
38,  seems  to  suggest  that  he  feared  the  toil.  At'sny 
rate,  the  incident  was  not  forgotten  by  St.  Paul  who 


refused  on  account  of  it  to  take  Hark  with  him  on  the  for  some  time,  and  returned  to  Komc  before  I  Peter 

second  Apoetolic  jouney,    This  refusal  led  to  the  waa  written,  the  Petrine  and  Pauline  references  to  the 

aepairation  of  Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  the  latter,  tak-  Evangelist  are  quite  intelliKible  and  conmst^t. 

"    '      ■'  '■         -...-.           '.-.          ~-  .-"  V...        ^g  ^uj^  yj  traditii 


ing  Mark  with  him,  sailed  to  Cyprus  (Acta,  xv  37-40). 
At  this  point  (a.  d.  49-60)  we  lose  sight  of  Mark  in 
Acts,  and  we  meet  him  no  more  in  the  New  Testament, 
tiU  he  appears  some  ten  ^ears  afterwards  as  the  fellow- 


that 


_..  .  .,  .  300)  asserts 
. later  than  A.  D.  130,on  thcauthority  of  an"eldcr" 
t  Hark  had  been  the  interpreter  (/p»ii|Hur4i)  of 


workerofst.  Paul,andm  thecampanyofSt.Peter,at  Peter,  and  wrote  down  accurately,  tjiough  n_.  _ 
Rome.  order,  the  teaching  of  Peter  (see  below  Mahk,  Gospel 

St.  Paul,  writing  to  the  Colossians  during  his  first  OF  Saint,  II).  A  widespread,  if  somewhat  lfl(«,  tradi- 
Roman  imprisomnent  (a.  d.  59-61),  says;  "Aristar-  tion  represents  St.  Mark  as  the  founder  of  the  Church 
chAs,  my  fellow  prisoner,  aaluteth  you,  and  Hark,  the  of  Alexandria.  Though  strangely  enough  Clement 
cousin  of  Barnabas,  touching  whom  you  have  received  and  Orijjen  make  no  reference  to  the  saint's  coaneiion 
commandments;  if  he  come  unto  you,  receive  him"    with  their  city,  it  is  attested  by  Eusebius  (op.  cit.,  II, 

(Col.,  iv,  10).     At  the  time  this  was  written,  xvi,  xxiv.  in  P.  Q    XX,  173,  205),  by  8t.  Je- 

Mark  was  evidently  in  Rome,  Imt.  ha<l  ^.^r^^^m^^^  romr  (' De  Vir.  lUust.'',  viii,  in  P.  L., 
some  intention  of  visiting  Asia  Mhior.  i^^^^B^^^^^^  XXIIl,  622),  by  the  Apostc^ic  Con- 
About  the  same  time  St.  Paul  sciiih  4l^^~^iL^^^!^  Editions  (Vll,  xlvi),  by  '^-" 
greetings  to  Philemon  from  Us.rk.    /J^T     .^^^^^^^^^^  '  ^|V       |>haniuB  ("Hier.",  li,  6,  i     '^ 


K  his  te]. 
low-workers  (ouF^friTrf.Philem., 
24).  The  Evangelist's  intention 
of  visiting  Asia  Minor  was  prob- 
ably earned  out,  for  St.  Paul, 
writing  shortly  before  his 
death  to  Timothy  at  Ephesus. 
bids  him  pick  up  Mark  ana 
bring  hi"i  with  hmi  to  Rome, 
adding  "  for  be  is  profitable  to 
me  for  the  ministry"  (11  Tim., 
iv,  U).  If  Hark  liame  to 
Home  at  this  time,  he  was 
probably  there  when  St.  Paul 
was  martyred.  Turning  to  I 
Peter,  v,  13,  we  read:  "The 
Chureh  that  is  in  Babylon, 
elected  together  with  you, 
saluteth  you,  and  (so  doth) 
Mark  my  son"  (Mdpnt,  i  v\^ 
m).  This  letter  was  ad- 
dnseed  to  various  Churehes 
of  Asia  Minor  (1  Peter,  i,  1), 
and  we  may  conclude  that 
Mark  was  known  to  them. 
Hence,  though  he  had  refused 
to  penetrate  into  Asia  Minor 
with  Paul  and  Barnabas,  St. 
Paul  makes  it  probable,  and 
St.  Peter  certain,  that  he  went 
afterwards,  and  the  fact  that 
St.  Peter  sends  Mark's  greet- 
ing to  a  number  of  Churches 
implies   that   he  must    have 


«'; 

,  and  by  many  later 
authorities.  The  "Martyrolo- 
gium  Romanum"  (25  April) 
records:  "At  Alexandria  the 
anniversary  of  Blessed  Mark 
the  Evangelist  ...  at  Alex- 
andria of  St.  Anianus  Bishop, 
the  discipl'?  of  Blessed  Mark 
and  his  successor  in  the  epis- 
copate, who  fell  asleep  in  the 
Lord"  (cf.  Lc  Quien,  Oriena 
Christ.",  II,  Paris,  1740, 
334;  "Acta  SS.",  IX,  344- 
0;  Lipsius,  323  sqq.).  The 
date  at  which  Mark  came  to 
Alexandria  is  uncertain.  The 
Chronicle  of  Eusebius  (P.  G., 
XIX,  5:19)  assigns  it  to  the 
first  years  of  Claudius  (a.  d. 
41-4),  and  later  on  (ibid., 
543)  states  that  St.  Mark's 
first  su(»;esBor,  Anianus,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  See  of  Alexan- 
dria in  the  eighth  year  of  Nen> 
(61-2).  This  would  make 
Mark  Bishop  of  Alexandria 
for  a  period  of  about  twenty 
^ears.  This  is  not  impossible, 
it  we  might  suppose  in  accord- 
ance with  some  early  evidence 
that  St.  Peter  came  to  Rome 
in  A.  D.  42,  Hark  perhaps  ac- 
companying him.  But  Acts 
^  Fr»  Bmrtolommeo.  Pitti  PbIbm.  Floroiae  ru3es  considerable  difficultiea. 

been  widely  known  there.  ]ncaiLngHarkhis"BDn",  On  the  assumption  that  the  founder  of  the  Church  of 
Peter  may  possibly  imply  that  he  bad  baptised  him,  Alexandria  was  identical  with  the  companion  of  Paul 
though  in  that  case  r/mr  might  be  expected  rather  and  Barnabas,  we  find  him  at  Jerusalem  and  Antioch 
than  ulii  (cf.  I  Cor.,  iv,  17;  I  Tim.,  i,  2,  18;  II  about  a.  d.  46  (Acts  xii,  25),  in  Salamis  about  47 
Tim.,  i,  2;  ii,  1;  Tit.,  i,  4;  Philem.,  10).  The  term  (Acts,  xiii,  5),  at  Antioch  again  about  49  or  50  (Acts, 
need  not  be  taken  to  imply  more  than  affectionate  xv,  37-9),  and  when  he  quitted  Antioch,  on  the  sepa- 
r^ard  for  a  younger  man,  who  had  long  ago  sat  at  ration  of  I^ul  and  Bamaoas,  it  was  not  to  Alexandria 
Peter's  feet  in  Jerusalem,  and  whose  mother  had  been  but  to  Cyprus  that  he  turned  (Acta,  xv,  39).  There  is 
the  Apostle's  friend  (Acts,  xii,  12),  As  to  the  Baby-  nothing  mdeed  to  prove  absolutely  that  all  this  is  in- 
lon  fronn  which  St.  Peter  writes,  and  in  which  Hark  is  consistent  with  his  being  Bishop  of  Alexandria  at  the 
present  with  him,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  time,  but  seeing  that  the  chronology  of  the  Apoetohc 
that  it  is  Rome.  The  view  of  St.  Jerome:  "St.  Peter  age  is  admittedly  uncertain,  andthat  we  have  no 
also  mentions  this  M>irk  in  his  First  Epistle,  while  earlier  authority  than  Eusebius  for  the  date  of  the 
referring  figuratively  to  Rome  under  ttje  title  of  Baby-  foundation  of  the  Alexandrian  Church,  we  may  perhaps 
Ion"  (De  vir.  Illustr.,  viii),  is  supported  by  all  the  conclude  with  more  probability  that  it  was  founded 
early  Fathers  who  refer  to  the  sulnect.  It  may  be  somewhat  later.  "There  is  abundance  of  time  between 
said  to  have  been  questioned  for  the  first  time  by  a.  n.  50  and  fiO.aperiodduringwhich  theNewTesta- 
Erasmus,  whom  a  numl«r  of  Protestant  writers  then  ment  is  silent  in  regard  to  St.  Mark,  for  his  activity 
followed,  that  they  might  the  more  readily  denv  the     in  Egypt. 

Roman  connexion  of  St.  Peter.  Thus,  we  find  Mark  IntbeprefacetohisGospelinmanuBcriptaoftheVii]- 
in  Rome  with  St.  Peter  at  a  time  when  he  was  widely  gate,  Marie  is  represented  as  having  been  a  Jewish 
known  to  the  Churehea  of  Asia  Mmor,  Ifwesuppose  priest:  "Hark  the  Evangelist,  who  exercised  the 
him,  as  we  may,  to  have  gone  to  Asia  Minor  after  the  priestly  office  in  Israel,  a  Levite  by  race  ".  Early  au- 
date  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Cotosrians,  remained  there  thoritiee,  however,  are  silent  upon  the  point,  and  itia 
IX.-43 


MARK  674  BCABK 

perhaps  only  an  inference  from  his  relation  to  Barna-  identical  with  the  pope.  The  date  of  Mark's  electioD 
bas  the  Levite  (Acts,  iv,  36).  Papias  (in  Euscbius,  (18  Jan.,  336)  is  given  in  the  Liberian  Catalogue  of 
"Hist,  eccl.",  Ill,  xxxix,  in  P.  G.,  XX,  300)  says,  on  popes  (Duchesne,  "Liber  Pontificalis ",  I,  9).  and  is 
the  authority  of  *'  the  elder",  that  Mark  neither  heard  nistorically  certam;  so  is  the  day  of  his  death  (7  Oct.), 
the  Lord  nor  followed  Him  (o(^e  yi^p  ^kovv€  rov  mtplov  which  is  specified  in  the  same  way  in  the  "  Depositio 
o6t€  T€LpriKokoO$nc€v  a^{;),  and  the  same  statement  is  episcoporum"  of  Philocalus's  "  Chronography ",  the 
made  in  the  Dialogue  of  Adamantius  (fourth  centurv,  first  emtion  of  which  appeared  also  in  336.  Concern- 
Leipzig,  1901 » p.  8) ,  by  Eusebius  C*  Demonst.  E vang.  ,  ing  an  interposition  of  the  pope  in  the  Arian  troubles, 
III,  V,  in  P.  G.,  XjCII,  215),  by  St.  Jerome  ("In  which  were  then  £io  actively  aftecting  the  Church  in  the 
Matth.''  in  P.  L.,  XXVI,  18).  b)r  St.  Auffustine  ("  De  East,  nothing  has  been  handed  down.  An  alleged  let- 
Consens.  Evang."  in  P.  L.,  XXXlV,  1043),  and  is  sug-  ter  of  his  to  St.  Athanasius  is  a  later  forgery.  Two 
gested  by  the  Muratorian  Fragment.  Later  tradition,  constitutions  are  attributed  to  Mark  by  the  author  of 
however,  makes  Mark  one  of  the  seventy-two  disci-  the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  (ed.  Duchesne,  I,  20).  Ao- 
ples,  and  St.  Epiphanius  ("Hsr.",  li,  6,  in  P.  G.,  XLI,  cording  to  the  one,  he  invested  the  Bishop  of  Ostia 
899)  says  he  was  one  of  those  who  withdrew  from  with  the  pallium  (q.  v.).  and  ordained  that  this  bishop 
Christ  (John,  vi,  67).  The  later  tradition  can  have  no  was  to  consecrate  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  It  is  certain 
weight  against  the  earlier  evidence,  but  the  statement  that,  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  the 
that  Mark  neither  heard  the  Lord  nor  followed  Him  Bishop  of  Ostia  did  bestow  the  episcopal  consecration 
need  not  be  prised  too  strictly,  nor  force  us  to  believe  upon  the  newly-elected  pope;  Augustine  expressly 
tiiat  he  never  saw  Christ.  Miuiy  indeed  are  of  opinion  bears  witness  to  this  (Breviarium  CoUationis,  III,  16). 
that  the  young  man  who  fled  naked  from  Gethse-  It  is  indeed  possible  that  Mark  had  confirmed  this 
mane  (Mark,  xiv,  51)  was  Mark  himself.  Early  in  the  privilege  by  a  constitution,  which  does  not  preclude 
third  century  Hippolytus  ("  Philosophumena'',  VII,  the  fact  that  the  Bishop  of  Ostia  before  this  tune  usu- 
XXX,  in  P.  G-.,  VI,  3334)  refers  to  Mark  as  h  KoKofioddKrv-  ally  consecrated  the  new  pope.  As  for  the  bestowal 
Xof,  i.  e.  "  stump-fingered''  or  "mutilated  in  the  fin-  of  the  paUium,  the  account  cannot  be  established  from 
Ker(s) '',  and  later  authorities  allude  to  the  same  de-  sources  of  the  fourth  century,  since  the  oldest  memo- 
feet.  Various  explanations  of  the  epithet  have  been  rials  which  show  this  badge,  belong  to  the  fifth  and 
suggested:  that  M!ark,  after  he  embraced  Christianity,  sixth  centuries,  and  the  oldest  written  mention  of  a 
cut  off  his  thiunb  to  unfit  himself  for  the  Jewish  priest-  pojpe  bestowing  the  pallium  dates  from  the  sixth  cen- 
hood;  that  his  fingers  were  naturally  stumpy;  that  tury  (cf.  Grisar,  "Das  rdmische  Pallium  und  die  Sites- 
some  defect  in  his  toes  is  alluded  to;  that  the  epithet  is  ten  liturgischen  Sch^rpen  *\  in  "  Festschrift  des  deu- 
to  be  regarded  as  metaphorical,  and  means  " deserter"  tschen  Campo  Santo  in  Rom  ",  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1897, 
(cf.  Acts,  xiii,  13).  83-114). 

The  date  of  St.  Mark's  death  is  uncertain.    St.        The  "  Liber  Pontificalis"  remarks  further  of  Marcus: 

Jerome  (*'  De  Vir.  Illustr.",  viii,  in  P.  L.,  XXIII,  622)  "  Et  oonstitutum  de  onmi  ecclesia  ordinavit  '* ;  but  we 

assigns  it  to  the  eighth  year  of  Nero  (62-63)  (AforfuiM  do  not  know  which  constitution  this  refers  to.     The 

.  est  octavo  Neronia  anno  et  sepuUua  Alexandria) ,  but  building  of  two  basilicas  is  attributed  to  this  pope  by 

this  is  probably  only  an  inference  from  the  statement  the  author  of  the  "  Liber  Pontificalis  ".    One  of  these 

of  Eusebius  ("Hist,  eccl.",  II,  xxiv,  in  P.  G.,  XX,  ma  built  within  the  city  in  the  region  "  iuxta  Palla- 

205),  that  in  that  year  Anianus  succeeded  St.  Mark  in  cinis";  it  is  the  present  church  of  San  Marco,  which 

the  Sec  of  Alexandria.   Certainly,  if  St.  Mark  was  alive  however  receivea  its  present  external  shape  by  later 

when  II  Tim.  was  written  (II  Tim.,  iv,  II),  he  cannot  alterations.    It  is  mentioned  in  the  fifth  century  as  a 

have  died  in  61-62.  Nor  does  Eusebius  say  he  di4;  the  Roman  title  church,  so  that  its  foundation  may  with- 

historian  may  merely  mean  that  St.  Mark  then  re-  out  diflSculty  be  attributed  to  St.  Mark,    The  other 

signed  his  see,  and  left  Alexandria  to  join  Peter  and  was  outside  the  dty;  it  was  a  cemetery  churchy  which 

Paul  at  Rome.    As  to  the  manner  of  his  death,  the  the  pope  got  built  over  the  Catacomb  of  Balbma.  be- 

"  Acts  "of  Mark  give  the  saint  the  glory  of  martyniom,  tween  the  Via  Appia  and  the  Via  Ardeatina  (ct.  de 

and  say  that  he  died  while  being  dragged  through  the  Rossi, "  Roma  sotterranea  *',  HI,  8-13 ;  '*  BuUettino  di 

streets  of  Alexandria;  so  too  the  Paschal  Chronicle,  arch,  crist.",  1867,  1  sqq.;  Wilpert,  "Topographische 

But  we  have  no  evidence  earlier  than  the  fourth  cen-  Studien  Qber  die  christhchen  Monumente  der  Appia 

tiuy  tJiat  the  saint  was  martyred.    This  earlier  silence,  und  der  Ardeatina  ",  in  "  Rom.  Quartalschrif  t ",  1901, ' 

however,  is  not  at  all  decisive  against  the  truth  of  the  32-49).    The  pope  obtained  from  Emperor  Constan- 

later  tradition.    For  the  saint's  alleged  connexion  with  tine  gifts  of  land  and  liturgical  furniture  for  b6th  basili- 

Aquileia,  see  "Acta  SS.",  XI,  pp.  346-7,  and  for  the  cas.    Mark  was  buried  in  the  Catacomb  dt  Balbina, 

removal  of  his  body  from  Alexandria  to  Venice  and  where  he  had  built  the  cemetery  church.    Hb  grave  is 

his  cultus  there,  ibid.,  pp,  352-8.    In  Christian  litera-  expressly  mentioned  there  bv  the  itineraries  of  the 

ture  and  art  St.  Mark  is  symbolically  represented  b^  seventh  century  (de  Rossi,  *^Roma  sotterranea",  I, 

a  lion.    The  Latin  and  Greek  Churches  celebrate  his  180-1).    The  feast  of  the  deceased  pope  was  given  on 

feast  on  25  April,  but  the  Greek  Church  keeps  also  the  7  Oct.  in  the  old  Roman  calendar  ot  feasts,  which  was 

feast  of  John  Mark  on  27  September.  inserted  in  the  "  Martyrologium  Hieronynuanum  " ;  it 

Ada  SS.,  XI,  344-58;  P,  G.,  CXV,  164-70;  Mangenot  in  is  still  kept  on  the  same  date.    In  an  ancient  manu- 


(EdmbuiTBh*.  1909),  427-56.   '           '         J.  MacRory.  christ.  urbis  Romae.",  II,  108;  Ihm. "  iamasi  epigram- 

mata",  Leipzig,  1895,  17,  no.  11).    De  Rossi  refers 

Mark,  Saint,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  conse-  this  to  Pope  Mark^  but  Duchesne  (loc.  cit.,  204),  is 

crated  18  Jan.,  336 ;  d .  7  Oct. j  336.    After  the  death  of  unable  to  accept  this  view.    Since  the  contents  of  the 

Pope  Sylvester,  Mark  was  raised  to  the  Roman  episco-  poem  are  of  an  entirely  ^neral  nature,  without  any 

pal  chair  as  his  successor.    The  "Liber  PontificaUs"  Mrticularly  charactenstic  feature  from  the  life  of 

says  that  he  was  a  Roman,  and  that  his  father's  name  rope  Mark,  the  Question  is  not  of  great  importance. 

was  Priscus.     Constantine  the  Great's  letter,  which  />t&erP<mii/..ed.  Duchesne,  I.  202-4;  Urbain,  £tn  Afarfyr- 

summoned  a  conference  of  Wshops  f or  the  investipj-  ?&fp'Si.%TO8?TSS^K."(;^.  3^^  ^'^X^\  l^.-*' 

tion  of  the  Donatist  dispute^  IS  directed  to  Pope  Milti-  j^  p^  Kirsch. 
ades  and  one  Mark  (Eusebius,  "Hist.  Eccl.  ,  X,  v). 

This  Mark  was  evidently  a  member  of  the  Roman  Mark,  Gospel  op  Saint. — ^The  subject  will   be 

clergy,  either  priest  or  first  deacon,  and  is  perhaps  treated  under  the  following  heads:    (I)  Contenta 


MARK                                  675  MARK 

Selection  and  Arrangement  of  Matter;   (II)  Author-  down  accurately  everything  that  he  remembered, 

ship;     (III)    Originw    Language,    Vocabulary,   and  without,  however,  recording  m  order  what  was  either 

Style;   (IV)  State  of  Text  and  Intepity;   (V)  Place  said  or  done  by  Christ.     For  neither  did  he  hear  the 

and  Date  of  Composition ;  (VI)  Destmation  and  Pur-  Lord,  nor  did  he  follow  Him,  but  afterwards,  as  I  said, 

pose;  (VII)  Relation  to  Matthew  and  Luke.  (he  attended)  Peter,  who  adapted  his  instructions  to 

I.  Contents,  Selection  and  Arrangement  of  the  needs  (of  his  hearers),  but  had  no  design  of  giv- 
Mattbr. — ^The  Second  Gospel,  like  the  other  two  ing  a  connected  account  of  the  Lord's  oracles  [v.  1. 
Synoptics,  deals  chiefly  with  the  Galilean  ministry  of  '^words'!.  So  then  Mark  made  no  mistake  [Schmie- 
dbrist,  and  the  events  of  the  last  week  at  Jerusalem,  del,  "committed  no  fault"],  while  he  thus  wrote  down 
In  a  brief  introduction,  the  ministry  of  the  Precursor  some  things  (l^wa)  as  he  remembered  them;  for  he 
and  the  immediate  preparation  of  Christ  for  His  made  it  his  one  care  not  to  omit  anything  that  he  had 
official  work  by  His  Baptism  and  temptation  are  heard,  or  set  down  any  false  statement  therein" 
touched  upon  (i,  1-13);  tnen  follows  the  body  of  the  (Euseb.,  "BKst.  Eccl.",  Ill,  xxxix,  in  P.  G.,  XX,  300), 
Gospel,  dealing  with  the  public  ministry,  Passion.  Some  indeed  have  understood  this  famous  passage  to 
Death,  and  Resurrection  of  Jesus  (i,  14-xvi,  8) ;  ana  mean  merely  that  Mark  did  not  write  a  literary  work, 
lastly  the  work  in  its  present  form  gives  a  summary  ac-  but  simply  a  string  of  notes  connected  in  the  simplest 
count  of  some  appearances  of  the  risen  Lord,  and  ends  •  fashion  (cf.  Swete,  "The  Gospel  ace.  to  Mark",  pp. 
with  a  reference  to  the  Ascension  and  the  xmiversal  Ix-lxi).  The  present  writer,  however,  is  convinced 
preaching  of  the  Gospel  (xvi,  9-20).  The  body  of  the  that  what  Papias  and  the  elder  deny  to  our  Gospel  is 
Gospel  falls  naturally  into  three  divisions:  the  minis-  chronological  order,  since  for  no  other  order  would  it 
try  m  Galilee  and  adjoining  districts:  Phoenicia,  Decap-  have  been  necessary  that  Mark  should  have  heard  or 
ohs,  and  the  country  north  towards  Csesarea  Philippi  followed  Christ.  But  the  passage  need  not  be  imder- 
(i,  14-ix,  49);  the  ministry  in  Judea  and  (kuI  Tipaw,  stood  to  mean  more  than  that  Mark  occasionally  de- 
with  B,  K,  C*,  L,  *,  in  X,  1)  PersBa,  and  the  journey  to  parts  from  chronological  order,  a  thing  we  are  quite 
Jerusalem  (x,  1-xi,  10) ;  the  events  of  the  last  week  at  prepared  to  admit.  What  Papias  and  the  elder  con- 
Jerusalem  (xi,  11-xvi,  8).  sidered  to  be  the  true  order  we  cannot  say;  they  can 

Beginning  with  the  public  ministry  (cf.  Acts,  i,  22;  hardly  have  fancied  it  to  be  represented  in  the  First 

X,  37),  St.  Mark  passes  in  sUence  over  the  preliminary  Gospel,  which  so  evidently  groups  (e.  g.  viii-ix),  nor. 

events  recorded  oy  the  other  Synoptists:  the  concep-  it  would  seem,  in  the  Third,  since  Luke,  like  Mark,  had 

tion  and  birth  of  the  Baptist,  the  genealogy,  concep-  not  been  a  disciple  of  Christ.     It  may  well  be  that, 

tion,  and  birth  of  Jesus,  the  comingof  the  Magi,  etc.  belonging  as  they  did  to  Asia  Minor,  they  had  the 

He  is  much  more  concerned  with  Christ's  acts  than  Gospel  of  St.  John  and  its  chronology  in  mind.     At 

with  His  discourses,  only  two  of  these  being  eiven  at  any  rate,  their  judgment  upon  the  Second  Gospel,  even 

any  considerable  length  (iv,  3-32;  xiii,  5-37).    The  if  it  be  just,  does  not  prevent  us  from  holding  that 

miracles  are  narrated  most  graphically  and  thrown  Mark,  to  some  extent,  arranges  the  events  of  Christ's 

into  great  prominence,  almost  a  fourth  of  the  entire  life  in  chronological  order. 

Gospel  (in  the  Vulg.,  164  verses  out  of  677)  being  de-  II.  Authorship. — All  early  tradition  connects  the 
voted  to  them,  and  there  seems  to  be  a  desire  to  im-  Second  Gospel  with  two  names,  those  of  St.  Mark  and 
■press  the  readers  from  the  outset  with  Christ's  al-  St.  Peter,  Alark  being  held  to  have  written  what  Peter 
migh^  power  and  dominion  over  all  nature.  The  had  preached.  We  nave  just  seen  that  this  was  the 
very  nrst  chapter  records  three  miracles:  the  casting  view  of  Papias  and  the  elder  to  whom  he  refers.  Pa- 
out  of  an  unclean  spirit,  the  cure  of  Peter's  mother-  pias  wrote  not  lat<?r  than  about  a.  d.  130,  so  that  the 
in-law,  and  the  healing  of  a  leper,  besides  alluding  testimony  of  the  elder  probably  brings  us  back  to  the 
summarily  to  many  others  (i,  32-34) ;  and,  of  the  eight-  first  century,  and  shows  the  Second  Uospel  known  in 
een  miracles  recorded  altogether  in  the  Gospel,  allbut  Asia  Minor  and  attributed  to  St.  Mark  at  that  early 
three  (ix,  16-28;  x,  46-52;  xi,  12-14)  occur  in  the  time.  St.  Irenseus  says:  *' Mark,  the  disciple  and  in- 
first  eight  chapters.  Only  two  of  these  miracles  (vii,  terpreter  of  Peter,  himself  also  handed  down  to  us  in 
31-37;  viii,  22-26)  are  peculiar  to  Mark,  but,  in  regard  writing  what  was  preached  by  Peter"  (**  Adv.  H»r.", 
to  nearly  all,  there  are  graphic  touches  and  minute  III,  i,  in  P.  G.,  VIII,  845;  ibid.,  x,  6,  in  P.  G.,  VII, 
details  not  found  in  the  other  Synoptics.  Of  the  878).  St.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  relying  on  the 
parables  proper  Mark  has  only  four:  the  sower  (iv,  3-  authority  of  "the  elder  presb3rters",  tells  us  tha^ 
9),  the  8€^  growing  secretly  (iv,  26-29),  the  mustard  when  Peter  had  publicly  preached  in  Rome,  many  of 
seed  (iv,  30-32),  and  the  wicked  husbandman  (xii,  those  who  heard  him  exhorted  Mark,  as  one  who  had 
1-9);  the  second  of  these  is  wanting  in  the  other  long  followed  Peter  and  remembered  what  he  had  said. 
Gospels.  Special  attention  is  paid  throughout  to  the  to  write  it  down,  and  that  Mark  '*  composed  the  Gospel 
human  feelings  and  emotions  of  Christ,  and  to  the  efiFect  and  gave  it  to  those  who  had  asked  him  for  it' '  (Euseo. , 
produced  by  His  miracles  upon  the  crowds.  The  "Hist.  EccL",  VI,  xiv,  in  P.  G.,  XX,  552).  Origen 
weaknesses  of  the  Apostles  are  far  more  apparent  than  says  (ibid.,  VI,  xxv,  in  P.  G.,  XX,  581)  that  Mark 
in  the  parallel  narratives  otMatt.  and  Luke,  this  being,  wrote  as  Peter  directed  him  (<»$  TL^rpot  (nfyny^aro  airf), 
probably  due  to  the  graphic  and  candid  discourses  of  and  Eusebius  himself  reports  the  tradition  that  Peter 
Peter,  upon  which  tradition  represents  Mark  as  relying,  approved  or  authorized  Mark's  work  ("Hist.  EccL", 

The  repeated  notes  of  time  and  place  (e.  g.  i,  14, 19,  II,  xv,  in  P.  G.,  XX,  172).    To  Uiese  early  Eastern 

20,  21,  29,  32,  35)  seem  to  show  that  the  Evangelist  witnesses  may  be  added,  from  the  West,  the  author  of 

meant  to  arrange  in  chronological  order  at  least  a  the  Muratorian  Fragment,  which  in  its  first  line  almost 

number  of  the  events  which  he  records.   Occasionally  certainly  refers  to  Mark's  presence  at  Peter's  dis- 

the  note  of  time  is  wimtin^  (e.  g.  i,  40;  iii,  1 ;  iv,  1 ;  x,  courses  and  his  composition  of  the  Gospel  accordingly 

1,  2,  13)  or  vague  (e.  g.  it,  1,  23;  iv,  35),  and  in  such  (Quibita  tamen  inter/uit  et  itaposuU);  'Tertulliaji,  ^o 

cases  he  may  of  course  depart  from  the  order  of  events,  states :  "The  Gospel  which  Mark  published  {eduUt)  is 

But  the  very  fact  that  m  some  instances  he  speaks  affirmed  to  be  Peter's,  whose  interpreter  Mark  was" 

thus  vaguely  and  indefinitely  makes  it  all  the  more  ("Contra  Marc.",  IV,  v,  m  P.  L.,  II,  367);  St.  Jerome, 

necessary  to  take  his  definite  notes  of  time  and  se-  who  in  one  place  says  that  Mark  wrote  a  short  Gospel 

quence  in  other  cases  as  indicating  chronological  at  the  request  of  the  brethren  at  Rome,  and  that 

order.     We  are  here  confronted,  however,  with  the  Peter  authorized  it  to  be  read  in  the  Churches  ("De 

testimony  of  Papias,  who  quotes  an  elder  (presbyter),  Vir.  111.",  viii,  in  P.  L.,  XXIII,  621),  and  in  another 

with  whom  he  apparently  agrees,  as  saying  that  Mark  that  Mark's  Gospel  was  composed,  Peter  narrating 

did  not  write  in  order:  "  And  the  elder  said  this  also:  and  Mark  writing  (Petro  narrante  et  iUo  scribente — **  Aq 

Mark,  liaving  become  interpreter  of  Peter,  wrote  Hedib.",  ep.  cxx^  in  P.  L,,  XXII,  1002).    Lx  e^rae^ 


MARX  676  MARK 

one  of  these  ancient  authorities  Mark  is  n^arded  as  hired  servants  (i,  20),  how  they  came  into  the  house  ^^ 

the  writer  of  a  Gospel,  which  is  looked  upon  at  the  Simon  and  Andrew,  with  James  and  John  (i,  29),  how 

same  time  as  having  Apostolic  authority,  because  the  blind  man  at  Jericho  wsa  the  son  of  Timeus(x,  46). 

substantially  at  least  it  had  come  from  St.  Peter,  how  Simon  of  Cyrene  was  the  father  of  Alexander  and 

In  the  li^t  of  this  traditional  connexion  of  the  Gospel  Ruf  us  (xv.  21) ;  (3)  how  there  was  no  room  even  about 

wit^  St.  Feter,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  to  it  St.  the  door  ot  the  house  where  Jesus  was  (ii,  2),  how  Jesus 


the  sons  of  Zebedee  (a  fact  mentioned  in  the  N.  T.    the  Sabbath,  when  the  sun  had  set,  the  sick  were 


brought  to  be  cured  (i,  32),  how  in  the  morning,  loDf 
before  day,  Christ  rose  up  (i,  35),  how  He  was  cruoi- 


only  in  Mark,  iii,  17),  and  that  this  is  written  in  the 
"memoirs''  of  Peter  (ivroit  dwownifiAwtCfuiffiv  airoO — 


after  he  had  just  named  Peter).  Though  St.  Justin  fied  at  the  third  hour  (xv,  25),  how  the  women  came  to 
does  not  name  Bfark  as  the  writer  of  the  memoirs,  Uie  the  tomb  very  early^  when  the  sim  had  risen  (xvi.  2) ; 
fact  tibat  his  disciple  Tatian  used  our  present  Mark,  in-  (5)  how  the  paralytic  was  carried  by  four  (ii,  3),  now 
cludmg  even  the  last  twelve  verses,  in  the  composition  the  swine  were  about  two  thousand  m  niunber  (v.  13). 
of  the  **  Diatessaron'',  makes  it  practically  certain  that  how  Christ  began  to  send  forth  the  Apostles,  two  and 
St.  Justin  knew  our  present  Second  Gospel,  and  like.the  two  (vi.  7).  This  mass  of  information  which  is  want- 
other  Fathers  connected  it  with  St.  Peter.              '  ing  in  tne  other  Synoptics,  and  of  which  the  above  in- 

If ,  then,  a  consistent  and  widespread  early  tradition  stances  are  only  a  sample,  proves  beyond  doubt  that 
is  to  count  for  anything,  St.  Mark  wrote  a  work  based  the  writer  of  the  Second  Gospel  must  have  drawn 
upon  St.  Peter's  preaching.  It  is  absurd  to  seek  to  from  some  independent  source,  and  that  this  source 
destroy  the  force  of  this  tiadition  by  suggesting  that  must  have  been  an  eyewitness.  And  when  we  reflect 
all  the  subsequent  authorities  relied  upon  Papias,  who  that  incidents  connected  with  Peter,  such  as  the  cure 
may  have  been  deceived.  Apart  from  the  utter  im-  of  his  mother-in-law  and  his  three  denials,  are  tokl  with 
probability  that  Papias,  who  had  spoken  with  many  special  details  in  this  Gospel;  that  the  accounts  of  the 
disciples  of  the  Apostles,  could  have  been  deceived  on  raising  to  life  of  the  daugnter  of  JaTrus,  of  the  Trans- 
such  a  question,  the  fact  that  Irensus  seems  to  place  figuration,  and  of  the  Agony  in  the  Garden,  three  oo- 
the  composition  of  Mark's  work  after  Peter's  death,  casions  on  which  only  Peter  and  James  and  John  were 
while  Ongen  and  others  represent  the  Apostle  as  ap-  present,  show  special  signs  of  first-hand  knowledge 
proving  of  it  (see  below,  v),  shows  that  all  do  not  j[cf.  Swete,  op.  cit.,  p.  xliv)  such  as  might  be  expected 
draw  from  the  same  source.  Moreover,  Clement  of  in  the  work  of  a  disciple  of  Peter  (Matthew  ana  Luke 
Alexandria  mentions  as  his  source,  not  any  sin^  au-  may  also  have  relied  upon  the  Petrine  tradition  for 
thority,  but  "the  elders  from  the  beginning"  (tQv  their  accounts  of  these  events,  but  naturally  Peter's 
d9f4Ka6€v  Tpwpvrfpvp — Euseb., "  Hist.  Eccl.",  VI,  xiv,  in  disciple  would  be  more  intimately  acquainted  with  ibe 
P.G.,XX,  552).  The  only  question,  then,  that  can  be  tradition);  finally,  when  we  remember  that,  thou^ 
raised  with  any  shadow  of  reason,  is  whether  St.  the  Second  Gospel  records  with  special  f ulln^  PetePs 
Mark's  work  was  identical  with  our  present  Second  three  deniab,  it  alone  among  the  Gospels  omits  all  ref- 
Gospel,  and  on  this  there  is  no  room  for  doubt.  Early  erenoe  to  the  promise  or  bestowal  upon  him  of  the 
Christian  Uterature  knows  no  trace  of  an  Urmarkua  primacy  (cf.  Matt.,  xvi,  18-19;  Luke,  xxii,  32;  J<^m, 
different  from  our  present  Gospel,  and  it  is  impossible  xxi,  15--17),  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  the  e;^witne88 
that  a  Work  giving  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles'  account  to  whom  St.  Mark  was  indebted  for  his  special  infor- 
of  Christ's  words  and  deeds  could  have  disappeared  ut-  mation  was  St.  Peter  himself,  and  that  our  present 
terly^  without  leaving  any  trace  behind.  Nor  can  it  Second  Gospel,  like  Mark's  work  referred  to  by  Papias, 
be  said  that  the  original  Mark  has  been  worked  up  into  is  based  upon  Peter's  discourses.  This  internal  evi- 
our  pfesent  Second  Gospel,  for  then,  St.  Mark  not  be-  dence,  if  it  does  not  actuall^r  prove  the  traditional 
ing  the  actual  writer  of  the  present  work  and  its  sub-  view  regarding  the  Petrine  origin  of  the  Second  Goa- 
stance  being  due  to  St.  Peter,  there  would  have  been  pel,  is  altogether  ccmsistent  with  it  and  tends  strongly 
no  reason  to  attribute  it  to  Mark,  and  it  would  un-  to  confirm  it. 

doubtedly  have  been  known  in  the  Church,  not  by  the  III.  Original  Lanouaob,  Vocabulabt,  and  Stsub. 

title  it  bears,  but  as  the  ''Gospel  according  to  Peter".  — It  has  always  been  the  common  opinion  that  the 

Internal  evidence  strongly  confirms  the  view  that  Second  Gospel  was  written  in  Greek,  and  there  is  no 

our  present  Second  Gospel  is  the  work  referred  to  by  soUd  reason  to  doubt  the  correctness  of  this  view.    We 

Papias.    That  work,  as  has  been  seen,  was  based  on  learn  from  Juvenal  (Sat..  Ill,  60  sq. ;  VI,  187  sqq.)  and 

Peter's  discourses.    Now  we  learn  from  Acts  (i,  21-22;  Martial  (Epig.,  XIV,  58)  that  Greek  was  very  indely 

X,  37;-41)  that  Peter's  preaching  dealt  chiefly  with  the  spoken  at  Rome  in  the  first  century.    Various  infiu- 

Sublic  life.  Death,  Resurrection,  and  Ascension  of  ences  were  at  work  to  spread  the  language  in  the  capi- 

hrist.    So  our  present  Mark,  confining  itself  to  the  tal  of  the  Empire.    **  Indeed,  there  was  a  double  tend- 

same  limits,  omitting  all  reference  to  Christ's  birth  and  ency  which  embraced  at  once  classes  at  both  ends  of 

private  life,  such  as  is  found  in  the  opening  chapters  of  the  social  scale.    On  the  one  hand  among  slaves  and 

Matthew  and  Luke,  and  commencing  with  the  preach-  the  trading  classes  there  were  swarms  of  Greeks  and 

ing  of  the  Baptist,  ends  with  Christ's  Resurrection  and  Greek-speaking  Orientals.    On  the  other  hand  in  the 

Ascension.    Again  (1)  the  graphic  and  vivid  touches  higher  ranks  it  was  the  fashion  to  speak  Greek;  chil- 

peculiar  to  our  present  Second  Gospel,  its  minute  notes  dren  were  taught  it  by  Greek  nurses ;  and  in  after  life 

m  regard  to  ^2)  persons,  (3)  places,  (4)  times,  and  (5)  the  use  of  it  was  carried  to  the  pitch  of  affectation" 

numbers,  pomt  to  an  eyewitness  like  Peter  as  the  (Sanday  and  Headlam,  "Romans",  p.  Ui).    We  know, 

source  ot  tne  writer's  information.    Thus  we  are  told  too,  that  it  was  in  Greek  St.  Paul  wrote  to  the  Ro- 

(1)  how  Jesus  took  Peter's  mother-in-law  by  the  hand  mans,  and  from  Rome  St.  Clement  wrote  to  Uie 

and  raised  her  up  (i,  31),  how  with  anger  He  looked  Church  of  Corinth  in  the  same  language.    It  is  true 

round  about  on  His  critics  (iii,  5),  how  He  took  little  that  some  cursive  Greek  MSS.  of  the  tenth  century  or 

children  into  His  arms  and  blessed  them  and  Laid  His  later  speak  of  the  Second  Gospel  as  written  in  Latin 


hands  upon  them  (ix,  35;  x,  16),  how  those  who  car-  (4yp^4>v  'Pwfu^urrt  iv  'Pc&mt?),  but  scant  and  late 

ried  the  paralytic  unQovered  the  roof  (ii,  3,  4),  how  dence  like  this,  which  is  probably  only  a  deduction 

Christ  commanded  that  the  multitude  should  sit  down  from  the  fact  that  the  Gospel  was  written  at  Rome, 

upon  the  green  grass,  and  how  they  sat  down  in  com-  can  be  allowed  no  weight.    Equally  improbable  seems 

^mies,  in  hundreds  and  in  fifties  (vi,  39-40);  (2)  how  the  view  of  Blass  (Philol.  of  the  Gosp.,  196  sc|q.)  that 

Jsaegand  John  left  their  father  in  the  boat  with  the  the  Gospel  was  originally  written  in  Aramaic.    Thft 


677 

arguments  advanced  by  BlasB  (cf.  also  Allen  in  "Ex-  v^vQv  or  V^fnfwrivQv  is  to  be  read  in  v,  1,  -fyrhp^i  or 
poittor".  6th  series,  I,  436  8C[q.)  merely  show  at  most  hrdu  in  vi,  20,  and  whether  the  difficult  a^ou,  at- 
that  Mark  may  have  thou^tmAramaie;  andnaturally  tested  by  B,  Kf  A,  L,  or  a^4f  is  to  be  read  in  vi,  20l 
his  simple,  colloquial  Greek  discloses  much  of  the  na-  But  the  great  textual  problem  of  the  Gospel  concerns 
tive  Aramaic  tinge.  Blass  indeed  urges  that  the  yari-  the  genuineness  of  the  last  twelve  verses.  Three 
ous  readings  in  the  MS8.  of  Mark,  and  the  variations  conclusions  of  the  Gospel  are  known:  the  long  con- 
in  Patristic  quotations  from  the  Gospel,  are  relics  of  elusion,  as  in  our  Bibles,  containing  verses  9-20,  the 
different  translations  of  an  Aramaic  original,  but  the  short  one  aiding  with  verse  8  (^0o/£i;rro  Tdp),  and  an 
instances  he  adduces  in  su])port  of  this  are  quite  in-  intermediate  form  which  (with  some  slight  variations) 
conclusive.  An  Aramaic  original  is  absolutely  incon^  runs  as  follows:  *'And  they  immediately  made  known 
patible  with  the  testimony  of  Papias,  who  evidently  all  that  had  been  commanded  to  those  about  Peter, 
contrasts  the  work  of  Peter's  interpreter  with  the  Ara-  And  after  this,  Jesus  EUmself  appeared  to  them,  and 
maic  woik  of  Matthew.  It  is  incompatible,  too,  with  through  them  sent  forth  from  East  to  West  the  holy 
the  testimony  of  all  the  other  Fathers,  who  represent  and  incorruptible  proclamation  of  the  eternal  salva- 
the  Gospel  as  written  by  Peter's  interpreter  tor  the  tion."  Now  this  third  form  may  he  dismissed  at 
Christians  of  Rome.  once.    Four  uncial  MSS.,  dating  from  the  seventh  to 

The  vocabulary  of  the  Second  €ospel  embraces  1330  the  ninth  century,  give  it,  indeed,  after  xvi,  8,  but 
distinct  words,  of  which  60  are  proper  names.  Eighty  each  of  them  also  makes  reference  to  Uie  longer  end- 
words,  exclusive  of  proper  names,  are  not  found  elseN  ing  as  an  alternative  (for  particulars  ef.  Swete,  op. 
where  in  the  N.  T. ;  this,  however,  is  a  small  number  in  cit.,  pp.  cv-cvii).  It  stands  also  in  the  margin  of  the 
comparison  with  more  than  250j)eculiar  words  found  cursive  MS.  274,  in  the  margin  of  the  Harclean  Syriac 
in  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke.  Of  St.  Mark's  words,  150  and  of  two  MSS.  of  the  Memphitic  version;  and  in  a 
are  shared  only  by  the  other  two  Synoptiste;  15  are  few  MSS.  of  the  Ethiopic  it  stands  between  verse  8  and 
shared  only  by  St.  John  (Gospel);  and  12  others  bv  the  ordinary  conclusion.  Only  one  authority,  the  Old 
one  or  other  of  the  Synoptiste  and  St.  John.  Thougn  Latin  k,  gives  it  alone  (in  a  very  corrupt  rendering), 
the  words  found  but  once  in  the  N.  T.  {(Lwa^  \ey6fi£wa)  without  any  reference  to  the  longer  form.  Such  evi- 
are  not  relatively  numerous  in  the  Second  Gospel,  they  dence,  especially  when  compared  with  that  for  the 
are  often  remarkable ;  we  meet  with  words  rare  in  later  other  two  endinns,  can  have  no  weight,  and  in  fact,  no 
Greek  such  as  ttrer,  rcudi^^cy,  with  colloquialisms  like  scholar  regards  this  intermediate  conclusion  as  having 
K€rrvpUf9^  ^i^TTfs^  cx€Kov\drvp,  and  with  transliterations  any  title  to  acceptance. 

such  as  KoppSiPj  ToKttpdk  Ko^n,  i<p<^d,   ^ppovrei  (cf        We  may  pass  on,  then,  to  consider  how  the  case 

Swete,  op.  cit.,  p.  xlvii) .    Of  the  words  peculiar  to  St.  stands  between  the  long  conclusion  and  the  short,  L  e. 

Mark  about  one-fourth  are  non-classical,  while  among  between  accepting  xvi,  9-20,  as  a  genuine  portion  of 

those  peculiar  to  St.  Matthew  or  to  St.  Luke  the  pro-  the  original  Gospel,  or  making  the  oriemal  end  wilii 

portion  of  non-classical  words  is  only  about  one-  xvi.  8.     In  favour  of  the  snort  ending  Eusebius 

seventh  (cf.  Hawkins,  "  Hor.  Synopt. ",  171).    On  the  ("Quaest.  adMarin.",inP.G.,XXII,  937-40)  is  appealed 

whole,  the  vocabulary  of  the  ^cond  Gospel  pointe  to  to  as  saying  that  an  apologist  might  get  rid  of  any^ 

the  writer  as  a  foreigner  who  was  well  acquainted  with  difficulty  arising  from  a  comparison  of  Matt.,  xxviu, 

colloquial  Greek,  but  a  comparative  stranger  to  the  1,  with  Mark,  xvi,  9,  in  regard  to  the  hour  of  Ghrist's 

literaiy  use  of  the  language.  Resurrection,  by  pointing  out  that  the  passage  in  Mark 

St.  Mark's  style  is  clear,  direct,  terse,  and  pictur-  bcannnine  with  verse  9  is  not  conteined  m  all  the 

esque,  if  at  times  a  little  harsh.    He  makes  very  fre-  MSS.  of  fiie  Gospel.    The  historian  then  goes  on  him- 

quent  use  of  participles,  is  fond  of  the  historical  prea-  self  to  say  that  in  nearly  all  the  MSS.  of  Amrk,  at  least, 

ent,  of  direct  narration,  of  double  negatives,  of  the  in  the  accurate  ones  (axfShv  h  dveuri  rots  Arriypd^s 

copious  use  of  adverbs  to  define  and  emphasise  his  .  .  .  rd  yody  dxptfirj),  the  Gospel  ends  with  xvi,  8.    It 

expressions.    He  varies  his  tenses  very  freely,  some-  is  true,  Eusebius  gives  a  second  reply  which  the  apolo- 

times  to  bring  out  di£Ferent  shades  of  meaning  (vii,  35;  gist  might  make,  and  which  supposes  the  genuineness 

XV,  44)^  sometimes  apparently  to  give  life  to  a  di&-  of  the  disputed  passage,  and  he  says  that  this  latter 

logue  (ix,  34;  xi.  27).    The  style  is  often  most  com-  reply  might  be  made  by  one  *' who  did  not  dare  to  set 

pressed,  a  great  aeal  being  conveyed  in  very  few  words  aside  anything  whatever  that  was  found  in  any  way 

(i,  13,  27 ;  xii,  38-40),  yet  at  otlier  times  adverbs  and  in  the  Gospel  writing ''.    But  the  whole  passage  shows 

synonyms  and  even  rraetitions  are  used  to  hei^ten  clearly  enoudb  that  Eusebius  was  inchned  to  reject 

the  impression  and  lend  colour  to  the  picture.  Clauses  everythinfl;  after  xvi,  8.    It  is  commonly  held,  too, 

are  generally  strung  together  in  the  simplest  way  by  thathe  did  not  apply  his  canons  to  the  disputed  verses, 

Kal ;  d4  is  not  used  half  as  frequently  as  in  Matthew  or  thereby  showing  clearly  that  he  did  not  rc^;ard  them  as 


Mark  wrote  in  Latin  or  even  understood  the  language,  the  passage  was  wanting  in  nearly  all  Greek  MSS. 

It  proves  merely  that  he  was  familiar  with  the  com-  (omnibus  Grcecia  libris  pcene  hoc  capiitUum  in  fine  non 

mon  Greek  of  the  Roman  Empire,  which  freely  adopted  habentibus) ,  but  he  quotes  it  elsewhere  (' '  Comment,  on 

Latin  words  and,  to  some  extent,  Latin  phraseology  Matt.'',  in  P.  L.,  XaVI,  214;  *' Ad  Hedib.",  in  P.  L., 

(cf .  Blass,/'  Philol.  of  the  Gosp.",  211  sq.).    Indeed  XXII,  987-88),  and,  as  we  know,  he  incorporated  it  in 

such  familiarity  with  what  we  may  call  Roman  Greek  the  Vulgate.    It  is  quite  clear  that  the  whole  passable 

strongly  confirms  the  traditional  view  that  Mark  was  where  Jerome  makes  the  statement  about  the  dis- 

an  "interpreter"  who  spent  some  time  at  Rome.  puted  verses  being  absent  from  Greek  MSS.  is  hor- 

IV.  State  of  Text  and  Integritt. — The  text  of  rowed  almost  verl^tim  from  Eusebius,  and  it  may  be 

the  Second  Gospel,  as  indeed  of  all  the  Gospels,  is  doubted  whether  his  stetement  really  adds  any  inde- 

excellentl;jr  attested.    It  is  contained  in  all  tne  pri-  pendent  weight  to  the  statement  of  Eusebius.    It 

mary  uncial  MSS.,  C,  however,  not  having  the  text  seems  most  I&ely  also  that  Victor  of  Antioch,  the  first 

complete,  in  all  the  more  important  later  uncials,  in  the  commentetor  of  the  Second  Gospel,  rea^arded  xvi,  8. 

great  mass  of  cursives;   in  all  the  smctent  versions:  as  the  conclusion.    If  we  add  to  this  that  the  Gospel 

Latin  (both  Vet.  It.,  in  ite  best  MSS.,  and  Vulg.),  Syriac  ends  with  xvi,  8,  in  the  two  oldest  Greek  MSS.,  B  and 

(Pesh.,  Curet.,  Sin.,  Hard.,  Palest.),  Coptic  (Mem;^.  H,  in  the  Sin.  Ssrriac  and  in  a  few  Ethiopic  MSS.,  and 

andTheb.),  Armenian,  Gothic,  and  Ethiopic;  and  it  is  that  the  cursive  MS.  22  and  some  Armenian  MSS. 

largely  attested  by  Patristic  quotations.  Some  textual  indicate  doubt  as  to  whether  the  true  endin^^  is  at 

problems,  however,  still  remain,  e.  g<  whether  Ttpa-  verse  &or  verse  20,  we  have  mentioned  all  the  evideiaoe 


678 

that  can  be  adduced  in  favour  of  the  short  conclusion,  of  Eusebius.    Dean  Burgon,  while  contending  for  the 
The  external  evidence  in  favoiu:  of  the  long*  or  or-  genuineness  of  the  verses,  suggested  that  the  omiasioii 
dinary,  conclusion  is  exceedingly  strong.    The  paa-  zuight  have  come  about  as  follows.     One  of  the  an- 
sage  stands  in  all  the  great  uncials  excepts  and  K — ^in  cient  church  lessons  ended  with  Mark,  xvi.  8,  and 
A,  C,  (D),  E,  F,  G,  H,  K,  M  (N),  S,  U,  V,  X,  r,  A,  (E,  2),  Bureon  suggested  that  the  t^Xoi,  which  would  stand 
0,3 — in  all  the  cursives,  in  all  the  Latin  MSS.(O.L.  and  at  the  enoTof  such  lesson,  may  have  misled  some 
Vulg.)  except  k,  in  all  the  Syriac  versions  except  the  scribe  who  had  before  him  a  copy  of  the  Four  Gospels 
Sinaitic  (in  the  Pesh.,  Curet.,  Harcl.,  Palest.),  m  the  in  which  Mark  stood  last,  and  from  which  the  last  leaf, 
Coptic,  Gothic,  and  most  MSS.  of  the  Armenian.    It  containing  the  disputed  verses,  was  missing.     Given 
is  cited  or  alluded  to,  in  the  fourth  century,  by  Aphra-  <me  such  defective  cop^,  i^d  supposing  it  fell  into  the 
ates,  the  Syriac  Table  of  Canons,  Macarius  Magnes,  hands  of  ignorant  scribes,  the  error  might  easily  be 
Didymus,  the  Syriac  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  Leontius,  spread.     Others  have  suggested  that  the  omission  is 
Pseudo-Ephraem,   Cyril  of  Jerusalem,   Epiphanius,  probably  to  be  traced  to  Alexandria.    That  Church 
Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  Chrysostom;   in  tne  third  ended  the  Lenten  fast  and  commenced  the  celebratioc 
century,  by  Hippolytus,  Vincentius,  the  *'Acts  of  of  Easter  at  midnight,  contrary  to  the  custom  of  most 
Pilate  ,  the  "  Apostolic  Constitutions",  and,  probably  Churches,  which  waited  for  cock-crow  (cf .  Dionysius 
by  Celsus;  in  the  second,  by  Ircnseus  most  explicitly  of  Alexandria  in  P.  G.,  X,  1272  sq.).    Now  Mark,  xvi, 
as  the  end  of  Mark's  Gospel  (*' In  fine  autem  evangelii  9:  ''But  he  rising  early'^  etc.,  might  easily  be  taken 
ait  Marcus  et  quidem  dominus  Jesus",  etc. — Mark,  to  favour  the  practice  of  the  .other  Churches,  and  it  is 
xvi  19),  by  Tatian  in  the  '^Diatessaron",  and  most  suggested  that  the  Alexandrians  may  have  omitted 
probably  by  Justin  (*' Apol.  I",  45)  and  Hermas  (Pas-  verse  9  and  what  foUows  from  their  lectionaries,  and 
tor,  IX,  XXV,  2).     Moreover,  in  the  fourth  century  from  these  the  omission  might  pass  on  into  MSS.  of 
certainly,  and  probably  in  the  third,  the  passage  was  the  Gospel.     Whether  there  be  any  fqroe  in  these 
used  in  the  Liturgy  of  the  Greek  Churcn,  sufficient  suggestions,  they  point  at  any  rate  to  ways  in  whidi 
evidence  that  no  doubt  whatever  was  entertained  as  it  was  possible  that  the  passage,  though  genuine,  should 
to  its  genuineness.    Thus,  if  the  authenticity  of  the  have  been  absent  from  a  number  of  MbS.  in  the  time 
passage  were  to  be  judged  by  external  evidence  alone,  of  Eusebius;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  verses 
there  could  hardly  be  any  doubt  about  it.  were  not  written  by  St.  Mark,  it  is  extremely  hard  to 
Much  has  been  made  of  the  silence  of  some  third  and  understand  how  they  could  have  been  so  widely   re- 
fourth  century  Fathers,  their  silence  being  interpreted  ceived  in  the  secona  century  as  to  be  accepted  by 
to  mean  that  they  either  did  not  know  the  passage  or  Tatian  and  Irensus,  and  probablv  by  Justin  and  Her- 
rejected  it.    Thus  Tertullian,SS.  Cyprian,  Athanasi us,  mas,  and  find  a  place  in  the  Old  Latin  and  Syriac 
Basil  the  Great,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  and  Cyril  of  Versions. 

Alexandria  are  appealed  to.     In  the  case  of  Tertullian        When  we  turn  to  the  internal  evidence^  the  number, 
and  Cyprian  there  is  room  for  some  doubt,  as  they  and  still  more  the  character^  of  the  peculiarities  is  oer- 
might  naturally  enough  be  expected  to  have  quoted  tainly  striking.    The  f ollowmg  words  or  phrases  occur 
or  alluded  to  Mark,  xvi,  16,  if  they  received  it;  but  nowhere  else  in  the  Gospel:  wptih-ii  aap^rov  (v.  9),  not 
the  passage  can  hardly  have  been  unknown  to  Athana-  found  again  in  the  N.  T.,  instead  of  r^tl  /ua[t]  [tQw] 
8ius(298-373),sinceit  was  received  by  Didjrmus  (309-  aafifidrvp  (v.  2),  iKeiPot  used  absolutely  (10,  11,  20), 
394),  his  contemporary  in  Alexandria  (P.  G.,  XXXIX,  rop€i^/uu  (10, 12, 15),  ecdofAoi  (11, 14),  drurr4w  (11, 16)^ 
687),  nor  to  Basil,  seeing  it  was  received  by  his  younger  fifrdk  raOra  and  frepoi  (12),  rapaKoXovBiut  and  4w  r^ 
brother  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (P.  G.,  XL VI,  652),  nor  to  Mftari,    (17),  A  KOpiot  (19,   20),   iraiTttxcO,   avif€py^, 
Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  since  it  was  known  to  his  /Sf/Scu^ciy,  iwoKoKovOita  (20).    Instead  of  the  usual  con- 
younger  brother  Csesarius  (P.  G.,  XXXVIII,  1178);  nexion  by  koU  and  an  occasional  94 ,  we  have  /xcrd  H 
and  as  to  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  he  actually  quotes  it  toOto  (12),  Co-Tepoi'[W]  (14),  A  /livcdp  (19),  iKciiKu  d4  (20). 
from  Nestonus  (P.  G.,  LXXVI,  85).    The  only  seri-  Then  it  is  urged  that  the  subject  of  verse  9  has  not  been 
ous  difficulties  are  created  by  its  omission  in  B  and  K  mentioned  immediately  before;  that  Mar;y  Magdalen 
and  by  the  statements  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome.     But  seems  now  to  be  introduced  for  the  first  tmie,  though 
Tischendorf  proved  to  demonstration  (Proleg.,  p.  xx,  in  fact  she  has  been  mentioned  three  times  in  the  pre- 
1  sqq.)  that  the  two  famous  MSS.  are  not  here  two  in-  ceding  sixteen  verses;  that  no  reference  is  made  to  an 
depNsndent  witnesses,  because  the  scribe  of  B  copied  appearance  of  the  Lord  in  Galilee,  though  this  was  to 
the  leaf  in  M  on  which  our  passage  stands.     Moreover,  be  expected  in  view  of  the  message  of  verse  7.     Com- 
in  both  MSS.,  the  scribe,  though  concluding  with  verse  paratively  little  importance  attaches  to  the  last  three 
8,  betrays  knowledge  that  something  more  followed  points,  for  the  subject  of  verse  9  is  sufficiently  obvious 
either  in  his  archetype  or  in  other  MS§.,  for  in  B,  con-  from  the  context;  the  reference  to  Magdalen  as  the 
trary  to  his  custom,  he  leaves  more  than  a  colunm  woman  out  of  whom  Christ  had  cast  seven  devils  is  ex- 
vacant  after  verse  8,  and  in  M  verse  8  is  followed  by  an  plicable  here,  as  showing  the  loving  mercy  of  the  Lord 
elaborate  arabesque,  such  as  is  met  with  nowhere  else  to  one  who  before  had  been  so  wretched ;  and  the  men- 
in  the  whole  MS. ,  showing  that  the  scribe  was  aware  of  tion  of  an  appearance  in  Galilee  was  hardly  necessary, 
the  existence  of  some  conclusion  which  he  meant  the  important  thing  being  to  prove,  as  this  passage 
deliberately  to  exclude  (cf.  Comely,  *'  Introd.",  iii,  does,  tnat  Christ  was  really  risen  from  the  dead,  and 
96-99;Salmon,*'Introd.",  144-48).    Thus  both  MSS.  that  His  Apostles,  almost  against  their  wills^  were 
bear  witness  to  the  existence  of  a  conclusion  following  forced  to  believe  the  fact.     But,  even  when  this  is  said, 
after  verse  8,  which  they  omit.     Whether  B  and  K  are  the  cumulative  force  of  the  evidence  against  the  Mar- 
two  of  the  fifty  MSS.  which  Constantine  commissioned  can  origin  of  the  passage  is  considerable.    Some  ex- 
Ehisebius  to  have  copied  for  his  new  capital  we  cannot  planation  indeed  can  be  offered  of  nearly  every  point 
be  sure;  but  at  all  events  they  were  written  at  a  time  {cf.  Knabenbauer,  "Comm.  in  Marc",  445-47),  but  it 
when  the  authority  of  Eusebius  was  paramount  in  is  the  fact  that  in  the  short  space  of  twelve  verses  so 
Biblical  criticism,  and  probably  their  authority  is  but  many  points  require  explanation  that  constitutes  the 
the  authority  of  Eusebius.     The  real  difficulty,  there-  strength  of  the  evidence.    There  is  nothing  strange 
fore,  against  the  passage,  from  external  evidence,  is  about  the  use,  in  a  passage  like  this,  of  many  words 
reduced  to  what  Eusebius  and  St.  Jerome  say  about  rare  with  the  author.     Ctoly  in  the  last  chapter  is 
its  omission  in  so  many  Greek  MSS.,  and  these,  as  dwurriu  used  by  St.  Luke  also  (Luke,  xxiv,  11,  41), 
Eusebius  says,  the  accurate  ones.     But  whatever  be  h-tpos  is  used  oiJy  once  in  St.  John's  Gospel  (xix.  37), 
the  explanation  of  this  omission,  it  must  Ix?  remem-  and  wapaKo\ov04(a  is  used  only  once  by  St.  Luke  (i,  3). 
b^n»<l  that,  as  we  have  seen  alx)ve,  the  disput^Ml  verses  Besides,  in  other  passages  St.  Mark  uses  many  words 
were  widely  known  and  received  long  before  the  time  that  are  not  found  in  the  Gospel  outside  the  particular 


BSABX  679 

passage.    In  the  ten  verses,  Mark,  iv^  20-29,  the    probably  misunderstood  Eusebius,  who  says  that 


so  many  peculiar  features,  not  only  of  vocabulary,  but    adopted  the  suggestion  of  Richard  Simon  (**  Hist.  crit. 


of  matter  and  construction^  that  leaves  room  for  doubt  du  Texte  du  N.  T/'  1689,  107)  that  the  Evangelist 

as  to  the  Marcan  authorship  of  the  verses.  ma^r  have  published  Doth  a  Roman  and  an  Egjrptian 

In  weighing  the  internal  evidence,  however,  account  edition  of  the  Gospel.    But  this  view  is  sufficiently 

must  be  taken  of  the  improbability  of  the  Evangelist's  refuted  by  the  silence  of  the  Alexandrian  Fathers, 

concluding  with  vers|  8.    Apart  from  the  unlikelihood  Other  opinions,  such  as  that  the  Gospel  was  written  in 

of  his  endmg  with  the  particle  ydp,  he  could  never  de-  Asia  Minor  or  at  Syrian  Antioch,  are  not  deserving  of 

Uberately  close  his  account  of  the  "good  news"  (i,  1)  any  consideration. 

with  the  note  of  terror  ascribed  in  xvi,  8,  to  some  ot        The  date  of  the  Gospel  is  uncertain.    The  external 

Christ's  followers.    Nor  could  an  Evangelist,  ^pe-  evidence  is  not  decisive,  and  the  internal  does  not  as- 

cially  a  disciple  of  St.  Peter,  willingly  conclude  ms  Gob-  sist  very  much.    St.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen, 

pel  without  mentioning  some  appearance  of  the  risen  Eusebius,  Tertullian.  and  St.  Jerome  si^iify  that  it 

Lord  (Acts,  i,  22;  x,  37-41).    If,  then,  Mark  concluded  was  written  before  St.  Peter's  death.    The  subscrip- 

with  verse  8.  it  must  have  been  because  he  died  or  was  tion  of  many  of  the  later  uncial  and  cursive  MS8. 

interrupted  before  he  could  write  more.    But  tradition  states  that  it  was  written  in  the  tenth  or  twelfth  year 

points  to  bis  living  on  after  the  Gospel  was  completed,  after  the   Ascension  (a.  d.  38-40).    The   **  Paschal 

since  it  represents  him  as  bringing  the  work  with  him  Chronicle  "  assigns  it  to  a.  d.  40,  and  the  "Chronicle " 

to   E^pt   or   as  handing  it  over  to  the  Roman  of  Eusebius  to  the  third  year  of  Claudius  (a.  d.  43). 

Christians  who  had  asked  for  it.     Nor  b  it  easy  to  im-  Possibly  these  earlv  dates  may  b^  only  a  deduction 

derstand  how,  if  he  lived  on.  he  could  have  been  so  in-  from  the  tradition  that  Peter  came  to  Rome  in  the  seo- 

temipted  as  to  be  eflfectually  prevented  from  adding,  ond  jrear  of  Claudius,  a.  d.  42  (cf .  Euseb., "  Hist.  Eccl.", 

sooner  or  later,  even  a  short  conclusion.     Not  many  II,  xiv,  in  P.  G.,  Xa,  472;  Jer.,  "De  Vir.  111.",  i,  in 

minutes  would  have  been  needed  to  write  such  a  pas-  P.  L.,  XXIII).    St.  Irenseus,  on  the  other  hand,  seems 

sage  as  xvi,  9-20,  and  even  if  it  was  his  desire,  as  Zahn  to  place  the  composition  of  the  Gospel  after  the  death 


.  without  reason  suggests  (Introd..  II,  479) ^  to  add  some  of  reter  and  Paul  (f««rd  W  r^p  Tc&naw  H^odow — "Adv. 
considerable  portions  to  the  work,  it  is  still  inconoeiv-  Hsr.",  III.  i,  in  P.  G.,  VII,  844).  Paj)ias,  too,  assert- 
able  how  he  could  have  either  circulated  it  himself  or  ing  that  Mark  wrote  according  to  his  recollection  of 
allowed  his  friends  to  circulate  it  without  providing  it  Peter's  discourses,  has  been  taken  to  imply  that  Peter 
with  at  least  a  temporary  and  provisional  conclusion,  was  dead.  This,  noweyer,  does  not  necessarily  follow 
In  every  hypothesis,  then,  xvi,  8,  seems  an  impossible  from  the  words  of  Papias,  for  Peter  might  have  been 
ending,  and  we  are  forced  to  conclude  either  that  the  absent  from  Rome.  Besides,  Clement  of  Alexandria 
true  ending  is  lost  or  that  we  have  it  in  the  disputed  (Euseb.,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  VI,  xiv,  in  P.  G.,  XX,  552) 
verses.  Now,  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  it  coula  have  seems  to  say  that  Peter  was  alive  and  in  Rome  at  the 
been  lost.  Zahn  affirms  that  it  has  never  been  estab-  time  Mark  wrote,  though  he  gave  the  Evangelist  no 
lished  nor  made  probable  that  even  a  single  complete  help  in  his  work.  There  is  left,  therefore,  the  testi- 
sentence  of  the  N.  T.  has  disappeared  altogether  from  mony  of  St.  Irenseus  a^inst  that  of  all  the  other  early 
the  text  transmitted  by  the  Cnurch  (Introd.,  II,  477).  witnesses;  and  it  is  an  mteresting  fact  that  most jpres- 
In  the  present  case,  if  the  true  ending  were  lost  during  ent-day  Rationalist  and  Protestant  scholars  prefer  to 
Mark's  lifetime,  the  question  at  once  occurs:  Why  did  follow  Irensus  and  accept  the  later  date  for  Mark's 
he  not  replace  it?  And  it  is  difficult  to  understand  Gospel,  though  they  reject  almost  unanimous! v  the 
how  it  could  have  been  lost  after  his  death,  for  before  saint's  testimony,  given  in  the  same  context  and  sup- 
then,  unless  he  died  within  a  few  days  from  the  com-  ported  bv  all  antiquity,  in  favour  of  the  priority  of 
pletion  of  the  Gospel,  it  must  have  been  copied,  and  it  Matthew  s  Gospel  to  Biuix^'s.  Various  attempts  have 
IS  most  unlikely  tnat  the  same  verses  could  have  dis-  been  made  to  explain  the  passage  in  Irenseus  so  as  to 
appeared  from  several  copies.  brin^;  him  into  agreement  with  the  other  early  au- 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  survey  of  the  question  that  thonties   (see,  e.  g.  Comely.  "Introd.",  iii,   76-78; 

there  is  no  justification  for  the  confident  statement  of  Patrizi,"  De  Evang.",  1, 38),  out  to  the  present  writer 

Zahn  that  'Ut  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  cer-  they  appear  unsuccessful  if  the  existing  text  must  be 

tain  of  critical  conclusions,  that  the  words  ^0o/3odrro  regarded  as  correct.    It  seems  much  more  reasonable, 

ydpj  xvi,  8,  are  the  last  words  in  the  book  which  were  however,  to  believe  that  Irenseus  was  mistaken  than 

written  by  the  author  himself"  (Introd.,  II,  467).  that  all  the  other  authorities  are  in  error,  and  hence 

Whatever  be  the  fact,  it  is  not  at  all  certain  that  Mark  the  external  evidence  would  show  that  Mark  wrote  be- 

did  not  write  the  disputed  verses.    It  may  be  that  he  foreo^eter's  death  (a.  d.  64  or  67). 

did  not;  that  thev  are  from  the  pen  of  some  other  in-  From  internal  evidence  we  can  conclude  that  the 

spired  writer,  and  were  appended  to  the  Gospel  in  the  Gospel  was  written  before  a.  d.  70,  for  there  is  no  allu- 

first  century  or  the  beginning  of  the  second.    An  Ar-  sion  to  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem, 

menian  MS.,  written  in  a.  d.  986,  ascribes  them  to  a  such  as  might  naturally  be  expected  in  view  of  the  pre- 

presbyter  named  Ariston,  who  mav  be  the  same  with  diction  in  xiii,  2,  if  that  event  nad  already  taken  place, 

the  presbyter  Aristion.  mentioned  by  Papias  as  a  con-  On  the  other  hand,  if  xvi,  20:  "  But  they  going  forth 

temporary  of  St.  Jonn  in  Asia.    Catholics  are  not  preached  everywhere ",  be  from  St.  Mark's  pen,  the 

bound  to  hold  that  the  verses  were  written  by  St.  Gospel  cannot  well  have  been  written  before  tne  close 

Mark.    But  they  are  canonical  Scripture,  for  the  of  tne  first  Apostolic  journey  of  St.  Paul  (a.  d.  49  or 

Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  IV),  in  defining  that  all  the  50),  for  it  is  seen  from  Acts,  xiv,  26;  xv.  3,  that  only 

parts  of  the  Sacrea  Books  are  to  be  received  as  sacred  then  had  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  oegun  on  any 

and  canonical,  had  especially  in  view  the  disputed  large  scale.    Of  course  it  is  possible  that  previous  to 

parts  of  the  Gospels,  ot  which  this  conclusion  of  Mark  this  the  Apostles  had  preached  far  and  wide  among 

IS  one  (cf.  Theiner,  *' Acta  gen.  Cone.  Trid.",  I^  71  sq.).  the  dispen^  Jews,  but,  on  the  whole,  it  seems  more 

Hence,  whoever  wrote  the  verses,  they  are  inspired,  probable  that  the  last  verse  of  the  Gospel,  occurring  in 

and  must  be  received  as  such  by  every  Catholic.       ^  a  work  intended  for  European  readers,  cannot  have 

V.  Place  and  Date  op  Composition. — It  is  certain  been  written  before  St.  Paul's  arrival  in  Europe  (a.  d. 

that  the  Gospel  was  written  at  Rome.    St.  Chrysos-  50-61).    Taking  the  external  and  internal  evidence 

torn  indeed  speaks  of  Egypt  as  the  place  of  composi-  together,  we  may  conclude  that  the  date  of  the  Gospel 

tion  ("  Ilomr  1  on  Matt.",  3,  in  P.  G.,  LVII,  17),  but  he  prolMibly  lies  somewhere  between  a.  d.  50  and  67. 


680 

VI.  Destination  and  Purpose. — ^Tradition  repre-  that  Matthew  (xxvi,  10)  seems  to  say  that  Jesus 
sents  the  Gospel  as  written  primarily  for  Roman  cleansed  the  Temple  the  day  of  His  triumiihal  entiy 
Christians  (see  above,  II),  and  mtemal  evidence,  if  it  into  Jerusalem  and  cm^ed  the  ^  tree  only  on  the 
does  not  quite  prove  the  truth  of  this  view,  is  alto-  following  day,  while  Mark  assigns  ooth  events  to  the 
gether  in  accord  with  it.  The  language  and  customs  following  day,  and  places  the  cursing  of  the  fi^  tree  be- 
of  the  Jews  are  supposed  to  be  unknown  to  at  least  fore  the  cleansing  of  the  Temple;  and  while  Mattiiew 
some  of  the  readers.  Hence  terms  like  Boanipyh  (iii,  seems  to  say  that  the  e£Fect  of  the  curse  and  the  aston- 
17),  Kopfiap  (vii,  11),  i<f>^d  (vii,  34)  are  interpreted;  ishment  of  the  disciples  thereat  followed  immediatdy, 
Jewish  customs  are  explained  to  illustrate  the  nar-  Mark  says  that  it  was  only  on  the  following  day  the 
rative  (vii,  3-4;  xiv,  12) ;  the  situation  of  the  Mount  disciples  saw  that  the  tree  was  withered  from  the  roots 
of  Olives  in  relation  to  the  Temple  is  pointed  out  (xiii,  (Matt.,  xxi,  12-20;  Mark,  xi,  11-21).  It  is  often  said, 
3);  the  genealogy  of  Christ  is  omittea;  and  the  O.  T.  too,  that  Luke  departs  from  Mark's  arrangement  in 
is  quot^  (Hily  once  (i,  2-3;  xv,  28,  is  omitted  by  B,  K,  placingthe  disclosure  of  the  traitor  after  the  institution 
A,  C,  D,  X).  Moreover,  the  evidence,  as  far  as  it  of  the  Blessed  Eucharist,  but  if,  as  seenos  certain,  the 
goes,  points  to  Roman  readers.  Pilate  and  his  office  traitor  was  referred  to  many  times  during  the  Supper, 
are  supposed  to  be  known  (xv,  1 — cf.  Matt.,  xxvii,  2;  this  difference  may  be  more  apparent  than  real  (Mark, 
Luke,  ill,  1);  other  coins  are  reduced  to  their  value  xiv,  18-24;  Luke,  xxii,  19-23).  And  not  only  is  there 
in  Roman  money  (xii,  42) ;  Simon  of  Cyrenc  is  said  this  considerable  agreement  as  to  subject-matter  and 
to  be  the  father  of  Alexander  and  Rufus  (xv,  21),  a  arrangement,  but  in  manv  paasa^,  some  of  consider- 
fact  of  no  importance  in  itself,  but  mentioned  prob-  able  length,  there  is  such  coincidence  of  words  and 
ably  because  Kufus  was  known  to  the  Roman  Chris-  phrases  that  it  is  impossible  to  believe  the  accounts  to 
tians  (Rom.,  xvi,  13);  finally  Latinisms,  or  uses  of  be  wholly  independent.  On  the  other  hand,  side  by 
vulgar  Greek,  such  as  must  have  been  particularly  side  with  this  coincidence,  there  is  strange  and  fre- 
common  in  a  cosmopolitan  city  like  Ilome,  occur  quently  recurrine  divergence.  "Let  any  passage 
more  frequently  than  in  the  other  Gospels  (v,  9,  15;  common  to  the  three  Synoptists  be  put  to  the  test 
vi,  37;  XV,  39, 44;  etc.).  The  phenomena  presented  will  be  much  as  follows; 

The  Second  Gospel  has  no  such  statement  of  its  first,  perhaps,  we  shall  have  three,  five,  or  more  words 

purpose  as  is  found  m  the  Third  and  the  Fourth  (Luke,  identical;   then  as  manv  wholly  distinct;    then  two 

1,  1-3;    John,  xx,  31).    The  Tubingen  critics  long  clauses  or  more  expressed  in  the  same  words,  but  differ- 

regarded  it  as  a  ''Tendency"  writinK»  composed  for  ing  in  order;  then  a  clause  contained  in  one  or  two, and 

the  purpose  of  mediating  between  ana  reconciling  the  n<^  in  the  third;  then  several  words  identical;  then  a 

Petrine  and  Pauline  parties  in  the  early  Church,  clause  or  two  not  only  wholly  distinct,  but  apparently 

Other  Rationalists  have  seen  in  it  an  attempt  to  allay  inconsistent;   and  so  forth;   with  recurrences  of  the 

the  disappointment  of  Christians  at  the  delay  of  same  arbitrary  and  anonialous  alterations,   ooinci- 

Christ's  Coming,  and  have  held  that  its  object  was  to  d^ices,  and  transpositions  ( Alford,  "  Greek  Tseta- 

set  forth  the  Lord's  earthly  Ufe  in  such  a  manner  as  to  menf ,  I,  prol.,  5). 

show  that  apart  from  His  glorious  return  He  had  sufiS-  The  question  then  arises,  how  are  we  to  explain  this 
ciently  attested  the  Messianic  character  of  His  mis-  very  remarkable  relation  of  the  three  Gospels  to  each 
sion.  But  there  is  no  need  to  have  recourse  to  Ra-  other,  and,  in  particular,  for  our  present  purpose,  how 
tionalists  to  learn  the  purpose  of  the  Gospel.  Hie  are  we  to  explain  the  relation  of  Mark  to  tne  other  two? 
Fathers  witness  that  it  was  written  to  put  into  per-  For  a  full  discussion  of  this  most  important  Hterary 
mancnt  form  for  the  Roman  Church  the  discourses  of  problem  see  Synoptics.  It  can  barely  be  touched 
St.  Peter,  nor  is  there  reason  to  doubt  this.  And  the  nere,  but  cannot  be  wholly  passed  over  in  silence.  At 
Gospel  itself  shows  clearly  enough  that  Mark  meant,  the  outset  may  be  put  aside,  in  the  writer's  opinion, 
by  the  selection  he  made  from  Peter's  discourses,  to  the  theory  of  the  common  dependence  of  the  three 
prove  to  the  Roman  Christians,  and  still  more  perhaps  (kNspels  upon  oral  tradition,  for,  except  in  a  veiy 
to  those  who  might  think  of  becoming  Christians,  that  mooified  form,  it  is  incapable  by  itself  alone  of  ex- 
Jesus  was  the  Almighty  Son  of  God.  To  this  end,  in-  plaining  all  the  phenomena  to  be  accounted  for.  It 
stead  of  quoting  prophecy,  as  Matthew  does  to  prove  seems  impossible  that  an  oral  tradition  could  account 
that  Jesus  was  the  Messias,  he  sets  forth  in  ^phic  for  the  extraordinary  similari^  between,  e.  e.  Mark, 
language  Christ's  power  over  all  nature,  as  evidenced  ii,  10-11,  and  its  parallels.  Literaiv  dependence  or 
by  His  miracles.  The  dominant  note  of  the  whole  connexion  of  some  kind  must  be  admitted,  and  the 
Gospel  is  sounded  in  the  very  first  verse:  ''The  be-  question  is,  what  is  the  nature  of  that  dependence  or 
ginning  of  the  ffospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God"  (the  connexion?  Does  Mark  depend  upon  Matthew,  or  upon 
words  "  Son  of  God"  are  removed  from  the  text  by  both  Matthew  and  Luke,  or  was  it  prior  to  and  utilised 
Westcott  and  Hort,  but  quite  improperly — cf.  Kna-  in  both,  or  are  all  three,  perhaps,  connected  through 
benb.,  "Comm.  in  Marc.",  23),  and  the  Evangelist's  their  common  dependence  upon  earlier  documents  or 
main  purpose  throughout  seems  to  be  to  prove  the  through  a  combination  of  some  of  these  causes?  Li 
truth  of  this  title  and  of  the  centurion's  verdict:  "  In-  reply,  it  is  to  }>e  noted,  in  the  first  place,  that  all  early 
deed  this  man  was  (the)  son  of  God"  (xv,  39).  tradition  represents  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  as  the  first 

VII.  Relationto  Matthew  AND  Luke. — The  three  written;  and  this  must  be  understood  of  our  present 
Synoptic  Gospels  cover  to  a  large  extent  the  same  Matthew,  for  Euscbius,  with  the  work  of  Papias  before 
ground.  Mark,  however,  has  nothing  corresponding  him,  had  no  doubt  whatever  that  it  was  our  present 
to  the  first  two  chapters  of  Matthew  or  the  first  two  of  Matthew  which  Papias  held  to  have  been  written  in 
Luke,  venr  little  to  represent  most  of  the  long  dis-  Hebrew  (Aramaic).  The  order  of  the  Gospels,  accord- 
courses  of  Christ  in  Matthew,  and  perhaps  nothing  ing  to  the  Fathers  and  early  writers  who  refer  to 
quite  oarallel  to  the  long  section  in  Luke,  ix,  5I-xviii,  the  subject,  was  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John.  Clem- 
14.  6n  the  other  hano,  he  has  very  little  that  is  not  ent  of  Alexandria  is  alone  in  signifying  that  Luke 
found  in  either  or  both  of  the  other  two  Synoptists,  the  wrote  before  Mark  (Euseb.,  "  Hist.  Eccl.  ,  VI,  xiv,  in 
amount  of  matter  that  is  peculiar  to  the  Second  Uos-  P.  G.,  XX,  552),  and  not  a  single  ancient  writer  held 
pel,  if  it  were  all  put  together,  amounting  onlv  to  less  that  Mark  wrote  before  Matthew.  St.  Augustine, 
than  sixty  verses.  In  the  arrangement  of  tne  com-  assuming  the  priority  of  Matthew,  attempted  to  ao- 
mon  matter  the  three  Gospels  differ  veiy  considerably  count  for  the  relations  of  the  first  two  Gospels  by 
up  to  the  point  where  Herod  Antipas  is  said  to  have  holding  that  the  second  is  a  compendium  of  tne  first 
heard  of  the  fame  of  Jesus  (Matt.,  xiii,  58;  Mark,  vi,  {Matihanim  sccutus  ianquam  jyedisequus  et  breviaUfr — 
13;  Luke,  ix,  0).  From  this  point  onward  the  order  "De  Cons«'ns.  Evang.' ,  I.  ii,  in  P.  L.,  XXXIV). 
of  events  Is  practically  the  same  in  all  three,  except  But,  as  soon  as  the  serious  study  of  tlie  Synoptic 


681 

Problem  began,  it  was  seen  that  this  fiew  could  122;SalmondinHast./'DiGt.  of  the  Bible",  III,  261; 
not  exijain  the  faots,  and  it  was  abandoned.  Tlie  Piummer,  ''Gospel  of  Matthew'*  (1909),  p.  xi;  Stan- 
dependence  of  Mark's  Qospel  upon  MattiieVs,  how*  ton,  "The  Gospels  as  Historical  Documents"  (1909), 
ever,  though  not  after  the  manner  of  a  compen-  30-37;  Jackson,  *' Cambridge  Biblical  Essays"  (1909), 
dium,  is  still  strenuously  advocated.      Zahn  holds  455. 

that  the  Second  Gospel  is  dependent  on  the  Aramaic  Yet,  notwithstanding  the  wide  acceptance  this 
Matthew  as  well  as  upon  Peter's  discourses  for  its  theory  has  gained^  it  may  be  doubted  whether  it  can 
matter,  and,  to  some  extent,  for  its  order;  and  that  enable  us  to  explam  all  the  phenomena  of  the  first  two 
the  Greek  Matthew  is  in  turn  dependent  upon  Mark  Gospels;  Orr,  "The  Resurrection  of  Jesus"  (1908),  61- 
for  its  phraseology.  So,  too,Belser  (^'Einleitungindas  72,  does  not  think  it  can,  nor  does  Zahn  (Introd.,  U, 
N.  T.' ,  1889)  and  Bonaccorsi  (**  I  tre  primi  Van^eli ",  601-17),  some  of  whose  arguments  against  it  have  not 
1904).  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  this  view  la  m  ao-  yet  been  grappled  with.  It  offers  indeed  a  ready  ex- 
cordance  with  tradition  in  regard  to  the  priority  of  planation  of  tne  similarities  in  language  between  the 
Matthew,  and  it  also  explains  the  similarities  in  the  two  Gospels,  but  so  does  Zahn's  theory  of  the  depend- 
first  two  Gospels.  Its  chief  weakness  seems  to  the  ence  of  tne  Greek  Matthew  upon  Mark.  It  helps  also 
present  writer  to  lie  in  its  inabilitv  to  explain  some  of  to  explain  the  order  of  the  two  Gospels,  and  to  account 
Mark's  omissions.  It  is  ver^  hard  to  see,  for  instance,  for  certain  omissions  in  Matthew  (cf .  especially  Allen, 
why,  if  St.  Mark  had  the  First  Gospel  before  him,  he  op.  cit.,  pp.  xxxi-xxxiv).  But  it  leaves  many  differ- 
omitted  all  reference  to  the  cure  of  the  centurion's  enoes  un^cplained.  Why,  for  instance,  should  Mat- 
servant  (Matt.,  viii,  5-13).  This  miracle,  by  reason  thew,  if  he  had  Mark's  Gospel  b^ore  him,  omit  refer- 
of  its  relation  to  a  Roman  officer,  ought  to  have  had  ence  to  the  singular  fact  recorded  by  Mark  that  Christ 
very  special  interest  for  Roman  readers,  and  it  is  ex«  in  the  desert  was  with  the  wild  beasts  (Mark,  i,  13)7 
tremel^r  difficult  to  account  for  its  omission  by  St.  Why  should  he  omit  (Matt.,  iv,  17)  from  Mark's  sum- 
Mark,  if  he  had  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  before  him.'  mary  of  Christ's  first  preachmg, ''Repent  and  believe 
Again,  St.  Mdtthew  relates  that  when,  after  the  feed-  in  the  Gospel "  (Marie,  i.  15),  the  very  important  words 
ing  of  the  five  thousand,  Jesus  had  come  to  the  disci-  **  Believe  in  the  Goqsel",  which  were  so  appropriate  to 
pies,  walking  on  the  water,  those  "whg  were  in  the  the  occasion?  Why  should  he  (iv,  21)  onut  dXfyoy 
boat  "came  and  adored  him,  saying:  Indeed  Thou  and  tautologically  add  "two  brothers"  to  Mark,  i,  19, 
art  [the]  Son  of  God"  (Matt.,  xiv,  33).  Now,  Mark's  or  fail  (tv,  22)  to  mention  "the  hired  servants"  with 
report  of  this  incident  is:  "  And  ne  went  up  to  them  whom  the  sons  of  Zeb^ee  left  their  father  in  the  boat 
into  the  ship,  and  the  wind  ceased:  and  they  were  ex-  (Mark,  i,  20).  especially  since,  as  Zahn  remarks,  the 
ceedingly  amazed  within  themselves:  for  they  imder-  mention  would  have  helped  to  save  their  desertion  of 
stood  not  concerning  the  loaves,  but  their  heart  was  their  father  froin  the  appearance  of  being  unfilial. 
blinded"  (Mark,  vi,  51-52).  Thus  Mark  makes  no  Why,  again,  should  he  omit  viii,  28-34,  the  curious 
reference  to  the  adoration,  nor  to  the  striking  con-  fact  that  though  the  Gadarene  demoniac  after  his  cure 
fession  of  the  disciples  that  Jesus  was  [the]  Son  of  (jod.  wished  to  follow  in  the  company  of  Jesus,  he  was  not 
How  can  we  accoimt  for  this,  if  he  had  Bilatthew's  permitted,  but  told  to  go  home  and  announce  to  his 
report  before  him?  Once  more,  Matthew  relates  friends  what  great  things  the  Lord  had  done  for  him 
that,  on  the  occasion  of  Peter's  confession  of  Christ  (Mark,  v,  18-19).  How  is  it  that  Matthew  has  no 
near  Csesarea  Philippi,  Peter  said:  "Thou  art  the  reference  to  the  widow's  mite  and  Christ's  touching 
Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God"  (Matt.,  xvi,  16).  comment  thereon  (Mark,  xii,  41-44)  nor  to  the  num- 
But  Mark's  report  of  this  magnificent  confession  is  ber  of  the  swine  (Matt.,  viii,  3-34;  Mark,  v,  13),  nor  to 
.merely:  "Peter  answering  said  to  him:  "Thou  art  the  the  disagpeement  of  the  witnesses  who  appeared 
Christ"  (Mark,  viii,  29).  it  appears  impossible  to  ac-  against  Christ?  (Matt.,  xxvi,  60;  Mark,  xiv,  56,  59). 
count  for  the  omission  here  of  the  words:  "  the  Son  of  It  is  surely  strange  too,  if  he  had  Mark's  Gospel  be- 
the  living  God",  words  which  make  the  special  glory  fore  him,  tliat  he  should  seem  to  represent  so  differ- 
of  this  confession,  if  Mark  made  use  of  the  First  Gos-  ^tly  the  time  of  the  women's  visit  to  the  tomb,  the 
pel.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  view  which  situation  of  the  angel  that  appeared  to  them  and  the 
makes  the  Second  Gospel  dependent  upon  the  First  is  purpose  for  which  they  came  (Matt.,  xxviii,  1-6; 
not  satisfactory.  A  somewhat  detailed  criticism  of  Marie,  xvi,  1-6).  A^^ain.  even  when  we  admit  that 
the  view  will  be  found  in  Stanton,  "The  Gospels  as  Matthew  is  grouping  m  chapters  viii-4x,  it  is  hard  to 
Historical  Documents  "  (1909),  part  II,  38-42.  see  any  satisfactory  reason  why,  if  he  had  Mark's  Gos- 
The  prevailing  view  at  present  amon^  Protestant  pel  before  him,  he  should  so  deal  with  the  Marcan  ao- 
scholars  and  not  a  few  Catholics,  in  America  and  Eng'  count  of  Christ's  earliest  recorded  miracles  as  not  only 
land  as  well  as  in  Germany,  is  that  St.  Mark's  Gos^mI  to  omit  the  first  altogether,  but  to  make  the  third  and 
is  prior  to  St.  Matthew's,  and  used  in  it  as  well  as  in  second  with  Mark  respectively  the  first  and  third  with 
St^ Luke's.    Thus  Gigot  writes:  "'The  Gc«pel  accord-  himself  (Matt.,  viii,  1-15;  Mark,  i,  23-31;40-45).    Al- 

:xx._  ^      __j  .-xii.._-j  i___xL_    .1^  _  ,      -    ,     .X         ..                  .V     ..        ts  an  explana- 

rersion  m  the 


,  convmcmg. 

pears  that  the  narrative  material  of  Matthew  is  simfuy    For  other  difficulties  see  Zahn,  "  Introd.",  II,  616-617. 

'^     '       *   -      -        -  regard 

estab- 

,     .  .  .      J  is  op- 

(Introd.  to  the  N.  T.,  1905, 186-89).  Allen,  art.  "  Mat-  posed  to  all  the  early  evidence  for  the  priority  of  Mat- 
thew" in  ''The  International  Critical  Commentary",  thew.  The  question  is  still  sub  judice,  and  notwitb- 
speaks  of  the  priority  of  the  Second  to  the  other  two  standing  the  immense  labour  bestowed  upon  it,  fur- 
S3rnoptic  Gospels  as  **  the  one  solid  result  of  literary  ther  patient  inquiry  is  needed, 
criticism";  and  Buridtt  in  "The  Gospel  History^'  It  may  possibly  be  that  the  solution  of  the  peculiar 
(1907),  37,  writes:  "We  are  bound  to  conclude  that  relations  between  Matthew  and  Mark  is  to  be  found 
Mark  contains  the  whole  of  a  document  which  Mat*  neither  in  the  dependence  of  both  upon  oral  tradition 
thew  and  Luke  have  independently  used,  and,  further,  nor  in  the  dependence  of  eitiier  upon  the  other,  but  in 
that  Mark  contains  very  little  else  beside.  Tliis  oon-  the  use  by  one  or  both  of  previous  documents.  If  we 
elusion  is  extremely  important;  it  is  the  one  solid  oon-  may  suppose,  and  Luke,  i,  1,  gives  ground  for  the  sup- 
tribution  made  by  the  scholarship  of  the  nineteenth  position,  that  Matthew  had  access  to  a  document 
century  towards  the  solution  of  the  Synoptic  Prob-  written  probably  in  Aramaic,  embodying  the  Petrine 
lem".    See  also  Hawkins,  "Hone  Synopt."  (1899),     tradition,  he  may  have  combined  with  it  one  or  more 


other  dooumeiits,    ooataining  chiefly  Chiut'a  dw-  „  .      ,  „..,., 

Fetrine  tradition.  perhapBin  a  Qreek  form,  mi^t  have  II.  eiOMiq.:  Habhace,  BnaAitadH  -" 

been  known  to  Mark  also;  for  the  early  authoritiea  ??^„*^"™i  'nfraLi la •rtUfut  to 

h.rilyobUg.u.toboklth.the™i.no».o(p,»  "SfST^tuS^Sratrii.  „..  „„„_.,  «._. 

existing  documents.    Papias  (apud  EiU., '  U.E.    Ill,  bkooxx,  Syiurlieoit:  Wuon,  SynoptuoJIhtOotptUittOTak. 

39;  P.G.  XX,  207)  speaks  of  him  aa  writing  down  some  "n't  nomrff.T.  Probltmn;  Hawkisb.  HoraSynojaica:  Wutcdtt. 

things  as  he  remembered  them,  and  if  Clement  of  Alex-  f.'°™"„,"/     J^Ir2"i  r"^^  '^  '^li'^.'/^i'^TZ^^^ 

andna{ap.  Eub.,  "H.  E.    VI,  U;  P.G.  XX,  552)  rep-  EUn,miinihtaoiptU;Ri»s.siuduii«aLeGoiptiKMEtitMta.Tiu 

resents  the  Romans  as  thinking  that  he  oould  wnte  EartieM  Oomtl;  Barht,  fA*  Tmdiiion  of  Scripture;  Bdmkitt, 

.veything  f ™.  n,™.o,T,  it  doe.  no,  .,  .U  folio,  ti^l  J'-^''^  i'SLTS.'SSTcJZS.^'S:  l^i.  "SSn, 

he  did.    Let  uB  suppoae,  then,    that  Matthew  em-  OKB.Tiu,RrumtT«iiimorjtna,tb.ia;aTiDnos.Th,aottHUui 

bodied  the  Petrine  tradition  in  his  Aramaic  Gospel,  HUiorvaiDoamtntiifwMll):  Warn.  Da>aiir,te  Hvanedimm; 

and  that  Mark  afterwards  used  it  or  rather  a  Greek  u'M^r^'%Zi'!i^^  i^%^^,drR%l"ii0nd^T^ 

form  of  it  somewhat  different,  combining  with  it  rem*  Pnmien  Eaangiliiiei.      ' 

'       »  of  Peter's  discourses.    If,  in  addition  to  J.  MacRobt. 


UxlUlU*  du  JV.  T^  ROBBBACH. 

tiia  otber  BynoptiaM:  Rimb- 


this,  we  suppose  the  Greek  transUitor  of  Matthew  to        ,      .  .  «,  „ 

have  made  use  of  our  present  Mark  for  his  phraseology,  „  ""«   ,»»*    HWCrtlUn,     Saints,     martyred     at 

we  have  quite  a  possible  means  of  accounting  for  ffie  ™>ine  under  Diocletian  towards  the  end  of  the  third 

similaritiee  and  dissimilaritien  of  our  first  two  Gospels,  century,  most  likalym  286.     These  martyrs,  who  were 

and  we  are  free  at  the  same  time  to  accept  the  tradi-  brothers,  are  mentioned  m  moat  of  the  ancient  mar- 

tional  view  in  regard  to  the  priority  of  Matthew.  Luke  tyrologies  on  18  June,  and  their  raartjrdom  is  known 

might  then  be  held  to  have  used  our  present  Mark  or  «> "» I™™  the  Acts  of  bt.  Sebastian  which,  thou^  m 

perhaps  an  earUer  form  of  the  Petrine  tradition,  com-  great  part  legendary,  are  nevertheless  very  ancient, 

bining  with  it  a  source  or  sources  which  it  does  not  be-  Cast  into  prison  for  bemg  Christians,  they  were  visited 

long  to  the  present  article  to  consider.  by  their  father  uid  mother,  Tranquillinua  and  Martia, 

Of  course  the  existence  of  early  documents,  such  as  ""O-  being  still  idolaterB,  implored  them  to  return  to 

are  here  supposed,  cannot  be  directly  proved,  unless  ^  worship  crf1:he  false  gods  to  save  their  lives.     But 

the  spade  should  diance  to  disclose  them;  but  it  is  not  Seba**"*",  "nose  apprqachmg  martyrdom  was  to  ren- 

at  all  unprobable.     It  is  reasonable  to  think  that  not  »ler  hun  illustnous,  havmg  penetrated  into  their  prison 

many  yeani  eUpsed  att«r  Christ's  death  before  aU  »»  *J»  same  time,  exhorted  them  bo  earnestly  not  to 

tempts  were  made  to  put  into  written  form  some  ac-  abandon  the  Christian  Faith,  that  henot  only  rendered 

oount  of  His  words  and  works.     Luke  tells  us  that  theirfidelity  immovable,  butalaoconverterftheirpai^ 

many  such  attempts  had  been  made  before  he  wrote;  onts  and  seveial  of  their  friends  who  were  present, 

and  It  needs  no  effort  to  believe  that  the  Petrine  form  "he  i  udge,  before  whom  they  were  at  length  brought, 

of  the  Gospel  had  been  committed  to  writing  brfore  not  being  able  to  mduoe  them  to  apoaUtae    c<»- 

the   Apostles  separated;  that  it  disappeared  after-  demned  tbem  to  death.     They  were  buned  m  the  Via 

wards  WouU  not  be  wonderful,  seeing  tlwt  it  was  em-  Ardeatina,  near  the  cemetery  of  Domitilla.     Their 

bodied  in  the  Gospels.     It  is  hardly  neceaaary  to  add  IwUes  were  translated  at  a,  later  date  {which  is  not 

that  the  use  of  earlierdocunienu  by  an  inspired  writer  quite  certain,  but  probably  m  the  ninth  century)  to 

is  quite  intelligible.    Grace  does  not  di^nae  with  t**  church  of  Sta.  Cosmas  and  Damian,  wh^  they 


states  distinctly  that  his  book  ia  an  abridgment  of  an  "^y  ^  ^een  an  ancient  painting  wherein  the  two  mar- 

earherwork(IIM8ch.,ii,24,27),andSt.Lnketellsua  tyrs  are  represented  with  a  third  person  who  seems 

that  before  undertaking  to  write  his  Gospel  he  had  be  the  Blessed  Virgm.  „.„„,„.. 

inquired  diligently  into  all  things  fifm  the  beginning  .S^.i^^.^"^^:^  I^^-  S^^^^^i)}^'^.. 

(Luke,  1,  1),  Ada  SS..  Ill,  June  (Antwerp,  ITDl),  SW-^71:    Masuccbi.  L€ 

There  ia  no  reason,  therefore,  why  Catholics  should  mmorit  dti  lanii  Marco  t  MantUiano  nti  timtUro  di  Domima 

be  timid  aboutadmittiag,  if  necessary,  the  dependence  'i^^^j^^'SSS  di  5^7^".  V  (S^e'^09)  ^ffi 
of  the  inspired  evangelists  upon  earlier  documents,  Lion  CtuONBt. 

and,   in  view   of   the   difficulties  against  the  other 

theorioB,  it  is  well  to  bear  this  posaihility  in  mind  in         Mark  of  Uabon    (properly  Makcos  da  Bilta), 

attempting  to  account  for  the  puzzling  relations  of  friar  minor,  historian,  and  Bishop  of  Oporto  in  Fortu- 

Mark  to  the  other  two  synoptiats.  gal,  b.  at  Lisbon  (date  of  birth  uncertem);  d.  in  1691. 

Com roEiii stun.  AoionsCstholla:— Therarllest.irtbework  While  visiting  the  principal  convents  of  the  Fr^ncis- 

beindeedliu.vuVicTTORorAHTiocnCfifth-'aizthcantuiyi.iM  can  Orderin  Spain,  Italy,  and  France,  at  the  instance 

Sf"xSSpS!S^?ii^l"S,iSiS^?i'lfS^S  ol  the  mi«.,  B«„„l,  F,   A«d«  Alv™,  h.  .u.^ 

Ei)TBiH]Ds(tweirtbuiituiy)mP,o,cxxiX:BRin(oAnEHuii  ceeded  in  sallecting  a  number  of  original  documents 

CtweVth  oentury)  in  P.L.  CLXV:  Albertub  Haiihiib  and  9r.  hearing  upMi  the  history  of  the  order.     Previous  to 


.„,.. ithcHnturyliCAt-  had  instructed  all  the  provincials  of  tlie  Order  to  collect 

tTCMihteenthcenturjiote.  SioMtba  middle  □(tbeninetecath  all  documents  they  could  find  pertaining  to  the  fif- 

.JStdfSf'p'SiS  ffi/K'KSS'MrISS;  t»nth  ..ntury  to,  th.  puipoo.  o^ntiimi-g  th=  ■  C«- 

(1870);  MacEyilly  (IS77);  ScBAHi  (1881);  Filuon  (1883):  formities'   of  Bartholomew  of  Pisa.     A  peat  part  rd 

"*'•",.*.'.???' ^J""""-  ti**3'j.K!i; "«!!■*'"■  (18M1;  TiETBK-  the  material  thus  brought  together  was  given  to  Mark 


(IKXI. 


o'^T'^w"" "f  I'^^ra^  '""''^  oentury,  for  the  purpose  of  continuing  the  "  Coo- 

I;  ScBANi  (1881);  FiLuoN  {1883)-  formities"  of  Bartholomew  of  Pisa.     A  peat  part  o* 

•-..^iST^'-A  """■  ^"^'aSi;""^"*"""  (l8Ml;_Tii!mK-  the  material  thus  brought  together  was  given  to  Mark 

^  (ISM);   CscLEHAKs   (1888);   GrrjAaR   0904);   Rm<  q!  Lisbon;  with  the  aid  of  which,  and  of  theChrwiicle 

AmoM  Protwianta:— Some  of  the  prindud  am   Eii«luh-  of  Marianus  of  Florence  and  what  he  had  himself  col- 

t;nBi>nStV):  Coot  \a  Speaker' tC<mmaaaT^(\«7S);Pi.viir-  lected,   be   compiled   in   Portuguese   his  weU-known 

SUI  &%?JSiSS:S>''Sl7'i:wiiSi  ;'a™i*  of  th.  F™  MmoP!,  p„bll.l«d  .t  L«*« 

Hoi,i»iiA»Ka802).  "■Ann  iiour,,     ™-w    *j.  ij,i558_fl8.     This  work  has  gone  through  several  edi- 

BenduwriteraooIntRxlueUoii  to  theN.  T.  aurhu  AsvRLB,  tions;  and  has  been  translated  into  Italian,  French, 

ft^f^K  ^Sf™;>i?"'G^D«  ^zJ^^ESr^Edtob^^h'  »"^  Spanish,  and  partly  into  English.    The  Italian 

IIKW).  JounieH,  s*lmok,  Baco'h  sod  mivSbuton  to  Bihiic*!  translation  bv  Horatio  Diola,  bearing  the  title  "  Croni- 

dlrtton»ri€8ofattlcl*»onthoSBamdQMpel«uch»i.MAi(o»HOT  ohe  degli  Ordlni  instituti  dal  P,  S.  Francesco"  (Voft- 

Si£"MTrs,t'jsSi5r;ra;ii'2'ES£iS^t  i»,i606)i.p.rii.p.thohe,tk„ow„otti««™iih, 

DZL  In  fimvcbparfia  BMiai,  tbt  folloirinc  may  be  oonnilMd :—  one  most  often  quoted,  because  the  most  aoceBmhta. 


MABONI 


683 


MAB0NITS8 


The  work  is  taken  up  almost  completely  with  biog^- 
phies  of  illustrious  men  of  the  order,  the  title  b^g 
thus  somewhat  misleading.  It  is  of  great  historical 
value,  especially  since  the  original  sources  to  which  the 
author  Imd  access,  have  entu:ely  disappeared.  It  is 
worth  recording  that  to  Mark  of  Lisoon  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  first  edition  of  a  granunar  of  the  Bicol 
language  in  the  Philippine  Islands. 

Wadding,  Saiptorea  Ordinia  Minomm  (Rome,  1007).  167; 
Robinson,  A  Short  IrUroduction  to  Franciacan  Literature  (New 
York,  1907),  17,  42;  Le  Monnier,  Hidory  of  St.  Francis  (Lon- 
don, 1894),  17-18. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Maroniy  Paul,  missionaxy,  b.  1  Nov.,  1695.  He 
entered  the  Austrian  province  of  the  Jesuits  on  27 
Oct.,  1712,  and,  like  many  German  and  Austrian  mis- 
sionaries of  that  time,  went  in  1723  on  the  mission  in 
XIpper  Maranon  that  belonged  to  the  Quito  province 
of^tne  order.  He  worked  for  several  years  as  professor 
of  theolo^  at  Quito  and  then  with  great  success  as 
Indian  missionary  on  the  rivers  Napo  and  Aguarico, 
converting  a  number  of  tribes  to  the  Christian  faith 
and  founding  a  series  of  new  reduci6nes  (i.  e.  settle- 
ments of  converted  Indians) .  At  the  same  time  he  did 
great  service  in  carefully  exploring  those  regions,  serv- 
ices which  were  duly  acknowledged  by  the  French 
geographer.  La  Condamine,  (see  "Journal  des  Sa- 
vants',  Paris,  March,  1750,  183).  Maroni  left  be- 
hind him  a  number  of  valuable  works  which  have  only 
recently  been  published.  Two  of  them  are:  "Diario 
de  la  entrada  que  hizo  el  P.  Pablo  Maroni  de  la  C.  d.  J. 

Eorelriocorifio6  Pastaza  ...  el  aflo  1737",  published 
y  P.  Sanvicente,  S.  J.  in  "El  Industriar'  (Quito, 
1895),  ano  IV.,  num.  132,  133,  135;  as  also  the  "No- 
ticias  aut^nticas  del  famoso  rio  Marafion  y  misi6n 
ap6stolica  de  la  Compania  de  Jestis  de  la  provincia  de 
Quito  en  los  dilatados  bosques  de  dicho  no  escribilas 
por  los  afios  de  1738  un  misionero  de  la  misma  com- 
paixia  y  las  publicas  ahora  por  primera  vez  Marcos 
Jimenez  de  la  Espada  (Madrid,  1889)",  with  maps 
dmwn  up  by  Maroni. 

Neuer  WeU-Bott,  No.  210, 282, 333,  565;  Chantbet-Hersra. 
Hist,  de  las  Misionea  de  la  Compafiia  deJ.end  MaraH&n  Eapatioi 
(Madrid,  1901). 

A.  HUONDER. 

Maronia,  a  titular  see  in  the  province  of  Rhodopis, 
suffragan  of  Trajanopolis.  The  town  is  an  ancient 
one,  said  to  have  been  foimded  by  Blaron,  who  was 
supposed  to  be  the  son  of  Dionysus  (Euripides, 
"(^clops",  V,  100,  141)  or  companion  of  Osiris 
(Diodorus  SiciUus,  I,  20).  The  probable  origin  of  this 
legend  is  the  fact  that  Bilaronia  was  not^  for  its 
Dionysiac  worship,  perhaps  because  of  the  famous 
wine  grown  in  the  neighbourhood  and  whi.ch  was  cele- 
brated even  in  Homer's  day  (Odyssey,  IX,  196;  Non- 
nus,  I,  12;  XVII,  6;  XIX,  11  etc.).  It  is  mentioned 
in  Herodotus  (VII,  109),  and  referred  to  by  Pliny 
under  the  name  Ortagurea  (Hist.  Nat.,  IV,  11).  The 
town  derived  some  of  its  importance  from  its  com- 
manding position  on  the  Thracian  Sea,  and  from  the 
colony  from  Chios  which  settled  there  about  660  b.  c. 
It  was  taken  by  Philip  V,  King  of  Macedonia  (200 
B.  c),  but  straightway  set  free  at  the  command  of  the 
Romans  (Livy,  XXXI,  16;  XXXIX,  24;  Polybius, 
XXII,  6,  13;  5CXIII,  11,  13).  By  the  Romans  it  was 
given  to  Attains,  King  of  Pergamos,  but  the  gift  was 
revoked  and  the  town  retained  its  freedom  (Polybius, 
XXX,  3).  Lequien  (Oricns  Christ.,  I,  1195-1198) 
mentions  many  of  its  Greek  bishops,  but  none  of  them 
was  remarkable  in  any  way.  Eubel  (Hierarchia  Ca- 
tholica  medii  sevi,  1, 341 ;  II,  205)  mentions  two  titular 
Latin  bishops  in  1317  and  1449.  Originally  suffragan 
of  TrajanopNolis,  Maronia,  about  640,  became  an  aiSio- 
cephalous  archdiocese,  and  was  raised  to  metropoli- 
tan rank  in  the  thirteenth  century  under  Andronicus 
II.  In  our  own  times,  Maronia  continues  to  be  a 
Qieek  metropolitan  see,  but  its  titular  resides  at 


Gumuldjina,  the  chief  town  of  the  sandiak.  The 
ancient  town  on  the  sea  coast  has  been  aoandoned, 
and  the  name  is  now  given  to  a  village  of  2000  inhabi- 
tants about  three-quarters  of  an  hour  inland. 

Bulletin  de  correspondance  hellSniqu^  (Paris),  V,  87-95; 
Christododlou.  La  Thrace  et  Quarante-Eglises,  1897  [this  work 
is  written  in  Greek];  Meurrhttos,  Historical  and  geographi- 
cal description  of  the  Diocese  of  Maronia  [in  Greek],  1871. 

S.  Vailhe. 

Manmites. — ^This  article  will  give  first  the  present 
state  of  the  Maronite  nation  and  Church;  after  which 
their  history  will  be  studied,  with  a  special  examina- 
tion of  the  much  discussed  problem  of  the  origin  of  the 
Church  and  the  nation  and  their  unvarying  ortho- 
doxy. 

I.  Present  State  of  the  Maronites. — A.  Ethno-' 
graphical  and  Political. — ^The  Maronites  (Syriac  Mar^ 
undue;  Arabic  Matvarinah)  number  about  300,000 
souLs,  distributed  in  Syria.  Palestine,  Cyprus,  and 
Egypt.  Of  this  number  about  230,000  mhabit  the 
Lebanon^  forming  nearly  five-eighths  of  the  population 
of  that  vilayet  and  the  main  constituent  oi  the  popu- 
lation in  four  out  of  seven  kaimakats,  viz.,  those  of 
Batrun,  Kasrawan,  Meten,  and  Gizzin  (the  Orthodox 
Greeks  predominating  in  Koura,  the  Catholic  Greeks 
in  Tahl6,  and  the  Druses  in  ShM ) .  They  are  of  Syrian 
race,  but  for  many  centuries  have  spoken  only  Arabic, 
thou^  in  a  dialect  which  must  have  retained  many 
Syriac  peculiarities.  In  the  mountain  districts  man- 
ners are  very  simple,  and  the  Maronites  are  occupied 
with  tillage  and  cattle-grazing,  or  the  silk  industry;  in 
the  towns  they  are  engaged  in  commerce.  Bloodv 
vendettas,  due  to  family  and  clan  rivalries,  are  still 
kept  up  in  the  mountam  districts.  The  population 
increases  very  rapidly,  and  numbers  of  Maronites  emi- 
grate to  the  different  provinces  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire, to  Europe,  particularly  France,  to  the  French 
colonies,  but  most  of  all  to  the  United  States.  The 
emigrants  return  with  their  fortunes  made,  and  too 
often  bring  with  them  a  taste  for  luxury  and  pleasiue, 
sometimes  also  a  decided  indifference  to  religion  which 
in  some  instances,  degenerates  into  hostility. 

For  many  centuries  the  Maronite  mountaineers 
have  been  able  to  keep  themselves  half  independent  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire.  At  the  opening  oi  the  nine- 
teenth century  their  organization  was  entirely  feudal. 
The  aristocratic  families — who,  especiaUy  when  they 
travelled  in  Europe,  affected  princely  rank — elected 
the  emir.  The  power  of  the  Maronite  emir  prepon- 
derated in  the  Lebanon,  especially  when  the  Syrian 
family  of  Beni  Shib&b  forsook  Islam  for  Christianity. 
The  famous  emir  Beshir,  ostensibly  a  Mussulman,  was 
really  a  Maronite ;  but  after  his  fall  the  condition  of  the 
Maronites  changed  for  the  worse.  A  merciless  strug- 
gle against  the  Druses,  commencing  in  1845,  devas- 
tated the  whole  Lebanon.  Two  emirs  were  then 
created,  a  Maronite  and  a  Druse,  both  bearing  the  title 
of  Kaimakam,  and  they  were  held  responsible  to  the 
Pasha  of  Saida.  In  1860  the  Druses,  impelled  by  far 
naticism,  massacred  a  large  number  of  Maronites  at 
Damascus  and  in  the  Lebanon.  As  the  Turkish  Gov- 
ernment looked  on  supinely  at  this  process  of  exteiw 
mination.  France  intervened:  an  expedition  led  by 
General  ae  Beaufort  d'Hautpoult  restored  order.  In 
1861  the  present  system,  witn  a  single  governor  for  all 
the  Lebanon,  was  inaugurated.  This  governor  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  Turkish  Government  for  five  years. 
There  are  no  more  feudal  rights;  all  are  equal  before 
the  law,  without  distinction  of  race;  each  nation  has 
its  sheik,  or  mayor,  who  takes  cognizance  of  com- 
munal affairs,  and  is  a  judge  in  the  provincial  council. 
Every  Maronite  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  sixtv 
pays  taxes,  with  the  exception  of  the  clergy,  though 
contributions  are  levied  on  monastic  property.  In 
contrast  to  the  rule  among  the  other  rites,  tne  Maron- 
ite patriarch  is  not  obliged  to  solicit  his  firman  of  in- 
vestiture from  the  sultan;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  ha 


BCAR0NITS8 


684 


MABONmS 


b  not  the  temporal  head  of  his  nation,  and  has  no 
agent  at  the  Sublime  Porte,  the  Maronites  being,  to- 
gether with  the  other  Uniat  communities,  represented 
by  the  Vakeel  of  the  Latins.  Outside  of  the  Lebanon 
they  are  entirely  subject  to  the  Turks;  in  these  regions 
the  bishops — e.  g.  the  Archbishop  of  Beirut — must 
obtain  their  b&raif  in  default  of  which  they  would  have 
no  standing  with  the  civil  government,  and  could  not 
sit  in  the  provincial  councU. 

iike  the  other  Catholic  conmiunities  of  the  Turidsh 
Empire,  the  Maronites  are  under  the  protection  of 
France,  but  in  their  case  the  protectorate  is  combined 
with  more  cordial  relations  dating  from  the  connexion 
between  this  pec^le  and  the  French  as  early  as  the 
twelfth  century.  This  cordiality  has  been  strength- 
ened by  numerous  French  interventions,  from  the 
Capitulations  of  Francis  I  to  the  campaign  of  1861,  and 
bv  the  wide  diffusion  of  the  French  language  and 
french  culture,  thanks  to  the  numerous  establish- 
ments in  the  Lebanon  under  the  direction  of  French 
missionaries— Jesuits,  Lazarists,  and  religious  women 
of  different  orders.  It  is  impossible  to  foresee  what 
dianges  will  be  wrought  in  the  situation  of  the  Maron- 
ites, national  and  international,  by  the  accession  to 
power  of  the  "  Young  Turks  ". 

B.  The  Maronite  Church. — ^The  Maronite  Church  is 
divided  into  nine  dioceses:  Gibail  and  Batrun  (60,000 
souls);  Beirut  and  one  part  of  the  Lebanon  (50,000); 
Tyre  and  Sidon  (47,000);  Baalbek  and  Kesraouan 
(40,000) ;  Tripoli  (35,000).  Cyprus  and  another  part  of 
the  Lebanon  (30,000);  Damascus  and  Hauran  (26,- 
000) ;  Aleppo  and  CiUcia  (5000) ;  Egypt  (7000) .  The 
last-named  diocese  is  under  a  vicar  patriarchal,  who 
also  has  charge  of  the  Maronite  communities  in  foreign 
parts — Leghorn,  Marseilles,  Paris — and  particularly 
those  m  America 

(1)  The  Patriarch.— The  official  title  is  Patriarcha 
Anliochenua  Maronitarum,  The  Maronite  patriarch 
shares  the  title  of  Antioch  with  three  other  CathoUo 
patriarchs — ^the  Melchite,  the  Syrian  Catholic,  and  the 
Latin  (titular) — one  schismatical  (Orthodox),  and  one 
heretical  (Syrian  Jacobite).  The  question  will  be 
considered  later  on,  whether,  apart  trom  the  conces- 
sion of  the  Holy  See.  the  Maronite  patriarch  can  allege 
historical  right  to  the  title  of  Antioch.  Since  the  ^- 
teenth  century  his  traditional  residence  has  been  the 
cloLstcr  of  St.  Mary  of  Kandbin,  where  are  the  tombs 
c^  the  patriarchs.  In  winter  he  resides  at  Bkerke,  be- 
low Beirut,  in  the  district  of  Kesraouan.  He  himself 
administers  the  Diocese  of  Gibail-Batrun,  but  with  the 
assistance  of  the  titular  Bishops  of  St-Jean  d'Acre, 
Tarsus,  and  Nazareth,  who  also  assist  him  in  the  gen- 
eral administration  of  the  patriarchate.  He  has  the 
right  to  nominate  others,  and  there  are  also  several 
patriarchal  vicars  who  are  not  bishops.  The  patri- 
arch is  elected  by  the  Maronite  bishops,  usually  on  the 
ninth  day  after  the  see  has  been  declared  vacant.  He 
must  be  not  less  than  forty  years  of  age,  and  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  votes  are  required  to 
elect  him.  On  the  next  day  the  enthronization  takes 
place,  and  then  the  solemn  benediction  of  the  newly 
elected  patriarch.  The  proceedings  of  the  assembly 
are  transmitted  to  Rome ;  the  pope  may  either  approve 
or  disapprove  the  election;  if  he  approves,  he  sends  the 
paUium  to  the  new  patriarch;  if  not,  he  quashes  the 
acts  of  the  assemblv  and  is  free  to  name  a  candidate  of 
his  own  choice.  The  chief  prerogatives  of  the  patri- 
arch are:  to  convoke  national  councils;  to  choose  and 
consecrate  bishops;  to  hear  and  judge  charges  against 
bishops;  to  visit  dioceses  other  than  his  own  once  in 
every  three  years.  He  blesses  the  holy  oils  and  dis- 
tributes them  to  the  clergy  and  laity;  he  grants  indul- 
gences, receives  the  tithes  and  the  taxes  for  dispensa- 
tions, and  may  accept  legacies,  whether  personal  or  for 
the  Church.  Before  1736  he  received  fees  for  ordina- 
tions and  the  blessing  of  holy  oils;  this  privilege  being 
suppressed,  Benedict  XIV  substituted  for  it  permi»- 


sion  to  receive  a  subndiwn  cariiaHvum.  The  difltino* 
tive  insignia  of  the  patriarch  are  the  masnqfld  (a  form 
of  head-dress),  the  phaind  (a  kind  of  cape  or  cope),  the 
orarion  (a  kind  of  pallium),  the  tiara,  or  mitre  (other 
bishops  wear  only  tbe  orarion  and  the  mitre),  the  pa^ 
toral  staff  surmounted  with  a  cross,  and,  in  the  littin 
fashion,  the  pastoral  ring  and  the  pectoxul  croaB.  To 
sum  upj  the  Maronite  patriarch  exercises  over  his  sub- 
jects, virtually,  the  authority  of  a  metropolitan.  He 
himself  is  accountable  only  to  the  pope  and  the  Con- 
gregation of  Propaganda;  he  is  bound  to  make  his 
visit  ad  Zimtna  only  once  in  every  ten  jrears.    The 

e resent  (1910)  occupant  of  the  patriarchal  throne  is 
[gr.  Elias  Hoysk,  elected  in  1899. 

(2)  The  Episcopate. — ^The  bisKops  are  nominated  by 
the  patriarch.  The  title  of  Archbishop  (metropoli- 
tan), attached  to  the  Sees  of  Aleppo,  Beirut,  Damas- 
cus, Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  Tripoli,  is  purelv  honorary. 
A  bishop  without  a  diocese  resides  at  Elhcien.  It  has 
been  said  above  that  the  patriarch  nominates  a  certain 
number  of  titular  bishops.  The  bishop,  besides  his 
spiritual  functions,  exercises,  especially  outside  of  the 
Vilayet  of  the  Lebanon,  a  judicial  and  civil  jurisdio- 
tion. 

The  bishops  are  assisted  by  chorepiscopL  archdea- 
cons, economi,  and  periodeutes  (baraiU).  The  chore- 
piscopus  visits,  and  can  also  consecrate,  churches.  The 
chorepiscopus  of  the  episcopal  residence  occupies  the 
first  place  in  the  cathearal  in  the  absence  of  the  oishop. 
The  periodeutes,  as  his  name  indicates,  is  a  kind  of 
vicar  f orane  who  acts  for  the  bishop  in  the  inspection 
of  the  rural  clergy.  The  economus  is  the  bishop's  co- 
adjutor for  the  administration  of  church  property  and 
the  episcopal  mensa. 

(3)  The  Clergy. — Of  the  300  parishes  some  are  ^ven 
b^  the  bishops  to  regulars,  others  to  seculan.  Priests 
without  parishes  are  celibate  and  dependent  on  the 
patriarch.  The  others  are  married — ^that  is  to  say, 
they  marry  while  in  minor  orders,  but  cannot  many  a 
second  time.  There  are  about  1100  secular  j^riests 
and  800  regulars.  The  education  of  the  clergy  is  car- 
ried on  in  five  patriarchal  and  nine  diocesian  seminar- 
ies. Many  study  at  Rome,  and  a  great  number  in 
Firance,  thanks  to  the  ''CEuvre  de  St  Louis"  and  the 
burses  supported  by  the  French  Government.^  The 
intellectual  standard  of  the  Maronite  clergy  is  de- 
cidedly higher  than  that  of  the  schismatical  and  hereti- 
cal clergy  who  surround  them.  The  married  priests 
of  the  rural  parishes  are  often  very  simple  men,  stfll 
more  often  tney  are  far  from  well-to-do,  living  almost 
exclusively  on  the  honoraria  received  for  Masses  and 
the  presents  of  farm  produce  given  them  by  the  ooim- 
try  people.  Most  oi  them  have  to  eke  out  these  re- 
soiurces  by  cultivating  their  little  portions  of  land  or 
engaging  m  some  modest  industry. 

(4)  The  Religious. — These  number  about  2000,  of 
whom  800  are  priests.  They  all  observe  the  rule 
known  as  that  ot  St.  Anthony,  but  are  divided  into 
three  congregations:  the  oldest,  that  of  St.  Anthony, 
or  of  Eliseus,  was  approved  in  1732.  It  was  aftcn> 
wards  divided  into  Aleppines  and  peasants,  or  Bala- 
dites,  a  division  approved  by  Clement  XIV  in  1770. 
In  the  meantime  another  Antonian  congregation  had 
been  founded,  under  the  patronage  of  la&ias,  and  ap- 
proved in  1740.  The  Aleppines  have  6  monasteries; 
ihe  Isaians,  13  or  14;  the  Baladites,  25.  The  Alep- 
pines have  a  procurator  at  Rome,  residing  near  S.  Pie- 
tro  in  Vincon.  The  lay  brothers  give  themselves  up 
to  manual  labour;  the  priests,  to  intellectual,  with  the 
care  of  souls,  having  charge  of  a  great  many  parishes. 
The  monastic  habit  consists  of  a  black  tunic  and  a  gir- 
dle of  leather,  a  cowl,  mantle,  and  sandals. — ^There  are 
also  seven  monasteries,  containing  about  200  relijgioius, 
under  a  rule  founded  by  a  former  Bishop  of  A&ppo. 
At  Aintoura,  also,  there  are  some  Maronite  sisters  fol- 
lowing the  Salesian  Rule. 

(5)  Tlie  Liturgy. — The  Maronite  is  a  Syrian  Rite, 


MABOVITBS 


685 


MABomrsa 


Qjrias  being  the  liturgical  language,  thou^  the  Gos- 
pel is  read  in  Arabic  for  the  benefit  of  the  people, 
tiany  of  the  priests,  who  are  not  sufficiently  leamea  to 
perform  the  Liturgy  in  Syriac,  use  Arabic  instead,  but 
Arabic  written  in  ^iiac  characters  (Karahuni),  The 
Liturgy  is  of  the  Syrian  type,  i.  e.,  the  Liturgy  of  St. 
James,  but  much  c&sfigured  by  attempts  to  adapt  it  to 
Roman  usages.  Adaptation,  often  useless  and  ser- 
vile, to  Roman  usages  is  the  distinguishing  character- 
istic of  the  Maromte  among  Oriental  Rites.  This 
appears,  not  onlv  in  the  Liturgy,  but  also  in  the  admin- 
istration of  all  the  Sacraments.  The  Maronites  conse- 
crate unleavened  bread,  they  do  not  mingle  warm  wa- 
ter in  the  Chalice,  and  the}^  celebrate  many  Masses  at 
the  same  altar.  Communion  under  both  kinds  was 
discouraged  by  Gregory  XIII  and  at  last  formally 
forbidden  in  1736,  though  it  is  still  permitted  for  the 
deacon  at  high  Mass.  Benedict  XIV  forbade  the  com- 
municating of  newly  baptized  infants.  Baptism  is  ad- 
ministered in  the  Latin  manner,  and  since  1736  confir- 
mation, which  is  reserved  to  the  bishop,  has  been  given 
separately.  The  formula  of  absolution  is  not  depre- 
cative, as  it  is  in  other  Eastern  Rites,  but  indicative, 
as  in  the  Latin,  and  Bilaronite  priests  can  validly  ab- 
solve Catholics  of  all  rites.  The  orders  are:  tonsure, 
paaUe,  or  chanter,  lector,  sub-deacon,  deacon,  priest. 
Ordination  as  psalte  may  be  received  at  the  ag^  of 
seven;  as  deacon,  at  twenty-one;  as  priest,  at  tmrty, 
or,  with  a  dispensation,  at  twenty-five.  Wednesday 
and  Friday  of  everv  week  are  days  of  abstinence;  a 
fast  lasts  until  middav,  and  the  abstinence  is  from 
meat  and  eggs.  Lent  fasts  for  seven  weeks,  beginning 
at  Quinquagesima;  the  fast  is  observed  every  day  ex- 
cept Saturoays,  Sundays,  and  certain  feast  days;  fish 
is  allowed.  There  are  neither  ember  days  nor  vigils, 
but  there  is  abstinence  during  twenty  days  of  Advent 
and  fourteen  days  preceding  the  feast  of  Sts.  Peter 
and  Paul.  Latin  devotional  practices  are  more  cus- 
tomary among  the  Maronites  than  in  any  other  Uniat 
Eastern  Church — ^benediction  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, the  Way  of  the  Cross,  the  Rosary,  the  devotion 
to  the  Sacred  Heart,  etc. 

(6)  The  Faithful. — In  the  interior  of  the  country  the 
faithful  are  strongly  attached  to  their  faith  and  very 
respectful  to  the  monks  and  the  other  clergyr.  Sur- 
rounded by  Mussulmans,  schismatics,  and  heretics, 
they  are  proud  to  call  themselves  Roman  Catholics; 
but  education  is  as  yet  but  little  developed,  despite  the 
laudable  efforts  of  some  of  the  bishops,  and  although 
schools  have  been  established,  largely  through  the  ef- 
forts of  the  Latin  missionaries  and  the  support  of  the 
society  of  the  Ecoles  d'Orient,  besides  the  Collie  de  la 
Sagesse  at.  Beirut.  Returning  emigrants  do  nothing 
to  raise  the  moral  and  religious  standard.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  Western  press  is  outrageously  bad. 
Wealthy  Maronites,  too  often  indifferent,  if  not  worse, 
do  not  concern  themselves  about  this  state  of  affairs, 
which  is  a  serious  cause  of  anxiety  to  the  more  intelli- 
gent and  enlightened  among  the  clergy.  But  ^e 
Maronite  nation  as  a  whole  remains  faithful  to  its  tra- 
ditions. If  thev  are  not  exactly  the  most  iniportant 
community  of  Elastem  Uniats  in  point  of  numbers,  it  is 
at  least  true  to  say  that  they  form  the  most  effective 
fulcrum  for  the  exertion  of  a  Catholic  propaganda  in 
the  Lebanon  and  on  the  Syrian  coast. 

II.  HiaroRY  OF  the  Maronites. — All  competent  au- 
thorities agree  as  to  the  history  of  the  Maronites  as  far 
back  as  the  sixteenth  century,  but  beyond  that  period 
the  unanimity  ceases.  They  themselves  assert  at 
once  the  high  antiquity  and  uie  perpetual  orthodoxy 
of  their  nation;  but  lx>th  of  these  pretensions  have 
constantly  been  denied  by  their  Christian — even  Cath- 
olic— rivals  in  Syria,  the  Bielchites,  whether  Catholic 
or  Orthodox,  the  Jacobite  Svrians,  and  the  Catholic 
Syrians.  Some  European  scholars  accept  the  Biaro- 
nlte  view;  the  majority  reject  it.  So  many  points  in 
(ke  Ji^rimitive  history  of  the  nation  are  still  obscure 


that  we  can  here  only  set  forth  the  aiguments  ad- 
vanced on  either  side,  without  drawing  any  conclusion. 

The  whole  discussion  gravitates  around  a  text  of  the 
twelfth  century.  William  of  Tyre  (De  Bello  Sacro, 
XX,  viii)  relates  the  conversion  of  40,000  Maronites  in 
the  year  1 182.  The  substance  of  the  leading  text  is  as 
follows:  "After  they  [the  nation  that  had  oeen  con- 
verted, in  the  vicinity  of  Byblos]  had  for  five  hundred 
years  adhered  to  the  false  teaching  of  an  heresiarch 
named  Maro,  so  that  they  took  from  him  the  name  of 
Maronites,  and,  being  separated  from  the  true  Church 
had  been  following  their  own  peculiar  liturgy  [ab  eccle- 
sia  fidelium  sequestrati  seorsim  sacramenta  conficerent 
sua],  they  came  to  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Aymery. 
the  thira  of  the  Latin  patriarchs,  and,  having  abjured 
their  error,  were,  with  their  patriarch  and  some  oish- 
ops,  reunited  to  the  true  Church.  They  declared 
themselves  ready  to  accept  and  observe  the  prescrip- 
tions of  the  Roman  Church.  There  were  more  than 
40,000  of  them,  occupying  the  whole  region  of  the  Ld> 
anon,  and  they  were  of  great  use  to  the  Latins  in  the 
war  against  the  Saracens.  The  error  of  M^ro  and  his 
adherents  is  and  was,  as  may  he  read  in  the  Sixth 
Council,  that  in  Jesus  Christ  there  was,  and  had  been 
since  the  beginning,  only  one  will  and  one  ener;^.  And 
after  their  separation  they  had  embraced  stm  other 
.pernicious  doctrines." 

We  proceed  to  consider  the  various  interpretations 
given  to  this  text. 

A.  The  Maronite  Position, — ^Maro,  a  Syrian  monk, 
who  died  in  the  fifth  century  and  is  notioed  by  Theo- 
doret  (ReligionisHistoria,  xvi),  had  ^thered  together 
some  disci^es  on  the  banks  of  the  Orontes,  between 
Emesa  and  Apamea.  After  his  death  the  faithful 
built,  at  the  place  where  he  had  lived,  a  monastery 
which  they  named  after  him.  When  Syria  was  di- 
vided by  heresies,  the  monks  of  Blit-Marun  remained 
invariably  faithful  to  the  cause  of  orthodoxy,  and  ral- 
lied to  it  the  neighbouring  inhabitants.  This  was  the 
cradle  of  the  Maronite  nation.  The  Jacobite  chroni- 
clers bear  witness  that  these  populations  aided  the  Em- 
peror Heraclius  in  the  struggle  against  Monophysitism 
even  by  force  (c.  630).  Moreover,  thirty  years  later 
when  Mu'awyaii,  the  future  caliph,  was  governor  of 
Damascus  (658-59),  they  disputed  with  the  Jacobites 
in  his  presence,  and  the  Jacobites,  beingworsted,  had 
to  pay  a  large  penalty.  The  Emperor  Ueraclius  and 
his  successors  having  meanwhile  succumbed  to  the 
Monothelite  heresy,  which  was  afterwards  condemned 
in  the  Council  of  681,  the  Maronites,  who  until  then 
had  been  partisans  of  the  Byzantine  emperor  (Mel- 
chites),  broke  with  him,  so  as  not  to  be  in  communion 
with  a  heretic.  From  this  event  dates  the  national 
independence  of  the  Maronites.  Justinian  II  (Rhin- 
otmetes)  wished  to  reduce  them  to  subjection:  in  694 
his  forces  attacked  the  monastery,  destroyed  it,  and 
marched  over  the  mountain  towards  Tripoli,  to  cem- 

glete  their  conquest.  But  the  Maronites,  with  the 
atholic  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  St.  John  Maro,  at  their 
head,  routed  the  Greeks  near  Amiun,  and  saved  that 
autonomy  which  they  were  able  to  maintain  through 
succeeding  a^es.  They  are  to  be  identified  with  tne 
Mardaltes  of  Syria,  who,  in  the  Lebanon,  on  the 
frontier  of  the  Empire,  successfully  struggled  with  the 
Byzantines  and  the  Arabs.  There  the  Crusaders 
found  them,  and  formed  very  close  relations  with 
them.  William  of  Tyre  relates  that,  in  1182,  the 
Maronites  to  the  number  of  40,000,  were  converted 
from  Monothelitism;  but  either  this  is  an  error  of  in- 
formation, due  to  William's  having  copied,  without 
critically  examining,  the  Annals  of  Eutychius,  an 
Egyptian  Melchite  who  calumniated  the  Bilaronites,  or 
else  these  40,000  were  only  a  very  small  part  of  the  na- 
tion who  had,  through  ignorance,  allowed  themselves 
to  be  led  astray  by  the  Monothelite  propaganda  of  a 
bishop  named  Thomas  of  Kfar-tas.  Besides,  the  Biar- 
onites  can  show  an  unbroken  list  of  patriarcha  Vmi- 


XABOVITES 


686 


XABOHITES 


tween  the  time  of  St.  John  Maro  and  that  of  Pope  In- 
nocent III:  these  patriarchs,  never  ha  vine  erred  in 
faith,  or  strayed  into  schism,  are  the  only  legitimate 
heirs  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch,  or  at  least  they 
have  a  claim  to  that  title  certainly  not  inferior  to  the 
claim  of  any  rival.— Such  is  the  case  frequently  pre- 
sented by  Maronites,  and  in  the  last  place  by  Mgr. 
Debs,  Archbishop  of  Beirut  (Perpdtuelle  orthodoxie 
des  Maronites). 

B.  Criticism  of  the  ^raronite  Position,  (1)  The  Mon- 
astery of  St.  Maro  before  the  Monothelite  Controversy. 
— The  existence  since  the  sixth  century  of  a  convent  of 
St.  Bilaro,  or  of  Beit-Marun,  between  Apamea  and 
Emesa,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Orontes,  is  an  estab- 
lished fact,  and  it  may  very  well  have  been  built  on  the 
rt  where  Maro  the  solitary  dwelt,  of  whom  Theo- 
et  speaks.  This  convent  suffered  for  its  devotion 
to  the  true  faith,  as  is  strikingly  evident  from  an  ad- 
dress presented  by  its  monks  to  the  Metropolitan  of 
Apamea  in  517,  and  to  Pope  Hormisdas,  complaining 
of  the  Monophysites,  who  had  massacred  350  monks 
for  siding  with  the  Coimcil  of  Chalcedon.  In  536  th& 
apocrisarius  Paul  appears  at  Constantinople  subscrib- 
ing the  Acts  of  the  Fourth  CEcumenical  Council  in  the 
nAme  of  the  monks  of  St.  Maro.  In  553,  this  same 
convent  is  represented  at  the  Fifth  CEcumenical  Coun- 
cil by  the  priest  John  and  the  deacon  Paul.  The  op- 
thociox  emperors,  particularly  Justinian  (Procopius, 
"De  -^dific",  V,  ix)  and  Heraclius,  gave  liberal 
tokens  of  their  regard  for  the  monastery.  The  part 
played  by  the  monks  of  St.  Maro,  isolated  in  the  midst 
of  an  almost  entirely  Monophvsite  population,  should 
not  be  underrated.  But  it  will  be  observed  that  in  the 
texts  cited  there  is  mention  of  a  single  convent,  and 
not  by  any  means  of  a  population  such  as  could  possi- 
bly have  originated  the  Maronitc  nation  of  later  times. 

(2)  St.  John  Maro. — The  true  founder  of  the  Maron- 
ite  nation,  the  patriarch  St.  John  Maro,  would  have 
lived  towards  the  close  of  the  seventh  century,  but,  un- 
fortunately, his  very  existence  is  extremely  doubtful. 
All  the  Syriac  authors  and  the  Byzantine  priest  Ti- 
motheus  derive  the  name  Maronite  from  that  of  the 
convent  Beit-Marun.  The  words  of  Timotheus  are: 
MopwyiTcu  5i  KiK\rivrai  dw6  rod  fiovaarriplov  airwv  MapJy 
KoKovfUpov  iv  2up/^  (in  P.  G.  LXXXVl,  65  and  note 
53).  Renaudot  absoluteljr  denies  the  existence  of 
John  Maro.  But,  supposing  that  he  did  exist,  as 
may  be  inferred  from  the  testimony  of  the  tenth-cen- 
tury Melchite  Patriarch  Eutychius  (the  earliest  text 
bearing  on  the  point),  his  identity  has  bafRed  all  re- 
searches. His  name  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  list  of 
Melchite  Patriarchs  of  Antioch,  whether  Greek  or 
Syriac.  As  the  patriarchs  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries  were  orthodox,  there  was  no  reason  why  St. 
John  Maro  should  have  oeen  placed  at  the  head  of  an 
alleged  orthodox  branch  of  the  Church  of  Antioch. 
The  episcopal  records  of  Antioch  for  the  period  in 
question  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  685,  election 
of  Theophanes;  686,  probable  election  of  Alexander; 
692,  George  assists  at  the  Trullan  Council;  702-42, 
vacancy  of  the  See  of  Antioch  on  account  of  Mussul- 
man persecutions;  742,  election  of  Stephen.  But, 
according  to  Mgr  Debs,  the  latest  Maromte  historian, 
St.  John  Maro  would  have  occupied  the  patriarchal 
See  of  Antioch  from  685  to  707. 

The  Maronites  insist,  affirming  that  St.  John  Maro 
must  have  been  Patriarch  of  Antioch  because  his  works 
present  him  under  that  title.  The  works  of  John 
Maro  referred  to  are  an  exposition  of  the  Liturgy  of 
St.  James  and  a  treatise  on  the  Faith.    The  former  is 

Eublbhed  by  Joseph  Aloysius  Assemani  in  his  "  Codex 
iturgicus"  and  certainly  bears  the  name  of  John 
Maro,  but  the  present  writer  has  elsewhere  shown  that 
this  alleged  commentary  of  St.  John  Maro  is  no  other 
than  the  famous  commentary  of  Dionysius  bar  Salibi, 
a  Monophysite  author  of  the  twelfth  century,  with 
muUlaUoDB,  additions,  and  accommodations  to  suit 


the  changes  by  which  the  Maronites  have  endeavoured 
to  make  the  Syriac  Liturgy  resemble  the  Roman  (Dio- 
nysius Bar  Salibi,  expositioliturgis'',  ed.  Labourt,  pref.). 
The  treatise  on  the  Faith  is  not  likely  to  be  any  more 
authentic  than  the  liturgical  work:  it  bears  a  remark- 
able resemblance  to  a  theological  treatise  of  Leontius 
of  Byzantium,  and  should  therefore^  very  probably, 
be  referred  to  the  second  half  of  the  sixth  century  and 
the  first  half  of  the  seventh — a  period  much  eariier 
than  that  which  the  Maronites  assign  to  St.  John  Maro. 
Besides^  it  contains  nothing  about  Monothelitism — 
which,  in  fact,  did  not  yet  exist.  John  Maro,  we  must 
therefore  conclude,  is  a  very  problematic  personality; 
if  he  existed  at  allj  it  was  as  a  simple  monk,  not  by  any 
means  as  a  Melchite  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 

(3)  Uninterrupted  Orthodoxy  of  the  Maronites. — 
It  IS  to  be  remembered  that,  before  the  rise  of  Mono- 
thelitism, the  monks  of  St.  Maro,  to  whom  the  Maron- 
ites trace  their  origin,  were  faithful  to  the  Council  of 
Chalc^on  as  accepted  by  the  Byzantine  emperors; 
they  were  Melchites  in  the  full  sense  of  the  term — i.  e.. 
Imperialists,  representing  the  Byzantine  creed  among 
populations  which  had  abandoned  it,  and,  we  may 
add,  representing  the  Byzantine  language  and  Byzan- 
tine culture  among  peoples  whose  speech  and  naanners 
were  those  of  Syria.  There  is  no  reason  to  think  that, 
when  the  Bjzantine  emperors,  by  way  of  one  last 
effort  at  union  with  their  Jacobite  subjects;  Syrian 
and  Egyptian,  endeavoured  to  secure  the  triumph  of 
Monothelitism — a  sort  of  compromise  between  Mono- 
physitism  and  Chalcedonian  orthodoxy — the  monks  of 
St.  Maro  abandoned  the  Imperialist  party  and  faith- 
fully adhered  to  orthodoxy.  On  the  contrary,  all  the 
documents  suggest  that  the  monks  of  Beit-Marun  em- 
braced Monothelitism,  and  still  adhered  to  that  heresy 
even  after  the  Council  of  681,  when  the  emperors  had 
abjured  it.  It  is  not  very  difficult  to  produce  evidence 
of  this  in  a  text  of  Dionysius  of  TeU-Mahr^  (d.  845) 
preserved  to  us  in  the  chronicle  of  Michael  the  Syrian, 
which  shows  Heraclius  forcing  most  of  the  Syrian 
monks  to  accept  his  Ecthesis,  and  those  of  Beit- 
Marun  are  counted  among  the  staunchest  partisans  of 
the  emperor.  One  very  instructive  passage  in  this 
same  chronicle,  referring  to  the  year  727,  recounts  at 
length  a  c[uarrel  between  the  two  branches  of  the 
Chaloedonians,  the  orthodox  and  the  Monotbelites, 
where  the  former  are  called  Maximists,  after  St.  Maxi- 
mus  the  confessor,  the  uncompromising  adversary  of 
the  Monothelites.  while  the  latter  are  described  as  the 
"party  of  Beit-Marun"  and  "monks  of  Beit-Marun". 
We  are  here  told  how  the  monks  of  St.  Maro  have  a 
bishop  in  their  monastery,  how  they  convert  most  of 
the  Melchites  of  the  country  districts  to  Monothelitism 
and  even  successfully  contend  with  the  Maximists  (L  e., 
the  Catholics)  for  the  possession  of  a  church  at  Aleppo. 
From  that  time  on,  oeing  cut  off  from  commimion 
with  the  Melchite  (Catholic)  Patriarch  of  Antioch, 
they  do  as  the  Jacobites  did  before  them,  and  for  the 
same  reasons:  thev  set  up  a  separate  Church,  eschew- 
ing, however,  with  equal  horror  the  Monophysites, 
who  reject  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  and  the  Catholics 
who  condemn  the  Monothelite  Ecthesis  of  HeracUus 
and  accept  the  Sixth  CEcumenical  Council.  Why  the 
monks  of  Beit-Marun,  hitherto  so  faithful  to  the 
Byzantine  emperors,  should  have  deserted  them  when 
they  returned  to  orthodoxy,  we  do  not  know;  but  it  b 
certain  that  in  this  defection  the  Maronite  Church  and 
nation  had  its  origin,  and  that  the  name  Maronite 
thenceforward  becomes  a  synonym  for  Monothelite,  as 
well  with  Byzantine  as  with  Nestorian  or  Monophysite 
writers.  Says  the  Chronicle  of  Michael  the  Syrian, 
referring  to  this  period :  "  The  Maronites  remained  as 
they  are  now.  They  ordain  a  patriarch  and  bishops 
from  their  convent.  They  are  separated  from  Max- 
imus,  in  that  they  confess  only  one  will  in  Christ, 
and  say:  *  Who  was  crucified  for  us'.  But  they  ac- 
cept the  Synod  of  Chalcedon. ''    St.  Germanui  of  Con* 


MAXOVITBS 


687 


KABOHinS 


stantinople,  in  his  treatise ''  De  HsBresibiis  et  Synodis  " 
(about  tne  ^ear  735),  writes:  ''There  are  some  here- 
tics who,  rejecting  the  Fifth  and  Sixth  Councils,  never- 
theless contend  against  the  Jacobites.  The  latter  treat 
them  as  men  without  sense,  because,  while  accepting 
the  Fourth  Council,  they  try  to  reject  the  next  two. 
Such  are  the  Maronites,  whose  monastery  is  situated 
in  the  very  mountains  of  Syria. "  (The  Fourth  Coun- 
cil was  tliat  of  Chalcedon.)  St.  John  Damascene,  a 
Doctor  of  the  Church  (d.  749),  also  considered  the 
Maronites  heretics.  He  reproaches  them,'  among 
other  things,  with  continuing  to  add  the  words  arav- 
pioSeu  dl  ri/jMt  (Who  didst  suffer  for  us  on  the  Cross)  to 
the  Trisagion,  an  addition  susceptible  of  an  orthodox 
sense,  but  which  had  eventually  been  prohibited  in 
order  to  prevent  misunderstanding  [/tafxapl^oftMy 
wfHxrOifUPOi  rifi  rpiffaytfp  r^v  ara^pio^iv  ("We  shall  be 
following  Maro,  if  we  join  the  Crucifixion  to  our  Trisa- 
gion "— "  De  Hymno  Trisa^o' ',  ch.  v) .  a.  wtfil  6pM 
^pov^/carot,  ch.  v.].  A  httle  later,  Timotheus  I, 
Patriarch  of  the  Nestorians,  receives  a  letter  from  the 
Maronites,  proposing  that  he  should  admit  them  to  his 
communion.    His  reply  is  extant,  though  as  yet  im- 

Eublished,  in  which  he  felicitates  tnem  on  rejecting,  as 
e  himself  does,  the  idea  of  more  than  one  energy  and 
one  will  in  Christ  (Monothelitism),  but  lays  down  cer- 
tain conditions  which  amount  to  an  acceptance  of  his 
Nestorianism,  though  in  a  mitigated  form.  Analogous 
testimony  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  the  Melchite 
controversialist  Theodore  Abukara  (d.  c.  820)  and 
the  Jacobite  theologian  Habib  Abu-Ra!ta  (about  the 
same  period),  as  also  in  the  treatise  "De  Reoeptione 
Hareticorum''  attributed  to  the  priest  Timotheus  (P. 
G.,  86,  65).  Thus,  in  the  eighth  century  there  exists 
a  Maronite  Church  distinct  from  the  Catholic  Church 
and  from  the  Monophysite  Church;  this  Church  ex- 
tends far  into  the  plain  of  Syria  and  prevails  especiaUy 
in  the  mountain  regions  about  the  monastery  of  Beit^ 
Marun.  In  the  ninth  century  this  Church  was  prob- 
ably confined  to  the  mountain  regions.  The  destruc- 
tion of  the  monastery  of  Beit-Marun  did  not  put  an 
end  to  it;  it  completed  its  oraanization  by  settmg  v^ 
a  patriarch,  the  first  known  Maronite  patriarch  dating 
from  1121,  though  there  may  have  b^n  others  before 
him.  The  Maronite  mountaineers  preserved  a  rela- 
tive autonomy  between  the  Byzantine  emperors,  on 
the  one  hand,  who  reconquered  Antioch  in  the  tenth 
century,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Mussulmans. 
The  Crusaders  entered  into  relations  with  them.  In 
1182,  almost  the  entire  nation— 40.000  of  them — were 
converted.  From  the  moment  when  their  influence 
ceased  to  extend  over  the  helleniied  lowlands  of 
Syria,  the  Maronites  ceased  to  speak  any  langua^  but 
Syriac,  and  used  no  other  in  their  liturgy.  It  is  im- 
possible to  assign  a  date  to  this  disappearance  of  hel- 
lenism  among  them.  At  the  end  of  tne  eighth  oenturv 
the  Maronite  Theophilus  of  Edessa  Imew  enou^ 
Greek  to  translate  and  comment  on  the  Homeric 
poems.  It  is  very  likely  that  Greek  was  the  chief 
lan^age  used  in  the  monastery  of  Beit-Marun,  at  least 
until  the  ninth  century;  that  monastery  having  been 
destroyed,  there  remained  only  country  and  mountain 
villages  where  nothing  but  Syriac  had  ever  been  used 
either  coUoauially  or  in  the  liturgy. 

It  would  be  pleasant  to  be  able  at  least  to  say  that 
the  orthodoxy  of  the  Maronites  has  been  constant  since 
1182,  but,  unfortunately,  even  this  cannot  be  asserted. 
There  have  been  at  least  partial  defections  amon^ 
them.  No  doubt  the  patriarch  Jeremias  al  Amshlti 
visited  Innocent  III  at  Home  in  1215,  and  he  is  known 
to  have  taken  home  with  him  some  prmects  of  liturgi- 
cal reform.  But  in  1445,  after  the  Cfoimcil  of  Flor- 
ence, the  Maronites  of  Cyprus  return  to  Catholicism 
(Hefele,  "  Histoire  des  conciles",  tr.  Delare,  XI,  540). 
In  1461,  Pius  II,  in  his  letter  to  Mahomet  II,  still  ranks 
them  among  the  heretics.  Gryphone,  an  illustrious 
Flemish  Franciscan  of  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 


tury,  converted  a  large  number  of  them,  receiving 
several  into  the  Order  of  St.  Francis,  and  one  of  them. 
Gabriel  Glal  (Barclalus.  or  Benclalus),  whom  he  had 
caused  to  be  consecrated  Bishop  of  Lefkosia  in  Cyprus, 
was  the  first  Maronite  scholar  to  attempt  to  estaDlish 
his  nation's  claim  to  imvarving  orthodoxy:  in  a  letter 
written  in  1495  he  gives  what  purports  to  be  a  list  of 
eighteen  Maronite  patriarchs  in  succession,  from  the 
beginning  of  their  Unurch  down  to  his  own  time,  taken 
from  documents  which  he  assumes  to  come  down  from 
the  year  1315. — It  is  obvious  to  remark  how  recent  all 
this  is. — ^The  Franciscan  Suriano  ("II  trattato  di 
Terra  Santa  e  dell'  Oriente  di  fr.  Fr.  Suriano",  ed. 
Golubovitch),  who  was  delegated  to  the  Maronites  by 
Leo  X,  inl515,  points  out  many  traits  of  ignorance  and 
many  abuses  among  them,  and  regards  Maro  as  a 
Monothelite.  However,  it  may  be  asserted  that  the 
Maronites  never  relapsed  into  Monothelitism  after 
Gryphone's  mission.  Since  James  of  Hadat  (1439- 
58)  all  their  patriarchs  have  been  strictly  ortho- 
dox. 

C.  The  Maronite  Church  since  the  Sixteenth  Century, 
— ^The  Lateran  Council  of  1516  was  the  beginning  of  a 
new  era,  which  has  also  been  the  most  brilliant,  in 
Maronite  history.  The  letters  of  the  patriarch  Simon 
Peter  and  of  his  bishops  may  be  found  in  the  eleventh  , 
session  of  that  council  (19  Dec,  1516).  From  that 
time  the  Maronites  were  to  be  in  permanent  and  un- 
interrupted contact  with  Rome.  Moses  of  Akkar 
(152ft-67)  received  a  letter  from  Pius  IV.  The  patri- 
arch Michael  sought  the  intervention  of  Gregory  XIII 
and  received  the  pallium  from  him.  That  great 
pontiff  was  the  most  distinguished  benefactor  of  the 
lllEkronite  Church:  he  estabfished  at  Rome  a  hospital 
for  them,  and  then  the  Maronite  College  to  which  the 
bishops  could  send  six  of  their  subjects.  Blany  fa- 
mous savants  have  gone  out  of  this  college:  George 
Amira,  the  grammarian,  who  died  patriarch  in  1633; 
Isaac  of  Scnadrd;  Gabriel  Siouni,  professor  at  the 
Sapiensa,  afterwards  interpreter  to  Kins  Louis  XIII 
and  collaborator  in  the  Polyglot  Bible  (d.  1648); 
Abraham  of  Qakel  (Ecchelensis),  a  very  prolific  writer, 

Erofessor  at  Rome  and  afterwards  at  Paris,  and  ool- 
iborator  in  the  Polyelot  Bible ;  above  all,  the  Assemani 
—Joseph  Simeon,  editor  of  the  "Bibliotheca  Orien- 
talis  ",  Stephanus  Evodius,  and  Joseph  Aloysius.  An- 
o^er  Maronite  college  was  founded  at  Ravenna  by 
Innocent  X,  but  was  amalgamated  with  that  at  Rome 
in  1665.  After  the  French  Revolution  the  Maronite 
College  was  attached  to  the  Congregation  of  Propa- 
ganda. 

In  the  patriarchate  of  Sei^^us  Risius,  the  successor 
of  MichaeL  the  Jesuit  Jerome  Dandini,  by  order  of 
Clement  VIII,  directed  a  general  council  of  the  Maron- 
ites at  Kannobin  in  1616,  which  enacted  twentv-one 
canons,  correcting  abuses  and  effecting  reforms  in  litur- 
gical matters;  the  liturgical  reforms  of  the  council  of 
1596,  however,  were  extremely  moderate.  Other 
patriarchs  were:  Joseph  II  Risius,  who,  in  1606, 
introduced  the  Gregorian  Calendar;  John  XI  (d. 
1633),  to  whom  Paul  V  sent  the  pallium  in  1610; 
Gregory  Amira  (1633-44) ;  Joseph  III  of  Akur  (1644r- 
47);  Jc^m  XII  of  Soffra  (d.  1656).  The  last  two  of 
these  prelates  converted  a  great  man^r  Jacobites. 
Stephen  of  Ehden  (d.  1704)  composed  a  history  of  his 
predcM^essors  from  1095  to  1699.  Peter  James  II  was 
deposed  in  1705,  but  Joseph  Mubarak,  who  was 
elected  in  his  place,  was  not  recognized  by  Clement 
XI,  and,  through  the  intervention  of  Propaganda, 
which  demanded  the  holding  of  another  council,  Peter 
James  II  was  restored  in  1713. 

Under  Joseph  lY  (173^-42)  was  held  a  second  na- 
tional oouncU,  which  is  of  the  highest  importance. 
Pope  Clement  XII  delegated  Joseph  Simeon  Assemani, 
who  was  assisted  by  his  nephew  Stephanus  Evodius, 
with  an  express  mandate  to  cause  the  Council  of  Trent 
to  be  promulgated  in  the  Lebanon.    The  Jesuit  Fm^ 


iCABQUUAS 


688 


MAKQUUAB 


ma^  was  appointed  synodal  orator.  According  to  the 
letter  whion  lie  sent  to  his  superiors  (published  at  the 
iM^inning  of  Mansi's  thirty-eighth  volume),  the  chief 
abuses  to  be  corrected  by  the  ablegate  were:  (1)  The 
Maronite  bishops,  in  virtue  of  an  ancient  custom,  had 
in  their  households  a  certain  number  of  religious 
women,  whose  lodeings  were,  as  a  rule,  separated  irom 
the  bishop's  only  by  a  door  of  oommumcation.  (2) 
The  patriarch  had  reserved  to  himself  exclusively  the 
right  to  consecrate  the  holy  oils  and  distribute  them 
among  the  bishops  and  clergy  in  consideration  of 
monev  payments.  (3)  Marriage  dispensations  were 
sold  for  a  monev  price.  (4)  Tne  Blessed  Sacrament 
was  not  reserved  in  most  of  the  country  churches,  and 
was  seldom  to  be  found  except  in  the  churches  of  reli* 
gious  conmiunities.  (5)  Mamed  prietjts  were  permitted 
to  remarry.  (6)  Churches  lacked  their  becoming  oma- 
mcnt-s,  and  *'the  members  of  Jesus  Christ,  necessary 
succour",  while,  on  the  other  hand,  there  were  too 
many  bishops — fifteen  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  par- 
ishes. (7)  The  Maronites  of  Aleppo  had,  for  ten  or 
twelve  years  past,  been  singing  the  Liturgy  in  Arabic 
only. 

With  great  difficulty,  J.  S.  Assemani  overcame  the 
ill  will  of  the  patriarch  and  the  intrigues  of  the  bishops: 
the  Council  of  the  Lebanon  at  last  convened  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Mary  of  Luwelsa,  fourteen  Maronite 
bishops,  one  Syrian,  and  one  Armenian  assisting.  The 
abuses  enumerated  above  were  reformed,  and  measures 
were  taken  to  combat  ignorance  by  estaUisfaing  schools. 
The  following  decisions  were  also  taken:  the  Filioque 
was  introduced  into  the  Creed;  in  the  Synaxary,  not 
only  the  first  six  councils  were  to  be  mentioned,  but 
also  the  Seventh  (Niceea,  787),  the  Ekhth  (Con- 
stantinople, 869),  the  Council  of  Florence  (1439),  and 
the  Council  of  Trent;  the  pope  was  to  be  named  in  the 
Mass  and  in  other  parts  of  the  liturgy;  confirmation 
was  reserved  to  the  bishop;  the  consecration  of  the 
holy  chrism  and  the  holy  oils  was  set  for  Holy  Thurs- 
day; the  altar  bread  was  to  take  the  circular  form  in 
use  at  Rome,  must  be  composed  only  of  flour  and 
water,  and  must  contain  no  oil  or  salt,  after  the  Syrian 
tradition;  the  wine  must  be  mixed  with  a  little  water; 
communion  under  both  species  was  no  longer  per- 
mitted except  to  priests. and  deacons;  the  ecdesiasti- 
cal  hierarchy  was  definitely  organized,  and  the  cere- 
monial of  ordination  fixed;  the  number  of  bishoprics 
was  reduced  to  eight. 

The  publication  of  the  decrees  of  this  council  did  not, 
of  course,  completely  transform  Maronite  manners 
and  customs.  In  1743,  two  candidates  for  the  patri* 
archate  were  chosen.  Clement  XIV  was  obliged  to  an- 
nul the  election;  he  chose  Simon  Euodius,  Arohbdshop 
of  Damascus  (d.  1756),  who  was  succeeded  by  Tobias 
Peter  (1766-66).  In  the  next  patriarchal  reign,  that 
of  Joseph  Peter  Stefani,  a  certain  Anna  Agsmi  founded 
a  congregation  of  religious  women  of  the  Ssiored  Heart; 
the  Holy  See  suppressed  the  congregation  and  con- 
demned its  foundress,  who,  by  means  of  her  reputation 
for  sanctity,  was  disseminating  grave  errors.  Joseph 
Peter,  who  defended  her  in  6pite  of  everything,  was 
placed  imder  interdict  in  1779,  but  was  reconciled 
some  years  later.  After  him  came  Michael  Fadl  (d. 
1795),  Peter  Gemall  (d.  1797),  Peter  Thian  (1797- 
1809),  and  Joseph  Dolcl  (1809-23).  The  last,  m  1818, 
aboli^ed,  by  tne  action  of  a  synod,  the  custom  by 
which,  in  many  places,  there  were  pairs  of  monasteries, 
one  for  men,  tne  other  for  women.  Under  Joseph 
Habalsoh  the  struggles  with  the  Druses  (see  I,  above) 
began,  continuing  under  his  successor,  Joseph  Ghazm 
(1846-55).  Peter  Paul  Massaad  (1855-90)  during  h» 
long  and  fruitful  term  on  the  patriarchal  throne  wit- 
nessed events  of  extreme  gravity — the  revolt  of  the 
people  against  the  sheiks  and  the  massacres  of  1860. 
ftlie  Maronite  Chiutih  owes  much  to  him :  his  firmness 
of  character  and  the  loftiness  of  his  aims  had  the  ut- 
most possible  effect  in  lessening  the  evil  consequences 


and  breaking  the  shock  of  tliese  conflicts.  The  faft> 
mediate  predecessor  of  the  present  (1910)  patriardi, 
Mstr.  Hoyek,  was  John  Peter  Hadj  (1890-09). 

I.  For  the  councUs  of  1696  and  1736  see  Maku,  Saenrtm 
wncUionim  nova  et  <xmpli9Bima  colUcUo  (Florence  aiid  Veniee, 
1759-98).  For  the  history  of  the  Maionites.  Michaxx<  ths 
Stbian.  Chronicle,  ed.  Nau  in  0pii9culM  Maronites  in  Revue  de 
VOrient  Chrftien,  IV. 

II.  ANaENT  WORKS. — Maronite  I  NaIroni,  Disaertatio  de 
origine  nomine  ae  rdigione  Maronitanan  (Rome.  1670) ;  Idem, 
Evoplia  Met  (Rome,  1694) ;  J.  S.  Ambmani,  BibHotkeoa  orien- 
talis,  I  (Rome.  1719),  496  sqq.  Western:  DANontz,  Jdissimu 
apostolica  al  Pairiarca  e  Maroniti  (Ceaeoa.  1656).  French  tr., 
Simon,  Voyaqe  du  Mont.  Liban  (Paris.  1685) :  Lb  Quxem,  Oriena 
CkrialianKSt  III:  Ecdcaia  Maronitarum  de  Monte  lAbtMno,  1-100. 
See  also  the  works  of  the  travellers  and  nuasionaziea  amonc  ^be 
Maronites;  the  chief,  besides  Wiujam  of  Tyre,  axe  Jaoqub* 
DE  Vitrt;  Ludolp  op  Suchen.  De  itinere  hierosolymitano; 
Gryphonb.  Sdriano,  Froiiagk. 

III.  Modern  woRKfl. — Maronite:  Dum^  Laperpitu^leotiko- 
dtNcie  des  Maronites  (Beirut,  s.  d.);  Chebu.  £>«  patriarcat  Maro- 
nite  d^Antioche  in  Revue  de  VOr.  ChrH.,  VIII.  133  sqq.;  for  the 
Maronite  tbeoiy,  Nau.  Opuscules  maronites  in  Rev.  de  FOr. 
chrH.,  IV.  Western:  Lam  mens.  Fr.  Oryphon  et  le  lAban  a« 
XV b  sitcle  in  Revue  de  VOr.  ChrH.,  IV,  68  sqci.;  and  wpecially 
the  articles  of  VAiLHi:  in  Echoa  d^Orient,  Orimnes  reOgieuses  des 
AfanmifM,  IV, 96, 154;  V,28l;  Melehites etMaronitoB,  W.TIV, 
Fra  Suriano  ei  la  perpHuelle  orthodoxie  des  Maronitem,  VII,  09; 
Le  monc^hSlisme  des  Maronites  d'apris  les  auteurs  Meiehites,  IX, 
91;  VEglise  Maronite  du  V'  au  IX*  sikde,  IX.  257,  344:  also 
Nehbr  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.  Maroniten;  Kxseuni  in  Roalenci/c. 
fikr  proL  theol.,  a.  v.  Maroniten, 

J.  Laboxtbt. 

Marquesas  Islands,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (In- 
BULARUM  Marchesi).  in  Polynesia,  indudes  all  the 
Blarquesas  Islands,  eleven  in  number,  lying  between 
7*»  5(y  and  10**  30'  S.  lat.  and  between  138**  aMd  141*» 
W.  long.  The  area  comprises  480  sq.  miles.  The 
islands  are  mountainous  and  rocky,  but  have  fertile 
plains.  The  aborigines  are  cannibals  who  live  mainly 
Dv  fishing,  and  dwell  in  huts  of  wattles  and  branches. 
The  chief  products  are  the  bread-fruit  tree,  the  coco- 
nut, the  banana,  orange,  and  sugar-cane.  Horses. 
Eigs,  sheep,  cotton,  and  tobacco  have  been  introduced 
y  the  missionaries.  The  islands  were  discovered  in 
1505  by  Mendana  and  named  Marquesas  after  the 
Marquess  de  Mendoza.  at  that  time  Viceroy  of  Peru, 
from  which  country  tne  expedition  had  sailed.  Hie 
first  Mass  was  said  there  28  July,  1595.  In  1791  the 
northern  islands  were  visited  by  Ingraham,  an  Ameri- 
can, and  by  Marchand,  a  Frenchman,  who  took  pos- 
session of  the  group  in  the  name  of  France.  Cm  4 
August,  1836,  three  missionaries  of  the  Congregation 
of  Picpus  entered  the  Bav  of  Vaithu,  Fathers  Des- 
vault  and  Borgella,  and  Brother  Nil.  They  found 
the  natives  gix^en  to  tattooing,  cruel  and  defective  in 
morals.  In  1774  some  whaling  vessels  left  the  dread 
disease,  phthisis,  among  the  natives,  and  it  has  con- 
tinued to  work  havoc  there.  The  population  in  1804 
was  reckoned  at  17,700;  in  1830  it  had  shrunk  to 
8000;  at  the  present  time  it  is  about  half  that  number. 
Between  1838  and  1848  there  were  216  iMtptisms  of 
adults;  between  1848  and  1856,  986  baptisms.  In 
1858  the  missionaries  opened  schools  at  Taioha^,  and 
in  1900  tliese  schools  were  instructing  300  children. 
In  1894  the  use  of  opium  by  natives  was  prohibited; 
in  1895  the  selling  or  possessing  of  alcohol  was  made  a 
criminal  offence,  and  in  1896  attendance  at  school  was 
made  obligatory.  In  1900,  however,  in  consequence 
of  the  passing  of  the  Associations  Law  in  France  the 
schools  were  closed  by  the  Government.  Efforts  of 
the  missionaries  to  enforce  attendance  at  their  private 
schools  met  with  limited  success.  The  present  Vicar 
Apostolic,  Mgr.  Martin,  of  the  Picpus  Uongregation, 
titular  Bishop  of  Uranopolis,  arrived  in  1890  and  took 
up  his  residence  at  Antouna  on  Hiva-Oa.  The  resi- 
dence of  the  civil  governor  is  at  Taiohal  on  Noukou- 
hiva. 

Statistics. — 1  Vicar-Apostolic;  9  priests,  5  brothers 
of  the  Picpus  congregation;  4  brothers  of  Ploeimel;  9 
sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny;  10  native  catechists;  40 
stations  scatterea  over  6  islands;  1  hospital  which 
cares  for  160  lepers.   Present  population,  3300  Catbo 


Ilea,  150  Proteatants,  about  300  pagans.  The  Mar- 
quesas Islands  have  been  a  Vicariate  Apoatcdio  since 
13  April,  184S. 

FlQlfT,  Lit  MUmiont  (Puis,  ■.  d.);  0<rarchia  (1910)1   Mit- 

tionei  Cat>ielxca  {Somt.  IB07);  WcmHU,  Orbit  ttrrtmrn  Ca- 
Iholicut  (FnibuTs,  1890);  Street.  AtUu  da  Mittioni  CalA. 
(Steyl,  19001:  HAaninor.  Ltt  MabtitarnimLi  frnn^ait  m  OiJanit 
(PWU.18B1);  Tdlha,  CAoIxCannibobCPuu.  1903):  Muuh. 
Au  Loin:  BUKniri  da  lUt  Mamiata  (Pwi*,  ISBl). 

J.  C.  Grey. 
■Iaiqnatt«  (Sault  Ste.  Mabie  and  Marquette), 

DlOceSB  OF  (MaRIANOPOUTANA  BT  MAXQUeiTENBtsi, 

compriHCs  the  injpcr  peninauU  aad  the  adjacent  istands 
o[  tbe  State  of  Michigan,  U.  S.  A.  The  Jesuit  Fathers, 
Kaymbault  and  Jogues,  were  the  first  priests  to  step  on 
Michigan  soil  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  1641,  but  atl  they  did 
vas  to  plant  a  large  cross  on  the  bank  of  St.  Marys 
River.  P^re  Rend  Menard,  on  Ids  way  to  Wisconsin, 
arrived  in  that  region  ilurinfc  Octo- 
ber, 1660;  overtaken  \>y  the  cold 
weather  he  spent  the  winter  at 
L'Anse  amidst  great  hani^lii  JIM,  Hin 
efforts  at  converting  the  reiiiipiii 
Indians  were  crowne<l  with  litilf 
success  and  he  deparml  ii 
1661.  He  perished  atior«! 
the  wilds  of  Northern  \\  i.s 
On  1  September,  16ij.>, 
Claude  Allouez  pasaeil  tlie 
on  his  way  to  La  Pbiiiic 
Esprit.  Aft«r  two  ye^rs  of 
aant  labour  he  returni>i.i  lo  Qiu'lie 
and  painted  out  to  his  .sij|x^i 
necessity  of  estab- 
lishing a  mission  at 
Sault  St«.  Marie, 
where  Indian  tribes 
were  in  the  haliit  of 
gathering.  The  su- 
perior consented  to 
the  plan,  appointing 
Father  Marquett«(q. 


J9  MABQUXTTE 

to  establish  a  fort  at  Detroit.  In  a  short  time  be 
coaxed  the  greater  number  of  the  Indians  to  Detroit, 
lite  fathers  saw  that  it  was  useless  to  expend  theii 
energies  upon  the  very  worst  of  the  Indiana  and 
French.  With  the  sanction  of  the  superior,  Carheil 
and  his  faithful  companion  Joseph  Jacques  Marcst 
stripped  the  chapel  of  lis  portable  ornaments  and,  to 
save  it  from  desecration,  reduced  it  to  ashes  (1703). 
Carheil  returned  to  Quebec;  Marest  went  to  the  Sioux. 
Besides  these  missionaries  the  following  Jesuit  Fa- 
thers laboured  at  the  Sault  and  Mackinac  prior  to 
the  abandonment  of  the  two  missions;  (iabriel  Druil- 
lettes,  Louis  Andrd,  Pierre  Bailloquct,  and  Charlea 
Albanel-  The  Sault  mission  was  not  revived  until 
1S34. 
Cadillac  was  unable  to  hold  the  red  man  in  the  lower 

Krt  of  the  stale.  As  soon  as  he  ceased  to  offer  the 
dians  material  inducements,  they  commenced  to 
move  back  in  small 
and  large  parties  just 
as  they  had  left.  The 
government  could 
not  afford  to  leave 
them  without  any 
supervision,  so  they 
re-manned  the  feat 
and  asked  the  Jesuits 
to  take  up  their  la- 
bours  agam.  Father 
Marest  was  the  first 
to  return  and    take 


)  the  r 


sion.  He  left  Mont- 
real 21  April,  166S. 
With  the  help  of  will- 
ing hands,  Indian 
and  French,  he 
erected  a  stockaded  house  and  chapel.  In  1669  Allouea 
came  again  to  Quebec,  this  time  asking  permission  to  ea- 
tAblish  a  mission  at  Green  Bav,  Wisconsin.  To  avoid 
further  long  journeys,  the  well-experienced  missionary 
Father  Claude  Dablon  was  appointed  superior  of  the 
west«m  missions.  Arriving  at  the  Sault  be  sent  AI- 
loues  to  Green  Bay  and  Marquett«  to  La  Fointe,  while 
he  himself  remained  at  the  Sault.  The  following  year 
he  spent  the  winter  at  Klichlllimackinac,  building  a 
chapel  there.  This  chapel  was  built  on  the  St.  Ignace 
side  where  Father  Marquette  took  up  his  residence  in 
the  summer  of  1671,  and  remained  m  charge  of  the 
Indian  tribes  there  until  17  May,  1673.  He  died  18 
May,  1675.  Two  years  later  the  Kiskakons  brought 
his  bones  to  St.  Ignace,  where  they  were  reinterred 
beneath  the  floor  of  the  new  chapel,  built  in  1674 
by  Father  Henry  Nouvel  and  his  associate.  Father 
E%ilip  Piersoti.  In  1683  Jean  Enjalran  became  supe- 
rior and  Pierre  Bailloquet  his  assistant.  The  French 
post,  instead  of  protecting  and  helping  the  mission, 
became  its  ruin.  FatherEtiennede  Carheil,  whosuo- 
ceeded  to  the  mission  in  1686,  raised  his  voice  in  vig- 
orous protest  to  the  Governor-General  Frontenac 
against  the  greed  and  lust  of  the  trader*,  the  garrisons, 
and  their  commsndeiB.  The  appointment  as  com- 
mander of  the  St.  Ignace  poet  di  Sieur  Antoine  de 
la  Motte  Cadillac  increased  these  evils.  Cwnte  de 
Froiitenac  died  in  1008  and  was  succeeded  by  Louis 
Hector  de  Oalli^res,  who  granted  Cadillac  permiaaiDn 
IX.— 44 


til  1741  only  a  tent- 
porary  establish  ment 
was  maintained.  In 
]712,  under  Delj>u- 
vigny,  the  French 
built  the  fort  across 
the  Straits,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  present  Mackinaw  City. 
Gradually  relations  between  the  missionaries  and 
the  government  ataiin  liecame  normal.  About 
the  year  1741a  chapel  anil  dwelling  for  the  mis- 
sionary were  built  u'liliii]  i  lie  stockaded  fort.  In 
17BI  tlie  Enga^ih  siicoicd'^d  the  French.  Their 
unpopularity  brouglii.  uu  Lhe  Pontiac  massacre, 
2  June,  1763.  In  1779  Major  De  Pej-ster  com- 
menced a  substantial  stone  fort  on  Mackinac  Island. 
The  chapel  in  the  old  fort  was  taken  down  and 
hauled  over  the  ice  and  re-erected.  The  island 
became  a  fp«at  trading  post  and  the  gateway  to 
western  civilisation.  Father  Du  Jaunay  attended 
the  mission  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  but  with  the 
removal  of  the  church  to  the  island  the  Jesuits 
seem  to  have  given  up  the  control  <^  it.  After  that 
regular  and  secular  pnests  had  charge  of  it,  at  times 
they  were  stationary  and  then  again  only  paid  it  an 
occasional  t'tsit.  Among  them  were  PSre  Guibault, 
1775;  P*re  Payet,  1787;  Pdre  Le  Dru,  1794.  Father 
Michael  Levadoux,  1706,  was  the  first  to  conte  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  an  American  prelate.  Bishop  Car- 
roll. By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  3  Sept.,  1783,  Mackinac 
became  the  possession  of  the  Lnited  States.  Tlie 
British  however,  did  not  evacuate  till  October,  1796. 
Major  Henry  Burbeck  took  passession  of  it.  On  20 
June,  1799,  Father  Gabriel  Richard  came  to  the  is- 
land. He  received  his  jurisdiction  from  the  bishop  of 
Baltimore,  but  8  April,  1808,  the  Diocese  of  BardHtoWn 
was  erected  and  Michipkn  cameunder  the  jurisdiction 
of  Bishop  Flaget.  .\gain,  when  the  Diocese  of  Cincin- 
nati was  established,  19  June,  1821,  Michigan  was  in- 
cluded in  its  territory.  Rt.  Rev.  Edward  Fenmck 
was  the  first  bishop  to  visit  Upper  Michigan.  Upon 
the  death  of  this  saintly  bishop.  Detroit  was  created 
an  episcopal  see  (1833)  and  Frederic  R£z£  became  ita 
first  ordinaiy.    During  the  first  National  Council  id 


BSABQUETTB 


690 


BfABQTJETTS 


Bfay,  1852,  the  Fathers  recommended  that  Upper 
Michigan  be  made  a  vicariate  Apostolic.  By  a  brief 
of  29  July^  1853.  Pins  IX  disjoined  the  territory  from 
Detroit  and  under  the  same  date  appointed  Frederic 
Baraga  its  vicar  apostolic  with  the  title  of  Bishop  of 
Amyzonia  in  jxirtibtis.  He  took  up  his  residence  in 
Sauit  Ste.  Mane  from  which  the  vicariate  and  later  the 
diocese  took  its  name.  Bishop  Baraga  found  three 
churches  and  two  priests  in  his  vicariate,  but  after 
three  years  of  administration  his  report  showed  not 
only  an  increase  and  permanency  of  missiofis  but  vast 
possibilities  in  development  so  that  the  Holy  Sec 
did  not  hesitate  to  raise  the  vicariate  to  the  dignity 
of  a  diocese,  conferring  at  the  same  time  upon  Baraga 
the  title  of  Bishop  of  Sault  Ste .  Marie .  The  city  was  at 
the  extreme  east  end  of  the  diocese^  so  that,  when 
many  important  missions  developed  m  the  west  end, 
the  question  of  moving  the  see  to  a  more  accessible 
place  naturally  suggested  itself.  The  choice  fell  upon 
the  town  of  Marquette  and  the  Holy  See  sanctioned 
the  removal  23  October,  1865,  enjoining  that  the  old 
name  be  retained  together  with  the  new  one,  hence  the 
name  of  the  diocese:  Sault  Ste.  Marie  and  Marquette. 
Since  the  elevation  of  Milwaukee  to  an  archdiocese 
(1875)  it  has  belonged  to  that  province.  The  bishops 
of  Detroit,  Milwaiucee,  St.  Paul^  and  Hamilton^  Can- 
ada, had  ceded  jurisdiction  to  Bishop  Baraga  over  the 
missions,  mostly  Indian,  adjoining  his  territory.  Thus 
the  northern  portion  of  Lower  Michigan,  the  regions 
around  Lake  Superior  throughout  Wisconsin  and  Min- 
nesota from  Port  Arthur  to  Michipicoten  and  the  Sault, 
were  attended  by  him  and  his  missionaries  while  he 
ruled  the  diocese.  Bishop  Baraga  died  19  January, 
1868.  (See  Baraga,  Frederic.)  His  countryman 
Ignatius  Mrak  became  his  successor.  He  was  conse- 
crated 9  February,  1869,  resigned  in  1877,  was  trans- 
ferred to  Antinoe,  in  partHms.  died  2  January,  1901. 
John  Vertin  became  the  third  oishop.  He  was  conse- 
crated 14  September,  1879;  died  26  February,  1899. 
The  fourth  bishop  was  chosen  in  the  person  of  Fred- 
erick Eis.  He  was  bom  20  January,  1843,  at  Arbach, 
Diocese  of  Trier,  Germany,  the  youngest  of  four  chil- 
dren. In  1855  his  parents  emigrated  to  America  and 
settled  first  at  Calvary,  Wisconsin,  but  later  removed 
to  Minnesota  and  from  there  went  to  Rockland,  Mich- 
i^n,  where  the  diligence  and  talents  of  the  future 
bishop  attracted  the  attention  of  the  pioneer  mission- 
ary, Martin  Fox,  who  at  once  took  a  lively  interest  in 
him.  Civil  war  broke  up  most  of  the  colleges  and 
young  Frederick  went  from  St.  Francis,  Wis.,  to  Joliet, 
Canada,  to  complete  his  studies.  He  was  ordained  by 
Bishop  Mrak,  30  October,  1870.     Filling  various  im- 

g^rtant  pastorates,  he  was  made,  upon  the  death  of 
ishop  vertin,  administrator  of  the  diocese  and  Leo 
XIII  raised  him  to  the  episcopate,  7  June,  1899.  His 
consecration  took  place  at  Marquette  24  August,  1899. 

Early  Missionaries. — Jean  Dejean,  Francis  Vin- 
cent Badin,  brother  of  Stephen  Theodore  Badin,  the 
first  priest  ordained  in  the  U.  S.,  Samuel  Mazzuchelli, 
Francis  Pierz,  Francis  Haetscher,  C.SS.R.,  F.  J. 
Bonduel,  Dominic  Du  Ranquet,  S.J.,  August  Kohler, 
S.J.,  G.  B.  Weikamp,  O.S.F.,  Richard  Baxter,  S.J., 
Otto  Skolla,  O.S.F.,  Andrew  Piret,  P.  Point,  S.J., 
B.  Pedelupe,  S.J.,  Jean  B.  Menet,  S.J.,  1846,  the  first 
stationary  Jesuit  missionary  since  1703,  J.  D.  Chonne, 
8  J.,  Martin  Fox,  Edward  Jacker,  who  discovered  in 
St.  Ignace  the  site  of  the  old  Jesuit  chapel  and  Mar- 
quette's grave,  John  Cebul,  Gerhard  Terhoret,  Hon- 
oratus  Bourion,  and  John  F.  Chambon,  S.J. 

Statistics. — Bishop  Baraga  found  in  his  diocese 
three  churches  and  two  priests.  He  left  15  priests,  21 
churches,  16  stations,  4  religious  institutions.  Bishop 
Mrak  left:  20  priests,  27  churches,  3  charitable  institu- 
tions, 3  academies,  20,000  population.  Bishop  Ver- 
tin left:  62  priests,  56  churches  with  pastors,  24  mis- 
sion churches,  64  stations,  3  chapels,  1  academy,  20 
parochial  schools  with  5440  pupils,  1  orphan  asylum, 


4  hospitab,  60,000  population.  Present  status:  85 
priests,  67  churches  with  pastors,  37  mission  chuiches, 
23  chapels,  104  stations,  1  academy,  24  parochial 
schools  with  6650  pupils,  1  orphan  asylum,  4  hospitals, 
95,000  population. 

OEIeligigus  Communities. — Orders  of  men:  Jesuits, 
Franciscans  (3  houses),  Premonstratensians.  Orders 
of  women:  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  (St.  Louis,  Mo.),  5 
houses ;  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  (Peoria),  3  houses ;  Sisters 
of  Notre  Dame  (Milwaukee),  3  houses;  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  (Ccmcordia,  Kans.),  2  houses;  Sisters  of  St. 
Aj^es  (Fond  du  Lac,  Wis.),  3  houses;  Franciscan 
Sisters  of  Christian  Charity  (Alvemo,  Wis.),  2  houses; 
Sisters  of  Loretto  (Toronto,  Canada) ;  Ursuline  Nims; 
Little  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Mary  (Bale  St.  Paul, 
Quebec). 

Rezek,  History  of  the  Diocese  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie  cand  Mar- 
ouette  (Houghton.  Mich.,  1906) ;  Tuwaites,  The  Jesuit  RelationM 
(Cleveland.  1901);  Ver^tst,  Life  of  Bishop  Baraga  (Milwau- 
kee, 19(X));  Kelton,  Annals  of  Fort  Mackinac  (Detroitt  1880); 
Jacker,  Am.  Quarterly  Review,  I,  1876;  History  of  the  Upper 
Peninsula  of  Michigan  (Chicago,  1883);  Ada  et  Dccreta,  CoU 
lectio  Lacensis,  III ;  BeruJUe  der  Leopoldinen  Stiftimg  im  Kaiser- 
thwne  Oesterreich  (Vienna,  1832-65);  Diocesan  Archives,  Mar- 
quette,  Mich.;  CcUholic  Directory. 

Antoine  Ivan  Rezek. 

Marquette,  Jacques,  S.J.,  Jesuit  missionary  and 
discoverer  of  the  Mississippi  River,  b.  in  1636,  at 
Laon,  a  town  in  north  central  France;  d.  near  Luding- 
ton,  Michigan,  19  May,  1675.  He  came  of  an  ancient 
family  distinguished  for  its  civic  and  military  ser- 
vices. At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  entered  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesus,  and  after  twelve  Vears  of  study  and 
teaching  in  the  Jesuit  colleges  of  France  was  sent  by 
his  superiors  (1666)  to  labour  upon  the  Indian  missions 
in  Canada.  Arriving  at  Quebec  he  was  at  once  as- 
signed to  Three  Rivers  on  the  Saint  Lawrence,  where 
he  assisted  Druillettes  and,  as  prelimiifary  to  furtlier 
work,  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Huron  lan- 
guage. Such  was  his  talent  as  a  linguist  that  he 
{earned  to  converse  fluently  in  six  different  dialects. 
Recalled  to  Quebec  in  the  spring  of  1668  he  repaired  at 
once  to  Montreal,  where  he  awaited  the  flotilla  which 
was  to  bear  him  to  his  first  mission  in  the  west.  After 
labouring  for  eighteen  months  with  Father  Dablon  at 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  (the  Soo)  he  was  given  the  more  difficult 
task  of  instructing  the  tribes  at  the  mission  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  at  La  rointe,  on  the  south-western  shore  of 
Lake  Superior,  near  the  present  city  of  Ashland. 
Here  we  meet  for  the  first  time  the  account  of  the 
work  of  Marquette  as  told  by  himself  and  his  first 
reference  to  the  great  river  with  which  his  name 
will  be  fqrever  associated  (Jesuit  Relations,  LI  I., 
206).  To  this  mission  on  the  bleak  bay  of  a  northern 
lake  came  the  Illinois  Indians  from  their  distant  wig- 
wams in  the  south.  They  brought  strange  tidings  of 
a  mighty  river  which  flowed  through  their  country  and 
BO  far  away  to  the  south  that  no  one  knew  into  what 
ocean  or  gulf  it  emptied.  Their  own  villages  num- 
bered eight  thousand  souls,  and  other  populous  tribes 
lived  along  the  banks  of  this  unknown  stream.  Would 
Marquette  come  and  instruct  them?  Here  was  a  call 
to  which  the  young  and  enthusiastic  missionary  re- 
sponded without  delay.  He  would  find  the  river,  ex- 
plore the  country,  and  open  up  fields  for  other  mis- 
sionaries .  The  liurons  promised  to  build  him  a  canoe ; 
he  would  take  with  him  a  Frenchman  and  a  young 
Illinois  from  whom  he  was  learning  the  language. 
From  information  given  by  the  visitors  Marquette 
concluded  that  the  Mississippi  emptied  into  the  Gulf 
of  California;  and  on  learning  that  the  Indians  along 
its  banks  wore  dlass  beads  he  knew  they  had  inter- 
course with  the  Europeans. 

So  far  had  he  gone  in  his  preparations  for  the  trip 
that  he  sent  presents  to  the  neighbouring  pagan 
tribes  and  obtained  permission  to  pass  through  their 
country.  However,  before  he  could  carry  out  his 
designs  the  Hurons  were  forced  to  abandon  their  vil- 
lage at  La  Pointe  on  account  of  a  threatened  attack  of 


BIABQinrRB                            091  MARBIAaS 

the  Dakotas.    The  missioiiaTy  embarked  with  the  en-  opposite  to  the  place  later  known  to  history  m 

tire  tribe  and  followed  the  Indians  back  to  their  an-  Starved  Rock.    Since  the  missionary's  strex^ith  had 

cient  abode  on  the  north-west  shore  cf  the  Straits  been  exhaused  by  his  labours  and  travels,  he  ^It  that 

of  Mackinac.    Here  a  rude  chapel  was  built  and  his  end  was  fast  approaching;  he,  therefore,  left  the 

the    work    of    instructing    the    Indians   went    on.  Illinois  after  three  weeks,  being  anxious  to  pass  his 

There  is  extant  a  long  letter  from  his  pen  in  which  remaining  da3rB  at  the  mission  at  Mackinac.    Coastine 

Marquette  gives  some  interesting  accounts  of  the  along  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  he  reachea 

piety  and  habits  of  the  converted  Hurons  (Jesuit  the  mouth  of  a  small  stream  near  the  present  city  of 

Kelations,  LVTI,  249).    But  Marquette  was  jeam-  Ludin^ton,  where  he  told  his  two  companions,  who  had 

ing  for  other  conquests  among  the  tribes  which  in-  been  with  him  throughput  his  entire  trip,  to  carry  him 

hi3)ited  the  buiks  of  the  Mississippi.    He  concluded  ashore.    There  he  died  at  the  age  of  thirty-nine, 

this  letter  with  the  joyful  information  that  he  had  Two  years  later  the  Indians  carried  his  bones  to  the 

been  chosen  by  his  superiors  to  set  out  from  Mackinac  Mission  at  Mackinac.    In  1887  a  bill  was  passed  by 

for  the  exploration  which  he  had  so  long  desired.    In  the  Assembly  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  authorizing  the 

the  meanwhUe  accoimts  of  the  Mississippi  had  reached  state  to  place  a  statue  of  Marquette  in  the  Hall  of 

Quebec,  and  while  Marquette  was  preparing  for  the  Fame  at  Washington.    This   statue   of  Marquette 

voyage  and  awaiting  the  season  of  navigation,  Joliet  from  the  chisel  of  the  Italian  sculptor,  S.  Tretanove,  is 

came  to  join  the  expedition.    On  17  May,  1673,  with  conceded  to  be  one  of  the  most  artistic  in  the  Capitd. 

five  other  Frenchmen,  in  two  canoes,  Marquette  and  Bronze  replicas  of  this  work  have  been  erected  at 

Joliet  set  forth  on  their  voyage  of  discovery.    Skirting  Marquette,  Michigan,  and  at  Mackinac  Island.    Thus 

along  the  northern  shore  of  I^ke  Michigan  and  enter-  have  been  verified  the  prophetic  words  of  Bancroft, 

ing  Green  Bay,  pushing  up  the  twisting  cturent  of  the  who  wrote  of  Marquette:  "  The  people  of  the  West  will 

Fox  River,  and  crossmg  a  short  portoge,  the  partv  build  his  monument." 

reached  the  Wisconsin.    This  river,  they  were  told,  T^iWAiraa.  FaUwr  MargueUe  (New  York,  1904);  Hedoeui, 

flowed  into  the  great  stream  which  they  were  seeking,  f^  '^ryS:U''iS^":Tj;i^l^±Z.'re{:^^. 

The  report  proved  true,  and  on  the  17  June  then*  i904),  UI,  207;  LVII,  249;  LIX.  86, 164, 184;  Bancroft.  Hi^ 

canoes  glided  out  into  the  broad,  swift  current  of  the  tory  of  the  U.  S.,  Ill  (Boston,  1870).  109;  Parkman.  La  SaUe 

Mississippi     Marquette  drew  a,  map  of  the  comity  S^ti1;S3rg?pK,STrt^^^^ 

through  which  they  passed  and  kept  a  diary  of  the  1854).     For  grave  of  Maitiuette,  see  Catholic  World.  XXVI 

voyage :  this  diary  with  its  clear,  concise  style  is  one  of  (New  York).  267;  statues  of  Marquette,  cf.  WooiUUKkLeUer* 

the  most  important  and  interesting  documents  of  (Woodstock^MaryUod).  VI.  159. 171;XXV.302^ 

V       "Z^^*'  fV^t?^  ^*^-       r^  Ti  1  x^     ^TTv     oo    w»^\  387;   De  Soto  and  Marquette,  cf.  Spalding.  MeMenger  ofth* 

Amencan  History  (Jesuit  Relations,  LIX,  86,  164).  saered  Heart,  XXXV.  669:  XXXVIII,  271;  Spalmno,  V,  3. 

He  describes  the  villages  and  customs  of  the  different  Cath,  Hutorieal  Records  and  Studies,  III  (New  York.  1904),  381. 

tribes,  the  topography  of  the  country,  the  tides  of  Henby  S.  Spaij>ing. 

the  lakes,  the  future  commercial  value  of  navigable  m*^.^.,^***  t -.-—-.              •  i.     r       j  j    •     xt 

streams,  the  nature  and  variety  of  the  flowere  and  v^"^^**®  ?^SP?' if  ^^^^  founded  m  New 

trees,  of  birds  and  animals.     DoWn  the  river  the  party  York  m  May,  1904,  by  Rev.  H  G.  Gan^,  of  Lancas- 

sailed,  passing  the  mouth  of  the  muddy  Missoui?  and  ^J*  ^^\Z'^^,  f  directorate  of  tw«ity-five  members 

the  Ohio  until  they  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Ar-  ^*^TS^*  ^"^^  ^^""1  *^^  '''''^'''^  ^^  *H^^  ^"'''''"^  ^^ 

kansas,  and  learned  with  certainty  from  the  Indians  ^?,^  ,?^'^*r '  ?^  f  ^Y°T  s  movement  to  co^rate 

that  the  river  upon  which  they  were  navigating  flowed  with  t^e  ecclesiastical  authonU^^^ 

into  the  Gulf  olf  Mexico.  ^eFaith^  among  the  Catholic  Indians  of  the  United 

This  was  the 
fearing  daneer  from 

they  turned  the  prows  »^.   v..^**  ^,««^^v-,  ..^.v..^».^.  ,       -  .  •  ■      x.-j      xu-x         j*     -j 

«  We  considered  ",  Writes  Marquette  in  his  diary, "  that  P^  maintaining  tramed  catechiste;  and  to  endeavour 


were  not  prepared  to  resist  the  InSian  alUee  of  the  "^  estabhshed  mission  chapek  at  Holy  Rosary  and  St 

Europeans,  for  these  savages  were  expert  in  the  use  Francis  mission,  South  Dakota;  for  the  Moquis  In- 

of  fir^rm^;  lastly  we  hadiathered  aU  the  information  ^  <>J  Northern  Aruona;  for  the  Winnebago^  of 

that  could  be  d^ired  fr^m  the  expedition.    After  Nebraska;   ^d  twochapels  on  the  Fort  Berthold 

weighing  all  these  reasons  we  resold  to  return."  Reservation,  North  Dakota.    Several  catechiste  were 

On  coming  to  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois  they  left  the  *®5*  ^  ^^  mission  field,  and  many  gifts  of  clothuMj 

Mississippi  and  took  what  they  learned  from  the  In-  ^5  money  were  sent  each  year  to  the  mission  schools 

dians  w^  a  shorter  route.     Near  the  present  city  of  ^^  ^"^^^  "^S^y  oSermg^  for  Masses  to  the  mis^onapr 

Utica  they  came  to  a  very  large  village  of  the  Illinois  pneate,  together  with  v^tmente  and  chahces  for  the 

who  requested  the  missionary  to  return  and  instruct  different  chapels  built  by  the  League.    The  Le^^ue 

them.     Reaching  Lake  Michigan  (where  Chicago  now  S^^H^  ^^  harmony  with  the  Bureau  of  Cathohc  Indian 

stands),  and  paddling  along  the  western  shore  they  Missions,  Washington,  and  its  work  extends  mto  al- 

came  ti  the  mission  of  Samt  Francis  Xavier  at  th4  most  every  state  in  the  umon.  The  League  is  goyen^ 

head  of  Green  Bay.    Here  Marquette  remained  while  ?>"  *  prudent  and  a  board  of  directors,  consistmg  of 

Joliet  went  on  to  Quebec  to  announce  the  tiding?  of  twenty-five  inen  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  member- 

the  discovery.    The  resulte  of  this  expedition  were  ^Inp  in  a  St.  Vmc«it  de  PauISociety  being  no  longer 

threefold :  (1)  it  gave  to  Canada  and  Europe  historical,  »  nec^sary  qualification.    The  wincipal  office  is  m 

ethnological,  and  geographical  knowledge  hitherto  un-  New  York,  witii  organizations  m  Brooklyn,  Washmg- 

known;  (2)  it  opened  vast  fields  for  missionary  zeal  ^^*  Philadelphia,  and  Worcester, 

and  added  impul^  to  colonization;  (3)  it  deterJiined  Yolk)'!  fiS^esf 'JSSSW f^Zrf^^^^  '^"''  ^""'^ 

the  policy  of  France  m  fortifying  the  Mississippi  and  Thomas  F.  Mbehan. 

its  eastern  tributaries,  thus  placing  an  effective  barrier 

to  the  further  extension  of  the  English  colonies.    A        Marriage,  Civil. — ^"Marriage",  says  Bishop,  "as 

year  later  (1675)  Marquette  started  for  the  village  of  distinguished  from  the  agreement  to  marry  and  from 

the  Illinois  Indians  whom  he  had  met  on  his  return  the  act  of  becoming  married,  is  the  civil  status  of  one 

voyage,  but  was  overtaken  by  the  cold  and  forced  to  man  and  one  woman  legally  united  for  life,  with  the 

spend  the  winter  near  the  lake  (Chicago).   The  follow-  ri^hte  and  duties  which,  for  the  establishment  of  fanir 

ing  spring  he  reached  the  village  and  said  Bfass  just  ilies  and  the  multiplication  and  education  of  the 


BCABSIAOE  092  lftABfiIA0X 

epeoies,  are,  or  from  time  to  time  may  thereafter  be,  requirement  in  some  of  the  states,  and  in  othen  thi 

assigned  by  the  law  of  matrimony. "  (I.  Mar.  and  Div.  parties  may  have  recourse  to  the  publication  of  baooi 

Sec.  11.)  mstead  of  securing  a  license.     Parental  consent  is 

The  municipal  law  deals  with  this  status  only  as  a  re<)uired  in  almost  all  of  the  states,  the  a^e  for  males 

civil  institution.    Though  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  bemg  from  sixteen  to  twenty-one  and  for  females  from 

contract,  marriage  in  the  eyes  of  the  municipal  law  is  eighteen  to  twenty-one.     Li  nearly  all  of  the  states, 

not  a  contract  strictly  speaking,  but  is  a  status  result-  if  either  of  the  parties  has  been  continuoiisly  absent 

ing  from  the  contract  to  marry.    Justice  Story  speaks  for  a  number  of  years  and  has  not  been  known  to  be 

of  it  as  "an  institution  of  societv  founded  upon  the  living  during  that  time,  the  other  party  may  contiact 

consent  and  contract  of  the  parties ''.     (Story,  ^*  Ckmfl.  a  new  marriage.    The  general  doctrine  of  the  law  on 

Laws",  Sec.  108.  Note.)    All  competent  persons  may  the  subject  of  foreign  marriages  is  that  a 


intermarry,  and  marriage  being  pnresum&d  to  be  for  valid  where  celebrated  is  valid  everywhere.  Exoq)- 
the  interest  of  the  State  and  of  the  highest  public  in-  tions  are  made  in  a  number  of  states  where  citizens  go 
terest,  is  encouraged.  It  is  held  to  be  a  union  for  life,  to  another  jurisdiction  in  order  to  evade  the  laws  of 
The  law  does  not  permit  it  to  be  a  subject  of  experi-  the  home  domicile.  In  some  of  the  states  marriages 
mental  or  temporary  arrangement,  but  a  fixed  and  between  persons  of  difTerent  races  are  made  void.  If 
permanent  status  to  be  dissolved  only  by  death,  or,  either  of  the  parties  is  not  of  sound  mind  at  the  time  of 
where  statutes  permit,  by  divorce.  In  England  the  entering  into  the  marriage,  it  is  void  unless  oonfirmed 
solemnization  oi  a  marriage  was  required  to  be  before  when  sanity  is  regained.  Where  a  physical  ino^iae- 
a  clergyman  until  the  statute  passed  in  1836,  and  all  ity  exists  the  marriage  may  be  made  void  on  the  an- 
other marriafes  excepting  those  of  Quakers  and  Jews,  plication  of  the  other  party  who  was  ignorant  of  the 
were  null.  By  that  act  civil  marriages  and  those  of  fact.  Under  the  conunon  Jaw  a  marriaee  can  be  an- 
dissenters  from  the  Church  of  England  are  legalized  nulled  for  mistake  as  to  identity  or  fraud.  There  are 
and  regulated.  In  order  to  constitute  a  valid  mar-  certain  kinds  of  fraud  where  an  ordinary  contract 
riage  there  must  be  a  consent  of  the  parties,  and  in  would  be  declared  void,  which  do  not  affect  a  marriage 
some  of  the  states  of  the  Union  no  formality  is  neces-  contract  because  of  pubUc  policy.  In  some  of  the 
sarv.  United  States  annulment  would  be  allowed  for  decep- 

fiy  the  conunon  law  the  age  at  which  minors  were  tion  as  to  chastity,  but  not,  it  is  said,  in  Cngland. 
capable  of  marrying,  known  as  the  age  of  consent,  was  Duress  sufficient  to  overcome  the  will  of  the  consent- 
fixed  at  fourteen  years  for  males  and  twelve  years  for  ing  party  is  a  cause  for  annulment  unless  subaequently 
females.  Marriages  under  the  age  of  seven  years  for  ratified.  As  in  England,  so  in  all  of  the  United  States 
both  were  void,  but  between  seven  and  the  age  of  con-  there  are  statutes  regulating  the  formalities  in  connee* 
sent  the  parties  could  contract  an  imperfect  marri^^e,  tion  with  marriages  other  timn  common  law  marriages, 
which  was  voidable  but  not  necessarily  void.  Tne  and  in  addition  to  ministers  of  the  various  churches, 
marriage  of  parties  who  had  attained  the  age  of  consent  who  for  the  purpose  are  looked  upon  as  civil  officers, 
was  valid  even  though  they  lacked  parental  con-  other  designated  officials  are  authorized  to  perform 
sent,  until  in  England  the  marriage  act  of  1753  de-  the  marriage  ceremony,  excepting  in  a  few  of  the 
clared  such  marriages  void.  This  act,  however,  has  states.  Marriages  may  be  proved  both  by  direct  and 
never  been  the  law  m  the  United  States.  In  England  circumstantial  evidence,  the  pfesumption  being  in  fa- 
imder  the  statute  of  32  Henry  VIII,  c.  38,  all  niar-  vor  of  a  former  marriage  where  there  has  been  cohabi- 
riages  were  made  lawful  between  parties  not  within  the  tation  and  reputation. 

Levitical  degrees  of  relationship;  this  was  interpreted  Where  marriages  are  annulled,  the  decree  relates 
to  mean  all  marriages  excepting  those  between  rela-  back  to  the  date  of  the  marriage,  while  divorce  relates 
tives  in  the  direct  line  and  in  the  collateral  line  to  the  only  to  the  date  of  its  own  decree  (see  Divorce).  Pen- 
third  degree,  according  to  the  rules  of  the  Civil  Law,  alties  are  usually  prescribed  for  violation  of  statutoiy 
including  both  tiie  whole  and  the  half  blood.  In  the  regulations  relating  to  marriage  by  ministers  or  other 
United  States,  in  the  absence  of  statutes  to  the  con-  persons  authorized  to  perform  the  ceremony.  Mar- 
trary,  marriages  are  unlawful  only  in  the  direct  as-  riage  of  itself  gives  to  the  husband  and  wife  certain 
cending  and  descending  line  of  consanguinity  and  interests  in  the  property  of  the  other,  both  real  and  per- 
between  brothers  and  sisters.  In  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  sonal,  which  by  modem  legislation  have  been  largely 
States,  however,  there  are  statutes  covering  this  sub-  modified.  Formerly  the  husband  was  to  sdl  intents 
ject,  and  in  a  number  of  them  marriages  between  first  and  purposes  owner  of  his  wife's  property,  but  now 
cousins  are  forbidden.  Marriages  that  arc  made  with-  she  has  absolute  control  of  it  in  ^[igiand  and  in  the 
out  formalities,  but  by  the  mere  consent  of  the  parties.  United  States,  reserving  to  the  husband  certain  rif  hts 
are  known  as  common  law  marriages.  In  order  to  which  become  effective  after  her  death.  In  Engumd 
make  such  marriages  effective,  there  must  be  a  present  imder  the  common  law,  the  marriage  of  parents  after 
hitention  to  make  the  contract  and  it  must  be  ex-  the  birth  of  children  does  not  legitimate  them,  but  in 
pressed  accordinglv, — in  other  words,  ''per  verba  de  most  of  the  American  states  and  in  European  oonti- 
pnesenti''.  Wordjs  expressing  a  futiu^  intention  do  nental  countries  it  is  sought  to  encourage  marriage  by 
not  give  the  necessary  consent,  but  when  words  are  providing  that  illegitimate  children  may  thus  be  legiti- 
usedwith  the  future  intention  apparently,  followed  by  mated.  The  laws  of  most  foreign  countries  make 
consummation,  or,  as  it  is  said,  ''per  verba  de  futiut)  strict  requirements  as  to  mental  capacity,  and  estab- 
cum  copula'',  a  marriage  is  constituted,  the  future  lish  certain  degrees  of  consanguinity  and  aflSnity 
promise  having  been  converted  by  action  into  an  ac-  within  which  marriage  cannot  be  contracted.  There 
tual  marriage.  Marriages  contracted  without  con-  are  certain  impediments,  not  known  in  the  United 
forming  to  statutory  regulations  are  valid  in  a  number  States,  imposing  a  period  of  delay  in  connexion  with 
of  states  and  not  in  others.  Formal  solemnization  is  military  service,  and  providing  a  time  within  which  a 
imnecessanr.  Where  no  penalty  for  disobedience  of  woman  may  not  contract  marriage  after  the  dissolu- 
statutory  formalities  is  provided,  their  omission  does  tion  of  a  previous  one.  The  tendency  in  continental 
not  inviJidate  the  marriage.  countries  is  to  establish  civil  marriage  as  ihe  only  form 

The  requirement  of  a  license  to  marry  was  first  recognized  by  the  State.  This  is  the  law  in  BeWum. 
brought  into  England  by  Lord  Hardwicke's  Marriage  France,  Germany,  Hungary,  Italy,  the  NetherGindB» 
Act  of  1753.  It  is  not  part  of  the  common  law  of  the  Rumania,  and  Switzerland,  where  the  civil  ceremony 
United  States,  but  very  generally  licenses  are  required  alone  is  recognized  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  and  in  most 
in  the  states,  though  not  to  the  extent  of  making  mar-  of  these  countries  clergymen  are  prohibited  under 
riages  invalid  where  they  have  not  been  granted.  The  severe  penalties  from  performing  tne  religious  cere- 
Society  of  Friends  or  Quakers  is  excepted  from  the  mony  before  the  civil  marriage  has  taken  place.    A 


BSABBIAOX                            693  MABSIAOX 

ofvil  oereiXKmy  is  roquired  in  Austria  when  both  par-  In  Italy  the  consent  of  the  parents  or  next  of  kin  is 

ties  belong  to  no  legally  recognised  Faith.    There  are  required  for  men  under  twenty-five  years  of  age  and 

similar  provisions  in  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  for  women  under  twenty-one  years.    Li  case  of  r»- 

Bulgaria,  Finland,  Croatia,  Slavmiia,  and  Servia  recog-  f usal  of  consent,  provision  is  made  for  an  appeal  to  a 

ni2e  ihe  religious  ceremony  alone.  court.     Foreigners  desiring  to  marry  in  Italy  must 

In  Japan  a  marriage  code  which  became  effective  present  a  certificate  from  a  competent  authority  that 

in  1898,  contains  sections  dealing  with  the  laws  of  they  have  satisfied  the  requirements  of  the  laws  of 

family  and  of  succession.    The  form  of  ceremony  is  their  own  country.    Foreigners  ordtnarilv  residing  in 

not  regulated,  but  the  marriaee  itself  is  valid  only  Italy  are  subject  to  the  requirements  of  the  ItaUan 

under  certain  conditions.    The  mws  of  countries  other  law.    Military  officials  cannot  marry  without  the 

than  the  United  States  provide  in  a  number  of  in-  royal  permission,  which  is  not  given  unless  they  have 

stances  for  the  consent  of  parents  or  guardians  after  an  assured  income  of  about  eight  hundred  dollars  at 

the  parties  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  least,  and  have  made  a  settlement  for  the  benefit  of 

Thus  in  Austria  parties  between  the  age  of  fourteen  the  bride.    Somewhat  similar  regulations  are  made 

and  twenty-four  years  are  incapable  of  contracting  a  for  lower  officers  and  privates, in  revenue  service, 

valid  mamage  without  the  consent  of  their  father  or,  In  the  Netherlands  the  consent  of  parents  is  re- 

if  he  be  dead  or  incapable  of  acting,  both  of  their  guar-  quired  of  an  individual  under  thirty  years  of  age.   The 

dian  and  of  the  court.     Even  for  those  who  have  at-  marriageable  age  begins  with  men  at  eighteen  and 

tained  the  a^e  of  twenty-foiu*,  but  who  for  any  reason  women  at  sixteen.    If  both  parents  are  dead  or  in- 

are  incapable  of  entering  into  a  valid  obligation,  e.  g.  capacitated,  an  individual  under  twenty-one  requires 

if  they  have  been  legally  declared  spendthrifts,  such  the  consent  of  a  grandparent  or,  in  default  of  agrand- 

oonsent  is  necessary.    In  the  case  of  minors  of  illegiti-  parent,  of  a  guardian  and  second  guardian.    Cheers 

mate  birth,  the  consent  both  of  the  guardian  and  of  of  the  army  and  navy  require  the  consent  of  the  sov- 

the  coiurt  is  requisite.    In  general,  persons  in  military  ereign  before  they  can  marry,  and  no  man  between  the 

service  cannot  contract  a  valid  marriage  without  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty  may  marry  unless  he  has 

written  permission  of  their  superiors.     A  law  of  1889  proved  he  has  performed  military  service  or  has  been 

provides  that  a  man  shall  not  be  permitted  to  marry  excused  from  it. 

before  reaching  the  age  of  military  service,  or  before  In  Switzerland  the  consent  of  parents  is  required  of 

leaving  the  third  aj^e  class,  i.  e.,  at  the  age  of  twenty-  all  persons  under  twenty  years  ofage.    The  consent  of 

three  years.    In  France  the  man  must  be  at  least  parents  is  required  also  in  Belgiiun  of  all  persons  under 

eighteen  years  of  age  and  the  woman  fifteen  to  con-  the  age  of  twenty-five,  the  law  being  somewhat  simi- 

tract  a  valid  marriage,  unless  the  President  of  the  Re-  lar  to  that  of  France. 

public  grants  a  special  disp^isation.    By  a  law  dated  In  Russia  children  must  obtain  the  consent  of  their 

25  June,  1907,  parental  consent  is  no  longer  required  parents  if  living,  without  regard  to  their  age,  a  man 

for  men  and  women  over  twenty-one  years  of  age,  but  attaining  the  marriageable  age  at  eighteen  and  a 

both  men  and  women  under  thirty  must  ask  for  it  and  woman  at  sixteen. 

serve  upon  the  dissenting  parent  or  parents  an  instru-  In  D^imark  the  marriageable  age  is  twenty  for  men 

ment  requesting  it.    The  parties  may  marry  three  and  sixteen  for  women,  and  consent  of  parents  must 

days  after  service  has  been  made.     Under  the  law  be  obtained  by  minors  under  the  age  of  twenty-five. 

grevious  to  that  date,  men  under  the  age  of  twenty-  In  Sweden  females  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  ro- 
ve and  women  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  could  not  quire  the  consent  of  a  marriage  guardian,  usually  her 
marry  without  the  consent  of  their  parents,  or  the  sur-  ntther  or  brother  or  some  other  male  relative.    Men 
vivor  if  one  of  them  was  dead.  require  no  parental  consent.    Men  may  marry  at  the 
In  England  the  common  law  rule  of  fourteen  for  age  of  twenty-one  or  over,  and  women  at  l^e  age  of 
males  and  twelve  for  females  governs  the  marriage  seventeen  or  over. 

age.    Consent  of  parents  is  necessury  for  persons  In  Norway  the  marriageable  age  for  men  is  twenty 

under  twenty-one,  except  for  a  widow  or  widower,  and  for  women  sixteen.    ParentaTconsent  is  necessary 

The  proper  person  to  give  consent  is  the  father  or,  if  he  for  both  parties  under  the  age  of  eighteen, 

be  dead,  the  mother,  if  unmarried,  or  finally  a  guar-  Parental  consent  appears  to  be  necessaiy,  under  cer- 

dian  appointed  by  the  Court.    Soldiers  must  get  the  tain  conditions,  in  all  European  coimtries  where  the 

consent  of  their  commander.    Violation  of  these  pro-  parties  are  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  and  in  many 

visions  does  not,  however,  invalidate  the  marriage;  where  they  are  liable  to  militaiy  serviee.    In  Japan 

but  in  case  of  soldiers  the  woman  is  not  recognized  as  the  consent  of  parents  or  of  the  family  council  is  essen- 

having  a  military  status.    In  Scotland  the  impedi-  tial  to  the  marriage  of  a  man  under  thirty  and  of  a 

ments  are  the  same  as  in  England,  but  no  consent  of  woman  under  twenty-five.    The  marriage  laws  of  the 

parents  or  guardian  is  required.    Regular  marriages  different  Canadian  provinces  are  not  uniform  but  are 

are  celebrated  by  some  minister  of  religion  in  the  pres-  quite  similar.    The  minimum  age  for  marriage  in  the 

enoe  of  at  least  two  witnesses,  after  the  publication  of  Province  of  Quebec  is  fourteen  for  males  and  twelve 

banns  or  issuance  of  registrar's  certificate.    Irregular  for  females.    Parental  consent  is  necessary  for  any 

marriages  are  clandestine  marriages,  celebrated  with-  one  under  twenty-one  years  of  age.    In  Quebec  alone 

out  publication  of  banns  or  notice  to  the  registrar,  of  the  Canadian  Provinces  ill^timate  children  are 

Such  marriages  may  be  made  by  mere  consent  without  legitimated  by  the  marriage  of  their  parents.    The 

a  clergyman  and  are  valid.     In  Ireland  provisions  laws  of  Australia  and  New  ^aaland  are  based  upon  the 

are  made  for  marriages  by  Episcopalians,  Catholics,  English  statutes  and  common  law. 

and  Presbyterians,  by  ministers  of  other  denomina-  Bishop,  Afarruv*.  Divorce  and  Sepwniion  (Chieago,  1891); 

tions,  and  by  the  civil  registrars.  The  impediments  to  ^^m.  and  Eng.  Ene,  of  Lav,  s.  v.  Marriaoe;  Bouyzbs,  Law  IH> 

marriage  are  substantiaUy  the  same  as  in  England.  ?SS?'^  !P^*^  ^S""^  of  the  Census  Office  (Washington.  1867- 

T     rr ^           ZT^             «"^  oc***^  «o  1**  ^A^««uu.  jgQg^  Pai,rt  I),  with  a  valuable  summary  of  the  mamage  and 

In  tiermany  a  man  may  not  marry,  except  m  un-  divorce  laws  of  all  modem  States,  from  which  the  foregoing 

usual  cases,  imder  the  age  of  twenty-one  or  a  woman  ^ets  in  relation  to  foreign  countries  have  been  derived, 

under  the  age  of  sixteen.    A  le^tunate  child  under  Walter  George  SMrrn. 
the  age  of  twenty-one  must  obtam  the  consent  of  the 

father  or,  if  he  be  dead,  of  the  mother-  an  illegitimate  Maiiiage,  Hibtort  of. — The  word  marriage  may 

child,  the  consent  of  the  mother;  an  adopted  child,  the  be  taken  to  denote  the  action,  contract,  formiUity,  or 

consent  of  the  foster  parent.    Military  men,  public  ceremony  by  which  the  conjugal  union  is  formed,  or 

officials,  and  forei^ers,  before  marriage,  must  obtain  a  the  union  itself  as  an  enduring  condition.    In  thiB 

snecial  permit,  and  militaiy  men  in  active  service  must  article  we  deal  for  the  most  part  with  marriage  as  • 

also  obtain  the  consent  of  their  officers.  condition,  and  with  its  moral  and  social  aspects.    It  is 


ISARBIAOB  694  ISARBIAOB 

usually  defined  as  the  legitimate  union  between  hus-  thus  described  by  Howard: " The  researches  of  seviefal 

band  and  wife.    "Legitimate''  indicates  the  sanction  recent  writers,  notably  those  of  Starcke  and  Wester- 

of  some  kind  of  law,  natural,  evangelical,  or  civil,  marck,  confirming  in  part  and  further  developing  the 

whilethephrase,*' husband  and  wife",  implies  mutual-  earlier  conclusions  of  Darwin  and  Spencer,  have  es- 

rights  of  sexual  intercourse,  life  in  common,  and  an  tablished  a  probability  that  marriage  or  pairi^  be- 

enduring  xmion.    The  last  two  characters  distinguish  tween  one  man  and  one  woman,  though  the  union  be 

marriage,  respectively,  from  concubinage  and  fomica-  often  transitory  and  the  rule  frequently  violated,  is 

tion.    The  aefinition,  however,  is  br^id  enough  to  the  typical  form  of  sexual  imion  from  the  infancy  of 

comprehend   polygamous  and   pol^androus   unions  the  human  race"  (History  of  Matrimonial  Instito- 

when  the^  are  permitted  by  the  civil  law;  for  in  such  tions,  I,  pp.  90,  91). 

relationships  there  are  as  many  marriages  as  there  are        (2)  Polyandry  and  Polygamy. — One  deviation  from 

individuals  of  the  numerically  larger  sex.    Whether  the  typical  form  of  sexiial  imion  which,  however,  is 

promiscuity,  the  condition  in  which  all  the  men  of  a  also  called  marriage,  is  polyandry,  the  union  of  several 

group  maintain  relations  and  live  indiscriminately  husbands  with  one  wife.     It  has  been  practised  at 

with  all  the  women,  can  be  properly  called  marriage,  various  times  by  a  considerable  number  of  peoples  or 

may  well  be  doubted.    In  such  a  relation  cohabita-  tribes.    It  existed  amon^  the  ancient  Bntons,  the 

tion  and  domestic  life  are  devoid  of  that  exclusi veness  primitive  Arabs,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands, 

which  is  commonly  associated  with  the  idea  of  con-  the  Aborigines  of  America,  the  Hottentots,  the  inhabi- 

jugal  imion.  tants  of  India,  Ceylon,  Thibet,  Malabar,  and  New 

(1)  The  Theory  of  Primitive  Promiscuity, — ^All  au-  Zealand.    In  the  great  majority  of  these  instances 
thorities  agree  t^t  during  historical  times  promia-  polyandry  was  the  exceptional  form  of  conjugal  union, 
cuity  has  l^n  either  non-existent  or  confined  to  a  few  Monogamy  and  even   polygamy  were  much  more 
small  groups.    Did  it  prevail  to  any  extent  during  the  prevalent.    The  greater  number  of  the  polyandrous 
prehistoric  period  of  the  race?    Writing  between  1860  unions  seem  to  have  been  of  the  kind  called  iratemal: 
and  1890,  a  considerable  number  of  anthropologists,  that  is,  the  husbands  in  each  conjugal  group  virere  au 
such  as  Bachofen,  Mor^n,  McLennan,  Lubbock,  and  brothers.    Frequently,  if  not  generally,  the  first  hu»- 
Giraud-Teulon,  maintamed  that  this  was  the  original  hand  enjoyed  conjujgal  and  domestic  rights  superii^ 
relationship  between  the  sexes  amon^  practically  all  to  the  others,  was,  in  fact,  the  chief  husband.     The 
peoples,     oo  rapidly  did  the  theory  wm  favour  that  in  others  were  husbands  only  in  a  secondary  and  limited 
1891  it  was,  aocorciing  to  Westermarck,  "  treated  by  sense.    Both  these  circumstances  show  that  even  in 
many  writers  as  a  demonstrated  truth"  (History  of  the  comparatively  few  cases  in  which  polyandry  ex- 
Human  Marri^e,  p.  51).     It  appealed  strongly  to  isted  it  was  softened  in  the  direction  of  monogamy; 
those  believers  m  organic  evolution  who  assumeni  that  for  the  wife  belonged  not  to  several  entirely  independ- 
the  social  customs  of  primitive  man,  including  sex  re-  ent  men,  but  to  a  group  united  by  the  closest  ties  of 
lations,  must  have  dinered  but  slightly  from  the  cor-  blood;  she  was  married  to  one  family  rather  than  to 
responding  usages  among  the  brutes.    It  has  been  one  person.    And  the  fact  that  one  of  her  consorts  poe- 
ea^rly  adopted  by  the  Marxian  Socialists,  on  account  sessed  superior  marital  privileges  shows  that  she  had 
cd  its  agreement  with  their  theories  of  primitive  com-  only  one  husband  in  the  full  sense  of  the  term.    Some 
mon  property  and  of  economic  determinism.    Accord-  writers,  e.  g.  McLennan  (Studies  in  Ancient  History, 
ing  to  the  latter  hypothesis,  all  other  social  institutions  pp.  1 12,  sq.)  have  asserted  that  the  Levirate,  the  cus- 
are,  and  have  ever  been,  determined  by  the  underlying  tom  which  compelled  the  brother  of  a  deceased  hus- 
eeonomic  institutions;  hence  in  the  original  condition  band  to  many  his  widow,  had  its  origin  in  polyandry, 
of  common  propertv,  wives  and  husbands  must  like-  But  the  Levirate  can  be  explained  without  any  sudb 
wise  have  been  hela  in  common  (see  Engels,  "The  hypothesis.    In  many  cases  it  merely  indicated  that 
Origin  of  the  Family,  Private  Property,  and  the  the  wife,  as  the  property  of  her  husband,  was  inherited 
State '\  tr.  from  German,  Chicago,  1902).    Indeed,  by  his  nearest  heir,  i.  e.  his  brother  j  in  other  instances, 
the  vogue  which  the  theory  of  promiscuity  for  a  time  as  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  it  was  evidently  a 
enjoyed  seems  to  have  been  due  far  more  to  a  priori  means  of  continuing  the  name,  family,  and  individo- 
considerations  of  the  kind  just  mentioned,  and  to  the  ality  of  the  deceased  husband.    If  the   Levirate 
wish  to  believe  in  it,  than  to  positive  evidence.  pointed  in  all  cases  to  a  previous  condition  of  polyan- 

About  the  only  direct  testimony  in  its  favour  is  dry,  the  latter  practice  must  have  been  much  more 
found  in  the  fra^entary  statements  of  some  ancient  common  than  it  is  shown  to  have  been  by  direct  evi- 
writers,  such  as  Herodotus  and  Strabo,  concerning  a  dence.  It  is  certain  that  the  Levirate  existed  among 
few  unimportant  peoples,  and  in  the  accounts  of  some  the  New  Caledonians,  the  Redskins,  the  Mongols, 
modem  travellers  regarding  some  uncivilized  tribes  of  Afghans,  Hindoos,  Hebrews,  and  Abyssinians;  yet 
the  present  day.  Neither  of  these  classes  of  testi-  none  of  these  peoples  shows  any  trace  of  polyandry, 
mony  clearly  shows  that  the  peoples  to  which  they  re-  The  principal  causes  of  polyandiv  were  the  scarcity  of 
fer  practised  promiscuity,  and  both  are  entirely  too  women,  due  to  female  infanticide  and  to  the  appro- 
few  to  justify  the  generalization  that  all  peoples  lived  priation  of  many  women  by  polygamous  chiefs  and 
originally  in  the  conditions  which  they  describe.  As  strong  men  in  a  tribe,  and  to  the  scarcity  of  the  food 
for  the  indirect  evidence  in  favour  of  the  theory,  con-  supplv,  which  made  it  impossible  for  e  verymale  mem- 
sisting  of  inferences  from  such  social  customs  as  the  her  of  a  family  to  support  a  wife  alone.  Even  today 
tracing  of  kinship  through  the  mother,  religious  pros-  polyandry  is  not  entirely  unknown.  It  is  found  to 
titution,  unrestrained  sexual  intercourse  previous  to  some  extent  in  Thibet,  in  the  Aleutian  Islands,  among 
marriage  among  some  savage  peoples,  and  primitive  the  Hottentots,  and  the  Zaporogian  Cossacks, 
commimity  of  goods, — none  of  these  conditions  can  be        Polygamy  (man^  marriages)  or,  more  correctly, 

S roved  to  have  been  universal  at  any  stage  of  human  polygyny  (many  wives)  has  oeen,  and  is  still,  much 

evelopment,  and  every  one  of  them  can  be  explained  more  common  than  polyandry.    It  existed  among 

more  easily  and  more  naturally  on  other  groimds  than  most  of  the  ancient  peoples  known  to  history,  and  oe- 

on  the  assumption  of  promiscuity.    We  may  say  that  curs  at  present  in  some  civilized  nations  and  in  the 

the  positive  ar^ments  in  favour  of  the  theory  of  majority  of  savage  tribes.     About  the  only  important 

Srimitive  promiscuity  seem  insufficient  to  give  it  any  peoples  of  ancient  times  that  showed  little  or  no  traces 

egree  of  probaUlity,  while  the  biological,  economic,  of  it  were  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans.    Nevertheless, 

psychological,  and  historical  arguments  brought  against  concubinage,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  higher  form 

it  by  many  recent  writers,  e.  g.  Westermarek  (op.  of  polygamy,  or  at  least  as  nearer  to  pure  monogamy, 

dt.,  iv-vi)  seem  to  render  it  unworthy  of  serious  con-  was  for  many  centuries  recognized  by  the  customs  and 

nderation.    The  attitude  of  oontemporaiy  scholars  is  even  by  the  legislation  of  these  two  nations  (fiee  CoK- 


MABRIAOB                            695  MABBIAOB 

oubinage).    The  principal  peoples  among  whom  the  elements  of  human  nature.    Taking  the  word  natural 

practice  still  exists  are  those  under  the  sway  of  Mo-  in  its  full  sense,  we  may  unhesitatingly  affirm  that 

hammedanism,  as  those  of  Arabia,  Turkey,  and  some  monogamy,  is  the  only  natural  form  of  marriage, 

of  the  peoples  of  India.     Its  chief  home  among  un-  While  promiscuity  responds  to  certain  elementalpas- 

civilized  races  is  Africa.     However  widespread  polyg-  sions  and   temporarily   satisfies   certain  superficial 

amy  has  been  territorially,  it  has  never  been  practised  wants,  it  contradicts  the  parental  instinct,  the  welfare 

by  more  than  a  small  mmority  of  any  people.    Even  of  children  and  of  the  race,  and  the  overpowering 

where  it  has  been  sanctioned  by  custom  or  the  civil  forces  of  jealousy  and  individual  preference  in  both 

law,  the  vast  maiority  of  the  population  have  been  men  and  women.    While  polyandiy  satisfied  in  some 

monogamous.    The  reasons  are  obvious:  there  are  not  measure  the  temporary  and  exceptional  wants  arising 

sufficient  women  to  provide  every  man  with  several  from  scarcity  of  food  or  scarcity  of  women,  it  finds  an 

wives,  nor  are  the  majority  of  men  able  to  support  insuperable  barrier  in  male  jealousy,  in  the  male  sense 

more  than  one.     Hence  polygamous  marriages  are  of  proprietorship,  and  is  directly  opposed  to  the  wel- 

found  for  the  most  part  among  the  kings,  chiefs,  fare  of  the  wife,  and  fatal  to  the  fecimdity  of  the  race, 

strong  men,  and  rich  men  of  the  community;  and  While  polygamy  has  prevailed  among  so  many  peoples 

its  prevailing  form  seems  to  have  been  bigamy.    More-  and  over  so  long  a  period  of  history  as  to  suggest  that 

over,  polygamous  unions  are,  as  a  rule,  modined  in  the  it  is  in  some  sense  natural,  and  while  it  does  seem  to 

direction  of  monogamy,  inasmuch  as  one  of  the  wives,  furnish  a  means  of  satisfying  the  stronger  and  more 

usually  the  first  married,  occupies  a  higher  place  in  the  frequently  recurring  desires  of  the  male,  it  conflicts 

household  than  the  others,  or  one  of  them  is  the  fa-  with  the  numerical  equaUty  of  the  sexes,  with  the 

vourite,  and  has  exceptional  privileges  of  intercourse  jealousy,  sense  of  proprietorship,  equality,  dignity, 

with  the  common  husuand.  and  general  welfare  of  the  wife,  and  with  the  best  in- 

Among  the  principal  causes  of  polygamy  are:  the  terests  of  the  offspring, 
relative  scarcity  of  males,  arising  sometimes  from  nu-  In  all  those  regions  in  which  polygamy  has  existed 
merous  destructive  wars,  and  sometimes  from  an  ex-  or  still  exists,  the  status  of  woman  is  extremely  low; 
cess  of  female  births;  the  unwillingness  of  the  husband  she  is  treateu  as  man's  property,  not  as  his  compaiH 
to  remain  continent  when  intercourse  with  one  wife  is  ion;  her  life  is  invariably  one  of  great  hardship,  while 
undesirable  or  impossible;  and  unrestrained  lustful  her  moral,  spiritual,  and  intellectual  qualities  are  al- 
cravings.  Still  another  cause,  or  more  properly,  a  most  utterly  neglected.  Even  the  male  human  being 
condition,  is  a  certain  degree  of  economic  advance-  is  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  phrase  naturally  monoga- 
ment  in  a  people,  and  a  certain  amount  of  wealth  ac-  mous.  His  moral,  spiritual,  and  Aesthetic  faculties  can 
cumulated  by  some  individuals.  In  the  rudest  socio-  obtain  normal  development  only  when  his  sexual  rela- 
ties  p^ygamy  is  almost  unknown,  because  hunting  tions  are  confined  to  one  woman  in  the  common  life 
and  fishing  are  the  chief  means  of  livelihood,  and  fe-  and  enduring  association  provided  by  monogamy, 
male  labour  has  not  the  value  that  attaches  to  it  when  The  welfare  of  the  children,  and,  therefore,  of  the  race, 
a  man's  wives  can  be  employed  in  tending  flocks,  culti-  obviously  demands  that  the  offspring  of  each  pair  shall 
vating  fields,  or  exercising  useful  handicrafts.  Before  have  the  undivided  attention  and  care  of  both  their 
the  pastoral  stage  of  industry  has  been  reached  parents.  When  we  speak  of  the  naturalness  of  any 
scarcely  any  man  can  afford  to  support  several  women,  social  institution,  we  necessarily  take  as  our  standard, 
When,  however,  some  accumulation  of  wealth  has  not  nature  in  a  superficial  or  one-sided  sense,  or  in  its 
taken  place,  polygamy  becomes  possible  for  the  more  savage  state,  or  as  exemplified  in  a  few  individuals  or 
wealthy,  and  for  those  who  can  utilize  the  productive  in  a  sin^e  generation,  but  nature  adequately  consid* 
labour  of  their  wives.  Hence  the  practice  has  been  ered,  in  all  its  needs  and  powers,  in  all  the  members  of 
more  frequent  among  the  higher  savages  and  barba-  the  present  and  of  future  generations,  and  as  it  ap- 
rians  than  among  the  very  lowest  races.  At  a  still  pears  in  those  tendencies  which  lead  toward  its  high- 
higher  stage  it  tends  to  give  way  to  monogamy.  est  development.    The  verdict  of  experience  and  the 

We  may  now  sum  up  the  whole  historical  situation  voice  of  nature  reinforce,  conse<]^uently,  the  Christian 

concerning  the  forms  of  sexual  union  and  of  maniage  teaching  on  the  unity  of  marriage.    Moreover,  the 

in  the  words  of  one  of  the  ablest  living  authorities  in  progress  of  the  race  toward  monogamy,  as  well  as 

this  field  of  investigation:  **  It  is  not,  of  course,  impos-  toward  a  purer  monogamy,  during  the  last  two  thou- 

sible  that,  among  some  peoples,  intercourse  between  sand  years,  owes  more  to  the  influence  of  Christianity 

the  sexes  may  have  been  almost  promiscuous.    But  than  to  all  other  forces  combined.    Christianity  has 

there  is  not  a  shred  of  genuine  evicience  for  the  notion  not  oidy  aboli^ed  or  diminished  polyandry  and  polyg- 

that  promiscuity  ever  formed  a  general  stage  in  the  amy  among  the  savage  and  barbarous  peoples  which 

history  of  mankind  .  .  .  although  polygamy  occurs  it  lias  converted,  but  it  has  preserved  Europe  from  the 

among  most  existing  peoples,  and  polyandry  among  polygamous  civilization  of  Mohammedanism,  has  kept 

some,  monogamy  is  by  far  the  most  common  form  of  nefore  the  eyes  of  the  more  enlightened  peoples  tne 

human  marriage.     It  was  so  among  the  ancient  peo-  ideal  of  an  unadulterated  monogamy,  and  has  given  to 

pies  of  whom  we  have  any  direct  knowledge.    Mouog-  the  world  its  highest  conception  of  the  equality  that 

amy  is  the  form  which  is  generally  recognized  and  pei^  should  exist  between  the  two  parties  in  tne  marriage 

mitted.    The  great  majority  of  peoples  are,  as  a  rule,  relation.     And  its  influence  on  behalf  of  monogamy 

monogamous,  and  the  other  forms  of  marriage  are  usu-  has  extended,  and  continues  to  extend,  far  beyond  the 

ally  modified  in  a  monogamous  direction.    We  may  confines  of  those  countries  that  call  tJouemselves  Chris- 

without  hesitation  assert  that,  if  mankind  advance  in  tian. 

the  same  direction  as  hitherto;  if,  consequently,  the  (3)  Deviations  from  Marriage. — Our  discussion  of 

causes  to  which  monogamy  in  the  most  progressive  the  various  forms  of  marriage  would  be  incomplete 

societies  owes  its  origin  continue  to  operate  with  con-  without  some  reference  to  those  practices  that  nave 

stantly  growing  force ;  if,  especially,  altruism  increases,  been  more  or  less  prevalent,  and  yet  that  are  a  trans- 

and  the  feeling  of  love  becomes  more  refined,  and  more  gression  of  every  form  of  marriage.    Sexual  license 

exclusively  directed  to  one, — the  laws  of  monogamy  amounting  almost  to  promiscuity  seems  to  have  pre- 

can  never  be  changed,  but  must  be  followed  much  vailed  among  a  few  peoples  or  tribes.    Among  some 

more  strictly  than  they  are  now  "  (Westermarck,  op.  andent  peoples  the  women,  especially  the  unmarried, 

cit..  pp.  133,  459,  510).  practised  prostitution  as  an  act  of  religion.      Some 

The  experience  of  the  race,  particularly  in  its  move-  tribes,  botn  ancient  and  relatively  modem,  have  main- 

ment  toward  and  its  progress  in  civilization,  has  ap-  tained  the  custom  of  yielding  the  newly  married  bride 

proved  monogamy  for  the  simple  reason  that  monog-  to  the  relatives  and  guests  of  the  bridegroom.    Unlim- 

amy  is  in  harmony  with  the  essential  and  immutable  ited  sexual  intercourse  before  marriage  has  been  sane- 


.^-s  r-ron:-:--!-  :--->-j:i 


-_-^  t^».-.  =Li-  ^ii!^:- 


^-.    --- rr^  iK  »?  >rv:.xa  -ja; 


:^«  iil-Jb- 


BSABBIAOB                            607  BSAB&IAQB 

Similarly^  easy  divorce  gives  an  impetus  to  illicit  re-  have  beeo  already  attained;    and,  second,  that  the 

lations  between  the  unmarried,  inasmuch  as  it  tends  to  same  policy  will  be  f  oimd  essentia  to  the  highest  d»- 

destroy  the  association  in  the  popular  consciousness  gree  oi  civilization. 

between  se^oial  intercourse  and  the  enduring  union  of  (5)  AhsienHan  Jrom  Marriage. — ^With  a  verv  few 
one  man  with  one  woman.  Another  evil  is  the  in-  unimportant  exceptions  all  peoples,  sava^  and  civ- 
crease  in  the  number  of  hasty  and  unfortunate  mar-  ilized,  that  have  not  accepted  tne  Cathouc  religion, 
riages  among  persons  who  look  forward  to  divorce  as  have  looked  with  some  disdain  upon  celibacy.  Savage 
an  eas^  remeay  for  present  mistakes.  Inasmuch  as  races  many  much  earlier,  and  have  a  smaller  propor- 
the  children  of  a  divorced  couple  are  deprived  of  their  tion  of  cehbates  than  civilized  nations.  Dunng  the 
normal  heritage,  which  is  education  ana  care  by  both  last  centuiy  the  proportion  of  unmarried  persons  has 
father  and  mother  in  the  same  household,  they  almost  increased  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  Tlie 
always  suffer  ^ve  and  varied  disadvantages.  Finally,  causes  of  this  change  are  partly  economic,  inasmuch 
there  is  the  injury  done  to  the  moral  clumEuster  gener-  as  it  has  become  more  difficult  to  support  a  family  in 
ally.  Indissoluble  marriage  is  one  of  the  most  effective  accordance  with  contemporary  stanoards  of  living; 
means  of  developing  self-control  and  mutual  self-sacri-  partly  social,  inasmuch  as  the  increased  social  pleasure 
fice.  Many  salutary  inconveniences  are  endured  be-  and  opportunities  have  displaced  to  some  degree  do- 
cause  they  cannot  be  avoided,  and  many  imperfections  mestic  desires  and  interests;  and  partly  moral,  inas- 
of  temper  and  character  arc  corrected  because  the  much  as  laxer  notions  of  chastity  nave  increased  the 
husband  and  wife  realize  that  thus  only  is  conjugal  number  of  those  who  satisfy  their  sexual  desires  out- 
happiness  possible.  On  the  other  hand,  when  divorce  side  of  marriage.  From  the  viewpoint  of  social  moral- 
is  easily  obtained  there  is  no  sufficient  motive  for  under-  ity  and  social  welfare,  this  modem  celibacy  is  an  al- 
goinK  those  inconveniences  which  are  so  essential  to  most  unmixed  evil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  religious 
self-discipline,  self-development,  and  the  practice  of  celibacy  taught  and  encouraged  by  tne  Church  is 
altruism.  socially  benencial,  since  it  shows  that  continence  is 

All  the  objections  just  noted  are  valid  against  fre-  practicable,  and  since  religious  celibates  exemplify  a 

quent  divorce,  against  the  abuse  of  divorce,  but  not  nigher  degree  of  altruism  than  any  other  section  of 

fi^inst  divorce  so  far  as  it  implies  separation  from  bed  society.    The  assertion  that  celibacy  tends  to  make 

and  board  without  the  right  to  contract  another  mar-  the  married  state  seem  low  or  unworthy,  is  contra- 

riage.    The  Church  permits  limited  separation  in  cer-  dieted  by  the  public  opinion  and  practice  of  every 

tain  cases,  chiefly,  when  one  of  the  parties  has  been  country  m  which  celibacy  is  held  in  highest  honour, 

guilty  of  adultery,  and  when  further  cohabitation  For  it  is  precisely  in  such  places  that  the  marriage 

would  cause  grave  injury  to  soul  or  body.    If  divorce  relation,  and  the  relations  between  the  sexes  generally, 

were  restricted  to  these  two  cases  some  pretend  that  are  purest  (see  Ceubact). 

it  would  be  socially  preferable  to  mere  separation  with-  (6)  Marriage  as  a  Ceremony  or  ContrcuU, — The  act,  f or- 
out  the  right  to  remarry,  at  least  for  the  innocent  mality,  or  ceremony  by  which  the  marriage  union  is 
spouse.  But  it  would  surely  be  less  advantageous  to  created,  has  differed  widely  at  different  times  and 
society  than  a  regime  of  no  divorce.  Where  mere  among  different  peoples.  One  of  the  earliest  and 
separation  is  permitted,  it  will  in  a  considerable  propor-  most  frequent  customs  associated  with  the  entrance 
tion  of  instances  need  to  be  only  temporary,  and  the  into  marriage  was  the  capture  of  the  woman  by  her 
welfare  of  parents  and  children  will  be  better  pro-  intended  husband,  usually  from  another  tribe  than 
moted  by  reconciliation  than  if  one  of  the  parties  that  to  which  he  himself  belonged.  Among  most 
formed  another  matrimonial  union.  When  there  is  primitive  peoples  this  act  seems  to  nave  been  regarded 
no  hope  of  another  marriage,  the  offences  that  justify  rather  as  a  means  of  getting  a  wife,  than  as  the  forma- 
separation  are  less  likely  to  be  provoked  or  committed  tion  of  the  marriage  union  itself.  The  latter  was  sub- 
by  either  i>arty,  and  separation  is  less  likely  to  be  sequent  to  the  capture,  and  was  generally  devoid  of 
sought  on  insufficient  grounds,  or  obtained  through  any  formality  whatever,  beyond  mere  cohabitation, 
fraudulent  methods.  Moreover,  experience  shows  But  the  symbolic  seizure  of  wives  continued  in  many 
tiiat  when  divorce  is  permitted  for  a  few  causes,  there  places  long  after  the  reality  had  ceased.  It  still  exists 
is  an  almost  irresistible  tendency  to  increase  the  num-  among  some  of  the  lower  races,  and  until  quite  recently 
ber  of  le^  grounds,  and  to  make  the  administration  of  was  not  unknown  in  some  parts  of  Eastern  Europe, 
the  law  less  strict.  Finally,  the  ajbaolute  prohibition  After  the  practice  had  become  simulated  instead  of 
of  divorce  has  certain  m^f*  effects  which  contribute  actual,  it  was  frequently  looked  upon  as  either  the 
in  a  fundamental  an4,^far-reaching  way  to  the  social  whole  of  the  marriage  ceremony  or  an  essential  accom- 
welfare.  The  pop^rfar  mind  is  impressed  with  the  paniment  of  the  marriage.  Symbolic  capture  has 
thought  that  mapiage  is  an  exclusive  relation  between  laigely  given  way  to  wife  purchase,  which  seems  to  pre- 
two  persons,  a^^that  sexual  intercourse  of  itself  and  vail  among  most  uncivilizied  peoples  to-day.  It  has  as- 
normally  call§  f or  a  lifelong  union  of  the  persons  en-  sumed  various  forms.  Sometimes  the  man  desiring  a 
tering  udoq  such  intercourse.  wife  gave  one  of  his  kinswomen  in  exchange;  some- 

The  ooliffation  of  self-control,  and  of  subordinating  times  he  served  for  a  period  his  intended  bride's  father, 
the  animal  in  human  nature  to  the  reason  and  the  which  was  a  frequent  custom  among  the  ancient  He- 
spirit,  ad  well  as  the  possibility  of  fulfilling  this  obliga-  brews;  but  most  often  the  bride  was  paid  for  in  money 
tion,  %re  likewise  taught  in  a  most  striking  and  practi-  or  some  form  of  property.  Like  capture,  purchase 
cal  m&nner.  Humanity  is  thus  aided  andf  encouraged  became  after  a  time  amon^  many  peoples  a  symbol  to 
to  reach  a  higher  moral  plane.  In  the  matter  of  the  in-  signify  the  taking  of  a  wife  and  the  formation  of  the 
dissolubility,  as  w^ell  as  in  that  of  the  unity  of  marriage,  marriage  union.  Sometimes,  however,  it  was  merely 
then^fore,  the  Christian  teaching  is  in  harmony  with  an  accompanying  ceremony.  Various  other  cere- 
nature  at  her  best,  and  with  the  deepest  needs  of  monial  forms  have  accompanied  or  constituted  the 
civilization.  "There  is  abundant  evidence '^  says  entrance  upon  the  marriage  relation,  the  most  common 
W^termarck,  "that  marriage  has,  upon  the  whole,  of  which  was  some  kind  of  feast;  yet  among  many  un- 
bebome  more  durable  in  proportion  as  the  human  race  civilized  peoples  marriage  has  taken  place,  ana  still 
has  risen  to  higher  degrees  of  civilization,  and  that  a  takes  place,  without  any  formal  ceremony  whatever, 
certain  amount  of  civiBzation  is  an  essential  condition  By  many  uncivilized  races,  and  by  most  civilized 
of  the  formation  of  lifelong  unions"  (op.  cit.,  p.  ones,  the  marriage  ceremony  is  regarcbed  as  a  religious 
635).    This  statement  suggests  two  tolerably  sale  rite  or  includes  religious  features,  although  the  re- 

§eneralizations:  first,  thatuie  prohibition  of  divoroe  ligious  element  is  not  always  regarded  as  necessary  to 

uring  many  centuries  has  been  a  cause  as  well  as  an  the  validity  of  the  union.    Under  the  Christian  dls- 

effect  of  those  "higher  degrees  of  civilization"  that  pensation  marriage  is  a  religiousaet  of  the  very  higjhflHt 


MABBUOI  698  BSABSIMX 

kind.namely.oneofthe  seven  Bacnunenta.  Although  eacred  name  of  Chiist.  By  degrees,  however,  Uie  ob- 
Lutkra  dectared  that  marriage  wu  not  a  sacrament  jection  to  a  marriage  between  a  Catholic  and  an  infidd 
but  "a  worldly  thioK".  aU  the  I^teetant  aecte  have  grew  stronger  as  the  necessity  for  such  imiona  de- 
continued  to  n^utl  it  aa  religious  io  the  sense  that  it  creased,  and  so  in  the  course  of  time,  more  by  custom 
ought  nonnaUy  to  be  contracted  in  the  presence  of  a  than  by  positive  enactment,  the  impediment  ditpari- 
cleigyman.  Owing  to  the  influence  of  the  Lutheran  1cm  ctilhia  makine  such  marriages  null  and  void  began 
viewandof  the  French  Revolution,  civil  marria^  has  to  have  force.  When  the  Decrelum  of  Gratian  wai 
been  instituted  In  almost  all  the  countries  of  Europe  published  in  the  twelfth  century,  this  impediment  was 
and  North  America,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the  states  of  recogniied  as  a  diriment  one  and  it  became  part  <il  the 
South  America.  In  some  countries  it  b  essential  to  canon  law  of  the  Church.  (Deoretum  Gist.,  o.  !K,  q. 
the  validity  of  the  imion  before  the  civil  law,  while  In  1.)  From  that  time  forward,  allmsrriaKea  contract^ 
others,  e.  g.,  in  the  United  States,  it  is  merely  one  of  between  Catholics  and  infidels  were  held  to  be  inralid 
the  ways  m  which  marriage  may  be  contracted.  Civil  unless  a  dispensation  for  such  union  had  been  ob- 
mairiage  is  not,  however,  a  post-Reformation  institu-  tained  from  the  ecclesiastical  authority.  Marriages^ 
tion,  for  it  e^sted  among  the  ancient  Peruvians,  and  however,  between  Catholics  and  heretics  were  not  sub- 
aroong  the  Aborigines  of  North  America.  ject  to  the  same  impediment.  They  were  held  as 
Whether  as  a  state  or  as  a  contract,  whether  from  vahd,  though  illicit  if  a  dispensation  mixUe  rdiqi- 
the  viewpoint  of  religion  and  morals  or  from  that  of  onia  had  not  been  obtained.  The  opposition  of  the 
social  welfare,  marriage  appears  in  its  highest  form  in  Church  to  such  unions  is,  however,  very  ancient,  and 
the  teaching  and  practice  ot  the  Catholic  Church.  The  early  councils  Instated  against  marriages  of  this  chai^ 
fact  that  the  contract  is  a  sacrament  impresses  the  acter.  Such  enactments  are  found  in  the  fourth  cen- 
popular  mind  with  the  irnportance  and  sacredness  of  tury  Councils  of  Elvira  (can.  16)  and  of  Laodicea  (can. 
Ihe  relation  thus  begun.  The  fact  that  the  union  is  in-  10,  31 ,).  The  General  Council  of  Chalcedon  (can.  14) 
dissoluble  and  monogamous  promotes  in  the  highest  prohibits  such  unions  especially  between  members  (rf 
degree  the  welfare  of  parents  and  children,  and  stimu-  the  lower  ecclesiastical  grades  and  heretical  women, 
lat^s  in  the  whole  community  the  practice  of  those  While  the  Western  Church  forbade  these  mairiagies,  it 
qualities  of  self-restraint  and  altruism  which  are  cssen-  did  not  declare  them  invalid.  In  the  Eastern  Cburcb, 
4.._i  4..  „ — :.i  W..11  i^i-™  nV...o:~.i  .nantni  _•..(  ...ri_i  however,  the  seventh  century  Council  in  Trullo,  d«- 
clared  marriages  between  Catholics  and  heretics  null 
and  void  (can.  72),  and  this  discipline  has  since  be«i 
r  ,"uJ!.'''":^MfJ'F'^^iiuf\l]^  maintained  in  the  Greek  Schismatical  Church.  The 
York.  18B1);  Mohoan,  AncimI  SadHa  (London,  1817):  Mc-  latter  has  also  shown  Itself  opposed  to  marna^  be- 
Lehnah,  Siuditi  in  Ancient  HittBry  (LondoQ,  188e|;  t^niW  twcen  members  of  the  Orthodox  Church  and  Catho- 
Slntta  Cennu,  Marriage  oiul  Divorct  (WnihinKloQ.  IBOB);  ■:  j  -  p,,g,:„  voTHnnii  lavra  isBrB  ruumut  nrrlDnna 
Howard.  Hijtory  of  Mairimanial  InttitutioTu  {CScam,  19041^  i,™:*      J     ""^'"  Various  laws  were  paMBO  Otaerutg 

luEH  iiuid  Dthrra)  In  Ameriean  Journal  of  Soaolivy^oX.  XIV;  that  such  niamages  be  not  permitted  unless  the  chil- 

'Biira.fleaBneucioptdiaofiliKiatRr^rn.i.'i.MarruiBi.FtHnihi;  dren  of  the  union  are  to  DC  brought  up  as  sctuB- 

BjtraiarEH.  Dm  KMtrraM  (StuttgMt,  1861);    0iH4cn-TitD-  _„*;„„ 

uw.  La  oriqina  d<i  mariat,  ^  dc  la  JamiUt  (Paris,  1834);  ™r         .        .     ,  „_  ^     ^      ...        ■     .i.       ■_.        ^l 

Cathrkin,  Maraiphiioiophii  (Freibut^.  1BW>;  Veciulot,  u        The  advent  of  Protestantism  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 

Droif  rfu  S<:ianeur  dv  Moi/r"  Agt  (Puna,  18S4;  3rd  ed.,  18781 :  Jury  renewed  the  problem  of  mixed  marriages  in  S 

ISi^  ^i.^^SrSirt.^*'(1880)  "  heightened  degree.     The  danger  of  pervereion  for  the 

^^      "  ■        John  A.  Rtan.  Catholic  party  or  for  the  children,  and  the  almost  cer- 

tain unhappiness  awaiting  the  members  of  such  unions 

MuiUgn,  HiXBD  (Lat.  Matrimonia  mixta),  tech-  caused  more  stringent  legislation  on  the  part  of  the 

nically  marriages  between  Catholics  and  non-Catho-  Church,     This  was  emphasised  by  the  impediment  of 

lies,  when  iJie  Utter  have  been  baptized  in  some  Chris-  clandestinity  enacted  by  the  Council  of  Trent.     We 

tian  sect.     The  term  is  also  frerjuently  employed  to  say  enacted  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  because  from  the 

designate  unions  between  Catholics  and  infidels.  Prom  twelfth  century  the  validity  of  clandestine  marriages 

the  very  beginninzoFitaexistencetheChurch  of  Christ  had  been  recognieed  by  the  Church.     This  was  not, 

has  been  opposed  to  such  unions.     As  Christ  raised  however,  the  original  discipline,  for  it  had  anciently 

wedlock  to  the  dignity  of  a  Sacrament,  a  marriage  be-  been  looked  on  as  proper  for  Christians  to  contract 

tween  a  Catholic  and  a  non-Catho!ic    was    rightly  marriages  only  in /ari6£'cde«t<E{Tertullian,  Do  Pudic. 

looked  upon  as  degrading  the  holy  character  of  matri-  c.  4).     Marriages  contrucl«d  otherwise  were  held  as 

mony,  involving  as  it  did  a  communion  in  sacred  things  null  and  void  by  various  decrees  of  the  Roman  Em- 

with  those  outside  lie  fold.     The  Apostie  St.  Paul  in-  perora  of  the  East  and  capitularitaof  French  Kinzs, 

sists  strongly  on  Christian  marriage  being  a  symbol  of  and  the  same  is  evident  from  the  Fab«  Decretals.   The 

the  union  Detween  Christ  and  His  Church,  and  hence  Council  of  Trent  therefore  in  declaring %11  matrimonial 

sacred.     The  very  intimacy  of  the  union  necessarily  unions  between  Catholics  and  non-CatfioUcs  null  and 

established  between  those  joined  in  wedlock  reijuites  a  void,  unless  entered  into  before  the  ecclfldastical  au- 

eoncordance  above  all  in  their  religious  sentiments,  thority,  was  rather  inaugurating  a  return  to  the  old 

Holding  this  doctrine,  it  was  but  natural  and  logical  discipline  existent  before  the  twelfth  ceufVy  than 

for  the  Church  to  do  all  in  her  power  to  hinder  her  chiU  making  an  entirely  new  law.     By  its  decree  tHS  Coun- 

dren  from  contracting  marriage  with  those  outside  her  cil  requires  the  contract  to  be  ent«rcd  into  befSfe  the 

pale,  who  did  not  recogniie  the  sacramental  (jharacter  parish  priest  or  some  other  priest  delected  by  him, 

of  the  union  on  which  they  were  entering  (see  Mar-  and  in  the  presence  of  two  or  three  witnesses  iflder 

EIaob).     Hence  arose  the  impediments  toa  marriap  penalty  of  invalidity.    Marriages  otherwise  contra'*ted 

with  a  heretic  (mixta  religio)  and  with  an  infidel  (_dig-  are  called  clandestine  marriages.     The  Church  diti  not 

pariUu  cuUta).     As  regards  marriage  with  an  infidel,  find  it  possible,  however,  to  insist  on  the  rigour  uf  this 

the  early  Church  did  not  consider  such  unions  invalid,  legislation  in  all  countries  owing  to  strong  Pro tealant 

especially  when  a  person  had  been  converted  to  the  opposition.     Indeed,  in  many  countries,  it  was  ^ot 

faith  after  such  marriage.     It  was  hoped  tMt  the  con-  found  advisable  to  promul^te  the   decrees  of  tlie 

verted  wife  or  husband  would  be  the  means  of  brine-  Council  of  Trent  at  all,  and  in  such  countries  the  im.- 

fng  the  other  party  to  the  knowledge  of  the  true  faith,  pediment  of  clandestinity  did  not  obtain.     Even  ill  - 

or  at  least  of  safeguarding  the  Catnolic  upbringing  of  countries  where  the  Tametei  (q.  v.)  decree  had  beeit 

the  children  of  the  union.     This  held  even  for  Jews,  published, seriousdifficultiesaroee.     As  a  consequence 

Uiough  the  Church  was  naturaJIj"  more  opposed  to  Pope  Benedict  XtV,  choosing  the  lea-scr  of  two  evils, 

wedlocklx'tween  them  and  Christians,  even  tnan  with  issued  a  declaration  concerning  marriages  in  HoJlnno 

pagans,  owing  to  the  intense  Jewish  hatred  for  the  and  Belgium  (Nov.  4,  1741),  in  which  be  declared 


MAB&IAGX                           699  MAXBIAM 

mixed  unions  to  be  valid,  provided  they  were  accord-  mixed  marriages  is  that  of  the  decree  Ne  temere  which 

ing  to  the  civil  laws,  even  if  the  Tridentine  preecrip-  went  into  effect  18  April,  1908.    By  this  decree  all 

tions  had  not  been  observed.    A  similar  declaration  marriages  ever3rwhere  in  the  Latin  Church  between 

was  made  concerning  mixed  marriages  in  Ireland  by  Catholics  and  non-Catholics  are  invalid  unless  they 

Pope  Pius,  in  1785,  and  gradually  the  ''Benedictine  take  place  in  the  presence  of  an  accredited  priest  and 

dispensation'' was  extended  to  various  localities.  The  two  witnesses,  and  this  even  in  countries  where  the 

object  of  the  Coxmcil  of  Trent  in  issuing  its  decree  had  Tridentine  law  was  not  binding.    By  a  later  decree, 

been  partly  to  deter  Catholics  from  such  marriages  Providaj  the  Holy  See  exempted  Germany  from  the 

altogether,  and  partly  to  hinder  any  conmiunion  in  sa-  new  legislation.     (See  Clandestinity;  Disparity  op 

ored  things  with  heretics.     By  decrees,  however,  the  Worship;Disp£Nbation;Mabriaqb.  Sacrament  of). 

Popes  felt  constrained  to  make  various  concessions  for  Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church,  a.  v.  Mixed  Marriages  (Lon- 

mixed  marriages,  though  they  were  always  careful  to  ?Six^.®^?i„^''?iSi.^*f-v^'?!^'  '•  .T v^'^T^i.T^  ^^ff^^{ 

guard  the  essential  prmciples  on  which  the  Chureh  {New  York,  1909);  McNxchous.  TA*  JV«w  Marriage  Legieiatum 

founds  her  objections  to  such  unions.     Thus  Pius  VI  (PhilAdelpbia,  1908).    For  the  evils  of  mixed  marriages  see  the 


was  employed,  and  with  the  omission  of  public  banns,     popular  JrutrucHone  on  Marriage  (New  York);  Farrbll,  The 
as  evidence  of  the  unwillmgness  of  the  Chureh  to    ^*»^«»»  ^<ww«.  «*«• 

sanction  such  unions.    Similar  concessions  were  later  '^  •  '  awning. 

made,  first  for  various  states  of  Germany,  and  then  for        Marruge,  Moral  and  Canonical  Aspect  of. — 
other  countries.  Marriage  is  that  individual  union  through  which  man 

Another  serious  difficultv  arose  for  the  Chureh  where  and  woman  by  their  reciprocal  rights  form  one  prin- 

the  civil  laws  prescribed  that  in  mixed  marriages  the  ciple  of  generation.    It  is  effected  by  their  mutual 

bojrs  bom  of  the  union  should  follow  the  religion  of  the  consent  to  give  and  accept  each  other  for  the  purpose 

father  and  the  girls  that  of  the  mother.    Without  be-  of  propagating  the  human  race,  of  educating  their 

traying  their  sacred  trust,  the  popes  could  never  sano-  offspring,  of  anftripg  life  in  common,  of  supporting 

tion  such  legislation,  but  in  order  to  avoid  greater  each  other  in  imdivided  conjugal  affection  by  alasting 

evils  they  permitted  in  some  states  of  Germany  a  union. 

passive  assistance  on  the  part  of  the  parish  priest  at  I.  Marbiage  Instituted  by  God. — Marriage  is 
marriages  entered  into  unaer  such  conditions.  As  to  a  contract  and  is  by  its  very  nature  above  human 
a  mixed  marriage  contracted  before  a  non-Catholic  law.  It  was  institute  by  God,  is  subject  to  the 
minister,  Pope  Pius  IX  issued  an  instruction,  17  Feb..  Divine  law,  and  cannot  for  that  reason  be  rescinded 
1864.  He  declared  that  in  j^laces  where  the  heretical  by  human  law.  Those  who  contract  marriage  do 
preacher  occupied  the  position  of  a  dvil  magistrate  so  indeed  by  their  own  free  wills,  but  they  must 
and  the  laws  of  the  country  reauired  marriages  to  be  assume  the  contract  and  its  obligations  uncondi- 
entered  into  before  him  in  order  that  certain  legal  tionaUy.  Marriage  is  natural  in  purpose,  but  Divine 
effects  may  follow,  it  is  permitted  to  the  Catholic  party  in  origin.  It  is  sacred,  being  intended  primarily  by  the 
to  appear  before  him  either  before  or  after  the  mar-  Author  of  life  to  perpetuate  His  creative  act  and  to 
riage  has  taken  place  in  presence  of  the  parish  priest,  beget  children  of  Uoo;  its  secondary  ends  are  mutual 
If,  however,  the  heretical  minister  is  held  to  be  dis-  society  and  help,  and  a  lawful  remedy  for  concupis- 
charging  a  religious  duty  in  such  witnessing  of  a  mar-  cence.  Human  law  certainly  takes  cognizance  of  mar- 
riage, then  it  is  unlawful  for  a  Catholic  to  renew  consent  riage,  but  marriage  not  having  been  established  by 
before  him  as  this  would  be  a  communion  in  sacred  man,  its  essential  properties  cannot  be  annulled  by 
things  and  an  implicit  yielding  to  heresy.  Parish  such  law.  Marriage  is  monogamic  and  indissoluble; 
priests  are  also  reminded  that  it  is  their  stnct  duty  to  death  alone  dissolves  the  union  when  consummated, 
tell  Catholics  who  ask  for  information  that  such  going  When  men  pretend  to  be  the  final  arbiters  of  the 
before  a  minister  in  a  religious  capacity  is  unlawful  and  marriage  contract,  they  base  their  claim  on  the  as- 
that  they  thereby  subject  themselves  to  ecclesiasticai  sumption  that  this  contract  is  merely  of  human 
censure.  Where,  however,  the  priest  is  not  asked,  and  institution  and  is  subject  to  no  laws  above  those  of 
he  has  reason  to  fear  that  his  admonitions  will  prove  man.  But  human  society,  both  in  its  primitive  and 
unavailing,  he  may  keep  his  peace  provided  there  be  organised  form^  originated  by  marriage,  not  marriage 
no  scandal  and  the  other  conditions  required  by  the  by  human  society.  Marriage  was  intended  by  toe 
Church  be  fulfilled.  When  a  Catholic  party  has  gone  Creator  for  the  propagation  of  the  human  race  and  for 
before  an  heretical  minister  before  coming  to  the  par-  the  mutual  helpof  husmmdand  wife.  The  monogamic 
ish  priest,  the  latter  cannot  be  present  at  the  marriage  and  indissolubk  properties  of  marriage  were  for  a  time 
until  full  reparation  has  been  made.  For  the  issuing  dispensed  by  Divine  permission,  ^us  in  the  patri- 
of  a  dispensation  for  a  mixed  marriage,  the  Chureh  re-  aronal  times  of  the  Old  Testament  polygamous  mar- 
quires  three  conditions;  that  the  Catholic  party  be  riage  was  tolerated.  The  right  of  dismissal  also  by 
allowed  free  exercise  of  religion,  that  all  the  offspring  the  bill  of  divorce  was  legal  (Deut.,  xxiv  sqq.;  Matt., 
are  to  be  brought  up  Catholics  and  that  the  Catholic  xix,  3-12).  Still,  marriage  never  lost  its  sacred  char- 
party  promise  to  do  ail  that  is  possible  to  convert  the  acter  in  the  Old  Dispensation.  It  continued  a  type 
non-Catholic.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed ,  however,  that  and  figure  of  marriage  in  the  New  Law.  Other  nations 
even  when  these  precautions  have  b^n  taken,  this  is  besides  the  Jews  treated  marriage  with  such  regard  and 
all  that  suffices  for  the  issuance  of  a  dispensation.  In  ceremony  as  betoken  their  beuef  in  its  superhuman 
an  instruction  to  the  Bishops  of  England,  25  Mareh,  character.  Evolutionists,  indeed,  account  for  mar- 
1868,  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  declared  riage  by  tiie  gregarious  habits  of  human  beings.  They 
that  the  above  conditions  are  exacted  by  the  natural  consider  it  a  developed  social  instinct,  a  matter  of 
and  divine  law  to  remove  the  intrinsic  dangers  in  utility,  convenience,  and  decency,  a  consequence  of 
mixed  marriages,  but  that  in  addition  there  must  be  sexual  intercourse,  which  human  society  decided  to 
some  grave  necessity,  which  cannot  otherwise  be  regulate  by  law,  and  thus  encourage  a  state  of  affairs 
avoided,  for  allowing  the  faithful  to  expose  themselves  conducive  to  the  peace  and  happiness  of  ihe  race, 
to  the  grave  dangers  inherent  in  these  unions,  even  They  do  not  deny  that  the  religious  feeling  latent  in  the 
when  the  prescribed  conditions  have  been  fulfilled,  human  heart  regarding  marriage  and  the  religious 
The  bishops  are  therefore  to  warn  Catholics  against  ceremonies  attoidant  on  its  celebration  have  their 
such  marriages  and  not  to  grant  dispensations  for  -utility,  but  they  insist  that  marriage  is  entirely  n 
them  except  for  weighty  reasons  and  not  at  the  mere  natund  thing.  Socialists  entertain  this  same  view  of 
will  of  the  petitioner.    The  latest  legislation  affecting  marriage;  th^  deprecate  excessive  state  control  of  the 


700  MARRIAOB 

marriage  contract,  but  would  impose  the  duty  of  riage  bond  is  sacred;  married  life  mnbolises  the  union 

providmg  for,  and  educating,  children  on  the  State,  between  Christ  and  His  Chimsh  (Ephes.,  v,  22  sqq.). 

The  ethical  value  of  marriage  is  certainly  lowered  by  and  the  Church  protects  both  by  such  rules  as  wul 

siich  views.    Marriage,  thoueh  contracted  to  preserve  maintain   their  Christian   characteristics    under  a& 

order,  would  still  remain  subject  to  human  caprice,  circumstances. 

It  would  not  bind  the  couple  to  an  inseparable  union.        C.  The  moral  law  looks  to  the  conduct  of  those  who 

It  would  exclude  polyandry,  but  not  polygamy  or  marry;  canon  law  regulates  matrimonial  courts  of  the 

divorce.     By  principles    borrowed    from    Christian  Church.    There  is  no  marked  point  of  difference  be- 

tradition,  polygamy,  strange  to  say,   is  proscribed  tween  them;  they  rather  form  a  conoplete  system  of 

even  by  those  whose  ethics  of  marriage  are  naturalistic,  legislation  concerning  the  Sacmment  of  Marriage.  Of 

evolutionary  and  socialistic.  course  baptized  persons  alone  receive  the  sacraments. 

II.  Marriage  in  the  Christian  Dispensation. —  Some  theologians  regard  a  marriage  in  which  only  one 

Christ  revoked  the  dispensation  granted  in  the  Mosaic  party  is  baptised  as  a  sacrament.    Whether  those 

law.     He  promulgated  the  original  Divine  law  of  who  have  been  baptized,  but  are  not  members  of  the 

monogamic  and  indissoluble  marriage;   in  addition,  body  of  the  Church,  or  unbaptized  persons  are  ez- 

He  raised  marriage  to  the  dignity  of  a  sacrament  empt  from  all  purely  Church  matrimonial  law  is  a 

(Gen.,  ii,  24;  Matt.,  xix,  3  sqq.;  Luke,  xvi,  15  sqq.;  disputed  (question. 

Mark,  x,  11  sqq.;  I  Cor.,  vii,  2  sqq.).    "If  any  one        D.  As  citizens  of  the  State,  Christians  should  oer- 

should  say,  matrimony  is  not  truly  and  properly  one  tainly  comply  with  the  civil  laws  regulating  marriage 

of  the  seven  sacraments  of  the  Gospel  law,  instituted  for  certain  civil  effects,  though  they  must  not  consider 

byChrist,  butan  invention  of  man,  notconferringcrooe,  the  marriage  contract  as  something  distinct  from  the 

let  him  be  anathema''  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  aXI,  sacrament,  for  the  two  are  inse^rable.     One  result 

can.  1).    Under  the  Christian  law,  therefore,  the  mar-  of  the  defection  from  the  Church  m  the  sixteenth  cen- 

riage  contract  and  the  sacrament  are  inseparable  and  tury  was  a  belief  that  marriage  is  a  civil  ceremony, 

incu visible;  for,  in  virtue  of  Christ's  legislative  act.  The  opinion  of  several  canonists,  who,  wishing  to  jus- 

the  consent  in  marriage  produces,  besides  sanctifying  tify  this  view,  taught  that  the  contract  of  mamago 

grace,  its  peculiar  sacramental  grace.    Whenever  the  might  possibly  be  separated  from  tfa«  sacrament,  was 

marriage  contract  is  duly  made,  the  sacrament  is  trulv  condemned  in  the  syllabus  of  Pius  IX  in  1864  (num- 

effected.    That  is  undoubtedly  the  case  when  both  bers  65  and  66).    It  is  likewise  erroneous  to  consider 

parties  to  marriage  are  by  baptism  members  of  the  the  priest  the  minister  of  ^he  sacrament;  he  is  the  au- 

mystical  body  of  Christ,  for '  *  This  is  a  great  sacrament;  thonzed  witness  of  the  Church  to  the  contract.    The 

but  I  speak  m  Christ  and  in  the  church"  (Ephes.,  v,  parties  contracting  really  administer  the  sacrament  to 

32).    Hence  the  moral  and  canonical  aspect  of  matri-  themselves. 

mony  in  the  Christian  dispensation  is  necessarily        E.  It  is  historical  fact  that  the  Church  alwajrs  recog- 

determined  by  the  sacramental  character  of  the  mar-  nized  the  right  of  the  State  to  legislate  in  certain  r&- 

riage  contract.  spects  concerning  marriage,  on  account  of  its  civil  ef- 

A.  The  Church  being  the  Divinely  appointed  custo-  fects.  The  enactment  of  laws  fixing  the  dowry,  the 
dian  of  aU  sacraments,  it  belongs  to  her  jurisdiction  to  right  of  succession,  alimonv  and  other  like  matters, 
interpret  and  apply  the  Divine  law  of  marriage.  She  belongs  to  the  secular  authorities,  according  to  ths 
cannot  repeal  or  change  that  law.  Marriage  is,  in  its  common  teaching  of  canonists.  When,  however,  the 
essentii^  requirements,  ever  the  same,  monogamic  and  State  enacts  laws  inimical  to  the  marriage  laws  <tf 
indissoluble.  The  contract  validly  made  and  consum-  the  Church,  practically  denying  her  right  to  protect 
mated  is  dissolved  by  death  alone.  However,  the  the  sacred  character  of  matrimony,she  cannot  auow her 
Church  must  determine  what  is  re<)uired  for  a  valid  children  to  submit  to  such  enactments.  She  respects 
and  licit  marriage  contract.  Doubt  in  so  grave  a  mat-  the  requirements  of  the  State  for  the  marriages  of  its 
ter,  or  uncertainty  as  to  the  form  and  duties  of  mar-  citizens  as  long  as  those  requirements  are  for  the  com- 
riage,  would  be  disastrous  for  the  temporal  and  spirit-  mon  good,  and  in  keeping  with  the  dignity  and  Di- 
ualgood  of  individuals  and  of  society.  The  Church  vine  purpose  of  marriage.  Thus,  for  instance,  she 
safeguards  the  sacramental  contract  by  unremitting  recognizes  that  a  defect  of  mind  or  a  lack  dF  nroper 
solicitude  and  directs  the  consciences  and  conduct  (3  discretion  is  an  impediment  to  matrimony.  Certain 
those  who  marry  by  moral  teaching  and  canonical  defects  of  bod  v,parUcularlyimpotency,disqu2difylike- 
l^slation.  The  procedure  of  her  courts  in  cases  wise.  The  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  justly  expccta 
where  the  validity  or  legality  of  amarriage  is  involved,  the  State  to  treat  her  laws,  such  as  those  of  celibacy^ 
is  ordered  by  admirable  insight.  The  Church  derives  with  respect  (see  SchmalzgrOber.  vol.  IV,  part  I,  sect, 
her  power  to  lenslate  in  matrimonial  affairs,  not  from  2;  and  vc^.  IX,  part  II,  title  22,  for  obsolete  canonical 
the  State,  but  from  Christ;  and  acts,  not  on  suffer-  rules).  A  marriage  is  said  to  be  canonical  or  civil: 
ance,  but  by  Divine  ri^ht.  She  recognizes  the  duty  of  canonical,  when  contracted  in  accordance  with  Church 
the  State  to  take  cognizance  of  Christian  mairiage,  in  law;  civil,  if  the  ordinances  of  civil  law  are  observed, 
order  to  insure  certain  civic  effecte,  but  her  jurisdio-  In  addition,  we  sometimes  speak  of  a  secret  marriage, 
tion  is  superior  and  of  Divine  origin.  or  a  marriage  of  conscience,  that  is,  a  marriage  oC 

B.  The  laws  of  the  Church  governing  Christian  which  the  banns  have  not  been  published,  celebrated 
marriage  are  fundamental  and  unchangeable  laws;  or  by  the  parish  priest  and  witnesses  under  bond  of 


accidental,  circumstantial,  and  changeable  laws.    The  crecy,  with  the  bishop's  permission.    A  true  marria^ 

natural  law.  Divine  revealed  law,  and  the  Apostolic  is  one  duly  contractCNd  and  capable  of  being  proved  m 

law  of  marriage  are  interpreted  by  the  Church,  but  the  ordinary  way;  a  presumptive  marriage,  when  the 

never  repealed  or  dispensed  from.     Circumstantial  law  presumes  a  marriage  to  exist;  a  putative  marriage, 

laws  are  enacted  by  the  Church,  and  may  vary  or  be  when  it  is  believed  to  be  valid,  but  is  in  reality  null 

repealed.    Hence  disciplinary  laws,  regulating  solem-  and  void,  owing  to  the  existence  of  a  hidden  diiiment 

nities  to  be  observed  m  marriage,  and  laws  defining  impediment. 

qualifications  of  parties  to  marry,  are  not  so  rigid  as        There  is,  again,  a  special  kind  of  marriage  which 

to  admit  of  no  change,  if  the  Church  sees  fit  to  chanee  needs  explanation  here.    When  a  prince  or  a  member 

them,  owing  to  difference  of  time  and  place;    the  of  a  ruling  house  weds  a  woman  of  inferior  rank,  es- 

chan^e  too  may  affect  the  validity  or  the  legality  of  a  pedaliv  if  her  family  is  plebeian,  the  marriage  is 

mamage.    The  Church,  therefore,  has  laid  down  the  generally  known  as  a  mor^natic  marriage.    In  this 

conditions  requisite  for  the  validity  of  the  matrimonial  case  it  is  as  valid  and  licit  before  the  Church  as  any 

consent  on  the  part  of  those  who  marry,  and  has  legis-  other  lawful  marriage,  but  there  are  certain  civil  dis- 

lated  on  their  respective  rights  and  duties.   The  mar-  abilities.    First,  the  children  bom  in  such  wedlodc 


MAEBIAGX  701  BCABBXAOB 

bave  no  right  to  the  title  or  orown  of  their  father,  since  that,  if  such  condition  has  lasted  a  month,  Uiey  may 
those  who  are  to  succeed  him  ought  not  to  suffer  from  marry  without  a  priest,  but  in  the  presence  of  two  wit- 
the  social  disadvantages  arising  from  the  inferior  rank  nesses,  the  record  of  their  marriage  being  properly 
of  their  father's  morganatic  wSe.  In  some  countries,  made  as  prescribed.  The  law  makes  no  exception  in 
however,  the  law  concedes  a  hope  of  succcssIotl  to  such  favour  of  mixed  marriages,  not  even  when  one  party 
children  if  all  the  direct  heirs  should  die.  Tne  mor-  is  a  Cathoho  of  an  Eastern  Rite.  By  a  special  dis* 
ganatic  wife  and  her  children  receive,  by  agreement  or  pensation,  mixed  marriages — ^i.  e.,  both  paities  being 
stipulation,  a  dowry  and  means  of  support,  the  amount  oaptized,  one  a  Protestant,  the  other  a  Catholic — <rf 
bemg  in  some  countries  at  the  discretion  of  the  king  or  Germans  marrying  within  the  boundaries  of  the  Ger- 
prince,  in  others  fixed  by  law.  man  Empire  are  valid,  though  clandestinely  oon^ 
'III.  Matrimonial  Courts  in  thb  Church.—  tracted.  A  like  diepensation  has  been  granted  to 
Doubtful  marriage  cases  are  decided  in  courts  provided  Hungarians  marrying  within  the  boundaries  of  Hun* 
by  the  canon  law  for  that  purpose.  The  doubt  may  gary;  and  according  to  the  Secretary  of  the  S.  Congre- 
arise  from  a  supposed  hidden  or  occult  impediment  or  gation  of  Sacraments  (18  March,  1909),  Croalians, 
from  a  public  unpediment.  In  the  former  case  (oo-  Slavonians,  inhabitants  of  Transylvaziia,  and  of  Fiume 
cult  impediment)  the  question  is  decided  pro  foro  in^  enjoy  a  sixmlar  dispensation.  Catholics  of  the  various 
temo  in  the  tribunal  of  penance  or  by  the  penitentiary  Eastern  rites,  who  are  in  union  with  the  Holy  See,  are 
Apostolic  at  Rome.  In  such  cases  strict  secrecy,  exempt  from  the  law;  likewise  all  non-Catholics,  ex- 
similar  to  that  of  the  confessional,  is  observed,  par-  cept  those  who  have  been  baptised  in  the  Church,  but 
ticularlv  with  regard  to  names  and  places  of  resiaence.  have  fallen  away. 

In  the  latter  case  (public  impediment)  the  doubt  has  The  law  is  not  retroactive.  Marriages  contracted 
always  to  be  settlea  pro  foro  extemo  in  the  matrimo-  before  its  promulgation  will  be  adjudicated,  in  case  of 
nial  courts ;  for  no  general  laws  can  be  made  to  cover  all  doubt,  according  to  the  laws  in  force  at  the  time  and 
possible  circumstances,  and  the  practical  application  place  of  marriage.  It  simplifies  procedure.  Former 
of  the  canonical  and  moral  laws  of  marriage  to  ao-  difficulties  arising  from  quasi-domicile  are  done  away 
tual  cases,  just  as  happens  with  civil  laws,  involves  at  with  by  a  month's  residence,  even  when  taken  infrau- 
times  questions  de  jure  and  de  facto,  which  must  be  set-  dem  leffia;  the  ordinanr  or  the  parish  priest  is  tli^  au- 
tled  by  competent  judges.  In  every  diocese  presided  thorized  witness  of  the  Churdi,  and  he  or  a  priest 
over  by  a  bishop  and  especially  in  every  metropolitan  delegated  by  him  by  name,  can  assist  validly  at  any 
see,  the  canon  law  requires  a  matrimonial  court.  Such  marriage  within  his  territoiy,  even  though  the  parties 
a  court  has  no  power  to  legislate,  but  ad  indicates  ao-  come  from  without  it;  though,  of  course,  such  ordinary 
cording  to  the  laws  and  the  precedents  ot  the  Roman  or  parish  priest  needs,  and  snoidd  ask  for,  letters  of 
courts.  Bishops  of  dioceses,  national  and  provincial  permission  from  the  proper  authority  to  assist  lidtly 
councils  may,  however,  enforce  stricter  observance  of  at  such  a  marriage.  The  local  autiiOTities  may  in- 
the  general  la^s  in  their  respective  jurisdictions;  if  crease  the  punishment  assigned  in  the  text  of  the  law 
peculiar  circumstances  require  it,  they  can  legislate  for  any  infraction  of  this  provision*.  By  a  decree  of 
against  abuses  and  insist  on  special  pomts  of  law;  for  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Sacraments  (7  March, 
instance,  they  may  demand  certain  qualifications  in  1910),  the  power  to  dispense  kings  or  roysd  princes 
witnesses  to  marriage,  and  prescribe  certain  prelimi*  from  impecuments,  diriment  or  impedient.  is  henoe- 
naries  for  mixed  marriag^,  binding  on  priest  and  peo-  forth  reserved  in  a  special  manner  to  the  Holy  See,  and 
pie  imder  pain  of  sin.  From  the  decisions  of  the  dio-  all  faculties  granted  heretofore  in  such  cases  to  cer* 
cesan  and  the  metropolitan  courts,  particularly  in  tain  ordinaries  are  revoked.  In  the  peculiar  drcunn 
questions  involving  nullity  of  marriage,  appeal  can  be  stances  of  certain  Indian  dioceses  (see  India,  DovbU 
taken  to  the  courts  of  theHoly  See.  The  decisions  of  Jurisdiction) ^  the  question  has  been  asked:  Whether 
these  courts  are  final,  especially  when  the  Holy  Father  for  persons  residing  in  India  within  a  double  jurisdio- 
approves  them.  In  rare  cases  a  reopening  is  allow^,  tion,  it  is  sufficient,  in  order  to  a  valid  and  hcit  mar- 
aud then,  usually,  because  new  evidence  is  offered,  liage,  to  stand  before  the  personal  parish  priest  of  one 
Since  Pius  X  reorganized  the  Roman  Curia  by  the  or  both;  or  whether  they  must  also  stand  before  the 
Constitution  "Sapienticonsilio"  (29  June,  1908),  such  territorial  parish  priest.  The  question  having  been 
appeals  must  be  made  to  the  congregation,  tribunal  or  referred  to  the  Holy  Father,  the  Con^gation  of  the 
cmice  specified  in  that  Constitution  to  deal  with  them:  Sacraments  replied,  with  the  approbation  of  His  Holi* 
"  For  tne  future  every  question  regarding  mixed  mar-  ness,  in  view  of  the  peculiar  circumstanoes,  affirma- 
riages  is  to  be  brought  before  the  Congregation  of  the  tively  to  the  firat  part;  negativelyto  the  second  part. 
Holy  Office;  likewise,  all  points  which  either  directly  V.  Marriage  Indissoluble  Except  by  Death.— 
or  indirectly,  in  fact  or  in  law,  refer  to  the  Pauline  It  must  again  be  repeated  here  that  the  Church 
Privilege  "  (Answer  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Consis-  teaches,  and  has  always  taught,  that  death  alone  can 
tory  to  letter  of  Holy  Office,  27  March,  1909).  (For  dissolve  a  ratified  and  consummated  Christian  mar- 
the  procedure  in  case  of  appeals  from  countries  under  riage.  When  the  death  of  either  party  is  not  proved 
thejurisdiction  of  Propaganda,  see  Propaganda.)  by  such  evidence  as  is  required  by  canon  law,  there  is 
IV.  The  New  Marriage  Legislation. — The  no  permission  to  re-marry.  The  instruction  "  Matri- 
marriage  law,  known  by  its  initial  words, ''Netemere",  monii  vinculo''  (1868)  is  still  strictly  followed,  as 
went  into  force  on  Easter  Sunday,  18  April,  1908.  appears  from  an  answer  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
The  principal  changes  it  made  in  the  Church's  matri-  the  Sacraments  to  cases  that  arose  in  the  earthquake 
monial  legislation  relate  to  clandestine  marriages  district  in  Southern  Italy  in  March,  1910.  Marriages 
(which  it  makes  null  and  void  for  all  Catholics  of  the  ratified  but  not  consummated  by  sexual  intercourse 
Latin  Rite)  and  to  questions  incidental  thereto,  are  sometimes  dissolved  by  the  Roman  Pontiff  in 
The  law  enacts  that  a  marriage  of  Catholics  of  the  virtue  of  his  supreme  power;  sometimes  thev  are  dis- 
Latin  Rite  is  licit  and  valid  only  if  contracted  in  the  solved  by  entrance  into  the  reUgious  life  and  by  actual 
presence  of  the  ordinary,  or  the  parish  priest,  or  a  profession  of  solenm  vows.  Such  dissolutions  of  mar- 
priest  delegated  by  either,  and  at  least  two  witnesses.  Tiagesthatare merely  ratified  are  in  no  sense  subversive 
Any  priest  may  revalidate  a  sinful  or  an  invalid  mar-  of  'what  God  hath  joined  let  no  man  put  asunder  " 
riage  of  those  who.  through  sickness,  are  in  serious  (Matt.,  xix,  6).  Again  the  matrimonial  courts  nuMr 
danger  of  death,  unless  their  case  is  such  as  admits  of  find  on  the  evidence  adduced  that  a  marriage  is  null 
no  revalidation — as  for  instance,  if  they  are  in  holy  and  void;  there  may  have  been  a  Imown  or  a  hidden 
orders.  Again,  in  the  case  of  those  who  live  in  dis-  diriment  impediment  when  the  marriage  was  con* 
tricts  where  no  priest  resides,  and  who  cannot  with-  tracted.  In  some  i^^tances  such  a  marriage  is  revali* 
out  serious  hardship  go  to  one,  the  new  law  provides  dated  after  securing  the  required  dispensationi  if  sudi 


MARUAOB  700  MARRIAOB 

marriaf^  contract,  but  would  impose  the  duty  of  riage  bond  is  sacred;  married  life  mnbolises  the  uniop 

providmg  for,  and  educating,  children  on  the  State,  between  Christ  and  His  Church  (Ephes.,  v,  22  sqq.). 

The  ethical  value  of  marriage  is  certainly  lowered  by  and  the  Church  protects  both  by  such  rules  as  wu 

such  views.    Bfarriage,  though  contracted  to  preserve  maintain  their  Christian   characteristics   under  afl 

order,  would  still  remain  subject  to  hiunan  caprice,  circumstances. 

It  would  not  bind  the  couple  to  an  inseparable  union.        C.  The  moral  law  looks  to  the  conduct  of  those  who 

It  would  exclude  polyandry,  but  not  polygamy  or  marry;  canon  law  regulates  matrimonial  courts  of  the 

divorce.     By  principles    borrowed    from    Christian  Church.    There  is  no  marked  point  of  difference  be- 

tradition,  polygamy,  strange  to  say,   is  proscribed  tween  them;  they  rather  form  a  complete  system  of 

even  hy  those  whose  ethics  of  marriage  are  naturaUstic,  legislation  concerning  the  Sacrament  of  Marriage.  Of 

evolutionary  and  socialistic.  course  baptized  persons  alone  receive  the  sacraments. 

II.  Marriage  in  the  Christian  Dispensation. —  Some  theologians  regard  a  marriage  in  which  only  one 

Christ  revoked  the  dispensation  granted  in  the  Mosaic  party  is  baptised  as  a  sacrament.    Whether  those 

law.     He  promulgated  the  original  Divine  law  of  who  have  been  baptized,  but  are  not  members  of  the 

monogamic  and  indissoluble  marriage;   in  addition,  body  of  the  Church,  or  unbaptized  persons  are  ez- 

He  r^scd  marriage  to  the  dignity  of  a  sacrament  empt  from  all  purely  Church  matrimonial  law  is  a 

(Gen.,  ii,  24;  Matt.,  xix,  3  sqq.;  Luke,  xvi,  15  sqq.;  disputed  (question. 

Mark,  x,  11  sqq.;  I  Cor.,  vii,  2  sqq.).    ''If  any  one        u.  As  citizens  of  the  State,  Christians  should  oer- 

should  say,  matrimony  is  not  truly  and  properly  one  tainly  comply  with  the  civil  laws  regulating  marriage 

of  the  seven  sacraments  of  the  Gospel  law,  instituted  for  certain  civil  effects,  though  they  must  not  consider 

byChrist,butaninvention  of  man,  not  conf erring  mce,  the  marriage  contract  as  something  distinct  from  the 

let  him  be  anathema''  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXI,  sacrament,  for  the  two  are  inseparable.     One  result 

can.  1).    Under  the  Christian  law,  therefore,  the  mar-  of  the  defection  from  the  Church  m  the  sixteenth  oeo- 

riage  contract  and  the  sacrament  are  inseparable  and  tury  was  a  belief  that  marriage  is  a  civil  ceremony, 

inm visible;   for,  in  virtue  of  Christ's  legislative  act.  The  opinion  of  several  canonists,  who,  wishing  to  iu»- 

the  consent  in  marriage  produces,  besides  sanctifying  tify  this  view,  taught  that  the  contract  of  mamags 

grace,  its  peculiar  sacramental  grace.    Whenever  the  might  possibly  be  separated  from  the  sacrament,  was 

marriage  contract  is  duly  made,  the  sacrament  is  trulv  condemned  in  the  syllabus  of  Pius  IX  in  1864  (num- 

effectea.    That  is  undoubtedly  the  case  when  both  bers  65  and  66).    It  is  Ukewise  erroneous  to  consider 

the  priest  the  minister  of  (he  sacrament;  he  is  the  au- 


thorized witness  of  the  Church  to  the  contract.    The 
parties  contracting  really  administer  the  sacrament  to 

32).    Hence  the  moral  and  canonical  aspect  of  matri-  themselves. 

mony  in  the  Christian  dispensation  is  necessarily  E.  It  is  historical  fact  that  the  Church  alwa3r8  reco^ 

determined  by  the  sacramental  character  of  the  mar-  nized  the  right  of  the  State  to  legislate  in  certain  re- 

riaee  contract.  spects  concerning  marriage,  on  account  of  its  civil  ef- 

A.  The  Church  bein^  the  Divinely  appointed  custo-  fects.  The  enactment  of  laws  fixing  the  dowry,  the 
dian  of  all  sacraments,  it  belongs  to  her  jurisdiction  to  right  of  succession,  alimonv  and  other  like  matteiv, 
interpret  and  apply  the  Divine  law  of  marriage.  She  belongs  to  the  secular  authorities,  according  to  the 
cannot  repeal  or  change  that  law.  Marriage  is,  in  its  common  teaching  of  canonists.  When,  however,  the 
essential  requirements,  ever  the  same,  monogamic  and  State  enacts  laws  inimical  to  the  marriage  laws  of 
indissoluble.  The  contract  validly  made  and  consmn-  the  Church,  practically  denying  her  right  to  protect 
mated  is  dissolved  by  death  alone.  However,  the  the  sacred  character  of  matrimony,she  cannot  aliow her 
Church  must  determine  what  is  re<)uired  for  a  valid  children  to  submit  to  such  enactments.  She  reelects 
and  licit  marriage  contract.  Doubt  m  so  grave  a  mat-  the  requirements  of  the  State  for  the  marriages  of  its 
ter,  or  uncertainty  as  to  the  form  and  duties  of  mar-  citizens  as  long  as  those  requirements  are  for  the  com- 
riage,  would  be  disastrous  for  the  temporal  and  spirit-  mon  good,  and  in  keeping  with  the  dignity  and  Di* 
luJ^good  of  individuals  and  of  society.  The  Church  vine  purpose  of  marriage.  Thus,  for  instance,  she 
safeguards  the  sacramental  contract  by  tmremittine  recognizes  that  a  defect  of  mind  or  a  lack  of  nroptf 
solicitude  and  directs  the  consciences  and  conduct  m  discretion  is  an  impediment  to  matrimony.  Certain 
those  who  marry  by  moral  teaching  and  canonical  defects  of  bodv,  particularly  impotency,  disqualify  like- 
l^slation.  The  procedure  of  her  courts  in  cases  wise.  The  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  justly  eroects 
where  the  validity  or  legality  of  a  marriage  is  involved,  the  State  to  treat  her  laws,  such  as  those  of  ceUausy, 
is  ordered  by  admirable  insight.  The  Church  derives  with  respect  (see  Schmalzgrilber.  vol.  IV,  part  I,  sect, 
her  power  to  lenslate  in  matrimonial  affairs,  not  from  2;  and  vc^.  IX,  part  II,  title  22,  for  obsolete  <^noni<qJ 
the  State,  but  from  Christ;  and  acts,  not  on  suffer-  rules).  A  marriage  is  said  to  be  canonical  or  civil: 
ance,  but  by  Divine  ri^ht.  She  recognizes  the  duty  of  canonical,  when  contracted  in  accordance  with  Church 
the  State  to  take  cognizance  of  Christian  marriage,  in  law;  civil,  if  the  ordinances  of  civil  law  are  observed, 
order  to  insure  certain  civic  effects,  but  her  jurisdio-  In  addition,  we  sometimes  speak  of  a  secret  marriage, 
tion  is  superior  and  of  Divine  origin.  or  a  marriage  of  conscience,  that  is,  a  marriage  oc 

B.  The  laws  of  the  Church  governing  Christian  which  the  banns  have  not  been  published,  celebrated 
marriage  are  fundamental  and  unchangeable  laws;  or  by  the  parish  priest  and  witnesses  under  Ixmd  of  se- 
accidental,  circumstantial,  and  changeable  laws.  The  crecy,  with  the  bishop's  permission.  A  true  marria^ 
natural  law,  Divine  revealed  law,  and  the  Apostolic  is  one  duly  contracted  and  capable  of  being  proved  m 
law  of  marriage  are  interpreted  by  the  Church,  but  the  ordinary  way;  a  presumptive  marria^,  when  the 
never  repealed  or  dispensed  from.  Circumstantial  law  presumes  a  marriage  to  exist;  a  putative  marriage, 
laws  are  enacted  by  the  Church,  and  may  vary  or  be  when  it  is  believed  to  be  valid,  but  is  in  reality  null 
rei>ealed.  Hence  disciplinary  laws,  regulating  solem-  and  void,  owing  to  the  existence  of  a  hidden  dirmient 
nities  to  be  observed  in  marriage,  and  laws  defining  impediment. 

qualifications  of  parties  to  marry,  are  not  so  rigid  as  There  is,  again,  a  special  kind  of  marriage  which 

to  admit  of  no  change,  if  the  Church  sees  fit  to  change  needs  explanation  here.    When  a  prince  or  a  member 

them,  owing  to  difference  of  time  and  place;    the  of  a  ruling  house  weds  a  woman  of  inferior  rank,  es- 

chan^e  too  may  affect  the  validity  or  the  legality  of  a  peciallv  if  her  family  is  plebdan,  the  marriage  is 

mamage.    The  Church,  therefore,  has  laid  down  the  generally  known  as  a  morganatic  marriage.     In  this 

conditions  requisite  for  the  validity  of  the  matrimoniid  case  it  is  as  valid  and  licit  before  the  Church  as  any 

consent  on  the  part  of  those  who  marry,  and  has  legis-  other  lawful  marriage,  but  there  are  certain  divil  di»- 

lated  on  their  respective  rights  and  duties.   The  mar-  abiUties.    First,  the  children  bom  in  such  wedlook 


MAERXAaX  701  BCABBXAOB 

bave  no  right  to  the  title  or  crown  of  their  father,  since  that,  if  such  condition  has  lasted  a  month,  Uiey  may 
those  who  are  to  succeed  him  ought  not  to  suffer  from  marry  without  a  priest,  but  in  the  presence  of  two  wit- 
the  social  disadvantages  arising  from  the  inferior  rank  nesses,  the  record  of  their  marriage  being  properly 
of  their  father's  morganatic  wSe.  In  some  countries,  made  as  prescribed.  The  law  makes  no  exception  in 
however,  the  law  concedes  a  hope  of  succession  to  such  favour  of  mixed  marriages,  not  even  when  one  party 
children  if  all  the  direct  heirs  should  die.  The  mor-  is  a  Catholic  of  an  Eastern  Rite.  By  a  special  dis* 
ganatic  wife  and  her  children  receive,  by  agreement  or  pensation,  mixed  marriages — ^i.  e.,  both  paities  being 
etiolation,  a  dowry  and  means  of  support,  the  amo\mt  oaptized,  one  a  Protestant,  the  other  a  Catholic — of 
bemg  in  some  countries  at  the  discretion  of  the  king  or  Germans  marrying  within  the  boundaries  of  the  Ger- 
prince,  in  others  fixed  by  law.  man  Empire  are  valid,  though  clandestinely  con^ 
'III.  Matrimonial  Courts  in  thb  Church.—  tracted.  A  like  dispensation  has  been  granted  to 
Doubtful  marriage  cases  are  decided  in  courts  provided  Hungarians  marrying  within  the  boundaries  of  Hun- 
b^  the  canon  law  for  that  purpose.  The  doubt  may  gary;  and  according  to  the  Secretary  of  the  S.  Congre- 
arise  from  a  supposed  hidden  or  occult  impediment  or  gation  of  Sacraments  (18  March,  1909),  Croatians, 
from  a  public  unpediment.  In  the  former  case  (oc-  Slavonians,  inhabitants  of  Transylvaziia,  and  of  Fiume 
cult  impediment)  the  question  is  decided  pro  foro  in^  enjoy  a  similar  dispensation.  Catholics  of  the  various 
temo  in  the  tribunal  of  penance  or  by  the  penitentiary  Eastern  rites,  who  are  in  union  with  the  Holy  See,  are 
Apostolic  at  Rome.  In  such  cases  strict  secrecy,  exempt  from  the  law;  likewise  all  non-Catholics,  ex- 
similar  to  that  of  the  confessional,  is  observed,  par-  cept  those  who  have  been  baptised  in  the  Church,  but 
ticularlv  with  regard  to  names  and  places  of  resiaence.  have  fallen  away. 

In  the  latter  case  (public  impediment)  the  doubt  has  The  law  is  not  retroactive.  Marriages  contracted 
always  to  be  settlea  pro  foro  extemo  in  the  matrimo-  before  its  promulgation  will  be  adjudicated,  in  case  of 
nial  courts ;  for  no  general  laws  can  be  made  to  cover  ail  doubt,  according  to  the  laws  in  force  at  the  time  and 
possible  circumstances,  and  the  practical  application  place  of  marriage.  It  simplifies  procedure.  Former 
of  the  canonical  and  moral  laws  of  marriage  to  ao-  difficulties  arising  from  quasi-domidle  are  done  away 
tual  cases,  just  as  happens  with  civil  laws,  involves  at  with  by  a  month's  residence,  even  wh€»i  taken  infrau" 
times  questions  de  jure  and  de  facto,  which  must  be  set-  dem  legia;  the  ordinanr  or  the  parish  priest  is  tli^  aiH 
tied  by  competent  judges.  In  every  diocese  presided  thorized  witness  of  the  Churcn,  and  he  or  a  priest 
over  by  a  bishop  and  especially  in  every  metropolitan  delected  by  him  by  name,  can  assist  validly  at  any 
see,  the  canon  law  requires  a  matrimonial  court.  Such  marriage  within  his  territoiy,  even  though  the  parties 
a  court  has  no  power  to  legislate,  but  adiudicates  ac-  come  from  without  it;  thou^,  of  course,  such  ordinary 
cording  to  the  laws  and  the  precedents  ot  the  Roman  or  parish  priest  needs,  and  should  ask  for,  letters  of 
courts.  Bishops  of  dioceses,  national  and  provincial  permission  from  the  proper  authority  to  assist  lidtly 
councils  may,  however,  enforce  stricter  observance  of  at  such  a  marriage.  The  local  authorities  may  in- 
the  general  la^  in  their  respective  jurisdictions;  if  crease  the  punishment  assigned  in  the  text  of  the  law 
peculiar  circumstances  require  it,  they  can  legislate  for  any  iniraction  of  this  provision'.  By  a  decree  of 
against  abuses  and  insist  on  i^)ecial  points  of  law;  for  the  Sacred  Congregation  ol  the  Sacraments  (7  March, 
instance,  they  may  demand  certain  qualifications  in  1910),  the  power  to  dispense  kings  or  roysd  princes 
witnesses  to  marriage,  and  prescribe  certain  prelimi-  from  impediments,  diriment  or  impedient.  is  hence- 
naries  for  mixed  marriages,  binding  on  priest  and  peo-  forth  reserved  in  a  special  manner  to  the  Holy  See,  and 
pie  imder  pain  of  sin.  From  the  decisions  of  the  dio-  all  faculties  granted  heretofore  in  such  cases  to  cer* 
cesan  andf  the  metropolitan  courts,  particularly  in  tain  ordinaries  are  revoked.  In  the  peculiar  drcumr 
questions  involving  nullity  of  marriage,  appeal  can  be  stances  of  certain  Indian  dioceses  (see  India,  Double 
taken  to  the  courts  of  the  Holy  See.  The  decisions  of  Jurisdiction) ,  the  question  has  been  asked:  Whether 
these  courts  are  final,  especially  when  the  Holy  Father  for  persons  residing  in  India;  within  a  double  jurisdio- 
approves  them.  In  rare  cases  a  reopening  is  allows,  tion,  it  is  sufficient,  in  order  to  a  valid  and  hcit  mar- 
aud then,  usually,  because  new  evidence  is  offered,  riage,  to  stand  before  the  personal  parish  priest  of  one 
Since  Pius  X  reorganused  the  Roman  Curia  by  the  or  both;  or  whether  they  must  bIbo  stand  before  the 
Constitution  "Sapienticonsilio"  (29  June,  1908),  such  territorial  parish  priest.  The  question  haying  been 
appeals  must  be  made  to  the  congregation,  tribunal  or  referred  to  the  Holy  Father,  the  Conjugation  of  the 
OTnce  specified  in  that  Constitution  to  deal  with  them:  Sacraments  replied,  with  the  approbation  of  His  Hdi* 
"  For  tne  future  every  question  re^rding  mixed  mar-  ness,  in  view  of  the  peculiar  circumstances,  affirma- 
riages  is  to  be  brought  before  the  Congregation  of  the  tively  to  the  firat  part;  negatively  to  the  second  part. 
Holy  Office;  likewise,  all  points  which  either  directly  V.  Marriage  Indissoluble  Except  by  Death.— 
or  indirectly,  in  fact  or  in  law,  refer  to  the  Pauline  It  must  again  be  repeated  here  that  the  Church 
Privilege  "  (Answer  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Consis-  teaches,  and  has  always  taught,  that  de&tti  alone  can 
tory  to  letter  of  Holy  Office,  27  March,  1909).  (For  dissolve  a  ratified  and  consummated  Christian  mar- 
the  procedure  in  case  of  appeals  from  countries  under  riage.  When  the  death  of  either  party  is  not  proved 
the  jurisdiction  of  Propaganda,  see  Propaganda.)  by  such  evidence  as  is  required  by  canon  law,  there  is 
I V .  The  New  Marriage  Legislation. — The  no  permission  to  re-marry.  The  instruction  **  Matri- 
marriage  law,  known  by  its  initial  words,  ''Netemere",  monii  vinculo^'  (1868)  is  still  strictly  followed,  as 
went  into  force  on  Easter  Sunday,  18  April,  1908.  appears  from  an  answer  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  oi 
The  principal  changes  it  made  in  the  Church's  matri-  the  Sacraments  to  cases  that  arose  in  the  eamiquake 
monial  legislation  relate  to  clandestine  marriages  district  in  Southern  Italy  in  March,  1910.  Marriages 
(which  it  makes  null  and  void  for  all  Catholics  of  the  ratified  but  not  consummated  by  sexual  intercourse 
Latin  Rite)  and  to  questions  incidental  thereto,  are  sometimes  dissolved  by  the  Roman  Pontiff  in 
The  law  enacts  that  a  marriage  of  Catholics  of  the  virtue  of  his  supreme  power;  sometimes  thev  are  di^ 
Latin  Rite  is  licit  and  valid  only  if  contracted  in  the  solved  by  entrance  into  the  religious  life  and  by  actual 
presence  of  the  ordinary,  or  the  parish  priest,  or  a  profession  of  solemn  vows.  Such  dissolutions  of  nuuv 
priest  delegated  by  either,  and  at  least  two  witnesses.  riagestluLtAre  merely  ratified  are  in  no  sense  subverave 
Any  priest  may  revalidate  a  sinful  or  an  invalid  mar-  of  'what  God  hath  joined  let  no  man  put  asunder  " 
riage  of  those  who.  through  sickness,  are  in  serious  (Matt.,  xix,  6).  Again  the  matrimonial  courts  msY 
danger  of  death,  unless  their  case  is  such  as  admits  of  find  on  the  evidence  adduced  that  a  marriage  is  nuU 
no  revalidation — as  for  instance,  if  they  are  in  holy  and  void;  there  may  have  been  a  Imown  or  a  hidden 
orders.  Again,  in  the  case  of  those  who  live  in  dis-  diriment  impediment  when  the  marriage  was  con* 
tricts  where  no  priest  resides,  and  who  cannot  with-  tracted.  In  some  i^^tances  such  a  marriage  is  revali* 
out  serious  haraship  go  to  one,  the  new  law  provides  dated  after  securingthe  requinkl  diqpouMitiQii,  if  Buok 


BCABSIAOX 


092 


MAEBIAOX 


epeoies,  are,  or  from  time  to  time  may  thereafter  be, 
aflsigned  by  the  law  of  matrimony. "  (I.  Mar.  and  Div. 
Sec.  11.) 

The  municipal  law  deals  with  this  status  only  as  a 
civil  institution.  Though  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a 
contract,  marriage  in  the  eyes  of  the  municipal  law  is 
not  a  contract  strictly  speaking,  but  is  a  status  result- 
ing from  the  contract  to  marry.  Justice  Story  speaks 
of  it  as  *' an  institution  of  society  founded  upon  the 
consent  and  contract  of  the  parties  *'.  (Story, "  Ckmfl. 
Laws  '*,  Sec.  108.  Note.)  All  competent  persons  may 
intermarry,  and  marriage  being  presumed  to  be  for 
the  interest  of  the  State  and  of  the  highest  public  in- 
terest, is  encouraged.  It  is  held  to  be  a  union  for  life. 
The  law  does  not  permit  it  to  be  a  subject  of  experi- 
mental or  temporary  arrangement,  but  a  fixed  and 
permanent  status  to  be  'dissolved  only  by  death,  or, 
where  statutes  permit,  by  divorce.  In  England  the 
solemnization  of  a  marriage  was  required  to  be  before 
a  clergyman  until  the  statute  passed  in  1836,  and  all 
other  marriages  excepting  those  of  Quakers  and  Jews, 
were  null.  By  that  act  civil  marriages  and  those  of 
dissenters  from  the  Church  of  England  are  legalized 
and  regulated.  In  order  to  constitute  a  valid  mar- 
riage there  must  be  a  consent  of  the  parties,  and  in 
some  of  the  states  of  the  Union  no  formality  is  neces- 
earv. 

By  the  conmion  law  the  age  at  which  minors  were 
capable  of  marrying,  known  as  the  age  of  consent,  was 
fised  at  fourteen  years  for  males  and  twelve  years  for 
females.  Marriages  under  the  age  of  seven  years  for 
both  were  void,  but  between  seven  and  the  age  of  con- 
sent the  parties  could  contract  an  imperfect  marriage, 
which  was  voidable  but  not  necessarily  void.  The 
marriage  of  parties  who  had  attained  the  age  of  consent 
was  valid  even  though  they  lacked  parental  con- 
sent, until  in  England  the  marriage  act  of  1753  de- 
clared such  mama^es  void.  This  act,  however,  has 
never  been  the  law  m  the  United  States.  In  England 
imder  the  statute  of  32  Henry  VIII,  c.  38,  all  mar- 
riages were  made  lawful  between  parties  not  within  the 
Levitical  degrees  of  relationship;  this  was  interpreted 
to  mean  all  marriages  excepting  those  between  rela- 
tives in  the  direct  line  and  in  the  collateral  line  to  the 
third  degree,  according  to  the  rules  of  the  Civil  Law, 
hicluding  both  the  whole  and  the  half  blood.  In  the 
United  States,  in  the  absence  of  statutes  to  the  con- 
trary, marriages  are  unlawful  only  in  the  direct  as- 
cending and  descending  line  of  consanguinity  and 
between  brothers  and  sisters.  In  most,  if  not  all,  of  the 
States,  however,  there  are  statutes  covering  this  sub- 
ject, and  in  a  number  of  them  marriages  between  first 
cousins  are  forbidden.  Marriages  that  arc  made  with- 
out formalities,  but  by  the  mere  consent  of  the  parties, 
are  known  as  common  law  marriages.  In  order  to 
make  such  marriages  effective,  there  must  be  a  present 
intention  to  make  the  contract  and  it  must  be  ex- 
pressed accordinglv, — in  other  words,  "per  verba  de 
prsesenti".  Words  expressing  a  future  intention  do 
not  give  the  necessary  consent,  but  when  words  are 
usedwith  the  future  intention  apparently,  followed  by 
consummation,  or,  as  it  is  said,  *'per  verba  de  futuro 
cum  copula",  a  marriage  is  constituted,  the  future 
promise  having  been  converted  by  action  into  an  ac- 
tual marriage.  Marriages  contracted  without  con- 
forming to  statutory  regulations  are  valid  in  a  number 
of  states  and  not  in  others.  Formal  solemnization  is 
imnecessary.  Where  no  penalty  for  disobedience  of 
statutory  formalities  is  provided,  their  omi&^sion  does 
not  invalidate  the  marriage. 

The  requirement  of  a  license  to  marry  was  first 
brought  into  EIngland  by  Lord  Hardwicke's  Marriage 
Act  of  1753.  It  is  not  part  of  the  common  law  of  the 
United  States,  but  very  generally  licenses  are  required 
in  the  states,  though  not  to  the  extent  of  making  mar- 
riages invalid  where  they  have  not  been  granted.  The 
Society  of  Friends  or  Quakers  is  excepted  from  the 


requirement  in  some  of  the  states,  and  in  othen  tin 
parties  may  have  recourse  to  the  publication  of  baoni 
mstead  of  securing  a  License.  Parental  ocnseDtii 
required  in  almost  all  of  the  states,  the  aj^  for  make 
bemg  from  sixteen  to  twenty-one  and  for  females  froo 
eighteen  to  twenty-one.  In  nearly  all  of  the  states, 
if  either  of  the  parties  has  been  continuously  abGcnt 
for  a  number  of  years  and  has  not  been  known  to  be 
living  during  that  time,  the  other  party  may  contnct 
a  new  marriage.  The  general  doctrine  of  the  law  oi 
the  subject  of  foreign  marriages  is  that  a  marriap 
valid  where  celebrated  is  valid  everywhere.  Excep- 
tions are  made  in  a  number  of  states  where  citiKDS  go 
to  another  jurisdiction  in  order  to  evade  the  laws  of 
the  home  domicile.  In  some  of  the  states  marriaga 
between  persons  of  different  races  are  made  void.  If 
either  of  the  parties  is  not  of  sound  mind  at  the  time  of 
entering  into  the  marriage,  it  is  void  unless  oonfinuBd 
when  sanitv  is  regained.  Where  a  physical  incapac- 
ity exists  the  marriage  may  be  made  void  on  the  ap- 
plication of  the  other  party  who  was  ignorant  of  toe 
fact.  Under  the  common  Jaw  a  marriase  can  be  an- 
nulled for  mistake  as  to  identity  or  fraud.  There  aic 
certain  kinds  of  fraud  where  an  ordinary  contrad 
would  be  declared  void,  which  do  not  a£fect  a  marriace 
contract  because  of  public  policy.  In  some  of  the 
United  States  annulment  would  he  allowed  for  decep- 
tion as  to  chastity,  but  not,  it  is  said,  in  Englano. 
Duress  sufficient  to  overcome  the  will  of  the  oonseat- 
ing  party  is  a  cause  for  annulment  unless  subsequent^ 
ratified.  As  in  England,  so  in  all  of  the  United  States 
there  are  statutes  regulating  the  fomaalities  in  connee- 
tion  with  marriages  other  than  common  law  marriages, 
and  in  addition  to  ministers  of  the  various  churches, 
who  for  the  purpose  are  looked  upon  as  civil  oflBcers, 
other  designated  officials  are  authorised  to  perfonn 
the  marriage  ceremony,  excepting  in  a  few  of  the 
states.  Marriages  may  be  proved  Doth  by  direct  and 
circumstantial  evidence,  the  presumption  being  in  fa- 
vor of  a  former  marriage  where  there  has  been  cohabi- 
tation and  reputation. 

Where  marriages  are  annulled,  the  decree  relates 
Ixkck  te  the  date  of  the  marriage,  while  divorce  relates 
only  to  the  date  of  its  own  decree  (see  Divobce).  Pen- 
alties are  usually  prescril^ed  for  violation  of  statutory 
regulations  relating  to  marriage  by  ministers  or  other 
persons  authorized  te  perform  the  ceremony.     Mar- 
riage of  itself  gives  to  the  husband  and  wife  certain 
interests  in  the  property  of  the  other,  both  real  and  per- 
sonal, which  by  modem  legislation  have  been  largely 
modified.     Formerly  the  husband  was  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  owner  of  his  wife's  property,  but  now 
she  has  absolute  control  of  it  in  £jigland  and  in  the 
United  States,  reserving  to  the  husband  certain  ridits 
which  become  effective  after  her  death.     In  "RngRnH 
under  the  common  law,  the  marriage  of  parents  after 
the  birth  of  children  does  not  legitimate  them,  but  in 
most  of  the  American  states  and  in  Eiuropean  conti- 
nental countries  it  is  sought  to  encourage  marriage  hj 
providing  that  illegitimate  children  may  thus  be  legiti- 
mated.    The  laws  of  most  foreign  countries  make 
strict  requiremente  as  to  mental  capacity,  and  estab- 
lish certain  degrees  of  consanguinity  and  affini^ 
within  which  marriage  cannot  be  contracted.     There 
are  certain  impediments,  not  known  in  the  United 
States,  imposing  a  period  of  delay  in  connexion  with 
military  service,  and  providing  a  time  within  which  a 
woman  may  not  contract  marriage  after  the  dissolu- 
tion of  a  previous  one.     The  tendency  in  oontinenta] 
countries  is  to  establish  civil  marriage  as  the  only  form 
recognized  by  the  State.     This  is  the  law  in  Bdgiuin. 
France,  Germany,  Hungary,  Italy,  the  Netherumds, 
Rumania,  and  Switzerland,  where  the  civil  ceremony 
alone  is  recognized  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  and  in  moat 
of  these  countries  clergymen  are  prohibited  under 
severe  penalties  from  performing  tne  religious  cere- 
mony before  the  civil  marriage  has  taken  place.    A 


BSABBIAOE                           693  BSABBIAOB 

ofvil  oereiXKmy  is  roquired  in  Austria  when  both  par-  In  Italy  the  consent  of  the  parents  or  next  of  kin  is 

ties  belong  to  no  legaUy  recognised  Faith.    There  are  required  for  men  under  twenty-five  years  of  age  and 

similar  provisions  in  Denmanc,  Norway  and  Sweden,  for  women  under  twenty-one  years.     In  case  of  r»- 

Bulgaria,  Finland,  Croatia,  Slavmiia,  and  Servia  recog-  f usal  of  consent,  provision  is  made  for  an  appeal  to  a 

nise  tihe  religious  ceremony  alone.  court.     Foreigners  desiring  to  marry  in  Italy  must 

In  Japan  a  marriage  code  which  became  effective  present  a  certificate  from  a  competent  authority  that 

in  1898,  contains  sections  dealing  with  the  laws  of  they  have  satisfied  the  requirements  of  the  laws  of 

family  and  of  succession.     The  form  of  ceremony  is  their  own  country.     Forei^ers  ordinarilv  residing  in 

not  regulated,  but  the  marriage  itself  is  valid  only  Italy  are  subject  to  the  requirements  of  the  ItaUan 

imder  certain  conditions.    The  L&ws  of  countries  other  law.     Military  officials  cannot  marry  without  the 

than  the  United  States  provide  in  a  number  of  in-  royal  permission,  which  is  not  given  unless  they  have 

stances  for  the  consent  of  parents  or  guardians  after  an  assured  income  of  about  eight  htmdred  dollars  at 

the  parties  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  least,  and  have  made  a  settlement  for  the  benefit  of 

Thus  in  Austria  parties  between  the  age  of  fourteen  the  bride.    Somewhat  similar  regulations  are  made 

and  twenty-four  years  are  incapable  of  contracting  a  for  lower  officers  and  privates  in  revenue  service, 

valid  mamage  without  the  consent  of  their  father  or,  In  the  Netherlands  the  consent  of  parents  is  re- 

if  he  be  dead  or  incapable  of  acting,  both  of  their  guar^  quired  of  an  individual  under  tiiirty  y^ars  of  age.   The 

dian  and  of  the  court.     Even  for  those  who  have  at-  marriageable  age  begins  with  men  at  eighteen  and 

tained  the  a^e  of  twenty-foiu*,  but  who  for  any  reason  women  at  sixteen.    If  both  parents  are  dead  or  in- 

are  incapabfe  of  entering  into  a  valid  obligation,  e.  g.  capacitated,  an  individual  under  twenty-one  requires 

if  they  have  been  legally  declared  spendthrifts,  such  the  consent  of  a  grandparent  or,  in  default  of  a^and- 

oonsent  is  necessary.    In  the  case  of  minors  of  illegiti-  parent,  of  a  guaraian  and  second  guardian.    Omcers 

mate  birth,  the  consent  both  of  the  guardian  and  of  of  the  army  and  navy  require  the  consent  of  the  sov- 

the  court  is  requisite.     In  general,  persons  in  military  ereign  before  they  can  marry,  and  no  man  between  the 

service  cannot  contract  a  valid  marriage  without  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty  may  marry  unless  he  has 

written  permission  of  their  superiors.     A  law  of  1889  proved  he  has  performed  military  service  or  has  been 

provides  that  a  man  shall  not  be  permitted  to  marry  excused  from  it. 

before  reachmj^  the  age  of  miUtary  service,  or  before  In  Switzerland  the  consent  of  parents  is  required  of 

leaving  the  third  age  class,  i.  e. ,  at  the  age  of  twenty-  all  persons  imder  twenty  years  ofage.    The  consent  of 

three  years.    In  France  the  man  must  be  at  least  parents  is  required  also  in  Belgium  of  all  persons  under 

eighteen  years  of  age  and  the  woman  fifteen  to  con-  the  age  of  twenty-five,  the  law  being  somewhat  simi- 

tract  a  valid  marria^,  unless  the  President  of  the  Re-  lar  to  that  of  France. 

public  grants  a  special  disp^isation.    By  a  law  dated  In  Russia  children  must  obtain  the  consent  of  their 

25  June,  1907,  parental  consent  is  no  longer  required  parents  if  living,  without  regard  to  their  age,  a  man 

for  men  and  women  over  twenty-one  years  of  age,  but  attaining  the  marriageable  age  at  eighteen  and  a 

both  men  and  women  under  thirty  must  ask  for  it  and  woman  at  sixteen. 

serve  upon  the  dissenting  parent  or  parents  an  instru-  In  Denmark  the  marriageable  age  is  twenty  for  men 

ment  requesting  it.    The  parties  may  marry  three  and  sixteen  for  women,  and  consent  of  parents  must 

days  after  service  has  been  made,     tinder  the  law  be  obtained  by  minors  under  the  age  of  twenty-five, 

previous  to  that  date,  men  under  the  age  of  twenty-  In  Sweden  females  imder  the  age  of  twenty-one  re- 

nve  and  women  imder  the  age  of  twenty-one  could  not  quire  the  consent  of  a  marriage  guardian,  usually  her 

marry  without  the  consent  of  their  parents,  or  the  sur-  Mher  or  brother  or  some  other  male  relative.    Men 

vivor  if  one  of  them  was  dead.  require  no  parental  consent.    Men  may  marry  at  the 

In  England  the  common  law  rule  of  fourteen  for  age  of  twenty-one  or  over,  and  women  at  the  age  of 

males  and  twelve  for  females  governs  the  marriage  seventeen  or  over. 

age.    Consent  of  parents  is  necessary  for  persons  In  Norway  the  marriageable  age  for  men  is  twenty 

under  twenty-one,  except  for  a  widow  or  widower,  and  for  women  sixteen.    Parentalconsent  is  necessary 

The  proper  person  to  give  consent  is  the  father  or,  if  he  for  both  parties  under  the  age  of  eighteen, 

be  dead,  the  mother,  if  unmarried,  or  finally  a  guar-  Parentol  consent  appears  to  be  necessaiy,  under  cer- 

dian  appointed  by  the  Court.    Soldiers  must  get  the  tain  conditions,  in  all  European  countries  where  the 

consent  of  their  commander.    Violation  of  these  pro-  parties  are  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  and  in  many 

visions  does  not,  however,  invalidate  the  marriage;  where  they  are  liable  U>  militaiy  serviee.    In  Japan 

but  in  case  of  soldiers  the  woman  is  not  recognized  as  the  consent  of  parents  or  of  the  family  council  is  essen- 

having  a  military  status.     In  Scotland  the  impedi-  tial  to  the  marriage  of  a  man  under  thirty  and  of  a 

ments  are  the  same  as  in  Exigland,  but  no  consent  of  woman  under  twenty-five.    The  marria^  laws  of  the 

parents  or  guardian  is  required.    Regular  marriages  different  Canadian  provinces  are  not  uniform  but  are 

are  celebrated  by  some  minister  of  rehgion  in  the  pres-  quite  similar.    The  minimum  age  for  marriage  in  the 

enoe  of  at  least  two  witnesses,  after  the  publication  of  Province  oi  Quebec  is  fourteen  for  males  and  twelve 

banns  or  issuance  of  registrar's  certificate.    Irregular  for  females.    Parental  consent  is  necessary  for  any 

marriages  are  clandestine  marria^,  celebrated  with-  one  under  twenty-one  years  of  age.     In  Quebec  alone 

out  publication  of  banns  or  notice  to  the  registrar,  of  the  Canadian  Provinces  ill^timate  children  are 

Such  marriages  may  be  made  by  mere  consent  without  legitimated  by  the  marriage  of  their  parents.    The 

a  clergyman  and  are  valid.     In  Ireland  provisions  laws  of  Australia  and  New  ^oaland  are  based  upon  the 

are  made  for  marriages  by  Episcopalians,  Catholics,  English  statutes  and  common  law. 

and  Presbyterians^  by  ministers  of  other  denomina-  Bisbop,  lfarruv«,  Divorr^  and  Separation  (Ghieago,  1891): 


In  uermany  a  man  may  not  marry,  except  m  un-  divoroe  lawa  of  all  modem  States,  from  which  the  foregoing 

usual  cases,  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  or  a  woman  facts  in  relation  to  foreign  countries  have  been  derived. 

mider  the  age  of  sixteen.    A  leptimate  child  under  Walter  George  Smith. 

the  age  of  twenty-one  must  obtam  the  consent  of  the 

father  or,  if  he  be  dead,  of  the  mother;  an  illeffitimate        Marriage,  Hibtort  of. — The  word  marriage  may 

child,  the  consent  of  the  mother;  an  adopted  child,  the  be  taken  to  denote  Uie  action,  contract,  formiuity,  or 

consent  of  the  foster  parent.    Militaiy  men,  public  ceremony  by  which  the  conjug^  union  is  formed,  or 

officials,  and  forei^ers,  before  marriage,  must  obtain  a  the  union  itself  as  an  enduring  condition.    In  this 

special  permit,  and  military  men  in  active  service  must  article  we  deal  for  the  most  part  with  marriage  as  • 

aim  obtain  the  consent  of  their  officers.  condition,  and  with  its  moral  and  social  aspects.    It  is 


MARftlAGC 


706 


MAftRIAGC 


take  thee,  N.  for  my  wedded  wife,  to  have  and  to 
hold,  from  this  day  forward,  for  better  for  worse,  for 
richer  for  poorer,  in  sickness  and  in  health,  till  death 
do  us  part,  if  Holy  Church  will  it  'permit,  and  thereto  I 
plight  thee  my  troth."  It  is  tolerably  clear  tliat  this 
troth-plighting  originally  formed  part  of  a  betrothal 
ceremonial  and  recognized  the  possibility  that  the 
Church  might  still  refuse  to  confirm  and  bless  the 
union  thus  initiated.  But  as  the  words  occur  in  the 
modem  service,  where  the  parties  have  already  eiven 
their  consent,  where  the  marriage  is  consequently  an 
accomplished  fact  and  the  priest  has  said  *'ego  con- 
juneo  vos  in  matrimonium  ,  they  may  readily  cause 
a  difficulty.  Needless  to  say  that  this  particular 
clause  has  been  omitted  in  the  Anglican  *^Book  of 
Common  Prayer". 

Ancient  Observances  surviving  in  later  Rituals, — ^The 
traces  of  the  old  betrothal  ceremony  in  the  modem 
nuptial  Ordinals  of  different  countries  are  many  and 
varied.  First  the  wedding  ring  itself,  in  accordance 
with  the  old  Roman  custom,  seems  to  have  been  origi- 
nally a  pledge  or  arrha  given  at  the  sponsalia  by  the 
bridegroom  as  the  earnest  of  the  future  fulfilment  of 
his  share  in  the  contract.  At  a  later  date  however  it 
probably  became  confused  with  certain  Grerman  cus- 
toms of  *' morning  gifts"  after  marriage  and  conse- 
quently was  transferred  to  the  nuptials  proper. 
Further  in  many  places  it  ultimately  l)ecame  and  still 
remains  the  custom  for  bride  and  bridegroom  to  pre- 
sent each  other  mutually  with  rings  as  a  pledge  of 
fidelity,  and  this  is  in  fact  the  symbolical  meaning 
attached  to  the  ring  in  the  modern  ritual  of  the 
Church,  as  the  form  for  its  blessing  plainly  signifies, 
i^erhaps  the  first  trace  of  the  use  of  two  rings  occurs 
In  the  early  Spanish  Ordines.  Furthermore,  while  the 
use  of  the  weoding  ring  has  been  retained  among  most, 
though  not  quite  all,  the  rituals  of  the  West,  the  man- 
ner of  putting  it  on  varies  considerably.  The  English 
custom  that  the  l)ridegroom  should  place  it,  first,  on 
the  bride's  thumb  with  the  words  "in  the  name  of  the 
Father" — then  on  the  index  finger — '*and  of  the  Son  " 
— then  on  the  middle  finger — *'and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost" —  and  finally  on  the  fourth  finger — 'SVmen'* 
— is  found  in  medieval  ceremonials  in  places  as  far 
separat-ed  as  Spain  and  Non^'ay,  but  it  was  by  no 
means  universal.  In  some  places  the  priest  puts  on 
the  ring,  and  elsewhere  it  was  customary  to  place  the 
ring  on  the  bride's  right  hand.  This  was  the  case  in 
the  Sarum  rite  and  it  was  retained  among  English 
Catholics  until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  reason  so  frequently  assigned  for  the  choice  of  the 
fourth,  or  ring,  finger,  \\z.  tlvat  a  vein  runs  from  that 
finger  to  the  heart,  is  found  in  early  non-Christian 
writers  like  Pliny  and  Macrobius. 

A  second  survival  which  appears  even  in  the  concise 
Roman  Ritual,  is  the  hand-clasp  of  the  married  pair. 
This  was  a  custom  also  in  the  pagan  marriage  cere- 
monial of  Rome,  and  it  is  hard  to  say  whether  it  comes 
to  us  through  Roman  or  Teutonic  traditions.  Certain 
it  is  that  the  "hand-fast"  constituted  a  sort  of  oath 
among  most  Germanic  peoples  and  was  used  for  the 
solemn  ratification  of  all  kinds  of  contracts  (see  Fried- 
berg,  '*Eheschliessung",  pp.  39-42).  h\  many,  and 
especially  the  German  rituals,  the  priest  was  directed 
to  wrap  his  stole  around  the  claspea  hands  of  the  bride 
and  bridegroom  while  he  pronounced  some  words  of 
ratification.  This  ceremony  may  often  be  noticed  in 
medieval  pictures  of  a  marriage,  e.  g.  the  "Espousals 
of  St.  Joseph  and  our  Lady  ".  This  also  is  quite  prob- 
ably of  heathen  origin  for  we  find  a  reference  to  some- 
thing very  similar  in  Arl)eo's  "  Life  of  St.  Emmeram  ", 
written  before  the  year  800.  It  contains  an  account  of 
a  pagan  woman  summarily  given  in  marriage  to  a 
Christian,  her  hand  wrapped  round  with  a  cloak  "as 
is  the  custom  in  espousals".  A  most  elaborate  cere- 
mony of  this  kind  is  prescribed  in  the  "  Rituale  "  com- 
pilea  for  the  Christians  of  Japan  in  1605.    It  was 


noticed  above  that  the  "gifta",  or  fonnal  surrender 
of  the  bride,  who  thus  passed  from  the  *'  xnund  "  of  her 
father  or  guardian  to  that  of  her  husband,  was  re- 
garded as  the  most  essential  feature  of  Anglo-Saxon 
nuptials.  This  left  its  mark  in  the  Sanim  rite,  and 
something  of  it  still  survives  both  in  the  Anglican  and 
the  Catholic  ceremonial.  In  the  former  the  minister 
asks  "  Who  giveth  this  woman  to  be  married  to  this 
man";  in  the  latter  no  question  is  put,  but  the 
rubric  still  stands  "Then  let  the  woman  be  given 
away  by  her  father  or  by  her  friends". 

Most  remarkable  of  all  perhaps  is  the  nving  of  gold 
and  silver  by  the  bridegroom  to  the  bride.     This  has 
been  much  modified  in  the  Anglican  "Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer"  which  speaks  only  of  "laying  the  ring 
upon  a  book  with  the  accustomed  duty  to  the  priest 
and  clerk";  but  the  Catholic  rite,  more  closely  follow- 
ing the  Sarum,  directs  that  gold  and  silver  be  placed 
with  the  ring  and  given  to  the  bride  w^hile  the  bride- 
groom says:  "With  this  ring  I  thee  wed;  this  g^ld  and 
silver  I  thee  give,  with  my  body  I  thee  worship  and 
with  all  my  worldly  ^oods  I  thee  endow ' ' .    This  action 
takes  us  back  to  Tacitus's  account  of  German  marriage 
customs.     "The  wife",  he  says,  "does  not  present  a 
dower  to  her  husband,  but  the  husband  to  the  wife" 
(Germania,  xviii).     Undoubtedly  this  is  a  trace  of  the 
primitive  sale  by  which  the  bridegroom  paid  a  sum  of 
money  for  the  transference  to  him  of  the  **mund"  or 
right  oi  custody  of  the  bride.     Originally  that  money 
was  paid  to  the  father  or  guardian,  but  by  successi\^ 
stages  it  became  a  sort  of  dower  for  the  bride  and  was 
represented  by  the  symbolical  payment  to  her  of 
"arrhse",  the  name  by  which  the  money  thus  given  in 
the  marriage  ceremony  is  still  designated.     In  certain 
branches  of  the  Teutonic  family,  notably  the  Salians, 
this  form  of  purchase  of  a  bride  was  known  as  mai^ 
riage  * '  per  solidum  ct  denarium  ".  See  for  example  the 
account  of  the  nuptials  of  Chlodwig  and  St.  Clotilde 
in  the  historj'  of  the  so-called  Fredegarius  (c.  xviii). 
The  solidus  was  a  gold  piece,  the  denarius  a  silver  one, 
and  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne  and  later  the  solidus 
was  the  equivalent  in  value  of  twelve  denarii.     When 
the  custom  of  coining  gold  pieces  was  given  up  in  the 
ninth  century,  it  seems  that  the  solidus  and  oenarius 
were  represented  by  their  equivalent  value,  i.  e.  thir- 
teen silver  pieces.     Certain  it  is,  in  any  case,  that  in 
Spain  and  in  some  parts  of  France  thirteen  pieces  of 
money,  known  in  PVench  as  the  "Treiaain",  are  still 
blessed  and  given  to  the  bride  along  with  the  ring. 
The  ceremony  was  duly  observed  at  the  marriage  of 
King  Alfonso  of  Spain,  in  1906  (see  "The  Messenger", 
1906, 113-130). 

To  mention  the  many  observances  peculiar  to 
particular  provinces,  for  example  the  Hungarian  cus- 
tom of  taking  an  oath  of  mutual  fidelity  upon  relics  at 
the  dictation  of  the  priest,  or  the  York  practice  by 
which  the  bride  threw  herself  at  the  feet  of  her  hus- 
Iwtnd  if  he  gave  her  land  as  part  of  her  dower — would 
here  be  impossible.  We  must  not  however  omit  to 
note  the  pallium  or  pall  (French,  pode)^  which  in  a 
very  large  number  of  dioceses  was  held  over  the  mar- 
riedi  pair,  they  in  the  meantime  lying  prone  before  the 
altar,  while  the  nuptial  l)enediction  w*as  pronounced  in 
the  Mass.  The  custom  was  retained  until  recently 
in  many  parts  of  France  and  is  still  observed  in  t^ie 
more  ceremonious  weddings  which  follow  the  Toledan 
ritual.  This  and  the  **  jugale  ",  or  parti-coloured  yoke 
of  ribbon  binding  together  the  married  pair,  are  men- 
tioned by  St.  Isidore  of  Seville,  and  it  is  not  quite  clear 
how  far  they  are  to  be  identified  with  the  velum  or 
flammeum  of  the  bride  in  the  Roman  marriage.  It  is 
to  be  noted  that  according  to  certain  rituals  the  pid- 
lium  is  completely  to  cover  the  bride  but  only  the 
shoulders  of  the  bridegroom.  This  seems  clearly  to  be 
connected  with  the  fact  tliat,  as  already  observed,  the 
nuptial  l)enediction  is  almost  entirely  devoted  to  the 
bride  and  consecrates  her  to  her  special  responnbili* 


MA&BIAGX 


707 


MABRIAOX 


ties.  The  parallel  of  this  marriage  ceremony  is  seen 
in  the  pall  held  over  nuns  while  the  consecratory  pre- 
face is  being  said  at  their  clothing  or  profession.  It 
follows  that  the  idea  that  this  is  a  funeral  pall  and  is 
symbolical  of  the  death  of  the  religious  to  the  world 
is  not  historically  justifiable. 

The  words  of  the  priest,  "  Ego  vos  in  matrimonium 
conjungo'',  which,  though  sanctioned  by  the  Council 
of  Trent,  are  apt  to  convey  the  false  impression  that 
the  priest  is  the  minister  of  the  Sacrament,  are  not 
primitive,  atanv  rate  in  this  form,  and  are  only  to  be 
found  in  Rituals  of  comparatively  recent  date.  In 
the  medieval  Nuptial  Mass,  and  in  many  places  until 
lon£  after  the  Reformation,  the  kiss  of  peace  was  given 
to  the  married  pair.  The  bridegroom  received  it  from 
the  priest  either  directly  or  by  means  of  the  pax- 
board,  or  instrumentum  paciSy  and  then  per  oaculum 
oris  conveyed  it  to  the  bride.  The  misconception, 
found  in  some  modem  writers,  that  the  priest  kissed 
the  bride,  is  due  to  a  misunderstanding  of  this  piece  of 
ritual,  no  such  custom  is  recorded  m  manuals  ap- 
proved by  ecclesiastical  authority. 

Oriental  Marriage  Rituals. — ^That  of  the  Orthodox 
Greek  Church  may  be  conveniently  taken  as  a  model, 
for  the  others,  e.  g.  the  SjTian  and  Coptic  rites,  resem- 
ble it  in  many  particulars.  The  most  noteworthy 
feature  in  a  Greek  or  Russian  marriage  is  the  fact  that 
there  are  two  quite  distinct  religious  services.  In  the 
service  of  the  betrothal  a  contract  is  entered  upon  and 
two  rings  are  presented.  A  gold  ring  is  gi\'en  by  the 
priest  to  the  bridegroom  and  a  silver  one  to  the  bride, 
out  these  are  sulSequently  exchanged  between  the 
fjarties.  The  second  ceremony  is  that  of  the  nuptials 
proper  and  it  is  generally  called  the  crowning.  The 
service  is  one  of  considerable  length  in  wmch  the 
parties  again  solemnly  express  their  consent  to  the 
union  ana  towards  the  close  of  which  a  crown  is  placed 
by  the  priest  on  the  head  of  each.  The  bridegroom 
and  bride  afterwards  partake  of  a  cup  of  wine  previ- 
ously blessed  and  excnange  a  kiss.  Marriages  m  the 
Greek  Church  take  place  after  the  celebration  of  the 
Liturgy,  and,  as  in  tne  West,  the  season  of  Lent  is  a 
forbidden  time.  It  may  be  noticed  that  some  rituals 
of  the  Western  Church  retain  more  positive  traces  of 
the  ancient  ceremony  of  the  crowning  than  is  pre- 
served in  the  wreath  usually  worn  by  the  bride.  Thus 
in  a  I^tin  ritual  printed  for  Poland  and  Lithuania  in 
1691  it  is  directed  that  two  rings  be  used,  but  if  these 
are  not  forthcoming,  then  the  priest  is  to  bless  two 
wreaths  (serta)  and  present  them  to  the  married  pair. 
DuBCHESNE,  Chrutian  WonJiip  (tr.,  3rd  editkm,  London. 
1910)  428-^34;  Frkiaen,  Oeachichte  dca  canoniachen  Eherechta 
(Tubingen.  1888);  Fkkisen,  in  Archiv.  f.  Kath.  Kirehenrechi 
(Mainz,  vol.  LIU,  1885);  Frf.isen,  Manuale  Lincoperue  (Pader- 
born,  1906);  Gautier,  La  Chevalerie  (Paris,  1891),  341-450; 
Maskell,  Monumenta  RUualia  (Oxford,  1882),  voLI;  Haxxi^ 
TINE,  Zur  GeachichU  der  EheschlicMung  nach  anotlsdchsiachen 
Recht  (Berlin,  1905);  Howard,  A  HuAory  of  Matrimonial  In- 
atitutiana,  I  (Chicago,  1904).  291-383;  Crttchlow,  Forma  of  Be- 
trothal, &c  (Baltimore,  1903);  Watkins,  HoluMatnmonu  (Lon- 
don, 1895) ;  Martisne,  De  A  rUtquia  Eccleaia  Riiibua,  II  (Venice, 
1788);  DiECKHOFF,  Die  Kirchliche  Trauimg  (Roestock.  1878); 
Henderson,  The  York  Manuale,  publ.  by  Sdrteer  Socibtt 

i Durham,  1875);  Lingard,  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  II,  cap  i; 
loEDER,  Die  Schoaa  oder  Knieadxung  (Gdttingen,  1907);  Sohm, 
Trauunq  tend  Verlobung  (1876);  Frieddrro,  Daa  Recht  der 
Eheachlteaauno  (Leipzig.  1865);  Sohm,  Daa  Recht  der  Eheachlies- 
$ung  (Weimar,  1875) ;  Binoham,  Chriatian  Marriage  (New  York, 
1900). 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Marriage,  Sacrament  of. — ^That  Christian  mar- 
riage (i.  e.  marriage  between  baptized  persons)  is  really 
a  sacrament  of  the  New  Law  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word  is  for  all  Catholics  an  indubitable  truth.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Council  of  Trent  this  dogma  has  always 
been  taught  by  the  Church,  and  is  thus  defined  in. 
canon  i,  Scss.  XXIV:  "  If  any  one  shall  say  that  matri- 
mony is  not  truly  and  properly  one  of  the  Seven  Sacra- 
ments of  the  Evangelical  Law,  instituted  by  Christ  our 
Lord,  but  was  invented  in  the  Church  by  men,  and 
does  not  confer  grace,  let  him  1)e  anathema. "    The 


occasion  of  this  solemn  declaration  was  the  denial  by 
the  so-called  Reformers  of  the  sacramental  charact^ 
of  marriage.  Calvin  in  his  "  Institutions '',  IV,  xix,  34, 
says :  **  Lastly,  there  is  matrimony,  which  all  admit  was 
instituted  by  God,  though  no  one  before  the  time  of 
Gregory  regarded  it  as  a  sacrament.  What  man  in  his 
sober  senses  could  so  regard  it?  God's  ordinance  is 
good  and  holy;  so  also  are  agriculture,  architecture, 
shoemaking,  hair-cutting  legitimate  ordinances  of 
God,  but  they  are  not  sacraments".  And  Luther 
speaks  in  terms  equally  vigorous.  In  his  German 
work,  published  at  Wittenberg  in  1530  imder  the  title 
'  "  Von  den  Ehesachen",  he  writes  (p.  1) :  "No  one  in- 
deed can  deny  that  marriage  is  an  external  worldly 
thing,  Uke  clothes  and  food,  house  and  home,  subject 
to  worldly  authority,  as  shown  by  so  many  imperial 
laws  governing  it."  In  an  earlier  work  (the  ori^nal 
edition  of  **De  captivitate  Babylonica")  he  writes: 
"Not  only  is  the  sacramental  character  of  matrimony 
without  foundation  in  Scripture;  but  the  very  tradi- 
tions, which  claim  such  sacredness  for  it,  are  a  mere 
jest";  and  two  pages  further  on:  "Marriage  may 
therefore  be  a  figure  of  Christ  and  the  Church;  it  is, 
however,  no  Divinely  instituted  sacrament,  but  the 
invention  of  men  in  the  Church,  arising  from  ignorance 
of  the  subject."  The  Fathers  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
evidently  had  the  latter  passage  in  mind. 

But  the  decision  of  Trent  was  not  the  first  given  by 
the  Church.  The  Council  of  Florence,  in  the  Decree 
for  the  Armenians,  had  already  declared:  "The  sev- 
enth sacrament  is  matrimony,  which  is  a  figure  of 
the  union  of  Christ  and  the  Cnurch,  according  to  the 
words  of  the  Apostle:  'This  is  a  ereat  sacrament,  but 
I  speak  in  Christ  and  in  the  Church.'  "  And  Innocent 
IV,  in  the  profession  of  faith  prescribed  for  the  Wal- 
densians  (18  December,  1208),  includes  matrimony 
among  the  sacraments  (Densiger-Bannwart,  "En- 
chiridion", n.  424).  The  acceptance  of  the  sacra- 
ments administered  in  the  Church  had  been  prescribed 
in  general  in  the  following  words:  "And  we  by  no 
means  reject  the  sacraments  which  are  administered 
in  it  (the  Roman  Catliolic  Church),  with  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  inestimable  and  invisible  power  of  Uie  Holy 
Ghost,  even  though  they  be  admini^red  by  a  sinfm 
priest,  provided  the  Church  recognizes  him^ ,  the  for- 
mula then  takes  up  each  sacrament  in  particular, 
touching  especially  on  those  points  which  the  Walden- 
sians  had  denied:  "Therefore  we  approve  of  baptism 
of  children  .  .  .  confirmation  administered  by  the 
bishop  .  .  .  the  sacrifice  of  the  Eucharist.  .  .  .  We 
believe  that  pardon  is  granted  by  God  to  penitent  sin- 
ners ...  we  hold  in  ];ionour  the  anointing  of  the  sick 
with  consecrated  oil  ...  we  do  not  deny  that  carnal 
marriages  are  to  be  contracted,  according  to  the  words 
of  the  Apostle. "  It  is,  therefore,  historically  certain 
that  from  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  the 
sacramental  character  of  marriage  was  universally 
known  and  recognized  as  a  dogma.  Even  the  few 
theologians  who  minimized,  or  who  seemed  to  mini- 
mize, the  sacramental  character  of  marriage,  set  down 
in  the  foremost  place  the  proposition  that  marriage  is 
a  sacrament  of  the  New  Leiw  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  and  then  sought  to  conform  their  further  theses 
on  the  effect  and  nature  of  marriage  to  this  fundamen- 
tal truth,  as  will  be  evident  from  the  quotations 
given  below. 

The  reason  why  marriage  was  not  expressly  and  for- 
mally included  among  the  sacraments  earlier  and  the 
denial  of  it  branded  as  heresy,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
historical  development  of  the  doctrine  regarding  the 
sacraments;  but  the  fact  itself  may  be  traml  to  Apos- 
tolic times.  With  regard  to  the  several  religious  rites 
designated  as  "  Sacraments  of  the  New  loaw  ",  there  was 
always  in  the  Church  a  profound  conviction  that  they 
conferred  interior  Divine  grace.  But  the  grouping  of 
them  into  one  and  the  same  category  was  left  for  a 
later  period,  when  the  dogmas  of  faath  m  ge&eiaLbe^pui 


MARRIAGE 


,708 


BCARRIAGX 


to  be  scientifically  examined  and  systematically  ar- 
ranged. Furthermore,  that  the  seven  sacraments 
should  be  grouped  in  one  category  was  by  no  means 
self-evident.  For,  though  it  was  accepted  that  each 
of  these  rites  conferred  interior  grace,  yet,  in  contrast 
to  their  common  invisible  effect,  the  cfifference  in  ex- 
ternal ceremony  and  even  in  the  immediate  purpose  of 
the  production  of  grace  was  so  ^feat  that^or  a  long 
time,  it  hindered  a  uniform  classification.  Thus,  there 
is  a  radical  difference  between  the  external  form  under 
which  baptism,  confirmation,  and  orders,  on  the  one 
hand  are  administered,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  those 
that  characterize  penance  and  marriage.  For  while 
marriage  is  in  the  nature  of  a  contract,  and  penance  in 
the  nature  of  a  judicial  process,  the  three  first-men- 
tioned take  the  form  of  a  religious  consecration  of  the 
recipients. 

I.  Proof  op  Sacramental  Character  op  Chris- 
tian Marriage. — In  the  proof  of  Apostolicity  of  the 
doctrine  that  marriage  is  a  sacrament  of  the  New  Law, 
it  will  suffice  to  show  that  the  Church  has  in  fact  al- 
ways taught  concerning  marriage  what  belongs  to  the 
essence  of  a  sacrament.  The  name  sacrament  cannot 
be  cited  as  satisfactory  evidence,  since  it  did  not  ac- 
quire until  a  late  period  the  exclusively  technical 
meaning  it  has  to-day;  both  in  pre-Christian  times 
and  in  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  Era  it  had  a 
much  broader  and  more  indefinite  signification.  In 
this  sense  is  to  be  understood  the  statement  of  Leo 
XIII  in  his  Encyclical  "Arcanum"  (10  February, 
1880) :  "To  the  teaching  of  the  Apostles,  indeed,  are  to 
be  referrred  the  doctrines  which  our  holy  fathers,  the 
councils,  and  the  tradition  of  the  Universal  Church 
have  always  taught,  namely  that  Christ  Our  Lord 
raised  marriage  to  the  dignity  of  a  sacrament. ''  The 
pope  rightly  emphasizes  the  importance  of  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  Universal  Church.  Without  this  it  would 
be  very  difficult  to  get  from  the  Scriptures  and  the 
Fathers  clear  and  decisive  proof  for  all,  even  the  un- 
learned, that  marriage  is  a  sacrament  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word.  The  process  of  demonstration 
would  be  too  lon^  and  would  require  a  knowledge  of 
theology  which  tne  ordinary  faithful  do  not  possess. 
In  themselves,  however,  the  direct  testimonies  of  the 
Scriptures  ana  of  several  of  the  Fathers  are  of  suffi- 
cient weight  to  constitute  a  real  proof,  despite  the 
denial  of  a  few  theologians  past  and  present. 

The  classical  Scriptural  text  is  the  declaration  of 
the  Apostle  Paul  (Eph.,  v,  22  sqq.),  who  emphati- 
cally aeclares  that  the  relation  between  husband  and 
wife  should  be  as  the  relation  between  Christ  and  His 
Church:  "  Let  women  be  subject  to  their  husbands,  as 
to  the  Lord:  because  the  husband  is  the  head  of  the 
wife,  as  Christ  is  the  head  of  the  Church.  He  is  the 
saviour  of  his  body.  Therefore  as  the  Church  is  sub- 
ject to  Christ,  so  also  let  the  wives  be  to  their  hus- 
bands in  all  thines.  Husbands,  love  your  wives,  as 
CSirist  also  loved  the  Church,  and  delivered  Himself  up 
for  it:  that  He  might  sanctify  it,  cleansing  it  by  the 
laver  of  water  in  the  word  of  life;  that  He  might 
present  it  to  Himself  a  glorious  church  not  having  spot 
or  wrinkle  or  any  such  thing;  but  that  it  shomd  be 
holy,  and  without  blemish.  So  also  ought  men  to 
love  their  wives  as  their  own  bodies.  He  that  loveth 
his  wife,  loveth  himself.  For  no  man  ever  hated  his 
own  flesh;  but  nourisheth  it  and  cherisheth  it,  as  also 
Christ  doth  the  Church:  because  we  are  members  of 
His  body,  of  His  flesh,  and  of  His  bones. "  After  this 
exhortation  the  Apostle  alludes  to  the  Divine  institu- 
tion of  marriage  in  the  prophetical  words  proclaimed  by 
God  through  Adam :  For  this  cause  shall  a  man  leave 
his  father  and  mother  and  shall  cleave  to  his  wife,  and 
they  shall  be  two  in  one  flesh. "  He  then  concludes 
with  the  significant  words  in  which  he  characterizes 
Christian  marriage:  "This  is  a  great  sacrament;  but  I 
■peak  in  Christ  and  in  the  Church.  ** 

It  would  be  rash,  of  course,  to  infer  immediately 


from  the  expression,  "This  is  a  great  sacrament^', 
that  marriage  is  a  sacrament  of  the  New  Law  in  the 
strict  sense,  for  the  meaning  of  the  word  sacrament,  as 
already  remarked,  is  too  indefinite.    But  considering 
the  expression  in  its  relation  to  the  preceding  words, 
we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  to  be  taken  in 
the  strict  sense  of  a  sacrament  of  the  New  Law.    The 
love  of  Christian  spouses  for  each  other  should  be  mod- 
elled on  the  love  oetween  Christ  and  the  Church,  be- 
cause Christian  marriage,  as  a  copy  and  token  of  the 
union  of  Christ  with  the  Church,  is  a  great  mysteiy 
or  sacrament.    It  would  not  be  a  solemn,  mysterious 
symbol  of  the  union  of  Christ  with  the  Church,  which 
takes  concrete  form  in  the  individual  members  of  the 
Church,  imless  it  efficaciously  represented  this  union, 
i.  e.  not  merely  by  signifying  tne  supernatural  life- 
imion  of  Christ  with  the  Church,  but  also  by  causiiig 
that  union  to  be  realized  in  the  individual  members; 
or,  in  other  words,  by  conferring  the  supernatural  life 
of  grace.    The  first  marriage  between  Adam  and  Eve 
in  Paradise  was  a  symbol  of  this  imion ;  in  Yact,  merely 
as  a  symbol,  it  surpassed  individual  Christian  mar- 
riages, inasmuch  as  it  was  an  antecedent  type,  whereas 
individual  Christian  marriages  are  subsequent  repre- 
sentations.  There  would  be  no  reason,  therefore,  why 
the  Apostle  should  refer  with  such  emphasis  to  Chris- 
tian marriage  as  ao  qreai  a  sacrament,  if  the  greatness 
of  Christian  marriage  did  not  lie  in  the  fact,  that  it  is 
not  a  mere  sign,  but  an  efficacious  sign  of  the  life  of 
grace.    In  fact,  it  would  be  entirely  out  of  keeping 
with  the  economy  of  the  New  Testament  if  we  pos- 
sessed a  sign  of  grace  and  salvation  instituted  by  God 
which  was  only  an  empty  sign,  and  not  an  efficacious 
one.    Elsewhere  (Gal.,  iv,  9),  St.  Paul  emphasizes  in  a 
most  significant  fashion  the  difference  between  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testament,  when  he  calls  the  religious 
rites  of  the  former  "weak  and  needy  elements''  which 
could  not  of  themselves  confer  true  sanctity,  the  effect 
of  true  justice  and  sanctity  being  reserved  for  the  New 
Testament  and  its  religious  rites.    If,  therefore,  he 
terms  Christian  marriage,  as  a  religious  act,  a  great 
sacrament,  he  means  not  to  reduce  it  to  the  low  plane 
of  the  Old  Testament  rites,  to  the  plane  of  a  "weak 
and  needy  element'',  but  rather  to  show  its  impor- 
tance as  a  sign  of  the  life  of  grace,  and,  like  the  other 
sacraments,  an  efficacious  sign.    St.  Paul,  then,  does 
not  speak  of  marriage  as  a  true  sacrament  in  explicit 
and  immediately  apparent  fashion,  but  only  in  such 
wise  that  the  doctrine  must  l)e  deduced  from  his 
words.    Hence,  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIV),  in 
the  dogmatic  chapter  on  marriage,  says  that  the  sacra- 
mental effect  of  grace  in  marriage  is  ''intimated"  by 
the  Apostle  in  tne  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  {gytod 
PatUus  Apostolus  innuit). 

For  further  confirmation  of  the  doctrine  that  mar- 
riage under  the  New  Law  confers  grace  and  is  there- 
fore included  among  the  true  sacraments,  the  Council 
of  Trent  refers  to  the  Holy  Fathers,  the  earlier  coun- 
cils, and  the  ever  manifest  tradition  of  the  universal 
Church.  The  teaching  of  the  Fathers  and  t^e  con- 
stant tradition  of  the  Church,  as  already  remarked,  set 
forth  the  dogma  of  Christian  marriage  as  a  sacrament, 
not  in  the  scientific,  theological  terminology  of  later 
times,  but  only  in  substance.  Substantiidh^,  the  fol- 
lowing elements  belong  to  a  sacrament  oi  the  New 
I^w:  (1)  it  must  l>e  a  sacred  reli^ous  rite  instituted 
by  Christ;  (2)  this  rite  must  be  a  si^  of  interior  sano- 
tification;  (3)  it  must  confer  this  mterior  sanctifica- 
tion  or  Divine  grace;  (4)  this  effect  of  Divine  grace 
must  be  produced,  not  only  in  conjunction  with  the 
respective  religious  act,  but  throu^^  it.  Hence,  who- 
ever attributes  these  elements  to  Christian  niarriage, 
thereby  declares  it  a  true  sacrament  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  word. 

Testimony  to  this  effect  is  to  be  found  from  the  ear- 
liest Christian  times  onward.  The  clearest  is  that  of 
St.  Augustine  in  his  works  ''De  bono  oonjugii"  and 


MABRIAQB                            709  MABaiAOE 

*'De  nuptiis  et  concumsoentia".  In  the  former  work  fore  should  it  not  turn  out  happilv,  so  that  it  will  not 
(chap,  xxiv  in  P.  L.,  aL,  394),  he  says,  '**  Among  all  be  troubled  by  afflictions  and  needs  and  obstacles  and 
Pjeople  and  all  men  the  good  that  is  secured  by  mar-  contaminations,  since  it  ei^oys  the  protection  of  the 
riage  consists  in  the  offspring  and  in  the  chastity  of  Divine  grace?"  But  if  Divine  grace  and  its  protection 
married  fidelity;  but,  in  the  case  of  God's  people  [the  are,  as  Tertullian  asserts,  given  with  marriage,  we 
Christians],  it  consists  moreover  in  the  holiness  of  the  have  therein  the  distinctive  moment  which  constitutes 
sacrament,  by  reason  of  which  it  is  forbidden,  even  a  religious  action  (already  known  for  other  reasons  as 
after  a  separation  has  taken  place,  to  marry  another  a  sign  of  Divine  grace)  an  efficacious  sign  of  grace,  that 
as  long  as  the  first  partner  lives  .  .  .  just  as  priests  is,  a  true  Sacrament  of  the  New  Dispensation.  It  is 
are  ordained  to  draw  together  a  Christian  community,  only  on  this  hypothesis  that  we  can  rightlv  understand 
and  even  thoiigh  no  such  communitv  be  formed,  the  another  passage  from  the  same  work  of  Tertullian  (II, 
Sacrament  of  Orders  still  abides  in  those  ordained,  or  ix,  in  P.  L.,  1, 13Q2) :  " How  can  we  describe  the  hap- 
just  as  the  Sacrament  of  the  Lord,  once  it  is  conferred,  piness  of  those  marriages  which  the  Church  ratifies, 
abides  even  in  one  who  is  dismissed  from  his  office  on  the  sacrifice  strengthens,  the  blessing  seals,  the  angels 
account  of  guilt,  although  in  such  a  one  it  abides  imto  publish,  the  Heavenlv  Father  propitiously  beholds  ? '' 
judgment.  In  the  other  work  (I,  x,  in  P.  L.,  XLIV,  Weightier,  if  anything,  than  the  testimony  of  the 
420),  the  holy  Doctor  says:  ''Undoubtedly  it  belongs  Fathers  as  to  the  sacramental  character  of  Christian 
to  the  essence  of  this  sacrament  that,  when  man  and  marriage  is  that  of  the  liturgical  books  and  sacramen- 
wife  are  once  united  by  marriage,  this  bond  remains  taries  of  the  different  Churches,  Eastern  and  Western, 
indissoluble  throughout  their  lives.  As  long  as  both  recording  the  liturgical  prayers  and  rites  handed  down 
live,  there  remains  a  something  attached  to  the  mar-  from  the  very  earliest  times.  These,  it  is  true,  differ  in 
riaee,  which  neither  mutual  separation  nor  union  with  many  unimportant  details,  but  their  essential  features 
a  third  can  remove;  in  such  cases,  indeed,  it  remains  must  be  traced  back  to  Apostolic  ordinances.  In  all 
for  the  aggravation  of  the  guilt  of  their  crime,  not  for  these  rituals  and  litur^cal  collections,  marriage,  con- 
the  strengthening  of  the  union.  Just  as  the  soul  of  an  tracted  before  the  priest  during  the  celebration  of 
apostate,  which  was  once  similarly  wedded  unto  Christ  Mass,  is  accompanied  by  ceremonies  and  prayers  sim- 
and  now  separates  itself  from  Him,  does  not,  in  spite  ilar  to  those  used  in  connexion  with  the  other  sacra* 
of  its  loss  of  faith,  lose  the  Sacrament  of  Faith,  which  ments;  in  fact  several  of  these  rituals  expressly  call 
it  has  received  in  ihe  waters  of  regeneration.''  In  marriage  a  sacrament,  and,  because  it  is  a  sacrament 
these  words,  St.  Augustine  places  marriage,  which  he  of  the  hving  ",  require  contrition  for  sin  and  the  recep- 
names  a  sacrament,  on  the  same  level  with  Baptism  tion  of  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  before  marriage  is 
and  Holy  Orders.  Thus,  as  Baptism  and  Holy  Orders  contracted  (cf .  Mart^ne,  *'  De  antiquis  ecclesise  riti- 
are  sacraments  in  the  strict  sense  and  are  recognized  bus",  I,  ix).  But  the  venerable  age,  in  fact  the  apos- 
as  such  by  the  Holy  Doctor,  he  also  considers  the  mar-  tohcity,  of  the  ecclesiastical  tradition  concerning 
riage  of  Christians  a  sacrament  in  the  full  and  strict  marriage  is  still  more  clearly  revealed  by  the  circum-^ 
sense  of  the  word.  stance  that  the  rituals  or  liturgical  books  of  the  Orien- 
Scarcely  less  clear  is  the  testimony  of  St.  Ambrose,  tal  Churches  and  sects,  even  of  those  that  separated 
In  his  letter  to  Siricius  (Ep.  xlii,  3,  in  P.  L.,  XVI,  from  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  first  centuries,  treat 
1124),  he  states:  **  We  also  do  not  deny  that  marriage  the  contracting  of  marriage  as  a  sacrament,  and  sur- 
was  sanctified  by  Christ";  and  to  Vigilius  he  writes  round  it  with  significant  and  impressive  ceremonies 
(Ep.  xix,  7,  in  P.  L.,  XVI,  984):  "Since  the  contract-  and  prayers.    The  Nestorians,  Monophysites,  Copts, 


Of  what  kind  this  sanctification  is,  the  saint  tells  us  Denzinger,  ''Ritus  orientalium",  I,  150  sqq.;  II,  364 
clearly  in  his  work  "De  Abraham"  (I,  vii,  in  P.  L.,  sqq.).  The  numerous  prayers  which  are  used 
XIV,  443):  "  We  know  that  God  is  the  Head  and  Pro-  throughout  the  ceremony  refer  to  a  si)ecial  grace 
tector,  who  does  not  permit  that  another's  marriage-  which  is  to  be  granted  to  the  newly-married  persons, 
bed  be  defiled;  and  further. that  one  guilty  of  such  a  and  occasional  conunentaries  show  that  this  ^ce  was 
crime  sins  against  God,  whose  command  he  contra-  regarded  as  sacramental.  Thus,  the  Nestonan  patri- 
venes  and  whose  bond  of  grace  he  loosens.  Therefore,  arch,  Timotheus  II,  in  his  work  "De  septem  causis 
since  he  has  sinned  against  God,  he  now  loses  his  par-  sacramentorum"  mentioned  in  Assemani  (III,  i,  579). 
ticipation  in  the  heavenly  sacrament."  According  to  deals  with  marriage  among  the  other  sacraments,  ana 
Amorose,  therefore,  Christian  marriage  is  a  heavenly  enumerates  several  religious  ceremonies  without  which 
sacrament,  which  binds  one  with  God  oy  the  bonds  of  marriage  is  invalid.  Evidently,  therefore,  he  includes 
grace  until  these  bonds  are  sundered  by  subsequent  marriage  amone  the  sacraments,  and  considers  tllB 
sin — that  is,  it  is  a  sacrament  in  the  strict  and  com-  grace  resulting  from  it  a  sacramental  grace, 
plete  sense  of  the  word.  The  value  of  this  testimony  The  doctrine  that  marriage  is  a  sacrament  of  the 
might  be  weakened  only  by  supposing  that  Ambrose,  Ne^  Law  has  never  been  a  matter  of  dispute  between 
in  referring  to  the  "  participation  in  the  heavenly  sac-  the  Roman  Catholic  and  any  of  the  Oriental  Churches 
rament"  which  he  declares  forfeited  by  adulterers,  separated  from  it — a  convincing  proof  that  this  doc- 
was  really  thinking  of  Holy  Communion.  But  of  the  tnne  has  always  been  part  of  ecclesiastical  tradition 
latter  there  is  in  the  present  instance  not  the  sli^test  and  is  derived  from  the  Apostles.  The  correspondence 
question;  consequently,  he  must  here  mean  the  loss  (1576-81)  between  the  TObingen  professors,  defenders 
of  all  share  in  the  grace  of  the  Sacrament  of  Marriage,  of  Protestantism,  and  the  Greek  patriarch,  Jeremias, 
Hiis  production  of  grace  through  marriage,  and  there-  is  well  known.  It  terminated  in  the  latter's  indig- 
fore  its  character  as  a  perfect  sacrament,  was  empha-  nantly  scouting  the  suggestion  that  he  could  be  won 
sized  also  ^  Innocent  I  in  his  letter  to  IVobus  (Ep.  ix,  over  to  the  doctrine  of  onlv  two  sacraments,  and  in  his 
in  P.  L.,  aX,  602).  He  declares  a  second  marriage  solemn  recognition  of  the  doctrine  of  seven  sacraments, 
during  the  lifetime  of  the  first  partner  invalid,  and  including  marriage,  as  the  constant  teaching  of  the 
adds:  "Supported  by  the  Catholic  Faith,  we  declare  Oriental  diuroh.  More  than  half  a  century  later  the 
that  the  true  marriage  is  that  which  is  originally  Patriarch  Cyril  Lucar,  who  had  adopted  the  Calvin- 
founded  on  Divine  grace."  istic  doctrine  of  only  two  sacraments,  was  for  that 
As  early  as  the  second  century  we  have  the  valuable  reason  publicly  declared  a  heretic  bv  the  Synods  of 
testimony  of  Tertullian.  While  still  a  Catholic,  he  Constantinople  in  1638  and  1642  and  that  of  Jerusa- 
writes  ("  Ad  Uxorem"^  II,  vii,  in  P.  L.,  1, 1299) :  "  If  lem  in  1672 — eo  firmly  has  the  doctrine  of  seven  sacra« 
therefore  such  a  mamage  is  pleasing  to  God,  where*  mente  and  of  marriage  as  a  sacrament  been  mala- 


MAR&IAGE 


710 


ICABaiAOE 


tained  by  the  Greek  and  by  Oriental  theologianfl  in 
general. 

Doubts  as  to  the  thoroughly  sacramental  character 
of  marriage  arose  in  a  very  few  isolated  cases,  when 
the  attempt  was  made  to  formulate,  according  to 
speculative  science,  the  definition  of  the  sacraments 
and  to  determine  exactly  their  effects.  Only  one 
prominent  theologian  can  be  named  who  denied  that 
marriage  confers  sanctifying  grace,  and  consequently 
that  it  is  a  sacrament  of  the  New  Law  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word — Durandus  of  St.  Pourgain,  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Meaux.  Even  he  admitted  that  mar- 
riage in  some  way  produces  grace,  and  therefore  that 
it  3iould  be  called  a  sacrament;  but  it  was  only  the 
actual  help  of  grace  in  subduing  passion,  which  he 
deduced  from  marriage  as  an  effect,  not  ex  opere 
operatOf  but  ex  opere  operanlis  (cf.  Pcrrone, "  De  matri- 
monio  christiano",  I,  i,  1,  2).  As  authorities  he 
could  cite  only  a  few  jurists.  Theologians  with  the 
greatest  unanimity  rejected  this  doctrme  as  new  and 
opposed  to  the  teachmg  of  the  Church,  so  that  the 
celebrated  theologian  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  Domi- 
nlcus  Soto,  said  of  Durandus,  that  it  was  only  with 
diflficulty  he  had  escaped  the  danger  of  being  branded 
as  a  heretic.  Many  of  the  leading  scholastics  spoke 
indeed  of  marriage  as  a  remedy  against  sensuality — 
e.  g.  Peter  IvombSrd  (whose  fourth  book  of  sentences 
was  commentated  by  Durandus),  and  his  most  distin- 
guished coinmentators  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  St.  Bona- 
venture,  Petrus  de  Palude.  But  the  conferring  of 
sanctifying  grace  ex  opere  operato  is  not  thereby  ex- 
cluded; on  the  contrary,  it  must  be  regarded  as  the 
foundation  of  that  actual  grace,  and  as  the  root  from 
which  springs  the  right  to  receive  the  Divine  assistance 
as  occasion  requires.  That  this  is  the  teaching  of  those 
ffreat  theologians  is  evident  partly  from  their  explicit 
declarations  concerning  the  sacrament  of  marriage, 
and  partly  from  what  they  defined  as  the  essential 
element  of  the  Sacraments  of  the  New  Law  in  general. 
It  is  sufficient  here  to  give  the  references:  St.  Thomas, 
*'InIVSent.",dist.Il,i,4;  II,ii,  1;  XXVI,  ii,  3;  St. 
Bona  venture,  "  In  IV  Sent.",  dist.  II,  iii;  XXVI,  ii. 

The  real  reason  why  some  jurists  hesitated  to  call 
marriage  a  grace-giving  sacrament  was  a  religious  one. 
It  was  certain  that  a  sacrament  and  its  grace  could  not 
be  purchased.  Yet  such  a  transaction  took  place  in 
marriage,  as  a  dowry  was  ordinarily  paid  to  tne  man. 
But  this  objection  is  baseless.  For,  although  Christ 
has  raised  marriage  or  the  marriage  contract  to  the 
dignity  of  a  sacrament  (as  will  be  shown  below),  yet 
marriage,  even  among  Christians,  has  not  thereby  lost 
its  natural  significance.  The  dowry,  the  use  of  which 
devolves  on  the  man,  is  given  as  a  contribution  to- 
wards bearing  the  natural  burdens  of  marriage,  i.  e., 
the  support  of  the  family,  and  the  education  of  the 
offspring,  not  as  the  price  of  the  ^crament. 

For  a  better  understanding  of  the  sacramental 
character  of  Christian  as  opposed  to  non-Chrii+'an 
marriage,  we  may  briefly  state  the  relations  of  tne  one 
to  the  other,  especially  as  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
every  marriage  from  the  beginning  has  had,  and  has, 
the  character  of  something  holy  and  religious,  and 
may  therefore  be  designated  as  a  sacrament  in  the 
broader  sense  of  the  word.  In  this  connexion  we  can- 
not pass  over  the  instructive  encyclical  of  IjCO  XIII 
mentioned  above.  He  says :  *  *  Marriage  has  God  for  its 
Author,  and  was  from  the  verj'  beginning  a  kind  of 
foreshadowing  of  the  Incarnation  of  the  Divine  Word; 
consequently,  there  abides  in  it  a  something  holy  and 
religious;  not  extraneous  but  innate;  not  derived 
from  man,  but  implanted  by  nature.  It  was  not, 
therefore,  without  good  reason  that  our  predecessors, 
Innocent  III  and  Honorius  III,  affirmed  that  a  *  certain 
sacrament  of  marriage'  existed  ever  among  the  be- 
lievers and  unbelievers.  We  call  to  witness  the  monu- 
ments of  antiquitj',  as  also  the  manners  and  customs 
of  those  jKJoples  who,  being  the  most  ci\ilized,  had  a 


finer  fenM  of  eouity  and  right.  In  the  minds  of  all  of 
them  it  was 'a  aeeply  rooted  conviction  that  marriage 
was  to  be  regaraed  as  something  sacred.  Hence, 
among  these,  marriages  were  commonly  celebrated 
with  religious  ceremonies,  imder  the  authority  of 
pontiffs,  and  with  the  ministry  of  priests — so  great, 
even  in  the  souls  ignorant  of  heavenly  doctrine,  was 
the  impression  produced  by  the  nature  of  marriage, 
by  reflection  on  the  history  of  mankind,  and  by  the 
consciousness  of  the  human  race.'' 

The  term  "sacrament",  applied  by  the  pope  to  all 
marriages,  even  those  of  infidels,  is  to  be  taken  in  its 
widest  sense,  and  signifies  nothing  but  a  certain  holi- 
ness inherent  in  marriage.  Even  among  the  Israelites 
marriage  never  had  the  importance  of  an  Old  Testa- 
ment sacrament  in  the  strict  sense,  since  even  such  a 
sacrament  produced  a  certain  holiness  (not  indeed 
the  interior  holiness  which  is  effected  by  the  New 
Testament  sacraments,  but  only  an  external  legal 
purity),  and  even  this  was  not  connected  with  the 
marriage  contract  among  the  Jews.  The  sanctity  of 
marriage  in  general  is  of  another  kind.  The  original 
marriage,  and  consequently  marriage  as  it  was  con- 
ceived in  the  original  plan  of  God  before  sin,  was  to  be 
the  means  not  merely  of  the  natural  propagation  of 
the  human  race,  but  also  the  means  by  which  personal 
supernatural  sanctity  should  be  transmitted  to  the 
individual  descendants  of  our  first  parents.  It  was, 
therefore,  a  great  mystery,  intended  not  for  the  per- 
sonal sanctification  of  those  united  by  the  mamage 
tie,  but  for  the  sanctification  of  others,  i.  e.  of  their 
offspring.  But  this  Divinely  ordered  sanctity  of  mar- 
riage was  destroyed  by  original  sin.  The  effectual 
sanctification  of  the  human  race,  or  rather  of  indi- 
vidual men,  had  now  to  be  accomplished  in  the  way  of 
redemption  through  the  Promised  Redeemer,  the  Son 
of  God  made  Man.  In  place  of  its  former  sanctitv, 
marriage  retained  only  the  significance  of  a  type  feebly 
representing  the  sanctity  that  was  thenceforth  to  be 
acquired;  it  foreshadowed  the  Incarnation  of  the  Son 
of  God,  and  the  close  union  which  God  was  thereby 
to  form  with  the  human  race.  It  was  reserved  for 
Christian  marriage  to  symbolize  this  higher  super- 
natural union  with  mankind,  that  is,  with  those  who 
unite  themselves  to  Christ  in  faith  and  love,  and  to  be 
an  efficacious  sign  of  this  union. 

III.  Minister  op  the  Sacrament;  Matter  and 
Form. — ^Although  the  Church  realised  from  the  first 
the  complete  sacramentality  of  Christian  marriage, 
yet  for  a  time  there  was  some  uncertainty  as  to  what 
m  the  marriage  contract  is  the  real  essence  of  the  sac- 
rament; as  to  its  matter  and  form,  and  it«  minister. 
From  the  earliest  times  this  fundamental  proposition 
has  been  upheld:  Mairimoniumfacit  conscnsits,  i.  e. 
Marriage  is  contracted  through  the  mutual,  expressed 
consent.  Therein  is  contained  implicitly  the  doctrine 
that  the  persons  contracting  marriage  are  themselves 
the  agents  or  ministers  of  the  sacrament.  However, 
it  has  been  likewise  emphasized  that  marriage  must 
be  contracted  with  the  blessing  of  the  priest  and  the 
approbation  of  the  Church,  for  otherwise  it  would  be 
a  source  not  of  Divine  grace,  but  of  malediction. 
Hence  it  might  easily  be  inferred  that  the  sacerdotal 
blessing  is  the  grace-giving  element,  or  form  of  the 
sacrament,  and  that  the  JT^'icst  is  the  minister.  But 
this  is  a  false  conclusion .  Tlie  first  theologian  to  desig- 
nate clearly  and  distinctly  the  priest  as  the  minister  of 
the  Sacrament  and  his  blessing  as  tlie  sacramental 
form  was  apparently  Melchior  Canus  (d.  15C0).  In  his 
well-known  work,  "De  locis  theologicis",  VIII,  v,  he 
sets  forth  the  following  propositions:  (1)  It  is,  indeed, 
a  common  opinion  of  tlie  schools,  but  not  their  certain 
and  settled  doctrine,  that  a  marriage  contracted  with- 
out a  priest  is  a  true  and  real  sacrament;  (2)  the  con- 
troversies on  this  point  do  not  affect  matters  of  faith 
and  religion;  (3)  it  would  be  erroneous  to  state  that 
all  theologians  of  the  Catholic  school  defended  that 


MA&UAOl 


711 


MARRIAGl 


opinion.  In  the  ooiirae  of  the  same  chapter  CanuB 
defends,  as  a  vital  matter,  the  opinion  that  without 
the  priest  and  his  blessing  a  valid  marriage  may  take 

Elace,  but  a  sacramental  form  and  valid  sacrament  are 
kcking.  For  this  opinion  he  appeals  to  Petrus  de 
Palude  (In  IV  Sent.,  dist.  V,  ii)  and  also  to  St.  Thomas 
(•*In  IV  Sent.",  dist.  I,  i,  3 :**Summa  contra  gentiles'*, 
IV,  Ixxviii),  as  well  as  to  a  number  of  Fathers  and 
popes  of  the  earliq^t  centuries,  who  compared  a  mar- 
riage contracted  without  sacerdotal  blessing  to  an 
adulterous  marriage,  and  therefore  could  not  have 
recognized  a  sacrament  therein. 

The  appeal,  however,  to  the  above  authorities  is 
unfortunate.  St.  Thomas  Aouinas,  in  the  hrst  article 
cited  hy  Canus,  entitled  *'Utrum  consistant  sacra- 
menta  m  verbis  et  rebus",  raises  the  following  diffi- 
culty: **  Penance  and  marriage  belong  to  the  sacra- 
ments: but  for  their  vahdity,  words  are  unnecessary; 
therefore  it  is  not  true  that  words  belong  to  all  the 
sacraments. "  This  diflSculty  he  answers  at  the  end  of 
the  article :  "  Marriage  taken  as  a  natural  function  and 
penance  as  an  act  of  virtue  have  no  form  of  words:  but 
in  so  far  as  both  belong  to  the  sacraments,  which  are  to 
be  conferred  by  the  ministers  of  the  Church,  words  are 
employed  in  both;  in  marriage  the  words  which  ex- 
press mutual  consent,  and  also  the  blessings  which 
were  instituted  by  the  Church,  and  in  penance  the 
words  of  absolution  spoken  by  the  priest.  Although 
St.  Thomas  mentions  the  words  of  blessing  along  with 
the  words  of  mutual  consent,  he  expressly  calls  them 
an  institution  of  the  Church,  and  hence  they  do  not 
constitute  the  essence  of  the  sacrament  instituted  by 
Christ.  Again,  though  he  seems  to  understand  that 
marriage,  also,  must  be  administered  by  the  ministers 
of  the  Church,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  contracting 
parties  in  Christian  marriage  must  be  guided  by  eccle- 
siastical regulations,  and  cannot  act  otherwise  than  as 
ministers  sulyect  to  the  Church  or  dispensers  of  the 
sacrament.  If,  however,  St.  Thomas  in  this  passage 
attributes  to  the  sacerdotal  blessing  too  great  an  influ- 
ence on  the  essence  of  the  sacrament  of  marriage,  he 
manifestly  corrects  himself  in  his  later  work, "  Summa 
contra  gentiles",  in  which  he  undoubtedly  places  the 
whole  essence  of  the  sacrament  in  the  mutual  con- 
sent of  the  contracting  parties:  ''  Marriage,  therefore, 
inasmuch  as  it  consists  in  the  union  of  man  and 
woman,  who  propose  to  beget  and  rear  children  for  the 
glory  ot  God ^  is  a  sacrament  of  the  Church;  therefore 
the  contractmg  parties  are  blessed  by  the  ministers  of 
the  Church.  And  as  in  the  other  sacraments  some- 
thing spiritual  is  signified  by  an  external  ceremony,  so 
here  in  this  sacrament  the  union  of  Christ  and  the 
Church  is  typified  by  the  union  of  man  and  woman 
according  to  the  Apostle:  *This  is  a  great  sacrament, 
but  I  speak  in  Christ  and  in  the  Church.'  And  as  the 
sacraments  effect  what  they  signify,  it  is  clear  that  the 
persons  contracting  marriage  receive  through  this 
sacrament  the  grace  by  which  they  participate  in  the 
union  of  Christ  and  the  Church."  Hence  the  whole 
essence  and  grace-producing  power  of  marriage  con- 
sists, according  to  St.  Thomas,  in  the  union  of  man 
and  woman  (in  presence  of  the  priest),  not  in  the 
additional  blessing  of  the  priest  prescribed  by  the 
Church. 

The  same  seems  to  be  true  of  the  passage  from 
Petrus  de  Palude  cited  by  Canus.  As  his  work, 
**Commentarium  in  IV  Librum  Sententiarum  "  is  not 
so  readily  accessible,  we  may  state  precisely  the  edi- 
tion used  here:  It  bears  as  a  final  note  the  comment: 
Explicit  scriptum  in  quartuin  sententiarum  Clarissimi 
et  Acutissimi  doctoris  Petri  de  Palude  patriarchse 
Hierosolyinitani,  ordinis  fratrum  prsedicatorum  per- 
quam  diligcntissime  Impressum  Venetiis  per  Bonct- 
tum  Locatellum  Bergomensem  mandato  Nobilis  viri 
Octaviani  Scoti  Civis  Modcetiensis  Anno  a  natali  partu 
Intemerate  Virginis  nonagcsimotertio  cum  Quadrin- 
gentesimo  suprii  mille.siinum  Xll  Kalendas  Octobris, " 


Here  it  says  expressly  in  dist.  V.,  Q.  xi  (fol.  124,  ooL 
1) :  "  It  seems  tnat  one  who  contracts  marriage  in  the 
state  of  sin  does  not  sin  although  the  essence  of  mar- 
riage consists  in  the  mutual  consent,  which  the  parties 
mutually  express;  thb  consent  confers  the  sacrament 
and  not  the  priest  by  his  blessing;  he  only  confers 
a  sacramental."  Further  on,  in  dist.  XXVI,  Q.  iv 
(fol.  141^  col.  4),  he  says:  "Marriage  is  such  that  its 
efficacy  is  not  based  on  the  minister  of  the  Church 
(the  priest).  Its  essence,  therefore,  can  exist  with- 
out the  priest,  not  because  it  is  a  necessary  sacrament 
— ^though  it  is  indeed  necessary  for  human  society,  just 
as  baptism  is  necessary  for  the  individual — but  be- 
cause its  efficacy  does  not  come  from  the  minister  of 
the  Church.  Perhaps,  however,  it  is  not  lawful  to  con- 
tract marriage  except  in  the  presence  of  the  Church 
and  before  the  priest,  if  this  is  possible."  These  pas- 
sages are  clear.  It  is  hard  to  see  why  Mclcliior  Canus 
tried  to  support  his  opinion  by  the  opening  words  of 
the  first  quotation.  He  supposes  that  from  the  words 
'Mt  seems  that  one  who  contract-s  marriage  in  the  state 
of  sin  does  not  sin  "  the  conclusion  is  to  be  drawn  that 
de  Palude  means  in  this  case  a  marriage  which  is  not  a 
sacrament;  for  to  administer  or  receive  a  sacrament 
in  a  state  of  sin  is  a  grave  sin,  a  sacrilege.  But  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  de  Palude  in  unmis- 
takable terms  declares  the  mutual  consent  to  be  the 
conferring  of  the  sacrament.  The  words,  **  it  seems  ", 
merely  introduce  a  difficulty:  whether  this  expresses 
his  own  view,  he  does  not  make  clear,  in  so  far  as  the 
contracting  of  marriage  means  the  reception  of  a  sac- 
rament; in  so  far  as  it  is  the  administration  of  a 
sacrament,  he  regards  it  as  probable  that  the  adminis- 
tering of  a  sacrament  in  sin  is  an  additional  sin  only  in 
the  case  of  ministers  ordained  for  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments,  but  the  contracting  parties  in  mar- 
riage are  not  such  ministers. 

The  opinion  of  Canus  finds  but  little  support  in  the 
expressions  of  the  Fathers  or  in  papal  letters,  which 
state  that  marriage  without  the  priest  is  declared  un- 
holy, wicked,  or  sacrilegious,  tnat  it  does  not  bring 
the  grace  of  God  but  provokes  His  HTath.  This  is  noth- 
ing more  than  what  the  Council  of  Trent  says  in  the 
chapter  "Tametsi"  (XXIV,  i,  de  ref.  Matr.),  namely, 
that  "the  Holy  Church  of  God  has  always  detested 
and  forbidden  clandestine  marriages".  Such  state- 
ments do  not  deny  the  sacramental  character  of  mar- 
riage so  contracted;  but  they  do  condemn  as  sacrile- 
gious that  reception  of  the  sacrament  which  indeed 
lays  open  the  source  of  grace,  yet  places  an  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  the  sacrament's  emcacy. 

For  a  long  time,  nevertheless,  the  opinion  of  Canus 
had  its  defenders  among  the  post-Tndentine  tlieolo- 
gians.  Even  Prosper  Lambert ini,  as  Benedict  XIV, 
did  not  set  aside  his  pronouncement,  given  in  his  work 
"De  synodo  dioecesana",  VIII,  xiii,  that  Canus's  view 
was  "valde  probabilis",  although  in  his  capacity  as 

Eope  he  taught  the  opposite  clearly  and  distinctly  in 
is  letter  to  the  ArchTbishop  of  Goa.  To-day  it  must 
be  rejected  by  all  Catholic  theologians  and  branded  at 
least  as  false.  The  inferences  not  contemplated  by  the 
originators  of  this  opinion,  but  deduced  later  and  used 
in  practice  against  the  rights  of  the  Church,  con- 
stnuned  succeeding  popes  repeatedly  to  condemn  it 
f ormallv.  Subservient  Cathohcs  and  court  theologians 
especially  found  it  useful  as  warranting  the  secular 
power  in  making  laws  concerning  validity  and  inval- 
idity, diriment  impediments,  and  the  like.  For,  if  the 
sacrament  consisted  in  the  priestly  blessing  and  the 
contract,  as  was  never  doubted,  in  the  mutual  consent 
of  the  parties,  evidently  then  contract  and  sacrament 
must  be  separated;  the  former  had  to  precede  as  a 
foundation;  upon  it,  as  matter,  was  founded  the  sac- 
rament, which  took  place  through  the  blessing  of  the 
priest.  But  contracts,  which  affect  social  and  civil 
life,  are  subject  to  state  authority,  so  that  this  can 
make  suph  regulations  and  restrictions  oven  as  to  their 


MARBIAQl 


712 


BKABBIAQI 


validity,  as  it  deems  necessary  for  the  public  weal. 
This  practical  conclusion  was  drawn  especially  by 
llarcus  Actonius  de  Dominis,  Bishop  of  Spoleto,  after- 
wards an  apostate,  in  his  work  ''  De  republica  ecclesi- 
astica"  (V,  xi,  22),  and  by  Launoy  in  his  work  "  Regia 
in  matrimonio  potestas  '*  (I,  ix  sqq.) .  In  the  middle  of 
the  last  centuiy  Nepomuk  Nuytz,  professor  at  the 
University  of  Turin,  defended  this  opinion  with  re- 
newed vigour  in  order  to  supply  a  juridical  basis  for 
civil  legis&tion  regarding  marriage .  Nu^tz 's  work  was 
thereupon  expressly  condemned  by  Pius  IX  in  the 
Apostolical  Letter  of  22  Aug.,  1851,  in  which  the  pope 
declared  as  false  especially  the  following  propositions: 
Tlie  sacrament  of  marriage  is  only  something  which  is 
added  to  the  contract  of  marriage  and  which  can  be 
separated  from  it;  the  sacrament  consists  only  in  the 
blessing  of  the  marriage.  These  propositions  are  in- 
cluded in  the  "Syllabus"  of  8  December,  1864,  and 
must  be  rejected  by  all  Catholics.  In  like  manner  Leo 
XIII  expresses  himself  in  the  Encyclical  "Arcanum" 
c^uoted  above.  He  says:  "  It  is  certain  that  in  Chris- 
tian marriage  the  contract  is  inseparable  from  the 
sacrament;  and  that,  for  this  reason,  the  contract 
cannot  be  true  and  legitimate  without  being  a  sacra- 
ment as  well.  For  Christ  our  Lord  added  to  marriage 
the  dignity  of  a  sacrament;  but  marriage  is  the  con- 
tract itself,  whenever  that  contract  is  lawfully  made. 
.  .  .  Hence  it  is  clear  that  among  Christians  every 
true  marriage  is,  in  itself  and  by  itself,  a  sacrament; 
and  that  nothing  can  be  farther  from  the  truth  than 
to  say  that  the  sacrament  is  a  certain  added  ornament, 
or  external  adjunct,  which  can  be  separated  and  torn 
away  from  the  contract  at  the  caprice  of  man." 

As  it  is  certain,  therefore,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  Church  that  marriage  as  a  sacrament  is  fulfilled 
only  through  the  mutual  consent  of  the  contracting 
parties,  it  is  a  matter  of  secondary  consideration,  how 
and  in  what  sense  the  matter  and  form  of  this  sacra- 
ment are  to  be  taken.  The  view  that  most  correctly 
explains  this  is  perhaps  the  one  that  is  generally  prev- 
alent to-day;  in  every  contract  two  elements  are  to  be 
distinguished,  the  oftering  of  a  right  and  the  accept- 
ance of  it;  the  former  is  the  foundation,  the  latter  is 
the  juridical  completion.  The  same  holds  true  of  the 
sacramental  contract  of  marriage;  in  so  far,  therefore, 
as  an  offering  of  the  marriage  right  is  contained  in  the 
mutual  declaration  of  consent,  we  have  the  matter  of 
the  sacraments,  and,  in  so  far  as  a  mutual  acceptance  is 
contained  therein,  we  have  the  form. 

To  complete  our  inquiry  concerning  the  essence  of 
the  Sacrament  of  Marriage,  its  matter  and  form,  and 
its  minister,  we  have  still  to  mention  a  theory  that  was 
defended  by  a  few  jurists  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  has 
been  revived  by  Dr.  Jos.  Freisen  ("Geschichte  des 
canonischen  Eherechts".  Tubingen,  1888).  Accord- 
ing to  this  marriage  in  tne  strict  sense,  and  therefore 
marriage  as  a  sacrament,  is  not  accomplished  until 
consummation  of  the  marriage  is  added  to  the  consent. 
It  is  the  consummation,  therefore,  that  constitutes  the 
matter  or  the  form.  But  as  Freisen  retracted  this 
opinion  which  could  not  be  harmonized  with  the 
Cnurch's  definitions,  it  is  no  longer  of  actual  interest. 
This  view  was  derived  from  the  fact  that  marria^, 
according  to  Christ's  command,  is  absolutely  indis- 
soluble. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  undeniably  the  teach- 
ing and  practice  of  the  Church  that,  in  spite  of  mutual 
consent,  marriage  can  be  dissolved  by  religious  profes- 
sion or  by  the  declaration  of  the  pope;  hence  the  con- 
clusion seemed  to  be  that  there  was  no  real  marriage 
previous  to  the  consummation,  since  admittedly  nei- 
ther religious  profession  nor  papal  declaration  can 
afterwards  effect  a  dissolution.  The  error  lies  in  tak- 
ing indissolubility  in  a  sense  that  the  Church  has  never 
held.  In  one  case,  it  is  true,  according  to  earlier  eccle- 
siastical law,  the  previous  relation  of  mere  espousal 
between  man  and  woman  became  a  lawful  marriage 
(knd  thcTX'foro  tJie  Sacrament  of  Marriage),  namely 


when  a  valid  betrothal  was  followed  by  CMnsuinnia- 
tion.  It  was  a  legal  presumption  that  in  tJbis  case  the 
betrothed  parties  wished  to  lessen  the  sinf  ulneas  of 
their  action  as  much  as  possible,  and  therefore  per- 
formed it  with  the  intention  of  marriage  and  not  of 
fornication.  The  efficient  cause  of  the  marriage  con- 
tract, as  well  as  of  the  sacrament,  was  even  in  this  case 
the  mutual  intention  of  marriage,  although  expression 
was  not  given  to  it  in  the  regular  wav.  This  legal  pre- 
sumption ceased  on  5  Feb.,  1892,  by  Decree  of  Leo 
XIIl,  as  it  had  grown  obsolete  among  the  faithful  and 
was  no  longer  adapted  to  actual  conditions. 

IV.  Difference  Between  the  Sacbament  of 
Mabriaoe  and  the  other  Sacraments. — 'Fnxa  all 
that  has  been  said,  it  is  clear  that  while  marriage, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  an  outward  sign  of  grace  and  also 
produces  interior  grace^  has  the  nature  comm(Hi  to  all 
the  sacraments,  stiljL  viewed  as  an  external  sign,  it  is 
unique  and  very  different  from  the  other  sacraments. 
The  external  sign  is  a  contract;  hence  marriage,  even 
as  an  effective  sign  or  sacrament,  has  precisely  the 
nature  and  quality  of  a  contract,  its  vahdity  depend- 
ing on  the  rules  for  the  validity  of  contracts.    And,  as 
we  can  distinguish  between  a  contract  in  its  origin  and 
a  contract  in  its  continuance,  so  we  can  distinguish 
between  the  sacrament  of  marriage  in  fieri  and  in  facto 
esse.    The  sacrament  in  fieri  is  the  above-mentioned 
mutual  declaration  of  consent;  the  sacrament  in /octo 
esse  is  the  Divine  bond  which  unites  the  married  per- 
sons for  life.    In  most  of  the  other  sacraments  also 
there  is  this  distinction  between  sacrament  infi/eri  and 
in  facto  esse;  but  the  continuance  of  the  other  sacra- 
ments is  based  mostly  on  the  inamissible  character 
which  thev  impress  upon  the  soul  of  the  recipient. 
Not  so  with  marriage ;  m  the  soul  of  the  recipient  there 
is  a  question  of  no  new  physioGd  being  or  mode  of  be- 
ing, but  of  a  legal  relationship  which  can  as  a  rule  be 
broken  only  by  death,  although  in  individual  cases  it 
may  otherwise  be  rendered  void,  provided  the  mar- 
riage has  not  been  consummated.    In  this  respect, 
therefore,  marriage,  especiallj^  as  a  sacrament,  differs 
from  other  contracts,  smce  it  is  not  subject  to  the  free 
will  of  the  individuals.    Of  course,  the  choice  of  a 
partner  and  especially  the  contracting  or  non-con- 
tracting of  marriage  are  subject  to  the  free  will  of  the 
individuals;  but  any  revocation  or  essential  altering 
of  the  terms  is  beyond  the  power  of  the  contracting 

girties;  the  essence  of  the  contractual  sacrament  is 
ivinely  regulated. 

Of  still  greater  importance  is  the  contract  aspect  of 
the  sacrament  in  fieri.  In  the  other  sacraments^  the 
conditional  administration  is  admissible  only  within 
narrow  limits.  There  can  only  be  questions  of  condi- 
tions of  the  present  or  past^  which,  according  as  thev 
are  verified  or  not  verined  m  fact,  there  and  then  ad- 
mit or  prevent  the  vahd  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ment. But  generally  even  these  conditions  have  no 
influence  on  the  validity;  they  are  made  for  the  sake 
of  greater  reverence,  so  as  to  avoid  even  the  appear- 
ance of  regarding  the  sacramental  procedure  as  useless. 
The  Sacrament  of  Marriage,  on  tne  contrary,  follows 
the  nature  of  a  contract  in  all  these  matters.  It  ad- 
mits conditions  not  only  of  the  past  and  present,  but 
also  future  conditions  which  delay  the  production  of 
the  sacrament  until  the  conditions  are  fulfilled.  At 
the  moment  these  are  fulfilled  the  sacrament  and  its 
conferring  of  grace  take  place  in  virtue  of  the  mutual 
consent  previously  expressed  and  still  continuing. 
Onlv  diriment  conditions  are  opposed  to  the  essence 
of  the  Sacrament  of  Marriage,  beokuse  it  consists  in  an 
indissoluble  contract.  Any  such  conditions,  as  well  aa 
all  others  that  are  opposed  to  the  intrinsic  nature  of 
marriage,  have  as  a  result  the  invalidity  of  both  the 
contract  and  the  sacrament. 

A  further  quality  of  the  Sacrament  of  Marriage,  not 
possessed  by  the  other  sacraments,  is  that  it  can  be 
effected  without  the  personal  presence  of  the  mutual 


IIA&&UOX 


713 


MAR&IAaS 


ministers  and  recipiente.  A  consensual  agreement  can 
be  made  in  writing  as  well  as  orally,  and  by  proxy  as 
well  as  in  person.  Henoe  these  methods  are  not  op- 
posed to  tne  validity  of  the  sacrament.  Of  course, 
according  to  ecclesiastical  law,  the  form  prescribed  for 
validity  is,  as  a  rule,  the  personal,  mutual  declaration 
of  consent  before  witnesses;  but  that  is  a  requirement 
added  to  the  nature  of  marriage  and  to  Divine  law, 
which  the  Church  can  therefore  set  aside  and  from 
which  she  can  dispense  in  individual  cases.  Even  the 
contracting  of  marriage  through  authorized  represen- 
tatives is  not  absolutely  excluded.  In  such  a  case, 
however,  this  representative  could  not  be  called  the 
minister,  much  less  the  recipient  of  the  sacrament,  but 
merely  the  agent  or  intermediarv.  The  declaration  of 
consent  made  b^r  him  is  valid  only  in  so  far  as  it  repre- 
sents and  contains  the  consent  of  his  principal;  it  is 
the  latter  which  effects  the  contract  and  sacrament, 
hence  the  principal  is  the  minister  of  the  sacrament. 
It  is  the  prmcipal,  and  not  the  agent,  who  receives  the 
consent  of  and  marries  the  other  party,  and  who  there- 
fore also  receives  the  sacrament.  It  does  not  matter 
whether  the  principal,  at  the  exact  moment  when  the 
consent  is  expressed  by  his  agent,  has  the  use  of  reason, 
or  consciousness,  or  is  deprived  of  it  (e.  g.  by  sleep) ;  as 
soon  as  the  mutual  consent  is  given,  the  sacrament 
comes  into  being  with  the  contract,  and  the  conferring 
of  grace  takes  place  at  the  same  time,  provided  no 
obstacle  is  placed  in  the  way  of  this  effect.  The  actual 
use  of  reason  is  no  more  required  for  it  than  in  the 
baptism  of  an  infant  or  in  extreme  unction  adminis- 
tered to  an  unconscious  person.  It  may  even  happen 
in  the  case  of  marriage  that  the  consent,  which  was 
given  many  years  ago,  only  now  takes  effect.  This 
occurs  in  the  case  of  the  so-called  sanatio  in  radice. 
Through  this  an  ecclesiastical  impediment,  hitherto 
invalidating  the  marriage,  is  removed  by  ecclesiastical 
authority,  and  the  mutual  consent  previously  given 
without  knowledge  of  the  impediment  is  accepted  as 
legitimate,  provided  it  is  certain  that  this  consent  has 
habitually  continued  according  to  its  original  intent. 
At  the  moment  of  the  ecclesiastical  dispensation  th6 
original  consent  becomes  the  effective  cause  of  the 
sacrament  and  the  hitherto  presumptive,  but  now  real, 
spouses  receive  the  sacramental  effect  in  the  increase 
of  sanctifying  grace,  provided  they  place  no  obstacle 
in  the  way. 

V.  The  Extent  of  Sacramental  Mahriage. — As 
we  have  several  times  emphasized,  not  even  marriage 
is  a  true  sacrament,  but  only  marriages  between  Chris- 
tians. One  becomes  and  remains  a  Christian  in  the 
sense  recoenized  here  throueh  valid  baptism.  Hence 
only  one  who  has  been  validly  baptized  can  contract  a 
marriage  which  is  a  sacrament;  but  every  one  can 
contract  it  who  has  been  validly  baptized,  whether  he 
has  remained  true  to  the  Christian  faith,  or  become  a 
heretic,  or  even  an  infidel.  Such  has  always  been  the 
teaching  and  practice  of  the  Chureh.  Through  bap- 
tism one  "becomes  a  member  of  Christ  and  is  incor- 
porated in  the  body  of  the  Church  ",  as  declared  in  the 
Florentine  Decree  for  the  Annenians;  so  far  as  law 
is  concerned,  he  remains  irrevocably  subject  to  the 
Church,  and  is  therefore,  in  legal  questions,  always  to 
be  considered  a  Christian.  Hence  it  is  a  general  prin- 
ciple that  all  baptized  persons  are  subject  to  universal 
ecclesiastical  laws,  especially  marriage  laws,  unless  the 
Church  makes  an  exception  for  individual  cases  or 
classes.  Hence  not  only  the  marriage  between  Cath- 
olics, but  also  that  contracted  bv  members  of  the  dif- 
ferent sects  which  have  retained  baptism  and  validly 
baptize,  is  imdoubtedly  a  sacrament.  It  matters  not 
whether  the  non-Catholic  considers  marriage  a  sacra- 
ment or  not,  or  whether  he  intends  to  effect  a  sacra- 
ment or  not.  Provided  only  he  intends  to  contract  a 
true  marriage,  and  expresses  the  requisite  consent, 
this  intention  and  this  expression  are  sufficient  te  con- 
■tttute  a  sacrament.    But  if  he  is  absolutely  deter- 


mined not  to  effect  a  sacrament,  then,  of  course,  the 
production  of  a  sacrament  would  be  excluded,  but  the 
marriage  contract  also  would  be  null  and  void.  By 
Divine  ordinance  it  is  essential  to  Christian  marriage 
that  it  should  be  a  sacrament;  it  is  not  in  the  power  of 
the  contracting  parties  to  eliminate  anything  from  ite 
nature,  and  a  person  who  has  the  intention  of  doing 
this  invalidates  the  whole  ceremonv.  It  is  certain, 
therefore,  that  marriage  contracted  between  baptized 
persons  is  a  sacrament,  even  the  so-called  mixed  mar- 
riage between  a  Catholic  and  a  non-Catholic,  provided 
the  non-Catholic  has  been  validly  baptized.  Jt  is 
equally  certain  that  marriage  between  unbaptized  per* 
sons  is  not  a  sacrament  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word. 

There  is,  however,  great  uncertainty  as  to  how  those 
marriages  are  to  be  regarded  which  exist  legitimately 
and  validly  between 'a  baptized  and  an  imbaptized 
person.  Such  marriages  may  occur  in  two  ways.  In 
the  first  place,  a  marriage  may  have  been  contracted 
between  unbelievers,  one  of  whom  afterwards  becomes 
a  Christian,  while  the  other  remains  an  unbeliever. 
(Here  believer  and  unbeliever  are  taken  in  the  sense  of 
baptized  and  unbaptized.)  The  marriage  contracted 
validlv  while  both  were  unbelievers  continues  to  exist, 
and  though  under  certain  circumstances  it  is  dissolu- 
ble, it  is  not  rendered  void  simply  because  of  the  bap- 
tism of  one  of  the  parties,  for,  as  Innocent  III  says  (in 
ly,  xix,  8),  ''through  the  sacrament  of  baptism  mar- 
riage is  not  dissolved,  but  sins  are  forgiven '^  and  St. 
Paul  expressly  states  (I  CJor.,  vii,  12  sq.):  "If  any 
brother  hath  a  wife  that  belie veth  not,  ana  she  consent 
to  dwell  with  him,  let  him  not  put  her  away.  And  if 
any  woman  hath  a  husband  that  believeth  not,  and  he 
consent  to  dwell  with  her,  let  her  not  put  away  her 
husband."  There  is  question  here,  therefore,  of  a  mar- 
riage which  subsequently  has  developed  into  a  mar- 
riage between  baptized  and  imbaptized.  Secondly, 
there  may  be  question  of  a  marriage,  which  from  the 
beginning  was  a  mixed  marriage,  i.  e.  which  was  con- 
tracted between  a  believer  and  an  unbeliever.  By 
ecclesiastical  law,  such  a  marriage  cannot  take  place 
without  a  dispensation  from  the  Church,  which  has 
made  disparity  of  worship  between  baptized  and  un- 
baptized a  diriment  impediment.  In  regard  to  both 
kinds  of  mixed  marriage  it  may  be  asked  whether  they 
have  the  character  of  a  sacrament,  and  whether  they 
have  the  effect  of  imparting  grace  at  least  to  the  bap- 
tized party.  As  to  the  unbaptized  party,  there  can 
clearly  be  no  (question  of  sacrament  or  sacramental 
grace,  for  baptism  is  the  door  to  the  other  sacraments, 
none  of  which  can  be  validly  received  before  it. 

The  opinions  of  theologians  on  this  point  vary  con- 
siderably. Some  maintain  that  in  both  kinds  of  mixed 
marriages  the  baptized  party  receives  the  grace  of  the 
sacrament;  others  deny  this  in  the  case  of  a  marriage 
contract  contracted  by  unbelievers  which  subse- 
ouently  becomes  a  mixed  marriage,  and  affirm  it  in 
the  case  of  a  marriage  contracted  by  a  believer  with 
an  unbeliever  in  virtue  of  a  dispensation  from  the 
Church;  a  third  class  again  deny  that  there  is  a  sacra- 
ment or  sacramental  grace  in  either  case.  The  first 
view  was  held  as  probable  by  Palmieri  (De  matrimonio 
christiano,  cap.  h,  thes.  ii,  Append,  q.  3),  Rosset  (De 
Sacramento  matrimonii,  I,  350),  and  others;  the  sec- 
ond by  the  older  authors,  Soto,  Toumely,  Collet,  and, 
among  recent  authors,  especially  by  Perrone  (De  ma- 
trimonio christiano,  I,  306-311);  Sasse  and  Christian 
Pesch  declare  at  least  in  favour  of  the  sacramental 
character  of  a  marriage  contracted  with  ecclesiastical 
dispensation  between  a  baptized  and  an  unbapti»ed 
person,  but  express  no  opimon  on  the  other  case.  The 
third  opinion  is  upheld  by  Vasquez  and  Thomas 
Sanchez,  and  is  at  the  present  time  vigorously  de- 
fended by  Billot  (De  sacramentis:  II,  De  matrimonio, 
thesis  xxxviii,  sec.  3)  and  Wemz  (Jus  Decretalium, 
I  v.  v,  44). 

No  side  brings  convincing  proof.  Perhaps  the  weak- 


BKABRIAOE 


714 


BIAR&IAOC 


est  grounds  are  adduced  for  the  opinion  which,  in 
regard  to  marriage  contracted  by  unbelievers,  claims 
sacramentallty  and  the  sacramental  grace  after  bap- 
tism for  the  party  who,  subsequently  to  the  marriage, 
is  baptized.  These  grounds  are  mostly  negative;  for 
example,  there  is  no  reason  why  an  unbaptizcd  person 
should  not  administer  a  sacrament,  as  is  clcarlv  done 
in  the  case  in  baptism;  or  wHy  the  sacramental  efifect 
should  not  take  place  in  one  party  which  cannot  take 
place  in  the  other,  as  in  the  case  oi  a  marriage  between 
baptized  persons  where  one  party  is  in  the  state  of 
grace  ana  the  other  is  not,  so  that  the  sacrament  of 
marriage  confers  grace  on  the  former,  but  not  on  the 
latter.  Besides,  it  is  not  fitting  that  the  baptized  per- 
son should  be  altogether  deprived  of  grace.  As  ajgamst 
this  view,  there  seems  to  be  a  weighty  reason  in  the 
fact  that  such  a  marriage  contracted  in  infidelity  is 
still  dissoluble,  even  after  years  of  continuation,  either 
through  the  Pauline  Privilege  or  through  the  plenary 
authority  of  the  Holy  See.  And  yet  it  has  always 
been  a  principle  with  theologians  that  a  matrtviontum 
ratum  et  consummaium  (i.  e.  a  marriage  that  bears  the 
sacramental  character  and  is  afterwards  consum- 
mated) is  by  Divine  Law  absolutely  indissoluble,  so 
that  not  even  the  Holy  See  can  on  any  groimds  what- 
soever dissolve  it.  Hence,  it  seems  to  follow  that  the 
marriage  in  question  is  not  a  sacrament. 

This  argument  reversed,  together  with  the  reason  of 
fitness  mentioned  above,  tells  in  favour  of  the  sacra- 
mentality  of  a  marriage  contracted  with  ecclesiastical 
dispensation  between  a  baptized  and  an  unbaptized 
person.  Such  a  marriage,  once  it  is  consummated,  is 
absolutely  indissoluble,  just  as  a  consummated  maiv 
riage  between  two  baptized  persons;  under  no  circum- 
stances may  recourse  be  had  to  the  Pauline  Privilege, 
nor  will  any  other  dissolution  be  granted  by  Rome  (for 
documents  see  Lehmkuhl,  "Theol.  mor.  ,  II,  928). 
A  further  reason  is  that  the  Church  claims  jurisdiction 
over  such  mixed  marriages,  institutes  diriment  imped- 
iments to  them,  and  grants  dispensations.  This 
authority  regarding  marriages  Pius  VI  bases  on  their 
sacramentality;  hence  it  seems  that  the  marriage  in 
question  should  be  included  among  marriages  that  are 
sacraments.  The  words  of  Pius  Vl  in  his  letter  to  the 
Bishop  of  Mutila  are  as  follows:  "If,  therefore,  these 
matters  (he  is  speaking  of  marriage)  belong  exclusi\'ely 
to  the  ecclesiastical  forum  for  no  other  reason  than 
that  the  marriage  contract  is  truly  and  properly  one  of 
the  seven  sacraments  of  the  Law  of  the  Gospel,  then, 
since  this  sacramental  character  is  inherent  in  all 
marriage-matters,  they  must  all  be  subject  to  the 
exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  Church." 

However,  these  arguments  likewise  fail  to  carry 
conviction.  In  the  first  place,  many  deny  that  the 
mixed  marriages  in  question  pertain  exclusively  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Church,  but  claim  a  certain  right  for 
the  State  as  well;  only  in  case  of  conflict  the  Cliurch 
has  the  preference;  the  exclusive  right  of  the  Church 
is  confined  to  marriages  between  two  baptized  persons. 
The  Church  also  possesses  some  authority,  no  doubt, 
over  all  marriages  contracted  in  infidelity,  as  soon  as 
one  party  receives  baptism,  but  this  does  not  prove 
the  sacramentality,  after  the  conversion  of  one  party, 
of  a  marriage  contracted  by  infidels.  Furthermore,  it 
is  uncertain  whether  matters  affecting  the  nature  of 
Christian  marriage  are  subject  to  ecclesiastical  author- 
ity for  the  sole  reason  that  Christian  marriage  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  sacrament,  or  for  the  more 
general  reason  that  it  is  a  holy  and  religious  thing.  In 
the  document  cited  above  Pius  VI  gives  no  decision  on 
the  point.  In  case  the  latter  reason  is  of  itself  suffi- 
cient, then  the  conclusion  is  all  the  more  secure  if,  as 
Pius  VI  says,  'Hhe  raising  to  the  dignity  of  a  sacra- 
ment" is  taken  as  a  reason.  In  fact  the  elevation  of 
marriage  to  a  sacrament  can  well  serve  as  a  ground  for 
ecclesiastical  authority,  even  in  regard  to  a  marriage 
which  is  only  an  inchoate  sacrament. 


As  positive  proof  against  the  sacramentality  of  the 
mixecT  marriages  with  which  we  are  dealing,  tne  advo- 
cates of  the  third  opinion  emphasize  the,  nature  of 
marriage  as  a  contract.    Marriage  is  an  indivisible 
contract  which  cannot  be  one  thing  for  one  party  and 
another  thing  for  the  other  party.    If  it  cannot  be  a 
sacrament  for  one,  then  it  cannot  be  a  sacrament  for 
the  other.    The  contract  in  facto  ease  is  not  really  an 
entity  that  exists  in  the  parties,  but  rather  a  relation 
between,  them,  and  indecil  a  relation  of  the  same  sort 
on  both  sides.    Now,  this  cannot  be  a  sacrament  in 
fadto  esse,  if  in  one  of  the  parties  the  basis  of  the  rela- 
tion has  no  sacramental  character.    But,  if  the  con- 
tract in /ado  esse  be  no  sacrament,  then  the  actual 
contractmg  of  marriape  cannot  be  a  sacrament  in  fieri. 
Were  the  opposite  opinion  correct,  the  contract  would 
be  rather  lame,  i.  e.  firmer  in  the  believing  party  than 
in  the  unbaptized ^  since  the  greater  constancy  of  Chris- 
tian marriage  arises  precisely  from  its  character  as 
a  sacrament.    But  such  an  uneven  condition  seems 
opposed  to  the  nature  of  marria^.   Should  it  be  urged 
on  the  contrary  that  as  a  result  in  extraordinary  cases 
these  mixed  marriages  might  be  dissolved  just  as  in 
the  case  of  those  contracted  by  two  unbaptized  per- 
sons, this  inference  is  to  be  rejected.   Apart  from  the 
question  whether  the  inner  constancy  does  not  of  itself 
exclude  such  a  dissolution,  it  is  quite  certain  that, 
externally,  the  most  complete  indissolubility  is  secured 
for  such  mixed  marriages,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the 
Church,  which  by  its  approval  has  made  them  possible, 
also  makes  them  by  its  laws  indissoluble.    A  dissolu- 
tion in  \'irtue  of  the  Pauline  Privilege  is  thus  not  cer- 
tainly available,  since  it  might  be  utilized  in  odium 
fidei,  instead  of  in  favorem  fidei.    In  any  case,  as  to 
the  application  of  this  privilege,  the  Church  is  the  au- 
thoritative interpreter  and  judge.    These  arguments, 
though  not  perhaps  decisive,  may  serve  to  recommend 
the  third  opinion  as  the  most  probable  and  best 
founded. 

There  still  remains  the  one  question,  on  which  also 
Catholic  theologians  are  still  to  some  extent  divided, 
as  to  whether  and  at  what  moment  marriages  legiti- 
mately contracted  between  the  unbaptized  become  a 
sacrament  on  the  subsequent  baptism  of  the  two 
parties.  That  they  never  become  a  sacrament  was 
taught  in  his  day  by  Vasquez,  and  also  by  the  canon- 
ists Weistner  and  Schmalzgriiber.  This  view  may 
to-day  l>e  regarded  as  abandoned,  and  cannot  lie 
reconciled  with  the  official  decisions  since  given  by  the 
Holy  See.  The  discussion  must,  therefore,  be  confined 
to  tne  question,  whether  through  the  baptism  alone 
(i.  e.  at  the  moment  when  the  baptism  of  the  later 
baptized  of  the  two  partners  is  completed)  the  mar- 
riage becomes  a  sacrament,  or  whether  for  this  purpose 
the  renewal  of  their  mutual  consent  is  necessary. 
Bellarmine,  La3^mann,  and  other  theologians  defended 
the  latter  view;  the  former,  which  was  already  main- 
tained by  Sanchez,  is  to-day  generally  accepted,  and  is 
followed  by  Sape,  Rasset,  Billot,  Pesch,  Wema  etc. 
This  opinion  is  base<l  on  the  ecclesiastical  teaching 
which  declares  that  among  the  baptized  there  can  be 
no  true  marriage  which  is  not  also  a  sacrament.  Now, 
immediately  after  the  baptism  of  both  partners,  the 
already  contracted  marriage,  which  is  not  dissolved  by 
baptism,  becomes  a  "marriage  of  the  baptized";  for 
were  it  not  immediately  a  "sacrament"^he  above- 
mentioned  general  principle,  which  Pius  iX  and  Leo 
XIII  proclaimed  as  incontestable  doctrine,  would  be 
untrue.  Consequently  we  must  say  that,  through  the 
baptism  itself,  the  existing  marriage  passes  mto  a 
sacrament.  A  difficulty  may  arise  only  in  the  detfei^ 
mination  as  to  where  in  such  a  case  the  matter  and 
form  of  the  sacrament  are  to  be  sought,  and  what  act 
of  the  minister  completes  the  sacrament.  This  prob- 
lem, it  would  seem,  is  most  readily  solved  by  falling 
back  on  the  virtually  continuing  mutual  consent  of  the 
parties,  which  has  been  already  formally  given.    This 


HA&RTAT  7 

^rtual  wish  lo  be  aud  to  temaui  partners  in  inarriage, 
which  is  not  annulled  by  the  reception  ot  baptiam,  is 
an  entity  in  the  parties  in  which  may  be  found  the 
ministration  of  the  sacrament. 

Sjinchei,  Difpulatio  dr  t.  matnmmii  Samimt<<o.  nnwrially 
II;  PuHiioHK.  l>«fnn(rimoBibcftn*iniiD  (Rome, 
■KT.  Dt  SacmHatlo  Ualnmimti  fmclulua  dpBnuil. 

titan.,  iudicariut  (189S).  «P«-^-"--  '■    " 

■.aitu  AnNiana  (Rome,  ISHU); 


:;  Itos- 


drt  Is 


.  (bonu 


HI.  Jvt  Drenlatm 


binKiia,  lS8ii);Gian,Dielil.StikTamrtUedtataai.Kinhejardu 
SrSiirgiT  daBmalirh  darvaUm.  II  (t'lnibunt.  18U9).  viL  AIM 
works  cootnininn  traatoea  on  the  BnersmenU  In  Keoer^  luch 
wthoH  by^CHAHiiiUaiii:!  Peach.  Fraf.divM'.ivU;  Billot. 

Aug.  Lehmkuhl. 

Hanyftt,  Florence,  novelist  and  actress,  b.  9 
Julv,  18:18,  at  Brixton,  Enjtland;  d.  27  Octol»er,  1S90, 
in  tondon,  EnRland.  She  was  the  dTth  daughter  and 
tenth  child  of  Captain  rrederick  Marrjat,  R.  N.,  the 
celebrated  novelist,  and  his  wife,  C!atherine,  second 
daughter  ot  Sir  Stephen  Shairp  of  Houston,  Linlith- 
gow, Scotland,  and  for  many  years  consuI-Reneral  in 
Russia.  Florence  Marryat's  brother  Frank,  author  of 
"Borneo  and  the  Indian  Archipelago"  and  "Moun- 
tains and  Molehills,  or  Kccolleetions  of  a  Burnt  Jour- 
nal", died  in  IS*).  In  18,11,  when  she  was  not  quite 
sixteen,  she  married  T.  Ross  Church,  afterwards  colo- 
nel of  the  Madras  Staff  Corps,  with  whom  she  travelled 
over  the  (treater  part  of  India,  and  to  whom  she  bore 
eight  children.  To  distract  her  mind  while  nursing  some 
crfherchildrenthrouBhscarlettever.Bhe  turned  to  novel 
writing,  her  three  first  works,  "  Love's  Conflict ", "  Too 
Good  for  Him",  and  "Woman  again.it  Woman",  ap- 
pearing at  London  in  1SB5.  Thereafter  she  was  an  in- 
defatigable and  rapid  hterary  "worker,  and  during  the 
thirlv-foiir  years  that  intervened  between  that  date 
and  her  deiiih,  she  producol  some  ninety  novels,  many 
of  whieh  were  republished  in  Anterica  and  Germany, 
and  translated  into  French,  German,  Russian,  Flem- 
ish, and  Swedish.  She  was  also  a  frei|iicnt  contribu- 
tor to  newspapcrsand  mutnizines,  and  eiiited  "  London 
Societv",  a  monthlv  publication,  from  1H72  to  18713. 
In  1872  she  published  in  two  volumes,  "  The  Life  and 
Letters  of  (aptnin  Marryat".  She  had  many  other 
forms  ot  activity,  being  a  playwright,  and  appearing  at 
diflereni  times  as  an  ogieratic  singer,  as  an  actress  in 
high-class  comedy,  and  as  a  lecturer,  dramatic  reader 
and  public  entert  amer.  She  also  conduct4?d  a  school  of 
journalism.  In  1881  she  acted  in  "Her  World",  a 
drama  of  her  own  composition,  produced  in  London. 
She  married  as  her  second  husband  Colonel  Francis 
Lean  of  the  Royal  Marine  Light  Infantry.  Fermany 
years  she  was  niueh  attracted  to  the  subject  ot  Spirit- 
ualism, and  dealt  with  it  in  certain  ot  her  works,  such 
OS  "There  Is  No  Death"  (1891);  "The  Spirit  World" 
(1894);  and  "A  Soul  on  Fire".  "Tom  Tiddler's 
Grotmd  "  (IS86),  a  book  ot  (ravel,  is  a  somewhat  frivo- 
lous account  ot  (he  I'oited  States  of  America.  Her 
Inst  iMKik,  "The  Follv  of  Alison",  appeared  just  lie- 
fore  her  death.  Alftiough  she  had  t>een  a  convert 
to  Catholicity  for  a  considerable  period,  the  letters 
"R.I.  P."  appended  to  her  obituary  notices  iiTre  the 
first  intimation  that  a  large  faction  of  the  public  re- 
ceived of  the  fact. 

Alubove.  Did.,  Svppt..  II:  The  Limiion  Timn  (iS  Oct., 
189B);  Thr  Alhmaum  (4  Hov..  ISDB) ;  The  TaM.I  (1  Xi.v.. 
Ifi99);  Mm  and  Wtrmtn  of  Iht  Time  OSaO);  Lib  m  Did.  Sal. 
Biog..  Suppl..  9.  V.  „    ,   , 

P.  J,  Lennox. 

HarBfdllaB(MASSiUA),DiocE8KOF(MAsaiuBNBia), 
suffragan  of  Aix,  comprises  the  district  of  Iklarseilles 
in  the  Department  of  Bouehes-du-Rhone.  Founded 
about  600  H.  c.  by  a  colony  of  Phoenicians  and  taken 
by  Cffisar  in  49  b.  c,  Marseilles  was  captured  by  the 
Viaigoths  in  a.  d.  480;  later  it  belonged  to  the  Burgun- 
diaoe,  afterwards,  from  607-637,  to  the  Ostrogoth 
Theodoric  and  hia  Buccessors.    In  .5^7  it  was  ceded  to 


the  Fra iiks under (;!iildeb''rt  and annexe-ltotbe  King- 
dom of  Paris.  Laterthe  city  wasdivided  bet  weenSigc- 
bert  of  .\ustrasia  aud  Gontran  ot  Burgundy.  It  had 
various  masters  until  Boson  became  King  of  Bur- 
gundy-Provence (879).  The  Marseilles  of  the  Middle 
Ages  oweil  allegiance  to  three  sovereignties.  The  epis- 
copal town,  for  which  the  i>ishop  swore  fealty  only  to 
the  emperor,  included  the  harbour  of  La  Joliette,  the 
fisherman's  district,  and  three  citadels  (Chateau  Ba- 
b(wi,Roquebarlje,  and  the  bishop's  palace).  Tlie  lower 
town  l«loneed  to  the  viscounts  and  became  a  republic 
in  1*214;  and  the  abbatial  town,  dependent  on  the 
Abl>ey  of  St.  Victor,  comprised  a  few  market  towns 
and  cha(eaux  south  of  the  harbour.      In  1246  Mar- 


NOTRE-DlHE- 


seilles  was  subjugated  by  Charles  of  Anjou,  Count  ot 
Provence.  Finally,  in  1481  it  was  annexed  by  Louia 
XI  to  the  crown  of  France. 

Bishops  of  Maracitteg. — Mgr  Duchesne  has  proved 
tliat  the  trailitions  wliich  make  St.  Laiarus  the  first 
Bishop  of  Marseilles  do  not  antedate  the  thirteenth 
century.  A  document  ot  tlie  eleventh  century  relative 
to  the  consecration  of  the  church  of  St.  Victor  by 
Ilencdict  IX  (KMO)  mentions  the  existence  of  relics  of 
St.  Laxsrusat  Marseilles  but  does  not  speak  ot  him  as 
a  bishop.  In  the  twelfth  century  it  was  lielieved  at 
.Atitun  that  St.  Lazarus  was  buried  in  their  cathedral, 
deilicated  (o  St.  Xazariiis;  th.it  St.  Lasarus  had  Iteen 
Bishop  of  Marseilles  was  yet  Hnknown.  The  earliest 
Provencal  test  in  whieh  St.  I^asarus  is  nieutiotiHl  as 
liishopdf  Marseilles  is  a  pussaeenf  lhe"Olia  Iinpcri- 
fllia"  otGerva.'ie  otTillmrv,  dating  from  1212.  Chri.i- 
tianit  y, however,  wr(scert;iinlypreachedatMarwillesat 
a  very  early  date.  Tlu' city  w[miil\va\'B  a  creat  commer- 
cial entrepot,  and  must  have  lieen  ^nr  Proi-ence  what 
Lyons  was  foi-  C'fltie  (^lul.  n  centre  from  which  Chris- 
tianity radiated  widely.  The  Christian  Museum  at 
Harwilles  possesses  among  other  soreophagi  one  dat- 
ing  from  273.  The  epitaph  of  Volusianus  and  Fortu- 
natuB,  two  Christians  who  perished  by  fire,  martyrs 

SThaps,  ia  one  of  tho  oldest  Christian  inscriptiana(Le 
lant,  "InBcriptiona  chr^tiennes  de  laOaule",  Paris, 
leefl-e.")).     The  first  historically  known  bishop  it 


Oresliw  who  atleuded  the  Council  of  Aries  In  314. 
Frooulua  (3S1-428)  was  celebrated  (or  hia  quarrel  with 
Patroclea,  Bishop  of  Aries,  as  to  the  limits  of  their 
dioceses,  and  his  differences  with  the  bishops  of  the 
province  of  Narbonneiisis  Secunda  concerning  the 
metropolitan  rights  which  Marseilles  claimed  over 
that  entire  region;  the  Council  of  Turin,  about  the 
year  400.  theoretically  decided  in  favour  of  Narboone 
against  Marseliles,  but  allowed  Proculus  to  exercise 
metropolitan  rights  until  his  death.  In  41S  Pope 
Zosimus,  influenced  by  Patrocles  of  Aries,  was  about 
to  depose  Proculus,  but  Zosimus  died  and  the  matter 
was  dropped.  To  Bishop  Veneriua  (431-452)  we 
owe  the  so-called  "Mareeillea  Breviary".  The  Bol- 
landists  question  the  existence  of  St.  Caiinat,  and  the 
"Gallia  Christiana"  does  not  count  him  among  the 


bishops  of  the  sec.  Albania  maintains  his  existence, 
trusting  to  the  eightieth  chapter  of  the  "De  viriaill. " 
of  Geniiadius,  writt«n  towards  the  dose  of  the  sixth 
century;  relying  also  on  the  veneration  certainly  paid 
to  him  at  Marseilles  since  1122,  Albany's  accepts  nim 
as  bishop  about  i85. 

Among  the  noteworthy  bishops  (following  the 
chronolc^  of  Abb£  Albante)  are: — Ilonoratus  I 
(about  ©5)  an  ecclesiastical  nfiter,  approved  bv 
Pope  Gelflsius;  St.  Theodore  (560-91),  urged  by  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  to  use  only  persuasion  with  tlie  Je\s-s, 
and  persecuted  by  King  Gontran;  St.  Screnus  (o96- 
601)  reproved  by  the  same  pope  for  rcmovine;  from 
the  churches  and  destroying  certain  pictures  which  the 
faithful  were  incliiied  to  worship;  St.  Abdalong  (eighth 
century);  St.  Maurontius  (780),  former  Aliliot  of 
St.  Victor;  Honoratus  II  (948-976),  who  began  the 
restoration  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Victor;  Pons  11(1008- 
73);  Pierre  de  Montlaur  (1214-29),  who  founded  in 
1214  the  first  chapel  of  Notre-Damc-de-la-Oarde;  Car- 
dinal William  Sudrc  (1361-66).  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Ostia,  commissiioned  in  1368  by  Urban  V  to  crown  the 
empress,  wife  of  Charles  IV,  and  in  1369  to  receive  the 
profession  of  faith  of  Johannes  Palfeologus,  Emperor 
of  Constantinople;  Cardinal  Philippe  de  Cabassole 
(1306-68),  protector  of  Petrarch,  author  of  a  "Lite  of 
St.  Mary  Magdalen",  protector  ot  St.  Delphine,  gov- 
ernor under  Urban  V  of  theComtat  Veiioissin,  1367- 
69:  he  died  in  1372,  while  legate  of  Gregory  XI  at 
Rome;    the  preacher  and  ascetical  writer  Antoine 


Dufour  (I500-09L  confessor  of  Louia  XII;  Claude 
Seyssel  (lfiOS-lSl7),  ambaicudor  of  Louis  XII  at  the 
Lateran  Council,  1613;  Cardinal  Innocent  CibA  (1S17- 
1530),  grandson  of  Innocent  VIII,  nephew  of  Leo  X 
and  Clement  VII;  the  preacher  and  controversialist 
Nicolas  Cofiffeteau  (q.  v.),  1621-23;  the  Oratorian 
Eustace  Gault  (1639-40)  and  his  brother  Jean-Bap- 
tiate  Gault  (1642-43)  famed  for  his  charity  to  the 

KUey  slaves-  de  Forbin- Janson  (1668-79),  sent 
Louia  XIV  to  the  Diet  of  Poland  (1674)  which 
elected  John  Sobieaki;  Belsunce  de  Castelmoraa 
(1710-56);  Jean-Baptist*  de  Belloji-  (1755-1801), 
died  almost  a  centenarian  as  Archbishop  of  Paris; 
Eugene  de  Mazenod  (1837-61)  who  founded  the  Con- 
grrgation  of  the  Oblat«s  of  Mary  Immaculate;  Patrice 
Cruice  (1861-65),  of  Irish  descent,  founder  and  direc- 
tor of  the  school  of  higher  ecclesiastical  studies  estab- 
lished at  Paris  in  the  former  monastery  of  the  Carmel- 
ites (Cannes),  and  well  known  for  his  excellent  edition 
oftheso-callcd"Philosophoumena"(seeHippoLYTi!S), 
The  moralist  Guillaume  du  Vair,  president  of  the  Parle- 
muiit  of  Aix,  was  named  Bishop  of  MarseUleB  in  1603 
by  Henry  IV,  but  the  Provincial  Estates  entreated  the 
king  to  retain  him  as  head  of  the  administration  of 

Abbeu  of  St.  Victor.— About  415,  Cassian  (q.  v.) 
founded  the  two  monasteries  of  St.  Victor,  one  for 
men,  the  other  tor  women.  In  the  crypt  of  St.  Victor 
lay  formerly  the  remains  of  Cassian,  also  those  of  Saints 
Uaurice,  Marcellinus,  and  Peter,  the  body  of  one  of 
the  Holy  Innocents,  and  Bishop  St.  Mauront.  The 
biography  of  St.  Izam,  Abbot  of  St.  Victor  in  the 
eleventh  century  (Acta  8S.,  24  Sept.),  gives  sn  inter- 
esting account  of  the  first  visit  of  St,  Isam  to  liie 
cn'pt.  All  that  now  remains  of  the  abbey  is  the 
Church  of  St.  Victor  dedicated  by  Benedict  IX  in  1040 
aad  rebuilt  in  1200,  In  the  fifth  century  the  Semj- 
pelagion  heresy,  that  began  with  certain  writings  of 
Cassian,  disturbcdgreatly  the  Abbey  of  St.  Victor  and 
the  Church  of  Marseilles  (see  CAseiuf;  Augusti.ve; 
Hii^ry;  PnoBPEnoFAQtiiTAiNE);  from  Marseilles  the 


heres3'.  After  the  devastations  of  the  Saracens  the 
Abbey  of  St.  Victor  n-as  rebuilt  in  the  first  half  of  the 
eleventh  century,  through  the  efforts  of  Abbot  St. 
ft'iifred.  From  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century 
its  renown  was  such  that  from  all  points  of  the  South 
appeals  were  sent  t«  the  abbots  of  this  church  to  re- 
store the  religious  life  in  decadent  monaateries.  The 
abbey  long  kept  in  touch  with  the  princes  of  Spain  and 
Sardinia  and  even  owned  propcrtv  in  Syna.  The 
polyptych  of  St.  Victor,  compiled  in  814,  the  large 
chartulary,  or  collection  of  charters  (end  of  the  eleventh 
and  beginning  of  the  twelfth  centurj'),  and  the  small 
chartulary  (middle  ot  the  thirteenth  century)  edited 
by  M.  Gu^rard,  and  containing  documents  from  6S3  to 
1336.  enable  the  reader  to  grasp  the  important  eco- 
nomic role  of  this  great  abbey  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Blessed  Bernard,  Ablwt  of  St.  Victor  1064-1079  was 
one  of  the  two  ambassadors  delegated  byGregoryVII 
to  the  DietofForehhcira.  where  the  German  princes  de- 
posedEmperor  HentrlV.  He  was  seized  bj- one  of  the 
partisans  of  Henry  IV  and  passed  several  months  in 
prison.  Gregory  Vll  also  sent  him  as  legate  to  Spain 
and  in  rewanl  for  his  services  exempted  St.  Victor 
from  a!i  jurisdiction  other  than  that  of  the  Holy  See. 

Blessed  William  dc  Grimoard  was  made  Abbot  of  St. 
Victor,  2  Ai^st,  1301,  and  1>ccame  pope  in  13S2  ai 
Urban  V.  He  enlarged  the  church,  surrounded  the 
abbey  with  high  crenelated  walla,  panted  the  abbot 
episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  gave  him  as  diocese  the 
suburbs  and  villages  south  of  the  city.  He  %-iBitod 
Marseilles  in  October,  1365,  consecrated  the  high  al- 
tar of  the  church,  returned  to  St.  Victor  in  May,  1367, 
and  held  a  consistory  in  the  Abbey.  What  beoame  of 
the  library  of  St.  Victor  ia  still  a  problem.     Its  £M^ 


uMA'^tatTfjr.mat 


717 


TXTAl^ffyiT.T.gft 


tents  are  known  through  an  inventory  of  the  latter 
half  of  the  twelfth  century.  It  was  extremely  rich  in 
ancient  nutnuscripts,  and  must  have  been  scattered  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  probably  be- 
tween 1579  and  1591;  M.  Morhreuil  coniectures  that 
when  Giuliano  de'  Medici  was  abbot  (1570-88)  he 
scattered  the  library  to  please  Catherine  de'  Medici; 
it  is  very  likely  that  all  or  many  of  the  books  became 
the  property  of  the  king.  Mazarin  was  Abbot  of  St. 
Victor  in  1656.  Thomas  le  Foumier  (1676-1745) 
monk  of  St.  Victor,  left  numerous  manuscripts  which 
greatly  aided  the  Maurists  in  their  publications.  The 
secularisation  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Victor  was  decreed 
by  Clement  XII,  17  December,  1739. 

Councils  were  held  at  Marseilles  in  533  (when  six- 
teen bishops  of  Provence,  under  the  presidency  of  St. 
Csesarius  of  Aries,  passed  sentence  on  Contimieliosus. 
Bishop  of  Riez),  also  in  1040  and  in  1103.  Several 
saints  belong;  in  a  particular  wav  to  Marseilles:  the 
soldier  St.  Victor,  martyr  imder  Maximian;  the  soldier 
St.  Defendens  and  his  companions,  mart3nrs  at  the 
same  time;  the  martyrs  St.  Adrian,  St.  Clemens,  and 
their  twenty-^ight  companions  (end  of  the  third 
century) ;  St.  (>prian.  Bishop  of  Toulon  (fifth-sixth 
centunes) ;  St.  Eutropius,  Bishop  of  Orange,  native  of 
Marseilles,  celebrated  for  his  conflict  wim  Arianism 
and  Semipelagianism  (fifth  century) ;  St.  Bonet  (Boni- 
tus),  prefect  of  Marseilles  in  the  seventh  century, 
brother  of  Avitus,  Bishop  of  Clermont,  and  a  short 
while  Bishop  of  Clermont;  St.  Eusebia,  abbess  of  the 
monastery  of  nuns  founded  by  Cassian,  and  massacred 
by  the  Saracens  with  thirty-nine  of  her  companions, 
(perhaps  in  838) ;  St.  Tsam,  Abbot  of  St.  Victor,  d. 
in  1048,  at  whose  instigation  Raymond  B^ranger, 
(Dount  of  Barcelona,  compelled  the  Moors  to  free  the 
monks  of  L^rins;  St.  Louis,  Bishop  of  Toulouse 
(1274-97),  of  the  family  of  the  counts  of  Provence  and 
buried  with  the  Friars  Minor  of  Marseilles;  St.  Elziar 
de  Sabran  (1286-1323)  a  student  of  St.  Victor's,  and 
husband  of  St.  Delphine  of  Sabran^  Blessed  Bertrand 
de  Garrigue,  (1230),  one  of  the  first  disciples  of  St. 
Dominic,  founder  of  the  convent  of  Friars  Preachers 
at  Marseilles;  Blessed  Hugues  de  Digne,  a  Franciscan 
writer  of  the  thirteenth  century,  buried  at  MarseiUes 
(with  Ms  sister  St.  Douceline,  foundress  of  the  B^ 
guines)  after  having  foimded  near  the  city,  about 
1250,  the  Order  of  Friars  of  Penance  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Hughes  de  Baux,  Viscount  of  Marseilles  induced  St. 
John  of  Matha  to  found  in  Marseilles,  in  1202,  a  house 
of  Trinitarians  for  the  redemption  of  captives;  in  this 
house  the  Trinitarians  from  Southern  France,  Spain, 
ana  Italy  held  annually  their  (general  Chapter.  Near 
by  was  founded  in  1306  a  brotherhood  of  penitents 
who  collected  money  in  the  city  for  the  redemption  of 
captives. 

St.  Vincent  de  Paul's  first  visit  to  Marseilles,  in 
1605,  on  a  business  matter  ended  with  the  saint's 
captivity  in  Tunis;  his  second  visit  in  1622,  as  chap- 
lain general  was  marked  bv  the  pious  and  heroic 
fraud  which  led  him  to  take  the  place  of  a  galley  slave. 
In  1643  he  sent  Lazarists  to  attend  the  hospital  for 
convicts  foimded  by  Philippe  Emmanuel  de  Gondi, 
ChevaUer  de  la  Costa,  and  Bishop  Gault.  The  Jesuit 
College  of  St.  R^gis  was  founded  in  1724,  at  C!amp 
Major,  for  missionaries  on  their  way  to  the  East  who 
studied  there  the  various  languages  spoken  in  the 
commercial  towns  along  the  M^iterranean  coast. 
The  Jesuits  also  conducted  the  Royal  Marine  Obser- 
vatory and  a  school  of  hydrography.  The  hospital  of 
Marseilles,  founded  in  1188,  is  one  of  the  oldest  in 
France.  Anne  Magdaleine  de  Remusat  (1696-1730), 
daughter  of  a  rich  merchant  of  Marseilles,  who  had 
entered  the  convent  of  the  Visitation  of  St.  Mary,  2 
October,  1711,  sent  word  to  Mgr  Belzunce  that  on 
17  October,  1713,  the  twenty-third  anniversary  of  the 
death  of  Margaret  Mary  Alacoque,  she  had  received 
certain  revelations  from  Christ;   in  consequence  a 


confratemi^  of  the  Sacred  Heart  was  foimded,  and 
enriched  with  indulgences  by  Clement  XI  (1717): 
Anne  Magdaleine  published  in  1718  a  small  manual  of 
devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart.  The  Marseilles  mer- 
chants carried  this  devotion  to  Constantinople  and 
Cairo  and  the  society  soon  comprised  30,000  mem- 
bers. At  the  time  of  the  plague  m  Marseilles  (39.152 
victims  out  of  80,000  inhabitants),  Belzunce,  follow- 
ing new  revelations  received  by  Anne  Magdaleine,  in- 
stituted in  the  diocese  the  feast  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
(22  October,  1720);  later,  on  4  June,  1722  at  his  in- 
stigation the  magistrates  consecrated  the  city  to  the 
Sacred  Heart,  as  the  first  act  of  consecration  formu- 
lated to  the  Sacred  Heart  by  a  corporate  body. 

Marseilles  plays  also  an  important  part  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  devotion  to  St.  Joseph.  As  early  as  1839 
Bishop  Mazenod  decreed  that  Marseilles  was  to  vener- 
ate St.  Joseph  as  the  patron  of  the  diocese,  and  that 
wherever  the  churches  admitted  of  three  altars  one 
should  be  dedicated  to  this  saint.  The  church  of  Cabot 
near  Marseilles  was  the  first  in  the  Christian  world  to 
be  consecmted  to  St.  Joseph  as  patron  of  the  Univer- 
sal Church.  The  pilgrimage  of  Notre-Dame-de-la- 
Garde  dates  from  1214.  In  1544  a  large  church  was 
built  on  the  hill  overlooking  Marseilles;  in  1837  a 
statue  of  the  Madonna  was  blessed  there,  and  in  1864 
was  inaugurated  a  new  sanctuary  yisited  daily  by 
numerous  pilgrims.  In  the  church  of  St.  Victor  is 
the  statue  of  Notre-Dame-des-Confessions  or  Notr&- 
Dame-des-Martyrs,  said  to  have  been  venerated  at 
Marseilles  since  the  end  of  the  second  century.  The 
pilgrimage  of  Notre-Dame-du-Sacr^-Cceur,  at  Ch4- 
teau-Gonbert,  gave  rise  to  a  confraternity  which  now 
has  almost  one  million  members. 

Before  the  law  of  1901  on  associations  the  Diocese 
of  Marseilles  counted  Benedictines,  Capuchins,  Jesuits, 
Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Lazarists,  African  Mission- 
aries, White  Fathers,  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  Redemptorists^  Sales- 
ians,  Brothers  oi  Christian  Doctrine  of  St.  GabneL  Lit- 
tle Brothers  of  Mary,  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Iieart, 
Hospitaller  Brothers  of  St.  John  of  God,  Clerks  of  St. 
Viateur,  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  the  Child 
Jesus.  A  number  of  religious  congregations  for 
women  originated  in  the  diocese;  the  Capuchins,  and 
Nuns  of  the  Visitation  of  Saint  Mary,  contemplative 
orders  founded  at  Marseilles  in  1623;  Franciscan  Sis- 
ters of  the  Holy  Family,  founded  in  1851  imder  the 
name  of  Soeurs  de  I'lnt^neur  de  J4sus  et  Marie;  Sisters 
of  Mary  Immaculate,  who  take  care  of  the  dumb  and 
the  blind;  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Compassion^  a  teach- 
ing order;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Appantion^  de- 
voted to  nursing  and  teachmg;  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  teachers  (mother-houses  of 
all  the  foregoing  are  in  Marseilles) ;  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Name  of  Jesus,  a  teaching  order  founded  in  1832 
(mother-house  at  La  Ciotat),  discalced  Trinitarian 
Sisters,  founded  in  1845  by  Abb^  Margalhan-Ferrat. 
who  attend  to  the  sick  at  home,  to  hospitals,  and  until 
recently  to  schools  (mother-house  at  Sainte-Marthe). 
At  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  the  religious 
congregations  had  under  their  care  5  cr^hes,  38  day 
nurseries,  1  asylum  for  the  blind,  3  boys'  orphanages, 
21  girls'  orphanages,  7  industrial  work  rooms,  4  socie- 
ties for  the  prevention  of  crime,  1  protectory,  1  dis- 
pensary, 1  general  pharmacy  for  societies  of  mutual 
assistance,  4  houses  of  retreat  and  sanitariums,  4 
houses  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  own  homes,  1  in- 
sane asylum,  4  hospitals.  In  1 905  the  Diocese  of  Mar- 
seilles (last  year  of  the  Concordat)  counted  545,445 
inhabitants,  11  parishes,  82  succursal  parishes,  9 
vicariates  paid  by  the  State. 

ChtUia  ChriiHana  I  (nova,  1715),  1.627.078;  tiMfncm..  105- 
118;  ALBANts  AND  Chetalzkr,  Cfoma  Chritiiana  novinima; 
MotmUU  (Valoice.  1890):  AlbanI^b.  Armorial  et  aiffUlographU 
de*  ivfque^  de  ManeOU  (Maneilles,  1884);  Beuxtnck,  L'anf»- 
mnU  de  CMiee  d»  MaraeuU  tt  la  auceeeaion  det  ivifuea  (ibid.* 
1747-51);  BtscARD.  Lee  iviquee  de  MareeilU  deifw*  SK^^ 


(aMyiSJ3)\^DK  \iviEN,  La  oriema^rMmw  dtta^OavlB  ^^OajjaiT.  BOLfi^  Bng.Calk..  IV^jTlMM;  Ooowm  io  M« 

^.li;:!.'   ""  ij^rSt^/aiS^nS^i'soaf'*^'^        MtrrfuOl  IiUnda,  Vicabiatb  Apootouc  or  tm. 

Ret.  ( -  ir  dt  MaririUe  (ibid.'.  IB8G)';  Mon-  Tbefle  islands,  a  German  possesBion  since  1885,  Jying 

TBEc  ir .  .  I    .  :  iahbavi  itrt  s  firfor  (ibid.,  iftM):  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  eaat  of  the  Caroline  IsUnde,  be- 

^,*t MoriSilf'Jibid'  B  d7^  T^^'jtfSr^Hf au  xf!^  t"^"  *° "^  ^3°  ^  ^^■-  ^"^  161°  and  171°  E.  longK 

(Puii,  1805);  CatVALiBB,  rojwMN., '1857-1882.  tude,  Were  discovered  in  1529  by  SsAvedra,  ViUaloboa 

Gborqes  Gotad.  and  otherSpanisbmariaen,  and  explored  by  Marshall 
and  Gilbert  in  1788.    They  are  fifty  in  number,  an 

Marshall,  Thouas  Williau,  LL.D.,  K.S.G.,  con-  archipelaeoof!ow-lyingatous,the  highest  pcant  being 

troveraial  writer,  b.  1818;  d.  at  Surbiton,  Surrey,  14  only  33  feet  above  sea-level.     Their  total  area,  includ- 

Dec.,  1877.     He  was  son  of  John  Marshall,  govern-  ing  Xauru,  or  Pleasant  Island,  385  niiles  to  the  south, 

ment  agent  for  colonizing  New  South  Wales.     His  is  about  150  Bqu3,re  miles.     'The  population  in  190S 

mrenta  were  Protestants,  and  he  was  educated  at  amounted  to  15,000,  of  whom  1G2  were  Europeans, 

&inbridge  (Trinity  College)  where  he  graduated  B.A.  Moat  of  the  natives  are  still  pagan.     In   1891   the 

in  1840.     Taking  orders  in  the  Church  of  England,  he  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart  liegan  work  there, 

became  Vicar  of  SwallowclilT,  in  Wiltshire,  to  which  but  were  soon  forced  to  desist  by  the  civil  authorities. 

living  the  Perpetual  Curacy  of  Antstey  was  attached.  In  1898  they  resumed  their  labours.     The  islands  were 

Profoundly  influenced  by  the  Tractarian  movement,  then   included   in   the   Vicariate   Apostohc   of   New 

be  set  hirnself  to  study  the  episcopal  government  of  Pomerania;  but  in  Septemlier,  1905,  they  were  erected 

the  Church,  and  his  fir^t  book,  putitishcd  in  1844,  was  into  a  separate  vicariate,  though  it  has  not  j'et  been 

a  work  on  this  subject.     But  in  writing  this  book  he  invested  with  an  episcopal  character.     Thesuperiorof 

was  led  by  his  researches  to  abandon  the  Anglican  the  mission.  Very  Rev.  Augustus  Erdland,  resides  on 

position  as  untenable,  and  in  November,  1845,  he  was  the  island  of  Jaluit.     He  was  bom,  11  October,  1874; 

received  into  the  Catholic  Church  in  Lord  Arundell's  joined  the  Missionary  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  30 

ehapel  at.  Wardour  Castle.     In  1847  he  was  appointed  Septeml>er,  18!)5;   was  ordained,  25  July,  1900,  and 

thefirst  inspector  of  Catholic  Schools,  a  position  which  appointed  to  iiis  present  office,  16  September,  1905. 

he  held  till  1860,  when  he  was  asked  to  resign,  on'ing  In  1907  the  mission  contained  7  priests  and  8  bro- 

to  the  pubUc  feeling  aroused  against  him  by  the  publi-  thcrs;   13  Sisters  of  Our  I.ady  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (of 

eatjon  of  his  pamphlet  exposing  the  An^ican  missions  Hiltrup,  Germany) ;  323  Catholics;  520  catecliumens; 

to  the  heathen.     After  two  years  spent  in  America  he  6   churches  and   stations   (on   Jaluit   Likieb,    Arao, 

returned  to  England  and  published  his  best  known  Mejeni.andNauru  l5land8);8schoois,with223pui^. 
work  on  "Christian  Missions"  (1862),      In  1870  and  Afitama  Calioliea  (Rome,   1907):    Guillem^ho.  XulnJ- 

the  following  year  he  lectured  in  the  United  States  9^^-J^  (Loodon.  J894),  ms-o:  Xu*™f™  c-uMtf  Dir«i«t 
with  great  success,  the  Jesuit  College  of  Georgetown  A_  j^    MAcEntEAii 

conferring  on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws.     In 

1872  he  returned  to  England,  where  he  devoted  him-        Huai,  Diocese  of  (Marbordu),  in  the  province  of 

self  to  literary  pursuits  for  the  remaining  five  years  of  Aquila,  Central  Italy,  with  its  seat  at  Pescma.     WiUi 

his  life.     He  married  Harriet,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  the  exception  of  Sabina,  it  is  the  only  diocese  that  re 

William    Dansey,    Rector    of    Donhead-St .-Andrew,  ceives  its  name  from  a  people,  and  not  from  a  city, 

who  joined  the  Church  with  him  and  who  survivea  The  Marvi  were  a  warlike  people  who  lived  about  Laie 

him.  Fucino.     In  325  b.c.  they  allied  themselves  with  the 

He  was  a  valued  contributor  to  the  Catholic  press  Romans,  revolted  in  309  in  favour  of  the  Sanmite«. 

in  England  and  America.    His  published  works  are:  but  in  304  returned  to  the  Roman  alliance.     The  chief 

"  Notes  on  the  Episcopal  Polity  of  the  Holy  Catholic  divinity  of  the  Marsi  was  the  goddess  Angitia.     In  lie 

Church"  (1844);  "Twenty-two  Reasons  for  Entering  time  of  the  Lombards  the  territ-ory  formed  a  county 

the  Catholic  Church"  (I&46);  "Ixitter  to  tJie  Rev.  subject  to  the  Duchy  of  Spoleto,  and  the  counts  gave 

Cecil  Wray,  M,A."  (1849);  "Christianity  in  China"  several  popes  to  the  Church — among  them  Innocent 

(1858);    "Tabulated    Reports    on    Roman   Catholic  III.     Accordingtji  legend,  the  Gospel  was  preached  to 

Schools  inspected  in  the  South  and  East  of  England  "  the  Marsi  in  Apostolic  times  by  Saint  Mark,  and  Saint 

(1859);    "Christian    Missions,    their    Agents,    their  Rufinus,  their  bishop,  was  martyred  about  240.    The 

Method  and  their  Results"  (18G2;  1863;  New  York,  episcopal  see  was  originally  at  Santa  &vina,  but,  (s 

1865;  London,   1865.     Translated  into  French  and  thisplacewasiaolateilawlthcrcforeinsecure,  Oregon' 

German);    "Catholic  Missions  in  Southern  India  to  XIII  permitted,  in  1580,  the  removal  of  the  bishops 

1865"  (1865,  written  in  conjunction  with  the  Rev.  W.  residence  to  Pescina,  where  the  cathedral  was  com- 

Strickland,  8.J.);  "Order  and  Chaos,  a  Lecture  deliv-  pleted  in  1596.     Among  the  bishops  of  this  diocese 

ered  at  Baltimore"  (1869);  "My  Clerical  Friends  and  was  Saint  Berardo  of  the  family  of  the  Counts  of  the 

their  Relation  to  Modern  Thought"  (1873);  "Church  Marei.    He  was  educated  at  Montecaasino,  and  be- 

Defence:  Report  of  a  Conference  on  the  Present  Dan-  came  pontifical  governor  of  the  Campania.     On  ac- 

gers  of  the  Cnurch"  (1873);  "Protestant  Journalism"  countof  his  justice  and  of  his  severity  m  that  office,  be 

(1874);  "Anglicans  of  the  Day"  (187,')).  wa.f  imprisoned  by  Pietro  Colonna,  but  Paschal  II 

Arthur  FEATFEnsTONE  Marbhali,,  B.A,  Oxon.,  a  made  him  a  cardinal,  and  bishop  of  his  native  town. 

younger  brother  of  Thomas,  abandoned  his  curacy  at  Olherprclatesof  the  Marsi  were  Bishop  Jacopo  (1276), 

Liverpool  to  become  a  Catholic  in  the  early  sixties,  during  whose  government  of  the  diocese  dueensions 

He  was  widely  known  as  the  author  of  "The  Comedy  amseuctwccn  the  canons  of  Santa  Savina  and  those  of 

of  Convocation  ",  a  satirical  brochure  exposing  the  in-  Celano  concerning  the  right  to  nominate  the  bishops: 

consistencies  invoked  in  all  three  of  the  Anglican  Angelo  Maccafani  (1445),  treasurer  general  of  tV 

views — High,  Low,   and   Broad  Church.     His  "Old  Marches;  Cardinal  Marccllo  Cresccnii  (1533);  Mattco 

Catholics  at  Cologne"  was  hardly  less  popular  during  Colli  (1579),  under  whom  the  removal  of  the  bishop's 

the  period  immediately  following  the  Vatican  Council  residence  to  Pescina  took  place;  he  was  a  prisoner  (or 

and  the  defection  of  DilUinger.     Other  controversial  some  time  in  the  Castle  of  Saiit' Angelo,  but  proved 

worksof  alight  and  popular  character  by  this  brilliant  his  innocence  and  was  liberated;   Gian  Paolo  Caccia 

writer  were  "Reply  to  the  Bishop  of  Plipon's  Attack  (1048),  who  did  much  for  the  public  schools;    Die*© 

on  the  Catholic  Church"  and  "The  Infallibility  of  the  Petra  (1664),  who  restored  the  sominary,  enlarged  by 

Pqpc."  Francesco  Corradini  (16SD)  and  l>y  Nuiiiio  de'  VeccU 


MiJUOOO                              719  MABSZUUS 

(1710).    The  diocese  ia  inunediately  subject  to  the  which  surrendered  in  1703.    Count  d'Arco  was  be^ 

Iloly  See;  it  has  78  parishes  with  140,000  inhabitants,  headed  because  he  was  found  guilty  of  capitulating 

6  religious  houses  of  men  and  0  of  women,  2  educa-  before  it  was  necessary,  while  Marsigli  was  stripped  m 

tional  institutes  for  male  students  and  5  for  girls.  all  honours  and  commissions,  and  his  swora  was 

Cappbllbtti,  Chiete  d*  Italia,  XXI  (Venice.  18W).  broken  over  him.    His  appeals  to  the  emperor  were  in 

U.  Benioni.  vain.    Public  opinion,  however,  acquitted  him  later 

Marsico  Nuoyo  and 

8ICEN8IS  ET  POTENTINA)    »uxxi^»it  ui  ««c.uu.  ^  «mjx-  ^         ^                ,                                                           .^..ui.u.  oux.^- 

S!^n?Jir^^^.fiiU^^^^^^^^  tificpursm^.    He  dn.wpkns,  made  astronomical  ob- 


the  seat  of  a  county.  It  became  an  episcopal  seat,  Z^  i^i^^nJ ^^  ^i,,^^  ♦^  n^i^vo^o  o^/j  r%,^ao«f^ 
when  Bishop  GrinJdo.of  Grumentxun^^^^  S^  enSrcte^rt^e  &„S'^Jl£>f TlT^ 
residence  there,  reteimng  however  hw  fonnert.tle.  There  he  founded  his  "Institute  of  ScienoS  and  Arts", 
There  were  bid^ops  of  G™ment'm  «  ^^r  «f  the  ^j  j^  j  „  ^  ;  j^jg  gj^  professore 
sixth  century:  it  is  said  tlmt  a  Samt  labenus  or  S»-  ^  j  ^j^  /^f  ^^  different  divisions  of  the  in- 
venus  first  preached  the  Gos^l  there.  C^^^^^  ^^^  L^t^  f  established  a  printing-house  fur- 
ops  were  Enrico  (1131V  who  finished  the  ca^^^  j^  ^    j  j^  ^^   l,^^  ^         f     ^a^  q^^  g^brew, 

%?^.,M"*''*°  °^,  I?!*™*''  t.^"^!^?^''J}V.f}i  and  Arabic.    This  wa^^t  in  chanje  of  the  Domini^ 


rieiro  y^o^^i,  several  ""'^JS^^Sr'o.ThoA.S  <»n8'  and  placed  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Thomas 

?*°,'2,flT"l,/ll"LY'l^„i^^.  the   c*thedraL  ^  »i    ^^37  he  addetfto  hirother  collections 

In    818  the  diocese  was  united  (Rj^jw^n^^^^  ^  j^j        j^^^,  ^^j^^  j^^  collected  in  England  and 

that  of  Potenza.    This  city  is  the  capital  of  a  fertile  H„„^d_    A  solemn  procession  of  the  institute  he 


province  in  the  BasUicate,  over  2400  feet  above  the  ^      ^         ^  ^  f               twenty-five  years  on 

sea-the  ancient  city  of  the  Li^am  was  farther  d^^  ^  j         ^  ^  Annunciation.^In  1715  he  wis  named 

in  thevallev  of  ^aMj^to     Potent  was  destroyed  ^     ^     ^^gg^^j^t^  „f  ^he  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences;  he 

??^T^t^?rJ/^t^  rfin  kJI^L^L^?  A?in?.   0^9?  ^  also  a  member  of  tlie  Royal  Society  of  London, 

1250,  to  be  destroyed  agam  by  Charles  of  Anjou.  Un  21  n^d  of  Montoellier 

December  1857^t  was  greatly  damaged^-  an  earth-  ^^  ^    F ,  ^;^^^          j^    following:  "  Osserva- 

quake.    The  town  clait^  that  it  v«s  e^^nge W ^^  j     i  jniJo^o*;!  BosforoTracio"  (Rome,  1681);  "His- 

baint  Peter;  Saint  Aruntius  and  his  companions  suf-  j      physique  de  la  mcr",  translate  by  teclerc 

fered  martvrdom  there  under  Maximian^  The  first  ^^^^^^  1725);  "Danubius  Pannonic^mysicus, 

known  bishop  was  Amandus  (about  5W).    Other  ^bservationibus", etc.  (7  vols..  Hague,  1726) ; "L'Etat 

bishops  were  baint  Gerardo  della  PorM1099-  1 19)-  i,j^j    ^  ,,            ottoman  "(ASwt^rdam  1732). 

to  whoni  the  above-mentioned  cathedral,  built  by  foottnixlb. Bb^e* de,Acad..U (taria.  1825) ; QmNcr. W 

Bishop  Oberto  and  restored  by  Giovanni  Andrea  moim  (Zurich,  1741). 

Serra  (1783-99),  is  dedicated— and  AchilleCaracciolo  '                                                        Wiluam  Fox. 

(1616),  who  founded  the  sermnary.    Blessed  Bon^  MarsiUuB  of  Padna,  physician  and  theologian,  b. 

""''t^^i  5  ^?^,^fii^^u  1??^  wTtiflt  «^^"  at  Padua  about  1270;  d  ab6ut  1342.  Contrar^  to  the 
ventual  P^eft-  was  from  tto  c  ty  It  is  to  be  noted  ^^^^^^  ^{  ^^^^  ^(.thors,  he  was  only  a  layiAan  and 
that,  in  «^?«i'eval  d<«umcnte,  toe  B^^^^^^  i  ,^  ^,j^j„^  t^^'  legitimate  Archbishop  of 
and  the  Bishop  of  the  Mars  are  both  ca  led  Mam-  ^.^  thougEhe  was  a  canon  of  his  native  city.  He 
cantw,  a  source  of  someconfusion  The  united  sees  ^  ^  .  ^^  ^  ^j^  emperor,  and  after- 
have  21  panshes,  96,500  "jhabitante,  one  religious  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^.^^  „f  ^^^      ^^  ^^  ^^^    ^j 

^"^.L'^Z ^r^)  ctel^^"(Venlce.  1857).  n^dicine  at  the  University  of  Padua.    To  complete 

U.  Benigni.  bis  medical  studies  he  proceeded  to  Pans,  and  before 

25  December,  1312,  became  rector  of  the  university 

Marsigli,  Luigi  Ferdinando,  Count  de,  Italian  there.    A  little  later  he  went  to  Avignon  and  obtained 

geographer  and  naturalist,  b.  at  Bologna  10  July,  from  John  XXII  letters  appointing  him  to  one  of  the 

1658;  d.  at  Bologna  1  Nov.,  1730.     He  was  a  member  canonries  of  the  Church  of  Padua  (fi^.  Vat.,  a.  I,  p.  2, 

of  an  old  patrician  family  and  was  educated  in  accord-  n.  1714).     It  was  at  this  time  that  Louis  of  Bavaria 

ance  with  his  rank.     He  supplemented  his  training  by  was  about  to  reopen  against  the  pope  the  strugdes  of 

studying  mathematics,  anatomy,  and  natural  history  Philippe  le  Bel  against  Boniface  VlII.    JohnXXII 

with  the  best  teachers,  and  by  personal  observations,  had  just  denounced  Louis  as  a  supporter  of  heretics, 

As  a  soldier  he  was  sent  by  the  Republic  of  Venice  to  excommunicated  liim,  and  ordered  him  to  cease  within 

Constantinople  in  1679.    There  he  investigated  the  three  months  administering  the  affairs  of  the  Empire, 

condition  of  the  Turkish  forces,  while  at  the  same  time  The  emperor  was  looking  for  help,  and  Marsilius,  who 

he  observed  the  surroundings  of  the  Thracian  Bos-  had  now  begun  the  study  of  tneology,  joined  with 

porus.     Both  of  these  matters  were  fully  reported  by  Jean  de  Jandun,  canon  of  Senlis,  in  offering  him  his 

nim.    In  1680,  when  the  Turks  threatened  to  invade  assistance.    Together  they  composed  the     Defensor 

Hungaiy,  he  offered  his  services  to  the  Emperor  Leo-  pacis''  at  Paris,  and,  about  1326,  setting  out  for  Ger- 

pold.    On2  July,  1083  (the  feast  of  the  Visitation),  he  many,  presented  their  work  to  the  emperor.    Tliey 

fell  wounded  and  was  taken  prisoner.    He  suffered  as  became  his  intimate  friends,  and  on  several  occasions 

a  slave  until  he  was  ransomed  on  25  March,  1684  (the  expounded  their  teaching  to  hinL     What  were  the 

feast  of  the  Annunciation).     His  reflections  on  these  doctrines  of  these  two  Parisian  doctors,  the  very  au- 

two  feast  days  show  his  great  piety:  on  these  days,  he  dacity  of  which  at  first  startled  Louis  of  Bavaria? 

says,  on  which  the  august  protectress  of  the  faithful  They  recalled  the  wildest  theories  of  the  legists  of 

is  particularly  honoured,  she  obtained  for  him  two  Philippe  le  Bel,  and  Csssarian  theologians  like  Guil- 

graces :  salutary  punishment  for  his  past  faults  and  an  laume  Durand  and  the  Doiiiinican  John  of  Paris.   The 

end  to  his  punishment.    After  the  long  war  he  was  t^hings  of  these  last  mentioned  had  been  proposed 

employed  to  arrange  the  boundaries  between  the  Vene-  witn  hesitation,  restrictions,  and  moderation  of  lan- 

tian  Republic,  Turkey,  and  the  Empire.     During  the  guage  which  met  with  no  favour  before  the  rigorous 

war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  he  was  second  in  com-  logic  of  Marsilius  of  Padua.    He  completely  aban- 

ZD^nd  under  Count  d'Arcout  the  fortress  of  Breisach,  doned  the  olden  theocratic  conception  of  society. 


M  A  BflTTiTfTH 


720 


M  A  BflTTiTfTH 


God,  it  is  true,  remained  the  ultimate  source  of  all 
power,  but  it  sprang  immediately  from  the  people, 
who  had  in  addition  the  power  to  legislate.  Law  was 
the  expression,  not  of  the  will  of  the  prince,  as  John  of 
Paris  taught,  but  of  the  will  of  the  people,  who,  by  the 
voice  of  ttie  majority,  could  enact,  interpret,  modify, 
suspend,  and  abrogate  it  at  will.  The  elected  head  of 
the  nation  was  possessed  only  of  a  secondary,  instru- 
mental, and  executive  authority.  We  thus  arrive  at 
the  theory  of  the  ''Contrat  Social''.  In  the  Church, 
according  to  the  ''Defensor  Pacis",  the  faithful  have 
these  two  great  powers — ^the  elective  and  the  legisla- 
tive. They  nominate  the  bishops  and  select  those 
who  are  to  be  ordained.  The  legislative  power  is,  in 
the  Church,  the  right  to  decide  the  meaning  of  the  old 
Scriptures;  that  is  the  work  for  a  general  council,  in 
which  the  right  of  discussion  and  voting  belones  to  the 
fai^ful  or  their  delegates.  The  ecclesiastical  power, 
the  priesthood,  comes  directly  from  God  and  consists 
essentially  in  the  power  to  consecrate  the  Body  and 
Blood  of  Jesus  Christ  and  remit  sins,  or,  rather,  to  de- 
clare them  remitted.  It  is  equal  in  all  priests,  each  of 
whom  can  communicate  it  by  ordination  to  a  subject 
legitimately  proposed  by  the  community.  Luther 
would  have  recognized  his  theories  in  these  heretical 
assertions,  and  the  Gallicans  of  later  times  would  wil- 
lingly have  subscribed  to  such  revolutionary  declara- 
tions. The  two  writers  are  just  as  audacious  in  their 
exposition  of  the  respective  roles  of  the  Empire  and 
the  Church  in  Christian  society  and  of  the  relations  of 
the  two  powers. 

According  to  the  idea  of  the  State  propounded  by 
Marsilius  all  ecclesiastical  power  proceeded  from  the 
community  and  from  the  emperor,  its  principal  repre- 
sentative, there  being  no  limit  to  the  rights  of  the  lay 
State  (cf.  Franck,  ** Journal  des  savants",  March, 
188:3;  No6l  Valois,  "Histoire  litt^raire  de  la  France", 
XXXIII).  As  to  the  Church  it  has  no  visible  head. 
St.  Peter,  he  goes  on,  received  no  more  power  or  au- 
thority than  the  other  Apostles,  and  it  is  uncertain 
that  he  ever  came  to  Rome.  The  pope  has  only  the 
power  of  convoking  an  oecumenical  council  which  is 
superior  to  him.  His  decrees  are  not  binding;  he  can 
impose  on  the  people  only  what  the  generajT  council 
has  decided  ana  interpreted.  The  community  elects 
the  parish  priest  and  supervises  and  controls  the  clergy 
in  tne  penormance  of  their  duties;  in  a  word — ^the 
community  or  the  state  is  everything,  the  Church 
playing  an  entirely  subsidiary  part.  It  cannot  leg- 
islate, adjudicate,  possess  goods,  sell,  or  purchase 
without  authorization;  it  is  a  perpetual  minor.  As 
is  clear,  we  have  here  the  civil  constitution  of  the 
clergy.  Marsilius,  moreover,  shows  himself  a  severe 
and  often  unjust  censor  of  the  abuses  of  the  Roman 
curia.  Regardinj5  the  relations  between  the  emperor 
and  the  pope,  it  is  maintained  in  the  "  Defensor  Pa- 
cis",  that  tne  sovereign  pontiff  has  no  power  over  any 
man,  except  with  the  permission  ot  the  emperor; 
while  the  emperor  has  power  over  the  pope  and  the 
general  council.  The  pontiff  can  act  only  as  the  au- 
thorized agent  of  the  Roman  people;  all  the  goods  of 
the  Church  belong  by  right  to  Caesar.  This  is  clearly 
the  crudest  concept  of  the  pagan  empire,  an  heretical 
assault  on  the  Church's  constitution,  and  a  shame- 
less denial  of  the  rights  of  the  sovereign  pontiff  to  the 
profit  of  Cajsar.  Dante,  the  Ghibelline  theorist,  is 
surpassed.  Arnold  of  Brescia  is  equalled.  William 
Occam  could  never  have  proposed  anj-thing  more 
revolutionary. 

The  pope  was  stirred  bv  these  heretical  doctrines. 
In  the  Bull  of  3  April,  1327,  John  XXII  reproached 
Louis  of  Bavaria  with  having  welcomed  auos  per^ 
ditionis  filios  et  maledictionia  alumnos  (Denifle,  **  Chart ", 
II,  301).  On  9  April  be  suspended  and  exoom- 
municiitod  thi'in  (/' Thesaurus  novus  anccdotorum  ", 
ii,  Gl)2).  A  conmiibhion,  appointed  by  the  pope 
at  AvigMo..,  condemned  on  23  October  five  oi  the 


propositions  of  MaFsilius  in  the  foUo^nng  terms:  ''I) 
Th&Be  reprobates  do  not  hesitate  to  affirm  in  ytha.t  is 
related  of  Christ  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  to  wit 
that  He  paid  tribute  .  .  .  tnat  he  did  so,  not  throu^ 
condescension  and  liberaUty,  but  of  necessity — an 
assertion  that  runs  counter  to  the  teaching  of  the  Gos- 
pel and  the  words  of  our  Saviour.  If  one  were  to  be- 
lieve these  men.  it  would  follow  that  all  the  property 
of  the  Church  belongs  to  the  emperor,  and  that  he 
may  take  possession  of  it  again  as  his  own;  2)  These 
sons  of  Belial  are  so  audacious  as  to  affirm  that  the 
Blessed  Apostle  St.  Peter  received  no  more  authority 
than  the  other  Apostles,  that  he  was  not  appointed 
their  chief,  and  further  that  Christ  gave  no  bead  to 
His  Churcn,  and  appointed  no  one  as  His  vicar  here 
below — all  which  is  contrary  to  the  Apostolic  and 
evangelic  truth;  3)  These  children  of  Belial  do  not  fear 
to  assert  that  the  emperor  has  the  right  to  appoint,  to 
dethrone,  and  even  to  punish  the  pope — ^which  is  un- 
doubtedly repugnant  to  all  right;  4)  These  frivolous 
and  lying  men  say  that  all  priests,  be  they  pc^>es. 
archbishops,  or  simple  priests  are  possessed  of  equal 
authority  and  equal  jurisdiction,  by  the  institution  of 
Christ;  that  whatever  one  possesses  beyond  another  is 
a  concession  of  the  Emperor,  who  can  moreover  re- 
voke what  he  has  granted, — ^which  assertions  are  cer- 
tainly contrary  to  sacred  teaching  and  savour  of 
heresy;  5)  these  blasphemers  say  that  the  universal 
Church  may  not  inflict  a  coactive  penalty  on  any  per- 
son unless  with  the  emperor's  permission.''  All  the 
pontifical  propositions  opposed  to  the  declarations  of 
Marsilius  of  Padua  and  Jean  de  Jandun  are  proved  at 
length  from  the  Scriptures,  traditions,  and  history. 
These  declarations  are  condemned  as  being  contra^ 
to  the  Holy  Scriptures,  dangerous  to  the  Cathohc 
faith,  heretical,  and  erroneous,  and  their  authors  Mar- 
silius and  Jean  as  being  undouotedly  heretics  and  even 
heresiarchs  (Denzingcr,  **  Enchiridion  ",  423,  ed.  Bann- 
wart,  495;  Noel  Valois,  "Histoire  litt^raire  de'la 
France"^  XXXIII,  592). 

As  this  condemnation  was  falling  on  the  bead  of 
Marsilius,  the  culprit  was  coming  to  Italy  in  the  em- 
peror's train  and  ne  saw  his  revolutionary  ideas  being 
put  into  practice.  Louis  of  Bavaria  had  himseu 
crowned  by  Colonna,  syndic  of  the  Roman  people;  he 
dethroned  John  XXlI,  replacing  him  by  the  Friar 
Minor,  Peter  of  Corbara,  whom  he  invested  with  tem- 
poral power.  At  the  same  time  he  bestowed  the  title 
of  imperial  vicar  on  Marsilius  and  permitted  him  to 
persecute  the  Roman  clergy.    The  pope  of  Avignon 

Erotested  twice  against  the  sacrilegious  conduct  of 
oth.  The  triumph  of  Marsilius  was,  however,  of 
short  duration.  Abandoned  by  the  emperor  in  Octo- 
ber, 1336,  he  died  towards  the  end  of  1342.  Among 
his  principal  works,  the  "Defensor  Pads",  which  we 
possess  in  twenty  manuscripts,  has  been  printed  fre- 
quently and  translated  into  various  langua^.  The 
*' Defensor  Minor  "^  a  r6sum6  of  the  precedmg  work, 
compiled  by  Marsihus  himself,  has  just  been  recoverea 
in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford  (Canon.  Misoell.,  188). 
It  throws  light  on  certain  points  in  the  larger  work; 
but  has  not  yet  been  published.  "De  translations 
Imperii  Romani "  has  been  printed  four  tim^i  in  Ger- 
many and  once  in  England.  "De  jurisdictione  Im- 
peratoris  in  causa  matrimoniali "  has  been  edited  by 
Preher  and  by  Goldast  (Monarchia  sancti  Rom.  Im- 
perii, II,  c.  1283).  The  influence  of  the  "Defensor 
pacis  "  was  disastrous,  and  Marsilius  may  well  be  reck- 
oned one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Reformation. 

Baudrillart.  Revue  d'hist.  et  de  Ktt.  reliaimue,  1808.  p.  320; 
Batle,  Diet.  crU..  Ill  (1741),  379-80;  Bbsold  in  Hittor.  ZeU- 
M-Ar.  XXXVI  (1876),  343-7;  Birck.  Maraiglio  von  Pocfua  und 
Alvaro  Pelayo  m>er  Papst  und  Kaiaer,  Kirche  und  Stoat  in 
Jahrtber.  kith.  BuraerBchule,  Mulheim  a  Rh.  (18S8);  BT7x<jnm, 
ffUl.  Univ.  Paris,  IV  (1669).  974-5;  CAflTBLumi,  La  doitrima 
ddlo  9tato  in  Marsiglio  da  Padova  (Asti.  1898) ;  Dbniflb,  Chart, 
univert.,  II  (Paris,  1891).  158,  303;  DdLLXNOXR,  PapMfabein 
MiUel.  (1863).  92-<J;  DtiFW.  B.  a.  •..  XFV  (1701).  226-30: 
FABRiaus,  B.  M.  oe.  V  (1786),  102-3;  Fl»rr,  Food.  tMoL,  III 


L  ^ 


(Faiia,  isse).  iss-e,  lO^Soo;  tiuji<r*.Rffon«.  el  Public.  Hurv-    Ute"AiuuJesOrdinu8.Benedicti"  (Fftria,  1739)  islhe  - 

Sh  (IBM),  135-51:  QiiAuaE,  TWtor.  IV  (l863).41Si  HonAOT,      __-t  of  MarOnn  ainnn 


thiu  .  .  .  («onlaub«i.l8B21;  L.vbamc*,  W™lw  dflPiKli>i.ti      SfLj^ffiS*  AoHn''''*'*^"  **  *»'^-*""  (»"°"'''  »>^ 

riftmolore  poWtM   «   r^wtOM  dei    ««.  ATV  (Paduii,  1882):      •^•™'  l"""'-  "S-™-  

Jforivlia  da  Pndoin  >  JtfofliRO  LiUm  in  ^/woM^Btatoffii.  XU  i'ATHICTOS  BcHIAQER. 


S.fhS 


f!_20B-2T;   Hetib,  Elud*  mr  Sf orn(«  dn  Padmu.  tA/olog. 

-.  .    .-.      l,uIs.l870):Nl^n^  JlfnrnlnmmPodBa  HUth*,  SaINT    (Gr.  UipSa),    from   the   Aramaic, 

H-  "ji,'^r,''^io-oT^iu''iM.'r-J-  '  '"'y  i"  I""^^'  ^'  58-12;  and  John,  xi;  lii, 

o^*uu.u,  uM«u    0 'cii«m'n«irir*(T°p»(iir'(l'i8a"'ll2-a:  sqq.   TheAiamaioformoccurHinaNabatffianinsrrip- 

Tlioiiuia  Url,  airh.Msi.  Ar.  /rYmcoM.,  11  (Rome.  18S2),'I47-  tion  foundatPuteoIi,aiid  now  in  the  Naples  Museum: 

i?i(.'tofr  SrS'fi-^;  ^Jcmi'-  v!I.?SMli'jv«™!4.i^'  »'  "*  ^t*^  *■  °-  ^  (Corpua  Inscr.  8emit.,  158);  also  in 

LV  riBSl)'  S53-9'  Whabtok  in  iHnvw  g  v   (17*4)   II  iiVSo'  *  Pahnyxene  inacription,  where  the  Greek  translation 

Wmti,  ZuMarrikuM  von  Padua  ia  HutoT.Jahrb.,  XIV  a^'Si),  bos  the  form  liipeiir,  A.  D.  176.    Mary,  Martha,  and 

•'^-  J  a*iEunreB  LaiaruB  are  represented  by  St.  John  as  living  at  Beth- 
ia,  but  St.  Luke  would  eeem  to  imply  that  they 
Te,  at  least  at  one  time,  living  in  GuIIee;  he  does 
t  mention  the  name  of  the  town,  but  it  may  have 

d.20  June,  ITSOiatSaint-GermainHJea-Pr^oearPariBi  been  Magdala,  and  we  ehould  thus,  supposing  Maiy 

In  1672  he  entered  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St-IUmy  of  Beth^a  and  Mary  Magdalene  to  be  tne  same  per- 

at  Reims, a  house  of  the  Congregation  of  Sunt-Maur.  son,  miderstand  the  appellative  "Magdalene".    The 

.  OningtohiHextraordinary  eoIJ  in  the  pursuit  of  leam-  words  of  St.  John  (xi,  1)  seem  to  imaly  a  change  of 

ing,  however,  he  was  sent  by  his  superiors  to  Saint-  residence  for  the  family.    It  ia  possible,  too,  that  St. 

Germain  to  receive  further  training  under  the  direo-  Luke  has  displaced  the  incident  referred  to  in  c.  x. 

tion  of  d'Ach^ry  and  Mabillon,  and  also  to  assist  in  tiie  The  likeness  between  the  pictures  of  Martha  presented 

preliminary  work  connected  with  the  new  edition  of  by  Luke  and  John  ia  ve^  remarkable.    The  familiar 

the  Fathers.    Thenceforth  he  devoted  his  whole  life  to  intereourse  between  the  Saviour  of  the  world  and  the 

a  most  profound  study  of  subjects  connected  with  hia-  humble  family  which  St.  Luke  depicts  is  dwelt  on  by  St. 

ton"  and  liturgy,  reaioing  in  various  monasteries  of  his  John  when  he  tells  us  that  "  Jesua  loved  Martha,  and 

order,  eepeGiaJty  at  Rouen,  where  he  received  the  sym-  her  siJ^ter  Mary,  and  Lazarus"  (xi,  5).     A^in,  the 

pathetic  co-operation  of  the  prior  of  Sainte-Marthe.  picture  of  Martlia's  anxiety  (John,  xi,  20-21,  30)  ac- 

Even  in  his  student  years  he  had  shown  indefatigable  cords  with  the  picture  of  ner  who  was  "busy  about 

■eal  in  gathering  from  widely  various  sources  every-  much  servinff"  (Luke,  x,  40);  so  also  in  John,  xii,  2; 

thing  ti^t  might  be  helpful  in  elucidating  the  Rule  of  "They  made  him  a  supper  there:  and  Martha  served." 

St.  Benedict;  the  fruit  of  his  labours  he  published  in  But  St.  John  has  given  us  a  glimpse  of  the  other  and 

1690  as  "Conimeotarius  in  regulam  S.  P.  Benedicti  deeper  side  of  her  character  when  he  depicts  her  grow- 

lltteralia,   morahs,   hiatoricus  ex   variis  antiquorum  ingfaithinChrist'sDivinity  (xi, 20-27), a  faith  which 

scriptorum  commentationibus,  actis  sanctorum,  mo-  was  the  oeeaaion  of  the  words:  "I  am  the  resurrection 

nasticis  ritibus  aliisque  monumentia  cum  editia  turn  and  the  life."    The  Evangelist  has  beautifully  indi- 

manuscriptisconcinnatus"  (Paris,  1660;  16S5).    Dur-  cated  the  change  that  came  over  Martha  after  that 

ing  the  same  year  he  issued  as  a  supplement  to  this:  interview:"WhenBhehadsaid  these  things,  she  went, 

"De  antitjuis  mbnachorum  ritibus  libri  S  collect!  ex  and  colled  her  sister  Mary  secretly,  saying:  The  Master 

variis  ordtnarii3,conBUetudiDariisiituaUbusqueinaDU-  is  come,  and  calleth  for  thee." 

scriptis"  (Lyons,  1690;  Venice,  1765).    These  were  Difficulties  have  been  raised  about  the  lost  supper 

followed  by  other  liturgical  works,  as  "  De  antiquis  at  Bethania.    St.  John  aeeras  to  put  it  six  days  before 

ecclesis  ritibus  Ubri  4"  (Rouen,  1700-2)  and  "Trac-  the  Paach,  and,  so  some  conclude,  in  the  bouse  of 

tatus  de  antiqua  ecclesice  disciplina  in  divinis  officiis  Martha:  while  the  Svnoptic  account  puts  it  two  days 

oelebrandis"  (Lyons,  1706);   Ekewiae  "De  antiquis  beforethePasch,  ana  in  the  house  of  Simon  the  Leper. 

ecciesis  ritibua  editio  aecunda"   (4  vols.,  Antwerp,  We  need  not  try  to  avoid  this  difficulty  by  asserting 

1736-8;  Veoioe,  1763-4;  1783;  Baseano,  1788),  in  which  that  there  were  two  suppers;  for  St.  John  does  not  say 

he  collated  and  expanded  his  earlier  writing.   "Vete-  that  the  supper  took  place  six  days  before,  but  only 

rum  scriptorum  et  monumentorum  morahum,  hiato-  that  Cbriat  arrived  in  Bethania  six  daya  before  the 

riconuo,  d<^piaticorum  ad  roe  eccleeiasticas  monas-  Pasch;   nor  does  be  sa)[  that  it  was  in  the  house  of 

ticas  et  politicas  illustrandas  collectio"  (Rouen,  1700)  Martha.    We  are  surely  justified  in  arguing  that,  since 

is  a  continuation  of  the  "  Spicilegium"  of  Mart^ne's  St.  Matthew  and  St.  irfark  place  the  scene  in  the  house 

teacher,  d'AchSry.    He  also  wrote  "I.a  vie  du  v&i£ra-  of  Simon,  St.  John  must  be  understood  to  say  the 

ble   Claude   Martin,    religieux    b^n^lictin"    (Tours,  same;  it  remains  to  be  proved  that  Martha  could  not 

1697;  Rouen,  169S);  "ImperialisStabulensismonaste-  "serve"  in  Simon's  house. 

rii  jura  propugnata  adversua  iniquas  diaceptationes"  For  St.  Hartb^'n  coonenoa  with  Uarwllfla,  He  Ada  SS.; 

(CoW  1730);   „dth.  ■■  Hjto™  ^  llbb™,  d.  J".  •'S^Zlk'A^.^^Z^:^"?^^-^^ 

Harmoutier",  first  edited  in  1874  and  187&  by  Cheva-  ^>  •  oii-ciT. 

lier  as  Vols.  XXIV  and  XXV  of  "M6moii«8  de  la  Ucqh  Pope. 
sociSt^arcbteliwquedeTouraiae".   In  1708  Marine 

and  his  fellow  Benedictine,  Ursin  Durand,  were  oom-  Htrtial,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Limoges  in  the  third 

missioned  to  ransack  the  archives  of  France  and  Bel-  oentury.     We  have  no  accurate  information  as  to  the 

giumfor  materials  for  the  forthcoming  revised  edition  cngin,  dates  of  birth  and  death,  or  the  acts  of  this 

of  the  "  Gallia  Christiana",  proposed  by  the  prior  of  bishop.  *  All  that  we  know  of  him  we  have  from  Greg- 

Sointe-Harthe.     The  numerous  documents  gathered  ory  oc  Tours  and  it  may  be  aummed  up  thus:  Under 

by  them  from  about  eight  hundred  abbeys  and  one  the  consulate  of  Dedua  and  of  Gratua  seven  bishops 

hundred  cathedrals  were  incorporated  in  the  above-  were  sent  from  Rome  to  Gaul  to  preach  the  Gceoel- 

mentioned  work  or  in  the  five  volumes  of  the  "The-  Gatien  to  Tours,  Trophimua  to  Aries,  Paul  to  "Nar- 

saurua  noyus  anecdotorum"  (Paris,  1717).    The  re-  bonne,  Satuminua  to  Toulouse,  Denia  to  Paris,  Aus- 

sults  of  a  journey  made  through  the  Netbertanda  and  tromoine  to  Clermont,  and  Martial  to  Limt^ee.   Har- 

Gerrnany  for  the  purpose  of  documentary  research  tial  seems  to  have  been  acccanpanied  by  twoprleflta 

were  embodied  by  the  two  scholars  in  the  nine  folk)  brought  by  him  from  the  Orient,  so  he  himseff  may 

volumea  of  "Vetermn  Bcriptorum  et  monumentorum  have  been  born  in  that  region.    He  succeeded  in  oon- 

eccleeiatticorum  et  dogmaticorum  amplisaima  col-  verting  the  inhabitants  of  Limoges  to  the  true  Faith, 

lectio"  (Paris,  1724-^).    Finally,  the  sixth  volume  <rf  aud  bia  memory  has  always  b«en  venerated  tfaiaie. 
LX.— « 


MABTIALL                             722  MABTIANAY 

Very  early,  the  popular  imagination,  which  so  give;  later  on,  he  obtained  a  canonry  in  the  church 
easily  creates  legends,  transformed  Martial  into  an  of  St.  Peler  at  the  neighbouring  city  of  Lille.  Owing 
apostle  of  the  first  century.  Sent  into  Gaul  by  St.  to  the  disturbed  state  of  the  country,  he  was  not  inr 
I^ter  himself  he  is  said  to  have  evangelized  not  only  stalled  until  1579.  He  lived  to  enjoy  his  dignity  for 
the  Province  of  Limoges  but  all  Aquitaine.  He  per-  ei^teen  years.  It  was  during  his  residenoe  at  Lou- 
formed  many  miracles,  among  others  the  raising  of  a  vam  that  he  brought  out  the  two  chief  literary  works 
dead  man  to  life,  by  touching  him  with  a  rod  that  for  which  he  is  known.  The  first  of  these,  "  Treatise  of 
St.  Peter  had  given  him.  A  "Life  of  St.  Martial"  at-  the  Cross"  (Antwerp,  1564),  was  a  defence  of  the 
tributed  to  Bishop  Aurelian,  his  successor,  in  reality  honour  paid  by  Catholics  to  the  Cross,  and  he  dedi- 
the  work  of  an  eleventh-century  forger,  develops  cateS  it  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  being  "emboldened  upcm 
this  legendary  account.  According  to  it  Martial  waa  her  keeping  the  image  of  a  crucifix  in  her  chapel", 
bom  in  Palestine,  was  one  of  the  seventy-two  dis-  He  was  attacked  by  James  Calfhill,  the  Calvmist, 
ciples  of  Christ,  assisted  at  the  resurrection  of  Lasa-  which  brought  forth  his  "Reply"  (Louvain,  1566). 
rus,  was  at  the  Last  Supper,  was  baptized  by  St.  He  also  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  "Tonsure  of  CleriLs", 
Peter,  etc.                                                               .  which  is  still  in  MS. 

This  tissue  of  fables  which  fills  long  pages  was  re-  Coopbr  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v.;  Gillow,  BibL  Diet.  Eng. 

^ived  with  favour  not  only  by  the  unletter^but  also  ^ii;i,^^iJ§Sk.!TA'^^T^.^-^'^^^^^' 

by  tlie  learned  of  past  centuries  and  even  of  modem  113.  prm,  />«  uiuat.  Ana.  genpt.;  Hakdboceur,  UUunrt  du 

times.    For  a  long  time  however  it  has  been  exposed  Collioe  Anglais  it  Douai  (Reims,  1898);  Camic,  Life  of  AUm 

to  well-warranted  discussion  that  St.  Martial's  biog-  (London,  1908).                                 Bernard  Ward. 
raphy  is  linked  with  the  great  question  of  the  aposto- 

licityofcertain  Churches  of  Gaul.  As  to  what  concerns  Martianay,  Jean,  b.  30  Dec.,  1647,  at  Saint-Sever- 

St.  Martial,  it  has  been  clearly  proved  that  we  must  Cap,  Diocese  of  Aire;  d.  16  June,  1717..  at  Saint-Ger- 

honour  in  him  not  one  of  the  seventy-two  disciples  of  main-des-Pr^,  Paris.    He  entered  tlie   Benedictine 

Christ  but  the  first  preacher  of  the  Christian  faith  in  Congregation  of  St.  Maur  at  an  early  age,  and  de- 

tho  Province  of  Limoges,  and  that  we  should  not  go  be-  vot^  himself  to  Biblical  studies,    fle  is  spoken  of 

yond  this.    Mgr  Buissas,  Bishop  of  Limoges,  haying  repeatedly  in  the  Bene<lictine  annals  as  "  most  learned 

petitioned  the  Holy  See  in  1853  that  the  most  ancient  in  Greek  and  Hebrew",  and  he  was  ever  engaged  in 

of  his  predecessors  should  not  be  deprived  of  the  perfecting   his   knowledge.    He   spent   over    thirty 

honours  so  long  accorded  him  as  one  of  the  seventy-  years  in  searching  the  libraries  of  France  for  informa- 

twodisciplesofChrist,  the  Sacred  Congregation,  unani-  tion,  particularly  with  regard  to  the  works  of  St. 

mously  on  8  April,  1854,  and  Pius  IX  in  his  decree  of  Jerome.    A  circular  letter  of  Martianay's  is  still  ex- 

8  May  following,  refused  absolutelv  to  bestow  on  St.  tant,  in  which  he  begs  the  co-operation  of  all  the 

Martial  the  title  of  disciple  of  Christ  and  confined  Benedictine  abbeys  in  the  work  of  producing  a  critioal 

themselves  to  saying  that  the  veneration  that  was  ao-  and  complete  edition  of  Jerome's  writings.     Ziegel- 

corded  him  was  of  very  ancient  origin.    Two  Epistles  bauer  says  (op.  cit.  below,  II,  58)  that  Martianay 

inserted  in  the  Bibliotheca  Patrum  are  attributed  to  completed  witnout  aid  the  gigantic  task  of  editing 

St.  Martial,  but  they  are  apocryphal.    The  Church  St.  Jerome's  works;  this  is  true  if  we  excei>t  the  "  Di- 

celebrates  his  feast  on  30  June.  vina  Bibliotheca",  or  Hieronymian  edition  of  the 

Arbelix)t,  Documents  inidita  sur  Vapoatolat  de  St.  Martial  et  Vulgate.    This  work  was  executed  with  the  coUabo- 

surVapo8toliciifde9ioiiae8deFmru:e{?Bjra^mi)\  ration  of  Dom  Ant.  Pouget.     Martianay's  fame  as 

Vita  S.  Martialts  apostoh,  from  a  MS.  in  the  Bntish  Museum  (no  -j -x.-  ^  a  a.    Torr^no  Vioa  unfr^rf  tmaf^lv  anhnoorl  Kie  f». 

place  or  date) ;  Couture  in  Rev.  de  Gaaeogne,  XXII,  xii  ( Auch,  editor  Of  St.  Jerome  has  untortunately  eclipsed  bis  re- 

1881),  294-8;  Baronius,  Ann.  (1605),  1032,  1-3;  Bellkt,  St.  pute  as  a  Bibucal  scholar.     He  undertook  the  work  of 

-,    ....    J  r-         /«__:_  ,ooox.T         r              ,!._/-  ....      ^.    x             '      '    bccause  hc  fclt  tfac  pressliig 

"'  who  devoted  themselves 
nself  taught  Scripture  at 
isonne.    In  addition,  he 

^S-A4rDis6Hlupf^Vl'av6tre  S.  Martial  (Limoges,   1893);  PUDUsnea  many  cnucai  worKS  on  BibUcalquestions; 

Duchesne,  s.  Martial  de  Limogea  in  Ann.  du  Midi,  IV  (Tou-  he  ^Tote  a  treatise  on  inspiration  against  Richard 

Jouso.  1892),  289-330;  Laplaone.  L\apoMolat  de  ^.Martial  gimon:  aiso  a  vindication  of  the  Hebrew  text  and  of 

g'l&°rii/fril.n^"/u"tf'iat'^iTToX^:TmC  the  chronology.given  in  the  Vulgate     Martianay  al«> 

also  A  naieda  BoUandiana  (Brussels),  I.  41 1-46;  XII.  466-«;  treated  of  the  history  of  the  canon ;  the  French  versions 

XIII,  404-5;  XIV,  328;  XV,  87-8;  XVI.  601-6^  of  the  New  Testament— the  "Tentamen  Versionis": 

Leon  Clugnet,  ^^^d  wrote  a  treatise  on  "The  Method  of  explaining 

Holy  Scripture".  In  1711  he  published  the  life  of  a 
Martiall  (or  Marshall),  John,  b.  in  Worcester-  nun  of  the  monastery  of  Beaume. 
shire^  1534,  d.  at  LiUe,  3  April,  1597.  He  was  one  of  In  one  sense  it  may  be  said  that  Martianay's  most 
the  SIX  companions  associated  with  Dr.  Allen  in  the  important  contribution  to  Biblical  criticism  was  his 
foundation  of  the  English  College  at  Douai  in  1568.  edition  of  the  "  Divina  Bibliotheca  ".  or  St.  Jerome's 
He  received  his  education  at  Winchester  (1545-49)  text  of  the  Vulgate.  It  was  a  bold  tning  at  that  date 
and  New  College,  Oxford  (1549-50),  at  which  latter  to  attempt  to  reproduce  St.  Jerome's  text,  for  the 
place,  after  a  residence  of  seven  years,  he  graduated  as  materials  were  comparatively  scanty,  and,  considering 
bachelor  of  civil  law  in  1556.  He  next  accepted  a  the  means  at  his  disposal,  Martianay's  work  was  a 
post  as  assistant  master  at  his  old  school  at  Win-  triumph,  not  only  of  industry',  but  of  critical  acumen. 
Chester  under  Thomas  Hyde;  but  soon  after  the  ac-  He  tells  us  at  the  close  of  his  prolegomena  what  manu- 
cession  of  Elizal)eth,  both  of  them  found  it  necessary  to  scripts  he  had  at  his  disposal,  six  m  all,  the  most  im- 
quit  the  country.  Marshall  retired  to  Louvain,  where  portant  of  which  was  the  famous  MS.  Sangermanensis. 
a  numl)er  of  English  Catholic  exiles  were  residing.  Martianay  published  (1695)  a  separate  collation  of  this 
Thence  he  removed  to  Douai,  when  he  joined  the  new  text  in  his  edition  of  the  old  Latin  version  of  St. 
universitv  recentlv  founded  there,  and  graduated  Matthew's  Gospel  and  of  the  Epistle  of  St.  James. 
B.D.  in  i567.  Thus  it  came  about  that  when  Allen  This  collation,  reproduced  by  Bianchini  in  his  "  Evan- 
arrived  to  found  his  new  college,  Marshall  was  already  gelium  Quadniplex  ",  was  faulty,  and  the  student  will 
in  residence,  and  willingly  attached  himself  to  the  new  find  a  correction  of  it  in  the  nrst  volume  of  Words- 
foundation,  which  was  destined  to  play  so  important  worth  and  White, "  Old  Latin  Biblical  Texts  ".  Ziegel- 
a  part  in  English  Catholic  affairs  in  the  future.  He  bauer  mentions  also  another  work  of  Martianay^  never 
did  not,  however,  remain  long,  chiefly  Ix^cause  of  the  printed,  namely,  an  edition  of  the  Vulgate  with  va- 
aumJhiess  of  ihe  allowance  wliich  it  was  possible  to  riant  readings  suggested  by  the  Hebrew  and  Greelr 


MABTIAHUS 


723 


ISARTIH 


teztfl.  and  furnished  with  a  series  of  references  to  the 
parallel  passages.    He  also  published  the  three  psal- 
ters of  St.  Jerome;  these  anpeared  in  French.    Lastly 
should  be  mentioned  his  "New  Testament  in  French 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1712). 

ZiEOELBAUBR,  Hitt.  Tei.  III.  Ord.  S.  Bened.  (Augsbuis,  1754) ; 
Tasmn.  Hi8i.  m.  da  laConqriq.  de  <SY-Afaur  (Pam.  1770),  382- 
97;  OS  Lama,  Bibl.  dea  icnvatna  de  la  conarig.  de  Saint-Maur 
(Paris,  1882). 

Hugh  Pope. 

Martianas  OapeUa,  Roman  writer  of  Africa  who 
flourished  in  the  fifth  century.  His  work  is  entitled: 
"De  nuptiis  philologia)  ct  Mercurii".  It  was  com- 
posed after  the  taking  of  Rome  by  Alaric  (410)  and  be- 
tore  the  conquest  of  Africa  by  the  Vandals  (429).  The 
author,  a  native  of  Madaura,  Apuleius's  birthplace, 
had  settled  in  Carthage  where  he  earned  a  precarious 
living  as  a  solicitor.  He  proposed  to  write  an  ency- 
clopedia of  the  liberal  culture  of  the  time,  dedicated  to 
his  son  Martianus,  and  this  work  he  planned  like  the 
ancient "  Satyra  ",  that  is  a  romance  which  was  a  med- 
ley of  prose  and  verse.  The  original  conception  was 
both  bizarre  and  entertaining.  Mercurj'  hixs  grown 
weary  of  celibacy  but  has  been  refused  by  Wisdom, 
Divination  and  Soul.  Apollo  speaks  favourably  of  a 
charming  and  wise  young  maiacn,  Pliilologia.  The 
gods  give  their  consent  to  this  union  provided  that  the 
betrothed  be  made  divine.  Philologia  agrees.  Her 
mother  Reflection,  the  Muses,  the  Cardinal  Virtues, 
the  three  Graces  surround  her  and  bedeck  her.  Phi- 
lologia drinks  the  cup  of  ambrosia  which  makes  her 
immortal  and  is  introduced  to  the  jgods.  The  wed- 
ding gifts  are  examined.  Phoebe  oners,  in  her  hus- 
band's name,  a  number  of  young  women  who  will 
be  Philologia*s  slaves.  These  women  are  the  7  libe- 
ral arts:  Grammar,  Dialectics,  Rhetoric,  Geometry, 
Arithmetic,  Astronomy  and  Harmony.  The  first 
and  second  books  of  "De  Nuptiis"  contain  this  alle- 
gory. Of  the  remaining  books  each  one  treats  of  an 
art.  Art  herself  gives  an  exposition  of  the  principles 
of  the  science  she  governs.  Finally  night  has  come. 
Architecture  and  Medicine  are  indeed  present,  but  as 
they  care  for  nothing  but  earthly  things,  they  are  con- 
demned to  remain  silent.  Harmony  escorts  the  bride 
to  the  bridal  chamber  while  nuptial  songs  are  sung. 
Allegor>',  as  we  see,  predominates  in  this  work.  In  it, 
Martianus  Capella  notably  departs  from  his  model 
Apuleius  and  comes  nearer  medieval  times.  While 
the  Psyche  of  Apuleius  is  a  living  person  and  her  story 
a  charming  one,  the  personages  of  Martianus  Capella 
are  cold  abstractions.  His  style  also  suffers  in  the  at- 
tempt to  imitate  Apueleius,  for  he  exaggerates  the  de- 
fects, incongruities,  and  pedantry  of  tne  latter,  and  js 
wanting  in  his  c|ualities  of  grace,  clearness  and  bril- 
liancy. His  verse  is  better  than  his  prose,  as  is  gener- 
ally the  case  among  the  decadent  'writers. 

The  subject  treated  belongs  to  a  tradition  which 
goes  back  to  Varro's  **  Disci pflnse".  The  allusion  to 
Srchitecture  and  medicine  in  Martianus  Capella  is  an 
idea  borrowed  from  Varro  who  mentioned  these  arts  in 
his  book  in  connection  ^^ith  the  other  seven.  And  be- 
fore this,  in  a  celebrated  passage  in  **De  OflBciis"  (I, 
§  161)  Cicero  opposes  medicine  and  architecture  to  tne 
precepts  which  lead  to  the  making  of  an  honest  man, 
while  placing  them  amon^  the  lilx>ral  arts.  In  Mar- 
tianus CapeUa's  day  architecture  and  medicine  were 
no  longer  taught  in  the  schools,  the  curriculum  of 
which  was  reduced  to  rhetoric  and  its  accompanying 
arts.  St.  Augustine,  broader  minded,  mentions  archi- 
tecture and  medicine  but  does  not  group  them  with 
the  other  arts.  Moreover^  even  in  Varro,  philosophy 
is  represented  only  by  dialectics.  There  again,  St. 
Augustine  attempted,  but  vainly,  to  broaden  the  nar- 
row school  plan  and  to  introduce  philosophy.  The 
encyclopedia  of  human  knowledge  n^maineii  in  medie- 
val days  as  it  had  been  represented  to  be  by  the  Ma- 
daura barrister.     Each  lxx)k  is  an  extract  from,  or  a 


compilation  of,  earlier  authors:  book  V  (rhetorie). 
from  Aquila  Romanus  and  Fortunatianus;  book  Vl 
(geometr}',  including  geograplw),  from  Solinus  and. 
in  an  ^brid^ed  form,  from  Pliny  the  Elder;  ana 
book  X  (music) ,  from  Aristide's  *  *  Quintilian  ".  Varro 
must  also  have  been  largely  drawn  upon,  and,  possibly , 
through  Varro,  Nigidius  Figulus,  for  data  of  a  religious 
and  astrological  order.  This  encyclopedic  work  of 
Martianus  Capella  is  one  of  the  books  which  exercised 
a  lasting  influence.  As  early  as  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century,  another  African,  Fulgentius,  composed  a 
work  modelled  on  it.  In  the  sixth  century  Gregory  of 
Tours  tells  us  that  it  became,  in  a  way,  a  school  man- 
ual C*  Hist.  Franc",  X,  449, 14  Amdt).  It  was  com- 
mented upon  by  Scotus  Erigena,  Hadoard,  Alexander 
Neckam,  Remy  of  Auxerre.  Copies  of  '*  De  Nuptiis" 
increased  in  number;  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century  Securus  Memor  Felix,  a  professor  of 
rhetoric,  received  the  text  in  Rome.  The"  book, 
which  is 'thoroughly  pagan  and  in  which  one  vainly 
seeks  any  allusion  to  Christianity,  was  the  mentor  of 
teachers  and  su^ested  the  figures  of  the  seven  arte 
which  adorn  the  m^ades  of  the  cathedrals  of  the  time. 
A  critical  e<lition  was  published  at  Leipzig  in  1866. 

Sandys,  A  hiMoryofclasncnl  scholarship,  T  (Cftmbridfre,  1903), 
228 ;  Th  u  i  jn  ,  Die  ff  fitter  dca  Martian  us  Capella  und  der  Brontelah 
her  von  Piaccnza  (Giesaen.  1906);  Nordkn,  Die  arUike  KunM^ 
proa,  (Leipzig  1898),  11,  670;  Luedecke,  De  Af .  C.  libra  sexlo 
(Gottingen,  1862). 

Paul  Lejay. 

Martigny,  Jobeph-Alexandre,  canon  of  Belley, 
archa&ologist;  b.  at  Sauvemy,  Ain,  in  1808;  d.  at  Bel- 
ley,  19  August,  1880.  He  studied  at  the  petit  s&mv' 
yiaire  of  Belley  and  became  a  professor  there  in  1832. 
He  was  curate  later  at  Cressy  and  afterwards  parish 
priest  of  Arl)ignieu.  Encouraged  by  his  bishop  and 
the  learned  Ahh6  Greppo,  who  was  distinguished  for 
his  lalx)urs  in  promoting  a  revival  of  religious  archeeol- 
ogy  in  France,  he  devoted  his  leisure  hours  to  the  pur- 
suit of  that  science.  He  was  appointed  cur6  of  Bag^le- 
Chiitel  and  made  an  honorary  canon  in  1849.  From 
that  time  dates  his  acquaintance  with  J.  B.  de  Rossi, 
to  whom  he  became  closely  attached  by  reason  of  his 
work  in  the  domain  of  Christian  archseology.  Thourfi 
living  in  a  retire<l  locality  he  collected  the  matter  lor 
his  "  Dictionnaire  des  antiquit^s  chr6tiennes",  which 
appeared  in  1865,  the  first  work  of  its  kind,  giving 
evidence  of  vast  enidition,  too  vast  perhaps,  for  the 
articles,  so  varied  in  matter  and  character,  are  all 
from  the  pen  of  this  learned  country  priest.  This 
work  was  soon  taken  up  again  by  Smith  in  England 
and  Kraus  in  Germany.  Martigny  published  a  cor- 
rected edition  of  his  dictionary  in  1877.  The  pub- 
lisher, Hachette,  had  intended  the  work  to  be  a  part  of 
the  '*  Dictionnaire  des  antiquit<5s  grecques  et  romainea" 
of  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  out  its  importance  made  it 
an  independent  work.  Mgr.  Martigny  published  also  a 
French  edition  of  the  "  Bullettino  di  archteologia  cria- 
tiana"  of  de  Rossi.  His  writings  include  beside  his 
"Dictionnaire  des  antiquit^s  chr^tiennes"  (Paris, 
1865;  2nd  edition,  1877)  various  articles  in  *' Annales 
de  I'Acad^mie  de  Macon",  1851,  sqq.,  etc. 

Polybiblion,  XXIX,  1880,  p.  376-76. 

R.  Maere. 

Martin  I,  Saint,  Pope,  martyr,  h.  at  Todi  on  the 
Tiber,  son  of  one  Fabricius;  elected  pope  at  Rome, 
21  July,  649,  to  succeed  Theodore  I:  a.  at  Cherson  in 
the  present  peninsula  of  Krym,  16  Sept.,  655,  after  a 
reign  of  six  years,  one  month  and  twenty-six  days,  hav- 
ing ordained  eleven  priests,  five  deacons,  and  thuly- 
three  bishops.  5  July  is  the  date  commonly  given 
for  his  election,  but  21  July  (given  by  Lobkowits, 
"Statistik  der  Papste".  Freiburg,  1905)  seems  to 
correspond  better  with  the  date  of  death  and  term  of 
reign  (Duchesne,  "T.ib.  Pont.",  I,  386):  his  feast  is  on 
12  Nov.    The  Greeks  honour  him  on  13  April  and  I^ 


ISARTIH 


724 


MABTXM 


Sept.,  the  Muscovites  on  14  April.  In  the  hymns  of 
the  Office  the  Greeks  style  him  infaUibilU  fidei  rrtofTM- 
ter  because  he  was  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  in  the 
See  of  Rome  (Nilles,  "  Calendarium  Manuale '',  Inns- 
bruck, 1896,  I,  336).  Martin,  one  of  the  noblest  fig- 
ures in  the  long  line  of  Roman  pontiffs  (Hodgkin, 
"Italy",  VI,  268).  was,  according  to  his  biographer 
Theodore  (Mai,  *^Spicil.  Rom.*',  IV,  293)  of  noble 
birth,  a  great  student,  of  commanding;  intelligence,  of 

Profound  learning,  and  of  great  chanty  to  the  poor, 
iazza,  II,  457  states  that  he  belonged  to  the  Order  of 
St.  Basil.  He  governed  the  Church  at  a  time  when 
the  leaders  of  the  Monothelite  heresy,  supported  by 
the  emperor,  were  making  most  strenuous  efforts  to 

?)read  their  tenets  in  the  East  and  the  West.  Pope 
heodore  had  sent  Martin  as  apocrvsiary  to  Constan- 
tinople to  make  arrangements  for  the  canonical  depo- 
sition of  the  heretical  patriarch,  Pyrrhus.  After  nis 
election  Martin  had  himself  consecrated  without  wait- 
ing for  the  imperial  confirmation,  and  soon  called  a 
council  in  the  Lateran  at  which  one  himdred  and  five 
bishops  met.  Five  sessions  were  held  on  5,  8,  17,  19, 
and  31  Oct.,  649  (Hefele,  "  Conciliengeschichte ",  III, 
190) .  The  "  Ecthesis  "  of  Heraclius  and  the  "  Typus  " 
of  Constans  II,  were  rejected;  nominal  excommunica- 
tion was  passed  against  Sergius,  P\Trhus,  and  Paul  of 
Constantinople,  Cyrus  of  Alexandria,  and  Theodore  of 
Pharan  in  Arabia;  twenty  canons  were  enacted  defin- 
ing the  Catholic  doctrine  on  the  two  wills  in  Christ. 
The  decrees  signed  by  the  pope  and  the  assembled 
bishops  were  sent  to  the  other  bishops  and  the  faithful 
of  the  world  together  with  an  encyclical  of  Martin. 
The  Acts  with  a  Greek  translation  were  also  sent  to 
the  Emperor  Constans  II. 

The  pope  appointed  John,  Bishop  of  Philadelphia. 
as  his  vicar  in  the  East  with  necessary  instructions  ana 
full  authority.  Bishop  Paul  of  Thessalonica  refused  to 
recall  heretical  letters  previously  sent  to  Rome  and 
added  others, — ^he  was,  therefore,  formally  excom- 
municated anid  deposed.  The  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, Paul,  had  urged  the  emperor  to  use  drastic 
means  to  force  the  pope  and  the  Western  bishops  at 
least  to  subscribe  to  the  "  Typus  **.  The  emperor  sent 
Olympius  as  exarch  to  Italy^  where  he  arrived  while 
the  council  was  still  in  session.  Olympius  tried  to 
create  a  faction  among  the  Fathers  to  favour  the  views 
of  the  emperor,  but  without  success.  Then  upon  pre- 
tence of  reconciliation  he  wished  to  receive  holy  com- 
munion from  the  hands  of  the  pontiff  with  the  inten- 
tion of  slaying  him.  But  Divine  Providence  protected 
the  pope,  and  Olympius  left  Rome  to  fight  against  the 
Saracens  in  Sicily  and  died  there.  Constans  II, 
thwarted  in  his  plans,  sent  as  exarch  Theodore  Callio- 
pas  with  orders  to  bring  Martin  to  Constantinople. 
Ualliopas  arrived  in  Rome,  15  June,  653,  and,  entering 
the  Lateran  Basilica  two  days  later,  informed  the 
clergy  that  Martin  had  been  deposed  as  an  unworthy 
intruder,  that  he  must  be  brought  to  Constantinople 
and  that  another  was  to  be  chosen  in  his  place.  The 
pope,  wishing  to  avoid  the  shedding  of  human  blood, 
torbade  resistance  and  declared  himself  willin^^  to  be 
brought  before  the  emperor.  The  saintly  pnsoner, 
accompanied  by  only  a  few  attendants,  and  suffering 
much  from  bodily  ailments  and  privations,  arrived  at 
Constantinople  on  17  Sept.,  653  or  654,  having  landed 
nowhere  except  at  the  island  of  Naxos.  The  letters  of 
the  pope  seem  to  indicate  that  he  was  kept  at  Naxos 
for  a  year.  Jaff6,  n.  1608,  and  Ewald^  n.  2079,  con- 
sider the  annum  fecimua  an  interpolation  and  would 
allow  only  a  very  short  stop  at  Naxos,  which  granted 
the  pope  an  opportunity  to  enjoy  a  bath.  Duchesne, 
"  Lib.  Pont.",  1, 336,  can  see  no  reason  for  abandoning 
the  traditional  account;  Hefele,  ''Conciliengeschichte*', 
III,  212,  held  the  same  view  (see  "Zeitschr.  fUr  Kath. 
Theol.",  1892,  XVI,  375). 

From  Abydos  messengers  were  dispatched  to  the 
imperial  city  to  xuinouncc  the  arrival  of  the  prisoner. 


who  was  branded  as  a  heretic  and  rebel,  an  enemy  of 
God  and  of  the  State.  Upon  his  arrivsd  at  Constanti- 
nople Martin  was  left  for  several  hours  on  dedk  ex- 
posed to  the  jests  and  insults  of  a  curious  crowd  of 
spectators.  Towards  evening  he  was  brought  to  a 
prison  called  Prandearia  and  kept  in  close  and  cruel 
confinement  for  ninety-three  days,  suffering  from  hun- 
ger, cold,  and  thirst.  All  this  did  not  break  his  energy 
ana  on  19  December  he  was  brought  before  the  assem- 
bled senate  where  the  imperial  treasurer  acted  as 
judge.  Various  political  charges  .were  made,  but  the 
true  and  onlv  charge  was  the  pope's  refusal  to  sign  the 
''Typus".  tie  was  then  carried  to  an  open  space  in 
full  view  of  the  emperor  and  of  a  large  crowd  of  people. 
These  were  asked  to  pass  anathema  upon  the  pope,  to 
which  but  few  responded.  Numberless  inolgnlties 
were  heaped  upon  him,  he  was  stripped  of  nearly  all 
his  clothing,  loaded  with  chains,  dragged  through  the 
streets  of  tne  city  and  then  again  thrown  into  the 
prison  of  Diomede,  where  he  remained  for  eighty-five 
days.  Perhaps  influenced  by  the  death  of  Paul,  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  Constans  did  not  sentenee  the 
pope  to  death,  but  to  exile.  He  was  put  on  board  a 
ship,  26  March,  654  (655)  and  arrived  at  his  destina- 
tion on  15  May.  Cherson  was  at  the  time  suffering 
from  a  great  famine.  The  venerable  pontiff  here 
passed  the  remaining  days  of  his  life.  He  was  buried 
m  the  church  of  Our  Lady,  called  Blachemse,  near 
Cherson,  and  many  miracles  are  related  as  wrought  by 
St.  Martin  in  life  and  after  death.  The  greater  part  df 
his  relics  are  said  to  have  been  transferred  to  Home, 
where  they  repose  in  the  church  of  San  Martino  ai 
Monti.  Of  his  letters  seventeen  are  extant  in  P.  L., 
LXXXVII,  119. 

Mann,  Lives  of  the  Popes,  I  (London,  1902),  385;  HiM.  Jahr- 
huch.  V,  424:  XII,  757;  Leclercq,  Les  Martyrs,  IX  (Paris, 
1905),  234;  CiviUii  Cattolica,  III  (1907),  272,  656. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Martin  n,  m,  Popes.    See  Marinus  I,  II,  Popes. 

Bftartin  IV  (Simok  de  Brie),  Pope;  b.  at  the  castle 
of  Montpensier  in  the  old  French  province  of  Touraine 
at  an  unknown  date;  d.  at  Perugia  28  March,  1285. 
As  priest  he  held  a  benefice  at  Rouen  for  a  short  time, 
whereupon  he  became  canon  and  treasurer  at  the 
church  of  St.  Martin  in  Tours. 
King  Louis  IX  made  him  Chancellor 
of  France  in  1260  and  Urban  VI 
created  him  cardinal-priest  with  the 
titular  church  of  St.  Cecilia  in  De- 
cember, 1262.  Under  Urban  VI 
(1261-4)  and  his  successor,  Clement 
IV  (1265-8),  he  was  legate  in  France 
with  powers  to  offer  the  I^ngdom  of 
Sicily  to  Charles  of  Anjou  on  certain 
conditions.  Under  Gregory  X  (1271- 
76)  he  was  sent  as  legate  to  France  a 
second  time,  with  ample  faculties  to  stem  the  abuses 
that  had  crept  into  the  Church  of  France.  In  this 
capacity  he  presided  over  various  reformatory  synods, 
the  most  important  of  which  was  the  one  held  at 
Bourges  in  September,  1276  (Mansi,  Sacr.  Cone,  nova 
et  ampl.  Collectio  XXI V,  165-180).  Just  six  months 
after  the  death  of  Pope  Nicholas  III,  Simon  de  Brie 
was  unanimously  elected  pope  at  Viterbo  on  22 
February,  1281.  His  election  was  due  to  Charles  of 
Anjou  who  was  present  at  Viterbo  and  caused  the 
two  most  influential  cardinals  of  the  Italian  faction  to 
be  imprisoned  before  the  conclave,  on  the  plea  that 
they  were  retarding  the  election.  Cardinal  Simon  de 
Brie  accepted  the  tiara  with  reluctance  and  chose  the 
name  of  Martin.  Though  he  was  only  the  second 
pope  b)r  the  name  of  Martin  he  is  generalhr  known 
as  Martin  FV,  because  since  the  beginning  of  the  thir^ 
teenth  century  the  Popes  Marinus  I  (882-4)  and 
Marinus  II  (942-6)  were  listed  among  the  Martins. 

Unable  to  go  to  Rome  where  a  pope  of  French 
nationality  was  hated,  and  im willing  to  stay  at  Vitecbo 


Arms  ov  Habtik  TV 


MMtnN 


725 


BCARTm 


which  was  under  interdict  because  it  had  im- 
prisoned two  cardinals,  Martin  IV  went  to  Orvieto 
where  he  was  crowned  on  23  March.  Though  per- 
sonally pious  and  well-meaning,  the  new  pope  was  de- 
pendent in  everything  on  Charles  of  Anjou  whom  he 
at  once  appointed  to  the  influential  position  of  Ro- 
man Senator.  He  also  assisted  him  in  his  endeavours 
to  restore  the  Latin  Empire  of  the  East,  and  excom- 
municated the  Greek  emperor,  Michael  Palaeologus, 
of  Constantinople,  who  opposed  the  plans  of  Charles  of 
Anjou.  By  liiis  imprudent  act  he  broke  the  union 
which  had  been  effected  between  the  Greek  and  the 
Latin  Churches  at  the  Council  of  Lyons  in  1274. 
After  Sicily  forcibly  threw  off  the  galling  yoke  of 
Charles  of  Anjou  and  gave  expression  to  its  deep 
hatred  of  France  in  the  cruel  massacre  known  as  the 
Sicilian  Vespers,  Pope  Martin  IV  used  his  full  papal 
power  to  save  Sicily  for  France.  He  excommunicated 
Peter  III  of  Aragon  whom  the  Sicilians  had  elected  as 
their  king,  declared  his  kingdom  of  Aragon  forfeited 
and  ordered  a  crusade  to  be  preached  against  him. 
But  all  his  efforts  proved  useless.  Among  the  seven 
cardinals  created  by  Martin  IV  was  Ben^etto  Gae- 
tano,  who  afterwards  ascended  the  papal  throne  as 
the  famous  Boniface  VIII. 

Les  Rigiairea  de  MaHin  IV  M  281-1285)  in  BHAiothi^ue  de9 
icoleB  fran^aiaea  tTAthhtea  et  ae  Rome,  four  fascicles  (Paria, 
1901);  Vita  Martini  ex  Ma.  Bemardi  Cfuidonia  in  Muratori, 
Renun  italiearum  acriplorea.  III,  i,  608-610;  Choulubr,  Re- 
eherekea  attr  la  vie  du  pape  Martin  IV  in  Revue  de  Champagne 
IV  (1878).  16-30;  Ddchesnb,  Liber  Pontificalia,  II  (Paris, 
1902),  459-464;  Potthast,  Regeata  Pontificum  Romanorum,  II, 
(Berlin,  1874).  1756-1795. 

Michael  Ott. 

Martin  V  (Oddone  Colonna),  Pope;  b.  at  Genaz- 
zano  in  the  Campagna  di  Roma,  1368;  d.  at  Rome, 
20  February,  1431.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Perugia,  became  prothonotary  Apostolic  under  Urban 
VI,  papal  auditor  and  nuncio  at  various  Italian  courts 

under  Boniface  IX,  and  was  admin- 
istrator of  the  Diocese  of  Palestrina 
from  15  December,  1401.  to  1405, 
and  from  18  to  23  September,  1412. 
On  12  June,  1405,  he  was  made  Car- 
dinal Deacon  of  San  Giorgio  in 
Velabro.  He  deserted  the  lawful 
pope,  Gregory  XII,  was  present  at 
the  Ciouncil  of  Pisa,  and  took  part  in 
the  election  of  the  antipopes  Alex- 
ander V  and  John  XXIII.  At  the 
Council  of  (Constance  he  was,  after  a 
conclave  of  three  davs,  unanimously  elected  pope  on 
11  November,  1417,  by  the  representatives  of  the  five 
nations  (Germany,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  England) 
and  took  the  name  of  Martin  V  in  honour  of  the  saint 
of  Tours  whose  feast  fell  on  the  day  of  his  election. 
Being  then  only  subdeacon,  he  was  ordained  deacon 
on  12,  and  priest  on  13,  and  was  consecrated  bishop 
on  14  November.  Gn  21  November  he  was  crowned 
pope  in  the  great  court  of  the  episcopal  palace  at  (Con- 
stance. (Concerning  his  further  activity  at  the  coun- 
cil, see  Constance,  Council  of.) 

The  influential  family  of  the  Colonnas  had  already 
gjven  twenty-seven  caidinals  to  the  Church,  but  Mar- 
tin V  was  the  first  to  ascend  the  papal  throne.  He 
was  in  the  full  vigour  of  hfe,  bemg  only  forty-one 
years  of  age.  Of  simple  and  unassuming  manners  and 
stainless  chamcter,  he  possessed  a  great  knowledge  of 
canon  law,  was  pledged  to  no  party,  and  had  numer- 
ous other  good  qualities.  He  seemed  the  right  man  to 
rule  the  Churchy  which  had  just  passed  through  the 
most  critical  penod  of  its  history — ^the  so-called  West- 
em  Schism.  The  antipopes,  John  XXIII  and  Bene- 
dict XIII,  were  still  recalcitrant.  The  former,  how- 
ever, submitted  to  Martin  at  Florence  on  23  June. 
1419,  and  was  made  Dean  of  the  Sacred  College  ana 
Oarcunal-Bishop  of  Frascati.  The  latter  remained 
itubbom  to  the  end ,  but  had  little  following.    His  suo- 


Arics  or  Martin  V 


oessor  Clement  VIII  submitted  to  Martin  V  in  1429. 
while  another  successor  of  Benedict  XIII,  who  haa 
been  elected  by  only  one  cardinal  and  styled  himself 
Benedict  XIV,  was  excommunicated  by  Martin  V,  and 
thereafter  had  only  a  few  supporters  (see  Schism, 
Western).  On  22  April,  1418,  Martin  V  dissolved  the 
council,  but  remained  in  Constance^  concluding  separ- 
ate concordats  with  Germany  (Mansi, ''  Sacrorum  Cone, 
nova  et  ampl.  Coll.".  XXVII,  1189-93),  France  (ibid., 
1184-9)  England  (ibid.,  1193-5),  Spain  ("Colecci<5n 
completa  de  concordatos  espaholes'',  Madrid,  1862.  9 
sc|.).  A  separate  concordat  was  probably  made  also 
with  Italy,  though  some  believe  it  identical  with  the 
concordat  of  Spain.  King  Si^ismund  of  Germany 
used  eveVy  effort  to  induce  Martm  V  to  reside  in  a  Ger- 
man city,  while  France  begged  him  to  come  to  Avi- 
gnon, but,  rejecting  all  offers,  he  set  out  for  Rome  on  16 
May,  1418. 

The  sad  state  of  Rome,  however,  made  it  impossible 
at  that  time  to  re-estaolish  the  papal  throne  there. 
The  city  was  wellnigh  in  ruins,  famme  and  sickness 
had  decmiated  its  inhabitants,  and  the  few  people  that 
still  lived  there  were  on  the  verge  of  starvation.  Mar- 
tin V,  therefore,  proceeded  slowly  on  his  way  thither, 
stopping  for  some  time  at  Berne,  Geneva,  Mantua,  and 
Florence.  While  sojoiuning  in  the  two  last-named 
cities,  he  gained  tfaie  support  of  Queen  Joanna  of 
Naples,  who  was  in  possession  of  Rome  and  Naples,  by 
consenting  to  reco^iize  her  rights  as  Queen  of  Naples 
and  to  permit  her  coronation  by  the  Cardipal  Legate 
Morosini  on  28  October,  1419.  She  ordered  her  gen- 
eral, Sforza  Attendolo,  to  evacuate  Rome  on  6  Ma^rch, 

1419,  and  granted  important  fiefs  in  her  kingdom  to 
the  pope's  two  brothers,  Giordano  and  Lorenso.  With 
the  nelp  of  the  Florentines,  Martin  also  came  to  an  un- 
derstanding with  the  famous  condottiere  Bracdo  di 
Montone,  who  had  gained  mastery  over  half  of  Central 
Italy.  The  pope  allowed  him  to  retain  Perugia,  A»- 
sisi,  Todi,  and  Jesi  as  vicar  of  the  Church,  whereupon 
Braccio  restored  all  his  other  con(][uestB,  and  in  July, 

1420,  compelled  Bologna  to  submit  to  the  pope. 
Martin  was  now  able  to  continue  his  journey  to 

Rome,  where  he  arrived  on  28  September,  1420.  He 
at  once  set  to  work,  establishing  oider  and  restoring 
the  dilapidated  churches,  palaces,  bridges,  and  other 
public  structures.  For  this  restoration  he  engaged 
some  famous  masters  of  the  Tuscan  school,  and  thus 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  Roman  Renaissance.  When 
practically  a  new  Rome  had  risen  from  the  ruins  of  the 
old,  the  pope  turned  his  attention  to  the  rest  of  the 
Papal  States,  which  during  the  schism  had  become  an 
incoherent  mass  of  independent  cities  and  provinces. 
After  the  death  of  Braccio  di  Montone  in  June,  14^, 
Perugia,  Assisi,  Todi,  and  Jesi  freely  submitted  to  the 
pope,  and  they  were  soon  follow^  by  the  remaining 
papal  territory.  Bologna  again  revolted  in  1428,  but 
returned  to  the  papal  allegiance  in  the  following  year. 
In  these  activities,  Martin  V  was  greatly  assisted  by 
his  kindred,  the  Colonna  family,  whom  he  over- 
whelmed with  important  civil  and  ecclesiastical  offices. 
In  his  case,  however,  the  charge  of  nepotism  loses  some 
of  its  odiousness,  for,  when  he  came  to  Rome,  he  was  a 
landless  ruler  and  could  look  for  support  to  no  one  ex- 
cept his  relatives. 

The  tendency,  which  some  of  the  cardinals  had 
manifested  at  the  Council  of  Constance  to  substitute 
constitutional  for  monarehical  government  in  the 
Church  and  to  make  the  pope  subject  to  a  General 
Council,  was  firmly  and  successfully  opposed  by  Bfar- 
tin  V.  The  council  had  decided  that  a  new  council 
should  be  convened  within  five  years.  Accordingly, 
Martin  convened  a  council,  which  opened  at  Pavia  m 
April,  1423,  but  had  to  be  transferred  to  Siena  in  June 
in  consequence  of  the  plague.  He  used  the  smaU  at- 
tendance and  the  disagreement  of  the  cardinals  as  a 
pretext  to  dissolve  it  again  on  26  February,  1424,  but 
agreed  to  summon  a  new  council  at  Basle  within  seven 


MABTIN 


726 


MABTIH 


years.  He  (lied,  however,  before  this  convened, 
though  he  had  previously  appointed  Cardinal  Giuli- 
ano  Cesarini  as  president  of  the  council  with  powers  to 
transfer  and,  if  necessary,  suspend  it.  Though  Mar- 
tin V  allowed  adiustment  of  the  temporal  affairs  of  the 
Church  to  draw  his  attention  from  the  more  important 
duty  of  reforming  the  papal  court  and  the  clergy,  still 
the.  sorry  condition  of  Rome  and  the  Papal  States  at 
his  accssion  palliate  this  neglect.  He  diu  not  entirely 
overlook  the  inner  reform  of  the  Church;  esoecially 
during  the  early  part  of  his  pontificate,  he  made  some 
attempts  at  reforming  the  clergy  of  St.  Peter's  and 
abolishing  the  most  crying  abuses  of  the  Curia.  In  a 
Bull  issued  on  16  March,  1425,  he  made  some  excellent 
provisions  for  a  thorough  reform,  but  the  Bull  appar- 
ently remained  a  dead  letter.  (This  Bull  is  printed  in 
D6llinger,  "  Beitr&ge  zur  politischen,  kirchlichen  and 
Kulturgeschichte  der  sechs  letzteu  Jahrhunderte",  II, 
Ratisbon,  1863,  pp.  335-44.)  He  also  successfully  op- 
posed the  secular  encroaclunents  upon  the  rights  of 
the  Church  in  France  by  issuing  a  Constitution  (13 
April,  1425),  which  greatly  limited  the  Galilean  liber- 
ties in  that  part  of  France  which  was  subject  to  King 
Henry  VI  oi  England,  and  by  entering  a  new  concor- 
dat with  King  Charles  VII  of  France  in  August,  1426 
(see  Valois,  "Concordats  ant^rieurs  k  celui  de  Fran- 
cois I.  Pontificat  de  Martin  V"  in  "Revue  des  ques- 
tions historiques'*,  LXXVII,  Parb,  1905,  pp.  376- 
427).  Against  the  Hussites  in  Bohemia  he  ordered 
a  crusadcj  and  negotiated  with  Constantinople  in 
behalf  of  a  reunion  of  the  Greek  with  the  Latin 
Church.  His  bulls,  diplomas,  letters  etc.  are  printed 
in  Mansi,  "Sacrorum  Cone,  nova  et  ampl.,  coll.," 
XXVII-XXVIII. 

Pastor,  Oesch.  der  Pdntte  aeit  dem  A%ugang  des  MiUelaUera,  I 
(4th  ed.,  Freiburg,  lOOl),  1st  ed.  tr.  Antrobus,  History  of  the 
Popes  from  the  dose  of  the  Middle  Ages,  I  (Londoo,  189 1 ) ,  208-82 ; 
Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy  during  the  Period  of  the  Re for- 
mation^  I-II  (London,  1882) ;  Hallbr,  England  u.  Rom,  unter 
Martin  V  (Rome,  1905);  Contelori,  Vila  di  Martino  V  (Rome. 
1641);  CiROCCo.  Vita  di  Martino  V  (Foligno,  1638);  Funk,  Mar- 
tin V  und  das  Komilzu  Konstam  in  Theolog.  Quartalschr.,  LXX 
(TQbingen,  1888),451-65;Vkrnet,  Martin  V<rf  Uemardin  de  Si- 
WHne in  University Catholique,  IV  (Lyons,  1890),  663-94:  Idbm,L« 
pape  Martin  V  etlesJuifs  in  Revue  des  questions  hist.,  LI  (Paris, 
1892),  373-423;  Lanciani,  Patrimonio  della  famiglia  Colonna  al 
tempo  di  Martin  V  in  Archivio  della  Societd  Romana  di  sloria 
patria,  XX  (Rome,  1897),  .369-449;  Frommk,  Die  Wahl  des 
Papstes  Martin  V  in  Romische  Quartalschr.,  A  (Rome,  1896), 
131-61.  Earlier  lives  of  Martin  V  aro  print<Ki  m  Muratori, 
Rerum  Italicarum  Scriptores,  III,  ii,  857-68.  See  also  bibliog- 
raphy under  Constance,  Council  of,  and  Schibm,  WbstxbNc 

Michael  Ott. 

Martin,  Benedictine  Abbot  of  the  Schottenkloster 
at  Vienna,  b.  about  1400;  d.  28  July,  1464  (29  July 
1470).  Born  of  wealthy  farmers  at  Leibitz,  County 
of  Zips  in  Hungary,  he  made  his  studies  at  Krakow 
and  Vienna,  and  in'^the  latter  place  taught  for  some 
time  in  the  faculty  of  arts.  Accompanying  his 
mother  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Italy,  he  visited  the  an- 
cient monastery  of  Subiaco  and  took  the  habit  of 
St.  Benedict  about  1425.  But  he  found  the  climate 
and  discipline  too  severe  for  his  delicate  health,  and 
was  transferred  to  the  Schottenkloster  at  Vienna. 
In  1428  he  was  sent  to  the  Council  of  Basle,  and  on  his 
return  was  made  prior.  After  the  death  of  John  IV, 
he  was  elected  abbot  on  19  Oct.,  1446.  He  now 
laboured  hard  and  incessantly  for  the  welfare,  spir- 
itual and  temporal,  of  the  abbey  and  of  the  order. 
To  advance  the  education  of  his  subjects  he  secured  a 
library  not  etiualle^l  by  many  in  his  days.  Cardinal 
legate  Nicholas  of  Cusa  in  1451  appointed  him,  with 
some  others,  visitors  of  the  I^nedictine  abbeys  of  the 
Diocese  of  Salzburg,  with  powers  to  introduce  neces- 
sary or  useful  reforms.  By  authority  of  Nicholas  V, 
he  examined  the  election  of  the  Abbot  of  Melk  and, 
finding  no  canonical  dofect,  confirmed  the  same.  He 
also  stood  high  in  the  estimation  of  Pius  II  and  Em- 
peror Frederick  IV.  Though  paying  heavy  taxes 
towards  a  fund  against  the  Turks,  Martin  placed  his 


abbey  on  a  solid  financial  basis.  For  uukno^n  rea- 
sons he  resigned  the  abbatial  dignity  at  the  close  of 
1460  or  the  beginning  of  1461  (some  say  1455).  Only 
one  work  of  Martin's  has  appeared  in  print,  called 
''Senatorium'',  which  gives  accounts  of  himself,  his 
visitation  trip  and  other  matters  of  interest  in  Aus- 
trian history  —  complete  edition  in  Pea,  "Rerum 
Austr.  Script.",  II,  626.  In  Munich  and  Vienna  there 
are  some  copies  of  smaller  works  in  manuscript. 

BhaunmOixeb  in  Kirchenlcx.,  8.  v.;  Brunner*  Benedietiner' 
buch  CW^sburg),  300;  Hauswirth,  Abris9  einer  Oesch,  der 
Schotten  (Vienna,  27);    Hurtbr,  NomencL,   II    (1906),  M5. 

Francis  Msrshman. 

Martin,  Felix,  antiquarv,  historiographer,  archi- 
tect, educationist,  b.  4  October,  1804,  at  Auray,  seat 
of  the  famous  shrine  of  St.  Ann  in  Brittany,  France; 
d.  at  Vaugirard,  Paris,  25  November,  1886.  His 
father,  Jacques  Ausustin  A^Iartin,  for  many  years 
mayor  of  Auray  and  Attomey-GenewJ'  of  Alorbihan, 
was  a  public  benefactor.  His  mother  was  Anne  Aimel 
Lauzer  de  Kerzo,  a  truly  pious  matron,  of  whose  ten 
children  three  entered  religious  communities,  while 
the  others,  as  heads  of  families,  shone  in  Breton  society 
as  models  of  every  domestic  virtue.  Felix,  having 
made  his  classical  studies  at  the  Jesuit  seminary  close 
by  the  shrine  of  St.  Anne,  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus 
at  Montrouge,  Paris,  27  September,  1823,  but  on  the 
opening  of  a  new  novitiate  at  Avignon,  in  Aug.,  1824, 
he  was  transferred  there.  Thence  in  1826  he  was  sent 
to  the  one  time  famous  college  of  Arc,  at  D61e,  to  com- 
plete his  logic  and  gain  his  first  experience  in  the  man- 
agement of  youth  among  its  400  pupils.  The  following 
scholastic  year,  1826-1827,  at  St-Acheul,  he  began 
his  career  as  teacher.  This  was  soon  to  be  interrupted, 
for  already  among  the  revolutionists  of  the  boulevards 
and  in  the  Chami)er  of  Deputies  the  wildest  and  most 
preposterous  accusations  had  been  formulated  against 
the  Society.  This  agitation  culminated  on  16  June, 
1828,  in  the  "Ordonnances  de  Charles  X"  which  were 
to  be  enforced  the  following  October.  The  Fathers, 
meanwhile,  quietly  closed  their  colleges,  their  teachers 
went  into  temporary  exile  and  among  them  Ft.  Martin. 
He  spent  the  succeeding  years  m  colleges  established 
across  the  frontier. 

In  Switzerland,  Brie^  and  Estavay^;  in  Spain,  Le 
Passage  near  St.  Sebastian;  in  Belgium,  the  College  of 
Brugeiette,  were  in  turn  the  scenes  of  his  labours  as 
student  or  as  teacher.  It  was  when  he  was  in  Switzer- 
land, in  1831,  that  he  received  Holy  orders.  Eleven 
vears  later,  while  engaged  in  the  ministry  at  Angers 
ne  was  informed  that,  under  Father  ChajeUe,  ex- 
rector  of  St.  Mary's  College,  Kentucky,  he  was  chosen 
together  with  Fathers  Hainpaux,  Tellier  and  Domi- 
nique du  Banquet  to  restore  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
Canada,  extinct  since  the  death  of  Father  Jean  Joseph 
Casot  at  Quel>ec  on  16  March,  1800.  The  party  reached 
their  destination  on  31  May,  1842.  On  2  Jul^,  Mgr. 
Boureet,  at  whose  invitation  the  fathers  had  come, 
confided  to  them  the  parish  of  Laprairie,  deprived  of 
its  pastor,  the  Rev.  Michael  Power,  by  his  promotion 
to  the  newly  erected  episcopal  see  of  Toronto,  26  June, 
1842.  On  31  July,  1844,  Fr.  Martin  was  named  supe- 
rior of  the  mission  in  Lower  Canada,  now  the  Province 
of  Quebec.  The  enthusiastic  citizens  of  Montreal  had 
generously  subscribed  towards  the  building  of  a  col- 
lege, his  principal  preoccupation.  In  M&y,  1847, 
ground  was  broken  and  the  foundations  were  laid. 
Then  came  a  series  of  disasters  which  interrupted  all 
further  work.  The  greater  portion  of  Laprairie  was 
swept  by  fire  and  the  presbytery  of  the  fathers  was 
reduced  to  ashes.  The  great  conflagration  of  Quebec 
foUowea,  whereby  a  vast  portion  oi  the  city  was  de- 
stroyed. Thousands  of  Irish  immigrants  were  pouring 
into  the  country;  in  1847  the  nimibers  reached  nearly 
100,000.  With  them  they  brought  the  dreaded  typhus 
or  ship-fever.  Li  that  year  alone  nearly  two  thousand 
were  stricken  down  in  Montreal.  With  Christian  intre- 


BCARTIM 


727 


MABTIH 


pidity  the  priests  of  St.  Sulpice,  pastors  of  tlie  city, 
devoted  themselvet}  to  the  spiritual  relief  of  the  sick 
and  dying,  and  five  at  the  outset  fell  victims  to  their 
zeal.  Fathers  Paul  Mignard  and  Henri  du  Banquet, 
arriving  from  New  York  gave  timely  assistance.  But 
this  was  far  from  sufficient,  so  Fr.  Martin  appealed  to 
Fr.  Th^baud,  rector  of  St.  John's,  Fordham,  for  volun- 
teers to  assist  the  plague-stricken.  The  answer  was 
the  immediate  arrival  of  Fathers  Driscoll,  Dumerle, 
Ferard  and  Schianski.  All  escaped  the  contagion  ex- 
cept Fr.  Dumerle,  who  fell  a  martyr  of  charity. 

The  priests  of  St.  Sulpice,  whose  ranks  were  thinned 
by  the  ravages  of  the  plague,  asked  for  four  Eng- 
lish-speaking Fathers  to  take  charge  of  St.  Patrick's 
Church.  A  presbytery  was  provided  for  them  near 
the  very  ground  whereon  the  college  had  been  com- 
menced. In  it  there  was  room  sufficient  to  house  a 
few  teachers.  A  temporary  structure  was  put  up,  and 
opened  as  a  college  on  20  September,  1848.  A  few 
boarders  even  were  received  and  lodged  in  a  small 
tenement  in  a  street  hard  by.  It  was  not  till  the 
month  of  May,  1850,  that  work  was  resumed  on  the 
college  building,  but  so  strenuously  was  it  prosecuted 
that  Mgr  Bourget  was  invited  to  bless  it,  in  it«  ad- 
vanced stage  of  completion,  on  31  July,  1831,  feast 
of  St.  Ignatius.  On  4  August  the  novitiate  was 
transferred  from  its  temporary  quarters  in  M.  Rodier's 
house,  and  installed  in  the  new  edifice,  and  in  the  be- 
ginning of  September  everything  was  in  perfect  work- 
ing order  in  the  young  institution  of  learning,  from 
under  whose  roof,  in  later  years,  so  many  remarkable 
men  were  to  go  forth  as  statesmen,  judges,  physi- 
cians and  members  of  the  clergy  and  of  the  bar.  'This 
was  Fr.  Martin's  achievement.  But  he  was  not  only 
the  founder  of  St.  Mary's  College,  the  financier,  the 
architect,  and  the  overseer  of  the  material  construc- 
tion, he  was  also  the  systematizer  of  its  curriculum 
during  his  rectorship  which  lasted  until  1857.  The 
stately  pile  of  St.  Patrick's  Church,  Montreal,  was  also 
of  his  designing,  the  main  outUnes  of  which  are  in  pure 
thirteenth-century  Gothic.  Fr.  Martin  was  the  orig- 
inator of  the  well-known  Archives  of  St.  Mary's  Col- 
lege, and  the  principal  collector  of  the  priceless  his- 
torical treasures  they  contain.  He  awakened  in  his 
contemporaries  a  keen  interest  in  the  records  of  an  al- 
most forgotten  past.  With  such  men  as  Vigor,  Fari- 
bault, £.  B.  O  Callaghan,  etc.,  he  quickened,  if  he 
really  did  not  set  on  foot,  that  campaign  of  research 
which  ended  in  the  placing  within  reach  of  all  the 
original  historical  sources  of  the  colonial  and  mission- 
ary days  of  New  France. 

No  better  account  of  Fr.  Martin's  labours  in  this 
field  could  be  given  than  that  which  appeared  a  few 
months  after  his  death  in  the  "  Catholic  World  "  (N. 
Y.,  April,  1887):  "But,  it  is,  perhaps,  as  an  antiqua- 
rian and  a  man  of  letters  that  Fr.  iVIartin  has  become 
most  generally  known.  His  services  to  historical 
literature,  particularly  the  history  of  Canada,  have 
been  many  and  great.  He  devoted  himself  amidst 
all  his  onerous  duties  to  the  task  of  throwing  Ught  on 
the  dark  places  of  the  past.  He  was  commissioned  by 
Government  to  explore  the  regions  where  of  old  the 
Jesuits  had  toiled  amongst  the  Hurons,  giving  at  last 
to  the  dusky  tribes  the  priceless  gifts  of  faith.  He 
wrote  at  this  time  a  work  embellished  with  various 
plans  and  drawings,  all  of  which  remained  in  posses- 
sion of  the  Government.  He  also  collected  many 
curious  Indian  relics.  In  1857  he  was  sent  by  the 
Canadian  Government  to  Europe  on  a  scientific  mis- 
sion, and  was  likewise  entrusted  with  the  task  of  ex- 
amining the  Archives  of  Rome  and  of  Paris  for  points 
of  interest  in  relation  to  Canadian  history.  In  this  he 
was  eminently  successful.  He  discovered  a  numJber 
of  unpublished  documents  relating  to  Canada  which 
would  be  sufficient  to  fill  a  foUo  volume.  Periiaps  his 
mo9t  eminent  service  to  historical  literature  was  his 
great  share  in  bringing  out  the  'Relations  des  J6- 


buites  *  [1611-16721,  a  very  mine  of  infonnatiou  for 
the  scholar.  .  .  .  He  discovered  and  put  into  print, 
with  preface  and  most  valuable  annotations  by  him- 
self, the  *  Relations',  extending  from  1672  to  1679. 
He  added  to  them  two  geographical  charts.  .  .  .  Fr. 
Martin  also  translated  from  Italian  to  French  the 
'Relation'  of  Pdre  Bressani,  which  he  published  with 
notes,  together  with  a  biography  of  that  ^orious 
martyr.  His  historical  works  mcluded  Lives  of 
Samuel  de  Champlain  (?),  the  founder  of  Quebec, 
of  Fathers  Br^beuf,  Chaumonot  and  Jogues  [and,  not 
mentioned  in  the  article,  of  Montcalm].  Tiie  latter 
[that  of  Fr.  Jogues]  has  become  known  to  the  Ameri- 
can pubUc  through  the  translation  made  by  our  fore- 
most CathoUc  historian,  John  Gilmary  Shea.  Fr. 
Martin  was  the  friend,  adviser,  and  co-labourer  of  the 
eminent  Canadian  historical  writer,  J.  Viger. "  And 
letters  preser\'ed  in  the  College  archives  attest  that 
his  relations  with  E.  B.  O'Callaghan,  compiler  of  the 
"Documentary  History  of  New  York  ",  were  of  a 
kindred  nature. 

Among  his  lesser  pubUcations  may  be  mention(Kl: 
"  Notice  Biographique  de  la  M6re  S.  Stanislas  [his  sis- 
ter] Religieuse  cle  la  Misericorde  de  Jesus,  de  la  Hotel- 
Dieu  d'Auray,  1886",  "  Manuel  du  Pelerin  k  N.  D.  de 
Bonsecours",  ''Neuvaine  k  St  Francois  Xavier"  and 
"  Neuvaine  k  St.  Antoine  de  Padoue".  After  his  re- 
turn from  Europe,  in  1858  and  1859,  he  was  bursar  of 
St.  Mary's  College,  and  the  two  following  years^  1860 
and  1861,  superior  of  the  Quebec  residence.  His  eye- 
sight Was  already  much  impaired,  and  the  glare  of  the 
Canadian  snows  was  very  trying,  so  much  so  that  he 
was  threatened  with  total  bhndness.  For  this  reason 
he  was  recalled  to  France.  He  spent  part  of  the  year 
1862  at  St©  Genevidve  College,  Paris,  and  was  ap- 
pointed on  the  12  September  (1862)  rector  of  the  col- 
lege of  Vannes. 

After  three  years,  on  8  Sept.,  1865,  he  was  named 
superior  of  the  residence  of  the  Holy  Name  at  Poitiers. 
Thence  he  was  transferred  to  Vaugirard  College  at 
Paris,  where  he  had  the  spiritual  direction  of  the  house 
for  six  years.  On  5  Sept.,  1874,  he  went  to  Rouen  for 
three  years  as  superior,  and  returned  to  Vaugirard  in 
1878.  At  the  closing  of  the  Jesuit  colleges  by  the  arbi- 
trary enactments  of  the  French  Republic,  the  commu- 
nity of  Vaugirard  was  dispersed,  and  Fr.  Martin,  with 
a  few  others  of  his  fellow  reUgious  took  up  their  abode 
in  1882  at  No.  1  Rue  Desnouettes.  Here  he  remaine^^ 
for  five  years  patiently  awaiting  the  final  call  of  the 
blaster,  though  never  ceasing  to  collect  materials  bear- 
ing on  the  history  of  the  country  of  his  predilection. 
Physically,  Fr.  Martin  was  of  medium  height,  heavily 
built,  but  carrying  his  weiglit  lightly  and  with  dignity. 
His  name  is  a  household  won!  for  all  who  are  given  to 
historical  research  not  only  in  Canada  of  toKlay  but 
throughout  the  vast  territory  comprised  within  the 
vaguely  defined  limits  of  New  France. 

Thwaites,  Jesuit  Relatitms  and  Allied  Documents,  LXXIII, 
133;  Cath.  World,  Now  York,  April,  1887,  107;  [Vignon?],  Ls 
Pcre  Martin  (brochure);  [De  BompartT],  V Enseigntment  des 
Jesuites  au  Canada  in  the  Revue  Canadienne  (Oct.,  1891); 
Tanouat,  R^ertoire  Oin.  du  Clerg^  Canadien;  Martin,  Notice 
Biographtque  de  la  Mtre  S.  Stanislas  (Paris,  1886). 

Abthur  Edward  Jones. 

Martiii,  Gregory,  translator  of  the  Douai  Version 
of  the  Bible  from  the  Latin  Vulgate;  b.  in  Maxfield, 
parish  of  G nestling,  near  Winchelsea,  in  Sussex;  d.  at 
Reims,  28  October,  1 582 .  In  preparing  the  translation 
he  was  assisted  by  several  of  the  other  great  scholars 
then  Living  in  the  English  College  at  Douai,  but  Gregory 
Martin  made  the  whole  translation  in  the  first  instance 
and  bore  the  brunt  of  the  work  throughout.  He  was 
well  aualified  for  the  undertaking.  During  his  thirteen 
vears  residence  at  Oxford^  he  bore  the  reputation  of  a 
orilliant  scholar  and  lingiust,  whose  abilities  were  only 
equalled  by  hifl  industry,  ue  entered  as  one  of  the 
onginal  scholars  of  St.  John's  College,  in  1557.  Among 


MAETIH 


728 


MAETIH 


those  who  entered  at^the  beginning  was  Edmund  Cam- 
pion^ the  renowned  Jesuit  martyr.  At  this  period  of 
his  hfe,  however,  he  was  possessed  with  the  ambitions 
of  youth,  and  although  at  heart  a  Catholic,  he  con- 
formed to  the  Established  Church,  and  even  accepted 
ordination  as  a  deacon.  Gregorv  Martin  was  his  close 
friend  throughout  his  Oxfoi3  days,  and  himself  re- 
mained a  devout  Catholic.  When  ne  found  it  neces- 
sary to  quit  the  university,  he  took  refuge  as  tutor  in 
the  family  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  where  he  had 
among  his  pupils  Philip,  Earl  of  Arundel,  also  subse- 

Suently  martyred.  During  his  residence  with  the 
>uke,  Martin  wrote  to  Campion,  warning  him  that  he 
was  being  led  away  into  danger  b^  his  ambition,  and 
begging  him  to  leave  Oxford.  It  is  said  that  it  was  in 
great  measure  due  to  this  advice  that  Campion  mi- 
grated to  Dublin  in  1570,  and  accepted  a  post  in  the 
university  there.  He  continued  to  conform  to  the  es- 
tablished religion  outwardly;  but  his  Catholic  senti- 
ments were  no  secret. 

In  the  meantime  Gregory  Martin  left  the  house  of 
the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  and  crossing  the  seas,  presented 
himself  at  Dr.  Allen's  College  at  Douai  as  a  candidate 
for  the  priesthood,  in  1570.  During  his  early  days 
there,  he  wrote  once  more  to  Campion,  who  yielded  to 
his  entreaties,  and  the  following  year  saw  the  two 
friends  once  more  united  within  the  venerable  walls  of 
the  English  College  at  Douai.  Campion  was  now  a 
professed  Catholic,  and  he  received  minor  orders  and 
the  subdiaconate,  after  which  he  proceeded  to  Rome 
and  eventually  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Having 
finished  his  theology,  Gregory  Martin  was  ordained 
priest  in  March,  1573.  Three  years  later  he  went  to 
Rome  to  assist  Allen  in  the  foundation  of  the  English 
College  there,  known  by  the  title  of  the  "  Venerabile'*. 
Campion,  however,  was  at  that  time  absent  from 
Rome.  Martin  remained  two  years,  during  which 
time  he  organized  the  course  of  studies  at  the  new 
college;  when  he  was  recalled  by  Allen  to  Reims, 
whither  the  college  had  been  removed  from  Douai  in 
consequence  of  political  troubles.  Martin  and  Cam- 
pion met  once  more  in  this  world,  when  the  latter  made 
a  short  stay  at  Reims  in  the  summer  of  1580,  on  his 
way  to  the  English  Mission,  and — as  it  turned  out — 
to  early  martyraom. 

It  was  during  the  next  four  years  after  his  return 
from  Rome  that  Gregory  Martin  s  brilliant  talents  and 
scholarship  found  full  scope  in  a  work  destined  to  be 
of  far-reaching  and  permanent  utility  to  English 
Catholics.  The  need  of  a  Catholic  translation  of  the 
Bible  had  long  been  felt,  in  order  to  counteract  the 
various  inaccurate  versions  which  were  continually 
nuoted  by  the  Reformers,  and  as  Allen  said,  to  meet 
tnem  on  their  own  ^ound.  He  determined  to  at- 
tempt the  work  at  his  college,  and  deputed  Martin  to 
undertake  the  translation.  Thomas  Worthington, 
Richard  Bristowe,  John  Reynolds,  and  Allen  himself 
were  to  assist  in  revising  the  text  and  preparing  suit- 
able notes  to  the  passages  which  were  most  uSkI  by 
the  Protestants. 

The  merits  and  shortcomings  of  Martin's  translation 
have  been  discussed  in  the  article  on  the  Douai  Bible 
(q.  v.).  It  is  sufficient  here  to  say  that  it  was  made 
from  the  Vulgate,  and  is  full  of  Latinisms,  so  that  it 
has  little  of  tne  rhythmic  harmony  of  the  Anglican 
Authorized  Version  which  has  become  part  of  the 
literature  of  the  nation:  but  in  accuracy  and  scholar- 
ship, it  was  superior  to  any  of  the  English  versions 
which  had  preceded  it,  and  it  is  understood  to  have 
had  ^eat  influence  on  the  translators  of  King  James's 
Version.  In  many  cases  in  which  they  did  not  follow 
the  Douai,  the  editors  of  the  Revised  Version  have  up- 
held Gregory  Martin's  translation.  And  it  was  ac- 
curacy of  rendering  which  was  chiefly  needed  by  the 
controversial  exigencies  of  the  day. 

The  Reims  New  Testament  first  appeared  in  1682. 
The  Old  Testament  was  not  publiahea  till  more  than  a 


Quarter  of  a  century  later.  This,  however,  was  aokhr 
due  to  want  of  funds.  It  was  not  called  for  with  suai 
urgency,  and  its  publication  was  put  off  from  year  to 
year.  But  it  was  all  prepared  at  the  same  time  as  the 
New  Testament,  and  by  the  same  editors. 

The  constant  work  told  on  Martin's  constitution, 
and  he  was  found  to  be  in  consumption.  In  the  hope 
of  saving  his  life,  Allen  sent  him  to  Paris,  where  oe 
coQsult^  the  best  physicians  of  the  di&y,  only  to  be 
told  that  the  disease  was  past  cure.  He  returned  to 
Reims  to  die,  and  he  was  buried  in  the  parish  church 
of  St.  Stephen.  Allen  preached  the  funeral  diacoune, 
and  erected  a  long  Latin  inscription  on  the  tomb  of  his 
friend.  The  following  is  a  list  of  Martin's  works: 
"  Treatise  of  Schisme  '^  (Douai,  1678) :  "  Discovery  of 
atie  Manifold  Corruptions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  by 
the  Heretikes  of  our  Dales"  (Reims,  1582);  Reims 
Testament  and  Douay  Bible;  *' Treatise  of  Christian 
Peregrination"  (Reims,  1583);  "Of  the  Love  of  the 
Soul^'  (St.  Omer,  1603);  ''Gre^rius  Martinus  ad 
Adolphum  Mekerchum  pro  veten  et  vera  Grsecarum 
Literarum  Pronunciatione"  (Oxford,  1712);  several 
other  works  in  MS.  mentioned  by  Pitts. 

Burton,  Life  ofChaUoner  (London,  1909);  Dodd,  Ch.  HiaL: 
Pitts,  De  Illxut.  Script.  Ecclcs.;  Wood,  Aihtncg  Oxan.;  Knox. 
Historical  Introductum  to  Douay  Diaries  (1878) ;  Idem,  Lettenof 
Card.  Alien  (1882);  Foley,  Records  S.  J.;  SiMpeoN,  Life  «/ 
Campion  (London,  1866;  leiasued,  1907);  Menotogy  of  St 
Edmund' a  College  (London,  1909).    Also  bibliosraphy  of  artklt 


Douai  Bible. 


Bebnard  Ward. 


Martin,  KoNRAO,  Bishop  of  Paderbom;  b.  18  May, 
1812,  at  Geismar,  Province  of  Saxony;  d.  16  July, 
1879,  at  Mont  St  Guibert,  near  Brussels,  Belgium. 
He  studied  at  first  under  an  elder  brother  who  was  a 

Eriest,  and  later  at  the ' 'gymnasium  "  at  HeiUgenstadt; 
e  studied  theology  and  Oriental  languages  for  two 
years  at  Munich  under  D6llinger  and  Aliioli,  then  went 
to  Halle  where  the  famous  Gesenius  taught,  and 
thence  to  WUrzburg  where  he  passed   the    examen 
rigorosum  for  the  degree  of  "Doctor  Theologis". 
But  before  he  could  present  the  necessary  Public  Act, 
he  was  compelled  to  leave  WOrzburg,  and  undergo  the 
same  examination  in  MOnster,  Westphalia,  because  the 
Prussian  ministry  forbade  stud>ang  at  South  German 
universities  and  did  not  recognise  their  degrees.    In 
1835  he  obtained  in  Monster  the  degree  of  D.D.,  for  his 
dissertation:  "  De  Petri  denegatione,  qua  inquiriturde 
huius  criminis  ethica  natura  et  luculentioribus  effecti- 
bus  *'.    Feeling  an  inclination  towards  academic  teach- 
ing which  the  Diocese  of  Paderbom  was  unable  to  sat- 
isfy, he  entered  the  Archdiocese  of  Cologne,  and  as  a 
student  of  the  theological  seminary  was  ordained 
priest  in  1836.    Immediately  after  this  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  the  "pro-gymnasium"  at  Wippei^ 
farth,  which  had  just  been  established,  and  published, 
in  Mainz,  1839,  under  the  pseudonym  Dr.  Fridericm 
Lange,  a  sharp  and  forceful  pamphlet  against  Her- 
mesianism,  written  in  classical  Latin  and  entitled 
"Novse  annotationes  ad  Acta  Hermesiana  et  Acta 
Romana,  quas  ad  causam  Hermesianam  denuo  illus- 
trandam  scripsit".    The  pamphlet  created  a  sensa- 
tion everywhere  and  caused  the  coadjutor  Geissel  of 
Cologne  to  appoint  the  young  savant  teacher  of  re- 
ligion at  the  Marzellengymnasium  at  Colo^p:ie  in  the 
year  1840.    In  order  to  elevate  the  teaching  of  relir 
gion  in  the  higher  schools  and  to  infuse  into  it  a  deeper 
significance,  he  wrote  his  famous  text-book  of  the 
Catholic  religion  for  high-schools,  which  appeared  at 
Mains  in  1843  in  two  volumes  and  went  through  fifteen 
editions.    It  was  used  as  a  text-book  in  all  Prussian 
gymnasia  and  translated  into  Hungarian  and  Frendi, 
but  later  on,  during  the  Kulturkampf,  it  was  sup- 
pressed by  order  of  the  Prussian  minister  of  education. 
Before  the  end  of  the  same  year  he  was  invited  by 
Bishop  Dammers  of  Paderbom  to  become  professor  A 
dogmatic  theology  in  the  faculty  of  his  home  diocese, 
but  Geissel  requested  him  to  ramain  in  Cologne  ana 


729 


MAETIK 


made  him  extraordinary  professor  of  theology  at  the 
University  of  Bonn,  inspector  of  the  local  seminaries, 
ahd|  with  Dieringer,  umversity  preacher.  In  1848  he 
became  ordinair  professor  of  moral  theology  and  pub- 
lished, in  1850,  the  **  Lehrbuch  der  kathoUschen  Moral " 
which  as  early  as  1865  had  gone  through  five  editions. 
Dating  back  to  his  work  as  professor  in  Bonn,  there 
exist  numerous  articles  in  the  ''  katholischen  Viertel- 
iahrsschrift  fiir  Wissenschaft  und  Kunst"  of  which 
ne  was  one  of  the  founders,  as  well  as  in  the  "  Kirchen- 
lexikon";  there  are  furthermore  an  unfinished  trans- 
lation of  the  "Jewish  History"  of  Flavins  Josephus, 
a  translation  of  the  writings  of  St.  Thomas  Aqiiinas  on 
the  Eucharist  and  the  Ten  Commandments,  an  edition 
of  Maldonatus's  ''Commentary  on  the  Four  Gospels" 
(1854  and  1862)  and  finally, "  Die  Wissenschaft  von  der 
gdttlichen  Dingen"  a  popular  handbook  of  Dogma 
representing  t^  ripe  fruits  of  his  long  work  upon 
the  writings  of  St.  Thomas  (1855  and  1869).  Soon, 
however,  he  was  compelled  to  give  up  his  work  at 
Bonn. 

In  1856  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Paderbom,  and 
consecrated  by  Cardinal  Geissel  on  17  August.  Filled 
with  apostolic  zeal  he  accepted  the  responsible  office, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  illustrious  bishops  of  Ger- 
many; one  who  with  his  untiring  labour  and  persever- 
ance encouraged  Christian  life  in  his  extensive  diocese, 
and  who  exerted  a  beneficent  influence  even  far  beyond 
his  own  domain,  by  his  example  and  his  writings.  As 
a  man  of  firm  and  unshakable  faith  he  considered  it 
his  chief  duty  to  protect  the  Faith  against  all  attacks. 
It  was  his  first  care  to  train  effective  priests.  ^  In  order 
to  accomplish  this  purpose,  he  comoined  his  annual 
confirmation  journeys  with  detailed  investigations  so 
as  to  become  acquamted  with  his  clergy  and  to  instil 
everywhere  a  true  ecclesiastical  spirit.  He  founded, 
in  1857,  at  Heiligenstadt  a  second  seminary  for  boys 
and  introduced  the  general  examination  for  priests. 
In  connection  with  ideas  he  formed  in  1860  during  the 
provincial  council  at  Cologne,  he  founded  with  his  own 
monev  a  theological  schocd  at  Paderbom  He  even 
had  the  satisfaction  of  holding  a  diocesan  synod  at 
Paderbom  in  1867,  the  first  for  two  centuries;  at  this 
synod  the  resolutions  passed  at  the  Council  of  Cologne 
were  adopted,  although  in  slightlv  changed  form.  In 
order  to  give  more  effect  to  these  resolutions,  he 
caused  them  to  be  published  in  the  "Acta  et  Decreta 
synodi  dioecesis  Paderbomiensis",  1867  (2nd  edition, 
1888) .  He  acquired  especial  merit  through  the  estab- 
lishment and  enlarg|ement  of  the  Bonifatius-Verein,  of 
which  he  was  preodent  from  1859  until  1875.  and 
through  the  assistance  of  which  he  was  able  to  found 
about  fifty  new  missionary  posts  in  neglected  districts. 
In  two  magnificent  works.  "  The  ChiefDuty  of  Catho- 
lic Germany",  and  *^  Another  Message  to  the  Christian 
German  People  in  Matters  Regarding  the  Bonifatius- 
Verein"  he  explained  its  noble  aims  and  made  a 
powerful  appeal  for  the  manifesting  of  Christian 
faith  by  givmg  assistance  to  poor  Catholic  churches 
and  pnests.  Full  of  enthusiasm  he  even  planned  to 
lead  the  Protestants  of  Germany  back  to  tne  Catholic 
Church  and  addressed  to  them  three  friencUv  bro- 
chures entitled :  ''  An  episcopal  message  to  the  Protes- 
tants of  Germanv,  especially  to  those  of  my  own  Dio- 
cese, regarding  the  points  of  oontroversv  between  us" 
(Paderbom,  1866) ;  "  Seccmd  Episcopal  Message  to  the 
Protestants  of  Germany"  (same  year):  and  "Why  is 
there  still  this  gulf  between  the  Churches?  An  open 
message  to  Germany's  Catholics  and  Protestants" 
(Paderbom,  1869).  Naturally  these  writings  did  not 
have  the  success  expected  by  him,  but  on  the  contrary 
made  him  maznr  enemies;  they  stirred,  however 
many  Catholics  m>m  their  torpidity  and  strengthened 
them  in  their  faith. 

The  Vatican  Council  give  him  the  opportunity  to 
show  his  fidelity  to  the  Holy  See  and  to  champion  his 
faith.    As  a  member  of  the  "  Coogregatio  dogmatica  " 


and  the  "Commissio  pro  postulatis"  he  took  a  lively 
part  in  the  discussions  of  the  same,  and  was  from  the 
beginning  a  zealous  defendant  of  the  infallibility  of  the 
papal  office;  with  him  originated  the  wording  of  the 
most  important  chapter  of  the  final  decision.  Soon 
after  the  new  dogma  had  been  formulated,  and,  in 
order  to  quiet  nervous  minds  and  to  enli^ten  the 
faithful,  he  published  several  pastorals  which  passed 
far  beyond  tne  confines  of  his  own  diocese;  as,  for  in- 
stance, "The  Infallible  Office  of  the  Pope",  (1870); 
and  "A  Pastoral  Message:  What  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil presents  to  us  as  Faith  regarding  the  pope  "  (1871) ; 
and  several  more  extensive  works,  in  which  he  ex- 
plains in  detail  the  far-reaching  consequences  of  the 
decision,  as  "  The  real  meaning  of  the  Vatican  decision 
regarding  the  Infallible  Papal  Office"  (Paderbom. 
1871),  the  "DeUberations  of  the  Vatican  Council'* 
(Paderbom,  1873),  which  was  also  translated  into 
Italian,  and  "Omnium  Concilii  Vaticani,  qusB  ad 
doctrinam  et  disciplinam  pertinent  documentorum  col- 
lectio"  (Paderbom,  1873).  This  fidelity  to  the  Apos- 
toUc  See  which  he  showed  openly  at  every  opportu- 
nity despite  all  hostile  criticisms;  his  restless  activity 
for  the  spread  of  the  Catholic  faith;  the  establishment 
of  missions  in  Northern  Germany,  and  his  open  mes- 
sage to  the  Protestants  of  Germany,  formed  the  op- 
portunitv  for  the  most  vituperious  attacks  against 
nim  in  the  daily  press  and,  as  soon  as  the  necessary 
laws  had  been  passed,  a  welcome  occasion  to  proceed 
against  him  by  means  of  different  oppressive  measures 
and  a  chance  to  attempt  to  undermine  his  authority; 
but  in  vain,  for  as  soon  as  the  intentions  of  the  Prussian 
government  became  clear  to  all,  thousands  of  men 
from  the  whole  diocese  journeyed  to  the  cathedral  town 
enthusiastically  to  swear  undying  fidelity  to  their 
bishop  and  to  the  Catholic  Church. 

Finally,  in  1874,  because  of  his  trahsgression  of  the 
May  Laws,  he  was  sentenced  to  imprisonment;  in  the 
following  year  relieved  of  his  office,  by  order  of  the 
Minister  of  Worship,  and  incarcerated  in  the  fortress  of 
Wesel.  A  few  months  later,  however,  he  succeeded 
in  escaping  to  Holland,  but  was  expeUed  on  the  de- 
mand of  the  Prussian  government.  He  fornid  a 
refuge  with  the  Sisters  of  Christian  Love,  who  had  been 
banished  from  Paderbom  and  who  had  settled  in 
Mont  St.  Guibert.  From  there,  as  a  centre,  he  governed 
secretly  his  diocese,  laboured  as  pastor  and  teacher  of 
religion,  and  wrote  several  works,  of  which  these  are 
noteworthy:  "Drei  Jahre  aus  meinen  Leben:  1874- 
1877"  (Paderbom,  1877);  "Zeitbilder  oder  Erin- 
nerungen  an  meine  verewi^n  Wohltftter",  TMainz. 
1879).  Numerous  other  writings,  mostly  the  fruit  ot 
lectures  in  the  seminary,  in  the  mother  house  of  the 
Sisters  of  Christian  Love  at  Paderbom  and  in  St  Gui- 
bert, we  must  leave  unnoticed.  Some  have  only  been 
found  among  his  papers  after  his  death,  and  were  pub- 
lished by  his  companion  and  private  secretary,  Stamm, 
in  seven  volumes,  1882-1890. 

STAinf,  Dr.  Conrad  Martin,  ein  btbliooraphiseher  Varatteh, 
(1892) ;  Idku,  Ujicundenaammluno  tur  Biograpkie  (1892);  lorai, 
Aua  der  BrUfmappe  Martins  (Paderbom,  1902). 

Pateucius  Schlager. 

Martin,  Paulin,  a  French  Biblical  scholar,  b.  at 
Lacam,  Lot,  20  July,  1840;  d.  at  Amdlie-les-Bains, 
Pyr^n^es-Orientales,  14  Jan.,  1890.  His  secondsjy 
studies  were  made  a.tthe  petit aCminaire of  Montfaucon, 
and  his  theolo^  at  St.  Sulpice.  Here  he  came  under 
the  influence  of  Le  Hir.  At  the  end  of  his  theology, 
Martin  was  too  young  for  ordination;  so  he  went 
to  the  French  Seminarv,  Rome,  attended  the  lec- 
tures at  the  Gregorian  University,  and  was  raised  to 
the  priesthood  in  1863.  He  remained  in  Rome  till 
1868,  obtained  a  doctorate  in  sacred  theology  and 
licentiate  in  canon  law,  and  started  upon  his  life  study 
of  Semitic  limguages.  He  worked  chiefly  at  Hebrew, 
Syriao,  Aramaic,  and  Arabic.  It  was  as  a  Syriao 
scholar  that  be  first  attracted  attention.  Abb^BuxtiR 


MABTm 


730 


MABTm 


was  In  France  ten  yearSj  as  curate  in  various  parishes 
of  Paris,  before  his  appointment  to  the  chair  of  Sacred 
Scripture  and  Oriental  Languages  in  the  Institut 
Catholique  of  Paris,  which  he  filled  from  1878  to  1890. 
The  time  of  literary  activity  of  Abb6  Martin  was  the 
twelve  years  of  his  professorship  at  the  Institut.  His 
best  work  is  said  to  be  the  lithographed  lectures  de- 
livered from  1882  to  1886:  "  Introduction  k  la  critique 
textuelle  du  N.T.,partieth<^oric^ue"  (Paris,  1882-83) ; 
a  supplement  thereto^  "Description  technique  des 
manuscrits  grecs,  relatifs  au  N.  T.,  conserves  dans  les 
biblioth^ques  de  Paris"  (Paris,  1883);  "Introduction 
k  la  critic^ue  textuelle  du  N.  T..  partie  pratique"  (4 
vols.^  Pans.  1884^86).  These  tour  volumes  contain 
studies  in  tne  ancient  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  authenticity  and  historicity  of  disputed 
fragments  of  the  New  Testament. — nota!)ly  tlie  end- 
ing of  Mark,  the  bloody  sweat,  tne  woman  taken  in 
adultery,  the  three  heavenly  witnesses.  In  regard  to 
this  last  fragment,  he  carried  on  a  controversy  with 
MM.  Vacant,  Maunoury,  and  Rambouillet  m  the 
"Revue  des  sciences  eccl63ia8tiques"  (1887  and  1889), 
and  in  "  La  Controverse  "  (1888).  Earlier  writings  of 
Abb^  Martin  were:  "(Euvres  grammaticales  d'Abu 
el-Faraj,  dit  Bar-Hebrseus "  (Paris,  1872);  "(Jram- 
matica,  chrestomathia,  et  glossarium  linguse  syriaci^" 
(Paris,  1873) ;  "  Histoire  de  la  ponctuation  ou  de  la 
massore  chez  les  Syriens"  (Paris,  1875).  In  addition 
he  published  a  general  introduction  to  the  Bible 
(Paris,  1887-89). 

Mangenot,  3f.  I'abbi  Paidin  Martin  in  Revue  dea  acimcea 
eccUaxMliquea  (1S91). 

Walter  Drum. 

Martin,  Richard,  Venerable.  See  Leigh,  Rich- 
ard, Venerable. 

Martina,  Saint,  Roman  virgin,  martyred  in  226, 
according  to  some  authorities,  more  probably  in  228, 
under  the  pontificate  of  Saint  Urban  I,  according  to 
others.  The  daughter  of  an  ex-consul  and  left  an 
orphan  at  an  early  age  she  so  openly  testified  to  her 
Christian  faith  that  she  could  not  escape  the  perse- 
cution under  Alexander  Severus.  Arrested  and 
commanded  to  return  to  idolatry,  she  courageously 
refused,  whereupon  she  was  subjected  to  various  tor- 
tures, and  was  finally  beheaded.  The  accounts  of  her 
martyrdom  which  we  possess  belong  to  a  lat«  period 
and  as  usual  contam  many  amplifications  which  have 
not,  as  Baronius  has  already  observed,  any  historical 
value.  The  relics  of  Saint  Martina  were  discovered 
on  25  October,  1634,  in  the  crypt  of  an  ancient  church 
situated  near  the  Mamertine  prison  and  dedicated  to 
the  saint.  Urban  VIII  who  occupied  the  Holy  See  at 
that  time,  had  the  church  repairea  and,  it  would  seem, 
composed  the  hymns  which  are  sung  at  the  office  oi 
the  noble  martyr,  30  January. 

Act  SS.  Bollnnd.  (1643\  Janiiar>',  I,  IIj  Bahomius,  Ann. 
(1589),  228. 1;  Sfritts,  De  VU.  SS.  (1618),  I,  9-10;  Vincent  of 
Beauvais.  Spec.  Hist.  (147.3).  XII.  27-29;  Mombritius,  Sandu- 
arium  (Milan,  1749),  II,  CXXV-XL;  Ragguaglio  della  vUa  di  S. 
Martina  Verffine  e  marlire  (Rome,  1801). 

LtoN  Cluqnet. 

Martini,  Antonio,  Archbishop  of  Florence,  Bibli- 
cal scholar;  b.  at  Prato,  in  Tuscany,  20  April,  1720;  d. 
at  Florence,  31  December,  1809!^  Having  received 
holv  Orders,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Superga 
College  at  Turin.  Cardinal  delle  Lanze,  knowing  that 
Benedict  XIV,  then  pope,  desired  a  good  version  of  the 
Bible  in  contemporary  Tuscan,  urged  Martini  to  un- 
dertake the  work.  The  latter  began  a  translation  of 
the  New  Testiiment  from  the  original  Greek,  but  soon 
found  this  lalx)ur,  in  conjunction  with  his  duties  in  the 
Superga,  Ixjyond  his  physical  strength.  He  accord- 
ingly resigned  the  directorship  and  accepted  from 
King  Charles  Emanuel  of  Sardmia  a  state  councillor- 
ship  together  with  a  pension.  In  spite  of  some  dis- 
couragt»inent  consequent  upon  the  decease  of  Bene<lict 
XIV,  Martini  |X'rsovered,  completing  the  public-ation 


of  theNewTeBtamMitin  1771.  In  his  work  upon  tlw 
Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  followed,  Jie 
was  assisted  by  the  Rabbi  Temi,  a  Jewish  scholar. 
The  whole  work  was  approved,  and  Martini  personally 
commended,  by  Pius  VI,  who  made  him  Arenbishop  of 
Florence  in  1781.  As  archbishop  he  succeeded  in 
partly  foiling  an  attempt  to  publisn  a  ^rbled  edition 
of  his  work,  and  a  third  authorized  edition  issued  from 
the  Archiepiscopal  Press  of  Florence  in  1782-^92  (see 
also  Versions  op  the  Bible). 

Beoagu,  BioQrafia  deqli  uominx  iUtintri  (Venice,  1840); 
MiNoccHZ  in  ViQouRonx,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  b.  v.  Italiennee  (V«o 
gione)  de  la  Bible. 

E.  Macph£rson. 

Martini,  Martino  (Chinese  name:  Wei),  distin- 
guished Austrian  Jesuit  missionary  to  the  Chinese,  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  He  was  bom  at  Trent  in 
1614;  and  on  8  October,  1631,  entered  the  Austrian 
province  of  his  order;  where  he  studied  mathematics 
under  Athanasius  Barcher  (q.  v.)  in  the  Roman  Col- 
lege, probably  with  the  intention  of  being  sent  to 
Cliina.  He  set  out  for  China  in  1640,  and  arrived  in 
1643.  While  there  he  made  great  use  of  his  talents  as 
missionary,  scholar,  writer,  and  superior.  In  1650  he 
was  sent  to  Rome  as  procurator  for  the  Chinese  Mission, 
and  took  advantage  of  the  long,  adventurous  vovBge 
(gohig  first  to  the  Philippines,  from  thence  on  a 
Dutch  privateer  to  Batavia,  he  reached  Bergen  in 
Norway,  31  August,  1653),  to  sift  his  valuable  historical 
and  cartographical  data  on  China.  During  his  so- 
journ in  Europe  the  works  were  printed  that  made 
his  name  so  famous.  In  1658  he  returned  with  pro- 
visionally favourable  instructions  on  the  question  of 
ritual  to  China,  where  he  laboured  until  his  death  in 
Hangtscheu,  6  June,  1661.  According  to  the  attesta- 
tion of  P.  Prosper  Intorcetta  (''Litt.  annuae",  1681), 
his  body  was  tound  imdecayed  twenty  years  after. 
Richthofen  calls  Martini  "the  leading  geographer  of 
the  Cliinese  mission,  one  who  was  unexcelled,  and 
hardly  equalled,  during  the  eighteenth  century  .  .  . 
There  was  no  other  missionary,  either  before  or  after, 
who  made  such  diHgent  use  of  his  time  in  acquiring 
information  about  the  country"  (China,  I,  674  sq.). 

Martini's  most  important  work  is  his  "  Novus  Atlas 
Sinensis"  (Vienna^  1653),  with  17 maps  and  171  pages 
of  text,  a  work  which  is,  according  to  Richthofen, "  the 
most  complete  geographical  description  of  China  that 
we  possess,  and  through  which  Martini  has  become  the 
father  of  geographical  learning  on  China".  Of  the 
great  chronological  work  which  Martini  had  planned, 
and  which  was  to  comprise  the  whole  Chinese  histor\' 
from  the  earliest  age,  only  the  first  part  appearecf: 
"Sinicje  Historian,  Decas  I"  (Munich,  1658).  His 
"  De  Bello  Tartarico  Historian "  (Cologne,  1654)  is  also 
important  as  Chinese  historj",  for  Martini  himself  had 
lived  through  the  frightful  occurrences  which  brought 
about  the  overthrow  of  the  ancient  Ming  dynasty. 
The  works  have  been  repeatedly  published  and  trans- 
lated into  different  languages  (cf.^  Sommervogel, 
" Biblioth^que "  .  .  .  etc.).  Interesting  as  mission- 
ary history  is  his  "  Brevis  relatio  de  numero  et  quali- 
tate  Christianorum  apud  Sinse  "  (Rome,  1654 ;  Cologne, 
1655;  Ger.  ed.,  1654).  Besides  these.  Martini  wrote  a 
series  of  theological  and  apologetical  works  in  Chinese. 
Several  works,  among  them  a  Chinese  translation  of 
the  theological  works  of  Suarez,  still  exist  in  his  hand- 
writing (cf.  Sommervogel  and  H.  Cardier,  "Essai 
d'une  bibliographic  des  ouvrages  publics  en  Chine  par 

le*!  Europ^ns'',  Paris,  1882). 

Th«»  scientific  correspondence  between  Martini  and  his  di»- 
tinffiiished  teacher,  P.  Atiianabius  Kirchbr,  is  to  be  found  in 
hiD  Maanes  (3rd  ed..  Rome.  1654),  316. 318, 348.  An  excellent 
appreointion  by  Schrameier  of  Martini  is  to  be  found  in  Peking 
Si)cietp,  11,  0»-119;  cf.  also  Ghbua,  LXXXVII,  p.  167. 

A.  HUONDER. 

Martini,  SniONE  (also  known  as  Simons  di  Mas- 
TiNo,  and  as  Simone  Mem^h),  Sienese  painter,  Ik  in 


MABTXHIQUE 


731 


MARTIN 


Siena,  1283;  died  either  in  the  same  place  or  at  Avi- 
enon  in  1344  or  1349.  This  artist  is  now  declared  to 
have  been  a  direct  pupil  of  Duccio,  whom  he  surpassed 
in  the  decorative  quality  of  his  work.  Vasari  states 
that  he  was  a  pupil  of  Giotto,  but  this  statement  is  re- 
futed bv  an  examination  of  Simone's  works,  and  also 
by  all  tne  evidence  which  has  been  gathered  regarding 
the  Sienese  school.  The  earliest  of  Simone's  authentic 
works  is  his  ereat  fresco  in  Siena  of  the  enthroned  Vir- 
gin and  Child,  painted  originally  in  1315,  and  restored 
by  the  master  himself  in  1321,  after  it  had  suffered 
damage  from  damp.  In  1320  he  painted  an  altar- 
piece  for  the  church  of  St.  Catherine  at  Pisa,  which  has 
now  been  taken  to  pieces,  and  although  the  greater 
part  is  in  the  Academy  at  Pisa,  two  other  portions  are 
m  other  buildings  in  the  same  city.  In  the  following 
year  he  was  at  Orvieto,  painting  an  altar-piece  for  the 
church  of  San  Dominico  which  is  now  preserved  in  the 
museum  of  that  city,  and  then  he  returned  to  Siena, 
where  he  was  busily  engaged  in  1328  on  his  splendid 
portrait  of  Fogliano,  painted  in  honour  of  that  gen- 
eral's capture  of  Montomassi.  A  little  later  on  we 
hear  of  him  at  Assisi,  where  he  painted  a  wonderful 
series  of  works  relating  to  the  life  of  St.  Martin,  adorn- 
ing the  chapel  of  St.  Martin  in  the  church  of  San  Fran- 
cesco. The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  passed  in  Avi- 
gnon in  the  service  of  the  papal  court  tnen  resident  in 
that  place,  and  there  he  decorated  various  portions  of 
the  cathedral  and  several  chapels  and  rooms  in  the 
papal  palace.  It  was  in  Avignon  that  he  met  Pet- 
rarch, and  there  painted  the  portrait,  so  famous  in 
later  years,  of  Madonna  Laura. 

He  is  said  to  have  painted  a  portrait  at  Avignon 
of  Petrarch  himself,  commissioned  bv  Pandolfo  Ma- 
latesta,  but  if  he  did  this,  it  was  during  an  earlier 
visit  to  Avignon,  and  respecting  it  we  have  not  much 
information.  We  are  only  certain  concerning  his 
second  visit  to  the  place,  after  Ixiing  called  by  Pope 
Clement  VI.  The  exact  date  of  his  funeral  is  proved 
by  certain  Sienese  records  as  4  August,  1344,  but 
the  record  is  not  sufficiently  clear  as  to  whether 
his  body  was  transported  from  Avignon  to  Siena  for 
burial,  or  whether  ne  actually  died  in  Siena.  There 
are  several  of  his  works  in  the  city  of  his  birth,  one  at 
the  Louvre,  one  in  Berlin,  an  excecKiingly  fine  one  at 
Antwerp,  and  a  remarkable  signed  and  dated  picture 
at  Liverpool.  In  the  museum  at  Altenburg  there  is 
one  of  his  works,  and  there  are  at  least  three  in  private 
collections  in  America.  The  portrait  of  Petrarch  at- 
tributed to  him  was  sold  in  1867  at  the  Poniatowski 
sale,  and  at  the  same  sale  there  was  sold  a  pKjrtrait  of 
Laura,  which  was  undoubtedly  his  work. 

See  special  manuscript  material  Kathcred  up  in  Siena  by- 
Lucy  Ollcott;  Vasari,  Le  Vile  dei  Pittori^  Milancsi  edition 
(Florence,  1878,  1885);  Yalle,  LcUere  Senesi  (Rome,  1782), 
and  other  works  by  the  same  author. 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Martiniquei  Diocese  op  (Sancti  Petri  et  Arcis 
Galuce.)  Martinique  is  one  of  the  French  Lesser 
Antilles,  380  so.  miles  in  area;  it.  was  discovered  by 
Christopher  Columbus  in  1493,  and  colonized  by  tlie 
French  about  1625;  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  English 
from  1762  to  1783,  was  again  occupied  by  them  in 
1794, 1802,  1809, 1815,  and  again  became  French  ter- 
ritory in  1818.  The  name  Martinique  comes  from  the 
Carib  word  Madinima.  On  Good  Friday,  1640,  Pdres 
Bouton  and  Hempteau,  Jesuits,  set  out  for  Martinique, 
where  thev  fomided  the  celebrated  Jesuit  mission. 
Pdres  Ceubergeon  and  Gueimu,  Jesuits,  were  slain 
there  in  1654  by  the  revolting  Caribs.  The ' '  M^moire 
concernant  la  Mission  des  Pdres  de  la  Compagnie  de 
J^sus  dans  Ics  lies  f  ran^aises  de  T  Amdrique  "  addressed 
in  1707  by  P^re  Combaid  to  P^re  Tamburini,  General 
of  the  Jesuits,  and  published  in  1907  by  Pdre  Roche- 
monteix,  contains  mo\nng  details  concerning  the 
catechetical  instrtiction  pf  the  negro  slaves  by  the 
Jesuit'^.     In  1753  IVr^'  dc  La  valet  te  was  named  supe- 


rior general  and  Prefect  Apostolic  of  the  Mission  of 
Martmique;  his  business  transactions  were  later  the 
cause  of  very  violent  attacks  on  the  Society.  P^re 
Rochemonteix  has  proved  that  FiSre  de  Lavalette 
acted  thus  without  the  knowledge  of  even  his  fellow- 
missionaries  of  Martinique  or  of  his  superiors  at  Paris 
and  Rome;  that  when  at  length,  in  1759  and  17(50,  the 
missionaries  accused  him  of  taking  part  in  forbidden 
traffic  they  had  no  written  proofs,  and  that  the  supe- 
riors were  not  certain  until  1762,  after  the  investigation 
of  P^re  de  La  Marche,  when  P6re  de  Lavalette  was  de- 
posed, silenced,  and  sent  back  to  Europe.  When  in 
1848  the  Second  Republic  suppressed  slavery  in  the 
colonies  the  prefect  Apostolic,  (jastelli,  in  a  public  ad- 
dress hailed  the  new  epoch  as  an  "era  of  light  and 
evangelical  regeneration ' ' . 

The  Diocese  of  Martinique  is  suffragan  of  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Bordeaux,  was  created  27  Sept.,  1850.  and 
by  a  law  of  20  July,  and  a  decree  of  18  December,  1850. 
At  first  the  see  was  fixed  at  Fort  de  France,  was  trans- 
ferred to  St.  Pierre  on  12  Sept.,  1853,  and  the  bishop 
took  the  title  of  Bishop  of  St.  Pierre  and  Fort  de 
France.  Bishop  I^e  Ilerpeur  (1851-1858)  organized 
the  pilgrimage  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  D^livrande. 
Bishop  Fa va  (1872-1879)  founded  in  1872  a  religious 
weeldy  bulletin,  which  later  became  the  daily  **Le 
Bien  Public".  Martinique  was  crueUy  tried,  8  May, 
1902,  by  the  eruption  of  Mt.  Pel^,  which  had  long 
been  considered  an  extinct  volcano.  This  eruption 
completely  destroyed  the  town  of  St.  Pierre.  The 
island  suffered  also  from  the  cyclone  of  8  August,  1903, 
and  the  earthcjuakes  of  1906.  After  the  catastrophe 
of  1902  the  episcopal  residence  was  again  transferred 
to  Fort  de  France.  The  Diocese  of  Slartinique  con- 
tains 170,000  inhabitants  and  46  priests.  There  are 
in  the  diocese  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  of  Cluny  and  of  St.  Paul  of  Chart  res,  hospital 
and  teaching  sisters.  The  Congregation  of  the 
Daughters  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  D^livrande  had  its 
origin  in  the  diocese.  The  present  bishop,  Mgr  de 
Cormont,  was  born  at  Paris,  France,  29  March,  1847, 
chosen  as  bishop  14  December,  1899,  in  succession  to 
Mgr  Carmen^,  who  resigned. 

AvBE,  La  Martinique  (Paris,  1882):  Rochemgntkix,  An/oine 
Lavalette  a  la  Martinique  (Paris,  1907) ;  Hess.  La  Catastrophe  de 
la  Martinimu,  Notes  (Tun  reporter  (Paris,  1902);  Lacroix,  La 
Montagne  PeUe  H  see  Eruptions  (Paris,  1904);  L'ipiscopat  fran- 
cais  aux  xix*  mtde  (Paris.  1907),  339-344. 

Georqes  Goyau. 

Martm  of  Bra^a  (Bracara;  or,  op  Dumio),  Saint, 
bishop  and  ecclesiastical  writer:  b.  about  520  in  Pan- 
nonia;  d.  in  580  at  Braga  in  Portugal.  He  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  Palestine,  where  he  be^me  a  monk  and 
naet  some  Spanish  pilgrims  whose  narrations  indu(^ 
him  to  come  to  Galicia  (Northwestern  Spain)  with 
the  purpose  of  converting  the  Suevi,  some  of  whom 
were  st  ill  half  pagans  and  others  Arians.  He  arrived 
in  Spain  in  550,  founded  various  monasteries,  among 
them  that  of  Dumio,  of  which  he  became  aboot  and 
afterwards  bishop.  At  the  Synod  of  Braga,  in  May, 
561,  he  signed  as  Bishop  of  Dumio.  Later  he  became 
Archbishop  of  Braga  and,  as  such,  presided  over  the 
second  Council  of  Braga  in  572.  He  was  successful  in 
converting  the  Arian  Galicians  and  rooting  out  the 
last  remnants  of  paganism  among  them.  He  is  vener- 
ated as  a  saint,  nis  feast  day  being  20  March.  His 
great  learning  and  piety  are  attested  by  Gregory  of 
Tours  (Hist.  Franc,  V,  xxxviii),  who  styles  him  full  of 
virtue  (plenua  virtiUibus)  and  second  to  none  of  his  con- 
temporaries in  learning  ("in  tantum  se  litteris  imbuif 
ut  nulli  secundus  sui  temporis  haberetur '*). 

His  writings  consist  chiefly  of  moral,  litur^cal,  and 
ascetical  treatises.  The  l)est  known  of  his  moral 
treatises,  "Formula  vit»  honest®'*  or  "De  differen- 
tiis  quatuor  virtutum  '*,  as  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  (De 
viris  illostribus  xxxv)  entitles  it,  is  an  exposition  of 
Christian  life  chiefly  for  laymen,  from  tb«  standpoint 


MABTIH 


732 


MABTIK 


of  the  four  cardinal  virtues,  and  is  believed  to  be  based 
on  a  lost  work  of  Seneca.  His  little  work.  "De  ira", 
b  merely  a  compendium  of  Seneca's  three  books,  **  De 
ira".  The  two  preceding  works  proceed  from  the 
standpoint  of  natural  ethics,  while  his  three  other 
moral  treatises:  "Pro  repellenda  jact^ntia",  "De 
superbia".  and  "Exhortatio  humilitatis'*,  are  exposi- 
tions of  Christian  morality.  Of  great  importance  in 
the  history  of  medieval  canon  law  is  Martin's  collec- 
tion of  eighty-four  canons:  "Collectio  orientalium 
canonum,  seu  Capitula  Martini ",  which  was  compiled 
^ter  561,  and  contains  mostly  Greek,  also  a  few  Span- 
ish and  African,  canons.  It  is  in  two  parts;  the  nrst, 
containing  sixty-eight  canons,  treats  of  the  ordination 
and  the  duties  of  clerics;  the  second,  containing  six- 
teen canons,  treats  chiefly  of  the  duties  and  faults  of 
laymen.  His  two  liturgical  works  are  a  litt  le  treatise : 
"De  pascha",  in  which  he  explains  to  the  people  the 
reason  whv  Iiaster  is  celebrated  at  variable  periods 
between  I A  Kal.  April,  and  XI  Kal.  Maii,  and  "  Epis- 
tola  ad  Bonifatium  de  trina  mersione  ",  in  answer  to 
a  letter  from  a  Spanish  bishop  who  supposed  that  the 
custom  of  triple  aspersion  in  baptism  was  of  Arian 
origin.  His  ascetical  works  are  "  Sententi®  patrum 
^gjrptiorum  "^  a  collection  of  edifying  narratives  con- 
cerning Egyptian  monastic  life,  and  of  pious  sayings  of 
Egyptian  abbots,  which  he  translated  trom  the  Greek; 
and  another  work  of  similar  nature, "  Verba  seniorum  " , 
translated  from  the  Greek  by  Paschasius,  a  deacon  of 
Dumio,  by  order  and  with  the  help  of  Martin.  He 
also  wrote  an  interesting  sermon  "De  correctione 
rusticorum",  against  the  pagan  superstitions  which 
were  still  prevalent  among  the  peasantry  of  his  dio- 
cese. There  are  also  extant  three  poetical  inscriptions, 
"In  basilico"^  "In  refectorio",  "Epistaphium'^.  No 
complete  edition  of  Martin's  works  nas  ever  been  pub- 
lished. His  "  Formula  vitae  honesta; ",  "  Libellus  de 
moribus  "  (spurious),  "  Pro  repellenda  jactantia  ",  "  De 
superbia",  '^Exhortatio  humilitatis",  "De  ira",  "De 
pascha  ",  and  the  three  poetical  inscriptions  are  printed 
m  Gallandi,  "  Bibl.  Vet.  Patr. ",  XIi;  275-288,  and  in 
Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXH,  21-52.  Migne  also  reprints 
"Verba  seniorum"  (P.  L.  LXXIII,  102^-62);" 
"iEgyptiorum  patrum  sententi®  (P.  L.,  LXXIV,  381 
-394);  "Capitula  Martini"  (P.  L.,  574-586).  The 
sermon,  "De  correctione  rusticorum"  was  edited  with 
notes  and  a  learned  disquisition  on  Martin's  life  and 
writings  by  C.  P.  Casr)ari  (Christiania,  1883).  The 
epistle,  "De  trina  mersione",  is  printed  in  "Collectio 
maxima  conciliorum  Hispanifie",  II  (Rome,  1693), 
506,  and  in  "Espana  sagrada",  XV  (Madrid,  1759), 
422.  The  latest  editions  of  the  "Formula  honestae 
vitae"  were  prepared  by  Weidner  (Magdeburg,  1872) 
and  May  (Neisse,  1892).  The  treatise  "De  pascha" 
was  recently  edited  by  Bum,  in  "  Niceta  of  Reme- 
siana"  (Cambridge,  1905),  93  sq. 

Besides  the  work  of  Caspari,  mentioned  above,  see  Barden- 
HEWEK,  Patrology,  tr.  Sqahan  (St.  Louis,  1908),  658-660; 
GAifff,  KirchcTKjesch.  Spaniens,  II  (Ratisbon,  1864),  i,  471-5; 
De  Amaral,  Vida  e  opuscula  di  a.  Martinaho  Bracharense  (Lis- 
bon, 1803);  Seebero-Waqenmann  in  RecUencyklopddie  fur 
prpt.  Theol.  s.  v.  Martin  von  Bracara;  Ward  in  Dxct.  ChrisL 
Biogr,  s.  v.  Martinus  of  Braga. 

Michael  Ott. 

Martiii  of  Oochem.    See  Cochem,  Martin  of. 

Martiii  of  Leon,  Saint,  a  priest  and  canon  regiilar 
of  the  Augustinians;  b.  at  Leon  in  Spain  (Old  Castile) 
before  1150;  d.  there,  12  January,  1203.  Having 
been  educated  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Marcellus  at 
Leon,  he  visited  Rome  and  Con^ntinople.  Return- 
ing to  Spain,  he  took  the  religious  habit  at  St.  Mar- 
cellus; but  this  monastery  having  been  secularized  by 
the  bishops,  he  entered  the  collegiate  church  of  St. 
Isidore  in  the  same  city.  The  date  of  Hs  death  is 
given  us  by  the  necrology  preserved  in  the  monastery. 
He  wrote  commentaries  on  different  Epistles  and  the 
Apocalypse,  and  left  numerous  discourses  on  the  most 
varied  subjects.    His  complete  works  were  published 


first  by  Espinosa  (Seville.  1782)  and  again  by  Migne 
in  P.  L.,  LXXXI,  53-64,  CCVIII,  CCIX{Paris,  1855). 
The  rehgious  of  St.  Isidore's  dedicated  a  chapel  to 
Martin  very  early  and  celebrated  his  feast  ^ich  year, 
but  the  Church  has  not  officially  included  him  in  the 
list  of  her  saints. 

Ada  SS.f  February,  II,  568;  Caatro.  Bibl.  EanaiL,  Tl  Olad- 
rid,  1786).  514-5;  Cave,  Scnpt.  Ecclea.,  II  (Basle,  1745),  301; 
Ceilubr,  Hiti.  gin.  des  atUeura  tacria  H  ecdis.,  JCIV  (Paria, 
1863).  833-4;  Luc,  VUa  S,  MaHini  in  P.  L.,  C5CVTII,  9-24. 

Ltos  Clugnet. 

Martin  of  Tours,  Saint,  bishop;  b.  at  Sabaria  (to- 
day Steinamanger  in  German,  or  Sxombathelv  in 
Hungarian),  Pannonia  (Hungary),  about  316;  <L  at 
Canoes,  Touraine,  most  probably  in  397.     In  his  early 
years,  when  his  father,  a  military  tribune,  was  trans- 
ferrea  to  Pavia  in  Italy,  Martin  accompanied  him 
thither,  and  when  he  reached  adolescence  was,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  recruiting  laws,  enrolled  in  tiie  Ro- 
man army.    Touched  by  grace  at  an  early  ajge,  he  was 
from  the  first  attracted  towards  Christianity,  which 
had  been  in  favour  in  the  camps  since  the  conversioQ 
of  Emperor  Constantino.     His  regiment  was  soon  sent 
to  Amiens  in  Gaul,  and  this  town  became  the  scene  of 
the  celebrated  legend  of  the  cloak.     At  the  gates  of  the 
city,  one  very  cold  day,  Martin  met  a  shivering  and 
half-naked  beggar.     Moved  with  compassion,  he  di- 
vided his  coat  into  two  parts  and  gave  one  to  the  poor 
man.     The  part  kept  by  himself  oecame  the  famous 
relic  preserved  in  tne  oratory  of  the  Frankish  kings 
under  the  name  of  "St.  Martin's  cloak".     Martin, 
who  was  still  only  a  catechumen,  soon  received  bap- 
tism, and  was  a  little  later  finally  freed  from  military 
service  at  Worms  on  the  Rhine.     As  soon  as  he  was 
free,  he  hastened  to  set  out  to  Poitiers  to  enrol  himself 
among  the  disciples  of  St.  Hilary,  the  wise  and  pious 
bishop  whose  reputation  as  a  theologian  was  alnady 
passing  beyond  tne  frontiers  of  Gaul.     Desiring,  how- 
ever, to  see  his  parents  again,  he  returned  to  Lom- 
bardy  across  the  Alps.     The   inhabitants  of  this 
region,  infested  with  Arianism,  were  bitterly  hostile 
towards  Catholicism,  so  that  Martin,  who  did  not  con- 
ceal his  faith,  was  very  badly  treated  by  order  of 
Bishop  Auxentius  of  Milan,  the  leader  of  the  heretical 
sect  in  Italy.     Martin  was  very  desirous  of  returning 
to  Gaul,  but,  learning  that  the  Arians  troubled  that 
country  also  and  had  even  succeeded  in  exiling  Hilary 
to  the  Orient,  he  decided  to  seek  shelter  on  the  island 
of  Gallinaria  (now  Isola  d'Albenga)  in  the  middle  of 
the  Tyrrhenian  Sea. 

As  soon  as  Martin  learned  that  an  imperial  decree 
had  authorized  Hilary  to  return  to  Gaul,  he  hastened 
to  the  side  of  his  chosen  master  at  Poitiers  in  361,  and 
obtained  permission  from  him  to  embrace  at  some  dis- 
tance from  there  in  a  deserted  region  (now  called 
Ligug6)  the  solitary  life  that  he  had  adopted  in  Galli- 
naria. His  example  was  soon  followed,  and  a  great 
number  of  monks  gathered  aroimd  him.  Thus  was 
formed  in  this  Gallic  Thcbaid  a  real  laura,  from  which 
later  developed  the  celebrated  Benedictine  Abbey  of 
Ligug6.  Martin  remained  about  tenyears  in  this  soli- 
tude, but  often  left  it  to  preach  the  Cxospel  in  the  cen- 
tral and  western  parts  of  Gaul,  where  the  rural  in- 
habitants were  still  plunged  in  the  darkness  of  idolatry 
and  given  up  to  all  sorts  of  gross  superstitions.  The 
memory  of  tnese  apostolic  joumeyings  .survives  to  our 
day  in  the  numerous  local  legends  of  which  Martin  is 
the  hero  and  which  indicate  roughly  the  routes  tliat  he 
followed.  When  St.  Lidorius,  second  Bishop  of  Tours, 
died  in  371  or  372,  the  clergy  of  that  city  deared  to 
replace  him  by  the  famous  hermit  of  Liguff^.  But.  as 
Martin  remained  deaf  to  the  prayers  of  9ie  deputies 
who  brought  him  this  message,  it  was  necessary  to  re- 
sort to  a  ruse  to  overcome  his  resistance.  A  certain 
Rusticius,  a  rich  citizen  of  Tours,  went  and  begged  him 
to  come  to  his  wife,  who  was  in  the  last  extremity,  and 
to  prepare  her  for  death,*  Without  any  suspidon. 


HA&Tnt  733 

Bl&rtiu  followed  him  in  all  baste,  but  hardly  bad  be  last  devastation.    It  was  entirely  demoliiihed  n-itb  the 

entered  the  citj  when,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  exception  of  the  two  towers  which  are  still  standing, 

a  few  ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  popi^ar  acclam&tion  and,  so  that  its  TecaoBtruetion  might  be  impoeaible, 

constrained  bim  to  become  Bishop  of  the  Church  of  the  atheistic  municipality  caused  two  streets  to  be 

Touts.  opened  up  on  its  site.    In  December,  1860,  skilfully 

Consecrated  on  4  July,  Martin  brought  to  the  aecom-  executed  excavations  located  the  site  of  St.  Martina 

plishment  of  the  duties  of  his  new  ministry  all  the  en-  tomb,   of   which   some   fragments   were   discovered. 


,  ___, „ Some  other  hermits  joined  ter  of  St.  Martin.    On  11  November  each  year  tbe 

him  there,  and  thus  was  eradualljr  formed  a  new  mon-  feast  of  St.  Martin  is  solemnly  celebrated  in  this  church 

ostery,  which  surpassed  uiat  of  Ligug^,  as  is  indicated  in  tbe  presence  of  a  loige  number  of  the  faithful  of 

by   the   name,    Marmoutier    (Mcjus    MonoMterium),  Tours  and  other  cities  and  villages  of  the  diocese, 
which  it  has  kept  to  our  own  day.      Thus,  toanuntir-  of  the  aumEious  norlaon  thellfoond  rale  ol  St.  Unnin.  we 

ing  sea!  Martin  added  the  greatest  simplicity,  and  it  is  i-iw  only  the  mosi  unpoituQi:  Alet.  6i.  Martin  «  « ta«;wi«d« 

tfi.whkh.xpi™ho.whi.5„»«i.ini„i»»ii„n«,  Ss  s.«?^(ia/,wsan"i-.7™.''4.'ib£."^: 

admirably  succeeded  m  sowing  Chnstaanity  through-  njip.  331-3;  v.  3ia.  app.  4S4-B2.  «00-S03, 506-e.  647;  Bafst, 

out  Touraine.      Nor  was  it  a  rare  occurrence  for  him  to  Le  Tomitau  de  SI.  JVartji  in  Rrv.  ArdiM.  (Paris,  1886) ,  C,  VII, 

leave  his  diocese,  when  he  thought  that  his  appearance  v'li^^-la-'Mfr  °i^M"  R^'oin^"Tn"u^ENty'35i'  I'r^' 

in  some  distant  locality  might  produce  some  good.  He  ;!5e,'iZ4-5;  368,20;  376, 'i-3:  ssa.aMS:  38S.  iid-3;  ioo,  laj 

even  went  several  times  to  Tner,  where  the  emperore  ioa,4»-^:  483,47-^;  M9,3D;  MO. 7-11. 13;  38G.22-7;  57*. 

bad  establu^ed  their  residence,  to  plead  the  inter-  ^^i,^;,\''l^^Xi^l^'li^^>^'l^'i^"'Sk'-^'t^J: 

esM  of  the  Church  or  to  ask  pardon  for  some  con-  (istbJ,  207;  Bni.u       _     —    .. 

demned  person.     His  rfile  in  the  matter  of  the  Priscil-  pj'"^'-'Mi?f^'*,"B"  z/   ■ 

lionists   and   Ithocians   was   especially   remarkable,  x vu!  57-aM^  XVIII '2''    ^ 

Against  Priscillian,  the  Spanish  heresiarch,  and  his  a*    "     ■       '        "  '  ' 

partisans,   who  had  been  justly  condemned  by  the  ^- ;-  7-  —i,i---„,-,^  -.  -,„-,-.-.>.,-,■  ,;  -  - 

E^u„oa„(s.r«o™,tu™u.ch.,g=.w™b™™Sti»-  1ZX,t'"iu'iKS:SI,rH'?A^i',^S. 

fore  Emperor  Haximus  by  some  orthodox  bishops  of  dr  la  sic  nnhiol  di  rounnne,  m  <Toun,  1S74),  Sd-os:  Fi.*- 

Spain,  led  by  Bidiop  Ithacius.    Martin  hurried  to  cha«,,.  E.jai^rrap«toiaidt6i.UariiiideT€^,mirtVichK,t 

Trier,  °ot  indeed   to.  defend  the  gnostic  and  Mani-  lrj:f,i^-^^Zl^'\^^'Q^;^r'VAi!i^'S^1^. 

chteandoctnnesof  Pnscillian,  but  to  remove  him  from  carum.  X;  HiM.  tiu,  dt  la  Fnntrt  (Pub,  1733).  I,  n,  413-7; 

the  secular  jurisdiction  of  the  emperor.     Haximus  at  LBeoioijL»M*H™E,z-»j™i«>mtajCTi(j™Wt/jAS.  Vortoi 

first  Bi-i-pHpHt/.  hid  pntrpjitv  hut  whpn  Mnrtin  hnrt  Hb.  la  LfUm  eliTft..l  (Pms.  IBSO),  4^-57;  LuLOfa,  BM.  hiH.  di 

nrst  acceaea  to  nis  entreaty.  Dill,  wnen  Martin  nan  oe-  j^  p„,m,  i  iPtra,  1708),  10375-302:   Losonm-Au  Hmi.  dt 

parted,  yielded  to  the  eohcitations  of  Ithacius  and  or-  i-^iueneUicant.lv  lPimi.n3'i),SS5-e2;  iS\NLt,o«.ActaSS. 

dered  Priscillian  and  his  followers  to  be  beheaded,  0^,8.  (Kris,  ioso),yi,U.4aB770:.Pm*.DtMrt.iui.MWM™ 

Djeplj  gri.vrf,  Martin jeM  to  •om.nmic.l,  with  J.^?"™*"*.  'iSS^K^K  E.'ZS'^^SiJS'ii 

Ithacius.     However,  when  he  went  ogam  to  Tner  a  LiaiuiiiiMiiiiediTouri{/i.bbevait.iaa4):  Ranxesa.  if  arlin 

little  later  to  ask  pardon  for  two  rebels,  Nareea  and  ran  fours.  At  umdtMaiiqc  Monchu-Buchiif,  in  trinan  Liim 

T^iiraiiliini    MflliTTHIH  wnlilH  nnlv  nmrnian  if  t/i  him  nn  "■  V^irtm  datvcMtlU  (Bnglsu.  188*);  Rtvttst:,  Im  mrorla  dr 

l«ucadiu3  uaxunus  would  only  promise .'t  to  him  on  ^^„.^  Uonm.  U  ipW /Jlfli™w»rD« <fc»  OauUt.  d«™i  U  Coiutit 

condition  that  he  would  make  his  peace  with  Ithacius.  Municipal  deTauri(Toure,  ISei):  Scdllahd,  Martin  p/roun, 

To  save  the  lives  of  his  clients,  he  consented  to  this  ApoMc  afOa«i  (London,  isoi!;  Snt-ncipii  Sevbhus.  v\ia3. 

reconciliation,  but  afterwards  reproached  himself  bil^  "'"Jl'  irSTI^  "vl  ( Veiiw  "iMl )  79™-  Sit  "ch"™ 

terly  for  this  act  of  weakness.  Db  S.  Martini  loco  iMoli  <t  euUu  in  lVi«™^W.  S(i«Jim  a. 

AfUr  a  last  visit  to  Rome,  Martin  went  to Candea,  Mitunl  aw  d™  B«urfi*(iner  Ordm  tisso).  I.  i.  62-«4:  II.  26- 

one  of  the  religious  centres  created  by  him  in  hw  ^,^^:S^°^^■its!^■^i:^l^TT"rA't^^":^^aZA 

diocese,  when  he  was  attacked  by  the  malady  which  is&i)-    Ffia  di  S    Martina,  rttann  di  Taurt  (Monmi,  IB7fl]; 

ended  his  life.    Ordering  himaelf  to  be  earned  mto  WotOTuce.  Vir  d,  si.  Martin  (Toun,  ISSB). 
the  presbytery  of  the  ohureh,  he  died  there  in  400  (ao-  I^on  CLtrcNET. 

cording  to  some  authorities;  more  probably  in  3S7) 

at  the  age  of  about  81,  evincing  until  the  last  that  ex-        Martin  of  Troppan,  chronicler,  date  of  birth  un- 

emplary  spirit  of  humility  and  mortification  which  he  known;  d.  1278.     His  family  name  was  Strebski,  and, 

had  ever  shown.     The  Church  of  France  has  always  being  by  birth  a  native  of  Troppau  (Oppavia),  be  is 

considered  Martin  one  of  her  greatest  saints,  and  hsgi-  abo  known  as  Martinus  Oppaviensis.     In  nis  youth  he 

ographers  have  recorded  a  great  number  of  miracles  entered  the  Dominican  Order  at  Prague,  and,  as  tiie 

due tohisintercession whilehewasUvingandafterhis  Bohemian  monasteries  ti  the  Dominicans  belonged 

death.     His  cult  was  very  popular  throughout  the  to  the  Polish  province  ot  the  order,  he  was  usually 

Middle  Ages,  a  multitude  of  churches  and  chapels  were  known  as  Martmus  Polonus.    After  the  middle  of  the 

dedicated  to  him,  and  a  great  number  of  places  have  thirteenth  century  he  went  to  Rome,  was  appointed 

been  called  by  his  name.     His  body,  taken  t«  Toura,  pap^chaplaiu  and  penitentiary  by  Clement  Iv  (1265- 

was  enclosed  in  a  stone  sarcophagus,  above  which  his  S),  and  retained  this  position  under  the  succeeding 

successors,  St.  Britiua  and  St.  Perpetuus,  built  first  a  popes.    On  22  June,  1278,  Nicholas  III  appointed  bim 

simple  chapel,  and  later  a  basilica  (470).     St.  Eu-  AivhtHsh<q>  <^  Gnesen,  and  performed  in  perstw  the 

phronius.  Bishop  of  Autim  and  a  friend  of  St.  Perpe-  episcopal  consecration.     Shortly  afterwards  Hociin 

tuus,  sent  a  sculptured  tablet  of  marble  t4)  cover  the  set  out  on  his  journey  to  Poland,  but  fell  so  seriotisly 

tomb.     A  larger  basilica  was  constructed  in  1014,  ill  on  the  way  that  he  was  compelled  to  stop  at 

which  was  burned  down  in  1230  tfl  be  rebuilt  soon  on  a  Bologna.    He  died  at  this  city  in  the  same  year, 

Btill  larger  scale.    This  sanctuary  was  the  centre  of  and  found  interment  there-    lurtin  ia  remembered 

great  national  pilgrimages  until  1562,  the  fatal  year  chiefly  for  bis  epitome  <A  the  history  of  the  W4uid 

when  the  Protestants  sacked  it  from  top  to  bottom,  (Gbrooica  Fonl^cum  et  Imperatorum),  whioh  wm 

destroying  the  sepulchre  and  the  relics  of  the  great  the  favourite  handbook  of  th«  later  Middle  Agea. 

wonder-worker,  the  object  of  their  hatred.    The  ill-  The  fint  edition  appeared  during  the  pontifioate  ot 

fated  collegiate  church  was  restored  by  its  canons,  but  Clement  IV  (1205-8);  a  second  reoenuon  extends  to 

a  new  and  more  terrible  misfortune  awaited  it.    The  the  death  of  tM*  pcmtiff,  and  a  third  to  1277.    The 

nvohitionary  hammtw  of  1703  waa  to  subject  it  to  a  "CSiraiucIo"  mm  ai7wi|ed  in  such  a  manner  that  tbt 


MAETIN 


734 


MAETZMSBERG 


popes  were  treated  on  one  side  of  the  codex,  and  the 
emperors  on  the  opposite  page.  As  each  page  con- 
tains fifty  Unes,  and  each  hne  the  historical  matter  of 
one  year,  each  page  covers  a  period  of  fifty  years. 
Alike  in  matter  and  in  arrangement  he  followed  the 
old  models.  The  work  is  entirely  uncritical;  his 
sources  were  to  a  great  extent  legendary,  and  this  ma- 
terial is  again  employed  by  him  in  uncritical  fashion. 
The  "  Chronicle  "  thus  contains  Uttle  true  history,  but 
chiefly  a  mass  of  fables  and  popular  legends.  He  ad- 
mits, for  example,  into  his  third  edition  the  fable  of 
Popess  Joan  (q.  v.),  which  indeed  owes  to  him  its  wide 
dissemination  (Chronicle  ed.  in  Mon.  Germ.,  Script., 
XXII,  397-475) .  The  "  Chronicle  *'  was  continued  by 
many  imitators  of  Martin.  The  work  printed  at 
Turin  in  1477  under  the  title  "  Martini  Poloni  Chro- 
nicon  summorum  Pontificum  et  Imperatorum "  is, 
however,  by  a  later  author,  and  has  no  connexion  with 
Martin  of  Troppau .  Besides  the  ' '  Chronicle ' ' ,  Martin 
is  said  to  have  also  written  sermons  (Sennones  de 
tempore  et  de  Sanctis,  Argentorati,  1484),  a  lexicon  of 
canon  law,  and  a  work  on  the  Greek  Schism. 

Weiland,  Introductio  in  Mon.  Qerm.  hist.  Script.,  XXII,  377; 
Idem,  in  A rchiv  der  Oca.  fiir  aeltere  deutache Geachtchtakunde,  XII, 
1-79;  Wattenbach,  DnUschlanda  Oeach'MitaqueUm,  II  (6th 
ed.),  466-71;  Hdrter,  NomencUUor,  II  (3nl  ed.),  420-1; 
Michael,  Qeach.  dea  deutachen  Volkea,  III,  384-8;  Potthast, 
Bibl.  hiat,  medii  oavi,  2nd  ed.,  I,  771-2. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Martin  of  Valencia,  O.F.M.  (Juan  Martin  de  Boil), 
b.  at  Villa  de  Valencia,  Spain,  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century;  died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity  at 
Tlalmanalco,  Mexico,  31  August,  1534.  He  entered 
the  Franciscan  Order  at  Mayorga  in  the  Province  of 
Santiago,  built  the  monastery  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Berrogal,  and  was  the  chief  founder  of  the  Custody  of 
San  Gabriel,  for  which  he  visited  Rome.  In  1523  he 
was  chosen  to  head  a  band  of  twelve  Franciscans  who 
were  to  labour  for  the  conversion  of  the  Mexican 
natives.  They  reached  their  destination  on  13  May, 
1524,  and  to  the  amazement  of  the  Mexican  chiefs  were 
received  with  the  most  profound  veneration  by  Her- 
nando Cortes  shortly  aft^r  their  arrival.  (See  Friars 
Minor  in  America.)  Fr.  Martin,  as  apostolic  dele- 
gate, presided  at  the  first  ecclesiastical  synod  in  the 
New  World,  2  July,  1524.  At  the  same  time  he  estab- 
lished the  Custody  of  the  Holv  Gospel,  of  which  he 
was  elec^d  the  first  ctistos.  After  an  interval  of  three 
years  he  was  re-elected  in  1830.  He  led  a  most  peni- 
tential life,  and  he  and  his  eleven  companions,  the 
band  known  as  the  Twelve  Apostles  of  Mexico,  are 
said  to  have  baptized  several  million  natives. 

Habold,  Epitome  Annalium  FF.  Minorum  (Rome.  1672); 
GoTfZAQA,  De  Oriqine  Seraphicca  Religionia,  II  (Rome,  1587); 
Mentdieta,  Hiatorta  Ecleaitlatica  Indiana  (Mexico,  1870) ;  Vetan- 
CURT,  Cronica  de  la  Prov.  del  Santo  Evangelio  (Mexico,  1697); 
Menologio  Franciacano  (Mexico,  1697);  Torquemada,  Monar- 
quia  Indiana,  I  (Madrid,  1723);  Pkrusini,  Cronologia  Hia- 
torico-Legalia,  III  (Rome,  1752). 

Zephyrin  Engelhabdt. 

Martinov,  John,  b.  7  October,  1821;  d.  26  April, 
1894.  Having  passed  through  his  university  course  at 
St.  Petersburg  with  distinction,  Count  Schouvalov  en- 
gaged him  as  tutor  to  his  children  during  a  tour  through 
Europe.  In  France  he  became  acquainted  with  Father 
de  Ravignan,  and  this  led  to  his  reception  into  the 
Church.  Being  now  unable  to  return  to  Russia,  he 
entered  the  French  Jesuits,  18  September,  1845. 
Similarly  his  patron.  Count  Schouvalov,  having  also 
become  a  Catholic,  joined  the  Bamabites.  Father 
Martinov,  like  Father  Gagarin,  with  whom  he  often 
co-operated,  could  now  only  reach  his  countrymen  by 
his  writings,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature  and 
correspondence  with  great  success.  He  wrote  fre- 
quently for  the  "Revue  des  Questions  Historiques ", 
for  "Polybiblion",  and  "Les  Etudes  Religieuses". 
Called  by  Pius  IX  to  Rome  as  a  papal  theologian  for 
the  Vatican  Council,  he  was  afterwards  a  consultor  of 


the  Pr()paganda  in  matters  connected  ^^Lth  OrientAl 
rites.  TKe  last  days  of  his  busy,  well-filled  life  were 
passed  at  Cannes.  His  bibliography,  under  fifty-two 
titles,  comprises  works  of  every  class,  in  Russian, 
French,  and  Latin.  His  most  notable  work  is  the 
"Annus  Ecclesiasticus  Grseco-Slavonicus ",  which 
forms  part  of  the  eleventh  volume  of  the  Bollandist 
"Acta  Sanctorum",  for  October  (Brufisels,  1863). 

Pricia  Hiatoriquea  (Brussels,  1894),  201;  PolybMitm  (18M), 
aer.  II,  vol.  39^  540;  Somubbvooel.,  Bibliothkque  de  la  Compa- 
gnie  de  Jiaua,  ix,  645--52. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Martinsberff,  or  Pannonhalma,    an    important 
Benedictine  abbey  in  Hungary,  about  fourteen  Eng- 
lish miles  south  of  Raab,  and  sixty  we6t  of  Buda- 
Pesth.     From  an  early  date  the  place  was  tradition- 
ally regarded  as  the  scene  of  the  birth  and  early  life 
of  the  famous  St.  Martin  of  Tours  and  was  hdd  in 
great  veneration  by  the  small  Christian  population  of 
Hungary.     Towards  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  the 
Benedictine  monastery  was  begim  by  Duke  Geysa,  and 
completed  by  his  more  celebrated  son,  St.  Stephen,  the 
king.    The  second  Sunday  of  October,  1001 ,  witnessed 
the  dedication  of  the  church.     The  site  is  a  pleasant 
one  on  a  high  plateau  with  extensive  views  to  the 
north  and  east,  and  occupies  the  ground  once  covered 
by  a  strongly  fortified  Roman  encampment.    Almost 
iminterruptedly  from  that  date  the  "Holy  Mountain 
of  Himgary'',  as  it  came  to  be  called,  has  been  the 
centre  of  all  that  is  best  in  the  religious  and  intellee-- 
tual  life  of  the  kingdom.     The  first  Christian  school 
established  in  Hungary,  it  soon  attracted  lai^  num- 
bers of  students;  popes  and  kings  increased  and  guar- 
anteed its  possessions,  and  owing  to  its  strongly  forti- 
fied position  it  escaped  destruction  more  than  once 
when  all  around  was  ruined.    The  Tartar  invasion 
left  it  unscathed.     It  was  less  fortimate  imder  Arch- 
abbot  Matthew,  who  died  in  1584,  during  the  disas- 
trous five  years  in  which  tiie  Turks  were  roasters  of 
Hungary,  though  it  escaped  annihilation  till  the  fail 
of  its  fortress  in  1594,  when  the  community  was  scat- 
tered.    The  younger  monks  were  received  into  va- 
rious Austrian  monasteries  and  the  valuable  archives 
were  saved  from  destruction.     It  was  not  till  peace 
was  fully  restored  in  1683  that  St.  Martin's  Abbev 
rose  from  its  ashes,  the  only  house  of  the  fifty  which 
had  belonged  to  the  Beneaictine  Order  in  medieiid 
Hungry.      Its  schools  were  reonened  in  1724  and 
flourished  till  the  days  of  Joseph  II,  "the  Sacristan" 
(1780-86),  whose  narrowmindedness  could  not  leave 
untouched  so  vigorous  a  centre  of  religious  feeling  and 
Hungarian  sentiment  and  language. 

The  eclipse  of  Martinsberg  lasted  about  sixteen 
years.  Li  1802,  on  12  March,  the  abbey  and  its  col- 
leges were  reopened  in  deference  to  the  genera]  desire 
of  the  nation,  and  an  archabbot  was  appointed  in  the 
person  of  Dom  Chr>'so8tom  Novak.  Smce  that  time 
the  fortunes  of  the  community  have  prospered.  The 
abbey  and  church  have  been  rebuilt  in  the  Italian 
style,  and  form  an  imposing  group  of  buildings.  The 
house  is  the  central  home  of  all  the  monks  of  the  Hun- 
garian congregation;  its  superior,  the  archabbot,  is  a 
prelate  "nullius",  inunediately  subject  to  the  Holy 
See,  Ordinary  of  the  Diocese,  perpetual  President  of 
the  Benedictine  Congregation  of  Hungary,  and  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Magnates  of  the  kingdom. 
Subject  to  his  government,  besides  the  actual  com- 
munity at  Martmsberg,  are  the  abbeys  of  St.  Maurice 
and  Companions  at  Bakonybel,  of  St.  Anian  at  Tihany, 
of  St.  Mary  at  Doemelk,  and  St.  Hadrian  at  Zalavar, 
and  six  residences,  with  colleges  attached,  in  various 
parts  of  the  kingdom;  Gydr  ^ith  448  students,  So- 
pron  with  345,  Estergom  with  366,  and  three  nunor 
gmmasia;  Koszeg  with  208,  Komarom  with  144,  and 
Papa  with  157  students.  The  entire  congregati<m  of 
Hungarian  Benedictines  numbers  about  160  priests, 
with  some. 40  or  50  clerics  and  novices.    The  ooogre- 


MAETmUZZI 


735 


MAETIMUZ2I 


gation  administers  also  in  26  incorporated  parishes, 
with  seventy-five  daughter  churches  and  forty-four 
chapels;  serving  a  population  of  nearly  18,000  souls; 
it  has  the  supervision  oesides  of  five  convents  of  nuns; 
its  high  schools,  "gymnasia  majora''  are  attended  by 
alM)ut  1200  boys,  its  lesser  seminaries  by  over  500. 
The  monks  of  St.  Martin's  have  contributed  largely 
to  the  modem  theological,  scientific  and  historical 
literature  of  their  country,  and  have  given  many  dis- 
tinguished men  to  the  Church.  Cardinal  Claud  Vas- 
zary,  Archbishop  of  Gran,  and  Bishop  Kohl,  his  auxil- 
iary, are  perhaps  the  best  known  representatives  of 
the  Hungarian  Benedictines  at  the  present  day. 

Album  Benedictinum  (St.  Vincent's  Abbey,  Pennsylvania, 
1880);  SS.  PatriarefuB  Benedicti  famUa  eonfcedtrata  (Rome» 
Vatican  Press,  1905);  Scriptorea  Ord.  S.  Benedidi,  qui  lySO- 
1880  fuerufU  in  imprrio  AiMtriaco-Hungarico  (Vienna.  1880). 

John  Gilbert  Doian. 

Martmuud,  George,  monk,  bishop,  cardinal,  b.  at 
Kamicac,  Dalmatia,  1482;  d.  16  December,  1551.  His 
real  name  was  George  Utjesenovic.  His  mother,  a 
native  of  Venice  of  the  name  of  Martinuzzi,  had  a 
brother  who  was  a  bishop,  and,  out  of  regard  for  his 
mother  and  uncle,  George  preferred  to  be  called  Marti- 
nuzzi (I^atin  Martinuzius),  His  father  died  in  battle 
against  the  Turks.  At  the  age  of  eight,  George  came 
to  the  court  of  Duke  John  Corvinus,  in  whose  service 
he  remained  at  the  Castle  Hunyad  15  years  under  hard 
conditions.  Then  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Duch- 
ess Hedwig,  the  widow  of  Count  Stephan  Zapolya,  by 
whom  he  was  well  treated.  A  year  later  (1504),  at 
the  age  of  22,  he  entered  the  Pauline  monasterv  of  St. 
Laurentius  near  Of  en,  whore  his  unusual  intellectual 
gifts  soon  attracted  attention.  A  monk  taught  him 
writing  and  reading;  later,  he  studied  philosophy  and 
theologv'  and  was  ordained  priest.  Owing  to  his  tal- 
ent, slull,  and  zeal,  his  superiors  appointed  him  prior 
of  the  monastery  of  Czenstochau  in  Poland,  and  later 
of  the  monastery  of  Sajolad,  near  Erlau  in  North  Hun- 

?;ary.  Here  the  Hungarian  pretender,  John  Zapolya, 
ound  him,  when,  after  the  battle  of  Kashau,  1527,  he 
was  compelled  to  fiee  before  King  Ferdinand,  and 
discovered  in  the  prior  **Frater  Georgius'*,  an  ac- 
quaintance from  the  court  of  his  mother  Hedwig. 
Kecognizing  the  prior's  ability  and  energy,  the  prince 
requested  him  to  enter  his  service.  Moved  by  ambi- 
tion as  well  as  patriotism,  Martinuzzi  left  his  monas- 
tery to  go  with  tne  fugitive  prince  to  Poland,  and  to  de- 
fend with  tact  and  energy  the  prince's  cause.  During 
the  unfortunate  troubles  brought  upon  Hungary  by 
the  war  between  the  two  pretenders,  John  Zapolya 
and  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  and  by  the  Turkish  con- 
quests, Martinuzzi  was  prominent  in  Hungarian  poli- 
tics. He  went  from  Poland  to  Hungary,  organized 
the  adherents  of  Zapolya,  secured  financial  support 
from  Magyar  nobles,  and  niised  an  army  which  de- 
feated Ferdinand's  general,  Ravay  (1528).  In  1529. 
Zapolya  entered  Ofen.  He  appointed  Martinuzzi  royal 
counselor  and  treasurer,  and  in  1534  conferred  on 
him  the  diocese  of  Grosswardein,  though  the  newly 
nominated  bishop  did  not  receive  papal  approbation 
until  five  years  later.  Meanwhile,  he  ruled  his  dio- 
cese, but  not  being  consecrated  bishop,  all  the  episco- 
pal functions  were  performed  by  auxiliary  bishops. 

John  Zapolya  died  21  July,  1540.  He  left  oijy 
one  young  son,  John  Sigmund,  who  was  bom  nine  dajrs 
before  Zapolya's  death.  The  deceased  monarch  m 
his  will  had  appointed  Martinuzzi  and  Peter  Petrovich 
guardians  of  the  child.  They  proclaimed  him  king 
and  the  Sultan  Suleiman  promised  to  recognize  him. 
But  Ferdinand,  who  had  the  support  of  several  Mag- 
yarian  nobles,  demanded  the  f  uinllment  of  an  agree- 
ment concluded  between  him  and  John  Zapolya,  ac- 
cording to  which,  Hungary  after  the  Latter's  death, 
was  to  oe  ceded  to  him.  His  demand  proving  ineffeo- 
tual,  Ferdinand  sent  a  new  arm^  to  Hungary  which 
•ccupied  several  cities  and  laid  aiege  to  Ofen.    In  the 


meantime,  he  negotiated  with  Isabella,  to  whom  Mar- 
tinuzzi was  chief  adviser.  On  one  occasion  Marti- 
nuzzi even  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  and 
repulsed  an  attack  on  his  city.  Meanwhile,  the  Sul- 
tan Suleiman  declared  war  against  Ferdinand,  and  in 
person  led  a  formidable  army  into  Hungary.  He  oc- 
cupied Ofen,  and  turned  the  lands  along  the  Danube 
into  a  Turkish  province.  But  he  respected  the  terri- 
tory of  Isabella  and  her  son  which  was  to  be  governed 
during  the  latter's  minority  by  Martinuzzi  and  Petro- 
vich. The  war  between  Ferdinand  and  the  Sultan 
continued,  while  Isabella  governed  the  principality  of 
Siebenbtirgen  for  some  years  in  peace.  There  was  a 
powerful  cabal  among  the  nobles  vehemently  hostile 
to  Martinuzzi,  who  governed  with  an  autocractic  firm- 
ness that  brought  him  many  enemies.  He  had  also 
disagreements  with  Isabella,  who  permitted  herself  to 
be  swayed  by  his  opponents.  Martinuzzi  now  began 
secretly  negotiating  with  King  Ferdinand,  and  in  1549 
an  agreement  was  come  to  by  which  Isabella  had  to 
give  up  Siebenbtirgen.  In  return  she  was  to  receive 
the  pnncipaUty  of  Opelln  in  Silesia,  and  in  addition 
all  that  had  been  left  her  by  her  husband.  Ferdinand 
was  also  to  provide  for  her  son  John  Sigmund,  and 
later  to  marry  him  to  his  daughter.  Martinuzzi  was 
to  be  made  Archbishop  of  Gran,  and  to  receive  the  car- 
dinal's hat.  As  soon  as  this  contract  became  known, 
a  quarrel  broke  out  between  Isabella  and  the  minister. 
The  latter,  however,  had  the  upper  hand,  and  the 
queen  was  compelled  to  come  to  an  agreement  (1551); 
this  agreement  however  did  not  alUy  the  mistrust 
between  the  two. 

In  the  meantime  the  astute  Martinuzzi  treated  with 
the  Sultan,  and  succeeded  for  a  time  in  deceiving  him 
regarding  the  fate  of  Siebenbiirgen  and  his  own  rela- 
tions with  King  Ferdinand.  Ferdinand  sent  his  gen- 
eral, Castaldo,  Margrave  of  Cassiano,  with  an  army 
to  Siebenbiirgen  to  discuss  the  agreement  made  witn 
Martinuzzi.  Castaldo  was  told  to  keep  on  good  terms 
with  the  minister;  but  having  little  faith  in  Martinuzzi, 
he  was  eager  to  settle  the  matter  with  Isabella  as  soon 
as  possible.  In  accordance  with  a  previous  arrange- 
ment made  with  Martinuzzi,  a  treaty  was  conclucied 
by  which  Isabella  agreed  to  give  up,  under  certain 
conditions,  Hungary  and  Sielx^nbUr^en,  and  to  hand 
over  to  Ferdinand  the  crown  and  insignia  of  the  King- 
dom. When  the  Sultan  learned  this,  he  sent  a  new 
army  against  the  king.  Castaldo  at  once  suspected 
that  M^inuzzi  was  in  secret  alliance  with  the  Turks, 
and  that  the  negotiations  were  directed  against  him 
and  king  Ferdinand.  Castaldo  told  the  king  of  his 
suspicion  and  was  told  to  deal  with  Martinuzzi  in  such 
a  way  as  he  thought  the  country's  need  and  the  wel\ 
bein^  of  its  people  demanded.  Whether  Castaldo's 
suspicion  was  well  founded,  or  whether  he  wished  to 
rid  himself  of  a  rival  is  a  difficult  question  to  decide 
Older  historical  authority  considered  Martinuzzi 's  se- 
cret negotiations  with  the  Sultan  as  treason  against 
Ferdinand.  Modem  historical  research,  however, 
scouts  these  accusations,  and  maintains  that  Marti- 
nuzzi cannot  be  con\icted  of  any  treason  against  Fer- 
dinand. (Danko  in  the  **  Kirchenlex  ",  s.  v.)  Castaldo 
brought  about  the  assassination  of  Martinuzzi.  The 
order  was  executed  on  the  night  of  December  16th 

1551,  by  Sforza  Pallavicini  and  several  accomplices. 
The  body  remained  unburied  until  February  25th, 

1552,  when  it  was  interred  in  St.  Michael's  church  at 
Karlsburg.  Although  Ferdinand  and  Castaldo  en- 
deavored to  justify  themselves  to  the  pope,  Julius  III 
excommunicated  the  murderers  and  instigators  of  the 
crime.  In  1555  however  the  punishment  was  with- 
drawn. Though  Martinuzzi's  lame  lies  mainly  in  the 
political  sphere,  he  was  also  largely  occupied  with  ec- 
clesiastical affairs.  He  exerted  himself  greatly  in  re- 
sisting the  invasion  of  Protestantism.  But  a  measure 
with  the  same  object  which  passed  the  legislative  as- 
eembly  of  Siebenbiirgen  in  1544  had  little  result,  for 


MA&TIK 


736 


MMtTTR 


the  reason  that  Petrovich,  the  second  guardian  of  the 
king,  was  on  the  side  of  the  new  doctrine.  In  his  own 
diocese  of  Grosswardein,  Martinuzzi  battled  energeti- 
cally with  the  innovations,  though  he  could  not  pre- 
vent their  progress  in  Siebenbiirgen.  A  reliable  his- 
torical account  of  this  remarkable  man  has  not  yet 
been  compiled. 

Bechet,  Hisloire  du  ministhe  du  cardinal  Mariinusius  (Paris, 
1771);  Utjesenovic,  Leben»geachicfUe  des  Kardinal  Oeorg  Utr 
jeaenovic  o^nannt  Martinu3iua  (Vienna,  1881);  Schwtckbr, 
Kard.  Mariinuxzi  und  die  Reformation  in  Unoam  und  Si^ten^ 
bUrgen  {Oeaterr.  Vierteljahrachrift  fiir  kaih.  Theologie,  1867,  VI, 
397  ff.);  Mailath,  Oeschichie  der  Moffyaren,  III,_(Renge8burg, 
1863).  59  sq.,  94  sq..  112  sq.,  116  sq.;  WsiSB,  Wdtgesehiehte, 
3  ed.,  VUI,  68-70, 116. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Martm  y  Oarcia,  Luis,  twenty-fourth  General  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus;  b.  of  humble  parentage  at  Mel- 
ear  de  Femamental,  Burgos,  Spain,  19  August,  1846; 
d.  at  Fiesole,  Italy,  18  April,  1906.  After  a  course  of 
six  years  in  the  seminary  of  Burgos,  he  entered  the 
Society  at  Loyola,  in  1864;  studied  philosophy  at 
L^on,  VsJs  (Haute-Loire,  France),  and  Poyanne 
(Landes,  France),  and  theology  at  the  last-named 
place,  where  he  also  taught  theology.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1876,  was  successively  rector  of  the 
seminaiy  at  Salamanca,  director  of  '^El  Mensajero'' 
(The  Messenger),  superior  of  the  college  of  Deusto- 
Bilbao,  provmcial  of  Castile,  and  vicar;  and  was 
general  of  the  Society  from  2  October,  1892,  until  his 
death.  The  disease  (sarcoma)  which  ended  his  life 
necessitated  the  amputation  of  an  arm  and  other  pain- 
ful operations,  which  he  bore  with  Christian  fortitude. 
His  superior  talents  were  shown  in  such  splendid 
works  as  the  rebuilding  of  the  great  seminary  at  Sala- 
manca, the  foundation  of  the  Comillense  seminary, 
and  his  plan  for  compiling  the  history  of  the  Society. 
In  prose  he  wrote  with  a  nervous  and  graceful  style,  m 
verse  with  a  robust  sonority  and  great  wealth  of 
imagery,  while  as  a  preacher  the  elegance  of  his  diction, 
the  profoundity  ol  his  thought,  and  his  emotional 
warmth  made  him  almost  unrivalled  among  the  Span- 
ish orators  of  his  time.  His  published  woi^  include: 
"  Discm-so  leido  en  el  tercer  centenario  de  la  muerte  de 
Sta.  Teresa"  (discourse  on  St.  Teresa's  centenary), 
^Madrid,  1882;  Bilbao,  1891;  Barcelona,  1908);  "De 
Studiis  Theologicis  ordinandis"  (Bilbao,  1892);  an 
epistle  to  the  fathers  and  brothers  of  the  society; 
articles  in  "El  Mensajero",  I  (1886),  of  which  he  was 
editor  for  some  years;  and  some  uncollected  poems. 

Hozrfn  V  F«.  XV  (Madrid).  141-66;  279-92;  La  Crut,  I 
(Madrid,  1893),  146:  I  (1906),  415;  Diceionario  hteielonSdico 
Hispano^mericano,  jd^  (Barcelona,  1893);  Letters  and  Notices 
(London,  1906-07). 

Antonio  Perez  (jotena. 

Mart3rr. — ^The  Greek  word  udprvt  signifies  a  wit- 
ness who  testifies  to  a  fact  of  which  he  bob  knowledge 
from  personal  observation.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the 
term  first  appears  in  Christian  Uterature;  the  Apostles 
were  "witnesses"  of  all  that  they  had  observecl  in  the 
public  life  of  Christ,  as  well  as  of  all  they  had  learned 
from  His  teaching,  "in  Jerusalem,  and  in  all  Judea, 
and  Samaria,  and  even  to  the  uttermost  part  of  the 
earth"  (Acts,  i,  8).  St.  Peter,  in  his  adoress  to  the 
Apostles  and  disciples  relative  to  the  election  of  a 
successor  to  Judas,  employs  the  term  with  this  mean- 
ing: "Wherefore,  of  these  men  who  have  companied 
with  us  all  the  time  that  the  Lord  Jesus  cfjne  in  and 
went  out  among  us,  beginning  from  the  aaptism  of 
John  until  the  day  he  was  taken  up  from  us,  one  of 
these  must  be  made  witness  with  us  of  his  resurrection" 
(Acts,  i,  22).  In  his  first  public  discourse  the  chief 
of  the  Apostles  speaks  of  himself  and  his  companions 
as  "witnesses"  who  saw  the  risen  Christ,  ana  subse- 
quently, after  the  miraculous  escape  of  the  Apostles 
from  prison,  when  brought  a  second  time  before  the 
tribimal,  Peter  again  alludes  to  the  twelve  as  witnesses 
k?  Chiiat,  as  the  I^ince  and  Saviour  of  Israel,  Who 


rose  from  the  dead;  and  added  that  in  giving  their 
public  testimony  to  the  facts,  of  which  they  were  cer- 
tain, they  must  obey  God  rather  than  man  (Acts,  v, 
29  sqa.)-  In  his  First  Epistle  St.  Peter  also  refers  to 
himself  as  a  "witness  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ"  (I 
Pet.,  V.  1). 

But  even  in  these  first  examples  of  the  use  of  the 
word  ijuipryt  in  Christian  terminology  a  new  shade  of 
meaning  is  already  noticeable,  in  addition  to  the  ac- 
cepted signification  of  the  term.  The  disciples  of 
Christ  were  no  ordinary  witnesses  such  as  those  who 
gave  testimony  in  a  court  of  justice.  These  latter  ran 
no  risk  in  bearing  testimony  to  facts  that  came  under 
their  observation,  whereas  the  witnesses  of  Christ 
were  brought  face  to  face  daily,  from  the  beginning  of 
their  apostolate,  with  the  possibility  of  incurring 
severe  punishment  and  even  death  itself.  Thus,  St. 
Stephen  was  a  witness  who  early  in  the  history  of 
Christianity  sealed  his  testimony  with  his  blood.  The 
careers  of  the  Apostles  were  at  all  times  beset  with 
dangers  of  the  gravest  character,  until  eventually 
they  all  suffered  tne  last  penaltvfor  their  convictions. 
Thus,  within  the  lifetime  of  the  Apostles,  the  term 
/tdpTvs  came  to  be  used  in  the  sense  of  a  witness  who  at 
any  time  might  be  called  upon  to  deny  what  he  testi- 
fied to,  under  penalty  of  death.  From  this  stage  the 
transition  was  easy  to  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the 
term,  as  used  ever  since  in  Christian  literature:  a 
martyr,  or  witness  of  Christ,  is  a  person  who,  though 
he  has  never  seen  nor  heard  the  Divine  Founder  of  the 
Church,  is  yet  so  firmly  convinced  of  the  truths  of  the 
Christian  religion,  that  he  gladly  suffers  death  rather 
than  deny  it.  St.  John,  at  the  end  of  the  first  cen- 
tury, employs  the  word  with  this  meaning;  Antipas, 
a  convert  from  paganism,  is  spoken  of  as  a  "  faithful 
witness  (fidftrvs)  who  was  slain  among  you.  where 
Satan  dwelleth  "  (Apoc.,  ii,  13).  Further  on  the  same 
Apostle  speaks  of  the  "souls  of  them  that  were  slain 
for  the  Word  of  God  and  for  the  testimony  (jtofirvpUui) 
which  they  held"  (Apoc.,  vi,  9). 

Yet,  it  was  only  by  degrees,  in  the  course  of  the  first 
age  of  the  Church,  that  the  term  martyr  came  to  be 
exclusively  applied  to  those  who  had  died  for  the 
faith.  The  grandsons  of  St.  Jude,  for  example,  on 
their  escape  from  the  peril  they  underwent  when  cited 
before  Domitian  were  afterwards  regarded  as  nuirtyrs 
(Euseb.,  "Hist,  eccl.'^  Ill,  xx,  xxxii).  The  famous 
confessors  of  Lyons,  who  endured  so  bravely  awful 
tortures  for  their  belief,  were  looked  upon  by  iJ^eir 
fellow-Christians  as  martyrs,  but  they  themselves  de- 
clined this  title  as  of  right  belonging  only  to  Ihose  who 
had  actuallv  died:  "They  are  already  martyrs  whom 
Christ  has  deemed  worth  v  to  be  taken  up  in  their  con- 
fession, having  sealed  their  testimony  by  their  de- 
parture; but  we  are  confessors  mean  and  lowly" 
(Euseb.,  op.  cit.,  V,  ii).  This  distinction  between 
martyrs  and  confessors  is  thus  traceable  to  the  latter 
part  of  the  second  century:  those  only  were  martyrs 
who  had  suffered  the  extreme  penalty,  whereas  the 
title  of  confessors  was  given  to  Christians  who  had 
shown  their  willingness  to  die  for  their  belief,  by 
bravely  enduring  imprisonment  or  torture,  but  were 
not  put  to  death.  Yet  the  term  martyr  was  still  some- 
iimes  applied  during  the  third  century  to  persons  still 
living,  as,  for  instance,  by  St.  Cyprian,  who  gave  the 
title  of  martyrs  to  a  number  of  bishops,  priests,  and 
laymen  condemned  to  penal  servitude  in  the  mines 
(Ep.  76).  Tertullian  speaks  of  those  arrested  as 
Christians  and  not  yet  condemned  as  marhires  denff" 
nati.  In  the  fourth  century,  St.  Gregory  of  Nasiansus 
alludes  to  St.  Basil  as  "a  martyr",  but  evidently  em- 
plovs  the  term  in  the  broad  sense  in  which  the  word  is 
still  sometimes  applied  to  a  person  who  has  borne 
many  and  grave  hardships  in  tne  cause  of  Christianity. 
The  description  of  a  martyr  given  by  the  ^agan  his- 
torian Anunianus  Marcelunus  (XXII,  xni),  ^owb 
that  by  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  the  title  wm 


MARTTB 


737 


MA&TYft 


everywhere  reserved  to  those  who  had  actually  suf- 
fered death  for  their  faith.  Heretics  and  schismatics 
put  to  death  as  Christians  were  denied  the  title  of 
martyrs  (St.  Cyprian,  *'De  Unit,",  xiv;  St.  Augustine, 
Ep.  173;  Euseb.,  *'Hist.  Eccl.",  V,  xvi,  xia),  St. 
CVprian  lays  down  clearly  the  general  principle  that 
"he  cannot  be  a  martyr  who  is  not  in  the  Church;  he 
cannot  attain  unto  the  kingdom  who  forsakes  that 
which  shall  reign  there."  St.  Clement  of  Alexandria 
strongly  disapproves  (Strom.,  IV,  iv)  of  some  here- 
tics ^o  gave  themselves  up  to  the  law;  they  "banish 
themselves  without  being  martyrs".* 

The  orthodox  were  not  permitted  to  seek  martyr- 
dom. Tertullian,  however,  approves  the  conduct  of 
the  Christians  of  a  province  of  Asia  who  gave  them- 
selves up  to  the  governor,  Arrius  Antoninus  (Ad. 
Scap.,  v;.  Eusebius  also  relates  with  approval  the 
incident  of  three  Christians  of  Csesarea  m  Palestine 
who,  in  the  persecution  of  Valerian,  presented  them- 
selves to  the  judge  and  were  condemned  to  death 
(Hist.  Eccl.,  Vll,  xii).  But  while  circumstances  might 
sometimes  excuse  such  a  course,  it  was  generjuly 
held  to  be  imprudent.  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus 
stuns  up  in  a  sentence  the  rule  to  be  followed  in  such 
cases :  it  is  mere  rashness  to  seek  death,  but  it  is  cow- 
ardly to  refuse  it  (Orat.  xlii,  5,  6).  The  example  of  a 
Christian  of  Smyrna  named  Quintus,  who,  in  the  time 
of  St.  Polycarp,  persuaded  several  of  his  fellow  be- 
lievers to  declare  tnemselves  Christians,  was  a  warning 
of  what  might  happen  to  the  over-zealous:  Quintus 
at  the  last  moment  apostatized,  though  his  compan- 
ions persevered.  Breaking  idols  was  condemnea  by 
the  Council  of  Elvira  (30i5),  which,  in  its  sixtieth 
canon,  decreed  that  a  Christian  put  to  death  for  such 
vandalism  would  not  be  enrolled  as  a  martyr.  Lac- 
tantius,  on  the  other  hand,  has  only  mild  censure 
for  a  Christian  of  Nicomedia  who  suffered  martyrdom 
for  tearing  down  the  edict  of  persecution  (De  mort. 
pers.,  xiii).  In  one  case  St.  Cyprian  authorizes  seek- 
ing martyrdom.  Writing  to  his  priests  and  deacons 
regarding  repentant  lapsi  who  were  clamouring  to  be 
received  oaclc  into  communion,  the  bishop  after  giving 
general  directions  on  the  subject,  concludes  by  saying 
that  if  these  impatient  personages  are  so  eager  to  get 
back  to  the  Church  there  is  a  way  of  doing  so  open 
to  them.  "The  stru^le  is  still  going  forward",  he 
says,  "and  the  strife  is  waged  daily.  If  they  (the 
lapsi)  truly  and  with  constancy  repent  of  what  tney 
have  done,  and  the  fervour  of  their  faith  prevails,  he 
who  cannot  be  delayed  may  bo  crowned     (Ep.  xiii). 

Legal  Basis  of  the  Persecutions. — Acceptance 
of  the  national  religion  in  antiquity  was  an  obligation 
incumbent  on  all  citizens;  failure  to  worship  the  gods 
of  the  State  was  equivalent  to  treason.  This  univer- 
sally accepted  principle  is  responsible  for  the  various 
persecutions  suffered  by  Christians  before  the  reign  of 
Constantine;  Christians  denied  the  existence  of  and 
therefore  refused  to  worship  the  gods  of  the  state 
pantheon.  They  were  in  consequence  regarded  as 
atheists.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  the  Jews  also  re- 
jected the  gods  of  Rome,  and  yet  escaped  persecution. 
But  the  Jews,  from  the  Roman  standpoint,  had  a 
national  religion  and  a  national  God,  Jehovah,  whom 
they  had  a  full  legal  right  to  worship.  Even  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  when  the  Jews  ceased  to 
exist  as  a  nation,  Vespasian  made  no  change  in  their 
religious  status,  save  that  the  tribute  formerly  sent 
by  Jews  to  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  was  henceforth  to 
be  paid  to  the  Roman  exchequer.  For  some  time 
after  its  establishment,  the  Chnstian  Church  enjoyed 
the  religious  privileges  of  the  Jewish  nation,  but  from 
the  nature  of  the  case  it  is  apparent  that  the  chiefs  of 
the  Jewish  religion  would  not  long  permit  without 
protest  this  state  of  things.  For  they  abhorred 
Christ's  religion  as  much  as  they  abhorred  its  Founder. 
At  what  date  the  Roman  authorities  had  their  atten- 
tion directed  to  the  difference  between  the  Jewish  and 
IX.~47 


the  Christian  religion  cannot  be  determined,  but  it  ap« 
pears  to  be  fairly  well  es>tablishcd  that  laws  proscribing 
Christianity  were  enacted  befoi^  the  end  of  the  first 
centur>\  Tertullian  is  authority  for  the  statement 
that  persecution  of  the  Christians  was  insUiuium  Ne- 
ronianum — ^an  institution  of  Nero — (Ad  nat.,  i,  7). 
The  First  Epistle  of  St.  Peter  also  clearly  alludes  to 
the  proscription  of  Christians,  as  Christians,  at  the 
time  it  was  written  (I,  St.  Peter,  iv,  16).  Domitian 
(81-96)  also,  is  known  to  have  punished  with  death 
Christian  members  of  his  own  family  on  the  charge  of 
atheism  (Suetonius,  "Domitianus",  xv).  While  it  is 
therefore  probable  that  the  formula:  "  Let  there  be  no 
Christians  "  {Chridiani  non  sint)  dates  from  the  second 
half  of  the  first  centuiy,  yet  the  earliest  clear  enact- 
ment on  the  subject  of  Christianity  is  that  of  Trajan 
(98-117)  in  his  famous  lette|to  the  younger  Pliny,  nis 
legate  in  Bithynia. 

Pliny  had  been  sent  from  Rome  by  the  emperor  to 
Restore  order  in  the  ProWnce  of  Bithynia-Pontus. 
Among  the  difficulties  he  encountered  in  the  execution 
of  his  commission  one  of  the  most  serious  concerned 
the  Christians.  The  extraordinarily  large  number  of 
Christians  he  found  within  his  iuriscfiction  greatly  sur- 
prised him:  the  contagion  of  their  "superstition",  he 
reported  to  Trajan,  affected  not  only  the  cities  but 
even  the  villages  and  country  districts  of  the  province 
(Pliny,  Ep.,  x,  96).  One  consequence  of  the  general 
defection  from  the  state  religion  was  of  an  economic 
order:  so  many  people  had  become  Christians  that 
purchasers  were  no  longer  found  for  the  victims  that 
once  in  great  numbers  were  offered  to  the  gods.  Com- 
plaints were  laid  before  the  legate  relative  to  this  state 
of  affairs,  with  the  result  that  some  Christians  were 
arrested  and  brought  before  Pliny  for  examination. 
Tlie  suspects  were  interrogated  as  to  their  tenets  and 
those  ot  them  who  persisted  in  declining  repeated 
invitations  to  recant  were  executed.  Some  of  the 
prisoners,  however,  after  first  affirming  tliat  they 
were  Christians,  afterwards,  when  threatened  wim 
punishment,  qualified  their  first  admission  by  saying 
that  at  one  time  they  had  been  adherents  of  the  pro- 
scribed body  but  were  so  no  longer.  Others  again  de- 
nied that  they  were  or  ever  nad  l^een  Christians. 
Having  never  before  had  to  deal  with  questions  coiw 
ceming  Christians  Pliny  applied  to  the  emperor  for 
instructions  on  three  points  regarding  which  he  did  not 
see  his  way  clearly:  first,  whether  tne  age  of  the  ac- 
cused should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  meting 
out  punishment;  secondly,  whether  Christians  who 
renounced  their  belief  should  be  pardoned;  and 
thirdly,  whether  the  mere  profession  of  Christianity 
should  be  regarded  as  a  crime,  and  punishable  as  such, 
independent  of  the  fact  of  the  innocence  or  guilt  of  the 
accused  of  the  crimes  ordinarily  associatecTwith  suc^ 
profession. 

To  these  inquiries  Trajan  replied  in  a  rescript  which 
was  destined  to  have  the  force  of  law  throughout  the 
second  century  in  relation  to  Christianity.  After  ap- 
proving what  his  representative  had  already  done, 
the  emperor  directed  that  in  future  the  rule  to  he  ob- 
served m  dealing  with  Christians  should  be  the  follow- 
ing: no  steps  were  to  be  taken  by  ma^strates  to 
ascertain  who  were  or  who  were  not  Christians,  but  at 
the  same  time,  if  any  person  was  denounced,  and  ad- 
mitted that  he  was  a  Christian,  he  was  to  be  punished 
— evidently  with  death.  Anonymous  denunciations 
were  not  to  be  acted  upon,  and  on  the  other  hand, 
those  who  repented  of  oeing  Christians  and  offered 
sacrifice  to  the  gods,  were  to  be  pardoned.  Thus, 
from  the  year  112,  the  date  of  this  document,  perhaps 
even  from  the  reign  of  Nero,  a  Christian  was  ipso 
facto  an  outlaw.  That  the  followers  of  Christ  were 
known  to  the  highest  authorities  of  the  State  to  be 
innocent  of  the  numerous  crimes  and  misdemeanors 
attributed  to  them  by  popular  calumny,  is  evident 
from  Pliny's  testimony  to  this  effect,  as  well  as  fraia 


MARTTE 


738 


MABTTB 


Trajan's  order:  canquirendi  non  8uni.  And  that  the 
emperor  did  not  regard  Christians  as  a  menace  to  the 
State  is  apparent  fipm  the  general  tenor  of  his  in- 
structions. Their  only  crime  was  that  they  were 
Christians,  adherents  of  an  ill^pal  religion.  Under 
this  regime  of  proscription  the  Uhnrch  existed  from 
the  year  112  to  the  reign  of  Septimius  Severus  (193- 
211).  The  position  of  the  faithful  was  always  one  of 
grave  danger,  being  as  they  were  at  the  mercy  of 
every  malicious  person  who  might,  without  a  moment's 
warning,  cite  them  before  the  nearest  tribunal.  It  is 
true  indeed,  that  the  delator  was  an  unpopular  person 
in  the  Roman  Empire,  and,  besides,  in  accusing  a 
Christian  he  ran  the  risk  of  incurring  severe  pimish- 
ment  if  imable  to  make  good  his  charge  against  his 
intended  victim.  In  spite  of  the  danger,  however, 
instances  are  known,  in  the  persecution  era,  of  Chris- 
tian victims  of  delation.  • 

The  prescriptions  of  Trajan  on  the  subject  of  Chris- 
tianity were  modified  by  Septimius  Severus  by  the 
addition  of  a  clause  forbidding  any  person  to  become 
a  Christian.  The  existing  law  of  Trajan  against  Chris- 
tians in  general  was  not,  indeed,  repealed  by  Severus, 
though  for  the  moment  it  was  evidently  the  intention 
of  the  emperor  that  it  should  remain  a  dead  letter. 
The  object  aimed  at  by  the  new  enactment  was,  not 
to  disturb  those  already  Christians,  but  to  check  the 

growth  of  the  Church  by  preventing  conversions, 
ome  illustrious  convert  martyrs,  the  most  famous 
being  Sts.  Perpetua  and  Felicitas.  were  added  to  the 
roll  of  champions  of  religious  freedom  by  this  prohibi- 
tion, but  it  effected  nothing  of  consequence  in  regard 
to  its  primary  purpose.  The  persecution  came  to  an 
end  in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  Caracalla  (211- 
17).  From  this  date  to  the  reign  of  Decius  (250-53) 
the  Christians  enjoyed  comparative  peace,  with  the 
exception  of  the  short  period  when  Maximinus  the 
Thracian  (235-38)  occupied  the  throne.  The  eleva- 
tion of  Decius  to  the  purple  began  a  new  era  in  the 
relations  between  Christianity  and  the  Roman  State. 
This  emperor,  thou^  a  native  of  Illyria^  was  never- 
theless profoundly  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  Roman 
conservatism.  He  ascended  the  throne  with  the  firm 
intention  of  restoring  the  prestige  which  the  empire 
was  fast  losing,  and  he  seems  to  nave  been  convinced 
that  the  chief  difficulty  in  the  way  of  effecting  his  pur- 
pose was  the  existence  of  Christianity.  The  conse- 
Quenoe  was  that  in  the  year  250  he  issued  an  edict, 
tne  tenor  of  which  is  known  only  from  the  documents 
relating  to  its  enforcement,  prescribing  that  all  Chris- 
tians of  the  empire  should  on  a  certain  day  offer  sacri- 
fice to  the  gods. 

This  new  law  was  quite  a  different  matter  from  the 
existing  legislation  against  Christianity.  Proscribed 
though  they  were  lewdly,  Christians  had  hitherto  en- 
(oyed  comparative  security  under  a  regime  which 
clearly  laid  down  the  principle  that  they  were  not  to 
be  sought  after  officially  bv  the  civil  authorities.  The 
edict  of  Decius  was  exacti>r  the  opposite  of  this:  the 
magistrates  were  now  constituted  religious  inquisitors, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  punish  Christians  who  refused  to 
apostatize.  The  emperor's  aim,  in  a  word,  was  to 
annihilate  Christianity  by  compelling  every  Christian 
in  the  empire  to  renounce  his  faith.  The  first  effect  of 
the  new  legislation  seemed  favourable  to  the  wishes  of 
its  author.  During  the  long  interval  of  peace  since  the 
reign  of  Septimius  Severus — nearly  lorty  years — a 
considerable  amount  of  laxity  had  crept  into  the 
Church's  discipline,  one  consequence  of  which  was, 
that  on  the  publication  of  the  edict  of  persecution, 
multitudes  of  Christians  besieged  the  magistrates 
everywhere  in  their  eagerness  to  comply  with  its  de- 
mands. Many  other  nominal  Christians  procured  by 
bribery  certificates  stating  that  they  had  complied  with 
the  law,  while  still  others  apostatised  imder  torture. 
Yet  after  this  first  throng  ofweaklings  had  put  them- 
9e)ve8  outside  the  pale  of  Christianity  there  still  re- 


mained, in  every  part  of  the  empire,  numerous  Chris- 
tians worthy  of  tfa^r  religion,  who  endured  all  maimer 
of  torture,  and  death  itself,  for  their  convictions.  The 
persecution  lasted  about  eighteen  months,  and  wrought 
mcalculable  harm. 

Before  the  Church  had  time  to  repair  the  damage 
thus  caused,  a  new  conflict  with  the  State  was  inaugu- 
rated by  an  edict  of  Valerian  published  in  257.  This 
enactment  was  directed  against  the  clergy,  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons,  who  were  directed  under  pain  ot 
exile  to  offer  sacrifice.  Christians  were  also  forbidden, 
imder  pain  of  death,  to  resort  to  their  cemeteries. 
The  results  of  this  first  edict  were  of  so  little  moment 
that  the  following  year,  258,  a  new  edict  appeared 
requirixig  the  clergy  to  offer  sacrifice  imder  penalty  of 
death.  Christian  senators,  knights,  and  even  the  ladies 
of  their  families,  were  also  affected  by  an  order  to  offer 
sacrifice  under  penalty  of  confiscation  of  their  goods 
and  reduction  to  plebeian  rank.  And  in  the  event  of 
thc»9e  severe  measiu^  proving  ineffective  the  law  pre- 
scribed further  punismnent:  execution  for  the  men, 
for  the  women  exile.  Christian  slaves  and  freedmen 
of  the  emperor's  household  also  were  punished  by 
confiscation  of  their  possessions  and  reduction  to  tlie 
lowest  ranks  of  slavery.  Among  the  martyrs  of  this 
persecution  were  Pope  Sixtus  II  and  St.  Cyprian  of 
Carthage.  Of  its  further  effects  little  is  known,  for 
want  <»  documents,  bu|;  it  seems  safe  to  surmise  that, 
besides  adding  many  new  martyrs  to  the  Church's 
roll^  it  must  have  caused  enormous  suffering  to  the 
Christian  nobility.  The  persecution  came  to  an  end 
with  the  capture  (260)  of  Valerian  by  the  Persians; 
his  successor,  GalUenus  (260-68),  revoked  the  edict 
and  restored  to  the  bishops  the  cemeteries  and  meet- 
ing places. 

From  this  date  to  the  last  persecution  inaugurated 
by  Diocletian  (284-305)  the  Church,  9a ve  for  a  short 
period  in  the  reign  of  Aurelian  (270-75),  remained  in 
the  same  legal  situation  as  in  the  second  century.  The 
fibrst  edict  ctf  Diocletian  was  promulgated  at  Nicomedia 
in  the  year  303,  and  was  of  the  following  tenor:  Chris- 
tian assemblies  were  forbidden;  churches  and  sacred 
books  were  ordered  to  be  destroyed,  and  all  Christians 
were  commanded  to  abjure  their  religion  forthwith. 
The  penalties  for  failure  to  comply  with  these  demands 
were  degradation  and  civil  deatn  for  the  higher  classes, 
reduction  to  slavery  for  freemen  of  the  humbler  sort, 
and  for  slaves  incapacity  to  receive  the  gift  of  freedom. 
Later  in  the  same  year  a  new  edict  ordered  the  impris- 
onment of  eccledastics  of  all  grades,  from  bishops  to 
exorcists.  A  third  edict  imposed  tne  death-penalty 
for  refusal  to  abjure^  and  granted  freedom  to  those 
who  would  offer  sacrifice;  while  a  fourth  enactment, 
published  in  304,  commanded  everybody  without  ex- 
ception to  offer  sacrifice  publicly.  This  was  the  last 
and  most  determined  effort  of  the  Roman  State  to 
destroy  Christianity.  It  gave  to  the  Church  countless 
martjrrs,  and  ended  in  her  triumph  in  the  reign  of 
Const  antine. 

Number  of  the  Marttbs. — Of  the  249  years  from 
the  first  persecution  under  Nero  (64)  to  the  jrear  313, 
when  Constantine  established  lasting  peace,  it  is  cal- 
culated that  the  Christians  suffered  persecuUon  about 
129  yeara  and  enjoyed  a  certain  degree  oi  toleration 
about  120  years.  Yet  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
even  in  the  years  of  comparative  tranquillity  Chris- 
tians were  at  all  times  at  the  mercy  of  every  peraon 
fll-disposed  towards  them  or  their  religion  in  the  em- 
pire. Whether  or  not  delation  of  Christians  occurred 
frequently  during  the  era  of  persecution  is  not  known, 
but  taking  into  consideration  the  irrational  hatred  01 
the  pagan  population  for  Christians,  it  may  safely  be 
surmised  tnai  not  a  few  Christians  suffered  niartyr- 
dom  through  betraval.  An  example  of  the  kind  re- 
lated by  St.  Justin  Martyr  shows  how  swift  and  terri- 
ble were  the  conseouences  of  delation.  A  woman  who 
had  been  convertea  to  Christianity  was  accused  by  ber 


MAETTE 


739 


MAETTE 


husband  before  a  magistrate  of  being  a  Christian. 
Through  influence  the  accused  was  granted  the  favour 
of  a  brief,  respite  to  settle  her  worldly  affairs,  after 
which  she  was  to  appear  in  court  and  put  forward  her 
defence.  Meanwhile  her  angry  husband  caused  the 
arrest  of  the  catechist,  Ptolomscus  by  name,  who  had 
instructed  the  convert.  Ptolomaeus,  when  Question^, 
acknowledged  that  he  was  a  Christian  ana  was  con- 
demned to  death.  In  the  court,  at  the  time  this 
sentence  was  pronounced,  were  two  persons  who 
protested  against  the  iniquity  of  inflicting  capital 
punishment  for  the  mere  fact  of  professing  Christian- 
itv.  The  magistrate  in  reply  asked  if  they  also  were 
Christians,  and  on  their  answering  in  the  affirmative 
both  were  ordered  to  be  executed.  As  the  same  fate 
awaited  the  wife  of  the  delator  also,  unless  she  re- 
canted, we  have  here  an  example  of  three,  possibly 
four,  persons  suffering  capital  punishment  on  tne  accu- 
sation of  a  man  actuated  ov  malice,  solely  for  the  reason 
that  his  wife  had  given  up  the  evil  life  she  had  previously 
led  in  his  society  (St.  Justin  Martyr,  IT,  Apol.,  ii). 

As  to  the  actual  number  of  persons  wno  died  as 
martyrs  during  these  two  centuries  and  a  half  we  have 
no  definite  infoniiation.  Tacitus  is  authority  for  the 
statement  that  an  immense  multitude  {ingens  mtdtp- 
tudo)  were  put  to  death  by  Nero.  The  Apocalypse  of 
St.  John  speaks  of  "the  souls  of  them  that  were  slain 
for  the  word  of  God  '*  in  the  reign  of  Domitian^  and 
Dion  Cassius  informs  us  that  "many"  of  the  Christian 
nobility  suffered  death  for  their  faith  during  the  perse- 
cution for  which  this  emperor  is  responsible.  Origen, 
indeed,  writing  about  the  year  249,  before  the  edict  ot 
Decius,  states  that  the  number  of  those  put  to  death 
for  the  Christian  religion  was  not  very  great,  but  he 
probably  means  that  the  number  of  martyrs  up  to  this 
time  was  small  when  compared  with  the  entire  number 
of  Christians  (of.  Allard,  "Ten  Lectures  on  the  Mar- 
tyrs", 128).  St.  Justin  Martyr,  who  owed  his  con- 
version largely  to  the  heroic  example  of  Christians 
suffering  for  their  faith^  incidentally  gives  a  glimpse 
of  the  danger  of  professing  Christianity  in  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,  in  the  reign  of  so  good  an 
emperor  as  Antoninus  Plus  (138-61).  In  his  "  Dialogue 
witn  Tiypho"  (ex),  the  apologist,  after  alluding  to  the 
fortitude  of  his  brethren  in  religion,  adds,  "  for  it  is 
plain  that,  though  beheaded,  and  crucified,  and  thrown 
to  wild  beasts,  and  chains,  and  fire,  and  all  other  kinds 
of  torture,  we  do  not  give  up  our  confession;  but,  the 
more  such  things  happen,  the  more  do  others  in  larger 
numbers  become  faitnful.  .  .  .  Every  Christian  has 
been  driven  out.  not  only  from  his  own  property,  but 
even  from  the  wnole  world;  for  you  permit  no  Christian 
to  live."  Tertullian  also,  writing  towards  the  end  of 
the  second  century,  frequently  alludes  to  the  terrible 
conditions  under  wnich  Christians  existed  ("  Ad  knar- 
tyres  ", "  Apologia  ",  "  Ad  Nationes",  etc.) :  death  and 
torture  were  ever  present  possibilities. 

But  the  new  r6^me  of  special  edicts,  which  began 
in  250  with  the  edict  of  Decius,  was  still  more  fatal  to 
Christians.  The  persecutions  of  Decius  and  Valerian 
were  not,  indeed,  of  long  duration,  but  while  they 
lasted,  and  in  spite  of  the  large  number  of  those  who 
fell  away,  there  are  clear  indications  that  they  pro- 
duced numerous  martyrs.  Dionysius  of  AleTcancuia, 
for  instance,  in  a  letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Antioch,  teUs 
of  a  violent  persecution  that  took  place  in  the  Egyp- 
tian capital,  through  popular  violence,  before  the  eoict 
of  Decius  was  even  puolished.  The  Bishop  of  Alex- 
andria gives  several  examples  of  what  Christians 
endured  at  the  hands  of  the  pagan  rabble  and  then 
adds  that  "many  others,  in  cities  and  villages,  were 
torn  asunder  by  the  heathen"  (Euseb..  "  Hist,  eccl.", 
VI,  xli  sq.).  Besides  those  who  perished  by  actual  vio- 
lence, also,  a  "multitude wandered  in  the  deserts  and 
mountains,  and  perished  of  hunger  and  thirst^f  cold 
and  sickness  and  robbers  and  wild  beasts"  (Euseb., 
L  o.)«   In  another  letter,  speaking  of  the  persecution 


under  Valerian,  Dionysius  6tat<.'S  tliat  "men  and 
women^  young  and  old,  maidens  and  matrons,  soldiers 
and  civilians,  of  every  age  and  race,  some  by  scourging 
and  fire,  others  by  the  sword,  have  conquered  in  the 
strife  and  won  their  crowns"  (Id.,  op.  cit.,  VII,  xi). 
At  Cirta,  in  North  Africa,  in  the  same  persecution, 
after  the  execution  of  Christians  had  continued  for 
several  days,  it  was  resolved  to  expedite  matters.  To 
this  end  the  rest  of  those  condemned  were  brought  to 
the  bank  of  a  river  and  made  to  kneel  in  rows.  When 
all  was  ready  the  executioner  passed  along  the  raiiks 
and  despatched  all  without  further  loss  of  time 
(Ruinart,  p.  231). 

But  the  last  persecution  was  even  more  severe  than 
any  of  the  previous  attempts  to  extirpate  Christianity. 
In  Nicomedia  "  a  great  multitude  "  were  put  to  death 
with  their  bishop,  Anthimus;  of  these  some  perished 
by  the  sword,  some  by  fire,  while  others  were  drowned. 
In  Egypt  "  thousands  of  men,  women  and  children, 
despising  the  present  life,  .  .  .  endured  various 
deaths"  (Euseb.^  "Hist,  eccl.",  \1I,  iv  sqq.),  and  the 
same  happened  m  many  other  places  throughout  the 
East.  In  the  West  the  persecution  came  to  an  end  at 
an  earlier  date  than  in  the  East,  but,  while  it  lasted, 
numbers  of  martyrs,  especially  at  Rome,  were  added 
to  the  calendar  (cf.  AUard.  op.  cit.,  13S  sq.).  But 
besides  those  who  actually  shea  their  blood  in  the  first 
three  centuries  account  must  betaken  of  the  numerous 
confessors  of  the  Faith  who,  in  prison,  in  exile,  or  in 
penal  servitude  suffered  a  daily  martyrdom  more  diflS- 
cult  to  end  ure  than  death  itself.  Thus,  while  anythii^ 
like  a  numerical  estimate  of  the  number  of  martyrs  b 
impossible,  yet  the  meagre  evidence  on  the  suDJect 
that  exists  clearly  enough  establishes  the  fact  tnat 
countless  men,  women  and  even  children,  in  that  glo- 
rious, though  terrible,  first  age  of  Christianity,  cheer- 
fully sacrificed  their  goods,  their  liberties,  or  their  lives, 
rather  than  renounce  the  faith  they  prized  above  all. 

Trial  of  the  Martyrs. — ^The  first  act  in  the  trag- 
edy of  the  martyrs  was  their  arrest  by  an  officer  of  the 
law.  In  some  instances  the  privilege  of  custodia  libera, 
granted  to  St.  Paul  during  his  first  imprisonment,  was 
allowed  before  the  accus^  were  broi^ht  to  trial;  St. 
Cyprian,  for  example,  was  detained  m  the  house  of 
the  officer  who  arrested  him,  and  treated  with  con- 
sideration until  the  time  set  for  his  examination.  But 
such  procedure  was  the  exception  to  the  rule;  ihe  ao- 
cusecf  Christians  were  generally  cast  into  the  public 
prisons,  where  often,  for  weeks  or  months  at  a  time, 
they  suffered  the  greatest  hardships.  ^  Glimpses  of  the 
suffering  they  endured  in  prison  are  in  rare  instances 
supplied  by  the  Acts  of  the  Martyrs.  St.  Perpetua, 
for  instance,  was  horrified  by  the  awful  darkness,  the 
intense  heat  caused  by  overcrowding  in  the  climate  of 
Roman  Africa,  and  the  brutality  of  the  soldiers  (Pas- 
sio  SS.  Perpct.,  et  Felic,  i).  dther  confessors  allude 
to  the  various  miseries  of  prison  life  as  beyond  their 
powers  of  description  (Passio  SS.  Montani,  Lucii,  iv). 
Deprived  of  food,  save  enough  to  keep  them  alive,  of 
water,  of  light  and  air;  weighted  down  with  irons,  or 
placed  in  stocks  with  their  Tegs  drawn  as  far  apart  as 
was  possible  without  causing  a  rupture;  exposed  to  aU 
manner  of  infection  from  heat,  overcrowding,  and  the 
absence  of  anything  like  proper  sanitary  conditions— 
these  were  some  of  the  afflictions  that  preceded  actual 
martyrdom.  Many,  naturally,  died  in  prison  under 
such  conditions,  while  others,  unfortunately,  unable  to 
endure  the  strain,  adopted  the  easy  means  of  escape 
left  open  to  them,  namely,  complied  with  the  con- 
dition demanded  by  the  State  of  offering  sacrifice. 

Those  whose  strength,  physical  and  moral,  was  ca- 
pable of  enduring  to  the  end  were,  in  addition,  fre- 
quently interrogated  in  court  by  the  magistrates,  who 
endeavoured  by  persuasion  or  torture  to  induce  them 
to  recant.  These  tortures  comprised  every  means 
that  human  ingenuity  in  antiquity  had  devised  to 
break  down  even  the  most  courageous;  the  obstinatQ 


MARTnt 


740 


MAftTnt 


virerescoiu^ged  with  whips,  with  straps,  or  with  ropes:  or 
again  they  were  stretched  on  the  rack  and  their  Dodies 
torn  apart  with  iron  rakes.  Another  awful  punish- 
ment consisted  in  suspending  the  victim,  sometimes  for 
a  whole  day  at  a  time,  by  one  hand;  while  modest 
women  in  addition  were  exposed  naked  to  the  gaze  of 
those  in  court.  Almost  worse  than  all  this  was  the 
penal  servitude  to  which  bishops,  priests,  deacons,  lay- 
men and  women,  and  even  chudrenj  were  condemned 
in  some  of  the  more  violent  persecutions;  these  refined 
personages  of  both  sexes,  victims  of  merciless  laws, 
were  doomed  to  pass  the  remainder  of  their  days  in  the 
darkness  of  the  mines,  where  they  dragged  out  a 
wretched  existence,  half  naked,  hungry,  and  with  no 
bed  save  the  damp  ground.  Those  were  far  more  for- 
tunate who  were  condemned  to  even  the  most  dis- 
graceful death,  in  the  arena,  or  by  crucifixion. 

HoNOUKs  PAID  THE  Martyrs. — It  is  casy  to  under- 
stand why  those  who  endured  so  much  for  their  con- 
victions should  have  been  so  greatly  venerated  by 
their  co-reli^onists  from  even  the  first  days  of  trial  in 
the  reign  otNero.  The  Roman  officials  usually  per- 
mitted relatives  or  friends  to  gather  up  the  mutilated 
remains  of  the  martyrs  for  mterment,  although  in 
some  instances  such  permission  was  refused^  These 
rehcs  the  Christians  regarded  as  ''more  valuable  than 
gold  OT  precious  stones"  (Martyr.  Polycarpi,  xviii). 
Some  of  the  more  famous  martyrs  received  special 
honours,  as  for  instance,  in  Rome,  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul,  whose  *'  trophies  ",  or  tombs,  are  spoken  of  at  the 
bepnning  of  the  third  century  by  the  Roman  priest 
Caius  (Eusebius, "  Hist,  eccl.",  II,  xxi,  7).  Numerous 
crypts  and  chapels  in  the  Roman  catacombs,  some  of 
which,  like  the  capella  grcecay  were  constructed  in  sub- 
Apostolic  times,  also  bear  witness  to  the  early  venera- 
tion for  those  champions  of  freedom  of  conscience  who 
won.  by  dying,  the  greatest  victory  in  the  history  of 
the  numan  race.  Special  commemoration  services  of 
the  martyrs,  at  which  the  holy  Sacrifice  was  offered 
over  their  tombs — the  origin  of  the  time-honoured 
custom  of  consecrating  altars  by  enclosing  in  them  the 
relics  of  martyrs — were  held  on  the  anniversaries  of 
their  death;  the  famous  Fractio  Pants  fresco  of  the 
capella  orcecaf  dating  from  the  early  second  century,  is 
probably  a  representation  (see  s.  v.  Fractio  Panib; 
Eucharist,  Symbols  of)  in  miniature,  of  such  a 
celebration.  From  the  age  of  Constantine  even  still 
flreater  veneration  was  accorded  the  martyrs.  Pope 
Damasus  (366-84)  had  a  special  love  for  the  martyrs, 
as  we  learn  from  the  inscnptions,  brought  to  li^ht  by 
de  Rossi,  composed  by  him  for  their  tombs  m  the 
Roman  catacombs.  Later  on  veneration  of  the  mar- 
tyrs was  occasionally  exhibited  in  a  rather  undesirable 
form  *  many  of  the  frescoes  in  the  catacombs  have  been 
mutilated  to  gratify  the  ambition  of  the  faithful  to  be 
buried  near  tne  saints  (retro  sancloa)^  in  whose  com- 
pany they  hoped  one  day  to  rise  from  the  grave.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  the  esteem  in  which  the  martyrs  were 
held  was  eaually  ^reat ;  no  hardships  were  too  severe  to 
be  endured  in  visiting  famous  shrines,  like  those  of 
Rome,  where  their  reb'cs  were  contained. 

Allard,  Ten  Lectures  on  the  Martyrs  (New  York,  1907); 
BmK8  in  Diet,  of  Christ.  AnUq.  (London,  1876-80),  s.  v.; 
Healt,  The  Valerian  Persecution  (Boeton,  1905);  Leclercq, 
Le9  Martyrs,  I  (Paris,  1906);  Duchesne,  Hidoire  ancienne  de 
Vfglise,  I  (Paris.  1906);  Heuser  in  Kraus.  Realencykloplidie 
LChristlichen  AltenthUmer  (Freiburg,  1882-86),  s.  v.  M&Hurer; 
BoNWETCH  in  RealencyklopOdie  /.  prot.  Theol.  u.  Kirche  (Leip- 
Bg,  1903),  8.  V.  Mdrtyrer  u.  Bekenner,  and  Harnack  in  op.  cit., 
8.  V.  Christenverfolgungen.  _  _  •«,    -r-r 

Maurice  M.  Habsatt. 

Martyr  d'Anghiera,  Peter,  historian  of  Spain 
and  of  the  discoveries  of  her  representatives,  b.  at 
Arona,  near  Anghiera,  on  Lake  Maggiore  in  Italy,  2 
Februarv,  1457;  d.  at  Granada  in  October,  1526.  He 
went  to  Rome  at  the  age  of  twenty,  and  there  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Pomponius  LsBtus,  the  antiquarian. 
Cardinals  Arcimbolo  and  Sforza  became  his  patrons, 
find  under  Pope  Innocent  VIII  he  was  made  secretary 


of  the  prothonotary,  Francesco  Negro.  He  became 
acquainted  through  the  Spanish  prothonotary,  Geral- 
dlnOy  with  the  Ambassador  Don  Ifiigo  Lopez  de  Men- 
dosa,  Count  of  Tendilla,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Saragossa  in  August,  1487.  He  soon  became  a  notable 
figure  among  the  Humanists  of  Spain,  and  in  1488 
gave  lectures  in  Salamanca  on  the  invitation  of  the 
university.  The  new  learning  was  under  high  patron- 
age. King  Ferdinand  was  a  pupil  of  Vidal  de  Noya; 
Queen  Isabel  bad  studied  under  Beatrice  Gidindo, 
sumamed  The  Latina:  EIrasmus  has  praised  the 
learning  of  Catherine  ot  Aragon,  who  married  Henry 
Vin  of  England:  and  Luis  Vines  relates  that  the 
daughter  of  Isabel  the  Catholic,  Dofia  Juana  La  Loca, 
could  converse  in  Latin  with  the  ambassadors  from 
the  Low  Countries.  Italians  were  spreading  the 
Renaissance  movement  throughout  Spain,  and  the 
intelligence  of  Castile  sat  at  the  feet  of^  Peter  Martyr 
d'Ani^iera.  His  chief  task,  however,  after  1492  was 
the  education  of  young  nobles  at  the  Spanish  court, 
and  a  great  number  of  noted  men  issued  from  his 
school.  In  1501  he  was  sent  to  Egypt  on  a  diplomatic 
mission  to  dissuade  the  Sultan  from  taking  vengeance 
on  the  Christians  in  Eg^t  and  Palestine  for  the  de- 
feat of  the  Moors  in  Spam.  Following  on  the  success- 
ful issue  of  this  mission,  he  received  the  title  of  ''  maes- 
tro de  los  caballeros".  In  1504  he  became  papal 
prothonotary  and  prior  of  Granada.  In  1511  he  was 
given  the  post  of  chronicler  in  the  newly  formed  State 
Council  of  India,  which  was  commissioned  b^  the 
Government  to  describe  what  was  transpiring  in  the 
New  World.  In  1522  his  old  friend,  Aarian  of  Lou- 
vain,  now  Pope  Adrian  VI,  a(>pointed  him  archpriest 
of  Ocana.  Cnarles  V  gave  him  in  1523  the  title  of 
Count  Palatine,  and  in  1524  called  him  once  more 
into  the  Indian  State  Council.  At  last  he  was  in- 
vested by  Clement  VII,  on  the  proposal  of  Charles  V, 
with  the  di^ty  of  Abbot  of  Jamaica.  Martyr  never 
visited  the  island,  but  as  abbot  he  had  built  there  the 
first  stone  church. 

As  chronicler  he  performed  notable  Uteranr  work, 
which  has  preserved  his  name  to  posterity.  The  year 
of  his  appointment  (1511),  he  published,  with  other 
works,  tne  first  historical  account  of  the  great  S^mish 
discoveries  under  the  title  of  "Opera,  Legatio,  Babv- 
lonica,  Oceanidecas,  Poemata,  Epigrammata  "  (Seville. 
1511).  The  "Decas"  consisted  of  ten  reports,  of 
which  two,  in  the  form  of  letters  describing  the  voy- 
ages of  Columbus,  had  been  already  sent  by  Martyr 
to  Cardinal  Ascanius  Sforza  in  1493  and  1494.  In 
1501  Martyr,  at  the  urgent  request  of  the  Cardinal  of 
Aragon,  had  added  to  these  eight  chapters  on  the 
third  voyage  of  Columbus  and  the  exploits  of  Nifio  and 
Pinzon,  and  in  1511  he  added  a  supplement  giving  an 
account  of  events  from  1501  to  1511.  Jointly  with 
this  "  Decade ",  he  published  a  narrative  of  his  ex- 
periences in  Egypt  with  a  description  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, their  country,  and  history.  By  1516  he  had 
finished  two  other  "Decades",  the  first  of  these  being 
devoted  to  the  exploits  of  Ojeda.  Nicuesa,  and  Balboa, 
the  other  giving  an  account  of  the  discovery  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  by  Balboa,  of  the  fourth  voyage  d 
Columbus,  and  furthermore  of  the  expeditions  of 
Pedrarias.  All  three  appeared  together  at  Alcaic  in 
1516  under  the  title:  Ve  orbe  novo  decades  cum 
Legatione  Babylonica  ".  The  "  Enchiridion  de  nuper 
sub  D.  Carolo  repertis  insulis"  (Basle,  1521)  came  out 
as  the  fourth  "Decade"  treating  of  the  voyages  of 
Hernandez  de  C6rdoba,  Drijalva,  and  Cort&.  The 
fifth  "Decade"  (1523)  dealt  with  the  conquiest  of 
Mexico  and  the  circumnavigation  of  the  worid  by 
Magellan;  the  sixth  "  Decade  "  (1524)  gave  an  account 
of  the  discoveries  of  Davila  on  the  west  coast  of 
America;  in  the  seventh  "Decade"  (1525)  there  are 
collected  together  descriptions  of  the  customs  of  the 
natives  in  South  Carolina,  as  well  as  Florida.  Haiti, 
Cuba,  Darien;  the  eighth  "Decade"  (1525)  gives  for 


MABTTBDOM 


741 


MABTTBOLOOY 


the  most  part  the  story  of  the  inarch  of  Gort^  against 

out. 

liartyr  got  many  of  his  accounts  from  the  discov- 
erers themselves;  he  profited  by  letters  of  Columbus, 
and  was  able  also  to  make  use  of  the  reports  of  the 
Indian  State  Council.  He  himself  had  a  great  grasp 
of  geographical  problems:  it  was  he,  for  example,  who 
first  realized  the  significance  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  For 
these  reasons  his  "  Decades ",  which  are  also  written 
with  spirited  vivacity,  are  of  great  value  in  the  historv 
of  geography  and  discovery.  All  the  eight  **  De<»tdes 
were  published  together  for  the  first  time  at  Alcald  in 
1 530.  Later  editions  of  single  or  of  all  the ''  Decades  ** 
appeared  at  Basle  (1533),  Cologne  (1574),  Paris 
(1587),  and  Madrid  (1892).  A  German  translation 
came  out  at  Basle  in  1582;  an  English  version  may  be 
found  in  Arber,  ''The  first  three  English  books  on 
America"  (Birmingham,  1885);  a  French  one  by 
Gaffarel  in  "  Recueil  de  voyages  et  de  documents  pour 
servir  li  Thistoire  de  la  Geographic"  (Paris,  lw7). 
In  addition  to  his  "  Decades"  another  valuable  source 
of  historical  information  is  his  "Opus  epistolarum", 
although  its  value  is  somewhat  lessened  by  the  fact 
that  it  was  not  arranged  or  published  until  after  his 
death.  This  collection  consists  of  812  letters  to  or 
from  ecclesiastical  dignitaries^  generals,  and  states- 
men of  Spain  and  Italy,  dealmg  with  contemporary 
events,  and  especially  with  the  history  of  Spain  be- 
tween 1487  and  1525.  It  appeared  first  at  Alcald  in 
1530;  a  new  edition  was  issued  by  Elzevir  at  Amster- 
dam in  1670. 

In  addition  to  the  numerous  works  oonoemins  Christopher 
Columbus  and  the  discovery  of  America,  in  which  Martyr's 
records  are  discussed,  the  reader  may  consult  ScnnMACHBR, 
Petrtu  Martyr,  der  Oeachiehtachreiber  dea  W^meercB  (New  York, 
1879);  Heidenueimcr,  Petrtis  Martyr  Analeriua  und  aein  0pU9 

Snatolarum  (Berlin,  1881);  Gbrigk,  Das  Opua  epiat.  dea  P.  M., 
issertation  (Braunsberg,  1881);  Idrm,  Daa  Ld>en  dea  P.  M.  in 
Jahreaber.  dea  Mariengymnaaiuma  tu  Poaan  (1800) ;  Beknayb, 
P.M.  A.  u.  aein  Opua  epiat.  (Strasburg,  1891). 

Otto  Hartio. 

Martyrdom.    See  Martyr. 

Martyrologium  Hieronymianum.    See  Martte- 

OLOGY. 

Martyrology.  — By  martyrology  is  understood  a 
catalogue  of  martyrs  and  saints  arranged  according  to 
the  order  of  their  feasts,  i.  e.,  according  to  the  calen- 
dar. Since  the  time  when  the  commemorations  of 
martyrs,  to  which  were  added  those  of  bishops,  began 
to  be  celebrated,  each  Church  had  its  special  martjrr- 
ology.  Little  by  little  these  local  lists  were  enrich^ 
by  names  borrowed  from  neighbouring  Churches,  and 
when  the  era  of  martyrs  was  definitively  closed,  those 
were  introduced  who  had  shone  in  the  community  by 
the  sanctity  of  their  life  and  notably  by  the  practice  of 
asceticism.  We  still  possess  the  martyroloey,  or  fe- 
rial, of  the  Roman  Church  of  the  middle  of  uie  fourth 
century,  comprising  two  distinct  lists,  the  "  Depositio 
martvrum*'  and  the  "Depositio  episcoporum  ,  lists 
which  are  elsewhere  most  frequently  foimd  united. 
Among  the  Roman  martyrs  mention  is  already  made 
in  the  "Ferial"  of  some  African  martyrs  (7  March, 
Perpetua  and  Felicitas;  14  September,  Cyprian).  The 
calendar  of  Carthage  which  belongs  to  the  sixth  cen- 
tury contains  a  larger  portion  of  foreign  martyrs  and 
even  of  confessors  not  belonging  to  that  Church. 
LfOcal  martyrologies  record  exclusively  the  custom  of  a 
particular  Church.  The  name  of  calendars  is  some- 
times given  to  them,  but  this  is  a  mere  question  of 
words.  Besides  special  martyrologies,  of  which  very 
few  types  have  reached  us,  there  are  general  martyr- 
ologies which  are  of  the  nature  of  a  compilation.  They 
are  formed  by  the  combination  of  several  local  naartyr- 
ologies,  with  or  without  borrowing  from  literary 
sources.  The  most  celebrated  and  important  of  tlie 
representatives  of  this  class  is  the  martyrology  com- 
monly called  Hieronymian,  because  it  is  erroneously 


attributed  to  St.  Jerome.  It  was  drawn  up  in  Italy  in 
the  second  half  of  the  fifth  century,  and  underwent  re- 
cension in  Gaul,  probably  at  Auxerre,  about  a.  d.  600. 
All  the  MSS.  we  possess  of  the  "  Hieronymian  Mart^- 
ology''  spring  from  this  Galilean  recension.  SettinA[ 
aside  the  additions  which  it  then  received,  the  chi^ 
sources  of  the  "Hieronymian"  are  a  general  mart)rr- 
ology  of  the  Churches  of  the  East,  the  local  martyrol- 
ogy of  the  Church  of  Rome,  a  general  martyrolo^  of 
Italy,  a  general  martvrol(^  of  Africa,  and  some  liter- 
ary sources,  among  tnem  Eusebius.  The  manuscript 
tradition  of  the  document  is  in  inexplicable  confusion, 
and  the  idea  of  restoring  the  text  in  its  integrity  must 
be  abandoned.  Of  course  when  any  part  of  the  text 
is  restored,  there  arises  the  further  problem  of  deter- 
mining itie  origin  of  that  portion  before  pronouncing 
on  its  documentary  value. 

The  "Hieronymian  Martyrology"  and  those  resem- 
bling it  in  form  show  signs  of  nurried  compilation. 
The  notices  consist  mostly  of  a  topographical  rubric 
preceding  the  name  of  the  saint,  e.  g.  "Ill  id.  ian. 
Ronue,  in  cymiterio  Callisti,  via  Appia,  depositio  Mil- 
tiadis  episcopi".  There  is  another  type  of  martyrol- 
ogy in  which  the  name  is  followed  by  a  short  history 
of  the  saint.  These  are  the  historical  martyrologies. 
There  exists  a  large  number  of  them,  the  best  known 
being  Uiose  of  Bede  (eighth  centurv),  and  Rhabanus 
Maurus,  Florus,  Adon,  and  Usuard,  all  of  the  ninth 
century.  Without  dwelling  here  on  the  relations  be- 
tween them,  it  may  be  said  that  their  chief  sources  are, 
besides  the  "Hieronymian",  accounts  derived  from 
the  Acts  of  the  martyrs  and  some  ecclesiastical  au- 
thors. The  present  Roman  Martyrology  is  directly 
derived  from  the  historical  martyrologies.  It  is  in 
sum  the  martyrologyr  of  Usuard  completed  by  the 
"  Dialogues"  of  St.  Gregory  and  the  works  of  some  of 
the  Fathers,  and  for  the  Greek  saints  by  the  catalogue 
which  is  known  as  the  "Menologion"  of  Sirlet  (in 
H.  Canisius,  "Lectiones  Antique",  III,  Pt.  ii,  412, 
Amsterdam,  1725).  The  edilio  princeps  appeared  at 
Rome  in  1583,  under  the  title:  " Martyrologium  ro- 
manum  ad  novam  kalendarii  rationem  et  ecclesiasti- 
cs historise  veritatem  restitutum,  Gregorii  XIII  pont. 
max.  iussu  editum".  It  bears  no  approbation.  A 
second  edition  also  appeared  at  Rome  in  the  same 
year.  This  was  soon  replaced  by  the  edition  of  1584, 
which  was  approved  and  imposed  on  the  entire  Church 
by  Gregory  XIII .  Baronius  revised  and  corrected  this 
work  and  republished  it  in  1 586,  with  the  "  Notationes  " 
and  the  "Tractatio  de  Martyrologio  Romano".  The 
Antwerp  edition  of  1589  was  corrected  in  some  places 
by  Baronius  himself.  A  new  edition  of  the  text  and 
the  notes  took  place  under  Urban  VIII  and  was  pub- 
lished in  1630.  Benedict  XIV  was  also  interested  in 
the  Roman  Martyrology.  The  Bull  addressed  to  John 
V,  Kin^  of  Portugal,  dated  1748  (it  is  to  be  found  at 
the  begmning  of  tlie  modem  editions  of  the  "Martyr- 
ology"), makes  known  the  importance  of  the  changes 
introduced  in  the  new  edition,  which  is  in  substance 
and  except  for  the  changes  noiade  necessary  by  new 
canonizations,  the  one  in  use  to-day. 

With  the  historical  martyrologies  are  connected  the 
great  Greek  S3rnaxaries,  the  arrangement  and  genesis 
of  which  makes  them  an  important  counterpart.  But 
the  literature  of  the  synaxaries,  which  comprises  also 
the  books  of  that  category  belonging  to  the  various 
Oriental  Rites,  requires  separate  treatment  (see  "  Ana- 
lecta  Bollandiana",  XIV,  396  sqq.;  Delehaye,  "Sy- 
naxarium  ecclesise  Constantinopoutanse,  Propylseum 
ad  Acta  Sanctorum  novembris",  1902).  Worthy  of 
mention,  as  in  some  way  being  included  in  the  preced- 
ing categories,  are  a  number  of  martyrologies  or  calen- 
dars of  some  special  interest,  whetner  considered  as 
documents  more  or  less  important  for  the  history  of 
the  veneration  of  saints,  or  regarded  as  purely  artifi- 
cial compilations.  We  may  refer  to  the  provisory  list 
drawn  up  at  the  beginning  of  Vol,  I  for  November  of 


MAET7B0P0LIB 


742 


MAETTB8 


the  "Acta  SS/'  Particularly  interesting,  however,  is 
the  marble  calendar  of  Naples,  at  present  in  the  arch- 
diocesan  chapel,  and  which  is  the  object  of  the  lengthy 
commentaries  of  Mazocchi  ("Commentariiin  marmo- 
reum  Neapol.  Kalendarium",  Naples,  1755,  3  vols.) 
and  of  Saboatini  ("  II  vetusto  calendario  napolitano", 
Naples,  1744,  12  vols.);  the  metrical  martyrology  of 
Wsmdelbert  of  PrOm  (ninth  century) ,  of  which  DOmmler 

Published  a  critical  edition  (Monumenta  Germanise, 
*octffi  lat.,  II,  578-602);  the  martyrology  which  it 
has  been  agreed  to  call  the  "  Little  Roman '  vcontempo- 
rary  with  Ado,  who  made  it  known,  and  which  must 
be  mentioned  because  of  the  importance  which  was 
for  a  long  time  attached  to  it,  wrongly,  as  recent 
researches  have  proved.  Among  the  artificial  com- 
pilations which  have  been  given  the  title  of  martyrolo- 
gies  may  be  mentioned  as  more  important  the  '*  Mar- 
tyrologium  Gallicanum"  of  Andr6  du  Saussay  (Paris, 
1637),  the  *'Catalogus  Sanctorum  Italiae"  of  Philip 
Ferrari  (Milan,  1613),  the  "  Martyrologium  Hispa- 
num"  of  Tamayo  (Lyons,  1651-59);  the  last-named 
must  be  consulted  with  great  caution.  The  universal 
martyrology  of  Chastetain  (Paris,  1709)  represents 
vast  researches. 

The  critical  study  of  martyrologies  is  rendered  very 
difficult  by  the  multitude  and  the  disparate  charac- 
ter of  the  elements  which  compose  them.  Elarly  re- 
searches dealt  with  the  historical  martyrologies.  The 
notes  of  Baronius  on  the  Roman  Martyrology  cannot 
be  passed  over  in  silence,  the  work  being  the  result  of 
vast  and  solid  erudition  which  has  done  much  towards 
making  known  the  historical  sources  of  the  compila- 
tions of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  1613  Rosweyde  pub- 
lished at  Antwerp  a  good  edition  of  Ado,  preceded  by 
the  " Little  Roman "  which  he  called  "  vetus  Roma- 
num  ".  It  was  only  replaced  by  that  of  Gior^  (Rome, 
1745),  based  on  new  MSS.  and  enriched  with  notes. 
In  Vol.  II  for  March  of  the  "Acta  SS."  (1668)  the 
Bollandists  furnished  new  materials  for  martyrologi- 
cal  criticism  by  their  publication  entitled  "Martyro- 
logium  veneraoilis  Bedas  presbyteri  ex  octo  antiquis 
manuscriptis  acceptum  cum  auctario  Flori  ...  ". 
The  results  which  seemed  then  to  have  been  achieved 
were  in  part  corrected,  in  part  rendered  more  specific, 
by  the  great  work  of  P6re  Du  Sollier,  "  Martyrologium 
Usuardi  monachi"  (Antwerp,  1714),  published  in 
parts  in  Vols.  VI  and  VII  for  June  of  the  "  Acta  SS  ". 
Although  some  have  criticized  Du  Sollier  for  his  text 
of  Usuard^  the  edition  far  surpasses  anything  of  the 
kind  previously  attempted,  and  considering  the  re- 
sources at  his  disposal  and  the  methods  of  the  time 
when  it  was  prepared,  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  master- 
piece. Quite  recently  D.  Quentin  ("  Les  Martyrologes 
nistoriques  du  moyen  &ge  ".  Paris,  1908)  has  taken  up 
the  general  Question  and  nas  succeeded  in  giving  a 
reasonable  solution,  thanks  to  a  very  deep  and  careful 
study  of  the  manuscripts. 

For  a  long  time  the  study  of  the  "Hieronymian 
Blartyrolop^  yielded  few  results,  and  the  edition 
of  F.  M.  Fiorentini  ("  Vetustius  occidentalis  ecclesise 
martyrologium",  Lucca,  1668),  accompanied  by  a 
very  erudite  historical  commentary,  caused  it  to  make 
no  notable  progress.  It  was  the  publication  of  the 
Syriac  Martyrologv  discovered  by  Wright  ("Journal  of 
Sacred  Literature  *',  1866, 45  sqq.),  which  gave  the  im- 
petus to  a  series  of  researches  which  still  continue. 
Father  Victor  De  Buck  ("Acta  SS".  Octobris,  XII, 
185,  and  elsewhere)  signalizes  the  relationship  of  this 
martyrology  to  the  " Hieronjrmian  Martyrology". 
This  fact,  which  escaped  the  first  editor,  is  of  assist- 
ance in  recognizing  the  existence  of  a  general  mar- 
tyrology of  the  Orient,  written  in  Greek  at  Nicomedia, 
and  which  served  as  a  source  for  the  "  Hieronymian  ". 
In  1885  De  Rossi  and  Duchesne  published  a  memoir 
entitled  "Les  sources  du  martvrologe  hi^ronymien" 
(in  Melanges  d'arch^ologie  et  d'nistoire,  V),  which  be- 
came  the  jjtarting-point  of  a  critical  edition  of  the 


martyrology,  published  throu^  their  efiforts  in  Vol. 
II  for  November  of  the  "Acta  SS."  in  1894.  But 
little  criticism  has  been  devoted  to  the  Roman  Martyr- 
ology which  has  become  an  official  book,  its  revision 
being  reserved  to  the  Roman  Curia.  Every  effort  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  the  "  Hieronymian  ",  the  histori- 
cal martyrologies,  and  the  Greek  "  Synaxaria  "  helps 
the  study  of  this  compilation,  which  is  derived  from 
them.  Attention  may  be  called  to  the  large  conmia^ 
tary  on  the  Roman  Martyrology,  by  Alexander  Politi 
(Florence,  1751).  Only  the  first  volimie,  containing 
the  month  of  January,  has  appeared. 
Besides  the  works  already  quoted  see  the  followiiis:  Ma- 
martyroiooe  romaxn  €utuel  in  Ds  Backer,  Stb, 


TAONB,  Le 

Serivaina  de  la  Comp.  d«  Jinia,  2iid  ed..  Ill  (1876),  368  sqq  . 
Dc  Smedt,  IrUrodueHo  generalia  ad  historiam  ^celentuHeam 
entice  tmdandam  (Ghoit.  1876),  127-158;  db  Buck.  Recherchee 
aw  les  caUndriera  ecdiaiaatvitiea  in  Pr6eia  hiatoriquea  (Brussels, 
1877),  12  sqq.;  Achelxs^Dm  Mariyrologien,  ihre  OeechiehU  %aui 
ihr  Weri  (Benin,  1900);  Delbhaye,  Le  Umoignage  dee  vtartyro' 
logea  in  Analeei.  Bolland.,  XXVI,  78  sqq.  A  himdy  edition  of 
the  Martyrolooium  Romanum  was  published  at  Turin  (1010}: 
there  is  an  English  translation,  The  Roman  Martyrvlogy  (Balti- 
more,  1907).  HiPPOLYTB  DelSUATE. 

MartsrropoUs,  a  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Amida  in 
the  Province  of  Mesopotamia  or  Armenia  Quarta.  It 
was  only  a  small  town,  named  Maipherqat,  but  was 
rendered  oelebrated  at  the'  end  of  the  fourth  century, 
by  its  bishop,  St.  Maruthas.  Enjoying  great  influ- 
ence at  the  Roman  and  the  Persian  Courts,  Maruthas 
was  sent  on  several  important  missions  to  Seleucia- 
Ctesiphon  or  Constantinople  and  succeeded  in  ob- 
taining religious  liberty  for  the  Persian  Christians  in 
410.  On  his  return  ^rom  one  of  the  journeys  he 
brought  back  to  Maipherqat  fromJPersia  many  relics 
of  the  martyrs,  in  consequence  of  which  the  town  be- 
came known  as  Martyropolis.  The  emperor  Theo- 
dosius  II  aided  Maruthas  in  this  work  of  reconstruc- 
tion and  embellishment.  Captured  by  the  Persians 
under  Anastasius  I,  the  town  was  retaken  by  the 
Romans  and  successfully  defended  in  the  time  of 
Justinian  (Ahrens  and  Kriiger,  "Die  sogenannte 
Kirchengeschichte  des  Zacharias  Rhetor",  171-75; 
Procopius, "  Bellum  pers.",  I,  xxi,  xxiii ; '*  De  nedifidis  ", 
III,  2).  Its  name  was  then  changed  for  a  short  time 
to  J ustinianopolis  (Malalas, "  Chronographia  ",  XVIII ; 
P.  G.,  XCVIl,  629).  Martyropolis  is  mentioned  very 
often  in  the  time  of  the  wars  between  the  Romans  and 
the  Persians,  from  584  to  589  (Theophanis,  "Chrono- 
graphia", anno  mundi  6077,  6079,  6080);  Heradius 
halted  there  in  624  (op.cit.,6116);  in712,  itwasin  the 
hands  of  the  Arabs  (op.  cit.,  6204).  Lequien  (Oriens 
CJhristianus,  II,  997-1002)  mentions  several  of  its 
Greek  bishops,  among  them  being  the  Metropolitan 
Basil  who  assisted  at  the  conciliabulum  of  Photius  in 
878.  We  know,  indeed,  hy  a  statement  in  the  "  Noti- 
tia  episcopatuum "  of  Antioch,  in  the  tenth  century 
(Echos  d 'Orient,  X,  93)  that  Martyropcdis  had  been 
withdrawn  from  the  jurisdiction  of  Amida,  and  be- 


Jacobite  bishops.  At  present,  Martyropolis  is  caUed 
Mefarkin,  or  Snvan;  it  is  a  caza  of  the  vilayet  of  Diar- 
bekir.  The  town,  situated  42  miles  north-east  of 
Diarbekir,  contains  7(XX)  inhabitants,  of  whom  4000 
are  Mussulmans,  20(X)  schismatic  Armenians.  430 
Catholic  Armenians,  and  about  511  Syrian  Jacobites. 
It  possesses  3  churches  for  these  dinerent  religjous 
communities. 

CtriNET,  La  Turquie  d'Asie.  II,  470-72;  Chapot,  La  frontihre 
de  VEuphrate  (Pans,  1907),  359-61.  g    VAILHfe 

Martjrrs,  Acts  of  the. — In  a  strict  sense  the  Acts 
of  the  Martyrs  are  the  official  records  of  the  trials  of 
early  Christian  martyrs  made  by  the  notaries  of  the 
court.  In  a  wider  sense,  however,  the  title  is  applied 
to  all  the  narratives  of  the  martyrs'  trial  and  death. 
In  the  latter  sense,  they  may  be  classified  as  follows: 


MAETTB8 


743 


MAETTB8 


• 

(1)  Official  reports  of  the  interrogatories  (acta, 
gesta).  Those  extant,  like  the  "Acta  Proconsulia' 
(Cyprian, "  Ep.  Ixxvii ")  are  few  in  number  and  have 
only  come  down  to  us  in  editions  prepared  with  a  view 
to  the  edification  of  the  faithful.  The  "Passio 
C3rpriam"  and  "Acta  Martyrum  SdUitanorum"  are 
typical  of  this  class.  Of  these  the  former  is  a  com- 
posite work  of  three  separate  documents  showing  the 
minimum  of  editorial  additions  in  a  few  connecting 
phrases.  The  first  document  gives  an  account  of  the 
trial  of  C3rprian  in  257.  the  second,  his  arrest  and 
trial  in  258,  the  third,  ot  his  martyrdom. 

(2)  Non-official  records  made  by  eye-witnesses  or  at 
least  by  contemporaries  recording  the  testimonv  of 
eye-witnesses.  Such  are  the  "Blartyrium  S.  Poly- 
carpi",  admitting  thou^  it  does  much  that  may  be 
due  to  the  pious  fancy  of  the  eye-witnesses.  The 
"Acta  SS.  rerpetuse  et  Felicitatis"  is  perhaps  of  all 
extant  Acta  the  most  beautiful  and  famous,  for  it 
includes  the  autograph  notes  of  Perpetua  and  Saturus 
and  an  eye-witness's  account  of  the  martyrdom.  And 
to  these  must  be  added  the  "Epistola  Ecclesiarum 
Viennensis  et  Lugdunensis",  tellmg  the  story  of  the 
martyrs  of  Lyons,  and  other  Acta  not  so  famous. 

(3)  Documents  of  a  later  date  than  the  martyrdom 
based  on  Acta  of  the  first  or  second  <;lass,  and  therefore 
subjected  to  editorial  manipulation  of  various  kinds. 
It  is  this  class  which  afforas  the  critic  the  greatest 
scope  for  his  discernment.  What  distinguish^  these 
Acta  from  the  subsequent  classes  is  their  literary 
basis.  The  editor  was  not  constructing  a  story  to  smt 
oral  tradition  or  to  explain  a  monument,  lie  was 
editing  a  literaiy  document  according  to  his  own  taste 
and  purpose.  The  class  is  numerous  and  its  contents 
highly  aebatable,  for  though  additional  study  may 
raise  any  particidar  Acta  to  a  higher  class,  it  is  far 
more  likely  as  a  rule  to  reduce  it. 

Besides  these  three  classes  of  more  or  less  reliable 
documents,  many  others  pass-  under  the  name  of 
Acta  Martyrum,  though  their  historicity  is  of  little 
or  no  value.  They  are  romances,  either  written 
around  a  few  real  facts  which  have  been  preserved  in 
popular  or  literary  tradition,  or  else  pure  works  of  the 
miagination,  containing  no  real  facts  whatever.  Among 
the  historical  romances  we  may  instance  the  story  m 
Felicitas  and  her  seven  sons,  which  in  its  present  form 
seems  to  be  a  variation  oi  IV  Maccabees^  viii,  1, 
though  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  underlying  facts, 
one  of  which  has  actually  been  confirmed  by  De  Rossi's 
discovery  of  the  tomb  of  Januarius,  the  eldest  son  in 
the  narrative.  And  according  to  such  strict  critics  as 
M.  Dufourcq  (Etude  sur  les  Gesta  martyrum  romains, 
Paris,  1900)  and  P.  Delehaye  (Analecta  Bollandiana, 
XVI^  235-248),  the  Roman  ^*  Legendarium  "  can  claim 
no  higher  class  than  this;  so  that,  apart  from  monu- 
mentalj  liturgical,  and  topographical  traditions,  much 
of  the  hterary  evidence  for  the  great  martyrs  ot  Rome 
is  embeddecl  in  historical  romances.  It  may  be  a 
matter  for  surprise  that  there  should  be  such  a  class  of 
Acta  as  the  imaginative  romances,  which  have  no 
facts  at  all  for  their  foundation.  But  they  were  the 
novels  of  those  days  which  unfortunately  came  to  be 
taken  as  history.  Perhaps  such  is  the  case  with  the 
story  of  Genesius  the  Comedian  who  was  suddenly 
converted  while  mimicking  the  Christian  mysteries 
(Von  der  Lage,  ''Studien  s.  Genesius  Legende",  Ber- 
lin, 1898-9).  and  the  Acts  of  Didymus  and  Theodora, 
the  latter  ot  whom  was  saved  by  the  former,  a  Chris- 
tian soldier,  from  a  punishment  worse  than  death. 
And  even  less  reputable  than  these  so-called  Acta 
are  the  story  of  Barlaam  and  Josaphat  which  is  the 
Christian  adaptation  of  the  Buddha  legend,  the  Faust- 
legend  of  Cyprian  of  Antioch,  and  the  romance  of  the 
heroine  who,  under  the  various  names  of  Pelagia. 
Marina,  Eugenia,  Margaret,  or  Apollinaria  is  admittea 
in  man's  dress  to  a  monastery,  convicted  of  miscon- 
duct, and  posthumously  i^habilitated.    H%,  liiberatu 


also,  the  bearded  lady  who  was  nailed  to  a  cross,  is  a 
saint  of  fiction  only,  though  the  romance  was  probably 
invented  with  the  definite  purpose  of  explaining  the 
draped  fisure  of  a  crucifix. 

Still  these  two  classes  of  romantic  Acta  can 
hardly  be  regarded  as  forgeries  in  the  strict  sense  of 
that  term.  They  are  literary  figments,  but  as  they  were 
written  with  the  intention  of  ^ifying  and  not  cieceiv- 
ing  the  reader,  a  special  class  must  be  reserved  for 
hagiographical  forgeries.  To  this  must  be  relegated 
all  those  Acts,  Passions,  Lives,  Legends,  and  Trans- 
lations which  have  been  written  with  the  express  pur- 
pose of  perverting  history,  such,  for  instance,  as  the 
legends  and  translations  falsely  attaching  a  saint's 
name  to  some  special  church  or  city.  Their  authors 
disgraced  the  name  of  hagiographer,  and  they  would 
not  merit  mention  were  it  not  that  conscious  deceit 
has  in  consequence  been  attributed  to  those  haeiog- 
raphers,  who,  having  for  their  object  to  edify  and  not 
to  instruct,  have  written  Acta  which  were  meant  to  be 
read  as  romances  and  not  as  history. 

Besides  these  detached  Acta  Martyrum,  there  are 
other  literary  documents  concerning  the  life  and  death 
of  the  martyrs  which  may  be  mentioned  here.  The 
Calendaria  were  lists  of  martyrs  celebrated  by  the 
different  Churches  according  to  their  different  dates. 
The  Martyrologies  represent  collections  of  different 
Calendaria  and  sometimes  add  details  of  the  martyr- 
dom. The  Itineraries  are  guide-books  drawn  up  for 
the  use  of  pilgrims  to  the  sanctuaries  of  Rome;  they 
are  not  without  their  utility  in  so  far  as  they  reveal,  not 
only  the  resting  places  of  the  ^reat  dead,  but  also  the 
traditions  which  were  current  m  the  seventh  century. 
The  writings  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  also  embody 
many  references  to  the  martyrs,  as,  for  instance,  the 
sermons  of  St.  Basil,  Chrysostom,  Augustine,  Peter 
Chrysologus,  and  John  Damascene. 

Finally  there  are  to  be  considered  the  collections  of 
Lives,  intended  for  public  and  private  reading.  Most 
important  of  all  are  the  "Historia  Ecclesiastica"  of 
Eusebius  (265-340),  and  his  /'De  Martyribus  Pales- 
tine"; but  unfortunately  his  ftapHfHop  vvpaytay-ij  or 
Collection  of  Acts  of  the  ^uirtyrs,  to  which  he  refers  in 
the  preface  of  the  fifth  book  of  his  **  Historia  Ecclesias- 
tica  ,  is  no  longer  extant.  The  fourteen  poems  of 
Aureli^s  Prudentius  Clemens,  published  in  404  as  the 
" Persitephanon  liber",  celebrated  the  praises  of  the 
martyrs  of  Spain  and  Italy;  but  as  tne  author  al- 
lowed himself  the  license  of  the  poet  with  his  material, 
he  is  not  always  reliable.  The  writers  of  the  Middle 
Ages  are  responsible  for  a  very  large  element  of  the 
fictitious  in  the  stories  of  the  martyrs;  they  did  not 
even  make  a  proper  use  of  tJie  material  they  had  at 
their  disposal.  Gregory  of  Tours  was  the  first  of  these 
medieval  hanographers  with  his  '^De  virtutibus  S. 
Martini",  "Oe  0oria  Confessorum",  and  "De  vitis 
Sanctorum".  Simeon  Metaphrastes  is  even  less  re- 
liable; it  has  even  been  questioned  whether  he  was  not 
consciously  deceitful.  See,  however,  the  article  on 
Metaphrastes.  But  the  most  famous  collection  of 
the  Middle  Ages  was  the  "Golden  Legend"  of 
Jacopo  de  Soragine,  first  printed  in  1476.  All 
these  medieval  writers  include  saints  as  well  as 
martyrs  in  their  collections.  So  do  Mombritius 
rMilan,  1476),  Lipomanus  (Venice,  1551),  and  Surius 
(Cologne,  1570).  J.  Faber  Stapulensis  included 
only  Martyrs  in  his  "Martyrum  agones  antiquis 
ex  monumentis  genuine  descnptos"  (1525),  and  they 
are  only  the  martyrs  whose  feasts  are  celebrated 
in  the  month  of  January.  But  an  epoch  was  marked 
in  the  history  of  the  martyrs  by  the  "  Acta  primorum 
martyrum  sincera  et  selecta  "  of  the  Benedictine  Theo- 
dore Kuinart  (Paris,  1689),  and  frequently  reprinted 
(Ratisbon,  1858).  Other  collections  of  Acta,  sub- 
sequent to  Ruinart's  are  Ilbachius,  "  Acta  Martyrum 
Vmdicata"  ^ome,  1723).  S.  Assemai,  "Acta  SS. 
Martyrum  onen^.  et  ooc,"  (Rome,  1748).    T.  Mama- 


MARTYRS 


744 


MARTYRS 


chii,  "Origines  et  Antiquitates  Christianaj"  (Rome, 
1749).  The  critical  study  of  the  Acta  Martyrum 
has  been  vigorously  prosecuted  within  the  last  few 
years,  and  the  standpoint  of  the  critics  considerably 
changed  since  the  attempt  of  Ruinart  to  make  bis 
selection  of  Acta.  Many  of  his  Acta  Sincera  will 
no  longer  rank  as  sincera;  and  if  they  be  arranged 
in  different  classes  according  to  their  historicity  very 
few  can  claim  a  place  in  our  first  or  second  class.  But 
on  the  other  hand  the  discovery  of  texts  and  the  arch»- 
ological  researches  of  De  Rossi  and  others  have  con- 
firmed individual  stories  of  martyrdom.  And  a 
general  result  of  criticism  has  been  to  substantiate 
such  main  facts  as  the  causes  of  persecution,  the  num- 
ber and  heroism  of  the  martyrs,  the  popularity  of  their 
cultus,  and  the  historicity  of  the  popular  heroes. 

The  chief  problem,  therefore,  for  modem  critics  is 
to  discover  tne  literary  history  of  the  Acta  which 
have  come  down  to  us.  It  cannot  l^  denied  that  some 
attempt  was  made  at  the  very  first  to  keep  the  history 
of  the  Church's  martyrs  inviolate.  The  public  read- 
ing of  the  Acta  in  the  chutches  would  naturally 
afford  a  guarantee  of  their  authenticity;  and  this 
custom  certainly  obtained  in  Africa,  for  the  Third 
Council  of  Carthage  (c.  47)  permittee!  the  reading  of 
the  "  Passiones  Martyrum  cum  anniversarii  dies  eorum 
oelebrentur".  There  was  also  an  interchange  of 
Acta  between  different  Churches,  as  we  see  from 
the  "Martyrium  S.  Polycarpi'*  and  the  "Epistola 
Ecclesise  Viennensis  et  Lugdunensis".  But  it  is  not 
known  to  what  extent  those  customs  were  practised. 
And  during  the  persecutions  of  Diocletian  there  must 
have  been  a  wholesale  destruction  of  documents,  with 
^e  result  that  the  Church  would  lose  the  accounts  of 
its  Martyr's  history.  This  seems  to  be  especially  true 
of  Rome,  which  possesses  so  few  authentic  Acta  in 
spite  of  the  numtJer  and  fame  of  its  martyrs;  for  the 
Romans  had  apparently  lost  the  thread  of  these  tradi- 
tions as  early  as  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century. 
The  poems  of  Prudentius,  the  Calendaria,  and  even 
the  writings  of  Pope  Damasus  show  that  tne  story  of 
the  persecutions  had  fallen  into  obscurity.  Christian 
Rome  had  her  martyre  beneath  her  feet,  and  celebrated 
their  memory  with  intense  devotion,  and  yet  she 
knew  but  little  of  their  history. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  desire  of  the  faithful  for  fuller  information  would 
easily  be  satisfied  by  raconteurs  who,  having  only 
scanty  material  at  tneir  disposal,  would  amplify  and 
multiply  the  few  facts  preser\^ed  in  tradition  and  at- 
tach wliat  they  considered  suitable  stories  to  historical 
names  and  localities.  And  in  the  course  of  time  it  is 
argued  these  legends  were  committed  to  writing,  and 
have  come  down  to  us  as  the  Roman  legendarium.  In 
support  of  this  severe  criticism  it  is  urged  that  the 
Roman  Acta  are  for  the  most  part  not  earlier  than 
the  sixth  centurv  (Dufourcq),  and  that  spurious 
Acta  were  certainly  not  unknown  during  the  period. 
The  Roman  Council  of  494  actually  condemned  the 
public  reading  of  the  Acta  (P.  L.,  LIX,  171-2).  And 
this  Roman  protest  had  been  already  anticipated  by 
the  Sixth  Council  of  Carthage  (401)  which  protested 
against  the  cult  of  martyrs  whose  martyrdom  was  not 
certain  (canon  17).  St.  Augustine  (354-340)  also  had 
written:  "Though  for  other  martyrs  we  can  hardly 
find  accounts  whicli  we  can  read  on  their  festivals,  the 
Passion  of  St.  Stephen  is  in  a  canonical  book  "  (Senno, 
315,  P.  L.,  XXXVIII,  1426).  Subsequently  in  (>02  the 
TruUan  Council  at  Constantinople  cxcommiinicatcd 
those  who  were  responsible  for  the  reading  of  spurious 
Acta.  The  supposition,  therefore^  of  such  an  ori- 
gin for  the  Roman  legends  is  not  improbable.  And 
unfortunatelv  the  Roman  martyrs  arc  not  the  only 
ones  whose  Acta  are  unreliable."  Of  the  seventy-four 
separate  Passions  included  by  Ruinart  in  his  Acta  Sin- 
cera, the  Bollandist  Delehaye  places  only  thirtcKin  in 
the  first  or  second  class,  as  original  documents.    Fur- 


ther study  of  particular  Acta  may,  of  course,  raise 
this  number;  and  other  original  Acta  inay  be  dis- 
covered.   The  labours  of  such  critics  as  Uebhardt, 
Aub^,  Franchi  de  Cavalieri,  Le  Blant,  Conybeare,  Har- 
nack^  the  Bollandists,  and  many  others,  have  in  fact, 
not  mfrequently  issued  in  this  direction,   while  at 
the  same   time   they   have    gathered   an   ext^n^ive 
bibliography  around  the  several  Acta.     These  must 
therefore  be  valued  on  their  respective  merits.     It 
may,  however,  be  noticed  here  that  the  higher  criti- 
cism is  as  dangerous  when  applied  to  the  Acts  of  the 
Martyrs  as  it  is  for  the  Holy  Scriptures.     Arguments 
may  of  course,  be  drawn  from  the  formal  setting  of  the 
document,  its  accuracy  in  dates,  names,  and  topo- 
graphv,  and  still  stronger  arguments  from  w^hat  may 
becalfed  the  informal  setting  given  to  it  unconsciously 
by  its  author.     But  in  the  first  case  the  formal  setting 
can  surely  be  imitated^  and  it  is  unsafe  therefore  to 
seek  to  establish  historicity  by  such  an  argument.     It 
is  equally  unsafe  to  presume  that  the  probability  of  a 
narrative,  or  its  simplicity  is  a  proof  that  it  is  genuine. 
Even  the  improbable  may  contain  more  facts  of  his- 
tory than  many  a  narrative  which  bears  the  appear- 
ance of  sobriety  and  restraint.    Nor  is  conciseness  a 
sure  proof  that  a  document  is  of  an  early  date;   St. 
Mark  s  Gospel  is  not  thus  proved  to  be  the  earliest  of 
the  Svnoptics.    The  informal  setting  is  more  reliable; 
philology  and  psychology  are  better  tests  than  dates 
and  geography,  for  it  needs  a  clever  romancer  indeed 
to  identify  nimself  so  fully  with  his  heroes  as  to  share 
their  thoughts  and  emotions.    And  yet  even  with  this 
concession  to  higher  criticism,  it  still  remains  true  that 
the  critic  is  on  safer  ground  when  he  has  succeeded  in 
establishing  the  pedigree  of  his  document  by  external 
evidence. 

AeU^  8S.\  AndUdta  Bollandiana;  Bibliographica  haoioara' 
phtca  gnuKca  (Bruflscb,  1895);  Bt6/.  hao.  latina  (Brussels,  1^8); 
Le  Blant,  Les  Pera^iUeura  et  lea  Martyrs  (Paris,  1H9.3);  Lea 
Aetea  (Ua  Martyra^  SupplemerU  aux  Ada  Sinctra  de  D.  RuinaHm 
Mimoirea  de  VAccuUmxe  dea  Inacripticma  et  BcUea  Lettrca,  XXX. 
(Paris,  1882);  Neumann,  Der  RUmiache  Stoat  imd  die  allge- 
meine  Kirche  bia  auf  Diokletian,  I  (Leipxig,  1890);  HARNACXt 
Geachichte  der  alichrxaUichen  LiUeratur  bia  Euaebiua  (I^eipsig, 
1897-1904) ;  Dufourcq,  Etude  aur  lea  Geaia  Martyrum  Ramavna 
(Paris,  l90Cy-07);  Actielis.  Die  Martyrologirn.  \hre  GeachichAe 
und  ihr  Wert  (Beriin,  1900);  Quentxn,  Lea  mariyrologea  kiatO' 
riquea  du  moyen  ^(/r  (Paris,  1907):  Gebhardt,  Acta  Marturum 
Selecta  (Berlin,  1902;;  Leclercq.  Lea  Martyra  (Paris,  1902); 
LlETKHANN,  Dte  drci  fillesten  Martyrolofnen  (Bonn,  1903) ;  Delx- 
HATE,  Legenda  of  the  SairUa  (Eng.  tr.,  London,  1907). 

James  Bridge. 

Martgnrs,  Coptic.    See  Persecutions. 

Mart3rrs,  Enqush.  See  English  Confessors  and 
Martyrs. 

Maitsrrs.  Japanese. — There  is  not  in  the  whole 
history  of  tne  Church  a  single  people  who  can  offer  to 
the  aamiration  of  the  Chnstian  world  annals  as  glo- 
rious, and  a  martyrolog>'  as  lengthy,  as  those  of  the 
people  of  Japan.  In  January',  1552,  St.  Francis 
Aavicr  had  remarked  the  proselytizing  spirit  of  the 
early  neophytes.  "  I  saw  them  ",  he  wrote, "  rejoicing 
in  our  successes,  manifesting  an  ardent  zeal  to  spread 
the  faith  and  to  win  over  to  baptism  the  pagans 
they  conquered."  He  foresaw  the  obstacles  that 
would  block  the  progress  of  the  faith  in  certain  prov- 
inces, the  absolutism  of  this  or  that  daimifo,  a  class  at 
that  time  ver>'  independent  of  the  Mikaoo  and  in  re- 
volt against  his  supreme  authority.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  in  the  pro\nnoe  of  Ilirado,  where  he  made  a  hun- 
dred converts,  and  where  nix  years  after  him,  600 
pagans  were  baptized  in  three  days,  a  Christian  wo- 
man (the  profo-martyr)  was  beheaded  for  prajing 
Ixjfore  a  cross.  In  1561  the  daimyo  forced  the  Chris- 
tians to  abjure  their  faith,  **but  they  preferred  to 
abandon  all  their  possessions  and  live  in  the  Bungo, 
poor  with  Christ,  rather  than  rich  without  Him", 
wrote  a  missionary,  11  ()ctol)er,  1502.  When,  under 
the  Shogunate  of  Yoshiaki,  Ota  Nobiuiaga,  supported 


HART7RS 


745 


MARTTaS 


by  Wada  Korcsama,  a  Christian,  had  subdued  the 
greater  part  of  the  provinces  and  liad  restored  rooa- 
archical  unity,  there  came  to  pass  what  St.  Francis 
^Xavier  had  hoped  for.  At  Miyako  (the  modem  Ki- 
yoto)  the  faith  was  recognized  and  a  church  bmit  15 
Auff.,  1576.  Then  the  faith  continued  to  spread 
without  notable  opposition,  as  the  daimyos  followed 
the  lead  of  the  Mikado  (Ogimachi,  1558-1586)  and 
Ota  Nobunaga.  The  toleration  or  favour  of  the  cen- 
tral authority  brought  about  everywhere  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Cnristian  religion,  and  only  a  few  isolated 
cases  of  martyrdom  are  known  (Le  Catholicisme  au 
Japon,  I,  173). 

It  was  not  until  1587,  when  there  were  200,000 
Christians  in  Japan,  that  an  edict  of  persecution,  or 
rather  of  prescription,  was  passed  to  the  surprise  of 
everyone,  at  the  instigation  of  a  bigoted  bome,  Nichi- 
joshonin,  zealous  for  the  rcUgion  of  nis  race.  Twenty- 
six  residences  and  140  churches  were  destroyed;  the 
missionaries  were  condemned  to  exile,  but  were  clever 
enough  to  hide  or  scatter.  They  never  doubted  the 
constancy  of  their  con  verts ;  they  assisted  them  in  secret 
and  in  ten  years  there  were  100,000  otiier  converts  in 
Japan.  We  read  of  two  martyrdoms,  one  at  Takata, 
the  other  at  Notsuhara;  but  very  many  Christians 
were  dispossessed  of  their  goods  and  reduced  to 
poverty.  The  first  bloody  persecution  dates  from 
1597.  It  is  attributed  to  two  causes:  (1)  Four  years 
earlier  some  Castilian  religious  had  come  from  the 
Philippines  and,  in  spite  of  the  decisions  of  the  Holy 
See,  had  joined  themselves  to  the  130  Jesuits  who, 
on  account  of  the  delicate  situation  created  by  the 
edict,  were  acting  with  great  caution.  In  spite  of 
every  charitable  advice  given  them,  these  men  set  to 
work  in  a  very  indiscreet  manner,  and  violated  the 
terms  of  the  edict  even  in  the  capital  itself;  (2)  a  Cas- 
tilian vessel  cast  by  the  storm  on  the  coast  of  Japan 
was  confiscated  under  the  laws  then  in  vigour.  Some 
artillery  was  found  on  board,  and  Japanese  suscepti- 
bilities were  further  excited  by  the  lying  tales  of  the 
pilot,  so  that  the  idea  went  abroad  that  the  Castilians 
were  thinking  of  annexing  the  country.  A  list  of  all 
the  Cliristians  in  Miyado  and  Osaka  was  made  out, 
and  on  5  Feb.,  1597,  26  Christians,  among  whom  were 
6  Franciscan  missionaries,  were  crucified  at  Nagasaki. 
Among  the  20  native  Christians  there  was  one,  a 
child  of  13,  and  another  of  12  years.  ''  The  astonishing 
fruit  of  the  generous  sacrifice  of  our  26  martyrs^ 
(wrote  a  Jesuit  missionary)  '*is  that  the  Christians, 
recent  converts  and  those  of  maturer  faith,  have  been 
confirmed  in  the  faith  and  hope  of  eternal  salvation; 
they  have  firmly  resolved  to  lay  down  their  lives  for 
the  name  of  Christ.  The  very  pagans  who  assisted  at 
the  martyrdom  were  struck  at  seeing  the  joy  of  the 
blessed  ones  as  they  suffered  on  their  crosses  and  the 
courage  with  which  they  met  death". 

Ten  years  before  this  another  missionary  had  fore- 
seen and  predicted  that  "from  the  courage  of  the 
Japanese,  aided  by  the  grace  of  God,  it  is  to  l)e  ex- 
pected that  persecution  will  inaugurate  a  race  for 
martyrdom".  True  it  is  that  the  national  and  reli- 
gious customs  of  the  people  predisposed  them  to  lay 
down  their  lives  ^ith  singular  fatalism;  certain  of  their 
established  usages,  religious  suicide,  hara-kiri,  had  de- 
veloped a  contempt  for  death;  but  if  grace  does  not 
destroy  nature  it  exalts  it,  and  their  fervent  charity  and 
love  for  Christ  led  the  Japanese  neophytes  to  scoui^- 
ings  tliat  the  missionaries  nad  to  restrain.  When  this 
love  for  Christ  had  grown  strong  in  the  midst  of  suffer- 
ing freely  chosen,  it  became  easier  for  the  faithful  to 
give  the  Saviour  that  greatest  proof  of  love  by  laying 
down  their  lives  in  a  cruel  deatn  for  His  name's  sake. 
"The  fifty  crosses,  ordered  for  the  holy  mountain  of 
Nagasaki,  multiplied  ten  or  a  hundred  fold,  would  not 
have  sufficeil"  (wrote  one  missionary)  "for  all  the 
faithful  who  longed  for  martyrdom  .  Associations 
(JKumi)  were  formed  under  the  patronage  of  the 


Blessed  Virgin  with  the  object  of  prei)aring  the  mem* 
bcrs  by  Drayer  and  scourgings  even  to  blood,  to  be 
ready  to  lay  down  their  fives  for  the  faith.  After  the 
persecution  of  1597,  there  were  isolated  cases  of  mar- 
tyrdom until  1614,  in  all  about  70.  The  reigns  of 
leyasu,  who  is  better  known  in  Christian  annals  by  the 
name  of  Daifu  Sama,  and  of  his  successors  Hidetada 
and  lemitziu,  were  the  more  disastrous.  We  are  not 
concerned  now  with  the  causes  of  that  persecution, 
which  lasted  half  a  century  with  some  bnef  intervals 
of  peace.  Accordmg  to  Mr.  Ernest  Satow  (quoted  by 
Thurston  in  "The  Month",  March,  1905,  "Japan  and 
Christianity  ") :  "  As  the  Jesuit  missionaries  conducted 
themselves  with  great  tact,  it  is  by  no  means  improb* 
able  that  they  might  have  continued  to  make  con- 
verts year  by  year  until  the  great  part  of  the  nation 
had  been  brought  over  to  the  CathoUc  religion,  had  it 
not  been  for  tne  rivalry  of  the  missionaries  of  other 
orders."  These  were  the  Castilian  religious;  and 
hence  the  fear  of  sceine  Spain  spread  its  conquests 
from  the  Philippines  to  Japan.  Furthermore  the  zeal 
of  certain  religious  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  was 
wanting  in  prudence,  and  led  to  persecution. 

Year  by  year  after  1614  the  number  of  martyr- 
doms was  55,  15,  25,  62,  88,  15,  20.  The  year  1622 
was  particularly  fruitful  in  Cliristian  heroes.  The 
Japanese  martyrolog>'  counts  128  Vt'ith  name,  Chris- 
tian name  ana  place  of  execution.  Before  this  the 
four  religious  onlers,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Au- 
gustinians  and  Jesuits,  had  had  their  martyrs,  but  on 
10  Sept.,  1622, 9  Jesuits,  6  Dominicans, 4  Franciscans, 
and  6  lay  Christians  were  put  to  death  at  the  stake 
after  witnessing  the  beheading  of  about  30  of  the 
faithful.  From  December  untilthe  end  of  September, 
1624,  there  were  285  martyrs.  The  English  captain. 
Richard  Cocks  (Calendar  of  State  Papers:  Colonial 
East  Indies,  1617-1621,  p.  357)  "saw  55  martyred  at 
Miako  at  one  time  .  .  .  and  among  them  little  chil- 
dren 5  or  6  years  okl  burned  in  their  mother's  arms, 
crying  out:  Jesus  receive  our  souls'.  Many  more 
are  in  prison  who  look  hourly  when  they  shall  die,  for 
very  few  turn  pagans".  We  cannot  go  into  the  de- 
tails of  these  horrible  slaughters,  the  skilful  tortures  of 
Mount  Unzen,  the  refined  cruelty  of  the  trench.  After 
1627  death  pnew  more  and  more  terrible  for  the  Cliris^ 
tians:  in  1627, 123  died,  during  the  years  that  followed, 
65,  79,  and  198.  Persecution  went  on  unceasingly  as 
long  as  there  were  missionaries,  and  the  last  of  whom 
we  learn  were  5  Jesuits  and  3  seculars,  who  suffered 
the  torture  of  the  trench  from  25  to  31  March,  1643. 
The  list  of  martyrs  we  know  of  (name.  Christian  name, 
ancl  place  of  execution)  has  1648  names.  If  we  add  to 
this  the  groups  we  learn  of  from  tlie  missionaries,  or 
later  from  the  Dutch  travellers  between  1649  and 
1660,  the  total  goes  to  3125,  and  this  does  not  include 
Christians  who  were  banished,  whose  property  was 
confiscated,  or  who  died  in  poverty.  A  Japanese 
judee,  Arai  Hakuseki,  bore  witness  alx)ut  1710,  that 
at  tne  close  of  the  reign  of  lemitzu  (1650)  "it  was 
ordered  that  the  converts  should  all  lean  on  their  own 
staff".  At  that  time  an  immense  number,  from 
200,000  to  300,000,  perished.  Without  counting  the 
mcml)ers  of  Third  Orders  and  Congregations,  the 
Jesuits  had,  acconling  to  the  martyrology  (Delplace, 
II,  181-195;  263-275),  55  martyrs,  the  Franciscans  36. 
the  Dominicans  38,  the  Augustinians  20.  Pius  IX  and 
Ijco  XIII  declannl  worthy  of  public  cult  36  Jesuit 
martyrs,  25  Franciscans,  21  Dominicans,  5  Augus- 
tinians and  107  lay  victims.  After  1632  it  ceased  to 
l)e  possible  to  obtain  reliable  data  or  information 
which  would  lead  to  canonical  beatification.  Wlien  in 
1854,  Conamodore  Perry  forced  an  entry  to  Japan,  it 
was  learned  that  the  Christian  faith,  after  two  cen- 
turies of  intolerance,  was  not  dead.  In  1865,  priest* 
of  the  Foreign  Missions  found  20,000  Christians  prac- 
tising their  religion  in  secret  at  Kiushu.  Religious 
liberty  was  not  granted  them  by  Japanese  law  untE 


MAETTfiS 


746 


MAETYftS 


1873.  Up  to  that  time  in  20  provincee,  3404  had  suf- 
fered for  tne  faith  in  exile  or  in  prison ;  660  of  these  had 
died;  and  1981  returned  to  their  homes.  In  1858,  12 
Christians,  among  whom  were  two  chief-baptiserSy 
were  put  to  death  oy  torture.  One  missionaiy  calcu- 
lates that  in  all  1200  died  for  the  faith. 

PAoks,  Hi$lo%re  de  la  religion  chrHienne  au  J  anon  (Paiiflt 
1809);  Valbnttn,  BMc^ryvtna  (Dordrecht,  1716):  MoiiTANns, 
QetanUchappent  Japan  (Amiiterdain,  1660):  Dblplacb,  Lo 
Caiholicianieau  Japan,!,  1640-1603;  U,  1603-1640  (BniMeb, 
1010) ;  KatKoliocKo  M%$o%onen  (Freibuig,  1804).  See  alio  works 
referred  to  in  text. 

Louia  Delplacb. 
MnrtytB,  The  Fortt.    See  Fobtt  Marttbs. 

Martjrrs,  The  Ten  Thousand. — On  two  dayB  is  a 
group  of  ten  thousand  martvrs  mentioned  in  the  Ro- 
man Martvrology.  On  18  Biarch : "  At  Nicomedia  ten 
thousand  holy  martjrrs  who  were  put  to  the  sword  for 
the  confession  of  Christ",  and  on  22  June: "  On  Mount 
Ararat  the  martyrdom  of  ten  thousand  holv  martyrs 
who  were  crucified.  '*  The  first  entry,  found  in  an  old 
Greek  martyrologv',  translated  by  Cardinal  Sirleto  and 
published  by  H.  Canisius,  probably  notes  the  venera- 
tion of  a  number  of  those  who  gave  their  lives  for 
Christ  at  the  beginning  of  the  persecution  of  Diocle- 
tian, in  303  (Acta  SS.,  March,  II,  616).  That^  the 
number  is  not  an  exaggeration  is  evident  from  Eu- 
sebius  ("Hist.  Eccl.",  VIII,  vi),  and  Lactantius  ("De 
morte  persecut.",  xv).  The  entiy  of  22  June  is  based 
upon  a  legend  (Acta  SS.,  June,  V,  151)  said  to  have 
been  translated  from  a  Greek  original  (which  cannot, 
however,  be  found)  by  Anastasius  Bibliotheoarius 
(who  died  in  886),  and  dedicated  to  Peter,  Bishop  of 
Sabina  (?  d.  1221).  The  legend  reads:  The  emperors 
Adrian  and  Antoninus  marched  at  the  head  of  a  laige 
army  to  suppress  the  revolt  of  the  Gadarenes  and  tne 
people  of  tne  Euphrates  region.  Finding  too  strong 
an  opponent,  all  fled  except  nine  thousand  soldiers. 
After  these  had  been  converted  to  Christ  by  the  voice 
of  an  angel  they  turned  upon  the  enemy  and  com- 
pletely routed  tnem.  They  were  then  brought  to  the 
top  of  Mount  Ararat  and  instructed  in  the  faith. 
Wnen  the  emperors  heard  of  the  victorv  they  sent  for 
the  converts  to  join  in  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving  to  the 
gods.  They  refused,  and  the  emperors  applied  to  five 
tributary  kings  for  aid  against  the  rebels.  The  kings 
responded  to  the  call,  bringing  an  immense  army. 
The  Christians  were  asked  to  deny  their  faith,  and,  on 
refusal,  were  stoned.  But  the  stones  rebounded 
against  the  assailants,  and  at  this  miracle  a  thousand 
soldiers  joined  the  confessors.  Hereupon  the  emper- 
ors ordered  all  to  be  crucified.  The  Spanish  version  of 
the  legend  makes  the  martyrs  Spaniards  converted  by 
St.  Hermolaus,  a  supposed  Bishop  of  Toledo.  Many 
difficulties  are  created  by  the  legend,  it  contains  so 
many  historical  inaccuracies  and  utterly  improbable 
details.  The  martyrs  are  not  given  by  anyone  before 
Petrus  de  Natalibus,  Bishop  of  Equilio  in  1371.  The 
Greeks  do  not  mention  them  in  the  Mensea,  Meno- 
logium,  or  Horolo^um,  nor  do  the  Copts  or  Arme- 
nians. Surius  omitted  them  in  the  first  and  second 
editions  of  his  "  Vitse  Sanctorum".  Henschenius  the 
Bollandist  intended  to  put  the  group  among  the  Pr»- 
termissi.  Papebroeck  admitted  it  to  the  body  of  the 
work  only  on  the  authority  of  Radulph  de  Rivo  (Bibl. 
Patrum,  XXVI,  Lyons,  1677, 298)  and  classifies  the 
Acts  as  apocryphal,  while  Baronius  takes  up  their 
defence  (Annales  Eccl.,  ad  an.  108,  n.  2).  The  ven- 
eration of  the  Ten  Thousand  Martyrs  is  found  in  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Poland,  France,  SpaixK  and  Portugal. 
Relics  are  claimed  by  the  church  of  St.  Vitus  in  Prague, 
by  Vienna,  Scutari  in  Sicily,  Cuenca  in  Spain,  Lisbon 
and  Coimbra  in  Portugal. 

Dc8  Vaux,  Lea  dix  mille  martyro  crucifUo  our  le  marU  Ararat, 
tour  cuUe  et  leurB  reliquet  au  pay  a  <rOueho  (BellAme,  1800); 
Qrosshsdtschi  in  Ktrehenlex.,  a.  v.  Marfuror,  oohntauoond; 
Weber,  Die  kath.  Kirche  in  Armonien  (FreiDun.  1003),  00. 

Francis  Mebshman. 


Martyrg  in  O&ina.— The  first  Christian  martyra  in 
China  appear  to  have  been  the  missionaries  of  Hi 
B&liq  in  Central  Asia,  Khan-Bdliq  (Peking),  and 
iSaitun  (Fu-kien).  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tnrv.  Islam  had  been  introduced  into  Central  Asia, 
and  in  China,  the  native  djmasty  of  Ming,  replacing 
the  Mongol  aynasty  of  Yuan,  liad  not  followed  the 
policy  01  toleration  of  their  predecessors:  the  Hun- 
garian, Matthew  Escandel,  oeing  possibly  ^e  first 
martyr. 

With  the  revival  of  the  missions  in  C!hina  with 
Matteo  Ricci,  who  died  at  Peking  in  1610,  the  blood  of 
martyrs  was  soon  shed  to  fertilize  the  evangelical  field ; 
the  change  of  the  Mins  dynasty  to  the  Manchu  dy- 
nasty, giving  occasion  for  new  persecution.  Andrew 
Xavier  (better  known  as  Andrew  Wolfgang)  Koffler 
(b.  at  Krems^  Austria,  1603),  a  Jesuit,  and  companion 
of  Father  Michel  Bo3rm,  in  the  Kwane-si  province, 
who  had  been  very  succeffif ul  during  the  Minf  dynasty, 
was  killed  by  the  Manchu  invaders  on  12  Dec.,  1651. 
On  9  May,  1665,  the  Dominican,  Domingo  Coronado, 
died  in  prison  at  Peking.  Sometime  before,  a  Span- 
ish Dominican,  Francisco  Fernandez,  of  the  convent  of 
Valladolid,  had  been  martyred  on  15  Jan. ,  1648.  Among 
the  martyrs  must  be  reckoned  the  celebrated  Jesuit 
Johann  Adam  Schall  von  Bell  (T'ang  Jo-wang),  who 
was  imprisoned  and  ill-treated  during  the  Manchu  con- 
quest.   They  were  the  first  victims  in  modem  times. 

After  the  publication  by  a  lUerato,  of  a  libel  against 
the  Christians  of  Fu-ngan,  in  Fu-kien,  the  viceroy  of 
the  province  gave  oroers  to  inquire  into  the  state  of 
the  Catholic  religion,  the  result  of  which  was  that  a 
dreadful  persecution  broke  out  in  1746,  during  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  K'ien  lung,  the  victims  of  which 
were  aU  Spanish  Dominicans:  the  following  were 
arrested:  Juan  Alcober  (b.  at  Girone  in  1694) ;  Fran- 
cisco Serrano.  Bishop  of  Tipasa,  and  coadjutor  to  the 
vicar  Apostolic;  and  Francisco  Diaz  (b.  in  1712,  at 
fci|a) ;  finally  tiie  vicar  Apostolic,  Pedro  Martyr  S&ni 
(b.  m  1680,  at  Asco.  Tortosa),  Bishop  of  Mauncastra, 
and  Joachim  Royo  (b.  at  Tervel  in  1690)  surrendered. 
After  they  had  been  cruelly  tortured,  the  viceroy  sen- 
tenced them  to  death  on  1  Nov.,  1746;  Sanz  was  mar- 
tyred on  26  May 2 1747;  his  companions  shared  his  faie; 
the  five  Domimcan  martyrs  were  beatified  by  Leo 
XIII,  on  14  May,  1893.  shortly  after,  a  fresh  perse- 
cution broke  out  in  the  Kiang-nan  province,  and  the 
two  Jesuit  fathers,  Antoine-Joseph  Henriquez  (b.  13 
June,  1707),  and  Tristan  de  Attimis  (b.  in  Friuli,  28 
July,  1707),  were  thrown  into  prison  with  a  great 
number  of  Christians,  including  young  girls,  who  were 
ill-treated:  finally  the  viceroy  of  Nan-king  sentenced 
to  death  tne  two  missionaries,  who  were  strangled  on 
12  Sept.,  1748.  In  1785,  the  Franciscan  brother,  Atto 
Biagini  (b.  at  Pistoia,  1752),  died  in  prison  at  Peking. 

Persecution  was  very  severe  during  the  Kia  K'ing  . 
period  (1796-1820);  Ix>ui8-Gabriel-Taurin  Dufresse 
(b.  at  Ville  de  L4zoux,  Bourbonnais,  1751),  of  the 
Paris  Foreign  Missions,  Bishop  of  Tabraca  (24  July, 
1800),  and  vicar  Apostolic  of  Sze  ch'wan,  was  be- 
headcKi  in  this  province  on  14  Sept.,  1815.  In  1819,  a 
hew  persecution  took  place  in  the  Hu-pe  Province; 
Jean-FranQois-Regis  Clet  (b.  at  Grenoble,  19  AprU, 
1748),  an  aged  Lazarist,  was  betrayed  by  a  renegade, 
arreted  in  Ho-nan,  and  thrown  into  prison  at  Wu 
ch'ang  in  Oct.,  1819;  he  was  stranglea  on  18  Feb., 
1820,  and  twenty-three  Christians  were,  at  the  same 
time,  sentenced  to  perpetual  banishment;  another 
Lazarist,  Lamiot,  who  had  also  been  arrested,  being 
the  emperor's  interpreter,  was  sent  back  to  Peking; 
the  Emperor  Kia  King  died  shortly  after;  Father  Clet 
was  beatified  in  1900. 

Under  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Tas  Kwang,  another 
Lazarist  was  also  the  victim  of  the  Mandarin  of  Hu-pe; 
also  betrayed  by  a  Chinese  renegade,  Jean-Gabriel  Per- 
boyre  (b.  at  Puech,  C!ahors,  on  6  Jan.,  1802),  was  trans- 
feired  to  Wu  ch'ang  like  Clet;  during  several  months, 


MAETYBS 


747 


MABTTB8 


he  endured  awful  tortures,  and  was  finally  strangled 
on  11  Sept.,  1840;  he  was  beatified  on  10  Nov.,  1880. 
Father  cr  Addosio  has  written  in  Chinese,  in  1887,  a  life 
of  Perboyre;  full  bibliomphical  details  are  given  of 
these  twQ  martyrs  in  "  Bibliotheca  Sinica". 

Just  after  the  French  tieaty  of  1844,  stipulating 
free  exercise  of  the  Christian  religion,  the  Francisican 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Hu-pe,  Giuseppe  Riszolati,  was  ex- 
pelled, and  Michel  Navarro  (b.  at  Granada,  4  June, 
1809),  was  arrested;  a  Lazarist  missionary,  Laurent 
Carayon  was  taken  back  from  Chi-K  to  Macao  (June, 
1846),  while  Hue  and  Gabet  were  compelled  to  leave 
Lhasa,  the  capital  of  Tibet,  on  26  February,  1846,  and 
forcibly  conducted  to  Canton.  The  death  of  Father 
August  Chapdelaine,  of  the  Paris  Foreign  Missions  (b. 
at  La  Rochelle,  Diocese  of  Coutances,  6  Jan.,  1814, 
beheaded  on  29  Feb.,  1856,  at  8i-lin-hien,  in  the 
Kwang-si  province),  was  the  pretext  chosen  by  France, 
to  join  England  in  a  war  against  China;  when  peace 
was  restored  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Tien-tsin  in  June, 
1858,  it  was  stipulated  by  a  separate  article  that  the 
Si-lin  mandarin  guilty  oi  the  murder  of  the  French 
missionary  should  be  degraded,  and  disqualified  for 
any  office  in  the  future.  On  27  Feb.,  1857,  Jean- Vic- 
tor MOUer,  of  the  Paris  Foreign  Missions,  was  arrested 
in  Kwang-tung;  an  indemnity  of  200  dollars  was  paid 
to  him;  he  was  finally  murdered  by  the  rebels  at  !mng- 
yi-fu,  on  24  April,  1866.  On  16  August,  1860,  the 
T'ai-p'ing  rebel  chief,  the  Chung  Wang,  accompanied 
by  the  lutn  Wang,  marched  upon  Shiuighai;  on  17th, 
his  troops  entered  the  village  of  Tsa  ka  wei,  where  the 
orphanage  of  the  Jesuit  Luigi  de  Massa  (b.  at  Naples 
3  March,  1827)  was  situated;  the  father  was  killed 
with  a  number  of  Christians;  they  were  no  less  than 
five  brothers  belonging  to  the  Neapolitan  family  of 
Bfassa,  all  Jesuit  missionaries  in  China:  Augustin  (b. 
16  March,  1813;  d.  15  August,  1856),  Nicolas  (b.  30 
Jan.,  1815;  d.  3  June,  1876),  Ren6  (b.  14  May,  1817; 
d.  28  April,  1853),  Gaetano  (b.  31  Jan.,  1821;  d.  28 
AprU,  1850),  and  Luigi.  Two  years  later,  another 
Jesuit  father,  Victor  Vuillaume  (b.  26  Dec.,  1818),  was 
put  to  death  on  4  March,  1862,  at  Ts'ien  Kia,  Kiangsu 
province,  by  order  of  the  Shanghai  authorities. 

At  the  beginning  of  1861,  Jean-Joseph  Fenouil  (b. 
18  Nov.,  1821  at  Kudelle,  Cahors),  later  Bishop  of 
Tenedos,  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Yun-nan,  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Lolo  savages  of  Ta  Leang  Shan,  and  ill- 
treated,  being  mistaken  for  a  Chinaman.  On  1  Sept., 
1854,  Nicolas-Michel  Krick  (b.  2  March,  1819,  at  Lix- 
heim),  of  the  Paris  Foreign  Missions,  missionary  to 
Tibet,  was  murdered,  with  Father  Bourry,  in  the 
country  of  the  Abors.  On  18  Feb„  1862,  Jean-Pierre 
N6el  (b.  at  Sainte-CatherineHSur^Kiverie,  Diocese  of 
Lyons,  June,  1832),  Paris  Foreign  Missions,  was  be- 
headed at  Kai  chou  (Kwei  chou).  Gabriel-Marie- 
Pierre  Durand  (b.  at  Lunel,  on  31  Jan.,  1835),  of  the 
same  order,  missionary  to  Tibet,  in  trying  to  escape 
his  persecutors,  fell  into  the  Salwein  river  and  was 
drowned  on  28  Sept.,  1865. 

On  29  August,  1865,  FranQois  Mabileau  (b.  1  March, 
1829,  at  Paimboeuf),  of  the  Paris  Foreign  Missions, 
was  murdered  at  Yew  yang  chou,  in  Eastern  Sze 
Chw'an;  four  years  later,  Jean-FranQois  Rigaud  (b. 
at  Arc-et-Senans)  was  killed  on  2  Jan.,  1869,  at  tJie 
same  place.  Redress  was  obtained  for  these  crimes 
by  the  French  Legation  at  Peking.  In  Kwang-tung, 
Fathers  Verch^re  (1867),  Dejean  (1868),  Delavay 
(1869),  were  persecuted;  Gilles  and  Lebrun  were  ill- 
treated  (1869-1870).  Things  came  to  a  climax  in 
June,  1870:  rumours  had  men  afloat  that  children 
had  been  kidnapped  by  the  missionaries  and  the  sis- 
ters at  T'ien-tsm;  the  chs-fu^  instead  of  calming  liie 
people,  was  exciting  them  by  posting  bills  hostOe  to 
foreigners;  the  infuriated  mob  rose  on  20  June,  1870: 
the  French  consul,  Eontanier,  and  his  chanoellbr 
Simon,  were  murdered  at  the  Yamun  of  the  imperial 
commissioner,  Ch'ung  Hou;  the  church  of  the  Lasar- 


ists  was  pillaged  and  burnt  down:  Father  Chevrier 
was  killed  wiw  a  Cantonese  priest,  Vincent  Hu,  the 
French  interpreter,  Thomassin  and  his  wife,  a  French 
merchant,  Challemaison  and  his  wife;  inside  the  native 
town,  ten  sisters  of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul  were  put  to 
death  in  the  most  cruel  manner,  while  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river,  the  Russian  merchants,  BassofiF  and 
Protopopoff  with  his  wife,  were  also  murdered. 

Throughout  China  there  was  an  outcry  from  all  tlie 
foreign  communities.  It  may  be  said  that  this  awful 
crime  was  never  punished;  France  was  involved  in 
her  gigantic  struggle  with  Germany,  and  she  had  to  be 
content  with  the  punishment  of  uie  supposed  mur- 
derers, and  with  tne  apology  brought  to  St-Germain 
by  the  special  embassy  of  Ch  ung  hou,  who  at  one  time 
had  been  looked  upon  as  one  ofthe  instigators  of  tlie 
massacre.  Jean  Hue  (b.  21  Jan.,  1837),  was  massa- 
cred with  a  Chinese  priest  on  5  Sept.,  1873,  at  Kien- 
Kiang  in  Sze  chw'an;  another  priest  of  the  Paris 
Foreign  Missions,  Jean-Joseph-Marie  Baptifaud  (b.  1 
June^  1845),  was  murdered  at  Pienkio,  in  the  Yun-nan 
pjovmce  during  the  n^ht  of  16-17  September,  1874. 
The  secretary  of  the  French  legation,  Guillaume  de 
Roquette,  was  sent  to  Sze  chw'an,  and  after  some 
protracted  negotiations,  arranged  that  two  murderers 
should  be  executed,  an  indemmty  paid  and  some  man- 
darins punished  (1875). 

In  the  article  China  we  have  related  the  Korean 
massacres  of  1839,  and  1866;  on  14  May,  1879,  Victor 
Marie  Deguette,  of  the  Paris  Foreign  Missions,  was 
arrested  in  the  district  of  Kung-tjyou,  and  taken  to 
Seoul;  he  was  released  at  the  request  of  the  French 
minister  at  Peking;  during  the  preceding  year  the 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Korea,  Mgr  Ridel,  one  of  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  massacre  of  1866,  had  also  been  arrested 
and  sent  back  to  China.  On  Sunday,  29  July,  1894, 
Father  Jean-Mo!se  Jozeau  (b.  9  Feb.,  1866),  was  mur- 
dered in  Korea.  Three  priests  of  the  Paris  Foreign 
Missions  were  the  next  victims:  Jean-Baptiste-Ho- 
nor6  Brieux  was  murdered  near  Ba-t'ang,  on  8  Sept.) 
1881 ;  in  April,  1882,  Eugene  Charles  Brugnon  was  un- 
prisoned;  Jean-Antoine-Louis  Terrasse  (b.  at  Lan- 
triac,  Haute-Loire)  was  murdered  with  seven  Chris- 
tians at  Chang  In,  Yun-nan  province,  during  the  nig^t 
of  27-28  Maroh,  1883;  the  culprits  were  flogged  and 
banished,  and  an  indemnity  of  50,000  taelswas  paid. 
Some  time  before,  Louis^Dominique  Conraux,  ot  the 
same  order  (b.  1852),  was  arrested  and  tortured  in 
Manchuria  at  Hou  L&n.  On  1  November,  1897,  at 
eleven  o'clock  in  the  evening,  a  troop  of  men  belonging 
to  the  Ta  Tao  Hwei,  the  great  "Knife  Association", 
an  anti-foreign  secret  society,  attacked  the  German 
mission  (priests  of  Steyl),  in  the  village  of  Chang  Kiar 
chwang  (Chao-chou  prefecture),  where  Fathers  Fran- 
ds-Xavier  Nies  (b.  11  June,  1859,  at  Recklinghausen, 
Paderbom),  Richard  Henle  (b.  21  July,  1863,  at  Stet- 
ten,  near  Kaigerloch,  Sigmaringen),  and  Stenz  were 
asleep;  the  latter  escaped,  but  the  other  two  were 
killea.  This  double  murder  led  to  the  occupation  of 
Kiao-chou,  on  14  Nov.,  1897,  by  the  German  fleet:  the 
Governor  of  Shan-tung,  Li  Ping-heng  was  replaced  by 
the  no  less  notorious  Yu  Hien.  On  21  April,  1898, 
Mathieu  Bertholet  (b.  at  Charbonnier,  Puy  de  Ddme, 
12  June,  1865),  was  murdered  in  the  Kwang-si  prov- 
ince at  Tong-Kiang  chou;  he  belonged  to  the  JPariB 
Foreign  Missions. 

In  July,  1898,  two  French  missionaries  were  arrested 
at  Yung  chang,  in  Sza-ch'wan,  by  the  bandit  Yu 
Man-tze  alreadv  sentenced  to  death  in  Jan.,  1892^  at 
the  request  of  the  French  legation;  one  of  the  mission- 
aries escaped  wounded;  but  the  other,  Fleury  (b. 
1869),  was  set  at  libertv  onlv  on  7  Jan.,  1899.  On  14 
October,  1898,  Henri  Chani&s  (b.  22  Sept.,  1865,  at 
Coubon-sur-Loire),  of  the  Paris  Foreign  Missions,  was 
murdered  at  Pak-tung  (Kwang-tung),  with  several 
native  Christians;  the  Chinese  had  to  pay  80,000 
dollars.    In  the  same  year,  on  6  Dec.,  tne  Bel^pAn 


BCABTTES 


748 


MART 


FraDciscan,  Jean  Delbrouck  (brother  Victorin,  h.  at 
Boirs,  14  May,  1870),  was  arrested  and  beheaded  on 
11  Dec.,  his  body  being  cut  to  pieces;  by  an  agreement 
sign^  on  12  Dec.,  1899,  by  the  French  consul  at  Han- 
kou,  10,000  taels  were  paid  for  the  murder,  and  44,500 
taeis  for  the  destruction  of  churches,  builaings,  etc.  in 
the  prefectures  of  I-ch'ang  and  Sha-nan.  The  most 
appalUng  disaster  befell  the  Christian  Church  in  1900 
during  the  Boxer  rebellion:  at  Peking,  the  Lazarist, 
Jules  Garrigues  (b.  23  June,  1840),  was  burnt  w^ith  his 
church,  the  Tung-Tang;  Dor^  (b.  at  Paris,  15  May, 
1862),  was  murdered,  and  his  church,  the  Si  Tang,  de- 
stroyed ;  two  Marist  brethren  were  killed  at  Sha-la- 
eul;  Father  d'Addosio  (b.  at  Brescia,  19  Dec,  1835), 
who  left  the  French  legation  to  look  after  the  foreign 
troops  who  had  entered  Peking,  was  caught  by  the 
Boxers,  and  put  to  death;  another  priest,  Chavanne 
(b.  at  St-Chamond,  20  August,  1862),  wounded  by  a 
shot  during  the  siege,  died  of  smallpox  on  26  July. 

In  the  Chi-li  province,  the  followmg  Jesuits  suffered 
for  their  faith:  Modeste  Andlauer  (b.  at  Rosheim, 
Alsace,  1847);  Remi  Isor^  (b.  22  Jan.,  1852,  at  Bam- 
becque,  Nord);  Paul  Denn  (b.  1  April,  1847,  at  Lille); 
Ignace  Mangin  (b.  30  July,  1857,  at  Vemy,  Lorraine). 
In  the  Hu-nan  province:  the  Franciscans:  Antonio 
Fantosati,  Vicar  Apostolic  and  Bisho[>  of  Adra  (b.  16 
Oct.,  1842,  at  Sta.  Maria  in  Valle,  Trevi) ;  Cesadaj  and 
Joseph:  in  the  Hu-pe  province,  the  Franciscan  Ebert; 
in  the  Shan-si  provmce,  where  the  notorious  Yu  hien, 
subsequently^  beheaded,  ordered  a  wholesale  massacre 
of  missionaries  both  Catholic  and  Protestant,  at  T'ai 
yuan:  Gregorio  Grassi  (b. at  Castellazzo,  13  Dec,  1833) 
vicar  apostolic;  his  coadjutor,  Francisco  Fogolla  (b.  at 
Montereggio,  4  Oct.,  1839),  Bishop  of  Bagi;  Fathers 
Facchini,  Saccani,  Theodoric  Balat,  Egide,  and 
Brother  Andrew  Bauer,  all  Franciscans.  In  Man- 
churia: Laurent  Guillon  (b.  8  Nov.,  1854,  at  Chind- 
rieux,  burnt  at  Mukden,  3  July,  1900),  Vicar  Apostohc 
and  Bishop  of  Eumenia;  No^l-Mane  Emonet  (b.  at 
Massingy,  canton  of  Rumilly,  burnt  at  Mukden,  2 
July,  1900);  Jean-Marie  Viaud  (b.  5  June,  1864;  mur- 
dered 1 1  July,  1900) ;  Edouard  Agnius  (b.  at  Haubour- 
din,  Nord,  27  Sept.,  1874;  murdered  11  July,  1900); 
Jules-Joseph  Bayart  (b.  31  March,  1877;  murdered  11 
July,  1900);  Louis-Marie-Joseph  Bourgeois  (b.  21 
Dec,  1863,  at  La  Chapelle-des-Bois,  Doubs;  murdered 
15  July,  1900) ;  Louis  Marie  Leray  (b.  at  Lign^,  8  Oct.. 
1872;  murdered  16  July,  1900);  Auguste  Le  Gu^vel 
(b.  at  Vannes,  21  March,  1875;  muidered,  15  July, 
1900);  Fran9ois  Georjon  (b.  at  Marlhes,  Loire,  3  Au- 
gust^ 1869;  murdered  20  July,  1900);  Jean-Frangois 
lUgis  Souvignet  (b.  22  Oct.,  1854,  at  Monistrol-sur- 
Loire;  murdered  30  July,  1900),  all  priests  of  the  Paris 
Foreign  Missions. 

The  Belgian  Missions  (Congregation  of  Scheut)  num- 
bered also  many  martyrs:  Ferdinand  Hamer  (b.  at 
Nimegue,  Holland,  21  August,  1840;  burnt  to  death 
in  Kan-su),  the  first  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  province; 
in  Mongolia:  Joseph  Segers  (o.  at  Saint  Nicolas,  Waes, 
20  Oct.,  1869);  Heirman;  Mallet;  Jaspers;  Zylmans; 
Abbeloos,  Dobbe.  The  cemeteries,  at  Peking  espe- 
cially, were  desecrated,  the  graves  opened  and,  the  re- 
mains scattered  abroad.  Seven  cemeteries  (one  Brit- 
ish, five  French,  and  one  mission),  situated  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Peking  had  l^een  desecrated.  By 
Article  IV  of  the  Protocol  signed  at  Peking,  7  Sept., 
1901,  it  was  stipulated:  "The  Chinese  government 
has  agreed  to  erect  an  expiatory  monument  in  each  of 
the  foreign  or  international  cemeteries,  which  were 
desecrated,  and  in  which  the  tombs  were  destroyed. 
It  has  been  agreed  with  the  Representatives  of  the 
Powers,  that  the  I^egations  interested  shall  settle  the 
details  for  the  erection  of  these  monuments,  China 
bearing  all  the  expenses  thereof,  estimated  at  ten 
thousand  taels  for  the  cemeteries  at  Peking  and  in  its 
nei^bourhood ,  and  at  five  thousand  taels  for  the  oeme- 
^nes  in  tbeprovinces.*'    The  amounts  have  been  paid. 


Notwithstanding  these  negotiations,  Hipnolyte  Juliei 
(b.  16  July,  1874)  of  the  Paris  Foreign  Miaaiong  was 
murdered  on  16  Jan.,  1902,  at  Ma-tze-hao,  in  the 
Kwang  Tung  province. 

In  1904,  Mgr.  Theotime  Verhaegen,  franciacan 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Southern  Hu-pe  (b.  1867),  was 
killed  with  his  brother,  at  Li-Shwan.  A  new  massacre 
of  several  missionaries  of  the  Paris  Foreign  Missions 
including  Father  Jean-Andrd  Souli^  (b.  1858),  took 
place  in  1905  in  the  Mission  of  Tibet  (western  part  of 
the  province  of  Sae-chw'an).  Finally  we  shall  record 
the  death  of  the  Marist  Brother,  Louis  Maurice,  mur- 
dered at  Nan  ch'ang  on  25  Feb.,  1906. 

A  long  and  sad  list,  to  which  might  be  added  the 
names  of  many  others,  whose  suiTerings  for  the  Faith 
of  Christ  have  not  been  recorded. 

Henri  Cordihr. 

Martyrs  of  Gorknm.  See  Gorkum,  The  Mar- 
tyrs OP. 

Mart3rrs  of  Lyons.    See  Pothinus,  Saint. 

Martjrrs  of  the  Oommune.  See  Commune,  Mar- 
tyrs of  the  Paris. 

Maruthas,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Tagrit  or  Maypherkat 
in  Mesopotamia,  friend  of  St.  Jphn  Chrysostom,  d. 
before  420.     Feast,  4  Dec.     He  is  honoured  by  the 
Latins,  Greeks,  Copts,  and  Syrians.     He  broui^ht  into 
his  episcopal  city  tne  reUcs  of  so  many  martyrs  that  it 
received  the  name  Martyropolia,    In  the  interests  of 
the  Church  of  Persia,  wmch  had  suffered  much  in  the 
persecution  of  Sapor  II,  he  came  to  Constantinople, 
but  found  Emperor  Arcadius  too  busily  engaged  in  the 
affairs  of  St.  John  Chrysostom.    Later  Maruthas  was 
sent  by  Theodosius  II  to  the  Court  of  Persia,  and  here, 
in  spite  of  the  jealousy  and  intrigues  of  the  Magi,  he 
won  the  esteem  of  King  Yesdigerd  by  his  affability, 
saintly  Hfe,  and,  as  is  claimed,  by  his  knowledge  of 
medicine.     He  was  present  at  the  General  Council  of 
Constantinople  in  381  and  at  a  Council  of  Antioch  in 
383  (or  390),  at  which  the  Messahans  were  condemned. 
For  the  benefit  of  the  Persian  Church  he  is  said  to  have 
held  two  synods  at  Ctesiphon.     He  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  Maruthas  (Maruta),  Monophysite  Bishop 
of  Tagrit  (d.  649). 

His  writings  include:  (1)  ''Acts  of  the  Persian  Mar^ 
tyrs'',  found  partly  in  Assemani,  ''Acta  SS.  mart, 
orient,  et  Occident.",  I  (Rome,  1748),  and  more  com- 
pletely m  Bedjan,  ibid.,  II  (Paris,  1891),  37-^396. 
W.  Wright's  Enghsh  translation  was  printed  in  "Jour- 
nal of  Sacred  Literature"  (Oct.,  1866-^an.,  1866). 
Zingerle  published  it  in  German  (Innsbruck,  1836). 
A  school  edition  was  made  by  Leitzmann,  "Die  drei 
ftltesten  Martyrologien "  (Bonn,  1903).  See  Ache- 
lis,  "Die  Martvrologien"  (Berlin,  1900),  30-71.  (2) 
"History  of  the  Council  of  Nicsea",  on  which  see 
Braun  in  "  KirchengeschichtUche  Studien",  IV,  3,  and 
Hamack's  " Ketzerkatalog  des  Bischofs  Maruta''  in 
"Texte  u.  Untersuchun^en",  XIX,  1,  b.  (3)  "Acts 
of  the  Council  of  Seleucia-Ctesiphon  ",  edited  in  Syr- 
iac  and  Latin  by  Lamy  (Louvain,  1869),  on  which  see 
Hefele,  "Conciliengeschichte",  II,  •  102.  He  also 
wrote  hymns  on  the  Holy  Eucharist,  on  the  Cross,  and 

on  saints. 

Bajidbnhkwer,  Pa<ro2o0^,  tr.  Shahan  (St.  Louia,  1908).  394; 
Stokes  in  Diet.  Christ.  Bioq.,  s.  v.;  Zinqerle  in  KirchenUx., 
».  v.;  KiHN,  PatroloQxe  (Paderbom,  1908),  102;  Hurtbr.  No- 
mmd.,  V  (Innsbr..  1903).  32«. 

Francis  Merahman. 

Mary,  the  name  of  several  personages  in  the  New 
Testament. — Mary  of  Cleophas. — This  title  occurs 
only  in  John,  xix,  25.  A  comparison  of  the  liste  of  those 
who  stood  at  the  foot  of  the  cross  would  seem  to  identify 
her  with  Maiy,  tlie  mother  of  James  the  Less  and  Joseph 
(Mark,  xv.  40;  cf .  Matt.,  xxvii,  56) .  Some  have  indeed 
tried  to  identify  hsr  with  the  Salome  of  Mark,  xv,  40, 
but  St.  John's  reticence  concerning  himself  and  nis  rela- 
tives seems  conclusive  against  tms  (cf .  John,  xxi,  2). 


MAEY                               749  MABY 

In  the  narratives  of  the  Resiirrection  she  is  named  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  British  Colonies  in  South 
^Mary  of  James"  (Mark,  xvi,  1;  Luke,  xxiv,  10)  and  Africa  and  Australasia.  The  introduction  of  the 
"the  other  Mary"  (Matt.,  xxvii,  61;  xxviii,  1).  The  Marist  Brothers  in  North  America  (1885)  was  a  very 
titleof  Mary  of  James  "is  obscure.  If  it  stood  alone,  auspicious  event  for  the  dissemination  of  Cathoho 
we  should  feel  inclined  to  render  it  **  wife  of  (or  sister  principles  among  the  pupils  entrusted  to  their  charge  in 
60  James",  but  the  recurrence  of  the  expression  the  field  of  education.  The  institute  of  the  Marist 
**Mary  the  mother  of  James  and  Joseph"  compels  us  Brothers  is  legally  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the 
to  render  it  in  the  same  way  when  we  only  read  ^' Maiy  State  of  New  York.  The  Marist  Brothers  do  not 
of  James".  Her  relationship  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  limit  their  e£Forts  to  the  ordinary  work  of  the  class 
obscure.  James  is  termed  ^'  of  Alpheus",  i.  e.,  pre-  room,  but  labour  in  any  form  for  the  welfare  of  youth, 
sumably  "  son  of  Alpheus  ".  St.  Jerome  would  iaen-  Besides  primary  schools,  they  conduct  boarding  schools 
tify  this  Alpheus  with  Cleophas  who,  according  to  and  academies,  industrial  schools,  homes  for  working 
Hegesippus,  was  brother  to  St.  Joseph  (Hist,  eccl.,  III.  boys,  orphanages,  etc.  The  Marist  Brothers  are  not  ec- 
xi) .  In  this  case  Mary  of  Cleophas,  or  Alpheus,  wouki  clesiastics.  They  are  a  congregation  solely  devoted  to 
\ye  the  sister-in-law  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  ibe  educational  work.  In  selecting  postulsmts  for  the 
term  "sister",  ASe\<pi/i,  in  John,  xix,  25,  would  cover  novitiate,  they  never  accept  anyone  who  has  aspira^ 
this.  But  there  are  grave  difficulties  in  the  way  of  this  tions  for  the  priesthood.  Their  aim  is  to  secure  re- 
identification  of  Alpheus  and  Cleophas.  In  the  first  emits  who  are  likely  to  develop  special  aptitudes  for 
place,  St.  Luke,  who  speaks  of  Cleophas  (xxiv,  18),  the  mission  of  teaching.  For  the  training  and  educa- 
also  speaks  of  Alpheus  (vi.  15;  Acts,  i,  13).  We  may  tion  of  competent  siibjects,  the  institute  possesses 
question  whether  he  would  have  been  guilty  of  such  a  three  kinds  of  establishments:  the  junior  novitiate,  the 
confused  use  of  names,  had  they  both  referred  to  the  novitiate,  and  the  scholasticate  or  normal  schooL 
same  person.  Again,  while  Alpheus  is  the  equivalent  The  Marist  novitiate,  for  the  American  province,  is  at 
of  the  Aramaic,  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  the  Greek  form  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  and  the  scholasticate  in 
of  this  became  Cleophas,  or  more  correctly  Clopas.  New  York  City.  Bbother  Z^phirint. 
More  probably  it  is  a  shortened  form  of  Cleopatros. 

Bei^er,  EinUitung  in  daa  Neue  TeMament  (Freiburg,  1901),  Mftiyy  MISSIONARIES  OF  THE  CoMPANT  OF. — ^The 

661-6;  CALMB8.  L'Bvangiie  de  S.  Jean  (Paris).  Company  of  Mary  was  founded  by  Blessed  Louia- 

Mary  of  James,  see  Mary  of  Cleophas.  Marie  Grignion  de  Montfort  in  1713.    As  early  as  17(X) 

Mary,  The  other,  see  Mary  of  Cleophas.  Montfort  had  conceived  the  idea  of  founding  a  society 

Mary,  the  mother  of  John,  who  was  surnamed  Mark  of  missionaries.    Five  months  after  his  ordination, 

(Acts,  xii.  12).    We  know  nothing  of  her;  but  from  Nov.,  17(X),  he  wrote:  "  I  am  continually  asking  in  my 

the  fact  that  a  meeting  of  the  Church  was  held  in  her  prayers  for  a  poor  and  small  company  of  good  priests 

house,  we  may  conclude  that  she  was  possessed  of  to  preach  missions  and  retreats  under  the  standard 

some  wealth.    She  may  have  been  a  widow,  for  her  and  protection  of  the  Blessed  Virgin".    For  many 

husband's  name  would  presumably  have  been  given  years  he  prayed,  fasted  and  caused  others  to  pray  for 

in  place  of  hers,  had  he  oeen  alive.  the  realization  of  his  project.    In  1713  he  went  to 

Mary  (Rom.,  xvi,  6),  also  otherwise  unknown.   She  Paris  with  a  view  to  recruit  members  for  his  commu- 

had  "laboured  much  among"  the  Roman  Church,  nity.  The  director  of  the  seminary  DuSt-Espritprom- 

hence  St.  PauVs  salutation  to  her.    It  is  only  a  coo-  ised  to  send  him  such  young  priests  as  would  feel 

iecture  that  she  is  the  same  as  the  mother  of  John  called  to  do  missionary  work.    During  the  intervals 

Mark.                                                     Hugh  Pope.  between  his  missions  Montfort  wrote  the  Rule  of  the 

Company  of  Mary  (1713).     When  he  died  in  1716, 

Mary,  Little  Brothers  of,  generally  known  as  two  young  priests.  Father  Vatel  and  Father  Mulot. 

Marist  School  Brothers.    This  religious  teaching  insti-  and  a  few  lay-brotners  whom  Montfort  had  associated 

tute  is  modem  in  its  origin,  having  been  founded  in  with  himself  during  his  missions,  were  the  only  tangible 

1817,  in  France,  by  the  Venerable  Benedict  Maroellin  result  of  his  prayers,  travels,  and  austerities.    Never- 

Champagnat.   This  zealous  priest,  especially  attracted  theless  the  founder  felt  confident  that  his  company 

to  the  care  of  the  children  of  the  people,  worked  zeal-  was  to  develop  at  the  time  marked  by  Divine  Provi- 

ously  for  their  primary  education.    Besides  the  rules  denoe,  and  aadressing  his  Uttle  flock,  he  bade  them 

and  constitutions  of  this  society,  he  wrote  valuable  not  to  fear  or  lose  courage. 

manuals  and  methods  for  the  pedagogic  training  of  his  From  1718  till  1781  the  "  Montfortists  ",  although 

disciples.  The  Holy  See  definitively  recognized  and  ap-  few  in  number,  gave  over  430  missions,  most  of  which 

proved  this  educational  institute  by  a  decree  of  9  Janu-  lasted  a  month.    Continuing  their  founder's  fi^t 

ary,  1863.     Its  development  in  the  last  sixty  years  against  Jansenism,  they  preached  the  tender  mercies 

has  been  wonderful.    When  the  founder  died  (1840),  of  the  Divine  Heart,  and  the  love  of  Jesus  Crucified, 

his  society  consisted  of  310  members  and  had  charge  They  exhorted  people  to  renew  their  baptbmal  vows, 

of  forty-eight  schools,  all  in  the  central  p&rt  of  France.  Above  all,  they  strove  to  draw  the  faithful  to  Jesus 

To-day  (1910)  it  numbers  6000  members  pursuing  Christ  through  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin.    They 

their  educational  labours  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  as  promoted  everywhere  the  daily  recital  of  the  Rosary, 

shown  by  the  following  statistics  of  these  educational  Through  their  preaching,  La  Vend^  and  Brittany 

establishments;  Spain,  81  schools;  Belgium,  41 ;  Brit-  were  kept  free  from  heresy  and  the  hearts  of  the  brave 


(1903),  the  Marist  Brothers  had  charge  of  750  schools    brothers  of  the  Company  of  Mary  shared  the  martyr's 
in  that  country.    Caj)e  Colony  (Africa),  9  schoob;    death  with  the  Vendean  heroes.    Montfort's  corn- 


Turkey  in  Asia,  5;  Ceylon,  2;  Arabia,  1;  Brazil,  36;  pany  of  Mary  and  for  the  Daughters  of  Wisdom.  Pftre 

Canada,  29  j  Mexico,  25;  Colombia,  21;  United  States,  Dalm  (1837-1855)  obtained  canonical  approbation  of 

12;  Argentina,  8;  Cuba,  2;  Chili,  3;  Peru,  3.  both  congregations.    Hitherto  the  missionaries  had 

The  Marist  Brothers  were  sent  to  Oceanica  as  co-  but  one  residence,  the  mother^ouse  at  St.  Laurent- 

adjutors  to  the  missionaries  and  the  Marist  Fathers  sur-Sdvre.    During  Pftre  Dalin's  administration  as 

in  1836.     In   1852   they  established   their  English  general,  several  establishments  were  made  in  France, 

province,  which  rapidly  spread  its  branches  throughout  Under  P^re  Denis  (1855-1877)  the  community  ao- 


MART 


750 


VABT 


cepted  at  Pont-ChAteau,  Diocese  of  Nantes,  the  direc- 
tion of  a  seminary  destined  to  furnish  piriests  to  Haiti. 
Pdre  Denis  also  sent  several  of  his  missionaries  and 
brothers  to  Haiti.  This  was  the  company's  first  at- 
tempt at  forei^  missions. 

So  far  the  missioxiaries  had  been  recruited  from  the 
secular  clergy.  This  mode  being  too  uncertain,  too 
slow  and  more  or  less  prejudicial  to  that  unity  of 

?)irit  which  ought  to  characterize  a  religious  family, 
dre  Denis  established  a  school  in  which  boys,  callea 
to  the  missionary  Ufe,  should  be  educated  by  and  for 
the  company.  Together  with  the  foreign  missions 
and  the  foundation  of  mission  schools,  what  hastened 
the  spreading  of  the  company,  was  the  expulsion  of 
the  religious  from  France  in  1880  and  in  1901.  In 
1880  the  French  novices  took  refuge  in  the  Nether- 
lands, where  a  novitiate  and  a  scholasticate  were  es- 
tablisned .  In  1883,  a  school  was  also  begun  at  Schim- 
mert.  The  year  1883  saw  the  establishment  of  the 
first  house  m  Canada.  After  the  election  of  P6re 
Maurille  as  general,  in  1887,  the  membership  of  the 
community  doubled.  The  Beatification  of  Montfort, 
in  1888,  gave  a  new  stimulus  to  the  company's  ex- 
pansion. In  Canada  a  novitiate  and  a  scholasticate 
were  founded  near  Ottawa  (1890) ;  a  mission  school  at 
Papineauville  (Quebec),  in  1900;  in  Rome,  a  scholasti- 
cate; several  missions  in  Denmark.  In  1901  the  com- 
pany took  charge  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Nyassa 
I^ind  (Africa),  which  numbers  at  present  1  vicar 
Apostolic,  20  missionaries  and  600  converts. 

r^re  L'Houmeau's  Q903)  administration  as  general 
has  been  marked  by  tne  foundation  of  two  residences 
in  the  Diocese  of  Brooklyn:  Port  JefTei^on  and  Ozone 
Park  (1904) ;  the  foundation  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  San  Martino  (Colombia,  South  America)  having 
1  vicar  Apostolic,  12  fathers  and  a  few  brothers;  the 
sending  to  Iceland  of  2  priests  and  2  brothers  (1903), 
the  only  Catholic  missionaries  now  evangelizing  that 
country;  several  establishments  in  British  Columbia; 
the  dennite  approbation  of  the  Constitutions  in  1904; 
the  division  ot  the  congregation  into  provinces;  the 
acquisition  of  the  Diocese  of  Port  de  Paix  (Haiti),  and 
the  transfer  of  the  French  mission  school  to  Romsey, 
England  (1910).  The  company  actually  numbers 
about  500  members.  The  provincial  of  the  American 
province  resides  in  Montreal.  The  Initials  S.  M.  M. 
which  the  missionaries  affix  to  their  signature  are  an 
abbreviation  of  "Socictatis  Mariaj  a  Montfort",  of  the 
Company  of  Mary  (founded)  by  Montfort. 

Blessed  Louis-Marie  G.  de  Montfort,  by  a  secular  priest  (Lon* 
don,  1860) ;  Pauvert,  Vie  du  ven&rable  Louis  Marie  Orianton  de 
Montfort  (Paris  and  Poitiers,  1875);  Laveille,  Le  Bienheureux 
L.  M,  Ortgnum  de  Montfort  (Paris.  1907).     See  Icexjind. 

John  H.  Bemelmans. 

Mary,  Sekvants  of  (Order  of  Servites). — ^This 
order  was  foimded  on  the  feast  of  the  Assumption, 
1233,  when  the  Blessed  Virgin  appeared  to  seven 
noble  Florentines,  who  had  repairea  to  the  church  to 
follow  the  exercises  of  the  Confraternity  of  the  L/aw- 
desif  and  bade  them  leave  the  world  and  live  for  God 
alone.  On  the  following  feast  of  her  Nativity,  8 
September,  they  retired  to  La  Camarzia  just  outside 
the  walls  of  the  city,  and  later  on  to  Monte  Senario, 
eleven  miles  from  Florence.  Here  a^ain  they  had  a 
vision  of  the  Blessed  Virein.  In  her  hands  she  held  a 
black  habit;  a  multitude  of  angels  surrounded  her, 
some  bearing  the  different  instruments  of  the  Passion, 
one  holding  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  whilst  another 
offered  with  one  hand  a  scroll,  on  which  appeared  the 
title  of  Servants  of  Mary  surroimded  by  golden  rays, 
and  with  the  other  a  palm  branch.  She  addressed  to 
them  the  following  words:  *'I  have  chosen  you  to  be 
my  first  Servants,  and  under  this  name  you  are  to  till 
my  Son's  Vineyard.  Here,  too,  is  the  habit  which  you 
are  to  wear;  its  dark  colour  will  recall  the  pangs  which 
I  suffered  on  the  day  when  I  stood  by  the  Cross  of  my 
only  Son.    Take  also  this  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  and 


may  you,  bearing  the  title  of  my  Servants,  obtain  the 
palm  of  everlasting  lif e. "  Among  the  holy  men  of  the 
order  was  St.  Phihp  Benizi,  who  was  bom  on  the  dav 
the  Blessed  Virgin  first  appeared  to  the  Seven  Found- 
ers (15  August),  and  afterwards  became  the  great 
propagator  of  the  order.  The  order  developed  rapidly 
not  only  in  Italy  but  also  in  France  anci  Germany, 
where  the  holy  founders  themselves  spread  devotion 
to  the  Sorrows  of  Mary.  Their  glorious  son  St.  Philip 
continued  the  work  and  thus  merited  the  title  of 
Eighth  Founder  of  the  Order.  The  distinctive  spirit 
of  the  order  is  the  sanctification  of  its  members  by 
meditation  on  the  Passion  of  Jesus  and  the  Sorrows  of 
Manr,  and  spreading  abroad  this  devotion. 

The  order  consist  of  three  branches.  Concerning 
the  First  Order  or  Servite  Fathers,  see  Servite  Order. 
The  Second  Order  (cloistered  nims)  was  probably 
founded  by  Blessed  Helen  and  Blessed  Rose  shortly 
after  the  death  of  St.  Philip  in  1285.  This  branch  has 
houses  in  Italy  and  Austna  as  well  as  one  at  Bognor, 
England.  The  Third  Order  or  Mantellate  was  founded 
by  St.  Juliana  Falcon ieri  to  whom  St.  PhiHp  save  the 
habit  in  1284.  This  branch  occupies  itself  wiui  active 
works  after  the  example  of  its  holy  foundress.  From 
Italy  it  spread  into  other  countries  of  Europe.  The 
Venerable  Anna  Juliana,  Archduchess  of  Austria, 
founded  several  houses  and  became  a  Mantellate  her- 
self. In  1844  it  was  introduced  into  France,  and  was 
thence  extended  into  England  in  1850.  The  sisters 
were  the  first  to  wear  the  religious  habit  publicly  in 
that  country  after  the  so-call^  Reformation,  ^niey 
are  at  present  one  of  the  leading  religous  orders  for 
women  in  what  was  once  "Mary's  Dowry",  having 
been  active  missionaries  under  Father  Faber  and  the 
Oratorians  for  many  years.  In  1871  the  ^gUsh 
province  sent  sisters  to  America,  but  they  were  re- 
called in  1875.  The  superior  general  bein^  very  de- 
sirous to  see  the  order  established  in  the  Umted  States 
sent  sisters  a  second  time  in  1893.  They  have  now 
a  novitiate  at  Cherokee,  Iowa,  and  mission  houses 
in  other  states.  They  devote  themselves  principally 
to  the  education  of  youth,  managing  academies  and 
taking  charge  of  parochial  schools  and  workrooms. 
They  also  undertake  works  of  mercy,  such  as  the  care 
of  orphans,  visiting  the  sick,  and  instructing  converts 
etc.  Above  all,  in  imitation  of  their  holy  roundr^, 
St.  Juliana,  they  do  all  in  their  power  to  instiU  into  the 
hearts  of  those  under  their  care  a  great  love  for  Jesus 
in  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  At  the  last  general  chap- 
ter held  in  London,  31  July,  1906,  a  vicaress  general 
for  America  was  appointed. 

Hbimbuchsr,   Oraen   «.   Konoreffotionsn,   TL   (Paderbonit 

1907).  218  sq.  rp^g  Servants  op  Mart. 

Mary,  Sister  of  Martha.  See  Mart  Magdalen, 
Saint. 

Mary,  Socjett  op  (initials  S.  M.),  or  Marist  Fa- 
thers, a  religious  order  of  priests,  so  called  on  accoimt 
of  the  special  devotion  they  profess  toward  the 
Blessed  Virgin. 

I.  Foundation  (1816-1 836)  .—The  first  idea  of  a 
"Society  of  Mary"  originated  (1816)  in  Lyons, 
France,  with  a  group  of  seminarians,  who  saw  in  the 
Restoration  of  1815  an  opportunity  for  religion,  but 
the  real  founder  was  Jean-Claude-Marie  Colin  (<j.  v.), 
the  most  retiring  of  the  group.  He  began,  amid  his 
pastoral  cares,  by  drafting  a  tentative  nue  and  found- 
ing at  Cerdon,  where  he  was  pastor,  the  Sisters  of  the 
Holv  Name  of  Marv;  Marcelhn  Champa^at.  another 
of  the  group,  established  at  La  valla  tne  Little  Broth- 
ers of  Mary.  On  account  of  the  cold  attitude  as- 
sumed by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  in  Lyons,  the 
foundation  of  the  missionary  priests*  branch  coula  not 
be  made  till  Cerdon,  Colin^s  parish,  passed  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  Lyons  to  that  of  Belley.  Bishop  De- 
vie  of  the  newly  restored  See  of  Belley  authorized 
(1823)  Colin  and  a  few  companions  to  resign  their 


UABT 


761 


parochial  duties  and  form  into  a  miaaonary  band  for 
the  rural  districts.  Their  zeal  and  success  in  that 
arduous  work  moved  the  bishop  to  entrust  them  also 
with  the  conduct  of  his  semin^uy,  thus  enliurginf;  tibe 
scope  of  their  work.  However,  the  fact  that  Bishop 
Devie  wanted  a  diocesan  institute  only,  and  that 
Fr.  Colin  was  averse  to  such  a  limitation,  came  near 
placing  the  nascent  order  in  jeopardy  when  Pope 
Gregory  XVI,  in  quest  of  missionaries  for  Oceanica, 
by  Brief  of  29  April,  1836,  approved  definitively  the 
"Priests  of  the  Society  of  Mary"  or  Marist  Fathers, 
as  a  religious  institute  with  simple  vows  and  under  a 
superior  general.  The  Ld ttle  Brothers  of  Mary  and 
the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Blary,  commonly 
called  Marist  Brothers  and  Marist  Sisters,  were  re- 
served for  separate  institutes.  Father  Colin  was 
elected  superior  general  on  24  Sept.,  1836,  on  which 
day  occurred  the  first  Marist  profession,  Blessed 
Pierre  Chanel  (q.  v.),  Venerable  Colin,  and  Venera- 
ble Champagnat  Deing  among  the  professed. 

II.  Development  (1836-1910).— From  its  defini- 
tive organization  to  the  present  date  (1910)  the  Society 
of  Mary,  under  four  superiors  general — J.  C.  M.  Colin 
(1836-54),  J.  Favre  (1854-85),  A.  Martin  (1885-1905), 
J. C. Raffin  (1905 — ) — ^has developed alongthe various 
lines  of  its  constitutions  in  and  out  of  France.  In 
France  it  has  done  work  in  the  mission  field  from  many 
missionary  residences  established  in  various  centres. 
When  educational  liberty  was  restored  to  French 
Catholics,  it  also  entered  the  field  of  secondary,  or 
college  education,  its  methods  being  embodi^  in 
Montfat's  "Thtorie  et  pratique  de  Teducation  chn^ 
tienne''  (Paris,  1880),  and  moreover  assumed  the  di- 
rection of  a  few  diocesan  seminaries  together  with 
professorships  in  Catholic  institutes  for  higher  educa- 
tion. The  French  houses  have  also  supplied  men  for 
the  various  missions  undertaken  abroad  by  the  So- 
ciety of  Mary. 

CKitside  of  France,  the  first  field  of  labour  offered 
the  Marists  (1836)  was  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Western  Oceanica,  comprising  New  Zealand,  the 
Friendly  Islands,  the  Navi^tor  Islands,  the  Gilbert 
and  Marshall  Islands,  Fiji,  New  Caledonia,  New 
Guinea,  the  Solomon  and  Caroline  Islands.  Under 
the  secular  bishop,  Dr.  Pompallier,  who  took  up  his 
residence  in  New  Zealand,  the  Marists  successive)^  oc- 
cupied Wallis  (1837),  soon  converted  by  Fr.  Bataillon; 
Futuna  (1837),  the  place  of  Blessed  Pierre  Chanel's 
martyrdom;  Tonga  (1842),  turned  by  Fr.  C!hevron  into 
a  model  Christian  community;  New  C^edonia  (1843), 
where  Bishop  Douarre,  Pompallier's  coadjutor,  met 
untold  difficulties  and  Brother  Blaise  was  massacred^ 
and,  in  spite  of  much  Protestant  opposition,  Fiji 
(1844)  and  Samoa  (1845).  The  immense  area  of  the 
vicariate,  together  with  the  presence  at  its  head  of  a 
secular  bishop,  soon  necessitated  the  creation  of 
smaller  districts  under  Marist  bishops:  Central  Ocean- 
ica imder  Bishop  Bataillon  (1842),  Melanesia  and 
Micronesia  under  Bishop  Epalle  (1844),  New  Cale- 
donia under  Bishop  Douarre  (1847),  Wellington  (New 
Zealand)  under  Bishop  Viard  (1848),  Bishop  Pompal- 
lier retaining  Aucklana;  the  Navigator  Islands  (1851), 
long  administered  by  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Central 
Oceanica ;  the  Prefecture  of  Fiii  (lS63) ,  etc.  Of  these, 
Melanesia  and  Micronesia  haa  to  be  abandon^  after 
the  massacre  of  Bishop  Epalle  at  Isabella  Island  and 
the  sudden  death  of  his  successor,  Bishop  Colomb,  the 
Solomon  Islands  alone  reverting  to  the  Amrists  in  1898. 
Those  various  missions  have  progressed  steadily  under 
the  Marist  Fathers  who,  beside  their  religious  work, 
have  largely  contributed  to  make  known  the  lan- 
guages, fauna,  and  flora  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  (see 
Hervier,  ''Les  missions  Maristes  en  Oceanic",  Paris, 
1902),  and  helped  in  their  colonisation  (de  Salinis, 
"  Marins  ct  Missionnaires",  Paris,  s.  d.).  Tlie  growth 
of  New  Zealand  has  been  such  a.s  to  call  for  a  regular 
hierarchy,  and  the  Marists  were  concentrated  (1887) 


in  the  Archdiocese  of  Wellington  and  the  Diocese  of 
Christchurch^  still  so vemed  by  members  of  the  order. 

In  the  British  Isfes,  the  Manst  foundations  began  aa 
early  as  1850  at  the  request  of  Cardinal  Wiseman,  but 
have  not  grown  beyond  three  colleges  and  five  par- 
ishes. In  the  United  States,  the  Society  of  Mary  has 
taken  a  firmer  hold.  From  Louisiana,  whither  Arch- 
bishop Odin  called  them  (1863)  to  take  charge  of  a 
Frendi  parish  and  college,  the  Marists  have  passed 
into  eleven  states  and  even  branched  off  into  Mexico, 
and,  although  continuing  to  minister  to  a  number  ot 
French  speaking  communities,  they  have  not  limited 
their  action  there,  but  gradually  taken  up,  both  in  par- 
ishes and  colleges,  .^onerican  work,  their  training 
houses  being  almost  entirely  recruited  in  this  country 
and  being  located  in  Washington. 

in.  Present  State  (1910). — ^The  Society  of  Mary 
is  now  divided  into  six  provinces:  2  in  France,  1  in  the 
British  Isles,  1  in  the  United  States,  1  in  New  Zealai^d, 
and  1  in  Oceanica. 

The  French  provinces  (Lyons  and  Paris)  counted  at 
the  time  of  the  Association  Act  (1901)  9  institutes  for 
the  training  of  aspirants  or  of  young  religious,  15 
missionary  residences  with  chapels,  9  colleges  for  sec- 
ondary education,  and  three  diocesan  seminaries,  with 
a  total  of  340  priests,  100  novices,  and  34  lay-brothers. 
The  Association  Act  of  1901,  by  dissolving  religious 
communities  and  confiscating  their  property,  told 
heavily  on  these  establishments:  the  training-houses 
had  to  be  transferred  to  foreign  parts  (Belgium,  Italy, 
and  Spun);  the  diocesan  seminaries  were  taken  from 
the  reugious;  the  residences  were  confiscated  and  their 
inmates  compelled  either  to  go  into  exile  or  to  live 
separately  in  rented  quarters;  the  colleges  alone  sur- 
vived in  part  by  becoming  diocesan  establishments. 
To  the  French  provinces  are  attached,  in  Germany,  an 
apostolic  seminary  for  the  German  Missions  in  Ocean- 
ica, and,  in  Italy  and  Spain,  various  chaplaincies  and 
houses  of  retreat  for  the  aged  or  the  exiled  fathers. 

The  Anglo-Irish  province,  erected  in  1889,  com- 
prises 5  parishes  (3  in  London,  1  in  Devonshire,  and  1 
m  Yorkshire)  and  three  colleges  (1  in  Dublin,  1  in 
Dundalk,  and  1  in  Middlesborough)  with  46  priests,  8 
novices,  and  6  lay-brothers. 

The  New  Zealand  province,  erected  in  1889,  com- 

E rises,  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Wellington  and  the 
diocese  of  Christchurch,  1  novitiate-scholasticate,  1 
second  novitiate,  1  college,  20  parishes  among  the 
whites,  6  missions  among  the  Maoris  and  one  mission- 
ary band,  with  1  archbishop^  1  bishop,  70  priests,  17 
novices,  15  lay-brothers,  ministering  to  a  Catholic 
pcjoulation  of  about  30,000. 

The  Province  of  Oceanica,  erected  in  1898,  com- 
prises, besides  a  procurator  house  at  Sydney  and  three 
missions  in  Australia,  five  vicariates  ((central  Oceanica 
with  15  stations;  the  Navigator  Islands  or  Samoa  with 
15  stations;  New  Caledonia  with  36  stations;  Fiji  with 
17  stations;  New  Hebrides  with  22  stations)  and  two 
prefectures  (the  Southern  Solomon  Islands  with  8  sta- 
tions and  the  Northern  Solomon  Islands  with  5 
stations).  It  counts:  5  vicars  Apostohc,  2  prefects 
ApostoUc,  200  priests,  25  lay-brothers  (all  diarists), 
assisted  by  lid  Little  Brothers  of  Mary,  566  native 
catechists,  and  a  large  number  of  sisters,  both  Euro- 
pean and  native,  of  the  Third  Order  Regular  of  Mary 
and  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Missions^  founded  by  the 
Marists.    The  Catholic  population  is  about  41,885. 

The  province  of  the  United  States,  erected  in  1889, 
comprises  two  training  houses  in  Washington,  District 
of  CS>lumbia,  4  colleges  (Jefferson  College,  Louisiana; 
An  Hallows' College,lJtah;  St.  Mary's  CoUege,  Maine; 
Marist  College,  Georgia)^  18  parishes  in  various  states, 
and  missions  in  West  Virginia  and  Idaho.  Its  mem- 
bership consists  of  1  archbishop,  105  priests,  75  novices, 
and  5  lay-brotherH.  There  are  about  600  boys  in  the 
colleges  and  70.000  Catholics  in  the  parishes  and  mis- 
sions.   From  tnis  province  has  been  detached  (1905) 


2AART 


762 


MARY 


the  Vice-province  of  Mexico  which  counts  26  priests 
working  in  1  college  with  350  pupils  and  6  parishes 
with  a  large  number  of  parishioners,  French,  Ameri- 
can, German,  and  Mexiaan. 

IV.  Rule. — According  to  their  constitutions,  ap- 
proved by  ()apal  Decree  of  8  March,  1873,  the  Marists 
profess,  besides  the  three  simple  and  perpetual  vows  of 

Eoverty^  chastity,  and  obedience,  common  to  all  simi- 
ir  institutes,  a  spirit  of  special  devotion  to  Mary, 
absolute  loyalty  to  the  Holy  See,  reverence  for  the 
hierarchy,  and  the  love  of  the  hidden  life,  conformably 
to  their  motto:  Ignoti  et  quasi  occuUi  in  hoc  mundo  (see 
G.  Goyau,  "Le  role  de  l'humilit6  dans  la  fondation 
d'un  Ordre",  Paris,  1910).  The  work  of  the  order 
includes  missions,  both  domestic  and  foreign;  colleges 
for  the  education  of  youth,  and,  in  a  less  degree, 
seminaries  for  the  training  of  clerics.  Its  members  are 
either  priests  or  lay-brothers.  The  candidates  for  the 
priesthood  are  prepared,  once  their  classical  course  is 
over,  by  one  year  or  novitiate,  two  years  of  philosophy, 
four  years  of  theology,  additional  opportunities  being 
given  to  those  especially  gifted.  After  ten  years  o( 
profession  and  after  the  age  of  thirtv-five,  the  priests 
are  allowed  to  take  the  vow  of  stability,  which  ren- 
ders them  eligible  for  the  chapters  and  the  high  offices 
of  the  society.  The  lay-brothers  after  a  long  pro- 
bation take  tne  same  vows  as  the  priests,  and  devote 
themselves  to  the  care  of  temporalities.  Its  govern- 
ment is  in  the  hands  of  general  oflScers  and  of  chapjters. 
The  general  officers,  whose  official  residence  is  in 
Rome,  are  the  superior  general,  his  four  assistants,  the 
general  procurator,  the  procurator  aptui  Sanctam 
Sedem,  all  elected  oy  the  chapter  general — the  first 
for  life,  the  others  till  the  following  chapter.  The 
provincial  and  local  superiors  are  appointed  by  the 
superior  general  and  his  counsel.  Tne  general  chap- 
ters, wherein  all  the  provinces  are  represented  m 
proportion  to  their  membership,  meet  regularly  every 
seven  years,  and,  besides  electing  the  general  officers, 
issue  statutes  for  the  good  of  the  whole  order.  Provin- 
cial chapters  are  convened  every  three  years  for  the 
purpose  of  electing  representatives  to  the  chapters 
general,  auditing  the  finances,  and  ensuring  the  disci- 
pline oi  each  province.  As  tne  general  statutes  take 
effect  only  after  due  approbation  by  the  Holy  See.  so 
the  provincial  statutes  are  in  vigour  only  when  ana  as 
approved  by  the  superior  council.  By  Apostolic  Brief 
of  8  Sept.,  1850.  a  Third  Order  of  Mary  for  persons 
living  in  the  world  was  canonically  established  and  has 
a  large  membership  wherever  the  Marists  are  found. 

ConstittUionea  S.  M,  (Lyons,  1873);  Staiuta  Capitidorum 
Oeneralium  3.  M.  (Lyons,  1907);  Esprit  de  la  SocUU  de  Marie 
(Pans,  1905);  Life  of  Venerable  Fr.  Colin  (St.  Louis,  L909.); 
ixi  SocieU  de  Marie  in  RecnUemerU  Sacerdotal  (Paris,  1906-7) ; 
Chroniques  et  annales  de  la  SomdtS  de  Marie  (Lugon,  1903 — ; 
Roulers,  1908 — );  Baunard.  Un  nkde  de  VEglise  de  France 
(Pans*  1902),  49.  For  the  Missions:  Adbry,  Missione  of  the 
Society  of  Mary  in  Annale  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  (Balti- 
more, 1905);  Hekvier,  LjCS  Missions  Maristes  en  Oceanic 
(Paris.  19()2);  Matet,  Mgr  Douarre  .  .  .  en  Nouvelle-CalS- 
donie  (Lyons,  1884);  Manoerkt,  Mgr  Bataillon  (Lyons,  1884); 
MoNFAT,  Afar.  EUoy  ...  en  Oc6anie  centrale  (Lyons.  1890); 
Idem,  Les  Samoa  (Lyons,  1891);  Idem,  Dix  ans  en  MHanisie 
(Lyons,  1891);  Idem,  Les  Tonga  (Lyons,  1893).  See  abo 
Ldtres  des  Missionnairea  S.  M.  and  AnneUea  des  Missions  3,  M. 
(Lyona).  For  Enclish  speakine  countries:  Mangeret,  Les 
ongines  de  la  fox  Ca/holigue  en  Nouvelle-Z^nde  (Lyons,  1892); 
La  Sociftc  de  Marie  en  AmMque  (Montreal.  1007);  MAcCAr- 
VBBT.  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen^ 
fury  (2  vols.,  Dublin,  1909),  passim;  Tablet  (London)  and 
TcJblet  (New  Zealand),  passim.  J.  F.  SOLUER. 

Mary,  Society  of,  of  Paris,  founded  in  1817  by- 
Very  Reverend  William  Joseph  Chaminade  at  Bor- 
deaux, France.  In  1839  Gregory  XVI  issued  a  decree 
of  commendation  to  the  society  in  praise  of  the  work 
done  by  its  members.  Pius  IX  recognized  it  as  a  reli- 
gious body  in  1865,  and  finally  in  1891,  after  a  careful 
examination  of  the  special  features  in  which  the 
•ociety  differed  notably  from  other  orders,  Leo  XIII 
gave  canonical  approbation  to  its  constitutions.  In 
.accordance  with  thi«  Brief,  the  Society  of  Mary  of 


Paris  is  a  religious  society  of  clerical  and  lay  members, 
who  make  the  usual  simple  vows  of  poverty,  chastity, 
and  obedience,  to  which  at  the  time  of  their  final  pro- 
fession they  add  the  fourth  vow  of  stability  in  the 
service  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  Its  members  are  offi- 
cially designated  by  the  IU>man  Curia  as  Marianists, 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  Mariste  of  the  Society  of 
Mar}^  of  Lyons,  founded  at  Lyons  in  1816. 

William  Joseph  Chaminade  was  bom  at  Pcri^^eux, 
France,  in  1761.  After  his  ordination,  he  taught  in  the 
college  of  Mussidan  until  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
Revolution,  which  drove  most  of  the  clergy  from 
France.  During  this  terrible  period  he  continued  the 
exercise  of  his  sacred  ministry  in  spite  of  the  gravest 
dangers  of  arrest  and  death,  from  which,  indeed,  he 
escaped  only  by  adopting  numerous  disguises  and 
changing  continually  nis  hiding-places.  At  the  re- 
newiuof  the  persecution  in  1797,  he  was  driven  into 
exile  at  Saragossa,  Spain,  where  he  remained  for  three 
years.  It  was  during  this  period  of  retreat  and  medi- 
tation on  the  needs  of  the  Church  that  he  matured  hds 
plans  for  the  restoration  of  the  Christian  spirit  of 
France.  After  his  return  to  Bordeaux  in  1800,  nis  first 
efforts  resulted  in  the  formation  of  two  sodalities  or 
congregations  of  men  and  women,  whose  faith  and 
zeal  prompted  them  to  co-operate  with  him  in  his 
efforts  to  repair  the  losses  sustained  by  the  Church  in 
France  during  the  Revolution.  The  religious  influence 
of  these  sodalities  was  soon  felt,  and  Father  Chami- 
nade quickly  gathered  around  him  a  number  of  holy 
souls,  hound  to  him  by  no  other  ties  than  those  of 
their  zeal  and  piety,  but  all  eager  to  consecrate  them- 
s^vcs  to  God  under  his  direction  for  the  salvation  of 
souls.  Their  desires  culminated  in  the  foundation  of 
the  Daughters  of  Mary  in  1816,  and  of  the  Society 
of  Mary  m  1817.  The  constitutions  of  the  Society  of 
Mary  specifv  the  salvation  of  its  own  members  as  its 
primary  end.  Its  secondary  end  includes  all  works  of 
zeal.  However,  Christian  education  specially  appeals 
to  it,  and  for  this  reason  it  has  devoted  most  of  its 
energies  to  the  management  of  schools  of  every  kind. 

A  distinctive  feature  of  the  Society  of  Mary  is  the 
composition  of  its  membership,  which,  as  statea  above, 
consists  of  both  clerical  and  lay  members  who  make 
profession  of  the  same  four  vows.  Except  the  func- 
tions of  the  sacred  ministry,  which  are  necessarily 
restricted  to  the  priests,  and  a  limited  number  of  other 
functions  which  are  reserved  by  the  constitutions, 
some  to  the  priests  and  some  to  the  lay  members,  all 
members  may  be  employed,  according  to  their  abiUty 
but  without  distinction  of  class,  in  the  various  wor^ 
oi  the  order  as  well  as  in  its  government.  In  this  com- 
bination of  the  forces  of  priests  and  laymen  the 
founder  squght  to  remove  the  limitations  of  usefulness 
to  which  each  category'  would  be  subject  without  the 
co-operation  of  the  otner.  The  general  superior  and 
his  assistants  resided  at  Bordeaux  until  1860,  when 
they  removed  to  Paris,  where  the  headquarters  of  the 
order  were  maintained  until  the  expulsion  of  the 
society  from  France  in  1903.  Since  then  the  seat  of 
the  general  administration  has  be«n  at  Nivelles,  Bel- 
gium. The  increase  and  expansion  of  the  order  has 
been  rapid.  In  1908  it  comprised  seven  provinces  and 
one  vice-province,  with  houses  in  Belgium,  France, 
Germany,  Austria,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Spain,  Africa, 
China,  Japan,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Canada,  Mexico, 
and  the  United  States.  The  Society  of  Mary  was 
introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1849,  when  its 
first  house  was  founded  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Cincin- 
nati. In  1908  it  had  increased  to  53  establishments, 
comprising  2  normal  schools,  4  colleges,  3  high  schools, 
and  44  parochial  schools.  Thirty-nve  of  mese  com- 
munities belong  to  the  Cincinnati  province,  with  the 
residence  of  the  provincial  at  Nazareth,  Daj'ton,  Ohio; 
the  remaining  eighteen  form  the  St.  Louis  province, 
with  the  residence  of  the  provincial  at  Chaminade  Col- 
lege, Cla>'tun,  AL'ssouri.  GEOJiOE  Meter. 


MiLBT 


753 


aUBY 


Mary,  The  Blessed  Vibgin.    See  Viboin  hUsj, 
The  Bucssed. 

Mary,  The  Name  of,  in  Scripttll^  and  in  Oathdio 

use.   New  Testament.  Mapidfi  ana  sometimes  U^kk^i 
seems  impossible,  in  the  present  state  of  the  text,  tosay 
whether  the  form  Mariam  was  reserved  by  the  Evan- 
gelists for  the  Mother  of  Christ,  und  the  form  At  aria 
used  for  all  others  of  the  name.    The  form  Maptd/i  un- 
doubtedly represents  the  Hebrew  D^"ID,  the  name  of 
the  sister  of  Moses  and  Aaron  (Num.,  xii.  1  sqq.).    In 
1  Par.,  iv,  17,  it  occurs  presumably  ad  the  name  of  a 
man,  but  the  Septuagint  has  rbv  Maptbv,    The  ety-» 
mology  of  the  name  D^"lD  (Miriam)  is  exceedingly 
doubtful.     Two  roots  are  proposed:  (a)  miO  mean- 
ing "  to  rebel",  in  which  connexion  some  have  endeav- 
oured to  derive  the  name  of  the  sister  of  Moses  from 
her  rebellion  against  him  (Num.,  xii^  1).    But  this 
seems  far-fetched,  as  her  murmuring  is  by  no  means 
the  only,  or  the  principal  event,  recorded  of  her;   (b) 
«1D  meaning  "to  be  fat";  it  is  thought  that, since  the 
possession  of  this  quality  was,  to  the  Semitic  mind,  the 
essence  of  beauty,  the  name  Miriam  may  have  meant 
"beautiful".    But  the  meaning  "lady^  which  is  to 
common  among  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  and  which 
is  enshrined  in  the  Catholic  expression  "Our  Lady", 
has  much  to  support  it.     Th«  Aramaic  tnD  means 
"  Lord  "  as  we  see  in  St.  Paul's  Marano/Ad— 1.  e. "  Come, 
Lord",  or  "the  Lord  is  nigh".    It  is  true  that  the 
name  Miriam  has  no  N  in  our  Hebrew  text;   but, 
though  the  Aramaic  word  for  "  lord  "  always  has  an 
K  in  the  older  inscriptions  (e.  g.  those  of  ^njirli  of 
the  eighth  century,  b.  c),  yet  in  later  inscriptions  from 
Pahnyra  the  K  has  gone.    Besides,  the  presence  of  the 
]  may  well  be  due  to  the  formative  ending  d,  which 
18  generally  a  sign  of  abstract  nouns.    The  rendering 
"star  of  the  sea"  is  without  foundation  except  in  a 
tropological  sense;  Cornelius  ii  Lapide  would  render 
"lady,  or  teacher,  or  guide  of  the  sea",  the  sea  being 
this  world,  of  which  Christ  Himself  (Num.,  xxiv,  17) 
is  the  Star.     The  frequency  with  which  the  name 
occurs  in  the  New  Testament  (cf.  infra)  shows  that 
it  was  a  favourite  one  at  the  time  of  Christ.    One  of 
Herod's  wives  was  the  ill-fated  Mariamne,  a  Jewess; 
Joeephus  gives  us  this  name  sometimes  as  Mariamme, 
at  others  as  Mariame  or  Mariamne.    The  favour  in 
which  the  name  was  then  held  is  scarcely  to  be  at- 
tributed to  the  influence  her  fate  had  on  the  Jews 
(Stanley,  "Jewish  Church "^  III,  429);  it  is  far  more 
likely  that  the  fame  of  the  sister  of  Moses  contributed 
to  this  result — cf.  Mich.,  vi,  4,  where  Miriam  is  put 
on  the  same  footing  as  Moses  and  Aaron:  "  I  sent  be- 
fore thy  face  Moses  and  Aaron  and  Mary."    At  a  time 
when  men  like  Simeon  were  "  looking  for  the  Conso- 
lation of  Israel ",  their  minds  would  naturally  revert 
to  the  great  names  of  the  Exodus.    For  extra-Biblical 
instances  of  the  name  at  this  time  see  Josephus, 
'Antiquities  ",  ivj  6;  XVIII,  v,  4,  and  "Jewish  War", 
VI,  IV.    In  Christian  times  the  name  has  always  been 
popular;  no  less  than  seven  historically  famous  Marys 
are  given  in  the  "  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography  ". 
Among  Catholics  it  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  bap- 
tismal names;  and  in  many  reli^ous  orders,  both  of 
men  and  of  women,  it  is  the  practice  to  take  this  name 
in  addition  to  some  other  distinctive  name,  when 
entering  the  religious  state. 

Besides  the  Biblical  dioUooaries  and  the  ordinary  oommen- 
/?C^  "®®  Bardknhbwer,  Der  Name  Maria  in  Bibl  Studim 
(Fretbum.  ISW).  ^^^^  ^^^^ 

Mary  Anne  de  Paredes,  Blessed,  b.  at  Quito. 
Ecuador,  31  Oct.,  1618;  d.  at  Quito,  26  May,  1646. 
On  both  sides  of  her  family  she  was  sprung  from  an 
illustrious  line  of  ancestors,  her  father  being  Don 
Girolamo  Flores  Zenel  de  Paredes,  a  nobleman  of 
Toledo,  and  her  mother  Dofla  Mariana  Cranobles  di 
Xaramilo,  a  descendant  of  one  of  the  best  Spanish 
famihes.  Her  birth  was  accompanied  by  most  un- 
IX.-48 


usual  phenomena  in  the  heavens,  clearly  connected 
with  the.  child  and  juridically  attested  at  the  time  of 
the  process  of  beatification*  Almost  from  infancy 
she  gave  signs  of  an  extraordmary  attraction  for 
piuver  and  mortification,  of  love  for  God  and  devotion 
to  the  Bl^seed  Virgin;  and  besides  bein^  the  recipient 
of  many  other  remarkable  manifestations  of  divine 
favour  was  a  number  of  times  miraculously  preserved 
from  death.  At  the  a^  of  ten  vears  she  made  the 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience.  She  was 
very  desirous  of  conveying  the  light  of  faith  to  the 
peoples  sitting  in  darlcness,  and  later  ot  entering  a 
monastery;  but  when  God  made  it  plain  to  her  that 
He  wished  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  of  these  pioua 
designs,  she  acauiesoed  in  the  Divine  will,  and  made 
for  herself  a  solitude  in  her  own  home  where,  apart 
from  all  worldly  cares  and  closely  united  to  God,  she 
gave  herself  up  to  the  practice  of  unheard-of  corporal 
austerities.  The  fast  which  she  kept  was  so  strict 
that  she  took  scarcely  an  ounce  of  dry  bread  every 
ei^t  or  ten  days.  Tne  food  which  miraculously  such 
tamed  her  life,  as  in  the  case  of  St.  Catherine  and  Bt, 
Rose  of  Lima,  was,  according  to  the  sworn  testimony 
of  many  witnesses,  the  Eucharistic  Bread  alone  which 
she  received  every  morning  in  Holy  Communion.  She 
possessed  an  ecstatic  gift  of  prayer,  predicted  the 
future,  saw  distant  events  as  if  they  were  passing 
before  her,  read  the  secrets  of  hearts,  cured  diseases 
by  a  mere  sign  of  the  Cross,  or  by  sprinkling  the 
sufferer  with  holy  water,  and  at  least  once  she  restored 
a  dead  person  to  life.  The  very  day  she  died  her 
sanctity  was  shown  in  a  wonderful  manner,  for  imme- 
diately after  her  death  there  sprang  up  from  her  blood 
and  blossomed  and  bloomea  a  pure  white  lily,  a 
prodigy  which  has  given  her  the  title  of  "The  Lily  <rf 
QuitoA 

The  first  preliminary  steps  towards  the  beatlfkatioa 
were  taken  by  Monsignor  Alfonso  della  Pegna,  who 
instituted  the  process  for  inquiring  into  and  collecting 
evidence  for  the  sanctity  of  her  life,  her  virtues  and  her 
nairacles;  but  the  authenticated  copy  of  the  examina- 
tion of  the  witnesses  was  not  forwarded  to  Rome  until 
1754.  The  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites,  having  dis- 
cussed and  approved  of  this  process,  decided  in  favour 
of  the  formal  introduction  of  the  cause,  and  Benedict 
XIV  signed  the  commission  for  introducing  the  cause 
17  Dec,  1757.  The  Apostolic  process  concerning  the 
virtues  of  the  Venerable  Mary  Anne  de  Paredes  wa^r 
drawn  up  and  examined  in  due  form  by  the  two  Pre- 
paratory Congregations  and  by  the  General  Congremr 
tion  of  Rites,  and  orders  were  given  by  Pius  VI  for  tne 
publication  of  the  decree  attesting  the  heroic  chanio- 
ter  of  her  virtues.  The  process  concerning  the  two 
miracles  wrought  through  the  intercession  of  the 
servant  of  God  was  subsequently  prepared  and,  at  the 
request  of  the  Very  Rev.  John  Rootnaan,  Genertfl  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  was  examined  and  accepted  l^ 
the  three  congregations,  and  was  formally  approved 
11  Jan.,  1847,  by  Pius  IX.  The  General  Congregation 
having  decided  in  favour  of  proceeding  to  the  beatifica- 
tion, Pius  IX  commanded  tne  Brief  of  Beatification  to 
be  prepared.  Very  Rev.  Peter  Beckx,  General  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  petitioned  Cardinal  Patrizi  to  order 
the  publication  ot  the  Brief;  his  request  was  granted. 
The  Brief  was  read  and  the  solemn  oeatification  took 
place  ua  the  Vatican  Basilica  10  Nov.,  1853.  Many 
miracles  have  been  the  reward  of  those  who  have  in- 
voked her  intercession,  especially  in  America,  of  which 
she  seems  pleased  to  show  herself  the  especial  patron- 
ess. 

BoBRO,  BUaaed  Mary  Ann  of  Jemu;  The  Roman  Breviary. 

J.    H.    FiSHEB. 

Mary  de  Oeryellione  (or  de  Cervello),  popu- 
larly styled  "  de  Socos  "  (of  Help)  Saint,  b.  about  1230 
at  Barcelona ;  d .  there  19  Septemlxjr,  1290.  She  was  a 
daughter  of  a  Spanish  nobleman  named  William  de 


BCART 


764 


MART 


Cervellon.  One  dav  she  heard  a  sermon  preached  by 
Blessed  Bernard  de  Ck>rbarie.  the  superior  of  the 
Brotherhood  of  Our  Lady  of  Ransom  at  Barcelona, 
and  was  so  deeply  affected  by  his  pleading  for  the 
Christian  slaves  and  captives  in  the  hands  of  the 
Turks  that  she  resolved  to  do  all  in  her  power  for  their 
alleviation.    In  1265  she  joined  a  little  community  of 

Sious  women  who  lived  near  the  monastery  of  the 
[ercedarians  and  spent  their  lives  in  prayer  and  good 
works  under  the  direction  of  Blessed  Bernard  de  Cor- 
barie.  They  obtained  permission  to  constitute  a 
Third  Order  of  Our  Lady  of  Ransom  {de  Mercede)  and 
to  wear  the  habit  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Our  Lad^r  of 
Ransom.  In  addition  to  the  usual  vows  of  tertiaries, 
they  promised  to  pray  for  the  Christian  slaves.  Mary 
was  unanimously  elected  the  first  superior.  On  ac- 
count of  her  great  charitv  towards  the  needy  she  be- 
gan to  be  called  Maria  de  oocoe  (Mary  of  Help)  a  name 
under  which  she  is  still  venerated  in  Catalonia.  Her 
cult,  which  began  immediately  after  her  death,  was 
approved  by  Innocent  XII  in  1692.  She  is  invoked 
especially  against  shipwreck  and  is  generally  repre- 
sented with  a  ship  in  her  hand.  Her  feast  is  cele- 
brated on  25  September. 

Acta  SS.t  September,  VII,  152-171;  Dunbar,  Didionary  of 
Saintly  Women,  II  (London,  1906).  66-7;  Ulate,  Vita  Catha- 
launuB  Virginia  Maricf  de  Cervellon  (Madrid,  1712);  Ayala, 
Vida  de  a.  Maria  del  Socoa  de  la  orden  de  N.  S.  de  laa  Mercedea 
(Salamnnca,  1696);  Corbrra,  Vida  y  hechoa  maravilloaaa  de  d. 
Maria  de  Cerveilon,  clamado  Maria  Socoa  (Barcelona,  1639}; 
a  Life  written  by  her  oontemporaxy  John  de  Laes  is  printed  in 
Acta  SS.t  loc.  cit. 

Michael  Ott. 

Maxy  de  Sales  Ohappuis  (Marie-Th^rebe  Chap- 
PUis),  VENERABLE,  of  the  Order  of  the  Visitation  of 
Holy  Mary,  b.  at  Soyhidres,  a  village  of  the  Bernese 
Jura  (then  French  territory),  16  June,  1793;  d.  at 
Troyes,  6  October,  1875.  Her  parents  were  excellent 
Chnstians:  her  father  had  seen  service  in  the  regular 
Guard  (the  Cent-Sriisses  corps)  of  the  King  of  France. 
Her  mother,  n^e  Catherine  Fleury,  was  the  sister  of  the 
Cur€  of  Soyhidres.  Out  of  eleven  children  bom  of  this 
union,  six  entered  religion.  From  infancy  Marie- 
Th6r6se  was  remarkable  for  her  piety.  She  made  her 
First  Communion  in  1802  and  at  tne  age  of  twelve  years 
entered  as  an  intern  pupil  in  the  Visitation  Convent  at 
Fribourg,  where  she*  remained  three  years.  In  June, 
1811,  she  returned  to  the  convent  as  a  postulant,  but 
left  it  again  in  three  months.  Three  years  later  she 
came  back,  took  the  religious  habit  on  3  June,  1815, 
and  made  her  profession  on  9  June,  1816.  A  year 
after  taking  her  vows  she  was  sent  to  Metz,  but  reasons 
of  health  compelled  her  to  return  to  Fribourg.  In 
1826  she  became  superior  of  the  monastery  at  Troyes, 
and  in  1833  spent  six  months  in  the  second  monastery 
in  Paris,  where  she  was  afterwards  to  be  superior 
(1838-44).  The  greater  part  of  her  life  was  spent  at 
Troyes,  where  she  was  elected  superior  eleven  times, 
and  where  she  celebrated  in  1866  the  golden  anniver- 
sary of  her  religious  profession.  Iler  last  illness 
attacked  her  in  September,  1875. 

Mother  Maiy  de  Sales  is  celebrated  chiefly  for  her 
zeal  in  spreading  a  certain  kind  of  spirituahty  which 
she  called  "The  Way"  (La  Vote).  Her  principal 
biographer.  Father  Brisson,  who  had  been  for  thirty 
years  confessor  to  the  Visitandines  of  Troyes,  and  was 
her  director,  writes  that  by  this  expression — La  Vote 
— "  she  understood  a  state  of  soul  which  consisted  in 
depending  upon  the  actual  will  of  God,  relishing  what- 
ever was  His  good  pleasure,  and  imitating  the  life  of 
the  Saviour  externally"  (Vie  de  la  V^n^r^  Mdre, 
Marie-de-Sales  Chappuis,  Paris,  1886,  p.  591).  The 
English  edition  of  her  life  (London,  1900),  in  translat- 
ing this  sentence,  overlooks  the  word  actueUe  (actual): 
"What  did  the  good  Mother  mean  by  this  Word,  'The 
Way '  ?  She  meant  a  state  of  soul  which  consists  in  an 
entire  dependence  on  the  Will  of  God,  by  an  interior 
consent  to  n]]  that  is  according  to  His  good  pleasure. 


and  an  exterior  imitation  of  our  Saviour"  (i>.  261). 
It  adds:  "Chosen  by  God  to  propagate  and  spread 
abroad  this  Way,  the  good  Mother  consecrated  her 
whole  life  to  it"  (p.  262).  To  spread  this  Way,  she, 
with  Father  Brisson,  founded  the  Oblates  of  St. 
Francis  de  Sales. — "It  was  in  order  to  extend  this 
Way  that  she  made  choice  of  others  like  herself,  whom 
she  might  inspire  with  zeal,  and  point  out  the  means 
for  attaining  the  desired  end.  She  solenmly  asserted 
that  they  would  participate  in  the  grace  which  she  had 
herself  received  trom  God,  by  which  they  would  under- 
stand how  to  deal  with  souls,  and  how  to  lead  them  to 
a  love  of  this  resemblance  to  their  Saviour.  This,  she 
said,  would  be  the  characteristic  work  of  their  apostle- 
ship"  (ibid.).  She  and  her  disciples  proclaimed  the 
marvellous  efficacity  of  "The  Way". — "She  added 
that  this  Divine  action  would  not  tie  confined  merely 
to  a  certain  number  of  privileged  souls,  but  that  it 
would  be  brought  within  the  reach  of  the  most  aban- 
doned. Nor  would  it  be  confined  to  souls  who  dweU 
under  the  light  and  influence  of  the  Gospel,  but  would 
reach  those  who  are  the  farthest  from  it,  and  penetrate 
even  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  world  (p.  263). 
"'Wishing  to  save  the  world  over  again,'  says  one  of 
the  leading  oblates,  Father  RoUin,  in  giving  the  ideas 
of  the  Good  Mother, '  Our  Lord  had  to  use  means  imtil 
then  unknown'  .  .  ."  (Brisson,  op.  cit.,  p.  661).  The 
English  "Life"  (p.  275)  attenuates  this  passage:  "In 
His  insatiable  desire  to  save  the  world.  He  willed  to 
employ  a  means  hitherto  unknown ;  a  means  by  which 
all  the  glory  would  redound  unto  Himself  alone,  since, 
being  merely  His  agents,  man  would  claun  no  part 
therem  ..." 

For  some  years  past  there  have  been  controversies 
as  to  the  doctrinal  value  of  Venerable  Mary  de  Sales' 
"Way";  it  will  be  enough  to  indicate,  in  the  biblio- 
graphy at  the  end  of  this  article,  some  of  the  various 
writings  which  have  treated  the  subject.  It  seems, 
indeed,  that  many  of  her  disciples  have  exaggerated 
the  purport  of  the  approbation  accorded  to  her  writ- 
ings (2  June,  1892) .  Tnat  approbation  is  not  absolutely 
definitive,  in  that  it  implies  many  restrictions,  and  that, 
even  when  joined  with  beatification,  it  does  not  forbia 
the  exercise  of  a  respectful  criticism.  Benedict  XIV 
says  (De  Serv.  Beattf.,  II,  Prato,  1839,  p.  312):  "This 
much,  it  seems,  should  be  added  by  way  of  corollary: 
It  can  never  be  said  that  the  doctrine  of  a  servant  of 
God  has  been  approved  by  the*Holy  See,  but,  at  the 
most,  that  it  has  not  been  eondenmed.  There  has 
been  controversy  also  as  to  the  marvellous  deeds  at- 
tributed to  Venerable  Mary  de  Sales.  This  much  is 
certain:  that  an  ecclesiastical  commission  appointed 
by  the  Bishop  of  Troyes  has  declared,  after  canonical 
investigation,  that  the  facts  alleged  in  the  '  Abr^g^  de 
la  vie ',  can  be  explained  naturally  or  in  other  cases 
are  not  sufliciently  established"  (Rev.  des  Sciences 
Eccl^.,  Sept.,  1901,  pp.  260-65).  Nevertheless,  ex- 
amination of  these  miracles  results  in  evidence  of 
the  personal  sanctity  of  Mother  Mary  de  Sales.  The 
cause  of  her  beatification  was  introduced  at  Rome,  27 
July,  1897.  The  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  will 
decide  as  to  the  doctrine  of  "The  Way",  or,  at  least, 
as  to  the  miracles,  virtues,  and  perfection  of  the 
Venerable  Mary  de  Sales. 

Ahrigi  de  la  vie  el  dea  vertua  de  notra  tr^a-honorie  et  vhiirie 
Mh^  Marie  de  Salea  Chappuia  (Paris,  s.  d.) ;  Brisson,  Vie  de  la 
vinirie  mere  Marie  de  Salea  Chappuia  (Paris,  1891);  Life  of  the 
Venerable  Mother  Mary  de  Salea  Chappuia  (London,  1900); 
Annalea  aal^aiennca  (Paris),  passim;  Poaitio  auper  introductione 
cauacB  beatificationia  aervcB  Dei  Maria  Franciaca  Saleaia  Chap- 
puia (Rome,  1897);  Poaitio  auper  fama  in  genera  (Rome.  1903). 

SpnoTUAL  Teachino. — Penefea  de  la  ven.  Mhre  Marie  de  Salea 
(Paris,  1897);  FRXGNitnE,  La  Voie:  sermon  preached  at  Fri- 
bourg, 19  November,  1897  (Paris,  1898);  Watwgant,  Une 
rumvMe  Scola  de  apirUualiii  in  Etudaa  religieuaea  (Paris,  Jtme. 
1899) ;  FRAGNxfcRE.  Riponae  au  Rd.  Watrigara  eijuatifioation  de 
la  vote  de  chariU  de  la  vHtSrie  Mbre  Marie  de  Salea  Chappuia 
(Fribourg,  1900);  Watrioant,  Lea  deux  mHhodea  de  apirituaUti 
(Lille,  1900);  Haoen,  Die  ehw.  Mutter  Marie  von  Salea  Chap- 
puia in  Sendfjote  dea  goUlichen  Herzena  Jeau  (Cincinnati,  1900) ; 
MHhodea  de  apiritualit^  in  Ami  du  clerge  (6  February,  1902); 


adtlaV.  Utre  CSapmiit  (13  Januaiy, 

. — ,.  — unef  BxUtiailvtuf  (iJUe,  Scptembar. 

leooi.  200:  CKOLUrr.  id  cautdt  Ualifiaitipn  de  la  MirtMarit 


CORTBT,  U(r*  «ir  let  F 
-~8T).  HH  Rnw  iet  i 
ii>00i.2fl0:  Chol 
it  Saiet  Ckappuu 

the  vacsnible  mot 

OATTT.  L'Soole  dt  la  t 

.  L'luc^tvuf  modem — 
B,  July,  August.  1909). 


w  (July,  1902) 


1  tpirUmiiiU  nmptifiie  (lille.   1903):     fl 

modtrtuttu,  aietHa  in  CtnJtri  CoUoIica  (8  May,  ]90S)i  Cbol- 
ET,  L'amitique  nvjdrmiale  in  Que^iont  ecciituutiqutt  (LiIIb, 

H.  Wathigant. 

Hwy  m&CM  of  tlM  Five  Wounds  of  Jmui, 

Saint,  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  h.  at  Naples, 
25  Hanjh,  1715;  d.  there.  6  October,  1791.  Her  fam- 
ily belonged  to  the  middle  class.  Her  father,  Fran- 
cesco Gallo,  was  a  severe,  avaricious  man  with  a  pas- 
sionate temper,  and  from  him  the  saint  had  mucn  to 
suffer.  He  subjected  her  to  much  iU-treatmeat  and 
hard,  incessaDt -labour  which  ofteu  brought  her  to  the 
verge  of  the  grave.  Barbara  Baainsin,  her  mother, 
however,  was  gentle,  pious,  and  patient  in  bearing 
with  the  brutal  conduct  of  her  busband.  Before  her 
birth  St.  John  Joseph  of  the  Cross,  O.F.M.,  and  St. 
Francis  de  Geronimo,  S.J.,  are  said  to  have  predicted 
Mar;f's  future  sanctity.  At  the  ape  of  seven  she  waa 
adnutted  to  Holy  Coiuraunlon,  which  she  was  subse- 
quently in  the  habit  of  receiving  daily.  When  Mary 
Frances  was  sixteen  years  old,  her  father  Bought  to 
force  her  into  a  marriage  with  a  rich  yuung  mun,  but 
the  saint  firmly  refused,  and  instead  asked  leave  to 
ent«r  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis.  This  request 
was  at  length  ^nted  her  through  the  influence  of 
Father  Theophilus,  a  Friar  Minor.  At  her  reception 
among  the  Tertiaries  of  St.  Peter  of  Alcantara,  8  Sep- 
tember, 1731,  she  took  the  name  of  "  Mary  Frances  of 
the  Five  Wounds  of  Jesus"  out  of  devotion  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  St.  Francis,  «nd  the  Sacred  Passion. 
Her  body  is  said  to  have  been  signed  with  the  stig- 
mata, which,  at  her  prayer,  took  no  outward,  visible 
appearance,  and  on  Frid:i^'s,  especially  the  Fridays  ol 
Lent,  she  felt  in  her  body  the  very  pains  of  the  PossicKi. 
Duringherwholelife  the  saint  had  much  to  suffer  from 
bodily  illSj  and  to  her  physical  suffering  was  added 
mental  pam  from  the  persecution  of  her  father,  sisters, 
and  other  persons.  Even  her  confessors,  to  test  her 
sanctity,  made  her  suffer  by  the  rte\erity  of  their  di- 
rection. But  over  and  above  thtse  mental  and  physi- 
cal BuflFerings  she  imposed  upon  herself  voluntary  pen- 
ances, strict  faata,  nair-shirts,  and  disciplines,  tier 
prayers  and  advice  saved  many  souls  from  dangers. 
Priests,  religious,  and  pious  persons  went  to  her  for 
light  and  counsel.  Her  charity  and  compassion,  es- 
pecially towards  the  afl!ict«d  and  miserable,  knew  no 
bounds.  Like  St.  Francis.  Mary  Frances  hod  a  tender 
devotion  to  the  Infant  Jesus,  the  Holy  Eucharist,  and 
the  Blessed  Virpn.  The  last  thirty-eight  years  of  her 
life  were  spent  in  the  house  of  a  pious  priest,  Giovanni 
Pessiri.  She  was  buried  in  the  church  of  the  Alcan- 
tarines,  Sta.  Lucia  del  Monte,  at  Naples,  wliich  con- 
tains the  tomb  of  St.  John  Joseph  of  the  Cross.  She 
was  declared  Venerable  by  Pius  VII,  18  May,  18M, 
beatified  by  Gregory  XVL  12  November,  184-1,  and 
'  canoniied  by  Pius  IX,  29  June,  1867.  Her  feast  on  0 
October  is  Icept  by  the  Friars  Minor  and  CapuchinR  as 
a  double  of  the  second  class,  and  by  the  Conventuals 
--a  double  major. 

lofOii  Thrre  Orderi  of 


5  HAHYLAim 

of  this  total  37'1  per  cent  was  reported  in  the  cennia 
as  claiming  to  be  church-members  (23'7  per  cent  Prot- 
est&nta ;  I3'l  per  cent  Catholics  ;  0'3  per  cent  all 
others),  and  62'9  per  cent  not  reported  as  church 
members.  The  numerical  rank  of-the  state  has  de- 
creased in  every  census  period,  being  sixth  in  1790 
and  twenty-sixtn  in  1900.  The  foreign  population  ia 
small,  and  the  n^ro  population  about  248,000.  Balti- 
more, the  chief  city,  mcreased  9  per  cent  in  population 
during  the  census  decade  1900-1910.  Tiie  federal 
census  of  1910  gives  it  558,485  inhabitants  as  against 
5<K,957  in  1900. 

.  The  state  census  of  1908  shows  401  church  organi- 
zations with  a  membership  (communicants)  of  473,- 
257.  In  this  enu- 
meration the  Cath- 
olics are  set  down 
at  166,941,  which 
i^,  owing  to  the 
government  meth- 
od of  computa- 
tion, 15  per  cent 
less  than  the  actual 
claim  of  the  church 
authorities.  Other 
totals  are:  Bap- 
tists, 30,928;  Dw- 
ciplca,  or  Chris- 
tians, 2984;  Dun- 
kers,  44  50 ;  Friends, 
2079;      " 


Eva 


eli< 


ible  major. 

,  Livrt  ajlht  SainU, 
^.  in  (TouoWQ,  1 


Htniium  md  Sdigm  au*  dim  dHlIm  OnJm  .fi-a  hi.  Valni  Fr. 
liikua  (RatiBbon,  1386),  417-8S:  LAVin»A-STRr)Ui,  Vila  drili 
b.  Maria  FrmuMca.  Ign<aria profrtM  aUanlariaa  (Romt.  1843); 
pALMCRt.CanimduidtllavOadiUab.MariaFmnraraiKnm'!. 
1841);. Vol  Sainl.{Qiieb«.  18001. 241-2;  Rn7HABn.tf*oic/<r«. 
Maria  Praniiihi  (3  ed.  MainE.  ISSI);  aim  Limby  Mohtelli. 
(NsplB.  ISe?);  Z:U)ARi  (MJUu.  1892). 

Ferdinand  Heckmann. 

Haiyland. — One  of  the  thirteen  English  colonies 
which  after  the  Revolution  of  1776  became  the  orig- 
inal States  of  the  American  Union.  Its  total  area  is 
13,327  sqiiare  miles,  of  which  3:186  square  miles  are 
water.     Tiic  total  pojiulation  (ltHN>)  was  l,27iS,-t34; 


8334;  iTutheran  bodies,  32,246;  Methodists  137,156; 
Presbyterians,  17,895;  Reformed  PresbyterianB, 
13,461;  United  Brethren.  6541.  The  tolal  number 
of  church  edifices  reported  was  2814,  with  a  seating 
capacity  of  810,701  and  a  valuation  of  $23,766,172. 

Colonial  Period.—"  On  25  March,  1634  ",  saj^  the 
Jesuit  Father  Andrew  White,  in  his  "  Relatio  Itineiis 
in  Maryland iam ",  or  "Narrative  of  the  Voyage  of 
The  Ark  and  The  Dove",  "we  celebrated  Mass  tor  the 
first  time  in  the  island  (St.  Clement's).  This  had 
never  been  done  before  in  this  part  of  the  world  ",  and 
it  was  the  beginning  of  the  Maryland  colony.  The 
expedition,  the  londii^  of  which  on  the  shores  of  St. 
Mary's  is  thus  described,  was  organized  and  sent  out 
by  Cccilius  Calvert  (q.  v.),  the  second  Lord  Balti- 
more, and  the  first  Proprietary  of  Maryland,  under  a 
charter  issued  to  him,  20  June,  1632,  by  Charles  I 
of  England.  This  cnarter  was  the  handiwork  of 
George  Calvert,  the  first  Lord  Baltimore,  the  father  of 
Cecilius,  and  was  intended  to  be  issued  t«  himself,  but, 
as  he  died  on  the  fifteenth  of  the  preceding  April,  the 
charter  went  out  to  his  son  Cecilius,  the  neir  to  his 
title  and  estates  and  to  his  long-cherished  scheme  of 
English  Catholic  colonization  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. The  charter  contained  the  grant  of  an  exten- 
sive territory,  which  was  set  out  nnd  defined  by  clenrnnd 
explicit  metes  and  Ijounds,  conlaining  nearly  double 
the  present  land  area  of  Maryland,  emoracing  what  is 
now  the  State  of  Delaware,  a  tract  of  Southern  Peim- 
Kyh'onia,  1,5  miles  wide  by  138  miles  long,  and  the 
fertile  valley  lying  between  the  north  and  south 
branches  of  the  Potomac  River.  The  means  by 
which  the  lords  proprietary  were  deprived  of  so 
lai^e  a  part  of  the  territory  given  to  them  by  the  ex- 
press language  of  the  charier  does  not  belong  to  this 
article.  [See  Russell,  "Land  of  Sanctuary'  (Balti- 
more, 1907),  passim.]  The  charter  also  contained  the 
mostcomprehensivegrant  of  civil  and  politico!  author- 
ity and  jurisdiction  tnat  ever  emanated  from  the  Ena- 
Ikh  Crown,  It  was  a  palatinate  that  was  created  witn 
all  the  royal  and  viceregal  rights  pertaining  to  the 
unique  and  exceptional  kind  of  government  then 
existing  in  the  Bishopric  of  Durham.  The  grantee 
appointed  the  governor  and  all  the  civil  and  military 
officers  of  the  province.    The  writs  ran  in  his  name. 


2AARYLAND 


756 


MARYLAND 


He  had  power  of  life  and  death  over  the  inhabitants 
as  regards  punishments  for  crime.  He  could  erect 
manors,  the  grantees  of  which  enjoved  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  belonging  to  that  kina  of  estate  in  Eng- 
land. Many  of  them  were  created.  He  could  confer 
titles  of  honour  and  thus  establish  a  colonial  aristoc- 
racy. Of  all  the  territory  embraced  within  the  boun- 
daries clearly  set  out  in  the  charter,  *'  the  grantee,  his 
heirs,  successors  and  assigns,  were  made  and  consti- 
tuted the  true  and  absolute  lords  and  proprietaries*'. 

Sir  George  Calvert  (q.  v.),  having  become  a  convert 
to  the  Catnolic  faith  in  1625,  witn  his  son  Cecilius, 
then  nineteen  years  of  age,  withdrew  from  public  office, 
and  sailed  for  Avalon  in  Newfoundland,  a  charter  for 
which  province  had  been  granted  him  by  King  James. 
He  carried  with  him  a  secular  priest  to  attend  to  the 
spiritual  wants  of  the  Catholic  colonists,  and  also  a 
Protestant  minister  to  supply  those  of  the  Protestant 
members  of  the  expedition.  In  this  act  Sir  George 
gave  practical  evidence  of  his  recognition  and  accept- 
ance of  the  principle  of  religious  frecKlom  and  of  the 
rights  of  conscience,  of  which  his  son  Cecilius  was  to 
be  ^o  illustrious  and  shining  a  supporter.  After  a 
year's  residence  in  Avalon,  Su:  George  sailed  south  in 
quest  of  a  more  genial  climate  and  a  more  kindly  soil. 
He  reached  Jamestown,  Virginia,  but  the  authorities 
of  that  English  settlement  refused  him  permission  to 
land  unless  he  would  take  the  oath  of  supremacy  as 
well  as  that  of  allegiance.  The  latter  he  was  willing  to 
take,  the  former,  as  a  Catholic,  he  declined .  Returning 
to  England  he  sought  and  obtained  from  Charles  I 
the  charter  of  Maryland.  Dying  before  it  passed  the 
great  seal,  the  charter  was  issued  to  his  son  Cecilius, 
the  second  Lord  Baltimore  and  the  first  Lord  Pro- 
prietary of  the  Province  of  Maryland. 

The  charter  to  Cecilius  was  opposed  by  the  agents  of 
the  Virginia  colonists,  on  the  ground  that  the  grant 
was  an  encroachment  on  the  territory  of  Virginia. 
This  contention  was  untenable.  For.  by  the  judg- 
ment of  the  King's  Bench  in  1624,  eight  years  before 
the  issuing  of  the  Baltimore  Charter,  in  certain  quo 
warranto  proceedings  instituted  in  the  King's  Bench, 
the  Virginia  colony  was  converted  into  a  royal  colony, 
and  the  king  revested  with  the  title  to  all  the  territory 
embraced  in  the  charter  of  the  London  or  Virginia 
Company,  with  full  power  and  authority  to  grant  all  or 
anv  part  of  it  to  whomsoever  he  pleased,  which  he 
subsequently  freely  exercised  without  question  in  the 
cases  of  the  grants  of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  the 
Carolinas  and  the  northern  neck  of  Virginia.  The 
question  was  only  raised  as  to  the  grant  of  Maryland, 
and  that  solely  and  avowedly  because  it  was  a  grant 
to  a  Catholic  nobleman  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
a  Catholic  colony.  The  committee  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil on  American  plantations,  after  a  full  hearing  of  both 
parties,  unanimously  decided  "to  leave  the  Lord  Bal- 
timore to  his  charter,  and  the  Protestants  to  their 
remedy  at  law  ".  Not  having  any  such  remedy,  they 
did  not,  as  they  could  not,  resort  to  it.  Aft«r  numer- 
ous delays  and  detentions  caused  by  its  enemies,  the 
expedition  sailed  from  Southampton,  22  November, 
1633.  By  an  arrangement  previously  made  by  Lord 
Baltimore  the  expedition  stopped  at  Cowes,  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight,  and  took  on  board  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Andrew 
White  and  John  Altham  {alias  Gravenor)  with  some 
lay  brothers  and  servants.  The  general  description  of 
the  personnel  of  the  expedition  is  that  it  consisted  of 
"twenty  gentlemen  adventurers",  all  of  whom,  with 
perhaps  one  exception,  were  Catholics  and  of  good 
families.  With  tne.se  were  associated  a  number  of 
artisans,  mechanics,  and  labourers  estimated  at  250, 
the  greater  part  of  whom,  it  is  said,  were  Protestants. 

Cecilius  Calvert  carefully  prepared  and  delivered 
to  his  brother  Leonard  (  q.  v.),  whom  he  appointed 
governor,  and  to  the  two  commissioners,  Hawley  and 
Coniwaleys,  associated  with  him  in  the  government  of 
^is  province,  a  body  of  insti  uctions  for  their  conduct 


while  on  the  voyage,  and  when  and  after  they  should 
reach  their  destination.   In  this  first  article  he  enjoins, 
both  on  shipboard  and  on  land,  an  abstinence  from  all 
religious  controversies,  "  to  preserve  peace  and  unity 
amongst  all  the  passengers  and  to  suffer  no  scandal  or 
offence,  whereby  just  complaint  mav  be  made  by  them 
in  Virginia  or  in  England  :  .  .  ancf  to  treat  the  Prot- 
estants with  as  much  mildness  and  favour  as  justice 
will  require  ".     During  the  voyage,  among  the  piassen- 
gere,  embracing  men  of  opposite  creeds  and  separated 
by  widely  different  social  conditions,  confined  for  four 
tedious  months  on  the  crowded  decks  of  the  Ark  and 
the  Dove,  there  occurred  nothing  to  mar  and  disturb 
its  harmony.     On  landing,  the  colonists  were  kindly 
received   by   the   Indians.     Governor   Calvert   pur- 
chased from  the  tribe  of  the  PLscataways,  who  occu- 
pied this  land,  the  possession  of  a  considerable  tract. 
The  aborigines  cave  to  the  colonists  as  a  temporary 
shelter  one  of  their  principal  villages.     The  wigwam 
of  the  chief  was  assigned  to  the  two  priests  as  a  resi- 
dence and  a  chapel,  and  they  immediately  began  their 
apostolical  labours,  first  among  the  Protestant  colo- 
nists, most  of  whom  in  a  short  time  accepted  the  true 
Faith.     Father  White  prepared  a  grammar,  a  dic- 
tionary, and  a  catechism  in  the  language  of  the  Pis- 
cataways  which  was  destroyed  at  the  time  of  the  Ingle 
invasion  (see  below).     Tayac,  the  chief  of  this  power- 
ful tribe,  was  converted,  with  his  wife,  his  family,  and 
many  of  his  tribe,  as  well  €ts  a  princess  of  the  Patux- 
ents,  a  neighbouring  tribe,  and  a  number  of  her  people. 

The  genial  climate,  the  fertile  soil,  the  liberal  con- 
ditions of  plantation  promulgated  by  the  lord  pro- 
prietary, the  security  and  safety  enjoyed  by  the 
colonists,  the  religious  freedom  and  equality  secured 
to  the  members  of  every  Christian  denomination,  soon 
attracted  a  numerous  immigration,  and  the  colony 
grew  apace. 

But  a  change  came.  The  inhabitants  of  Virginia 
had  abated  none  of  their  hostility  to  a  Catholic  colony 
in  their  neighbourhood  and  of  their  determination  if 

Eossible  to  break  up  and  destroy  it.  William  Clai- 
ome,  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Government  of  that 
colony,  had,  under  a  hcence  he  had  obtained  from 
Governor  Harvey  of  Virginia  to  trade  with  the  In- 
dians, and  a  licence  from  Sir  William  Alexander,  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  Scotland,  to  trade  with  the 
Dutch  at  Manhattan  and  the  people  of  Newfound- 
land, established  a  trading  post  on  Kent  Island  in  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  within  the  boundaries  of  Lord  Balti- 
more's grant,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  his  busi- 
ness as  a  trader.  He  had  never  obtained  a  grant  of 
any  lands  whatever.  He  was  a  mere  squatter  on  the 
island,  without  a  title  to  a  single  acre  of  it.  He  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  Lord  Baltimore's  charter  and 
rights,  and  to  submit  to  his  authority,  referring  the 
matter  to  the  Council  of  Virginia  whicn  upheld  him. 
Governor  Calvert  thereupon  proceeded  to  reduce  the 
island  to  submission.  Claiborne,  \^ith  the  aid  of  some 
of  the  Virginians,  but  without  any  authority  of  the  Vir- 
ginian government,  organized  an  expedition  to  re- 
capture the  island.  He  was  met  by  a  force  of  Gover- 
nor Calvert,  commanded  by  Captain  Comwaleys,  and 
defeated,  but  escaped  capture,  to  be  for  the  rest  of  his 
lawless  and  incendiary  career  a  thorn  in  the*  side  of 
Calvert  and  the  unrelenting  foe  of  the  Catholic  colo- 
nists. 

In  1644  Richard  Ingle,  instigated  and  aided  by 
Claiborne,  made  a  sudden  descent  upon  the  province 
in  a  vessel  named  the  Reformation,  compelled  Gover- 
nor Calvert  and  some  of  the  principal  persons  of  the 
colony^  including  two  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  to  fly  to 
Virgima,  captured  and  burned  St.  Mary's,  destroyed 
valuable  records,  plundered  and  destroyed  the  resi- 
dences of  many  of  the  inhabitants,  especially  the 
houses  and  chapels  of  the  missionaries,  and  took 
Father  VVhite  a  prisoner  in  chains  to  London,  where  he 
had  him  indicted  as  a  returned  Jesuit  priest,  an  offence 


MAEYLAMD 


767 


BIAEYLAMD 


for  which  death  was  the  punishment.  Father  White 
pleaded,  however,  that  his  return  was  not  voluntary, 
and  escaped. 

The  avowed  object  of  both  these  piratical  raids  was 
the  destruction  of  the  Catholic  colony  of  Maryland. 
Lord  Baltimore,  seeing  the  disturbed  condition  of 
things,  wrote  to  his  brother  the  governor  to  save  what 
he  could  out  of  the  wreck  of  his  fortunes  and  retire 
from  the  province.  Leonard  Calvert  had,  however, 
already  taten  st^ps  to  recover  possession,  and,  return- 
ing with  a  small  force  of  friencis  and  adherents,  drove 
out  the  marauders  and  re-established  his  authority. 
While  Cecilius  Calvert  was  thus  confronting  his  ene- 
mies, who  with  untiring  industry  were  seeking  to 
involve  his  charter,  his  proN'ince,  ms  colonists  and  the 
Jesuit  fathers  in  a  common  ruin,  he  became  engaged 
in  an  unfortunate  controversy  with  the  Jesuits  over  a 
tract  of  land  they  had  received  as  a  gift  from  some  of 
their  Indian  converts  without  the  knowledge  or  con- 
sent of  the  Proprietary,  and  the  surrender  of  which 
the  governor  demanded.  The  priests  refused  to  give 
it  up  until,  after  several  years  of  somewhat  acrimoni- 
ous controversy,  the  father  general  of  the  order  decided 
in  Lord  Baltimore's  favour.  Lord  Baltimore  did  not 
object  so  much  to  the  acquisition  of  lands  by  the 
fathers,  but  to  the  method  and  manner  of  that  acqui- 
sition by  grants  or  gifts  from  the  Indians,  in  deroga- 
tion of  what  he  regarded  his  right  and  his  title  to  these 
lands,  under  the  express  provisions  of  his  charter.  In 
1651  Cecilius  Calvert  set  apart  10,000  acres  of  land  near 
Calverton  Manor  for  the  benefit  of  the  Indian  con- 
verts, under  the  care  and  direction  of  the  fathers,  the 
first  fund  established  within  the  English  possessions  in 
America  for  the  support  of  Indian  missions. 

Peace  and  order  oeing  restored  by  the  return  of 
Governor  Leonard  Calvert  to  the  province,  and  the 
re-establishment  of  Lord  Baltimore's  authority,  Mary- 
land entered  on  a  brief  period  of  prosperity  and 
began  to  grow  in  population  and  wealth.  There  are 
no  statistics  on  wnich  to  base  an  opinion  as  to  the 
number  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  province  at  this 
period  (1645),  but  the  best  opinion  puts  it  at  between 
tour  and  five  thousand.  Three-fourths  of  this  num- 
ber were  Catholics.  They  held  most  of  the  offices 
under  the  appointment  of  the  proprietary,  and  con- 
stituted a  majority  of  the  legislative  body,  and  con- 
tinued to  do  so  until  the  Puritan  Rebellion.  The 
number  of  Jesuits  serving  the  Maryland  Missions  aver- 
aged four  annually  from  1634  to  1650.  Among  them 
were  Fathers  Andrew  White,  Thomas  Copley  {alias 
Philip  Fisher),  and  Ferdinand  Poulton  (alias  John 
BrocK  and  Morgan).  These  missionaries  converted 
nearly  if  not  quite  all  of  the  Protestant  colonists  who 
came  out  in  the  Ark  and  the  Dove,  and  many  of  those 
who  had  come  into  the  province  afterwards  from  Eng- 
land and  Virginia.  To  these  were  added,  pending  the 
difficulty  between  the  fathers  and  Lord  Baltimore, 
four  Franciscans,  who  soon  retired,  however,  and  left 
the  field  to  the  Jesuits. 

In  1649  the  General  Assembly  of  the  province 
passed  the  celebrated  Toleration  Act.  From  the 
foundation  of  the  colony,  therefore,  religious  freedom 
had  been  the  inviolable  rule  and  practice  of  the  pro- 
vincial government.  Under  a  provision  in  the  charter 
giving  to  the  Lonls  Baltimore  the  initiation  of  legisla- 
tion in  the  province,  Cecilius  Calvert  had  drawn  up  a 
body  of  laws,  sixteen  in  number,  to  be  adopted  by  the 
Assembly,  and  among  them  was  this  famous  Act.  It 
was  passed  by  that  body,  the  majority  of  whom  were 
Catholics,  without  a  dissenting  voice.  "  And  whereas  ", 
it  reads,  "the  enforcing  of  the  conscience  in  mat- 
ters of  religion  hath  frequently  fallen  out  to  be  of 
dangerous  consequence  in  those  commonwealths  where 
it  hath  been  practised,  and  for  the  more  auiet  and 
peaceable  government  of  the  province  and  the  better 
to  preserve  mutual  love  and  amity  amongst  the  in- 
habitants thereof:  Be  it  therefore  enacted  that  noe 


person  or  persons  whatsoever  within  this  province 
....  professing  to  believe  in  Jesus  Christ,  shall  hence- 
forth DC  in  any  waies  troubled,  molested  or  discoun- 
tenanced for  or  in  respect  of  his  or  her  religion  or  in 
the  free  exercise  thereof  within  this  province  nor  in 
anything  compelled  to  the  belief  or  exercise  of  any 
other  religion  against  his  or  her  consent."  The  act 
then  pro\'iide8  penalties  for  violation  of  its  provisions. 
In  the  controversies  about  this  celebrated  Act  of 
Toleration,  efforts  have  been  made  by  many  Protestant 
writers  to  deprive  Cecilius  Calvert  of  the  merit  of  its 
authorship,  but  the  judgment  of  all  fair  historians 
gives  to  Cecilius  Calvert,  and  to  him  alone,  following 
the  example  of  his  father,  the  honour  of  "  being  the 
first  in  the  annals  of  mankind  ",  as  Bancroft  says  in  his 
"History  of  the  United  States",  "to  make  religious 
freedom  the  basis  of  the  State  ". 

Cecilius  Calvert  was  a  conscientious  Catholic.  In- 
deed, "  it  was  to  that  fact  that  he  owed  the  continuous 
hostility  he  had  to  meet  with",  says  Prof.  William 
Hand  Browne  of  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  his 
"  History  of  a  Paktinate  " :  "  He  had  only  to  declare 
himself  a  Protestant  and  all  this  hostility  would  have 
ceased.  This  he  did  not  do. "  In  1643,  the  House  of 
Burgesses  of  Virginia  passed  a  stringent  law  requiring 
of  all  persons  a  strict  conformity  with  the  worship  and 
discipline  of  the  Church  of  England,  the  established 
Church  of  that  colony.  This  act  was  put  into  vigorous 
execution  by  the  governor,  and  a  considerable  body  of 
Puritans  were  driven  out  of  Virginia  into  Maryland .  At 
their  solicitation  Governor  Stone  gave  them  a  large 
tract  of  land  on  the  Severn,  where  they  made  a  settle- 
ment, calling  it  Providence  (now  Annapolis).  Soon 
they  began  to  complain  that  their  consciences  would  not 
allow  them  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of  a  Catholic 
proprietary,  and  in  1650  they  started  a  rebellion,  and 
seized  the  government  of  the  colony.  They  convened 
a  General  Assembly  to  which  Catholics  were  declared 
to  be  ineligible  either  as  members  or  electors.  The 
first  thing  this  illegal  and  revolutionary  body  did  was 
to  repeal  the  Act  of  Toleration  of  1649,  and  to  enact 
another  "  Concerning  Religion  "  which  contained  this 
proNision:  "That  none  who  profess  and  exercise  the 
Papistic,  commonly  known  as  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion, can  be  protected  in  this  province."  By  this 
act  Catholics  and  Church  of  England  adherents  were 
expressly  proscribed,  and  the  profession  of  any  other 
religion  could  be  included  as  the  caprice  or  intolerance 
of  its  authors  should  at  any  time  require. 

During  the  Puritan  usurpation  the  Catholic  Churoh 
suffered  greatly.  Swashbucklers  paraded  the  province, 
breaking  into  the  chapels  and  mission  houses  and  de- 
stroying property.  Three  of  the  Jesuit  priests  fled 
to  Virginia,  where  they  kept  themselves  in  hiding 
for  two  or  three  years,  enduring  great  privations.  One 
only  remained  in  Maryland.  In  1658  the  govern- 
ment of  the  province  was  restored  to  Lord  Baltimore. 
A  General  Assembly  was  convoked  which  re-enacted 
the  Toleration  Act  of  1649.  This  Act  remained  on  the 
statute  book  under  the  Catholic  proprietaries  until  the 
Protestant  Revolution  of  1689.     Maryland  now  en- 

J'oyed  another  era  of  quiet  and  prosperity,  and  the 
esuits  returning  to  the  province  resumed  their  mLsh 
sionary  labours.  In  1660  the  population  of  the  prov- 
ince numbered  12,000;  in  1665,  16,000;  and  in  1671, 
20,000.  This  rapid  increase  is  a  proof  of  the  wisdom 
and  liberality  of  the  proprietary's  rule.  The  Catholic 
inhabitants  auring  tnis  period,  the  majority  of  whom 
were  in  St.  Mary  s  and  Charles  Counties,  were  esti- 
mated to  be  between  4000  and  5000,  served  by  two, 
sometimes  three,  Jesuits  and  two  Franciscans  who 
arrived  in  1673. 

Philip  Calvert,  brothtr  of  Cecilius,  was  governor 
from  1660  to  1662,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Charles 
Calvert,  the  son  and  heir  of  Cecilius,  who,  on  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1675,  became  the  third  Lord  Baltimore 
and  second  proprietary  of  the  province.    Chariee 


2CABYLAMD 


758 


2CABYLAMD 


married  and  settled  in  the  province,  and  lived  there 
several  years,  discharging  tiie  duties  of  governor  as 
well  as  of  proprietary  according  to  liberal  and  en- 
lightened princfples  and  with  consideration  for  the 
welfare  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1683  the  General  As- 
sembly voted  him  100,000  lbs.  of  tobacco  as  an  ex- 
pression of  "  the  duty  gratitude  and  affection"  of  the 
people  of  the  provmce.  This  he  declined  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  impose  too  great  a  tax  buiden  on 
the  people. 

Puritan  Usurpation. — Charles  was  not,  however, 
without  his  troubles.  Attempts  were  made  in  167G  to 
force  him  to  make  public  provision  for  the  clergymen 
of  the  Church  of  England.  This,  following  his  father's 
example,  he  declined  to  do,  and  with  the  approval  of 
the  innaoitants,  because  of  the  worthless  character  and 
scandalous  conduct  of  most  of  the  ministers  of  that 
denomination  sent  over  from  England.  In  1676  a 
proclamation  was  issued  by  the  Protestant  malcon- 
tents denouncing  the  government  of  the  Catholic  Pro- 
prietary, demanding  its  extinction,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  royal  governor.  They  assembled  in  arms  in 
Calvert  County  to  carry  out  their  programme,  but 
Governor  Notfey,  in  the  absence  of  Sir  Charles  Cal- 
vert in  Ensland,  quickly  suppressed  the  movement 
and  hanged  two  of  the  ringleaders.  Later  on  the 
malcontents  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity 
created  by  the  Revolution  in  England  to  raise  the 
standard  of  revolt  against  the  government  of  Lord 
Baltimore,  and  to  call  upon  all  good  Protestants  to  aid 
in  its  overthrow.  Unoer  the  leadership  of  one  John 
Coode,  an  apostate  Catholic,  a  Colonel  Jowles  and 
others  formed  "  The  Protestant  Association  in  arms  to 
defend  the  Protestant  religion''.  All  sorts  of  lying 
charges  against  the  Catholics  were  scattered  broad- 
cast through  the  community.  They  were  accused 
among  other  things  of  forming  an  alliance  with  the 
Indians  for  the  massacre  of  tlie  Protestants.  The 
Government  of  the  proprietary  was  overthrown,  and  a 
Committee  of  Public  Safety  was  installed  in  its  place. 
This  Committee  appealed  to  William  and  Mary  for  a 
recognition,  and  to  the  discredit  of  those  monarchs  it 
was  given. 

Lord  Baltimore,  without  the  charge  of  a  single 
offence  bein^  brought  against  him,  except  that  he  was 
a  Catholic,  without  a  trial  by  a  jury  of  his  peers,  against 
his  earnest  protest,  and  notwilHstanding  the  remon- 
strances of  large  numbers  of  respectable  Protestants 
in  several  of  the  counties,  was  deprived  of  all  the  civil 
and  political  authority  conferred  upon  him  in  the 
charter,  and  remained  so  deprived  until  his  death  in 
1715.  William  and  Mary  without  a  scruple  took  over 
the  province,  made  it  a  royal  colony,  and  appointed 
Lionel  Copley  governor.  And  now  began  the  reign  of 
religious  intolerance  and  bigotry.  William  and  Mary, 
although  they  deprived  Lord  Baltimore  of  his  govern- 
ment of  the  province  in  violation  of  the  express  pro- 
visions of  the  charter,  refused  to  sanction  the  repeated 
attempts  made  by  the  Maryland  usurpers  to  rob  him 
of  his  proprietary  rights.  These  rignts  he  retained 
until  his  death  in  1715,  administering  his  land  olFice, 
appointing  his  surv'eyors,  collecting  his  rents  and 
issuing,  as  the  only  recognized  source  of  title,  grants 
and  patents  for  lands  to  claimants  under  the  condi- 
tions of  plantation  promulgated  by  his  father  Cecilius. 
This  retention  of  his  territory  enabled  the  proprietary 
to  save  his  province  and  the  future  State  ot  Marj-land 
from  absorption  by  either  Virginia  or  Pennsylvania 
colonies.  Encouraged  by  the  Government  both  in 
England  and  in  the  colony,  and  by  the  sympathy  and 
support  of  the  Protestant  inhabitants  of  Maryland, 
the  revolutionists  began  an  era  of  religious  persecu- 
tion. 

In  1692  an  "  Act  of  Religion "  was  passed  whereby 
all  the  penal  laws  of  England  existing  at  that  time 
against  the  Catholics  were  declared  to  be  in  force  in 
the  colony.    This  Act  established  the  Church  of  Eng- 


land as  the  Church  of  the  province,  and  provided  for 
conformity  with  its  worship  and  discipline.     To  Eps- 
copal  clei^^en  was  given  jurisdiction  in  testamentaiy 
causes.    Tne  members  of  the  Church  of  England  at 
that  time  constituted  but  a  small  minority  of  the 
people.    To  the  Dissenters  and  the  Quakers,  who  to- 
other with  the  Catholics  formed  a  considerable  ma- 
jority of  the  people,  this  act  was  very  obnoxious. 
Under  the  rule  of  the  Catholic  proprietaries  there  was 
no  Established  Church,  no  tax  imposed  for  its  sup- 
port, no  conformity  with  its  worship  and  discipline  re- 
quired under  penalties  for  non-compliance.     In  1702 
an  Act  was  passed  exempting  Puritans  and  Quakers 
and  all  other  Rinds  of  Dissenters  from  the  provisions  of 
this  law,  except  the  one  imposing  an  annual  tax  of  40 
pounds  of  tobacco  per  poll  on  all  the  inhabitants  for 
the  support  of  the  Establishment.    To  the  Catholics  no 
relief  whatever  from  these  burdens  was  extended. 
They  and  they  alone  remained  subject  to  the  jpains, 

S3nalties,  disabilities,  and  taxes  provided  in  this  Act. 
y  the  Test  Oath  of  1692  Catholic  attorneys  were  de- 
barred from  practising  in  the  provincial  courts.  By 
the  Act  of  1704  Catholics  were  prohibited  from  prac- 
tising their  religion;  priests  were  debarred  from  the 
exercise  of  their  functions;  priests  and  parents  for- 
bidden to  teach  Catholic  children  their  religion,  and 
the  children  encouraged  to  refuse  obedience  to  the 
rule  and  authority  of  their  parents. 

Charles,  Lord  Baltimore,  died  20  February,  1715. 
His  son  Benedict  Leonard  now  succeeded  to  the  title 
and  estates.  This  son,  a  few  years  before  the  death  of 
his  father,  had  renounced  the  Catholic  Faith,  and  with 
his  family  had  conformed  to  the  Church  of  England. 
His  father,  incensed  by  this  conduct,  had  cut  off 
his  allowance.  To  replace  this.  Queen  Anne  had, 
on  the  petition  of  Benedict,  directed  Governor  Hart  to 
provide  for  him  an  annuity  of  £500  out  of  the  revenue 
of  the  province.  This  apostasy  proved  an  injury  to 
the  Catholics  of  Maryland.  Benedict  died  5  April, 
1715.  His  son  Charles  II.  who  had  conformed  with 
his  father,  became  2he  fifth  Lord  Baltimore  and  the 
fourth  proprietary,  and  received  from  Queen  Anne 
the  government  of  the  province.  In  17.18  a  more 
stringent  law  w^as  passed  barring  Catholics  from  the 
exercise  of  the  franchise  and  the  nolding  of  any  office 
in  the  province.  In  1 71 5  a  law  was  adopted  providing 
that  if  a  Protestant  should  die  leaving  a  widow  and 
children,  and  such  widow  should  marry  a  Catholic,  or 
be  herself  of  that  opinion,  it  should  be  the  duty  of  the 
governor  and  council  to  remove  such  child  or  children 
out  of  the  custody  of  such  parents  and  place  them 
where  they  might  be  securely  educated  in  the  Protes- 
tant religion.  This  Act  was  amended  and  re-enacted 
in  1729  by  an  Act  which  in  the  case  mentioned  gave  the 
power  to  take  the  child  to  any  justice  of  the  county 
court.  Without  regard  to  sex  or  age  the  child  or 
children  should  be  put  w^herever  the  justice  pleased. 
There  was  no  appeal. 

In  all  this  proscriptive  legislation  there  are  evi- 
dences of  a  latent  lU-conc^ed  purpose  which  in 
1756  was  boldly  announced  in  petitions  to  the  Lower 
House,  and  in  a  series  of  articles  from  correspondents 
in  the  "  Maryland  Gazette  "  published  in  Annapolis. 

The  Jesuits  owned  and  cultivated  several  lai^ 
manors  and  other  tracts  of  fertile  lands,  the  revenues 
of  which  were  devoteil  to  religion,  charity,  education, 
and  their  missionary  work.  The  Assembly  was  there- 
fore prayed  to  enact  that  all  manors,  tenements,  etc., 
possessed  by  the  priests  should  on  1  October,  1756,  be 
taken  from  them,  and  vested  in  a  commission  appointed 
for  that  purpose  and  sold^  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  to 
be  devoted  to  the  protection  of  the  inhabitants  from 
the  French  and  Indians.  Priests  were  to  be  required 
to  take  all  the  test  oaths  and  on  their  refusal  banished, 
and.  as  "  Romish  recusants  "^  their  lands  to  be  forfeited. 
In  tne  same  year  the  Upper  House,  as  the  Governor's 
Council  was  called,  framed  a  bill  with  the  title  "To 


MiATLAHD                           759  BCARYLAMD 

prevent  the  erowth  of  Popery  within  this 'province'',  Baltimore,  because  he  was  a  Catholic.  The  proprie- 
which  provided  that  priests  were  to  be  made  incap-  tary  rule,  notwithstanding  the  clamours  of  the  malcon- 
able  of  holding  any  lands,  to  be  obliged  to  register  tents  and  revolutionists  of  1689,  was  acceptable  to  the 
their  names,  and  give  bond  for  their  good  conduct;  people.  The  only  ground  of  objection,  indeed,  ever 
were  prohibited  from  converting  Protestants  under  urged  against  the  government  of  either  Cedlius  or 
the  penalty  of  high  treason,  and  further  that  anv  per-  Charles  Calvert  was  that  they  were  Catholics.  * 
son  educated  at  a  forei^  Catholic  seminary  could  not  War  for  Independence. — Maryland  did  not  at 
inherit  or  hold  lands  m  the  province.  There  were  first  contemplate  or  favour  independence,  and  had  so 
other  eoually  severe  disabilities  and  penalties  im-  instructed  her  delegates  to  the  Continental  Congress, 
posed.  But  a  controversy  arose  between  the  two  While  the  public  mind  was  in  this  uncertain  and  un- 
Houses  over  the  bill  during  which  it  was  dropped.  To  balanced  state,  Dulany's  letter  appeared  and  pro- 
render  the  province  no  longer  a  desirable  place  of  resi-  duced  considerable  effect.  The  patriot  cause,  the 
dence  to  the  loyal  Catholic  gentlemen  and  their  families  cause  of  independence,  found  a  champion  in  the  dis- 
was  the  object  of  these  propositions  and  laws.  Charles  f  ranchised  Catholic,  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton  (q.  v.), 
Carrol],  the  father  of  the  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  In-  the  wealthiest  landowner  in  the  province.  Four 
dependence,  wrot^  to  his  son  that  Marvland  was  no  letters  passed  between  the  controversialists.  By 
longer  a  fit  place  for  a  Catholic  to  resia.e,  and  he  felt  general  acknowledpnent  the  triumph  of  Carroll  was 
inclined  to  dispose  of  his  great  landed  estate  and  complete.  Carroll^  letters  met  with  an  enthusiastic 
leave  the  province.  Fortunately  his  son  earnestly  per-  reception  by  the  patriots,  and  the  cause  of  independ- 
suadedhimnottodoso.  Some  families  sought  refuge  ence  was  won.  Throwing  all  selfish  considerations 
from  these  intolerant  laws  and  the  more  mtolerant  aside,  Maiyland,  henceforth  a  state  and  no  longer  a 
sentiments  of  the  people  under  the  milder  rule  of  province,  cast  her  lot  with  the  other  colonies.  Subse- 
Pennsylvania:  In  1752  the  same  Charles  Carroll,  quently,  two  other  Catholic  CarroUs  took  prominent 
after  consultation  with  some  of  the  principal  Catholic  parts  in  the  revolutionary  struggle :  Rev.  John  Car- 
families  of  IVIaryland,  went  to  France  to  obtain  from  roll  (q.  v.).  afterwards  the  first  bishop  of  the  United 
Louis  XV  a  tract  of  land  in  the  Louisiana  territory  for  States,  ana  Daniel  Carroll  of  Duddington  (q.  v.). 
the  purpose  of  transporting  the  Catholics  of  the  The  name  of  Daniel  Carroll  is  little  known,  and  his 
provmce  in  a  body  to  that  country.  He  failed  in  his  patriotic  services  have  never  been  sufficiently  recog- 
mission.  Maryland  Catholics  began  to  emigrate  to  nized.  While  a  member  of  the  Congress  from  Marv- 
Kentucky  in  1774,  and  in  17S5  twenty-five  Catholic  land,  he  took  a  leading  and  prominent  part  in  tne 
faoiilies  set  out  from  St.  Mary's  County  for  Pottinger's  settlement  of  a  question  of  profound  significance  and 
Creek  (see  Kentucky).  ^  importance  to  his  country.  Under  language  of  a  very 
In  the  absence  of  reliable  statistics  it  is  difficult  to  vague  character  in  their  charters,  as  colonies,  from  the 
ascertain  the  ^owth  of  the  population  in  the  colony  king,  several  of  the  states  laid  claim  to  laree  stretches 
during  the  period  elapsing  from  1634  to  1690;  aooord-  of  the  territory  west  of  the  Alleghanies.  Virginia  as- 
ing  to  the  estimate  already  given,  in  1671,  it  was  serted  a  blanket  claim  to  the  whole  territory  under  the 
20,000.  The  Protestant  RevSution  exercised  a  de-  charter  of  1607.  Verv  early  in  the  sessions  of  the 
terring  influence,  so  that  in  1708,  it  was  only  33,000,  of  Congress  Maryland  had  introduced  through  her  repre- 
whom  3000  were  Catholics.  In  1754  the  population  sentatives  a  resolution  to  the  effect  that  if,  as  a  result 
was  placed  at  153,000,  of  whom  the  Catholics  num-  of  the  war  then  being  waged,  these  lands  should  be  ac- 
berea  about  8000.  During  the  early  part  of  this  ouired  by  the  Confeaeration  from  Great  Britain,  they 
period,  the  number  of  priests — mostlv,  sometimes  ex-  should  become  the  common  property  of  all  the  states, 
dusively,  Jesuits — serving  this  Catholic  population  free  to  the  entrance  of  the  inhabitants  of  all  the  states, 
averaged  four  or  five;  during  the  latter  part  ten  to  and  regulated  and  governed  by  the  Congress  as  the 
twelve.  In  1759  the  ^imated  Catholic  population  of  trustee  of  all  the  states,  and  declared  she  would  not 
the  province  was  9000,  and  the  number  of  priests,  all  sign  the  Articles  of  Confederation  until  the  states  claim- 
Jesuits,  eight  to  fifteen.  In  1756  Bishop  Challoner,  ing  these  lands  should  make  a  surrender  of  them  to 
vicar  apostolic  in  England,  places  the  number  of  Congress  to  become  in  time  independent  states  and 
priests  at  twelve.  In  1763  the  Catholic  population  members  of  the  Union.  The  resolution  met  with 
was  estimated  to  be  between  8000  and  10,000,  whose  great  opposition  from  the  landed  states,  especiidly 
spiritual  needs  were  supplied  by  fourteen  Jesuits.  By  from  Virginia.  Alone  and  unsupported  by  any  other 
1769  this  population  had  increased  to  12,000.  Numeiv  state,  Maryland  remained  firm  and  ultimately  tri- 
ous  conversions  had  bc^n  made.  The  proclamation  of  umphed.  John  Fiske,  in  his  **  Critical  Period  of  Ameri- 
independence  and  the  Revolution  which  followed  it  can  Historv  ",  does  not  hesitate  to  say  that  but  for  the 
put  an  end  to  the  royal  authority  in  the  American  position  taken  by  Maryland  on  this  question  the  Union 
colonies,  and  to  the  proprietary  rule  in  Maryland,  and  would  not  have  been  fonned;  or,  if  formed,  would 
struck  the  shackles  from  the  Catholics  of  that  province,  soon  have  been  broken  in  pieces  by  the  conflicting 
Henceforth  a  new  order  of  things  was  to  prevail,  pretensions  of  the  landed  states. 
Daniel  Dulany,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  the  attorney  The  Catholics  of  Maryland,  both  clergy  and  laity, 
general  of  the  province  under  the  last  proprietary  warmly  espoused  the  patriot  cause.  On  the  roster  of 
governor,  had  addressed  a  letter  to  the  people  of  the  Maryland  Line  are  to  be  found  the  names  of  repre- 
Marvland  earnestly  uiging  them  to  remain  steadfast  sentatives  of  the  Catholic  families  of  Maryland.  The 
in  their  loyalty  tx>  the  Kmg  of  England  and  to  the  important  services  of  the  Carrolls,  the  loyalty  of  the 
provincial  authority.  He  pointed  out  as  a  dissuasive  Catholic  clergy  and  laity  to  the  patriot  cause,  coupled 
to  Maryland  from  joining  her  sister  colonies  in  the  with  the  fact  that  the  whole  body  of  the  Anglican 
revolt  the  fact  that  under  Section  XX  of  the  Mary-  cleigy  had  almost  to  a  man  adhered  to  King  George, 
land  Charter  the  province  enjoyed  the  right  of  abso-  had  somewhat  ameliorated  the  old  intolerant  senti- 
lute  exencmtion  from  all  taxation  by  kin^  or  Parlia-  ments  of  the  people  of  colonial  Maryland  towards  the 
ment.  Theauthoritvof  Mr.  Dulany  was  high,  and  his  Catholic  religion  and  its  professors.  This  change  of 
argument  strong.  Another  letter  was  calculated  to  sentiment  found  expression  in  Section  XXXIII  of 
exert  an  influence  unfavourable  to  the  patriot  cause,  the  Bill  of  Rights  of  the  Constitution  of  the  new  State 
The  fact  was,  the  royal  authority  had  been  exerted  in  of  Maryland,  ^opted  in  November,  1776.  In  this  arti- 
Maryland  only  to  a  limited  extent.  No  royal  govern-  cle  it  is  declared  that  all  persons  professing  the  Chris- 
ors  had  been  appointed  except  during  the  usurpation  tian  religion  are  equally  entitled  to  protection  .  .  . 
of  the  Protestant  ascendency,  when  tne  government  of  that  no  person  ought  to  be  compelled  to  frequent  or 
the  province,  and  the  appointment  of  governors,  was  maintain  any  particular  place  of^worship  or  any  par- 
taken temporarily  out  of  the  hands  of  Charles,  Lord  ticular  ministry.    Still  it  provided  that  tne  legislature 


BIAEYLAKD                            760  ICAEtLAMD 

might  in  its  discretion  lay  a  general  and  equal  tax  for  limits  of  the  country.     (See  Baltimore,  Arctidio- 

the  support  of  the  Christian  religion,  leaving  to  each  in-  cme  of  ;  Carroll,  John  .) 

dividual  taxpayer  the  right  to  designate  to  what  partic-  In  the  War  of  1812  with  England,  a  number  of  locali- 

ular  place  of  worship  or  to  what  particular  mmister  ties  suffered  from  the  attacks  of  the  British  fleet.    The 

his  portion  of  the  tax  should  be  applied.     By  this  bombardment  of  FortMcHenry,  Baltimore,  13  »Sept., 

article  also  the  churches,  chapels,  parsonages,  and  1814,  was  the  occasion  of  the  composition   of  the 

glebe  lands  of  the  Church  of  England  in  the  province  National    anthem,    "The    Star-Spangled-  Bamicr". 

were  secured  to  that  Church  forever.     It  further  pro-  On  12  Sept.,  1814,  the  Maryland  troops  under  General 

vided  that  all  Acts  of  the  General  Assembly  passed  for  Strieker  checked  the  British  forces  commanded  bv 

collecting  money  for  building  or  repairing  of  churches  General  Ross  at  the  Battle  of  North  Point.     This 

or  chapeb  (that  is  for  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church)  victory  saved  the  Republic  from  being  cut  in  two  by 

shall  continue  in  force  until  repealed  by  the  l^islature.  the  British  and  resulted  in  the  Treaty  of  Ghent,  which 

This  article,  adopted  in  1776,  fell  far  short  of  that  full  was  signed  on  2  December,  1814.    The  defeat  and 

and  just  measure  of  relieious  freedom  announced  a  death  of  General  Ross  at  the  Battle  of  North  Point 

century  and  a  half  before  oyCeciliusCaKert  in  his  in-  was  a  vital  moment  in  the  history  of  the  United 

structions  to  Governor  Leonard  Calvert  and  the  Toler-  States.     During  the  Civil  War,  1861-65,  as  a  border 

ation  Act  of  1649.     It  remained  on  the  statutes  until  state  Maryland  had  many  citizens  who  favoured  se- 

the  first  Congress  of  the  United  States  passed  its  first  cession.     In  October,  1864,  a  new  constitution  abol- 

amendment,  to  the  effect  that  **  Congress  shall  make  ished  slavery  and  disfranchised  all  who  had  aided  the 

no  laws  respecting  the  establishment  of  religion  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States, 

prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof  ".  Education. — The  percentage  of  illiterate    nati\'e 

The  success  of  the  Revolution  rendered  necessary  whites,  41,  is  the  lowest,  and  of  negroes,  35-1,  the 

new  arrangements  and  adjustments  of  ecclesiastical  second  lowest  of  any  state  having  a  large  negro  popu- 

jurisdiction  and  authority  in  the  Catholic  Church  of  lation.     P'rom  the  time  of  the  first  Jesuit  miasioiiaries 

the  United  States.     In  a  population  of  about  200,000,  Catholic  effort  for  sound  education  has  been  constant. 

the  Catholics  of  Maryland  numbered  at  the  clase  of  the  To  further  the  organization  of  a  native  clergy  Bishop 

revolution  15,000:    9000  adults,  30(X)  chiklren,  and  Carroll  secured  the  services  of  a  number  of  Sulpidans, 

3000  slaves.    The  number  of  Catholic  priests  at  the  who  on  3  Octol)er,  1791,  began  St.  Mary's  Seminaiy, 

same  time  in  Maryland  was  twenty-one.    The  vicars  Baltimore.     In  January,  1805,  the  State  legislature 

ApostoHc  of  London  had  jurisdiction  over  the  English  gave  it  the  charter  of  a  university.    Up  to  1910,  1800 

colonies  in  America,  and  this  jurisdiction  was  con-  priests  had  been  educated  there.     Many  distinguished 

firmed    to   Bishop   Challoner   on   his   appointment.  laymen  also  studied  within  its  walls.     Under  the  same 

Writing  to  Propaganda  in  1750  he  urged  that  a  bishop  direction  St.  Charles  College,  Ellicott  City,  was  founded 

or  vicar  Apostolic  be  appointed  for  the  Catholics  in  in  1830.     Georgetown  University  (q.  v!)  waa  founded 

our  [i.  e.,  British]  American  settlements.     In  1765  he  in  1778,  and  in  its  first  years  some  of  the  Sulpidana 

favoured  the  idea  of  two  or  three  vicariates  and  wrote  assisted  as  professors  in  the  work  of  the  institution, 

in  this  sense  to  his  agent  in  Rome.  carried  on  by  the  Society  of  Jesus.    Other  notable  in- 

In  Rome,  however,  the  Cardinal  of  York,  brother  stitutions  are  Mount  St.  Mary's  Seminary  and  Cd- 

of  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  pretender  to  the  English  lege,  Emmitsburg  (1808);  Loyola  College,  Baltimore 

throne,  was  thouglit  to  control  the  nomination  of  (1852);    Rock  Hill  College,  Ellicott  City  (Christian 

bishops  within  British  dominions.     The  Catholics  of  Brothers,  1865). 

Maryland  were  not  partisans  of  the  House  of  Stuart,  For  women  the  most  modem  educational  advan- 

and,  furthermore,  the  sympathies  of  the  Cardinal  of  tages  are  supplied  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vin- 

York  were  known  to  he  not  on  the  side  of  the  Societ  v  cent  de  Paul  m  St.  Joseph's  College,  founded  by  Mother 

of  Jesus,  to  which  the  Maryland  missionaries  almost  all  Seton  at  Emmitsburg  in  1808,  and  in  the  Academy 

belonged.     Bishop  Challoner  then  suggested  that  the  of  Notre  Dame  of  Mar>iand  at  Baltimore.     The  Ccf- 

Sacraraent  of  Confirmation  \>e  conferred  on  the  Catho-  lege  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  the  philosophical 

hcs  of  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  by  the  Bishop  of  and  theological  House  of  Studies  of  the  Society  of 

Quebec,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  this  ever  took  Jesus,  is  at  Woodstock;   the  Redemptorist  House  of 

place,  or  tliat  Confirmation  was  administered  prior  to  Studies  is  at  lUchester,  and  the  normal  school  and 

the  War  of  Independence.     On  27  June,  1783,  a  meet-  novitiate  of  the  Christian  Brothers  at  Ammendale. 

ing  of  the  Catholic  clergy  of  Maryland  was  held  at  Nearly  one-half  the  parishes  of  the  State  have  Catho- 

White  Marsh,  Prince  George's  County,  to  take  into  He  schools.    The  boys' parochial  schools  are  under  the 

considenition  the  status  and  the  wants  of  the  Church  cliarge  of  the  Christian  Brothers  and  the  Xaverian 

under  the  new  political  order  brought  about  by  the  Brothers.    The  girls'  schools  are  under  the  charge  of 

war.    This  meeting  addresvsed  a  petition  to  His  Iloli-  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  and^  the 

ness  Pius  VI,  refuiesting  the  appomtment  of  a  prefect  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame.    The  governor,  princi- 

Apostolic  clothetl  with  episcopal  powers.     In  response  pal  of  the  State  Normal  School  and  state  euperin- 

to  this  petition,  on  9  June,  1784  a  Decree  of  the  Propa-  tendent.with  four  meml)ors  appointetl  by  the  governor, 

ganda  was  issued  organizing  the  Catholic  Church  in  make  up  the  State  Board  of  Education.    The  gover- 

the  United  States,  and  appointing  the  Rev.  John  nor  and  Senate  name  a  Board  of  School  Commis- 

Carroll  superior  of  the  missions  in  the  thirteen  Unitecl  sioners  for  each  coimty,  and  this  board  selects  three 

States  of  America.     Father  Carroll  at  once  entered  school  trustees  in  each  district.    The  law  makes  the 

on  the  duties  of  his  office,  but  it  required  but  little  annual  school  term  last  ten  months, 

experience  to  dcmonstmte  that  the  appointment  of  Charities. — \  Board  of  State  Aid  and  Charities 

a  "Superior  of  Missions"  was  wholly  inadequate  to  appointed  by  the  governor  and  the  Senate  receives 

meet  the  wants  of  the  Church  in  the  United  States,  all  applications  for  state  aid,  and  recommends  to  the 

and  that  a  bishop  with  full  authority  and  jurisdiction  legislature  the  amount  to  be  granted  and  its  recipient, 

was  necessary.     In  17SS  a  petition  to  that  effect,  signed  There  are  6  Catholic  hospitals;    2  homes  for  aged 


Pope  Pius  VI.    Ilis  Holiness  approved  the  recom-  as  well  as  churches  and  cemeteries,  is  exempt  from 

mnidation,  and  a  Bull  was  issued  on  6  Noveml)er,  taxation.    Burial  plots  in  cemeteries  are  not  hable  for 

■1788,  establishing  Baltimore  as  a  see  and  appointing  debts,  etc. 

i.  ttBiBZjtjUAfiKroU  its  first  bishop.    The  authority  and  Laws  Affecting  Reugiox.— .\11  Sundaj-s,  besides 

e  bishop  was  co-extensive  with  the  New  Year's  Day,  Christmas,  and  Good  Friday,  are 


je^^^'^'m 

w 

Ai 

w 

p 

Ir     -1 

CHRIST  AND  MARY  MAGDALEN 

B    PRADO,    MADRID 


MARY 


761 


MART 


legal  holidays.  Incorporation  of  Catholic  churches  is 
made  accoraing  to  a  special  law  bv  the  body  com- 
posed of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  his  vicar-general, 
the  pastor  of  the  parish  and  two  otnerpersons  electea 
annually  by  the  male  pewhoiders.  Tne  form  of  the 
judicial  or  other  oath  not  provided  for  in  the  State 
Constitution  is:  "  In  the  presence  of  Almighty  God  I  do 
solemnly  promise  * ',  or  "  declare  ",  etc.  It  is  not  lawful 
to  add  to  any  oath  the  words  "  So  help  me  God ",  or 
any  imprecatory  words  whatever.  Affirmation  is  suf- 
ficient if  the  conscience  of  the  person  is  against  an 
oath.  The  manner  is  by  holding  up  the  right  hand, 
unless  this  is  not  practical  or  some  other  way  is  con- 
sidered more  bindmg. 

No  one  who  takes  part  in,  or  aids  or  abets  a  duel,  or 
sends  or  accepts  a  challenge,  can  hold  office.  No 
minister  of  the  Gospel  is  eligible  for  election  to  the  Legis- 
lature. Murder  in  the  first  degree  is  punishable  with 
death ;  arson,  rape,  and  treason  with  death  or  imprison- 
ment at  the  aiscretion  of  the  court.  The  chief  groimds 
of  divorce  are  adultery,  abandonment  for  three  years, 
impotency  at  time  of  marriage,  and  misconduct  of  wife 
before  marriage  unknown  to  husband.  Separation 
from  bed  and  board  is  granted  for  cruel  treatment,  ex- 
cessively vicious  conduct,  or  desertion. 

RUS8EIX,  The  Land  of  Sanctuary  (Baltimore,  1907);  Huohes, 
The  History  of  the  Society  ofJeaua  in  North  America  (Cleveland, 


1907-10);    BosMAN,  Hxstory  of  Maryland  1633-60  (Baltimore. 

■"  '" "  ruland 

(Baltimore.  1848}*!^  BnowtiE,  Mary Uind,  History  of  a  Palatinate 


1861);  McShrrry,  History  of  Maryland .  .  ,to  the  Year  1848 


(Boston.  1884);  McMahon,  History  of  Maryland  to  1776  (Bal- 
timore, 1831):  ScHARFP,  History  of  Maryland  (BsUtimore, 
1879);  Davis,  The  Day-Star  of  American  Freedom  (New 
York,  1855);  Mokris,  The  Lords  Baltimore  (Baltimore,  lo74); 
Hall,  The  Ixtrds  Baltimore  and  the  Maryland  Palatinate 
(Baltimore.  1902);  Calvert  Papers;  Maryland  Archives;  Kiltt, 
Landholder  8  Assiatant  (Baltimore,  1808);  Bacon,  Laws  of 
Maryland  (Annapolis,  1765) ;  Bulletins  of  the  Maryland  Orioirud 
Research  Society;  Fiske,  Old  Viryinia  and  her  Neighbors  (Bos- 
ton, 1897);  Adamb,  Village  Communities  of  Cape  Anne  and 
ScUem  (Baltimore,  1883) ;  Qambrall,  History  of  Early  Mary- 
land (New  York,  1893);  Johnson,  Old  Maryland  Manors 
(Baltimore,  1883);  White,  Relatio  Itineris  in  Marylandiam  in 
Hist.  Soc.  Publ.;  Zwierlein,  Religion  in  New  Netherland 
(Rochester,  1910).     See  also  bibliography  of  Carroll,  John. 

A.  Leo  Knott. 

Mary  Magdalen,  so  called  either  from  Magdala  near 
Tiberias,  on  the  west  shore  of  Galilee,  or  possibly 
from  a  Talmudic  expression  K^^K'i  \r\T^  XTliD,  i.  e. 
"curling  women's  hair",  which  the  Talmud  explains 
as  of  an  adulteress.  In  the  New  Testament  she  is 
mentioned  among  the  women  who  accompanied 
Christ  and  ministered  to  Him  (Luke,  viii,  2-3),  where  it 
is  also  said  that  seven  devils  had  been  cast  out  of  her 
(Mark,  xvi,  9).  She  is  next  named  as  standing  at  the 
foot  of  the  cross  (Mark,xv,  40;  Matt.,  xxvii,  56;  John, 
xix,  25;  Luke,  xxiii,  49).  She  saw  Christ  laid  in  the 
tomb,  and  she  was  the  first  recorded  witness  of  the 
Resurrection.  The  Greek  Fathers,  as  a  whole,  dis- 
tinguish the  three  persons:  the  "sinner'*  of  Luke,  vii, 
36-50;  the  sister  of  Martha  and  Lazarus,  Luke,  x, 
38-42,  and  John,  xi;  and  Mar^*^  Magdalen.  On  the 
other  hand  most  of  the  Latins  hold  that  these  three 
were  one  and  the  same.  Protestant  critics,  however, 
believe  there  were  two,  if  not  three,  distinct  persons. 
It  is  impossible  to  demonstrate  the  identity  of  the 
three;  but  those  commentators  undoubtedly  go  too 
far  who  assert,  as  does  Westcott  (on  John,  xi,  1), 
"that  the  identity  of  Mary  with  Mary  Magdalene  is  a 
mere  conjecture  supported  by  no  direct  evidence,  and 
opposed  to  the  general  tenour  of  the  gosjpels  ".  It  is  the 
iaentification  of  Mary  of  Bethany  with  the  "sinner" 
of  Luke,  vii,  37,  which  is  most  combatted  by  Prot- 
estants (see  Plummer,  "  International  Criticad  Com- 
ment, on  St.  Luke",  p.  209).  It  almost  seems  as  if 
this  reluctance  to  identify  the  "sinner"  with  the  sister 
of  Martha  were  due  to  a  failure  to  grasp  the  full  signif- 
icance of  the  forgiveness  of  sin.  (See  Mayor  in 
Hastings,  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible",  III,  28'1.)  The 
harmonizing  tendencies  of  so  nmny  modem  critics, 
too,  arc  responsible  for  nuich  of  the  existing  confusion. 


The  first  fact  mentioned  in  the  Gospel  relating  to 
the  question  under  discussion  is  the  anointing  of 
Christ's  feet  by  a  woman,  a  "sinner"  in  the  city 
([Luke,  vii,  37-50).  This  belongs  to  the  Galilean  min- 
istry, it  precedes  the  miracle  of  the  feeding  of  the 
five  thousand  and  the  third  Passover.  Immediately 
afterwards  St.  Luke  describes  a  missionary  circuit  in 
Galilee  and  tells  us  of  the  women  who  nunistered  to 
Christ,  among  them  being  "  Mary  who  is  called  Magda- 
len, out  of  whom  seven  devils  were  gone  forth"  (Luke, 
viii,  2) ;  but  he  does  not  tell  us  that  she  is  to  be  identified 
with  the  * '  sinner ' '  of  the  previous  chapter.  In  x,  3&-42, 
he  tells  us  of  Christ's  visit  to  Martha  and  Mary  "  in  a 
certain  town";  it  is  impossible  to  identify  this  town, 
but  it  is  clear  from  ix,  53,  that  Christ  had  definitivelv 
left  Galilee,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  this  "town'' 
was  Bethany.  This  seems  confirmed  by  the  preceding 
parable  of  the  good  Samaritan,  which  must  almost 
certainly  have  been  spoken  on  the  road  between  Jer- 
icho and  Jerusalem.  But  here  again  we  note  that 
there  is  no  suggjestion  of  an  identification  of  the 
three  persons,  viz.,  the  "sinner",  Mary  Magdalen, 
and  Mary  of  Bethany;  and  if  we  had  only  St.  Luke 
to  guide  us  we  should  certainly  have  no  grounds 
for  so  identifying  them.  St.  John,  however,  clearly 
identifies  Maiy  of  Bethany  with  the  woman  who 
anointed  Christ's  feet  (xii*  cf.  Matt.,  xxvi,  and 
Mark,  xiv).  It  is  remarkable  that  already  m  xi,. 
2,  St.  John  has  spoken  of  Mary  as  "she  that 
anointed  the  Lord's  feet",  ^  dXe/^cwa;  it  is  com- 
monly said  that  he  refers  to  the  subsequent  anointing 
which  he  himself  describes  in  xii,  3-8;  but  it  may  be 
questioned  whether  he  would  have  used  ^  dXef^cwa 
if  another  woman,  and  she  a  "sinner"  in  the  city,  had 
done  Uie  same.  It  is  conceivable  that  St.  John,  just 
because  he  is  writing  so  long  after  the  event  and  at  a 
time  when  Mary  was  dead,  wishes  to  point  out  to  us 
that  she  was  really  the  same  as  the  "  sinner".  In  the 
same  way  St.  Lute  may  have  veiled  her  identity  pre- 
cisely because  he  did  not  wish  to  defame  one  who  was 
yet  living;  he  certainly  does  something  similar  in  the 
case  of  St.  Matthew  whose  identity  with  Levi  the 
publican  (v,  7)  he  conceals. 

If  the  foregoing  argument  holds  good,  Mary  of 
Bethany  and  the  "sinner"  are  one  and  the  same. 
But  an  examination  of  St.  John's  Gospel  makes  it  al- 
most impossible  to  deny  the  identity  of  Mary  of  Beth- 
any with  Mary  Magdalen.  From  St.  John  we  learn 
the  name  of  the  "woman"  who  anointed  Christ's  feet 
previous  to  the  last  supper.  We  may  remark  here 
that  it  seems  unnecessary  to  hold  that  because  St. 
Matthew  and  St.  Mark  say  "  two  days  before  the  Pass-  • 
over",  while  St.  John  says  "six  days"  there  were, 
therefore,  two  distinct  anointings  following  one  an- 
other. St.  John  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  tJhe 
supper  and  the  anointing  took  place  six  days  before, 
but  only  that  dirist  came  to  Bethany  six  days  before 
the  Passover.  At  that  supper,  then,  Mary  received 
the  glorious  encomium,  "she  hath  wrought  a  good 
work  upon  Me  ...  in  pouring  this  ointment  upon  My 
body  she  hath  done  it  for  My  burial  .  .  .  wheresoever 
this  Gospel  shall  be  preached  .  .  .  that  also  which  she 
hath  done  shall  be  told  for  a  memory  of  her. "  Is  it  cred- 
ible, in  view  of  all  this,  that  this  Mary  should  have  no 
place  at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  nor  at  the  tomb  of  (Christ? 
Yet  it  is  Mary  Magdalen  who,  according  to  all  the 
Evangelists,  stood  at  the  foot  of  the  cross  and  assisted 
at  the  entombment  and  was  the  first  recorded  witness 
of  the  Resurrection.  And  while  St.  John  calls  her 
"Mary  Magdalen  "in  xix,  25,  xx,  1,  18,  he  calls  her 
simply  "Mary"  in  xx,  11  and  16. 

In  the  view  we  have  advocated  the  series  of  events 
forms  a  consistent  whole;  the  "sinner"  comes  early  in 
the  ministry  to  seek  for  pardon;  she  is  described  im- 
mediately afterwards  as  Mary  Magdalen  "out  of 
whom  seven  devils  wore  gone  forth  ";  shortly  after,  we 
find  her  "sitting  at  the  Lonl's  feet  an<l  hearing  His 


MART 


762 


MART 


words  ".  To  the  Catholic  mind  it  all  seems  fitting  and 
natural.  At  a  later  period  Maiy  and  Martha  turn  to 
"the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  Livmg  God", and  He  re- 
stores to  them  their  brother  Lazarus;  a  short  time 
afterwards  thev  make  Him  a  supper  and  Mary  once 
more  repeats  the  act  she  had  performed  when  a  peni- 
tent. At  the  Passion  she  stands  near  by;  she  sees 
Him  laid  in  the  tomb;  and  she  is  the  first  witness  of 
His  Resurrection — excepting  always  His  Mother,  to 
whom  He  must  needs  have  appeared  first,  though  th^ 
New  Testament  is  silent  on  this  point.  In  our  view, 
then,  there  were  two  anointings  of  Christ's  feet — it 
should  surely  be  no  difficulty  that  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Mark  speak  of  His  head — the  first  (Luke,  vii)  took 
place  at  a  comparatively  early  date;  the  second,  two 
days  before  the  last  Passover.  But  it  was  one  and  the 
same  woman  who  performed  this  pious  act  on  each 
occasion. 

Subsequent  History  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen. — 
The  Greek  Church  maintains  that  the  saint  retired  to 
Ephesus  with  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  there  dieti,  that 
her  relics  were  transferred  to  Constantinople  in  886 
and  are  there  preserved.  Gregory  of  Tours,  "De 
miraculis",  I,  xxx,  supports  the  statement  that  she 
went  to  Ephesus.  However,  according  to  a  French 
tradition  (see  Lazarus  of  Bethany,  Saint),  Mary, 
Lazarus,  and  some  companions  came  to  Marseilles 
and  converted  the  whole  of  Provence.  Magdalen  is 
said  to  have  retired  to  a  hill,  La  Sainte-Baume,  near 
by,  where  she  gave  herself  up  to  a  life  of  penance  for 
thirty  years.  When  the  time  of  her  death  arrived  she 
was  carried  by  angels  to  Aix  and  into  the  oratory  of 
St. Maximinus,  where  she  received  the  viaticum;  her 
bod>[  was  then  laid  in  an  oratory  constnicted  by  St. 
Maximinus  at  Villa  Lata,  afterwards  called  St.  Maxi- 
min.  History  is  silent  about  these  relics  till  745,  when, 
according  to  the  chronicler  Sigebert,  they  were  re- 
moved to  Vezelay  through  fear  of  the  Saracens.  No 
record  is  preserved  of  their  return,  but  in  1279,  when ' 
Charles  II,  King  of  Naples,  erected  a  convent  at  La 
Sainte-Baume  for  the  Dominicans,  the  shrine  was 
found  intact,  with  an  inscription  stating  why  they 
were  hidden.  In  1600  the  reUcs  were  placed  in  a 
sarcophagus  sent  by  Clement  VIII,  the  head  being 

g laced  in  a  separate  vessel.  In  1814  the  church  of  La 
te  Baume,  wrecked  during  the  Revolution,  was  re- 
stored, and  in  1822  the  grotto  was  consecrated  afresh. 
The  head  of  the  saint  now  lies  there,  where  it  has  lain 
so  long,  and  where  it  has  been  the  centre  of  so  many 
pilgrimages. 

Acta  SS.f  22  July;  Faillon,  MonumcnU  irUdUs  sur  Vapoa- 
tolat  de  Ste-M arte- Madeline  en  Provence  (2  vola.,  Paris,  1859), 
I,  1-282,  where  a  full  discuasion  of  the  Identity  of  the  saint  is 
to  be  found;  also  878-9;  Bahonius,  Ann.  EccL,  I,  117-121, 
251;  Baillet,  Vies  dca  Saints  (Paris,  1724).  For  the  common 
non-Catholic  opinion  cf.  Simpson  in  Expositor  (Oct.,  1900). 

Hugh  Pope. 

Mary  Magdalen  de'  Pazzi,  Saint,  Carmelite  Vir- 
gin, b.  2  April,  1566;  d.  25  May,  1607.  Of  outward 
events  there  were  very  few  in  the  saint's  life.  She 
came  of  two  noble  families,  her  father  being  Camillo 
Geri  de'  Pazzi  and  her  mother  a  Biioudelmonti.  She 
was  baptized,  and  named  Caterina,  in  the  great  bap- 
tistery. Her  childhood  much  resembled  that  of  some 
other  women  saints  who  have  become  great  mvstics, 
in  an  early  love  of  prayer  and  penance,  great  charity 
to  the  poor,  an  apostolic  spirit  of  teaching  religious 
truths,  and  a  charm  and  sweetness  of  nature  that 
made  her  a  general  favourite.  But  above  all  other 
spiritual  cliaracteristics  was  Caterina 's  intense  attrac- 
tion towards  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  her  longing  to 
receive  It,  and  her  delight  in  touching  and  being  near 
those  who  were  speaking  of  It,  or  who  had  just  been 
to  Communion.  She  made  her  own  First  Communion 
at  the  age  of  ten,  and  shortly  afterwards  vowed  her 
virginity  to  God.  At  fourteen  she  was  sent  to  school 
at  the  convent  of  the  Cavalaresse,  where  she  lived  in 
fo  mortified  and  fervent  a  manner  as  to  make  the 


sisters  prophesy  that  she  would  become  a  great  saint ; 
and,  on  leaving  it,  she  told  her  parents  of  her  resolve 
to  enter  the  religious  state.  They  were  truly  spiritual 
people;  and,  after  a  little  difficulty  in  persuading  them 
to  reUnquieh  their  only  daughter,  she  finally  entered 
in  December,  1582,  the  Carmelite  convent  of  Santa 
Maria  degl'  Angeli,  founded  by  four  Florentine  ladies 
in  1450  and  renowned  for  its  strict  observance.  Her 
chief  reason  for  choosing  this  convent  was  the  rule 
there  followed  of  daily  Communion. 

Caterina  was  clothed  in  1583,  when  she  took  the 
name  of  BCaria  Maddalena;  and  on  29  Biay,  1584, 
being  then  so  ill  that  they  feared  she  woulcT  not  re- 
cover, she  was  professed.  After  her  profession,  she 
was  subject  to  an  extraordinary  dailv  ecstasy  for  forty 
consecutive  da>^s,  at  the  end  of  which  time  she  ap- 
p€».red  at  the  point  of  death.  She  recovered,  however, 
miraculously;  and  henceforth,  in  spite  of  constant  baa 
healthy  was  able  to  fill  withenergv  the  various  offices 
to  which  she  was  appointed.  She  became,  in  turn, 
mistress  of  extems — i.  e  of  girls  coming  to  the  convent 
on  trial — teacher  and  mistress  of  the  juniors,  novice 
mistress  (which  post  she  held  for  six  years),  and 
finally,  in  1604,  superior.  For  five  years  (1585-90) 
God  allowed  her  to  oe  tried  by  terrible  inward  desola- 
tion and  temptations,  and  by  external  diabolic  at- 
tacks; but  the  courageous  severity  and  deep  humility 
of  the  means  that  she  took  for  overcoming;  these  only 
served  to  make  her  virtues  shine  more  brilliantly  in  the 
eyes  of  her  community. 

From  the  time  of  her  clothing  with  the  religious 
habit  till  her  death  the  saint's  life  was  one  series 
of  raptures  and  ecstasies,  of  which  only  the  most 
notable  characteristics  can  be  named  in  a  short  notice. 
First,  these  raptures  sometimes  seized  upon  her  whole 
being  with  such  force  as  to  compel  her  to  rapid  motion 
(e.  g.  towards  some  sacred  object).  Secondly,  she  was 
frequently  able,  whilst  in  ecstasy,  to  carry  on  work 
belonging  to  her  office — e.  g.,  embroidery,  painting, 
etc. — with  pjerfect  composure  and  efficiency.    Thirdly 


md  this  is  the  point  of  chief  importance — ^it  was 
whilst  in  her  states  of  rapture  that  St.  Mary  Magdalen 
de'  Pazzi  gave  utterance  to  those  wondeitul  maxims 
of  Divine  Love,  and  those  counsels  of  perfection  for 
souls,  especially  in  the  religious  state,  which  a  modem 
editor  of  a  selection  of  them  declares  to  be  ''  more  f  re- 

guently  quoted  by  spiritual  writers  than  those  even  of 
t.  Teresa".  These  utterances  have  been  preserved 
to  us  by  the  saint's  companions,  who  (unknown  to 
her)  took  them  down  from  her  lips  as  she  poured  them 
forth.  She  spoke  sometimes  as  of  herseli,  and  some- 
times as  the  mouthpiece  of  one  or  other  cf  the  Persons 
of  the  Blessed  Trinity.  These  maxims  of  the  saint  are 
sometimes  describee!  as  her  ''Works",  although  she 
wrote  down  none  of  them  herself. 

'This  ecstatic  life  in  no  wise  interfered  with  the 
saint's  usefulness  in  her  community.  She  was  noted 
for  her  strong  common-sense,  as  well  as  for  the  high 
standard  and  strictness  of  her  government,  and  was 
most  dearly  loved  to  the  end  of  her  life  by  all  for  the 
spirit  of  intense  charity  that  accompanied  her  some- 
what severe  code  of  discipline.  As  novice-mistress  she 
was  renowned  for  a  miraculous  gift  of  reading  her  sub- 
jects' tearts — ^which  gift,  indeed,  was  not  entirely 
confined  to  her  community.  Many  miracles,  both  of 
this  and  of  other  kinds,  she  performed  for  the  benefit 
either  of  her  own  convent  or  of  outsiders.  She  often 
saw  things  far  off,  and  is  said  once  to  have  supemat- 
urally  beheld  St.  Catherine  de'  Ricci  in  her  convent  at 
Prato,  reading  a  letter  that  she  had  sent  her  and  writ- 
ing the  answer;  but  the  two  saints  never  met  in  a 
natural  manner.    To  St.  Mary  Magdalen's  numerous 

Eenances,  and  to  the  ardent  love  of  suffering  that  made 
er  genuinely  wish  to  live  long  in  order  to  suffer  with 
Christ,  we  can  here  merely  refer;  but  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  she  was  one  of  the  strongest  upholders 
of  the  value  of  suffering  for  the  love  of  God  and  the 


HAKT 


763 


nlrstiot]  of  our  feUaw-creatures,  that  ever  Hved.   Her  ment  of  the  church,  she  returned  to  Our  I^dy 'b  statue, 

death  was  fully  in  accordance  with  her  life  in  this  and  while  praying  there  for  guidance  as  to  her  future 

respect,  for  she  died  after  an  illness  of  nearly  three  couisegSheseemed to heara  voice fromafartelling her 

years' duratioii  and  of  iadeacribablepainfuhieBs,  borne  that  if  she  crossed  the  Jordan,  she  would  find  rest. 
with  heroic  joy  to  the  end.  Innumerable  miracles  fol-  That  same  evening  Mary  reached  the  Jordan  and  re- 
lowed  the  saint's  death,  and  the  process  tor  her  beatifi-  ceived  Holy  Communion  in  a  church  dedicated  to  the 
c&tioD  was  be^uB  in  1610  under  Paul  V,  and  finished  Baptist,  and  the  day  fallowing  crossed  the  r  ' 


under  Urban  VlH  in  1626.  She  was  not,  however, 
canonized  till  sijcty-two  years  after  her  death,  when 
Clement  IX  raised  her  to  the  altars  on  2S  April,  1669. 
Her  feast  is  kept  on  27  May. 

(1)  The  Oratonao  Lif§  (1S49),  tmiiili>t«l  from  tli«  Jtmlimit 
Lift  by  Cepari,  for  s  Umit  time  confeaoi 
omimuiiity;  the  editioo  truu]at«d  Lb  th 
in  Rome  by  Bkrnabo.  m  A  MS.  Li/c— 
in  EuIukI,  only  in  sevenil  coovsnta — c 
IreinlEei*ove-n«ned«rkofCEPAHra.« 


wandered  eastward  into  the  desert  that  stretches 
towards  Arabia. 

Here  she  had  lived  absolutely  alone  for  forty-seven 


a  Lifth 
eompiled  u 


LADHEirr  HiHiA  BraH' 
cACCio,  a  Neapolitan 

Cknnetite.     Irom     Fuo- 
oini's  work.    Tliia  book 


the  R.luiioa»  Life  traia- 
lated  froiD  the  Freni* 
by  Farhinotoh  (DubSn. 
1801). 

F.  M.  Capes. 
ICuy  of  Zgjpt, 

Saint,  b.  probably 
about  344;  d,  about 
421.  At  the  early 
age  of  twelve  Mary 
left  her  home  and 
came  to  Alexandria, 
where  tor  upwards  of 
seventeen  years  she 
led  a  life  of  public 
prostitution.  At  the 
end  oF  that  time,  on 
the  occasion  of  a  pil- 
grimage tj)  Jerusalem 
for  the  Feast  of  the 
Exaltation  of  the 
Holy  Cross,  she  em- 
barked  for  Pales- 
tine,    not    however 


-  -J-;—  and  monk,  named  ^osinius,  who  after  the  custom  of  his 
t"o(TaM"publihod  brethren  had  come  out  from  his  monastery  to  spend 
f  which  mpi»  eiin  Lent  in  the  desert,  met  her  and  learned  from  her  own 
mpiled  by  PAHTmo  lipa  the  strange  and  romantic  storj-  of  her  life.  As 
eoBfS«(S''lor'about    "''"'  *^  ^''^J'  ™^*'  "^^  Called  Zoslmus  by  his  name  and 

" t' fain,    recomised  himasaDrieet.     After  they  had  con vereecf 

and  prayed  together, 
she  begged  ^simus 
to  promise  to  meet 
'        '  the  Jordan  on 


^# 


Holy  Thursday  eve: 
ing  of  the  followii 


2 


•  and  bring  y 
mm  the  Rlessea 
Sacrament.  When 
the  appointed  even- 
ing arrived,  Zosimus, 
we  are  told,  put  into 
a  small  chalice  a  por- 
tion of  the  undenled 
Body  and  the  Pre- 
cious Blood  of  Our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ 
(P.L.,LXXIII,686: 
"Mittens  in  modico 
calice  intemerati  cor- 
poris portionom  et 
Bretiosi  sanguinis 
.N.J.C."  But  the 
reference  to  both 
species  is  less  clear 
in  Acta  SS.,  IX,  82: 
"Accipiena  parvum 
poculum  intemerati 
corporis  ac  venerandi 
sanguinis  Christi  Dei 
nbstri  "),  and  came  to 


^      _^       __  Ribcra.  TlM  Prado.  Madrid 

with  the  intention  of  making  the  pikrimage,  but  in  the  spot  that  had  been  indicated.  After 
the  hope  that  life  on  board  ship  would  afFora  her  new  Mar^  appeared  on  the  eastern  bank  of  tbe  river,  and 
and  abundant  opportunities  of  gratifying  an  insati-  havmg  made  the  sign  of  the  cross,  walked  upon  the 
able  lust.  Arrived  in  Jerusalem  she  persisted  in  her  waters  to  the  western  side.  Having  received  Holy 
shamelesB  life,  and  on  the  Feast  of  the  Exaltation  of  Communion,  she  raised  her  hands  towards  heaven, 
the  Cross  joined  the  crowd  towards  the  church  where  and  cried  aloud  in  the  words  of  Simeon: "  Now  thou 
the  sacred  relic  was  venerated,  hopine  to  meet  in  (he  dost  dismiss  thy  servant,  O  Lord,  according  to  thy 
^thering  some  new  victims  whom  she  might  allure  word  in  peace,  because  my  ej'es  have  seen  thy  salva- 
mto  sin.  And  now  came  the  turning-point  in  her  ca-  tion".  She  then  charged  Zosiraua  to  come  in  the  couree 
reer.  When  she  reached  the  church  door,  she  sud-  ofayeartothespotwherehehadfirstmetherinlhcdeo- 
denly  felt  herself  repelled  by  some  secret  force,  and  crt.  addinK  that  he  would  find  her  then  in  what  con- 
having  vainly  attempted  three  or  four  times  to  enter,  dition  God  might  ordain.  He  came,  but  only  to  find 
she  retired  to  a  comer  of  the  churchyard,  and  was  the  poor  saint  s  corpse,  and  written  beside  it  on  the 
Struck  with  remorse  for  her  wicked  life,  which  she  recog-  ground  a  request  that  he  should  bury  her,  and  a  state- 
□iied  as  the  cause  of  her  exclusion  from  the  church,  ment  that  she  had  died  a  vear  before,  on  the  very 
Bursting  into  bitter  tears  and  beating  her  breast,  she  night  on  which  he  had  given  her  Holy  Communion,  far 
began  to  bewail  her  sins.  Just  then  her  eyes  fell  upon  away  by  the  Jordan's  l»nks.  Aided,  we  are  told,  by  a 
a  statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  above  the  spot  wher«  she  iion,  he  prepared  her  grave  and  buried  her,  and  hav- 
was  standing,  and  in  deep  faith  and  humility  of  heart  ingcommended  hinaself  and  the  Church  to  her  prayers, 
she  besought  Our  I«dy  for  help,  and  permission  to  en-  he  returned  to  his  monastery,  where  now  for  the  firet 
ter  the  church  and  venerate  the  sacred  wood  on  which  time  he  recounted  the  wondrous  story  of  her  lite. 
Jesus  liad  suffered,  promising  that  if  her  request  were  The  saint's  life  was  written  not  very  long  after  her 
granted,  she  would  then  renounce  forever  the  world  death  by  one  who  states  that  he  learned  the  details 
and  its  ways,  and  forthwith  depart  whithersoever  Our  from  the  monks  of  the  monastery  to  which  Zosimus 
Lady  might  lead  her.  Encouraged  by  prayer  and  had  belonged.  Many  authorities  mention  St.  8o- 
COUnting  on  the  mercy  of  the  Mother  ot  God,  she  once  phronius,  who  became  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  in  635, 
more  approached  the  door  of  the  church,  and  this  time  as  the  author;  but  as  the  Bollandists  give  good  reasons 
succeeded  in  entering  without  the  slightest  difficulty,  tor  belie ving  that  the  Life  was  written  before  500,  we 
Having  adored  the  Holy  CYoss  and  Kisse*!  the  pave-  may  conclude  that  it  is  from  some  other  hand.    The 


MA&Y 


764 


MARY 


date  of  the  saint  is  somewhat  uncertain.  The  Bol- 
landists  place  her  death  on  1  April,  421,  while  manv 
other  authorities  put  it  a  century  later.  The  Greek 
Church  celebrates  her  feast  on  1  April,  the  Latin  on  9 
April,  while  the  Roman  Martyrology  assigns  it  to  2 
April,  and  the  Roman  Calendar  to  3  April.  The  Greek 
date  is  more  likely  to  be  correct;  the  others  may  be  due 
to  the  fact  that  on  those  days  portions  of  her  relics 
reached  the  West.  Relics  of  the  saint  are  venerated  at 
Rome,  Naples,  Cremona,  Antwerp,  and  some  other 

olaces 

Acta'  SS.,  IX,  67-90:  Mione,  P.  L.,  LXXIII,  671-90; 
AssEMANi,,  Kalendaria  Ecclema  Univeraa,  VI,  218-20;  But- 
ler, Lives  of  the  SainU,  April  9. 

J.  MacRory. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (Mary  Stuart),  b.  at  Lin- 
lithgow, 7  Dec,  1542;  d.  at  Fotheringay,  8  Feb., 
1587.  She  was  the  onlv  legitimate  child  of  James  V  of 
Scotland.  His  death  (14  December)  followed  imme- 
diately^ after  her  birth,  and  she  became  queen  when 
only  six  davs  old. 

The  Tuciors  endeavoured  by  war  to  force  on  a 
match  with  Edward  VI  of  England.  Mary,  how- 
ever, was  sent  to  France,  7  August,  1648,  where 
she  was  excellently  educated,  as  is  now  aamitted 
by  both  friend  and  foe.  On  24  April,  1558,  she 
married  the  Dauphin  Francis  and,  on  the  death  of 
Henri  II,  10  July,  1559,  became  Queen  Consort  of 
France.  This  apparent  good  fortune  was  saddened 
by  the  loss  of  Scotland.  Inunediately  after  the  ac- 
cession of  Elizabeth,  her  coimcil  made  plans  to  ''  help 
the  divisions "  of  Scotland  bv  aiding  those  **  inclined 
to  true  religion  ".  The  revolution  broke  out  in  May, 
and  with  Elizabeth's  aid  soon  gained  the  upper  hand. 
There  were  dynastic,  as  well  as  rehgious^  reasons  for 
this  policy.  Elizabeth's  birth  being  iUegitimate,  Biarv, 
though  excluded  by  the  will  of  Henry  VIII,  might 
claim  the  English  Throne  as  the  legitimate  heir.  As 
the  state  of  war  still  prevailed  between  the  two  coun- 
tries, there  was  no  chance  of  her  being  accepted,  but 
her  heralds  did ,  later  on,  emblazon  England  in  ner  arms, 
which  deeply  offended  the  English  Queen.  Mary's 
troubles  were  still  further  increased  by  the  Huguenot 
rising  in  France,  called  le  tumvlU  orAn^xnae  (6-17 
March,  1560),  making  it  impossible  for  the  French  to 
succour  Mary's  side  in  Scotland.  At  last  the  starving 
French  garrison  of  Leith  was  obliged  to  yield  to  a 
large  English  force,  and  Mary's  representatives  signed 
the  Treaty  of  Edinburgh  (6  July,  1560).  One  clause  of 
this  treaty  might  have  excluded  from  the  English 
throne  all  Mary's  descendants,  amongst  them  the 
present  reigning  house,  which  claims  through  her. 
Mary  would  never  confirm  this  treaty.  Francis  II 
died,  5  December,  and  Mary,  prostrate  for  a  time  with 
pief ,  awoke  to  find  all  power  gone  and  rivals  installed 
in  her  place.  Though  the  Scottish  reformers  had  at 
first  openly  plotted  her  deposition,  a  change  was 
making  itselt  felt,  and  her  return  was  agreed  to. 
Elizabeth  refused  a  passport,  and  ordered  her  fleet  to 
watch  for  Mary's  vessel.  She  sailed  in  apprehension 
of  the  worst,  but  reached  Leith  in  safety,  19  Aug., 
1561. 

The  political  revolution,  the  vast  appropria- 
tions of  church  proiK?rty,  and  the  frenzied  hatred 
of  Knox's  followers  for  Catholicism  made  any  resto- 
ration of  the  old  order  impossible.  Mary  contented 
herself  with  the  new  and,  by  her  moderation  and 
management,  left  time  for  a  gradual  return  of  loy- 
alty. But  though  she  ruled,  she  did  not  yet  govern. 
She  issued  J  and  frequently  repeated,  a  proclama- 
tion acceptmg  religion  as  she  had  found  it — the  first 
edict  of  toleration  in  Great  Britain.  A  slow  but 
steady  amelioration  of  the  lot  of  Catholics  ^ook 
place.  At  the  end  of  her  reign  there  were  no  fewer 
than  12,606  Easter  communions  at  Edinburgh.  (See 
Pollen,  "  Papal  Negociations",  520.)  In  1562  Father 
Nicholas  de  (ioudu  visited  her  from  Pope  Pius  IV,  not 


without  danger  to  his  life.    He  reported  himself  sadly 
disappointed  in  the  Scottish  bishops,  but  ivas  almost 
enthusiastic  for  the   "devout  young  queen,"  who 
"  numbers  scarce  twenty  summers "  and  "  is  without 
a  single  protector  or  good  councillor".    Though  she 
still  "  counteracts  the  machinations  of  the  heretics  to 
the  best  of  her  power  .  .  .  there  is  no  mistaking  the 
inuninent  danger  of  her  position".    That  was  true. 
Mary  was  a  woman  who  leant  on  her  advisers  with 
full  and  wife-Uke  confidence.     But,  living  as  she  did 
amongst  false  friends,  she  be<»me  an  utterly  bad  judge 
of  male  advisers.    All  her  misfortunes  may  be  trao^ 
to  her  mistaking  flashy  attractions  for  solid  worth. 
Other  sovereigns  have  indeed  made  favourites  of 
objectionable  persons,  but  few  or  none  have  risked  or 
sacrificed  everything  for  them,  as  Mary  did,  again  and 
again. 

Henry  Stuart,  Lord  Damley,  a  great-grandson  of 
Henry  VII  of  England,  with  clauns  to  both  English  and 
Scottish  crowns,  had  always  been  a  possible  candidate 
for  Mary's  hand,  and.  as  more  poweitul  suitors  fell  out, 
his  chances  improvea.  He  was,  moreover,  a  Catholic, 
though  of  an  accommodating  sort,  for  he  had  been 
brought  up  at  E^abeth's  court,  and  she  in  February, 
1565,  let  him  ^o  to  Scotland.  Mary,  at  first  cool,  soon 
fell  violently  in  love.  The  Protestant  lords  rose  in 
arms,  and  Elizabeth  backed  up  their  rebellion,  but 
Mary  drove  them  victoriously  from  the  country  and 
married  Damley  before  the  dispensation  required  to 
remove  the  imp^iment  arising  from  their  being  first 
cousins  had  arrived  from  Rome.  But  she  did  leave 
enough  time  for  a  dispensation  to  be  granted,  and  it 
was  eventually  conceded  in  a  form  that  would  suffice, 
if  that  were  necessary,  for  a  sanatio  in  radice  (''  Scottish 
Historical  Review",  April.  1907).  As  soon  as  the 
victory  had  been  won,  Damley  was  found  to  be  change- 
able, quarrelsome,  and,  presumably,  also  vicious.  He 
became  violently  jealous  of  David  Rizzio,  who,  so  far 
as  we  can  see,  was  perfectly  innocent  and  inoffensive, 
a  merry  fellow  who  nelped  the  queen  in  her  foreign  cor- 
respondence and  sometimes  amused  her  with  music. 
Damley  now  entered  into  a  band  with  the  same  lords 
who  had  lately  risen  in  rebeUion  against  him:  they 
were  to  seise  Rizzio  in  the  queen's  presence,  put  him  to 
death,  and  obtain  the  crown  matrimonial  for  Damley, 
who  would  secure  a  pardon  for  them,  and  reward  them. 
The  plot  succeeded:  Rizzio,  torn  from  Mary's  table, 
was  poignarded  outside  her  door  (9  Marcn,  1566). 
Mary,  though  kept  a  prisoner,  managed  to  escape,  and 
again  triumphed  over  her  foes;  but  respect  lor  her 
husband  was  no  longer  possible.  Her  favourite  was 
now  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of  Bothwell,  who  had 
served  her  with  courage  and  fidelity,  in  the  late  crisis. 
Then  a  band  for  Damley 's  murder  was  si^ed  at  Ains- 
ley  by  most  of  the  nobles  who  had  been  implicated  in 
the  previous  plots.  Damley,  who  had  been  ill  at 
Glasgow,  was  Drought  back  to  Edinburgh  by  his  wife, 
and  lay  that  ni|;ht  in  her  lodgings  at  Kirk  o'  Field .  At 
two  next  mormng  (10  Febmary,  1567)  the  house  wus 
blown  up  by  powder,  and  the  boy  (he  had  only  just 
come  of  age)  was  killed.  Inciuiry  mto  the  murder  was 
most  perfunctory.  Bothwell,  who  was  charged  with 
it,  was  found  not  guilty  by  his  peers  (12  April),  and  on 
the  24th  he  carried  Mary  off  by  force  to  Dunbar,  where 
she  consented  to  marry  him.  Bothwell  thereupon, 
with  scandalous  violence,  carried  a  divorce  from  his 
wife  through  both  Protestant  and  CathoUc  courts,  and 
married  Mary  (15  May).  Exactly  a  month  later  the 
same  lords  as  Ix^fore  raised  forces  against  their  whilom 
confederate  and  the  queen,  whom  they  met  at  Carberry 
HiU.  Bothwell  was  allowed  to  escape,  but  Mary,  who 
surrendered  on  the  understanding  tnat  she  should  be 
treated  as  a  queen,  was  handled  with  rough  violence, 
and  immured  in  Lochleven  Castle. 

The  original  documents  on  which  a  verdict  as  to  her 
guilt  Hhould  be  fomicd  have  perisho<l,  and  a  prolonged 
cent  rovers  V  ha.s  arisen  overtlu'  ovidcucc  still  acces^ 


MART 


765 


MART 


siblc.  This  coufusion,  however,  is  largely  due  to 
prepossessions.  Of  late,  with  the  diminution  of 
Protestant  rancour  and  ot  enthusiasm  for  the  Stuarts, 
the  conflict  of  opinions  has  tauch.  diminished.  The 
tendency  of  moaem  schools  is  to  regard  Mary  as  a 
participant,  though  in  a  minor  and  stUl  undetermined 
degree,  in  the  above-mentioned  crimes.  The  argu- 
ments are  far  too  complicated  to  be  given  here,  but 
that  from  authority  may  be  indicated.  There  were 
several  well-informed  representative  Catholics  at 
Edinburgh  during  the  critical  period.  The  pope  had 
sent  Father  Edmund  Hay,  a  Jesuit;  Philibert  Du 
Croc  was  there  for  France,  Rubertino  Solaro  Moretta 
represented  Savoy,  while  Roche  Mamerot,  a  Domini- 
can, the  queen's  confessor,  was  also  there.  All  these, 
as  also  the  Spanish  ambassador  in  London,  represent 
the  BothweU  match  as  a  disgrace  involving  a  slur  on 
her  virtue.  Her  confessor  only  defends  her  from  par- 
ticipation in  the  murder  of  her  nusband  (see  Pollen,  op. 
cit.,  cxxix).  The  most  important  documentary  evi- 
dence is  that  of  the  so-callect ''  casket  letters",  said  to 
have  been  written  by  Mary  to  BothweU  diuing  the 
fatal  crisis.  If,  on  the  one  hand,  their  authenticity 
still  lacks  final  proof,  no  argument  yet  brought  for- 
ward to  invalidate  them  has  stood  the  test  of  modem 
criticism. 

The  defeat  at  Carberry  Hill  and  the  inmrisonment 
at  Lochleven  were  blessings  in  disguise.  The  Protes- 
tant lords  avoided  a  searching  inquiry  as  much  as 
Mary  had  done;  and  she  alone  suffered,  while  the 
others  went  free.  This  attracted  sympathjr  onoe 
more  to  her  cause.  She  managed  to  escape,  raised  an 
army,  but  was  defeated  at  Langside  (13  Biay.  1568) 
and  fled  into  England,  where  she  found  herself  onoe 
more  a  prisoner.  She  did  not  now  refuse  to  justify 
herself,  but  made  it  a  condition  that  she  should  appear 
before  Elizabeth  in  person.  But  Cecil  schemed  to 
bring  about  such  a  trial  as  should  finally  embroil  Mary 
with  the  king's  lords,  as  they  were  now  called  (for  they 
had  crowned  the  infant  James),  and  so  keep  the  two 
parties  divided,  and  both  dependent  on  England. 
This  was  eventually  accomplished  in  the  conferences 
at  York  and  Westminster  before  a  commission  of 
English  peers  under  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  The  casket 
letters  were  then  produced  against  Mary,  and  a  thousand 
filthy  charges,  afterwards  embodied  in  Buchanan's 
"  Detectio  ".  Mary,  however,  wisely  refused  to  defend 
herself,  unless  her  dignity  as  queen  was  respected. 
Eventually  an  open  verdict  was  found.  ''Nothing 
has  been  sufficiently  proved,  whereby  the  Queen  df 
England  should  conceive  an  evil  opimon  of  ner  good 
sister"  (10  January,  1569).  Cecil's  astuteness  had 
overreached  itself.  Such  a  verdict,  from  an  enemy- 
was  everywhere  regarded  as  one  of  Not  Guilty,  ana 
Mary's  reputation,  which  had  everywhere  fallen  after 
the  BothweU  match,  now  quickly  revived.  Her  con- 
stancy to  her  faith,  which  was  clearly  the  chief  cause 
of  her  suffering,  made  a  deep  impression  on  all  Catho- 
lics, and  St.  Pius  V  wrote  her  a  letter,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  marking  her  reconciliation  with  the  papacy 
(9  January,  1570). 

Even  before  this,  a  scheme  for  a  declaration  of  nul- 
lity of  the  marriage  with  BothweU,  and  for  a  marriage 
with  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  had  been  suggested  and  had 
been  supported  by  what  we  should  now  call  the  Con- 
servative Party  among  the  English  peers,  a  sign  that 
they  were  not  very  much  impressed  by  the  charges 
against  the  Scottish  queen,  which  they  liad  just  heard. 
Norfolk,  however,  had  not  the  initiative  to  carry  the 
scheme  through.  The  CathoUcs  in  the  North  rose  in 
his  support,  but,  having  no  organization,  the  rising  at 
once  collapsed  (14  November  to  21  December,  1569). 
Mary  had  been  hurried  south  by  her  gaolers,  with 
orders  to  kill  her  rather  than  allow  her  to  escape.  So 
slowly  did  posts  travel  in  those  days  that  the  pope, 
two  months  after  the  collapse  of  the  rising,  but  not 
having  yet  heard  of  its  commencement,  excommuni- 


cated Elizabeth  (25  Feb.,  1570)  in  order  to  pave  the 
way  for  the  appeal  to  arms.  Both  the  rising  and  the 
excommunication  were  so  independent  of  the  main 
course  of  affairs  that,  when  the  surprise  they  caused 
was  over  the  scheme  for  the  Norfolk  marriage  re- 
sumed its  previous  course,  and  an  Italian  banker. 
Ridolfi,  promised  to  obtain  papal  support  for  it.  Lord 
Acton's  erroneous  idea,  that  Ridolfi  was  employed  by 
Pius  V  to  obtain  Elizabeth's  assassination,  seems  to 
have  arisen  from  a  mistranslation  of  Gabutio's  Latin 
Life  of  St.  Pius  in  the  Boliandists  (cf .  **  Acta  SS.",  May, 
IV,  1680,  pp.  657, 658,  with  Catena,  ''Vita  di  Pio  V^', 
Mantua,  1587,  p.  75).  Cecil  eventually  discovered  the 
intrigue;  Norfolk  was  beheaded,  2  June,  1572,  and  the 
Puritans  clamoured  for  Mary's  blood,  but  in  this  par- 
ticular Elizabeth  would  not  gratify  them. 

After  this  Mary's  imprisonment  continued  with 
great  rigour  for  yet  fourteen  years,  under  the  Earl  of 
Shrewsbury  and  Sir  Amias  Paulet,  at  Sheffield  Castle, 
Tutbuiy,  Wingfield,  and  Chartley.  But  she  had  so 
many  sympathizers  that  notes  were  frequently  smug- 
gled in,  despite  aU  precautions,  and  Mary's  hopes  of 
eventual  release  never  quite  died.  The  frequent  plots 
of  which  our  Protestant  historians  so  often  speak  are 
empty  rumours  which  wiU  not  stand  historical  investi- 
gation. Elizabeth's  life  was  never  in  danger  for  a  mo- 
ment. Plans  for  Mary's  liberation  were  indeed  oc- 
casionaUy  formed  abroad,  but  none  of  them  approached 
within  any  measurable  distance  of  realization.  Her 
eventual  faU  was  due  to  her  excessive  confidence  in 
Thomas  Morgan,  an  a^nt,  who  had  shown  ^at  skill 
and  energy  in  contriving  means  of  passing  m  letters, 
but  who  was  also  a  vain,  quarrelsome,  factious  man, 
always  ready  to  talk  treason  against  Elizabeth.  Wal- 
singham^s  spies  therefore  frequently  offered  to  carry 
letters  for  him,  and  eventually  the  treacherous  Gilbert 
Gifford  (a  seminarist  who  afterwards  got  himself  made 
priest  in  order  to  carry  on  his  deceits  with  less  suspi- 
cion) contrived  a  channel  of  correspondence,  in  which 
every  letter  that  was  sent  to  or  from  Mary  passed 
through  the  hands  of  Elizabeth's  decipherer  Tnomas 
PhelUps,  and  was  copied  by  him.  As  Morgan  was  now 
in  communication  with  Ballard,  the  only  priest,  so  far 
as  we  know,  who  fell  a  victim  to  the  temptation  to  plot 
against  Elizabeth,  Mary's  danger  was  now  grave.  In 
due  course  Ballard,  through  Anthony  Babington,  a 
young  gentleman  of  wealth,  wrote,  by  Gifford's  means, 
to  Mary.  It  seems  that  the  confederates  refused  to 
join  the  plot  unless  they  had  Mary's  approval,  and 
Babinffton  wrote  to  inquire  whether  Mary  would  re- 
ward tnem  if  they  "  despatched  the  usurper",  and  set 
her  free.  As  Walsingham  had  two  or  three  agents 
provocateurs  keeping  company  with  the  conspirators, 
the  suspicion  is  vehement  that  Babington  was  per- 
suaded oy  them  to  ask  this  perilous  question,  but  posi- 
tive proof  of  this  has  not  yet  been  found.  Against  the 
advice  of  her  secretaries,  Mary  answered  this  letter, 
promising  to  reward  those  who  aided  her  escape,  but 
saying  nothing  of  the  assassination  (17  July,  1586). 
Babington  and  his  feUows  were  now  arrested,  tried  and 
executed,  then  Mary's  trial  began  {14  and  15  October). 
A  death  sentence  was  the  object  desired,  and  it  was  of 
course  obtained.  Mary  freely  confessed  that  she  al- 
ways had  sought  and  always  would  seek  means  of  es- 
capes As  te  plots  against  the  life  of  Elizabeth,  she 
protested  *'her  innocence,  and  that  she  had  not  pro- 
cured or  encouraged  any  hurt  against  her  Majesty", 
which  was  perfectly  true.  As  te  the  allegation  of  bare 
knowledge  of  treason  without  having  manifested  it, 
the  prosecution  would  not  restrict  itself  to  so  moder- 
ate a  charge.  Mary,  moreover,  always  contended 
that  the  Queen  of  Scotland  did  not  incur  responsibUity 
for  the  plottings  of  English  subjects,  even  if  she  had 
known  of  them.  Indeed,  in  those  dajrs  of  royal  privi- 
lege, her  rank  would,  in  most  men's  minds,  have  ex- 
cused her  in  any  case.  But  Lord  Burahley,  seeine 
how  much  turned  on  this  point  of  privilege,  refused 


MAST  li 

her  all  signs  of  royalty,  and  she  was  condemned  as 
"Mary  Stuart,  commonly  called  Queen  of  Scotland". 
During  the  whole  process  of  her  trial  and  execution, 
iAe.Ty  acted  with  magnificent  courage  worthy  of  her 
noble  character  and  queenly  rank.  There  can  be  no 
question  that  slie  died  with  the  charity  and  magna- 
nimity of  a  martyr;  as  also  that  her  execution  was  due, 
on  the  part  of  her  enemies,  to  hatred  of  the  FaiUi. 
Pope  Benedict  XIV  gives  it  aa  his  opinion  that  on 
these  two  heads  no  requisite  seems  wanting  for  a  for-     moi.   mic,  i-iuij, 

mal  declaration  of  martyrdom,  if  only  the  charges  mother,  nlso  fell  into  disfavour,  and  shortly  after- 
connected  with  the  names  of  Darnley  and  Bothwell  wards,  in  1531,  to  theirgreot  mutual  grief,  tbe  mother 
could  be  entirely  eliminated  ("  Opera  omnia",  Prato,  and  daughter  were  forcibly  separated.  During  Anw 
1840,  III,  c.  xiii,  s.  10),  Boleyn'R  lifetime  as  queen,  the  harshest  treatment 

At  ftrstglance  the  portraits  of  Mary  appear  to  he  in-  was  shown  t«  "the  Lady  Mary,  the  King's  natural 
consiatent  with  one  another  and  with  any  handsome  daughter",  and  wide-spread  rumours  afErmed  that  it 
original.  But  modem  criticism  has  reduced  genuine  was  intended  to  bring  both  the  princess  and  her  mother 
portraits  to  a  comparatively  small  numl>cr  and  shown  f-o  the  gallows.  However,  after  Queen  Catherine's 
how  they  may  be  reconciled,  while  their  stiff  appear-     death  in  January,  1536,  and  .\nnc  IJoleyn'e  execution, 


r,  BSAKT 

catod,  speaking  Latin,  t'rench,  and  Spanish  with  facil- 
ity, and  she  was  in  particular  an  accomplisbed  musi- 
cian. Down  to  the  time  of  the  divoree  negotiations, 
^ry  was  recognised  as  heir  to  the  throne,  and  many 
schemes  had  been  proposed  to  supply  her  with  a  suit- 
able husband.  She  was  indeed  amanced  for  some 
time  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  the  father  of  the  man 
she  was  afterwards  to  marry.  When,  however,  Henry 
VIII  became  inflexibly  determined  to  put  away  h^ 
first  wife,  Mary,  who  was  deeply  attached   to  ber 


iprobabiyonlylheie- 
sult  of  tlie  unskilful  painter's 
endeavour  to  represent 
the  quality  of  majesty. 
Throe  chalk  sketches  by 
Clouet  (Jeanet),  represent- 
ing herat  the  ages  of  9,  16, 
and  19,  are  the  most  relia- 
ble for  outlirae.  The  third, 
"  Le  Deuil  Diane  " ,  has  been 
several  times  copied  in  oil 
or  miniature.  For  her  reign 
in  Scotland  no  picture 
seems  to  Iw  known,  except, 
perhaps,  I.ord  Leven  and 
Melville's,  which  is  in- 
teresting OS  the  only  one 
that  gives  us  an  idea  of  life. 
During  her  captivity  it 
seems  that  she  was  pamted 


which  followed  i  ..  . 
months,  the  new  queen, 
Jane  Seymour,  seenu  to 
have  shown  willingness  to 
befriend  the  king's  eldest 
daughter.  Heanwlulevery 
strong  )HC8Suie  was  brou^t 
to  bear  by  the  all-poweriul 
Cromwell,  and  Bbry  was 
at  last  induced  to  sign  a 
formal  "  submi8Bio& ",  in 
which  she  begg^P*>^oi' of 
the  king  whom  she  had 
"obstiaately  and  disobedi- 
ently ofTencfed  ",  renounced 
"  the  Bishop  of  Rome's 
pretended  authoritr",  and 
acknowledged  the  mar- 
riage between  her  father 
„  and  mother  to  have  been 

Harmlwn  Type.  1700-1710  contrary     to     the    law    d 

Qod.  It  should  be  noted,  hon-ever,  that  Harj  mOMtA 
this  paper  without  reading  it  (Gairdner,  "LoUanr", 
I,  ;tl2;  Stone,  "Mary  I,  t^ueen  of  England",  126), 
anil  by  the  advice  of  Chapuys,  the  mipeiial  am- 
bassador, made  a  private  protestation  that  ahe  had 
signed  it  under  compulsion.  The  degree  of  favoiir  to 
which  Mary  was  restored  was  at  first  but  sinall,  and 
even  this  was  jeopardized  by  the  sympathy  ahoim  for 
her  in  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace,  but  after  tte  Uni*! 
marriage  to  his  sixth  wife,  Catherine  Parr,  Hain't 
improved,  and  she  was  tuimed  in  Heuy**  will, 
.  the  little  Edward,  in  the  succession  to  the 
throne. 

When  Henrj-  died  it  was  inevitable  that  under  the 
influences  which  surrounded  the  young  king,  Haty 
should  retire  into  comparative  obscurity.  She  diieflf 
resided  at  her  manors  of  llunsdon,  KenningfaaO,  or 
Newhall,  but  during  Somerset's  protectorate  abe  was 
M  ~Kfime""iJe"vL™    ""^  iU-lrealed.    When  the  oelebraticHi  of  HaM  waa 

„ Pini'mThe  Month     prohibited,  she  summoned  up  courage  to  take  a  ttrong 

lmd.  QHrrng  n/  Sntland  (Edinbumh.  line.  She  wrote  to  the  Council  and  appealed  to  the 
«TEii  ConriminaihtTriu  Portraiture  envp^Tot,  sj\d  il  Bcerapd  at  one  time  as  if  Chariea  V 
1:  ri'BT.  Vurr«  on  ihr  .luiABniie  For-  would  actually  declare  war.  Throughout,  Mary  re- 
19031;  l,i.Tia,  Foriraiif  tmti  Jrveli  of  maincd  firm,  and  despite  repeated  monitions  fttim  tin 
J.  H.  Po[.i,Ks.  Council  and  a  visit  from  Bishop  Ridley,  she  to  all  in- 
•  tents  and  purposes  set  the  government  at  defianoe,  so 

MaiT  Tudor,  Queen  of  England  from  1553  to  155S;  far,  at  kast,  as  regarded  the  religious  obaervances  IcA- 
b.  IK  Feb.,  151fi;  A.  17  Novemlwr  15.5S.  Mary  was  lowed  in  her  own  household.  At  the  same  time  her  ro- 
the  daughter  and  only  surviving  child  of  Henry  VIII  lations  with  her  brother  remained  outwardly  friendly, 
and  Catherine  of  Aragon.  Cardinal  VVoLsey  Vfas  her  and  she  paid  him  vi.iita  of  state  from  time  t«  time, 
godfather,  and  amongst  her  most  intimate  'friends  in  At  Eilward's  death  on  ft  .luly,  1553,  the  news  was 
early  life  were  Cardinal  Pole  (q.  v.)  and  his  rnother.  for  some  days  kept  from  Mair,  Northumberland,  the 
the  Coimte.is  of  Salisbury,  put  to  death  in  l,5:(i)  and  Lord  Pre3i<lent  of  the  Council,  having  contrived  that 
now  twatified.  We  know  from  the  report  of  contem-  the  young  king  should  disinherit  both  his  sisters  in  fn- 
pomries  that  Mary  in  her  youth  did  not  lark  charm,  vour  of  Northumberland's  own  daught*r-in-law,  Lady 
She  wa.s  by  nature  modest,  afTeetionatc,  and  kindly.  Jane  Grey.  The  Lord  President,  backed  at  first  by 
IJke  all  tlie  Tudor  princesses  she  had  been  well  edu-     the  Council,  made  a  resolute  attempt  to  aecura  the 


that  from  these  descend  the  so-called  "Sheffield" 
type  of  portraits.  A  very  valuable  picture  wa>"  painted 
after  her  death,  showing  the  execution;  this,  now  at 
Blairs,  and  its  copies  (at  Windsor,  etc.)  are  called 
"memorial  pictures". 

Ductimmtt:  Catendart  o!  State  Faperi  (for  Soatlaad,  Svaia. 
Venice.  Bnd  [fae  Fareian  ^rina);  Teulkt,  Selationi  poliluua 
dt  laFraacc  it  dt  VEepaeae  avec  CEcomc  (Psru.  IWi);  \a- 
BANOFr.  Lritrci  .  .  .  .  de  HI.  S.  (LoD'lOD,  1S44):  Goodall. 
Examinatioa  of  the  Itttere  laid  to  havt  brm  vrittn  by  M.  (j.  S. 

oJM.  Q.  S.  (Edinbui«h,  1727);  Stevenso!.,  Uiri7rvotM.T&      nwmage  TC 
ClaudtNautEdmhart,b,lS»3):CBiiHTs.i.'.via,it.S..KmPnieft     position  im) 
....  d'aprrt  U  joumai  iJe  BoHTgBiia_(Paivi.  1S78):   Pollen,      next  tO  th( 
PapaIA'w<.fin(i<™.aiW0i«™«i"»JEdmbtirKh.I001);  Ideu,      ,!,-_„: 
idlirr  to  G«i«  (EdinburKh.  lOM):   Bhemhu,  Die  Kaneittn-      ^"^'•"'■- 
briefc.  b  Sybel.  HieloTiiche  Zrilflinfl  hUSi},  200-,-)IO:  Sepp  in 
Tagiburli.  II,  Ankl'tier  lit  York.  eU.,  Ill,  Anthma  Babingtim, 
nnd  IV,  Pmceu  (Munich.  1822-86);   Uonais,  Lnter  Booke  of 
Sir  Amia4  Pould  (Londou,  1874). 

liistoriM;  besides  Lisfi SHU,  Tttleu  (P.  F.l,  Fbocoe,  etr,, 
FLEiR^n.Afarvtrucrno/SnXo  (London.  )S97);  Hosace,  Afartr 
Sluart  and  hrr  Aceuurt  (Edinbuigh,  18701;    Lanq,  Muettn     ' 
Morn  Sluart  (lADilmi.   lOOIl;    PniMPPBOH,  Rigne  lie  Mai 
Slu-trl  (Pnris,  ISOl'     "  ^  .-     .       _.  .   f    _.     ., 

(lAndon,  1006):  i^ 
I8!J0). 

SpH-iulunPortra 
of  M.  Q.  S.  (l.oniloi 
IraiUofM.Q.S.  (!. 
M.  S.  (Cbscow.  l» 


^■Vic.>  -•■*(^ 

—tJS*"^'-  . 

^HnH  -«7  mHUei 

'  '"^mP"'  \^ 

MARY  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS 


MARY                                767  BIABY 

succession  for  Lady  Jane,  but  Mary  acted  promptly  apprehension  which  prevailed  tliat  the  conopiete  re- 

and  courageously,  setting  up  her  standard  at  Fram-  establishment  of  Catholicism  could  only  be  effected  at 

lingham,  where  the  men  of  the  eastern  counties  rallied  the  price  of  the  restitution  of  the  abbey  lands  to  the 

round  her  and  where  she  was  soon  joined  by  some  Church.     When,  however,  the  marriage  of  Mary  and 

members  of  the  Council.     By  19  July  Mary  had  been  Philip  had  taken  place  (25  July),  and  the  Holy  See  had 

Proclaimed  in  London,  and  a  few  days  later  Northum-  given  assurances  that  the  impropriators  of  Church 

erland  was  arrested.  property  would  not  be  molested,  Pole  towards  the 

Mary's  success  was  highly  popiilar,  and  the  friends  end  of  November  was  at  last  allowed  to  make  his  way 

of   the   late   administration,  seeing  that  resistance  to  London.     On  30  Nov.,  he  pronounced  the  absolu- 

was  hopeless,  hastened  to  make  their  peace  with  tion  of  the  kingdom  over  the  king  and  queen  and 

her.     Her  own  inclinations  were  all  in  favour  of  Parliament  all  Imeelin^  before  him.     In  was  this  same 

clemency,  and  it  was  only  in  deference  to  the  re-  Parliament  which  in  December,  1554,  re-enacted  the 

monstrances  of  her  advisers  that  she  ultimately  con-  ancient  statutes  aeainst  heresy  and  repealed  the  enact- 

sented  to  the  execution  of  the  arch-traitor  Northum-  ments  which  had  oeen  made  against  Home  in  the  last 

berland  with  two  of  his  followers.     In  his  hour  of  two  reigns. 

distress  Northumberland,  apparently  In  all  sincerity.  All  this  seems  to  have  excited  much  feeling  among 

professed  himself  a  Cathohc.     Lady  Jane  Grey  was  the  more  fanatical  of  the  Reformers,  men  who  for 

spared,  and  even  in  matters  of  religion,  Mary,  perhaps  some  years  past  had  railed  against  the  pope  and 

by  the  advice  of  Charles  V,  showed  no  wish  to  proceed  denounced  Transubstantiation  with  impimity.    Mary 

to  extremities.    The    Catholic    bishops  of  Henry's  and  her  advisers  were  probably  right  in  thinking 

reign,  like  Bonner,  Tunstall,  and  Garoiner,  were  re-  that  religious  peace  was  impossible  unless  these  fana- 

stored  to  their  sees,  the  intruded  bishops  were  de-  tics  were  silenced,  and  they  started  once  more  to  en- 

prived,  and  some  of  them,  like  Ridley,  Coverdale,  force  those  penalties  for  heresy  which  after  all  had 

and  Hooper,  were  committed  to  custody.    Cranmer,  never  ceased  to  be  familiar.     Both  under  Henry  VIII 

after  he  had  challenged  the  Catholic  party  to  meet  him  and  Edward  VI  men  had  been  burned  for  religion^  and 

and  Peter  Martyr  in  disputation,  was  conunitted  to  the  Protestant  bishops  like  Craimier,  Latimer,  and  Ridley 

Tower  upon  a  by  no  means  frivolous  charge  of  having  had  had  a  principal  hand  in  their  burning.   It  seems  to 

participated  in  the  late  futile  rebellion.     But  no  blood  be  generally  admitted  now  that  no  vindictive  thirst  for 

was  shed  for  religion  at  this  stage.  bloodprompted  the  deplorable  severities  which  foUowed, 

In  September  Mary  was  crowned  with  great  pomp  but  they  nave  weighed  heavily  upon  the  memory  of 

at  Westminster  by  Gardiner,  in  spite  of  the  excom-  Mary,  and  it  seems  on  the  whole  most  probable  that  in 

munication  which  still  lay  upon  tbe  country,  but  this  her  conscientious  but  misguided  zeal  for  the  peace  of 

act  was  only  due  to  the  constitutional  impasse  which  the  Church,  she  was  herself  principally  responsible  for 

would  have  been  created  had  this  sanction  to  the  royal  them.  In  less  than  four  years  277  persons  were  burned 

authority  been  longer  delayed.     Mary  had  no  wish  to  to  death.     Some,  like  Bishops  Cranmer,  Latimer,  and 

refuse  obedience  to  papal  authority.    On  the  contrary,  Ridley,  were  men  of  influence  and  high  position,  but 

negotiations  had  already  been  opened  with  the  Holy  the  majority  belonged  to  the  lower  orders.     Still  these 

See  which  resulted  in  the  nomination  of  Pole  as  legate  last  were  dangerous,  because,  as  Dr.  Gairdner  has 

to  reconcile  the  kingdom.    Parliament  met,  5  October,  pointed  out,  heresy  and  sedition  were  at  that  time  al- 

1553.     It  repealed  the  savage  Treason  Act  of  North-  most  convertible  terms.     In  regard  to  these  execu- 

lunberland's  government,  passed  an  Act  declaring  the  tions,  a  much  more  lenient  and  at  the  same  time  more 

queen  legitimate,  another  for  the  restitution  of  the  equitable  judgment  now  prevails  than  was  formerly 

Mass  in  Latin,  though  without  penalties  for  non-con-  the  case.     As  one  recent  writer  observes,  Mary  and 

formity,  and  another  for  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  her  advisers  "honestly  believed  themselves  to  be 

Meanwhile  Mary,  owing  perhaps  partly  to  the  fact  that  applying  the  only  remedy  left  for  the  removal  of  a 

she  fell  much  under  the  influence  of  the  Spanish  am-  mortal  disease  from  the  body  politic.  .  .  .  What  they 

bassador,  Renard,  had  made  up  her  mind  to  marry  did  was  on  an  imprecedented  scale  in  England  because 

Philip  of  Spain.    The  suggestion  was  not  very  palata-  heresy  existed  on  an  unprecedented  scale''   (Innes, 

ble  to  the  nation  as  represented  by  the  lower  house  of  **  England  under  the  Tudors",  232;  and  cf.  Gairdner, 

Parliament,  but  the  queen  persisted,  and  a  treaty  of  "LoUardy",  I,  327). 

marriage  was  drawn  up  in  wnich  English  liberties  were  Something,  perhaps,  of  Mary's  severity,  which 
carefully  safeguarded.  All  the  Spanish  influence  was  was  in  contradiction  to  the  clemency  and  generosity 
exercised  to  carry  this  scheme  safely  through,  and  at  uniformly  shown  in  the  rest  of  her  life,  may  be  at- 
the  emperor's  instigation  Pole  was  deliberately  de-  tributed  to  the  bitterness  which  seems  to  have  been 
tained  on  his  way  to  England  under  the  apprehension  concentrated  into  these  last  years.  Long  an  in- 
that  he  might  oppose  the  match.  The  unpopularity  valid,  she  had  had  more  than  one  serious  illness 
of  the  project^  alliance  encouraged  Sir  Thomas  during  the  reign  of  her  brother.  But  the  dropsy  had 
Wyatt  to  organise  a  rebellion,  which  at  one  time,  29  now  Income  chronic,  and  she  was  in  truth  a  doomed 
Jan.,  1554,  looked  very  formidable.  Mary  behaved  with  woman.  Again  it  was  her  misfortune  to  have  con- 
conspicuous  courage,  addressed  the  citizens  of  Lon-  ceived  a  passionate  love  for  her  husband.  Philip  had 
don  at  the  Guildhall,  and  when  they  rallied  round  her  never  returned  this  affection,  and  when  the  hope  of  her 
the  insurrection  was  easily  crushed.  "The  security  of  bearing  him  an  heir  proved  illusory,  he  treated  her 
the  State  seemed  now  to  require  stem  measures.  The  with  scant  consideration  and  quitted  England  forever, 
leaders  of  the  revolt  were  executed  and  with  them  the  Then  in  Mary's  last  year  of  life  came  the  loss  of  Calais, 
unfortunate  Lady  Jane  Grey.  Whether  Mary's  sister  and  this  was  followed  by  misunderstandings  with  the 
Elizabeth  was  implicated  in  this  movement  has  never  Holy  See  for  which  she  had  sacrificed  so  much.  No 
quite  been  made  clear,  but  mercy  was  shown  to  her  as  wonder  the  Queen  sank  under  this  accumulated 
well  as  to  many  others.  weight  of  disappointments.  Mary  died  most  piously, 
Meanwhile  the  restoration  of  the  old  religion  went  as  she  had  always  lived,  a  few  hours  before  her  staunch 
on  vigorously.  The  altars  were  set  up  again,  the  friend,  Cardinal  Pole.  Her  good  qualities  were  many, 
married  clergy  were  deprived.  High  Mass  was  sung  at  To  the  very  end  she  was  a  woman  capable  of  inspiring 
St.  Paul's,  and  new  bishops  were  consecrated  accord-  affection  in  those  who  came  in  contact  with  her. 
ing  to  the  ancient  ritual.  In  Mary's  second  Parliament  Modem  historians  are  almost  unanimous  in  regarding 
the  title  of  supreme  head  was  formally  abrogated,  and  the  sad  story  of  this  noble  but  disappointed  woman 
an  attempt  was  made  to  re-enact  the  statutes  aeainst  as  one  of  the  most  tragic  in  histor\\ 
herwyjwt  was  defeated  by  the  resistance  of  the  Cords.  g^„„_  „  ,  q„^  of  England  (^„don.  i90l):  Z.-«.- 
Some  of  this  resistance  undoubtedly  came  from  the  jiiura.Aforio  die  iCoMo/i»cA«(Freibui».  1806)  ;LtNOAHD.HiK.o/ 


MASAOOIO                            768  MASOOUTENS 

England,  V;  Tnnkb.  England  under  thr  Twlorn  fT/ondon.  ino5>;  dcriiig  St.  Pet-cr  to  pay  the  Tribute '*,  "St.  IVtor  and 

Si'IS:;.'aii^'"i;/l!»^'^<l"Jrc";i?S™^  St;  Jo^n  healhig.the  afck"  "St  Peter  giving  Alms';, 

MuLLiNOBR  in   Cambridge  Modem  Hiatory,   II   (Cambridge,  St.  Peter  Baptizing'  ,  "St.  Peter  restoring  a  Kings 

1905);  Sidney  Lee  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.;  Strickland,  Livea  of  Son  to  Life".     This  last  fresco  was  finishedf  by  Filip- 

ihe  Queena  of  England,  II.              Hprbert  THtm^rov  R^"^'     ^  *"^«  Masaccio  worked  at  the  paintings  in  the 

HERBERT  iHURSTON.  ferancacci  chapel,  the  church  of  which  it  was  a  part 

Masacdo   (Tommaso),   Itab'an  painter,   b.  about  was  consecrated:  he  "renresents  this  ceremony  in 

1402,  at  San  Giovanni  di  Valdamo,  a  stronghold  situ-  chiaroscuro  over  the  door  leading  from  the  church  to 

ated  between  Arezzo  and  Florence;  d.,  probably  at  the  cloister"  (Vasari)  and  introduces  a  great  many 

Rome,  in  1429.     His  correct  name  was  Tommaso  di  portraits  of  important  persons  in  the  group  of  citizens 

ser  Giovanni  di  Simone  dei  Guidi,  which  may  be  trans-  who  follow  the  procession.     Here,  too,  he  nas  painted 

lated  '^Thomas,  son  of  Sir  John,  grandson  ot  Simon,  of  the  convent  porter,  with  his  bunch  of  keys.     This 

the  Guidi  clan."    His  family  had  ^ven  manv  magis-  famous  "Procession"  perished  when  the  church  was 

trates  to  the  Republic  of  Florence  m  earlier  days.  But  reconstructed  in  1612,  but  the  old  porter  has  survived, 

when  Thomas  was  bom  prosperity  had  forsaken  them:  a  marvellously  executed  portrait  still  to  be  seen  in  the 

his  father  was  a  poor  notary  in  a  small  country  com-  Uffizi.     It  seems  that  the  fashion  of  painting  liknceses 

munity.     His  familiar  name  of  Masaccio  \a  an  aug-  of  contemporaries  was  set  by  Masaccio.     He  has  not 

mented  form  of  Maso  (short  for  Tommaso)  and  means  forgotten  to  give  his  own  portrait  a  good  place,  in  the 

"  Big  Tom",  with  a  shade  of  depreciation.     By  this  fresco  where  St.  Peter  is  paying  the  tribute, 

name,  if  we  are  to  believe  Vasari,  his  Florentine  con-  Moderately  esteemed  in  his  own  time,  Masaccio  was 

temporaries  indicated  after  their  fashion  the  oddities  accorded  enthusiastic  admiration  only  after  his  death; 

of  his  character — "He  was  absent-minded,  whimsical,  but— as  is  only  rarely  the  case — the  enthusiasm  has 

as  one  who,  having  fastened  his  whole  mind  and  will  not  cooled  in  the  duration  of  five  centuries :  it  has  even 

upon  the  things  of  art,  paid  little  attention  to  himself  degenerated  into  excessive  adulation.     Masaccio  is 

and  still  less  to  other  people."  preached  as  a  "  Messias  without  a  Precursor  ",  an  "  au- 

Masaccio's  master  was  Tommaso  di  Cristofano  di  todidact",  a  self-teacher,  without  an  ancestor  in  the 
Fino,  known  as  Masolino  da  Panicale,  Masolino  mean-  past.  His  insight  into  nature,  his  scientific  perspec- 
ing"  Little  Tom"  (see  Masolino).  Masaccio  was  very  tive  and  foreshortening  have  been  loudly  acclaimed, 
precocious:  we  find  him  at  the  age  of  nineteen  already  and  with  reason.  But  Giotto  and  his  faithful  disci- 
enrolled  among  the^'pezioZt  (Grocers,  or  Spicers),one  pies,  before  Masaccio,  had  given  Florentine  painting 
of  the  "arts",  or  guilds.  The  iSpezia/i  included  painters  the  impulse  towards  an  intelligent  representation  m 
among  its  members.  After  a  few  essays  which  earned  nature  which  necessarily  produced  great  results.  His 
him  some  degree  of  reputation,  he  was  conmiissioned  to  admirers  justly  vaimt  the  noble  gravity  of  his  figures, 
continue  the  decoration  of  the  Brancacci  chapel  at  the  suppleness  and  simplicity  of  his  draperies,  the  har- 
Florence,  which  his  master,  Masolino,  had  begun.  This  mony  of  his  compositions,  and  his  grasp  of  light  and 
was,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  1424;  according  shadow;  but  the  germs  of  these  precious  qualities  had 
to  others  in  1426 ;  so  that  he  cannot  have  been  more  than  already  existed  in  the  frescoes  of  Masolino,  his  master 
twenty-four  years  old.  The  work  did  not  make  him  and  initiator,  and  Florentine  artists  before  him  had 
rich.  Absoroed  in  the  things  that  pertain  to  art,  he  wrought  with  the  double  ambition  of  expressing  the 
knew  nothing  about  sublunary  business  matters.  The  real  and  the  ideal — the  visible  element  and  the  invisi- 
state  register  of  property  for  1427  shows  that  Masaccio  ble.  Between  these  two  opposite  aims  they  were 
"possesses  nothing  of  his  own,  owes  one  hundred  and  more  or  less  distracted;  the  difficult  thing — and  the 
two  lire  to  one  painter,  and  six  florins  to  another;  that  vital — is  to  so  associate  the  two  that  in  subordinating 
nearly  all  his  clothing  is  in  pawn  at  the  Lion  and  the  the  accessory  to  the  principal — the  expressive  form  to 
Cow  loan-offices".  Suddenly  he  left  Florence,  and  the  substance  it  expresses — the  union  may  result  in  a 
there  is  evidence  of  his  presence  at  Rome  in  1428  The  puissant  and  well-ordered  work  of  art.  It  is  Masac- 
cause  of  this  precipitate  departure  is  unknown;  in  any  cio's  glory  to  have  succeeded  in  doin^  this  almost  su- 
case,  the  unhappy  man  did  not  succeed  in  bettering  perlatively  well;  this  explains  his  lasting  fame  and  his 
his  material  condition,  for  he  died  of  grief  and  want  in  unfailing  influence.  All  through  the  fifteenth  century 
1429  or  later.  and  after  it,  the  Brancacci  chapel  was  the  chosen  ren- 

Many  of  Masaccio's  works  are  lost.     In  the  Spada  dezvous  of  artists:  as  Ingres  said,  "It  should  be  re- 

chapel,  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella  at  Flor-  garded  and  venerated  as  uie  paternal  mansion  of  the 

ence,  he  painted  a  "Trinity"  between  the  Virgin  and  great  schools." 

St.  John,  'With  kneeling  portraits  of  the  two  donors  at  Vasari,  Le  viUdelpiu  ecceUmHmtUni,jctdtoH  earehHetton, 

the  sides.    This  erandi<^  work  is    unfortunately^  ^^fn&,]\^l^ri.  A<.''*^S5l.  ^^i^Tx^v^: 

much  damaged.     In  the  Academy  of  Florence  is  to  be  caselle,  A  New  Hiatory  of  Painting  in  Italy,  1  (London.  1864), 

seen  a  "  St.  Anne  with  Madonna  and  Infant  Jesus".  3«v.  519-50;   Bumc,  HiaUnre  dea  peintrea  de  toxdea  lea  Eeoln; 

A.  F.  Rio  discovered  in  the  Napl^.  Museum  a  small  gSSL^'^^STJ^^^i^S^'L';.  ^^i^'^^l-J^^'^; 

MasacCK)  which  Vasan  had  heard  Michelangelo  praise  XII.  175  sqq. :  Latard,  The  Brancacdo  Chapel  (Arundel  Society, 

very  highly,   but  of  which  all  trace  had  been  lost.  1868);  Delabow)E.  Dea  aevvres  el  deja  manUre  deMancno 

"  iTere  we  (.ave  Pop  Liberius,  repre^nted  under  the  Sr?S^«f^:,.''^o^^.1^itX■^\^'l^fe).  21!*,$^:'^!^:^ 

lineaments  of  Martin  V,  OUthnmg  on  the  snow-covered  Hiatoire  de  taH  pendant  la  RenaUaance,  I.  Bk.  V.  li.  603-19. 

ground  the  foundations  of  the  Basilica  of  Sta.  Maria  Schmarzow.  Maaacdo-Studien  (Caasd.  1895-1900):  Maaacdo. 

Wgiore,  in  the  midst  of  an  imposing  corpse  of  cardi-  ^±,'^  ^tS^aZ''^^  ^  nSSa"(«i,I''i?7Sb«; 

nals  and  other  personages,  all  painted  from  life    (Rio,  Jodoco  della  Badia,  Maaacdo  e  Giovanni  auo  fraUUo  in 

*'L'Art  Chretien",  II,  Paris,  1861,  p.  13).     This  pic-  i?a>»wvnaAraH(male(Nov    1904).  143-46:  SoRTAM.^Jwd^g^ 

ture  is  known  as  "  The  Founding  of  St.  Mary  of  the  ^trn%m'wZr^^&' dfi^  ^^T^ii^^L  ^ 

Snows  at  Rome'.     Some  portraits  m  tjie  Uffizi —  dei  Quattrocmto.  VII  (MUan,  1910). 

notably  one  of  a  frail,  melancholy  youth — which  were  G.  Sortais. 
for  a  long  time  attributed  to  Masaccio,  have  now,  and 

correctly,  been  assigned  to  Filippino  Lippi  and  other  MaacoutenB  Indiana. — A  Wisconsin  tribe  of  Algon- 
later  masters.  But  Masaccio's  chief  work  is  the  pic-  auian  stock,  of  considerable  missionary  importance  in 
torial  decoration  of  the  Brancacci  chapel,  in  the  south  ttie  seventeenth  century,  but  long  since  entirely  ex- 
transept  of  the  Church  of  Sta.  Maria  del  Carmine.  In  tinct.  Their  language  was  a  dialect  of  that  common 
this  work,  })egun  by  Masolino  and  finished  by  Filip-  to  the  Sauk.  Fox.  and  Kickapoo,  with  whom,  as  also 
pino  Lippi,  the  intermediate  portion  is  Masaccio's —  with  the  Miami,  they  were  usually  in  close  alliance, 
.;  Adam  and  Eve  driven  out  of  Paradise",  "Christ  or-  while  maintaining  hereditary  warfare  ^ith  the  Iro- 


BCASHOMAIiAHD 


769 


MABOLIHO 


quoiB  and  Sioux.  The  Algonquian  name  by  which  they 
are  ^nerally  known  aj^nifies  "people  of  the  littfe 
praine  ".  In  the  earlier  French  records  they  are  known 
as  the  **  Fire  Nation  "  (Gens  de  Feu)y  from  the  Huron 
name  Asistaxeronon  (people  at  the  nreplace),  properly 
a  rendering  of  the  tribal  name  of  the  Potawatomir  The 
mistake  arose  from  the  fact  of  the  close  proximity  of 
the  two  tribes,  and  the  further  fact  of  the  resemblance 
of  the  Algonouian  roots  for  fire  {ishkoU)  and  prairie 
(mashkott^.  It  is  certain,  as  shown  by  Hewitt,  that 
the  Fire  Nation  of  some  of  the  earliest  notices  are  the 
Potawatomi.  The  confusion  persisted  until  the  West- 
em  tribes  had  become  better  known.  The  Mascoutens 
were  first  visited  by  Champlain's  venturesome  inter- 
preter, Jean  Nicolet,  in  1634,  at  their  town  on  upper 
Fox  River.  In  1654--55  the  explorers,  Radisson  and 
Groseilliers,  also  stopped  at  the  same  town,  which,  as 
later,  the  Miascoutens  occupied  jointly  with  the  Miami. 
The  location  of  this  town  is  a  matter  of  dispute,  but 
it  is  i^enerally  agreed  to  have  been  near  Fox  River, 
within  the  present  limits  of  Green  Lake  County  or 
the  northern  part  of  Columbia  county. 

In  1669,  the  pioneer  Jesuit  explorer.  Father  Claude 
Alloues,  established  the  mission  of  Saint-Frangois- 
Xavier  at  the  rapids  of  Fox  River,  about  the  present 
Depere,  Wisconsin,  as  a  central  station  for  the  evan- 
gelization of  the  tribes  between  Lake  Michigan  and 
the  Mississippi.  In  the  spring  of  the  next  year,  1670, 
with  two  French  companions,  he  visited  the  **  Mahou- 
tensak'',  partly  to  compose  some  differences  which 
the  tribe  already  had  with  the  French  traders.  He 
was  received  as  an  actual  manitou,  with  ceremonial 
feasts,  anointing  of  the  limbs  of  himself  and  his  com- 
panions, and  *'  a  veritable  sacrifice  like  that  which  they 
made  to  their  false  gods",  being  invoked  at  the  same 
time  to  give  them  victory  against  their  enemies,  abun- 
dant crops,  and  immunity  from  disease  and  famine. 
The  missionary  at  once  let  them  know  that  he  was  not 
a  god,  but  a  servant  of  the  True  God,  proceeding  with 
an  explanation  of  the  Christian  doctrine,  to  which  they 
listened  with  reverence.  In  September  of  the  same 
vear,  in  company  with  the  Jesuit  Father  Claude  Da- 
blon,  he  made  a  second  missionary  visit  to  the  town, 
preaching  to  the  Indians,  who  crowded  to  hear  them 
Both  day  and  night,  with  the  greatest  eagerness  and 
attention.  The  teaching  was  given  in  the  Miami 
language. 

Tne  town  was  a  frequent  rendezvous  for  several 
tribes,  and  on  some  occasions  must  have  had  several 
thousand  Indians  assembled  in  its  neighbourhood. 
Its  regular  occupants  were  the  Mascoutens,  and  a  part 
of  the  Miami,  estimated  by  Dablon.  in  1670,  at  about 
four  hundred  warriors  each,  or,  as  ne  says,  over  three 
thousand  souls.  The  Mascoutens  may  have  num- 
bered fifteen  hundred  souls.  '  He  describes  the  town 
as  beautifully  situated  on  a  small  hill  in  the  midst 
of  extensive  prairies,  interspersed  with  eroves  and 
abounding  in  herds  of  buffalo.  It  was  pfuisaded  for 
defence  against  the  Iroquois,  who  earned  their  de- 
structive raids  even  to  the  Mississippi.  Besides  the  buf- 
falo, there  were  fields  of  com,  squashes,  and  tobacco, 
with  an  abundance  of  wild  grapes,  and  plums,  and 
probably  also  stores  of  wild  rice.  Notwithstanding  all 
this,  their  natural  improvidence  made  life  an  alterna- 
tion of  feasting  and  famine.  Of  the  two  tribes  the 
Miami  were  the  more  polished.  The  houses  were  liffht 
structures  covered  with  mats  of  woven  rushes.  The 
people  were  given  to  heathenism,  offering  almost  daily 
sacrifices  to  uie  sun,  the  thunder,  the  buffalo,  the  bear, 
and  to  the  special  manitou  which  came  to  them  in 
dreams.  Sickness  was  attributed  to  evil  spirits  or 
witchcraft,  to  be  exorcised  by  their  medicine-men.  In 
their  cabins  they  kept  buffalo  skulls  to  which  they 
made  sacrifice,  and  sometimes  the  stuffed  skin  of  a  bear 
erected  upon  a  pole.  Like  the  other  tribes  of  the 
ranon,  they  sometimes  ate  prisoners  of  war. 

u  1672,  Allouez  established  in  the  town  a  regular 
IX.— 49 


mission  which  he  named  Saint-Jacques,  building  a 
special  cabin  for  a  chapel,  and  setting  up  two  large 
crosses,  which  the  Indians  decorated  with  offering  of 
dressed  skins  and  beaded  belts.  For  lack  of  mission- 
aries, however,  he  was  only  able  to  serve  it  through 
occasional  visits  from  Saint-Ftancois-Xavier  near 
Green  Bay,  in  consequence  of  which  its  growth  was 
slow.  In  the  next  year  Marquette  and  JoEet  stopped 
there  and  procured  guides  for  their  vovage  of  discov- 
ery. In  1678,  Allouez  was  transferred  to  the  Ulinois 
mission,  while  his  assistant,  Father  Antoine  SHvy,  was 
lecalled  to  Canada,  his  place  being  filled  by  Father 
Andr^  Bonnault.  Up  to  this  time  there  had  been 
over  five  himdred  baptisms  of  various  tribes  at  the 
Mascoutens  mission.  In  1692,  the  heroic  Father  Se- 
bastien  Rasles  also  stopped  there  on  his  way  to  ihe 
Illinois  station,  and  reported  the  mission  as  still  de- 
pendent on  occasional  visits  from  Green  ^ay.  This  is 
apparently  the  last  notice  of  the  Mascoutens  mission, 
which  seems  to  have  dwindled  out  from  neglect,  and 
from  the  growing  hostility  manifested  towara  tiie 
French  by  uie  Sauk,  Foxes,  and  Kickapoo,  with  whom 
the  Mascoutens  were  so  closely  connected.  In  1702,  a 
band  of  the  tribe  had  drifted  down  into  Southern 
Illinois,  and  had  their  village  on  the  Ohio  near  to  the 
French  post  of  Fort  Massac.  Here  Father  Jean  Mer- 
met,  stationed  at  the  post,  attempted  to  minister  to 
them,  but  found  them  entirely  under  the  influence  of 
their  medicine  men  and  opposed  to  Christianity.  In 
the  meantime  an  epidemic  visited  the  village,  idlling 
many  daily.  The  missionary  did  what  he  could  to 
relieve  the  sick,  even  baptizing  some  of  the  dying  at 
their  own  request,  his  only  reward  being  abuse  and 
attempts  upon  his  life.  To  appease  the  disease-spirit 
the  Indians  organized  dances  at  which  they  sacrinced 
some  forty  dogs,  carrying  them  at  the  ends  of  poles 
while  dancing.  They  were  finally  driven  to  ask  the 
aid  and  prayers  of  the  priest,  but  in  spite  of  idl  more 
than  halt  the  band  perisned. 

In  1712,  the  Mascoutens,  with  the  Kickapoo  and 
Sauk,  joined  the  Foxes  in  the  war  which  the  latter  in- 
augurated against  the  French,  and  continued  in  desul- 
tory fashion  for  some  thirty  years.  In  1728  Father 
Michel  (orLouis-Ignace)  Gmgnas,  while  descending  the 
Mississippi,  was  taken  near  the  mouth  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin by  a  party  of  Mascoutens  and  Kickapoo,  held  for 
sevend  months,  and  finally  condemned  to  be  burnt, 
but  rescued  by  being  adopted  by  an  old  man.  Through 
his  mediation  they  made  peace  with  the  French,  and 
afterwards  took  him  to  spend  the  winter  of  1729^-30 
with  them  (Le  Petit).  It  is  evident  that  by  this  time 
the  Mascoutens  were  near  their  end,  reduced  puily  by 
wars,  but  more  by  the  gr^t  epidemics  which  wiped 
out  the  tribes  of  the  Illinois  country.  In  1736  they 
are  officially  reported  by  Chauvignerie  as  eighty  war- 
riors, about  thiee  hundred  souls,  still  on  Fox  River,  in 
connexion  with  the  Kickapoo  and  Foxes,  with  whom 
they  were  probably  finally  incorporated.  They  are 
not  named  in  Sir  William  Johnson's  list  of  Western 
tribes  in  1763,  and  are  last  mentioned  by  Hutchins  in 
1778,  as  living  then  on  the  Wabash  in  company  with 
ihe  Kickapoo,  Miami,  and  Piankishaw. 

Jeauit  Rdatioiu,  Thwaitbs  ed.,  eopeoialhr  voto.  I,  V, 
Vin.  XXVni,  XLIV.  LIV  UUoua),  LVTpaWon}.  lViII 
(AUtmet),  IJDC  iManwUe  and  AUoua),  LX,  LXI.  LXVI 
(fiarut,  Mermei).  IJCVUl  (U  PetU)  (Cleveland,  1896-1901); 
CBAinnoiffnus's  list  in  ScnooLCRArr.  Jnd.  Tribett  in  (Flul- 
adelphis.  1863);  HuTCBniin,Topogmph%ealDeacnptum  (London. 
177$;  Sua. Catholie huLMiMianalSew York,  1855). 

James  Mooxet. 

MashonaUnd»  Ruins  of.    See  Soix>mon. 

MasoUno  dft  Panicala,  son  of  Cristoforo  Fioi;  b.  in 
the  suburb  of  Panioale  di  Valdeee,  near  Florence,  138S; 
d.  0. 1440.  It  is  said  that  he  was  a  pupil  of  Stamina, 
several  of  whose  frescoes  in  charming  taste  heralding 
the  Renaissance  are  in  the  Cathedral  of  Prato.  Es* 
tablished  at  Florence  Masolino  was  received  in  1423 
a  member  of  the  corporation  of  druggists  or  grocers 


lAASOV 


770 


MAflOH 


(fpegiaU)  which  then  included  painters.  A  document 
diBOovered  by  Milanesi  informs  us  that  in  July,  1423, 
he  was  occupied  on  the  celebrated  paintings  of  the 
Brancacci  chapel  in. the  Church  of  the  Carmine.  Here 
he  was  again  at  work  in  1426.  In  1427  he  was  in  Hun- 
gary in  the  service  of  the  famous  Florentine  adven- 
turer, Filipo  Scolari  (PippoSpanoas  he  is  sumamed). 
Between  1428  and  1435  he  executed  near  Varese,  at 
CastigUone  d'Olona,  paintings  discovered  fortv  years 
■ince  in  the  baptistery  and  collegiate  church.  He 
died  four  or  five  years  later  aged,  not  37  as  Vasaii 
states,  but  57  years.  Masolino's  glory  is  to  hav« 
collaborated  in  the  Carmine  and  to  be  also  the  master 
and  forerunner  of  Masaccio.  He  pla;y^ed  an  important 
part  in  the  development  of  the  Renaissance,  but  it  is 
far  from  being  as  considerable  or  as  "providential"  as 
ancient  historians  have  claimed. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  Renais- 
sance was  at  hand;  in  all  countries  simultaneously 
and  nearly  everywhere  it  had  the  same  characteristics. 
For  example  the  work  of  the  Limbourgs  belongs  to 
1416,  and  some  miniatulies  of  their  calendar  might 
almost  be  mistaken  for  certain  pictures  of  Gentile  da 
Fabriano^  whose  "  Adoration  of  the  Kings  *'  belongs  to 
1423.  Similar  figures  are  found  in  Masolino's  work 
in  the  Brancacci  Chapel,  such  as  the  pretty  group  of 
Florentine  gentlemen  m  the  **  Preaching  of  St.  Peter  *'. 
The  delicate  taste  of  the  architecture,  the  pleasing 
sense  of  the  landscape  are  still  general  traits  ot  the  art 
of  this  period.  When  Masolino  came  to  Florence  he 
was  more  than  forty  years  old .  All  agree  at  present  in 
attributing  to  him  the  frescoes,  in  the  Church  of  San 
Clemente  at  Rome,  which  Vasari  regards  as  the  work 
of  Masaccio's  youth.  They  may  be  placed  about 
1415.  They  represent  scenes  from  the  li(e  of  St. 
Ambrose  and  the  life  of  St.  Catherine.  The  latter 
have  been  often  restored.  What  is  remarkable  about 
these  frescoes  is  not  that  they  differ  from  many  Giot- 
tesque  works  (nearly  all  the  traditional  ideas  and 
customs  have  been  followed),  neither  is  it  that  the 
painter  shows  great  skill,  but  he  has  a  wholly  new 
sense  of  grace  and  beauty,  an  innate  gift  of  elegance, 
and  that  inexpressible  quality  which  we  call  '*  charm. " 
It  seems  as  though  a  breath  of  youth  passed  over 
the  art  of  painting  and  thawed  the  ancient  formulas. 
There  is  nothing  more  ravishing  than  the  figures  of  the 
women,  especially  the  young  girls.  The  little  Cathe- 
rine, converting  the  wife  of  the  Emperor  Maxentius,  is 
a  virginal  vision  of  childish  beauty  whose  sweetness 
has  only  been  surpassed  by  Angelico.  It  is  especially 
in  the  large  "  Calvary  "  behind  the  altar  that  this  at- 
mosphere of  ingenuousness  is  felt.  The  immense 
landscape  of  undulating  hills,  on  which  is  unfolded  the 
feebly  composed  scene,  redeems  all  the  defects  of 
composition  such  as  absence  of  the  pathetic  and  lack 
of  unity  in  the  grouping.  One  is  conscious  only  of  a 
peace,  an  enchantment  of  nature  which  resembles  the 
state  of  grace. 

Some  of  these  merits  are  found  in  the  frescoes  in  the 
Carmine.  As  indicated  by  its  reputation  this  cele- 
brated work  must  be  its  author's  most  considerable 
composition.  He  painted  only  three  of  these  com- 
positions: on  one  of  the  pillars  in  the  entrance  the 
"Temptation  of  Adam  and  Eve  ",  and  in  the  chapel  it- 
self the  "Preaching  and  the  Miracles  of  St.  Peter", 
which  is  the  best  of  all.  and  com])rises  two  distinct 
episodes:  the  "Cure  of  tne  Paralytic"  and  the  "Res- 
urrection of  Tabitha".  Deserving  of  admiration  are 
the  figures  of  the  Apostles  and  the  accuracy  of  observa- 
tion in  the  attitude  of  the  cripple  and  the  risen  woman. 
But  what  constitutes  the  value  of  these  works,  and  is 
abo  found  in  the  frescoes  of  San  Clemente,  is  a  sober 
and  spiritual  grace  and  a  delightful  sense,  at  once 
familiar  and  refined ,  of  life .  It  is  this  quality,  also,  that 
imparts  value  to  the  frescoes  at  Castiglione  d'Olona. 
the  last  and  most  animated  of  his  works.  His  "  life  of 
St  John  the  Baptist "  abounds  in  Uvely  traits.    The 


beautiful  costumes  and  portraits,  the  graceful  attire  of 
the  women,  his  Herodiases  and  Salomes,  are  charming. 
At  need  the  painter  gives  proof  of  technical  knowledge; 
he  develops  fair  perspectives  composed  of  delicate 
architecture  in  the  antioue  manner.  But  all  this  for 
him  fk  but  the  frame,  full  of  fancy  and  taste,  wherein 
transpire  charming  scenes  of  Florentine  Ufe.  Thus  in 
the  "Baptism  of  Christ"  the  group  of  neophytes  rob- 
ing, the  man  seated  putting  on  his  shoes,  and  the  one 
who.  bare-limbed  awaiting  his  turn,  snivera  in  his 
cloak,  form  a  genre  picture  which  is  full  of  spirit  and 
charm. 

Masaccio  treated  the  same  subject  at  the  Carmine 
with  his  customary  grandeur;  Masolino  sees  in  it  only 
a  familiar  study,  similar  to  the  "  Baths "  or  "  Studies" 
of  the  German  prints,  but  in  which  only  a  Florentine 
could  put  such  a  lively  sense  of  beauty.  Opposite,  the 
trio  of  angels  bearing  the  garments  of  Christ  recall  the 
most  exquisite  figures  of  the  "Life  of  St.  Catherine". 
But  above  all  there  is  that  general  air  of  spring  and 
adolescence,  that  unique  feeling  of  youth  which  is  the 
charm  of  that  age^  and  which  we  find  in  Gentile  and 
Pesellino,  but  which  lasted  only  a  moment  and  was 
seen  no  more.  Vasari  realized  this:  "He  was  the  first 
to  impart  more  sweetness  to  his  figures  of  women,  to 
give  more  graceful  demeanour  to  his  young  men.  .  .  . 
He  treated  skilfully  the  play  of  Ught  and  shade.  .  .  . 
His  pictures  are  blended  with  such  grace  that  they 
have  all  the  suppleness  imaginable.  ...  It  is  very 
difficult  to  say  whether  Masaccio  really  owes  anything 
to  Masolino.  The  genius  of  this  sublime  young  man 
transcends  ordinary  rules;  he  brought  about  a  revolu- 
tion in  the  school,  and  hastened  by  fifty  years  the 
development  of  the  Renaissance.  But  without  the 
interference  of  tlus  sudden  and  tremendous  force  the 
Renaissance  would  have  arrived  of  itself,  less  great 
perhaps,  less  learned,  but  more  gently.  Masolino 
shows  us  what  the  blossoming  would  have  been  had  it 
not  been  for  Masaccio's  coup  dHat." 

Vabari,  ed.  Milanese  (Florence,  1878,  1886):  Crowb  and 
Cavalcasalle,  HiMory  of  painting  in  Italy  (London,  1864-66); 
LObke,  Masolino  and  Masaccio  in  JahrbHeher  fUr  KtmsttnaseH" 
schaft  (1870),  75-79;  280-286;  Bchuahzow.  Masaccio:  Stvdien 
(Cassel.  1896-1000);  Wickhoit,  Die  Fretken  dor  Katharine- 
kapeUe  in  S.  Clemente  zu  Rom.  in  ZeUschrift  fOr  BUdende  Kunst 


(1889).  306;  Mttm,  Histoire  de  VArt  pendant  la  Renaissance, 
Vol.  I.  Les  Primitives  (Paris,  1888);  Quthmann.  Die  Land- 
schafbnalerei  .  .  .  von  Oiotto  bis  Rafael  (Leipsig,  1902);  Rosen, 
Die  Natur  in  der  Kunst  (Ldpiig,  1903) ;  Bbrenbon,  Florentine 
Painters  of  the  Renaissance  (London,  2nd  ed..  1904). 

Louis  Gillkt. 

Mason,  Richabd  Angelus  a  S.  Francisco,  Eng- 
lish— or  Irish — Franciscan  writer;  b.  in  Wiltshire, 
1599;  d.  at  Douai,  30  Dec.,  1678.  There  is  some  dis- 
pute as  to  the  nationality  of  his  extraction:  while  it  is 
affT^  that  he  was  a  native  of  the  English  county  of 
Wiltshire,  a  Franciscan  MS.  record,  dated  1721,  men- 
tions his  having  been  *'  for  some  time  dean  of  a  Catho- 
lick  deanery  in  Ireland'',  conveying  a  suggestion  that 
his  family  may  have  been  Irish:  Gillow(Bibl.  Diet, 
of  the  English  Catholics)  thinks  that  if  Mason  ever 
held  a  deanery  in  Ireland,  it  must  have  been  under 
the  Protestant  Establishment,  in  which  case  Father 
Angelus,  as  he  was  known  among  his  contempo- 
raries, would  have  to  be  reckoned  among  the  seven- 
teenth-century converts.  The  MS.  mention  of  his 
"Oatholick  deanery",  however,  was  written  forty- 
three  years  after  Mason's  death,  and  there  is  evidence 
that  he  was  ordained  priest  at  Douai  four  years  after 
his  profession  in  the  Seraphic  Order,  the  latter  event 
having  taken  place  in  1629.  In  any  case  he  rapidly 
became  eminent  in  the  order,  being  created  a  doctor  of 
divinity  and  appointed  successively  to  the  high  ad- 
ministrative offices  of  definitor,  guardian,  and  visitor 
of  the  province  of  Brabant.  Elected  provincial  in 
1659,  he  visited  Paris  in  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
obtain  permission  for  the  settlement  there  of  a  colony 
of  Franciscan  sisters  from  the  convent  at  Nieuport 
(Flanders)  to  which  he  had  been  confessor.  .  Froia. 


MA80NBT 


771 


MASONET 


1862  to  1675  he  lived  in  England,  as  domeetic  chap- 
lain to  Lord  Arundell  of  Waidour,  after  which  period 
he  retired  to  the  convent  at  Douai  to  prepare  for 
death. 

Father  Angelus  displayed,  in  the  course  of  his  long, 
and  otherwise  busy,  rehgious  life,  a  remarkable  in- 
dustry in  both  original  comoosition  and  the  com- 
pilation of  devotional  manuals.  The  latter  include 
nis  *'  Manuale  Tertii  Ordinis  S.  Francisci ",  with  a  com- 
meniATy  on  the  Rule,  and  meditations  (Douai,  1643), 
"The  Kule  of  Penance  of  the  Seraphical  Father  St. 
Francis''  (Douai,  1644);  '^Sacrarium  privilegiorum 
quorundam  Seraphico  P.  S.  Francisco  .  .  .  indulto- 
rum"  (Douai,  1636).  Among  his  historical  writings 
are  "Certamen  Seraphicum  Provincise  Anglis  pro 
Sancta  Dei  Ecclesia  (Douai,  1649),  a  review  of  dis- 
tinguished English  Franciscan  martyrs  and  polemical 
writers,  and  Apologia  pro  Scoto  Anglo  (Douai, 
1656). — ^The  last-named  work  has  for  its  main  scope 
the  establishment,  against  Colgan,  of  the  thesis  that 
the  great  Franciscan  philosopher.  Duns  Scotus.  was 
not  an  Irishman,  but  an  Englishman :  it  may  be  tairlv 
inferred  that  its  author,  if  he  himself  was  of  Irisn 
descent,  was  not  fully  conscious  of  the  fact. — His 
'^Liturgical  Discourse  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass"  (8. 1.,  1670,  dedicated  to  Henry,  Lord  Arundell 
of  Wardour,  "Master  of  the  Horse  to  oiu*  late  Queen 
Mother  Henrietta  Maria  *'),  was  abridged  in  the  "  Holy 
Altar  and  Sacrifice  Explained"  which  Father  Pacifi- 
cus  Baker.  O.  S.  F.,  published  at  the  request  of  Bishop 
James  Talbot  (London,  1768). 

GiLLOW,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.:  Harris,  Ware*8  WriUra  of 
Ireland,  336;  Ouykr,  Collections  (tiondon,  1845),  193,  229,  541. 
554,  568;  Waddino,  Script.  Ord.  Minor. 

E.  Macpherson. 

MaBonzy  (Freemasonry). — ^The  subject  is  treated 
under  the  following  heads:  I.  Name  and  Definition; 
II.  Origin  and  Early  History;  III.  Fundamental  Prin- 
ciples and  Spirit;  IV.  Propagation  and  Evolution; 
V.  Organization  and  Statistics ;  VI.  Inner  Work;  VII. 
Outer  Work;  VIII.  Action  of  State  and  Church. 

The  following  are  the  abbreviations  of  masonic 
terms  used  in  this  article: — Fy,  Fs,  My,  Ms,  Mn,  mas.= 
FVeemasonrv,  Freemasons,  !« reemason,  Masonry,  ma- 
sonic, etc;  L.,  Ls.,  GL,  GLs,  GO,  GOs,  Supr.  Counc, 
GBs=LfOdge,  Lodges,  Grand  Lodge,  Gr.  Orient,  Su- 
preme Coimcil,  Gr.  Bodies,  etc. — GM,  GC.,= Grand- 
master, Grand  Commander. 

Abbreviations  of  more  frequently  quoted  books 
and  magazines:  K.= Keystone  (Philadelphia).  V= 
"  Voice  cS  Masonry  " ,  later  on : "  Masonic  Voice  and  Re- 
view" (Chicago).  Chr.=" Freemason's  Chronicle" 
(London);  A.  Q.  C.="Ars  Quatuor  Coronatorum". 
Transactions  (London),  the  best  scientific  mas.  maga- 
zine; Bauh.=Bauh(itte;  Sign.="Signale  filr  die  deut- 
sche  Maurerwelt"  (Leipzig);  Enc,  Cycl.,  Handb.= 
Encyclopedia,  "  Allgemeines  Handbuch  der  Freimau- 
rerei"  (Universal  Manual  of  Freemasonry)  Leipzig. 
This  latter  German  encyclopedia,  in  its  three  editions, 
quite  different  from  each  other,  but  all  of  them  con- 
taining valuable  and  accurate  information,  is  consid- 
erecT  even  by  English  and  American  masonic  criticism 
(A.  Q.  C,  Al,  1898,  64)  as  far  and  away  the  best  ma- 
sonic ency^clopedia  ever  pubhshed. 

Abbreviation  of  name  of  author:  01.= Oliver. 

Key  to  numbers:  An  Arabic  number  after  the  name 
of  an  author  of  several  works  indicates  the  work 
marked  with  the  same  number  in  the  bibliography 
closing  the  article. 

Other  numbers  are  to  be  judged  according  to  the 
general  rules  maintained  throughout  the  Enctclo- 

PBDIA. 

I.  Nabcb  and  Definition. — Leaving  aside  various 
fanciful  derivations  we  may  trace  the  word  mason  to 
the  French  mofon  (Latin  matio  or  mackio),  "&  builder 
of  walls"  or  "a  stone-cutter"  (cf.  German  SteinmeU, 
ttOBk  mMaenf "  to  out" ;  and  Dutch  vrijmeUelaar),   The 


compound  term  Freemason  occurs  first  in  1375 — aO" 
cording  to  a  recently  found  writing,  even  prior  to  1155 
(The  Freemason^s  Chronicle,  1908, 1,  283,  frequently 
refeired  to  in  this  article  as  Chr.) — ^and,  contrary  to 
Gould  (Concise  Hist.,  109,  122),  means  primarily  a 
mason  of  superior  skill,  though  later  it  also  designated 
one  who  enjoyed  the  freedom,  or  the  privilege,  of  a 
trade  guUd  (Gould,  "Hist.",  I,  378,  379,  410;  II,  153 
sqq.).  In  the  former  sense  it  is  commonly  derived 
from  freestone-maaony  a  mason  hewiujg  or  building  in 
free  (ornamental)  stone  in  opposition  to  a  rough 
(stone)  mason  (A.  Q.  C,  VIII,  35,  155  sq. ;  Boos,  104 
sqq.).  This  derivation,  though  harmonizing  with  the 
meaning  of  the  term,  seemed  unsatisfactory  to  some 
scholars.  Hence  Speth  proposed  to  interpret  the  word 
freemasons  as  referring  t^  those  masons  claiming 
exemption  from  the  control  of  the  local  guilds  of  the 
towns,  where  they  temporarily  settled  (A.  Q.  C,  X, 
10-30;  IX,  167).  In  accordance  with  this  suggestion 
the  ''  New  English  Dictionary  of  the  Philological  So- 
ciety" (Oxfora,  1898)  favours  the  interpretation  of 
freemasons  as  skilled  artisans,  emancipated  accord- 
ing to  the  medieval  practice  from  the  restrictions  and 
control  of  local  guilds  in  order  that  they  might  be  able 
to  travel  and  render  services,  wherever  any  great 
building  (cathedral,  etc.)  was  in  process  of  construo- 
tion.  These  freemasons  formed  a  universal  craft  for 
themselves,  with  a  system  of  secret  signs  and  pass- 
words by  which  a  craftsman,  who  had  been  admitted 
on  givii^  evidence  of  competent  skill,  coidd  be  recog- 
nized. On  the  decline  of  Gothic  architecture  this  craJt 
coalesced  with  the  mason  guilds  (A.  Q.  C,  XI,  166--' 
168). 

Quite  recently  W.  Bepemann  ( Voigeschichte,  1, 1909, 
42-58)  combats  the  opmion  of  Speth  (A.  Q.  C,  X,  20- 
22)  as  purely  hypotnetical,  stating  that  the  name 
freemason  originally  designated  particularly  skilled 
freestone-masons,  needed  at  the  time  of  the  most  mag- 
nificent evolution  of  Gothic  architecture,  and  nothine 
else.  In  English  law  the  word  freemason  is  fint 
mentioned  in  1495,  -wYnXe  frank-mason  occurs  already 
in  an  Act  of  1444-1445  (Gould,  "Concise  History '\ 
166  sq.).  Later,  freemason  and  mason  were  usea 
as  convertible  terms.  The  modem  signification  of 
Freemasonry  in  which,  since  about  1750,  the  won! 
has  been  universally  and  exclusively  understood,  dates 
only  from  the  constitution  of  the  Grand  Lodge  of  Eng- 
land, 1717.  In  this  acceptation  Freemasonry,  accord- 
ing to  the  ofl&cial  English,  Scottish,  American,  etc., 
craft  rituals,  is  most  generally  defined:  ''A  peculiar 
[some  say  "particular"  or  'beautiful"]  system  of 
morality  veiled  in  allegory  and  illustrated  by  sym- 
bols." Mackey  (Symlx)lism  of  Freemasonry,  1869, 
303)  declares  the  best  definition  of  Freemasonry  to  be: 
"A  science  which  is  engaged  in  the  search  after  the 
divine  truth."  The  German  encyclopedia  of  Free- 
masonry, "Handbuch"  (1900,  I,  320  sq.),  defines 
Freemasonry  as  "the  activity  of  closely  united  men 
who,  employing  symbolical  forms  borrowed  princi- 
pally from  the  mason's  trade  and  from  architecture, 
work  for  the  welfare  of  mankind,  striving  morally  to 
ennoble  themselves  and  others  and  thereby  to  bring 
about  a  universal  league  of  mankind  [Aienschheiia' 
bund],  which  they  aspire  to  exhibit  even  now  on  a 
small  scale".  The  three  editions  which  this  "Hand- 
buch" (Universal  Manual  of  Freemasonry)  has  had 
since  1822  arc  most  valuable,  the  work  faiaving  been 
declared  by  English-speaking  Masonic  critics  'M3y  far 
the  best  Masonic  Encyclopedia  ever  published" 
["  Transactions  of  the  Lodge  Ars  Quatuor  Coronato- 
rum",  XI  (London,  1898),  64). 

II.  Origin  and  Early  History. — Before  entering 
upon  this  and  the  following  divisions  of  our  subject  it  is 
necessary  to  premise  that  the  very  nature  of  Freema- 
sonry as  a  secret  society  makes  it  difficult  to  be  sure  even 
of  its  reputed  documents  and  authorities,  and  therefore 
we  have  consulted  only  those  whk^  are  acknowledged 


MASONRY  772  MA80NBT 

and  recommended  by  responsible  members  of  the  craft,  of  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England,  24  June,  1717,  and  iti 

as  stated  in  the  bibliography  appended  to  this  article,  essential  orcanization  was  completed  in  1722  by  the 

"  It  is  the  opprobrimn  of  Freemasonry",  says  Mackey  adoption  of  the  new  '*  Book  of  Ccmstitutions  "  and  of 

(Encycl(^>edia,  296),  "that  its  history  has  never  yet  the  three  degrees:— apprentice,  fellow,  master.  All  the 

been  written  in  a  spirit  of  critical  truth ;  that  credulity  ablest  and  most  conscientious  investi^tions  by  compe- 

.  .  .  has  been  the  foundation  on  which  all  masonic  his-  tent  Masonic  historians  show,  that  in  1717  the  old  lodges 

torical  investigations  have  been  built,  .  .  .  that  the  had  almost  ceased  to  exist.    The  new  lodges  began  as 

missing  links  of  a  chain  of  evidence  have  been  fre-  convivial  societies,  and  their  characteristic  Masonic 

quently  supplied  by  gratuitous  invention  and  that  spirit  developed  but  slowly.    This  spirit,  finally,  as 

statements  of  vast  importance  have  been  carelessly  sus-  exhibited  in  the  new  constitutions  was  in  contradic- 

tained  by  the  testimony  of  documents  whose  authen-  tion  to  that  which  animated  the  earlier  Masons.  These 

ticityhas  not  been  proved.''    "The  historical  portion  of  facts  prove  that  modem  Masonry  is  not,  as  Gould 

old  records",  he  adds,  "as  written  by  Anderson, Pres-  (History,  II,  2,  121),  Hughan  (A.  Q.  C.»  X,  128)  and 

ton.  Smith,  Calcott  and  otherwriters  of  that  generation,  Mackev  (Encyclopedia,  296  so.)  contend,  a  revival  of 

was  little  more  than  a<collection  of  fables,  so  absurd  as  the  older  system,  out  rather  tnat  it  is  a  new  order  of 

to  excite  the  smile  of  every  reader"  (Chr.,  1890,  II,  no  greater  antiquity  than  the  first  quarter  of  the  eight- 

145).   The  germs  of  nearly  all  these  fantastic  theories  eenth  century. 

are  contained  in  Anderson's  "The  Constitutions  of  III.  Fundamental  Principles  and  Spirit. — 
Free  Masons"  (1723, 1738)  which  makes  Freemasonry  There  have  been  many  controversies  among  Masons 
coextensive  with  geometry  and  the  arts  based  on  it*  as  to  the  essential  points  of  Masonrv.  English-speak- 
insinuates  that  God,  the  Great  Architect,  founded  ing  Masons  style  them  "landmarks",  a  term  taken 
Freemasonry,  and  that  it  had  for  patrons,  Adam,  the  from  Deut.,  xix,  14.  and  signifying  "  the  boundaries 
Patriarchs,  the  kings  and  philosophers  of  old.  Even  of  Masonic  freedom",  or  the  unalterable  Umits  within 
Jesus  Christ  is  included  in  the  list  as  Grand  Master  of  which  all  Masons  have  to  confine  themselves.  Mackey 
the  Christian  Church.  Masonry  is  credited  with  the  (3,  17-39)  specifies  no  less  than  twenty-five  land- 
building  of  Noah's  Ark,  the  Tower  of  Babel,  the  Pvra-  marks.  The  same  number  is  adopted  by  Whitehead 
mids,  and  Solomon's  Temple.  Subsequent  authors  (Chr..  1878,  I,  187.  194  sqq.)  "  as  the  pith  of  the  re- 
find  the  origin  of  Masonry  in  the  Egyptian,  Dionysiac,  searcnes  of  the  ablest  masonic  writers".  The  prin- 
Eleusinian,  Mithraic,  and  Druidic  mysteries;  in  sects  cipal  of  them  are:  the  method  of  recognition  by  secret 
and  schools  such  as  the  Pythagoreans,  Essenes,  Cul-  signs,  words,  grips,  steps,  etc.;  the  three  degrees  in- 
dees,  Zoroastrians,  and  Gnostics;  in  the  Evangelical  cludingtheKoyai  Arch;  tne  Hiram  legend  of  the  third 
societies  that  preceded  the  Reformation;  in  the  orders  degree;  the  proper  "tiling"  of  the  lodge  against 
of  knighthood  (Johannites,  Templars);  among  the  "raining"  and  "snowing",  i.e.,  against  male  and  fe- 
alchemists,  Rosicrucians,  and  Cabbalists;  in  Chinese  male  "cowans",  or  eavesdroppers,  i.e.,  profane  in- 
and  Arabic  secret  societies.  It  is  claimed  also  that  truders ;  the  right  of  eveiy  regular  Mason  to  visit  every 
Pythagoras  founded  the  Druidic  institution  and  hence  regular  lodge  in  the  world;  a  belief  in  the  existence  of 
that  Masonrv  probaUv  existed  in  England  500  years  God  and  in  future  life;  the  Volume  of  the  Sacred  Law; 
before  the  Christian  Era.  Some  authors,  considering  equality  of  Masons  in  the  lodge;  secrecy;  symboli- 
geological  finds  as  Masonic  emblems,  trace  Masonry  to  cal  method  of  teaching;  inviolability  of  landmarks 
ttie  Miocene  (?)  Period  (Donnelly,  "Atlantis  the  Ante-  (Mackey,  "Jurisprudence",  17-39;  Chr.,  1878, 1,  194 
diluvian  World");  while  others  pretend  that  Masonic  sqq.;  1888,  I,  11).  In  truth  there  is  no  authority  in 
science  "existed  before  the  creation  of  this  globe,  dif-  Freemasonry  to  constitute  such  "unchangeable" 
fused  amidst  the  numerous  systems  with  which  the  landmarks  or  fundamental  laws.  Strictly  judicially, 
erand  empyreum  of  universal  space  is  furnished "  even  the  "  Old  Charges ",  which,  according  to  Ander- 
(Oliver,  I,  20,  sq.).  son's  "  Constitutions  ",  contain  the  unchangeal^le  laws, 
It  is  not  then  difiicult  to  understand  that  the  at-  have  a  legal  obligatoiy  character  only  as  far  as  thev 
tempt  to  prove  the  antiquity  of  Freemasonry  with  are  inserted  in  the  "Book  of  Constitution"  of  each 
evidence  supplied  by  such  monuments  of  the  past  as  Grand  Lodge  (Fischer,  I,  14  sq.;  Groddeck,  1  sqc).,  91 
the  Pjrramios  and  the  Obelisk  (removed  to  New  York  sqq.;  " Handbuch",  3rd  ed.,  II,  154).  But  practicaUy 
in  1879)  should  have  resulted  in  an  extensive  litera-  there  exist  certain  characteristics  which  are  univer- 
ture  concerning  these  objects  (Chr.,  1880,  I,  148;  II,  sally  considered  as  essential.  Such  are  the  funda- 
139;  1884,  II,  130;  Gruber,  5,  122-128).  Though  mental  principles  described  in  the  first  and  sixth  arti- 
many  intellijgent  Masons  regard  these  claims  as  base-  cles  of  the  "Old  Charges"  concerning  religion,  in  the 
less,  the  majority  of  the  craft  (see,  for  instance,  "llie  texts  of  the  first  two  ^glish  editions  (1723  and  1738) 
Voice"  of  Chica^,  Chr.,  1885,  I,  226)  still  accept  the  of  Anderson's  "Constitutions".  These  texts,  thou^ 
statement  contamed  in  the  "Chaige"  after  initiation:  differing  slightly,  are  identical  as  to  their  essential 
"Ancient  no  doubt  it  is,  having  subsisted  from  time  tenor.  That  of  1723,  as  the  original  text^  restored  by 
immemorial.  In  everv  age  monarchs  [American  rit-  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England  in  the  editions  of  the 
uals:  "the  greatest  and  best  men  of  all  ages"]  have  been  "Constitutions",  1756-1813,  and  inserted  later  in  the 
promoters  of  the  art,  have  not  thought  it  aerogatorv  "  Books  of  Constitutions "  of  nearly  all  the  other 
to  their  dignity  to  exchange  the  sceptre  for  the  trowel.  Grand  Lodges,  is  the  most  authoritative;  but  the  text 
have  participated  in  our  mvsteries  and  joined  in  our  of  1738,  which  was  adopted  and  used  for  a  long  fime 
assemolies"  (En^ish  ritual,  1908,  almost  identictd  by  many  Grand  Lodges,  is  also  of  great  importance  in 
with  other  English,  Irish,  Scottish,  and  American  itself  and  as  a  further  illustration  of  the  text  of  1723. 
rituals).  It  is  true  that  in  earlier  times  gentlemen  In  the  latter,  the  first  article  of  the  "Old  Charges" 
who  were  neither  operative  masons  nor  architects,  the  containing  the  fundamental  law  and  the  essence  of 
so-called  geomatic  Masons  (see  Gould,  "  Hist.",  1, 408,  modem  Freemasonry  runs  (the  text  is  given  exactly 
473,  etc.)  joined  with  the  ooerative,  or  domatic,  as  printed  in  the  original,  1723): — I.  Concerning  Goa 
Masons  in  their  lodges,  observea  ceremonies  of  admis-  ana  Religion,  A  Mason  is  obhged  by  his  Tenure,  to 
flion,  and  had  their  signs  of  recognition.  But  this  obey  the  moral  law;  and  if  he  rightljr  imderstands  the 
Masonry  is  by  no  means  the  "speculative"  Masonry  of  Art,  he  will  never  be  a  stupid  Atheist  [Gothic  letters] 
modem  times,  i.  «.,  a  systematic  method  of  teaching  nor  an  irreli^ous  Libertine  [Gothic  letters].  But 
moralitv  by  means  of  such  symbols  according  to  the  though  in  ancient  times  Masons  were  charged  in  every 
principles  of  modem  Freemasonry  after  1723.  As  the  coimtry  to  be  of  the  religion  of  that  country  or  nation, 
best  German  authorities  admit  ("Handbuch  ",  3rd  ed.,  whatever  it  was,  vet  'tb  now  thou^t  more  expedient 
I,  321;  Begemann,  "  Vorgeschichte,  etc.",  1909,  I,  1  only  to  oblige  them  to  that  rehgion  in  which  all 
iqq.),  speculative  Masonry  began  with  the  foundation  men  agree,  mving  their  particular  Opiniona  to  them* 


MA80NBY  773  BffASONBY 

selves:  that  is,  to  be  good  men  and  true  or  Men  of  to  desijsoate  the  essential  principle  of  Masonrv  (Grod- 

Honour  and  Honesty,  by  whatever  Denominations  4eck;  ''Handbuch",  3rd  ed.,  I,  466  sqq.)*    It  occurs 

or  Persuasions  they  may  be  distinguished;  whereby  in  a  Masonic  address  of  1747  (Ohver/' Remains",  1, 96; 

Masonry  becomes  the  Centre  of  Union  and  the  Means  332).    Other  watchwords  are  ''tolerance",  ''unsecta- 

of  conciliating  true  Friendship  among  Persons  that  rian",  "cosmopoUtan".    The  Christian  character  of 

must  have  remained  at  a  pei^tual  Distance."  the  society  under  the  operative  regime  of  former  cen- 

Under  Article  VI,  2  (Masons'  behaviour  after  the  turies,  says  Hughan  (Chr.,  1876,  I,  113),  "was  ex- 
Lodge  is  closed  and  the  Brethren  not  gone)  is  added:  changed  for  the  unsectarian  regidations  which  were  to 
''  In  order  to  preserve  peace  and  harmony  no  private  include  under  its  wing  the  votaries  of  all  sects,  with- 
piques  or  quarrels  must  be  brought  within  the  door  of  out  respect  to  their  differences  of  colour  or  clime, 
the  Lodge,  far  less  any  quarrels  about  Religion  or  provided  the  simple  conditions  were  observed  of  mo- 
Nations  or  State  Policy,  we  being  only,  as  Masons,  of  raUty,  mature  age  and  an  approved  ballot "  (see  also 
the  CathoUck  ReUgion  above  mentioned,  we  are  also  Chr.,  187S,  I,  180;  1884,  II,  38;  etc.,  Gould,  "Cone, 
of  all  Nations,  Tongues,  Kindreds  and  Languages  and  Hist.",  289  sq.)  In  Continental  Masonry  the  same 
are  resolved  against  all  Politicks  [printed  in  the  orig-  notions  are  expressed  b3r  the  words  "  neutrality ". 
inal  in  Gothic  letters]  as  what  never  yet  conduced  to  "  laicit^  ",  "  Comessionslosigkeit ",  etc.  In  the  text  ot 
the  welfare  of  the  Lodge  nor  ever  will.  This  charge  1738  particular  stress  is  laid  on  "freedom  of  con- 
has  been  always  strictly  enjoin 'd  and  obsery'd;  but  science"  and  the  universal,  non-Christian  character 
especially  ever  since  the  Reformation  in  Britain  or  the  of  Masonry  is  emphasized.  The  Mason  is  called  a 
dissent  and  secession  of  these  Nations  from  the  comr  "true  Noanida  ",  i.  e.  an  adherent  of  the  pre-Christian 
munion  of  Rome"  and  pre-Mosaic  system  of  undivided  mankind.    The 

In  the  text  of  1738  the  same  articles  run  (variation  "3  articles  of  Noah"  are  most  probably  "the  duties 

from  the  ed.  of  1723  are  given  in  italics) : — 1.  Concern-  towards  Godj  the  neighbour  ana  himself  "  inculcated 

ing  God  and  Religion.     A  Mason  is  obliged  by  his  from  older  times  in  the  "Charge  to  a  newly  made 

Tenure  to  observe  the  moral  law  as  true  Noahida  (sons  Brother  ".    They  might  also  refer  to  "  brotherly  love, 

of  Noah,  the  first  name  of  Freemasons)  and  if  he  relief  and  truth",  generally  with  "religion"  styled 

rightly  understands  the  craft,  he  will  never  be  a  stupid  the  "  great  cement "  of  the  fraternity  and  called  by 

atheist  or  an  irreUgious  libertine  nor  act  against  con-  Blackey  (Lexicon,  42)  "  the  motto  of  our  order  and 

science.    In  ancient  times  the  Christian  masons  were  the  characteristic  of  our  profession  ". 
charged  to  comply  with  the  Christian  usages  of  each        Of  the  ancient  Masons  it  is  no  longer  said,  that  they 

country  where  tney  travelled  or  worked ;  but  Masonry  were  obliged  to  "  be  of  the  religion  "  but  only  "  to  com- 

being  found  in  all  nations,  even  of  diverse  religions f  ply  with  the  Christian  usages  of  each  Country  ".    The 

they  are  now  generally  charged  to  adhere  to  that  re-  designation  of  the  said  "  unsectarian  "  reUgion  as  the 

U^on,  in  which  all  men  agree,  (leaving  each  Brother  "ancient  catholick"  betrays  the  attempt  to  oppose 

his  own  particular  opinion),  that  is,  to  be  good  men  this  religion  of  "Humanity"  to  the  Roman  Catholic 

and  true,  men  of  honour  and  honesty,  by  whatever  as  the  only  true,  genuine,  and  originally  Catholic. 

nameSf  religions  or  persuasions  they  may  be  distin-  The  unsectarian  character  of  Masonry  is  also  implied 

Ruished;  for  they  all  agree  in  the  three  great  articles  of  in  the  era  chosen  on  the  title  page:  "  In  the  year  of 

jfioahf  enough  to  preserve  the  cement  of  the  lodae.    Thus  Masonry  5723"  and  in  the  "History".     As  to  the 

Masonry  is  the  centre  of  their  union  and  the  happy  "History"  Anderson  himself  remarks  in  the  preface 

means  of  conciliating  true  friendship  among  persons  (1738) :  "  Only  an  expert  Brother ^  by  the  true  light,  can 

who  otherunse  must  have  remained  at  a  perpetual  dis-  readily /irufnuint/  useful  hints  in  almost  every  page  ojf  this 

tanoe.    VI.  1.  Behaviour  in  the  Lodge  before  clos-  2»ooiSrwliich  Cowans  and  others  not  initiated  (also  among 

ing:  ...  No  private  piques  nor  quarrels  about  na-  Masons)  cannot  discern."     Hence,  concludes  Krause 

tions, /ami/ies,  religions  or  politics  must  by  any  means  (Kunsturkunden,  1810, 1, 525),  Anderson's  "  History" 

or  under  any  colour  or  pretence  whatsoever  be  brought  is  allegorically  written  in  "cipher  language".    Apart, 

within  the  doors  of  the  lodge;  for  as  Masons  we  are  of  then,  from  "mere  childish  allusions  to  the  minor 

the  most  ancient  catholic  religion  y  above  mentioned  and  secrets",  the  general  tendency  of  this  "History"  is 

ofaU  nations  upon  the  square y  level  and  plumb;  and  Wee  to  exhibit  the  "  unsectarianism  "  of  Masonry. 
our  jyredecessors  in  all  ages,  we  are  resolved  against        Two  points  deserve  special  mention :  the  utterances 

political  disputes,  as  contrary  to  the  peace  and  welfare  on  the  "  Augustan  "  and  the  "  Gothic  "  style  of  arch!- 

of  the  Lodge.  tecture  ana  the  identification  of  Masonry  with  geo- 

In  order  to  appreciate  rightly  these  texts  character-  metry.  The  "  Augustan  "  which  is  praised  above  all 
izing  modem  *' speculative "  I* reemasonry  it  is  neces-  other  styles  alludes  to  "Humanism",  while  the 
sary  to  compare  them  with  the  corresponding  injuno-  "Gothic"  which  is  charged  with  ignorance  and  nar- 
tion  of  the  "Gothic"  (Christian)  Constitutions  regu-  row-mindedness,  refers  to  Christian  and  particularly 
lating  the  old  lodges  of  "  operative  "  Masonry  till  and  Roman  Catholic  orthodoxy.  The  identification  of 
after  1747.  These  injunctions  are  uniformly  summed  Masonry  with  geometry  brings  out  the  naturalistic  char- 
up  in  the  simple  words:  "  The  first  charge  is  this  that  acter  of  the  former.  Like  the  Royal  Society,  of  which 
you  be  true  to  God  and  Holy  Church  and  use  no  error  a  large  and  most  influential  proportion  of  the  first  Free- 
or  heresy"  (Grand  Lodge  Ms.  No.  1,  Gould,  "Concise  masons  were  meml:)ers  (Begemann,  "Vorgeschichte," 
History^',  2.'^;  Thorp,  Ms.  1629,  A.  Q.  C,  XI,  210;  II,  1910,  127  jjq.,  137  sq.).  Masonry  professes  the 
Rawlinson  Ms.  1729-39  A.  Q.  C,  XI,  22;  Hughan;'  empiric  or" positivist"  geometrical  method  of  reason 
"Old  Charges").  The  radical  contrast  between  and  deduction  in  the  investigation  of  truth  (Calcott, ''A 
the  two  types  is  obvious.  While  a  Mason  accord-  Candid  Disquisition,  etc.",  1769;  Oliver,  "Remains", 
ing  to  the  old  Constitution  was  above  all  obliged  to  11,301.)  In  general  it  appears  that  the  founders  of  Ma- 
be  true  to  God  and  Church,  avoiding  heresies,  his  son ry  intended  to  follow  the  same  methods  for  their  so- 
"reUgious"  duties,  according  to  the  new  type,  are  es-  cial  purposes  which  were  chosen  by  the  Royal  Society 
sentially  reduced  to  the  observation  of  the  "moral  for  its  scientific  researches  ((jould,  "History",  II, 
law"  practically  summed  up  in  the  rules  of  "honour  400).  "Geometry  as  a  method  is  particularly  recom- 
and  honesty"  as  to  which  "all  men  agree".  This  mended  to  the  attention  of  Masons."  " In  this  light, 
"  universal  religion  of  Hunianity  "  which  gradually  re-  Geometry  may  very  properly  be  considered  as  a  natural 
moves  the  accidental  divisions  of  mankind  due  to  par-  logic;  for  as  truth  is  ever  consistent,  invariable  and  uni- 
ticular  opinions  "or  religious",  national,  and  social  form.alltruthsmaybeinvestigatedinthesamemanner. 
"prejudices",  is  to  be  the  bond  of  union  among  men  in  Moral  and  religious  definitions,  axioms  and  proposi- 
the  Masonic  society,  conceived  as  the  model  of  human  tions  have  as  regular  and  certain  dependence  upon 
association  in  general.    ''  Humanity  "  is  the  term  used  each  other  as  any  in  physics  or  mathematics."    *' Let 


BIASON&Y 


774 


MASOH&Y 


me  recommend  you  to  pursue  such  knowledge  and 
cultivate  such  dispositions  as  will  seoure  you  the 
Brotherly  respect  of  this  society  and  the  honour  of 
your  further  advancement  in  it "  (Calcott;  Oliver,  ibid., 
II f  301-303) .  It  is  merely  through  inconsistency  that 
some  Grand  Lodges  of  North  America  insist  on  belief 
in  the  Divine  inspiration  of  the  Bible  as  a  necessary 
qualification  and  that  not  a  few  Masons  in  America 
and  Germany  declare  Masonry  an  essentially  *' Chris- 
tian institution '\  According  to  the  German  Grand 
Lodges,  Christ  is  only  *  *  the  wise  and  virtuous  pure  man  " 
jMxr  excellence,  the  principal  model  and  teacher  of 
^'Humanity"  ("Sign.",  1904, 45sg.,54;  Gruber  (5),  49 
sqq. ;  Idem  (4) ,  23  sq. ) .  In  the  Swedish  system,  practised 
by  the  German  Country  Grand  Lodge,  Christ  is  said  to 
have  taught  besides  the  exoteric  Christia]i  doctrine, 
destined  for  the  people  and  the  duller  mass  of  his  dis- 
ciples, an  esoteric  doctrine  for  his  chosen  disciples,  such 
as  St.  John,  in  which  He  denied  that  He  was  God 
(Findel,  **Die  Schule  der  Hierarchic,  etc.",  1870,  15 
sqq. ;  Schiffmann, "  Die  Entstehimg  der  RitterCTade  ", 
1882,  85,  92,  95  sq.).  Freemasonry,  it  is  hela,  is  the 
descendant  of  the  Christian  secret  society,  in  which 
this  esoteric  doctrine  was  propagated.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  even  in  this  restricted  sense  of  "unsec- 
tarian"  Christianity,  Freemasonry  is  not  a  Christian 
institution,  as  it  acknowledges  many  pre-Christian 
models  and  teachers  of  "  Humanity  ".  All  instructed 
Masons  agree  in  the  objective  import  of  this  Masonic 
principle  of  "Humanity",  according  to  which  belief 
m  dogmas  is  a  matter  of  secondary  importance,  or 
even  prejudicial  to  the  law  of  universal  love  and  toler- 
ance. Freemason rv,  therefore,  is  opposed  not  only  to 
Cathohcism  and  Christianity,  but  also  to  the  whole 
system  of  supernatural  truth. 
The  only  serious  discrepancies  among  Masons  re- 

farding  the  interpretation  of  the  texts  of  1723  and 
738  refer  to  the  words:  "And  if  he  rightly  under- 
stands the  Art,  he  will  never  he  a  stupid  Atheist  or  an 
irreligious  Liberiine'\  The  controversy  as  to  the 
meaning  of  these  words  has  been  particularly  sharp 
since  13  September,  1877,  when  the  Grand  Orient  of 
France  erased  the  paragraph,  introduced  in  1854  into 
its  Constitutions,  bv  whicn  the  existence  of  God  and 
the  immortality  of  soul  were  declared  the  basis  of 
Freemasonry  (Bulletin  du  Grand  Orient  de  France, 
1877,  236-50)  and  gave  to  the  first  article  of  its  new 
Constitutions  the  following  tenor:  "Freemasonry,  an 
essentially  philanthropic,  philosophic  (naturalist,  adog- 
matic)  and  progressive  institution,  has  for  its  object 
the  search  after  truth,  the  study  of  universal  morality, 
of  the  sciences  and  arts  and  the  practice  of  beneficence. 
It  has  for  its  principles  absolute  liberty  of  conscience  and 
human  solidarity.  It  excludes  none  on  account  of  his 
belief.  Its  device  is  Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity. " 
On  10  September,  1878,  the  Grand  Orient,  moreover, 
decreed  to  expunse  from  the  Rituals  and  the  lodge 
proceedings  all  allusions  to  religious  dogmas  as  the 
83rmbols  of  the  Grand  Architect,  the  Bible,  etc.  These 
measures  called  out  solemn  protests  from  nearly  all 
the  Anglo-American  and  German  organs  and  led  to  a 
rupture  between  the  Anglo-American  Grand  Lodges 
and  the  Gr.\  Or.*,  of  France.  As  many  freethinkmg 
Masons  both  in  America  and  in  Europe  sympathize  in 
this  struggle  with  the  French,  a  world-wiae  breach 
resulted.  Quite  recently  many  Grand  Lodges  of  the 
United  States  refused  to  recognise  the  Grand  Lodge 
of  Switzerland  as  a  regular  body,  for  the  reason  that 
it  entertains  friendly  relations  with  the  atheistical 
Grand  Orient  of  France  ("Intern.  Bull.",  Berne,  1908, 
No.  2).  This  rupture  might  seem  to  show,  that  in  the 
above  paragraph  of  the  Old  Charges"  the  belief  in  a 
personal  God  is  declared  the  most  essential  prerequi- 
site and  duty  of  a  Mason  and  tliat  Anglo-American 
Masonry,  at  least,  is  an  uncompromising  champion  of 
this  Ixjlief  against  the  impiety  of  Latin  Masonry. 
But  in  truth  all  Masonry  is  full  of  ambiguity'.   The 


texts  of  1723  and  1738  of  the  fundamental  law  con< 
ceming  Atheism  are  purposely  ambiguous.  Atheism 
is  not  positively  conaenmed,  but  just  sufficiently  dis- 
avowed to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  time,  when  an 
open  admission  of  it  woula  have  been  fatal  to  Bfaeoniy . 
It  is  not  said  that  AtUeists  cannot  be  admitted,  or 
that  no  Mason  can  be  an  Atheist,  but  merely  that  if  he 
rightly  understands  the  Art,  he  will  never  be  a  stupid 
Atheist,  eto.,  i.  e.,  he  will  not  hold  or  profess  Atheism 
in  a  stupid  way,  by  statements,  for  instance  that  shock 
religious  feeling  and  bring  Masoniy  into  bad  repute. 
And  even  such  a  stupid  Atheist  incurs  no  stronger 
censure  than  the  simple  ascertaining  of  the  fact  that 
he  does  not  rightly  understand  the  art,  a  merely  theo- 
retical judgment  without  any  practical  sanction.  Such 
a  disavowal  tends  rather  to  encourage  modem  poai- 
tivist  or  scientific  Atheism.  Scarcely  more  serious  is 
the  rejection  of  Atheism  by  the  British,  American  and 
some  German  Grand  Lodges  in  their  struggle  with  the 
Grand  Orient  of  France.  The  English  Grand  Loc^, 
it  is  true,  in  its  quarterly  communication  of  6  March, 
1878  (Chr.,  1878, 1,  161)  adopted  four  resolutions,  in 
which  belief  in  the  Great  Arcnitect  of  the  Universe  is 
declared  to  be  the  most  important  ancient  landmark 
of  the  order,  and  an  exphcit  profession  of  that  belief 
is  required  of  visiting  brethren  belonging  to  the  Grand 
Orient  of  France,  as  a  condition  for  entrance  into  the 
English  lod^.  Similar  measures  were  taken  by  the 
Irish,  Scottish,  and  North  American  Grand  Lodges. 
But  this  behef  in  a  Great  Architect  is  so  va^e  and 
symbolical,  that  almost  every  kind  of  Atheism  and 
even  of  "stupid"  Atheism  may  be  covered  by  it. 
Moreover,  British  and  American  Grand  Lodges  de- 
clare that  they  are  fully  satisfied  with  such  a  vague, 
in  fact  merely  verbal  declaration,  without  further 
inquiry  into  the  nature  of  this  belief,  and  that  they  do 
not  dream  of  claiming  for  Freemasonry  that  it  is  a 
"church",  a  "coimcil",  a  "synod".  Consequently 
even  those  are  acknowledged  as  Masons  who  with 
Spencer  and  other  Naturalist  philosophers  of  the  a^ 
call  God  the  hidden  all-powerful  principle  working  m 
nature,  or,  like  the  followers  of  "  Handbuch"  (3rd  ed., 
II,  231),  maintain  as  the  two  pillars  of  religion  "the 
sentiment  of  tnan's  littleness  in  the  immensity  of  space 
and  time",  and  "the  assurance  that  whatever  \a  real 
has  its  origin  from  the  good  and  whatever  happens 
must  be  for  the  best". 

An  American  Grand  Orator  Zabriskie  (Arixona)  on 
13  November,  1889,  proclaimed,  that  "individual 
members  may  believe  in  many  gods,  if  their  conscience 
and  judgment  so  dictate"  (Chr.,  1890,  I,  243).  Li- 
mousin (Acacia,  1907,  I,  48),  approved  by  German 
Masons  (Sign.,  1907, 133  sq.),  says:  "The  majority  of 
men  conceive  God  in  the  sense  of  exoteric  relifions  as 
an  all-powerful  man;  others  conceive  God  as  t£e  high- 
est idea  a  man  can  form  in  the  sense  of  esoteric  reli- 
gions. * '  The  latter  are  called  Atheists  according  to  the 
exoteric  notion  of  God  repudiated  by  science,  but  they 
are  not  Atheists  according  to  the  esoteric  and  true 
notion  of  God.  On  the  contraiy,  add  others  (Sign., 
1905, 54),  they  are  less  Atheists  than  churchmen,  from 
whom  they  differ  only  by  holding  a  higher  idea  of  God 
or  the  Divine.  In  this  sense  Thevenot,  Grand  Secre- 
tary of  the  Grand  Orient  of  France,  in  an  official  lettei 
to  the  Grand  Lodge  of  Scotland  (30  January,  1878), 
states:  "French  Masonry  does  not  beUeve  that  there 
exist  Atheists  in  the  absolute  sense  of  the  word"  (Chr., 
1878,  I,  134) ;  and  Pike  himself  (Morals  and  Dogma, 
643  sqq.)  avows :  "  A  man  who  has  a  higher  conception 
of  God  than  those  about  him  and  who  denies  tJ^t 
their  conception  is  God,  is  very  likely  to  be  called  an 
Atheist  by  men  who  are  really  far  less  believers  in  God 
than  he  ",  ete.  Thus  the  whole  controversy  turns  out 
to  be  merely  nominal  and  formal.  Moreover,  it  is  to 
be  noticed  tliat  the  clause  declaring  belief  in  the  great 
Architect  a  condition  of  admission,  was  introduced 
into  the  text  of  the  Constitutions  of  the  Grand  Lodft 


MA80IIBY 


775 


MA80M&Y 


of  England,  only  in  1815  and  that  the  same  text  says: 
"  A  Biason  therdore  \a  particularly  bound  never  to  act 
against  the  dictates  ot  his  conscience'',  whereby  the 
Grand  Lddge  of  England  seems  to  acknowledge  that 
liberty  of  conscience  is  the  sovereign  principle  of  Free- 
masonry prevailing  over  all  others  when  in  conflict 
with  them.  The  same  supremacy  of  the  liberty  of 
conscience  is  implied  also  in  the  unsectarian  character, 
which  Anglo-American  Masons  recoj^ize  as  the  inner- 
most essence  of  Masonry.  * '  Two  prmciples  ",  said  the 
German  Emperor  Frederick  III,  in  a  solenm  address  to 
Masons  at  Strasburg  on  12  September,  1886,  "char- 
acterize above  all  our  piuposes,  viz.,  liberty  of  con- 
science and  tolerance'';  and  the  ''Handbuch"  (3rd 
ed.,  II,  200)  justly  observes  that  hberty  of  conscience 
ana  tolerance  were  thereby  proclaimed  the  foundation 
of  Masonry  by  the  highest  Masonic  authority  in  Ger- 
many. 

Thus  the  Grand  Orient  of  France  is  right  from  the 
Masonic  point  of  viewas  tothe  substance  of  thequestion; 
but  it  ha&  deviated  from  tradition  by  discardmg  sym- 
bols and  symbolical  formulae,  which,  if  rightly  under- 
stood, in  no  way  imply  dogmatic  assertions  and  which 
cannot  be  rejected  without  injuring  the  work  of  Ma- 
sonry, since  this  has  need  of  ambiguous  religious  for- 
mulae adaptable  to  every  sort  of  belief  and  every 
phase  of  moral  development.  From  this  point  of 
view  the  symbol  of  the  Grand  Architect  of  the  Uni- 
verse and  of  the  Bible  are  indeed  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance for  Masonry.  Hence,  several  Grand  Lodges 
which  at  first  were  supposed  to  imitate  the  radicalism 
of  the  French,  eventually  retained  these  symbols.  A 
representative  of  the  Grand  Lodge  of  France  writes 
in  this  sense  to  Findel:  "  We  entirel}r  agree  with  you  in 
considering  all  dogmas,  either  positive  or  negative,  as 
radically  contradictory  to  Masonry,  the  teaching  of 
which  must  only  be  propagated  by  symbols.  And  the 
symbols  may  and  must  be  explamed  by  each  one  ac- 
cording to  his  own  imderstanding;  thereby  they  serve 
to  maintain  concord.  Hence  our  G.  L.  facultatively 
retains  the  Symbol  of  the  Gr.  Arch,  of  the  Univerae, 
because  every  one  can  conceive  it  in  conformity  with 
his  personal  convictions,  [Lodges  are  allowed  to  re- 
tain the  s^nnbols,  but  there  is  no  obligation  at  all  of 
doing  so,  and  many  do  not.]  To  excommunicate  each 
other  on  account  of  metaphysical  questions,  appears 
to  us  the  most  unworthy  thing  Masons  can  do  "  (bign., 
1905,  27).  The  official  organ  of  Italian  Masonry  even 
emphasizes:  "The  formula  of  the  Grand  Architect, 
which  is^  reproached  to  Masonry  as  ambiguous  ana 
absurd,  is  tne  most  large-minded  and  righteous  affir- 
mation of  the  immense  princi()le  of  existence  and  ma}r 
represent  as  well  the  (revolutionary)  God  of  Mazzini 
as  the  Satan  of  Giosue  Carducci  (in  his  celebrated 
hymn  to  Satan) ;  God,  as  the  fountain  of  love,  not  of 
hatred.  Satan,  as  the  genius  of  the  good,  not  of  the 
bad"  (Rivista,  1909,44).  In  both  interpretations  it 
is  in  reality  the  principle  of  Revolution  that  is  adored 
by  Italian  Masonry. 

rV.  Propagation  and  Evolution  of  Masonky. — 
The  members  of  the  Grand  Lodge  formed  in  1717  by 
the  union  of  four  old  lodges,  were  till  1721  few  in 
number  and  inferior  in  quality.  The  entrance  of  sev- 
eral members  of  the  Royal  Societv  and  of  the  nobility 
changed  the  situation.  Since  17^1  it  has  spread  over 
Europe  (Gould,  "History",  II,  284  sq.).  This  rapid 
propagation  was  diiefly  due  to  the  spirit  of  the  age 
which,  tiring  of  religious  quarrels,  restive  under  eccle- 
siastical authority  and  discontented  with  existing 
social  conditions,  turned  for  enlightenment  and  relief 
to  the  ancient  mysteries  and  sought,  by  umting  men 
of  kindred  tendencies,  to  reconstruct  society  on  a 
purely  human  basis.  In  this  situation  Freemasonry 
with  its  vagueness  and  elasticity,  seemed  to  many  an 
excellent  remedy.  To  meet  tne  needs  of  different 
countries  and  classes  of  society,  the  original  system 
(17X7-23)  underwent  more  or  less  profound  modifica- 


tions. In  1717,  contrary  to  Gould  (Condse  History^ 
309),  only  one  simple  ceremony  of  admission  or  one 
degree  seems  to  have  been  in  use  (A.  Q.  C.,  X,  127  sqq. ; 
XI,  47  soa.;  XVI,  27  sqq.):  in  1723  two  appear  as 
recognized  by  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England:  '^Entered 
Apprentice"  and  "Fellow  Craft  or  Master".  The 
tm^  degree  eryrstem,  first  practised  about  1725,  became 
universal  and  official  only  after  1730  ([Gould^  "Cone. 
Hist.,  272 ;  310-17) .  The  symbols  and  ritualistic  forms, 
as  they  were  practised  from  1717  till  the  introduction 
of  further  degrees  after  1738,  together  with  the  "  Old 
Charges"  of  1723  or  1738,  are  considered  as  the  orig- 
inal pure  Freemasonry.  A  fourth,  the  "  Royal  Arch  " 
degree  (ibid.,  280)  in  use  at  least  since  1740,  is  first 
mentioned  in  1743.  and  though  extraneous  to  the 
system  of  pure  ana  ancient  Masonry  (ibid.,  318)  is 
most  characteristic  of  the  later  Anglo^axon  Masonry. 
In  1751  a  rival  Grand  Lodge  of  En^nd  "  according  to 
the  Old  Institutions"  was  established,  and  through 
the  activity  of  its  Grand  Secretary,  Lawrence  Der- 
mott,  soon  surpassed  the  Grand  Lodge  of  1717.  Tlie 
members  of  this  Grand  Lodge  are  known  by  the  desig- 
nation of  "Ancient  Masons".  They  are  also  call^ 
"York  Masons"  with  reference,  not  to  the  ephemeral 
Grand  Lodge  of  all  England  in  York,  mentioned  in 
1726  and  revived  in  1761,  but  to  the  pretended  first 
Grand  Lodge  of  England  assembled  in  926  at  York 
THandbuch,  3rd  ed.,  I,  24  sqq.;  II,  559  sqq.).  They 
nnally  obtained  control,  the  United  Grand  Lodge  of 
England  adopting  in  1813  their  ritualistic  forms. 
In  its  religious  spirit  Anglo-Saxon  Masonrv  after 

1730  undoubtedlv  retrograded  towards  biblical  Chris- 
tian orthodoxy  (Chr.,  1906,  II,  19  so.;  1884,  II,  306). 

*  This  movement  is  attested  by  the  Cnnstianization  of 
the  rituals  and  by  the  popularity  of  the  works  of 
Hutchinson,  Preston^  and  Oliver  with  Anglo-American 
Masons.  It  is  principally  due  to  the  conservatism  of 
English-speaking  society  in  religious  matters,  to  the 
influence  of  ecclesiastical  members  and  to  the  insti- 
tution of  "lodge  chaplains"  mentioned  in  English 
records  since  1733  (A.  Q.  C,  XI,  43).  The  reform 
brought  by  the  articles  of  union  between  the  two 
Grand  Ixxiges  of  England  (1  December,  1813)  con- 
sisted above  all  in  the  restoration  of  the  unsectarian 
character,  in  accordance  with  which  all  allusions  to  a 
particular  (Christian)  religion  must  be  omitted  in 
lodge  proceedings.  It  was  further  decreed  "  there  shall 
be  the  most  perfect  unity  of  obligation  of  discipline,  or 
working  .  .  .  according  to  the  genuine  landmarks, 
laws  and  traditions  .  .  .  throughout  the  masonic 
world,  from  the  day  and  date  of  the  said  union  (1 
December,  1813)  until  time  shall  be  no  more"  (Pres- 
ton, ''Illustrations",  296  seq.).  In  taking  this  ac- 
tion the  United  Grand  Lodge  overrated  its  authority. 
Its  decree  was  complied  with,  to  a  certain  extent,  m 
the  United  States,  where  Masonry,  first  introduced 
about  1730,  followed  in  general  the  stages  of  Masonic 
evolution  in  the  mother  country. 

The  title  of  Mother-Grand  Lodge  of  the  United 
States  was  the  object  of  a  long  and  ardent  contro- 
versy between  the  Grand  Lodges  of  Pennsylvania  and 
Massachusetts.  The  prevailing  opinion  at  present  is, 
that  from  time  immemorial,  i.e.,  prior  to  Grand 
Lodge  warrants  (Chr.,  1887, 11^  313),  there  existed  in 
Philadelphia  a  regular  lodge  with  records  dating  from 

1731  (Drummond,  ''Chr.",  1884,  II,  227;  1887, 1, 163; 
II,  178;  Gould,  "Concise  History^',  413).  In  1734 
Benjamin  Franklin  published  an  edition  of  the  En- 
glish "  Book  of  Constitutions  ".  The  principal  agents 
of  the  modem  Grand  Lodge  of  England  in  tne  United 
States  were  Coxe  and  Price.  Several  lodges  were 
chartered  by  the  Grand  Lodge  of  Scotland.  After 
1758,  especially  during  the  War  of  Independence, 
1773-83,  most  of  the  lodges  passed  over  to  the  "An- 
cients". The  union  of  the  two  systems  in  England 
(1813)  was  followed  by  a  similar  union  in  America. 
The  actual  form  of  the  American  rite  since  then  prao- 


BSAflOIlBY 


776 


BffASONBY 


tised  18  chiefly  due  to  Webb  (1771-1819),  and  to 
Cross  (178^1861). 

In  France  and  Germany,  at  the  beginning  Masonry 
was  practised  according  to  the  English  ritual  (Pridi- 
ard,  ^'  Masonry  Dissected '.',  1730) ;  but  so-called  "Scot- 
tish "  Masonry  soon  arose.  Only  nobles  being  then 
reputed  admissible  in  good  society  as  fully  qualified 
members,  the  Masonic  gentlemen's  society  was  inter- 
preted as  a  society  of  GeniUahommea,  i.  e..  of  noblemen 
or  at  legist  of  men  ennobled  or  knighted  by  their  very 
admission  into  the  order,  which  according  to  the  old 
English  ritual  still  in  use,  is  "more  honourable  than 
the  Golden  Fleece,  or  the  Star  or  Garter  or  any  other 
Order  under  the  Sun  ".  The  pretended  association  of 
Masonry  with  the  orders  of  the  warlike  knights  and  of 
the  religious  was  far  more  acceptable  than  the  idea  of 
development  out  of  stone-cutters'  guilds.  Hence  an 
oration  delivered  by  the  Scottish  Chevalier  Ramsay 
before  the  Grand  Lodge  of  France  in  1737  and  in- 
serted by  Tierce  into  his  first  French  edition  of  the 
"Book  of  Constitutions"  (1743)  as  an  "oration  of  the 
Grand  Master",  was  epoch-making  (Gould,  "Concise 
History",  274  sq.,  357  sq.;  Boos,  174  sa.).  In  this 
oration  Masonnr  was  dated  from  "  the  close  associa- 
tion of  the  order  with  the  Knights  of  St.  John  in 
Jerusalem"  during  the  Crusades;  and  the  "old  lod^ 
of  Scotland  "  were  said  to  have  preserved  this  genume 
Masonry,  lost  by  the  English.  Soon  after  17^,  how- 
ever, as  occult  sciences  were  ascribed  to  the  Templars, 
their  system  was  readily  adaptable  to  all  kinds  of 
Rosicrucian  purposes  and  to  sucn  practices  as  alchemy, 
magic,  cabbala,  spiritism,  and  necromancy.  The  sup- 
pression of  the  order  together  with  the  story  of  the 
urand  Master  James  Molay  and  its  pretended  revival 
in  Masonry,  reproduced  in  the  Hiram  legend,  repre- 
senting the  fall  and  the  resurrection  of  the  just  or  the 
suppression  and  the  restoration  of  the  natural  rights 
of  man  2  fitted  in  admirably  with  both  Christian  and 
revolutionary  high  grade  systems.  The  principal 
Templar  systems  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy  were  the 
system  of  the  "Strict  Observance",  organized  by  the 
swindler  Rosa  and  propagated  by  the  enthusiast  von 
Hundt;  and  the  Swedish  system,  made  up  of  French 
and  Scottish  degrees  in  Sweden. 

In  both  systems  obedience  to  unknown  superiors 
was  promis^.  The  supreme  head  of  these  Templar 
systems,  which  were  rivals  to  each  other,  was  falsely 
supposed  to  be  the  Jacobite  Pretender,  Charles  Ed- 
ward, who  himself  declared  in  1777,  that  he  had  never 
been  a  Mason  (Handbuch,  2nd  ed.,  II,  100).  Almost 
all  the  lodges  of  Germany,  Austria,  Hungary,  Poland, 
and  Russia  were,  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  involved  in  the  struggle  between  these  two 
systems.  In  the  lodees  of  France  and  other  countries 
(Abafi,  1, 132)  the  aomission  of  women  to  lodge  meet- 
ings occasioned  a  scandalous  immorality  (Boos,  170. 
183  sqq.,  191).  The  revolutionary  spint  manifested 
itself  early  in  French  Masonry.  Already  in  1746  m  the 
book  "  LaFranc-Magonnerie  dcras4e  ",  an  experienced 
ex -Mason,  who,  when  a  Mason,  had  visited  many 
lodges  in  France  and  England,  and  consulted  high 
Masons  in  official  position,  described  as  the  true 
Masonic  pro^mme  a  programme  which,  according  to 
Boos,  the  historian  of  Freemasonry  (p.  192),  in  an 
astonishing  degree  coincides  with  the  programme  of  the 
great  French  Revolution  of  1789.  In  1776  this  revolu- 
tionary spirit  was  brought  into  Germany  by  Weisshaupt 
through  a  conspiratory  system,  which  soon  spread 
throughout  the  coimt^  (see  Illuminati,  and  Boos, 
303) .  Charles  Augustus  of  Saxe-Weimar,  Duke  Ernest 
of  Gotha,  Ihike  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  Goethe, 
Herder.  Pestalozzi,  etc.,  are  mentioned  as  members  of 
this  order  of  the  Illuminati.  Very  few  of  the  members, 
however,  were  initiated  into  the  higher  de^ees. 
The  French  Illuminati  included  Condorcet,  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  Mirabeau,  and  Siey&s  (Robertson,  "Chr.", 
1907,  II,  95;  see  also  Engel,  ''^Gesch.  des  Illuminaten- 


ordens",  1906).   After  the  Conmes  of  Wilhelmsbade 
(1782)  reforms  were  made  both  in  Germany  and  in 
France.   The  principal  German  reformers,  L.  Schroder 
(Hambun)  and  I.  A.  Fessler,  tried  to  restore  the  ord- 
inal simpficity  and  purity.   The  system  of  Schroder  m 
actually  practised  by  the  Grand  Lodge  of  Hambuig, 
and  a  modified  system  (Schroder-Fessler)   by  the 
Grand  Lodge  Royal  York  (Berlin)  and  most  lodges  of 
the  Grand  Lodge  of  Bayreuth  and  Dresden.     Tl^ 
Grand  Lod^  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main  and  Darm- 
stadt practise  an  eclectic  system  on  the  basis  of  the 
English  ritual  (BauhUtte.  1908, 337  sqo.).    Except  the 
Grand  Lodge  Koyal  York,  which  has  Scottish  "Inner 
Orients"  and  an  ''Innermost  Orient 'J,  the  others  re- 
pudiate high  degrees.    The  largest  Grand  Lodge  of 
Germany,  the  National  (Berlin),  practises  a  rectified 
Scottish  (Strict  Observance)  system  of  seven  degrees 
and  the  "Landes  Grossloge''  and  Swedish  system  of 
nine  degrees.    The  same  system  is  practised  by  the 
Grand  Lodge  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark. 
These  two  systems  stUl  declare  Masonry  a  Christian 
institution  and  with  the  Grand  Lodge  Royal  York 
refuse  to  initiate  Jews.    Findel  states  that  the  princi- 
pal reason  is  to  prevent  Masonry  from  being  domi- 
nated by  a  people  whose  strong  racial  attachnients  are 
incompatible  with  the  imsecterian  character  of  the 
institution  (Sign.,  1898, 100;  1901,  63  sqq.;  1902,  39; 
1905,  6). 

The  principal  system  in  the  United  States  (Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina)  is  the  so-called  Ancient  and 
Accepted  Scottish  Rite,  organised  in  1801  on  the  basis 
of  the  French  Scottish  Rite  of  perfection,  which  was 
established  by  the  Council  of  the  Emperors  of  the  East 
and  West  (Paris,  1 758) .  This  system .  which  was  prop- 
agated tiiroughout  the  world,  may  oe  considered  as 
the  revolutionary  type  of  the  French  Templar  Ma-. 
sonry,  fighting  for  the  natural  rights  of  man  against 
religious  and  political  despotisms,  symbolized  by  the 
pa{Md  tiara  and  a  royal  crown.  It  strives  to  exert  a 
preponderant  influence  on  the  other  Masonic  bodies, 
wherever  it  is  established.  This  influence  is  insured  to 
it  in  the  Grand  Orient  systems  of  Latin  coimtries;  it  is 
felt  even  in  Britain  and  Canada,  where  the  supreme 
chiefs  of  craft  Masonry  are  also,  as  a  rule,  prominent 
members  of  the  Supreme  Councils  of  the  Scottish  Rite. 
There  are  at  the  present  time  (1908)  twenty-six  uni- 
versally recognized  Supreme  Councils  of  the  Ancient 
and  Accepted  Scottish  Rite:  U.S.  of  America:  South- 
em  Jurisdiction  (Washington),  established  in  1801; 
Northern  Jurisdiction  (Bc^n),  1813;  Argentine  Re- 
public (Buenos  Aires),  1858;  Belgium  (Brussels), 
1817;  Brazil  (Rio  de  Janeiro),  1829;  Chile  (Santiago), 
1870;  Colon,  for  West  India  Islands  (Havana),  1879; 
Columbia  (Cartagena):  Dominican  Republic  (S.  Do- 
mingo) ;  England  (London),  1845;  Egypt  (Cairo),  1878; 
France  (Paris),  1804;  Greece  (Athens),  1872;  Guate- 
mala (for  Central  American),  1870;  Ireland  (Dublin), 
1826;  Italy  (Florence),  1858;  Mexico  (1868);  Para- 
guay (Asuncion);  Peru  (Lima),  1830;  Portugal  (Lis- 
bon). 1869;  Scotland  (Edinburgh),  1846;  Spain 
(Madrid),  1811;  Switzerland  (Lausanne),  1873;  ITru- 
ffuay  (Montevideo);  Venezuela  (Caracas).  Supreme 
Councils  not  universally  recognized  exist  in  Hungary, 
Luxemburg,  Naples,  Palermo,  Rome,  Turkey.  The 
founders  of  the  rite,  to  give  it  a  great  splendour, 
invented  the  fable  that  Frederick  II,  King  of  Prussia, 
was  its  true  founder,  and  this  fable  upon  the  authority 
of  Pike  and  Mackey  is  still  maintained  as  probable  in 
the  last  edition  of  Mackey's  "Encyclopedia"  (1008), 
392  sq. 

V.  Organization  and  Statistics. — ^The  character- 
istic feature  of  the  organization  of  speculative  Masonry 
is  the  Grand  Lodse  system  founded  in  1717.  Every 
regular  Grand  Lodge  or  Supreme  Council  in  the  Scot- 
tisn,  or  Grand  Orient  in  the  mixed  system,  constitutes 
a  supreme  independent  body  with  legislative,  judicial, 
and  executive  powers.   It  is  composed  of  the  lodges  or 


MASONRY 


777 


2CA80NBT 


inferior  bodies  of  its  jurisdiction  or  of  their  represeii- 
tatives  regularly  assembled  and  the  grand  officers 
whom  they  elect.  A  duly  constituted  lodge  exercises 
the  same  powers,  but  in  a  more  restricted  sphere.  The 
indispensable  officers  of  a  lodge  are  the  Worshipful 
Master  (French  Vinirable;  German  MeistervonStiud), 
the  Senior  and  Junior  Warden,  and  the  Tiler.  The 
master  and  the  wardens  are  usually  aided  by  two 
deacons  and  two  stewards  for  the  ceremonial  and  con- 
vivial work  and  by  a  treasurer  and  a  secretary.  Many 
lodges  have  a  Cliaplain  for  religious  ceremonies  and 
adm'esses.  The  same  officers  in  large  numbers  and 
with  soimding  titles  (Most  Worshipf\3  Grand  Master, 
Sovereign  Grand  Commander,  etc.)  exist  in  the  Grand 
Lodges.  As  the  expenses  of  the  members  are  heavy, 
only  wealthy  persons  can  afford  to  join  the  fraternity. 
The  number  of  candidates  is  further  restricted  by 
prescriptions  regarding  their  moral,  intellectual,  so- 
cial, and  physical  quaJifications,  and  by  a  regulation 
which  requires  unanimity  of  votes  in  secret  ^llotine 
for  their  admission.  Thus,  contrary  to  its  pretended 
universality,  Freemasonry  appears  to  be  a  most  exclu- 
sive society,  the  more  so  as  it  is  a  secret  society,  closed 
off  from  the  profane  world  of  common  mortals. 
"  Freemasonry ',  says  the  **  Keystone  "  of  Phladelphia 
(Chr.,  1885, 1, 259), "  has  no  right  to  be  popular.  It  is 
a  secret  society.  It  is  for  the  few,  not  the  many,  for 
the  select,  not  for  the  masses."  Practically,  it  is  true, 
the  prescriptions  concerning  the  intellectual  and  moral 
endowments  are  not  rigourously  obeyed.  "  Numbers 
are  being  admitted  .  .  .  whose  sole  object  is  to  make 
their  membership  a  means  for  advancing  their  pecu- 
niary interest"  (Chr.,  1881,1,66).  "There  are  a  goodly 
number  again,  who  value  Freemasonry  solely  for  the 
convivial  meetings  attached  to  it."  ''Again  I  have 
heard  men  say  openly,  that  they  had  joined  to  gain 
introduction  to  a  certain  class  of  indiviauals  as  a  trad- 
ing matter  and  that  they  were  forced  to  do  so  because 
every  one  did  so.  Then  there  is  the  great  class  who 
join  it  out  of  curiosity  or  perhaps,  because  somebody 
in  a  position  above  them  is  a  mason."  *'  Near  akin  to 
this  is  that  class  of  individuals  who  wish  for  congenial 
society"  (Chr.,  1884,  II,  196).  "  In  Masonnr  they  find 
the  means  of  ready  access  to  society,  which  is-clenied 
to  them  by  social  conventionalities.  They  have  wealth 
but  neither  by  birth  nor  education  are  they  eligible  for 
polite  and  fine  intercourse."  "The  shop  is  never 
absent  from  their  words  and  deeds."  "The  Masonic 
body  includes  a  large  number  of  publicans"  (Chr., 
1885, 1,  259),  etc.,  etc. 

Of  the  Masonic  rule — brotherly  love,  relief,  and  truth 
— certainly  the  two  former,  especially  as  understood 
in  the  sense  of  mutual  assistance  in  all  the  emergen- 
cies of  life,  is  for  most  of  the  candidates  the  princi- 
pal reason  for  joining.  This  mutual  assistance,  espe- 
cially S3rmbolized  by  the  five  points  of  fellowship  and 
the  "grand  hailing  sign  of  distress  "  in  the  third  degree, 
is  one  of  the  most  fundamental  characteristics  of  Free- 
masoniy .  By  his  oath  the  Master  Mason  is  pledged  to 
maintain  and  uphold  the  five  points  of  fellowship  in 
act  as  well  as  in  words,  i.  e.,  to  assist  a  Master  Mason 
on  every  occasion  according  to  his  ability,  and  partic- 
ularly when  he  makes  the  sien  of  distress.  In  Duncan, 
"  AmericanRitual "  (229),  the  Royal  Arch-Mason  even 
swears: "  I  will  assist  a  companion  R.  A. -Mason,  when 
I  see  him  engaged  in  any  difficiilty  and  will  espouse  his 
cause  so  as  to  extricate  him  from  the  same  whether  he 
be  right  or  wrong."  It  is  a  fact  attested  by  expe- 
rienced men  of  all  countries  that,  wherever  Masonry 
is  influential,  non-Masons  have  to  suffer  in  their  inter- 
ests from  the  systematical  preferment  which  Masons 
give  each  other  in  appointment  to  offices  and  employ- 
ment. Even  Bismarck  (Gedanken  imd  Erinnerungen. 
1898,  I^  302  sq. )  complained  of  the  effects  of  such  mutual 
Masonic  assistance,  which  is  detrimental  alike  to  civic 
equality  and  to  public  interests.  In  Masonic  books 
And  magazines  unlawful  and  treacherous  acts,  per- 


formed In  rendering  this  mutual  assistance,  are  recom- 
mended and  praised  as  a  glory  of  Freemasonry.  "  The 
inexorable  laws  of  war  themselves",  says  the  official 
orator  of  the  Grand  Orient  de  France,  Lefdbvre 
d'Aumale  (Solstice,  24  June,  1841,  Proc^verb.,  62), 
"had  to  bend  before  Freemasonry,  which  is  perhaps 
the  most  striking  proof  of  its  power.  A  sign  sufficed 
to  stop  the  slaughter;  the  combatants  tmrew  away 
their  arms,  embraced  each  other  fratemidly  and  at 
once  became  friends  and  Brethren  as  their  oaths  pre- 
scribed", and  the  "Handbuch",  3rd  ed.,  II,  109.  de- 
clares :  "this  sign  has  had  beneficial  effect,  particularly 
in  times  of  war,  where  it  often  disarms  the  bitterest 
enemies,  so  that  they  listen  to  the  voice  of  humanitv 
and  give  each  other  mutual  assistance  instead  of  kill- 
ing each  other"  (see  also  Freemason,  Lond.,  1901, 
181;  Clavel,  288  sqq. ;  Ragon,"Cour8",  164;  Herold, 
191,  no.  10;  "Handbuch^',  2nd  ed.,  II,  451  sqq.). 
Even  the  widely  spread  suspicion,  that  justice  is  some- 
times thwarted  and  Masonic  criminals  saved  from  due 
pimishment,  cannot  be  deemed  groundless.  The  said 
practice  of  mutual  assistance  is  so  reprehensible  that 
Masonic  authors  themselves  (e.  g.,  Krause,  ibid.,  2nd 
ed.,  I,  2,  429;  Marbach,  "Freimaurer-Gelabde",  22- 
35)  condemn  it  severelv.  "If",  says  Br<>.  Marbach 
(23),  "Freemasonry  really  could  be  an  association  and 
even  a  secret  one  of  men  of  the  most  different  ranks  of 
society,  ai^isting  and  advancing  each  other,  it  would 
be  an  miquitous  association,  and  the  police  would  have 
no  more  urgent  duty  than  to  exterminate  it." 

Another  characteristic  of  Masonic  law  is  that "  trea- 
son" and  "rebellion"  against  civil  authority  are  de* 
clared  only  political  crimes,  which  affect  the  good 
standing  of  a  Brother  no  more  than  heresy,  and  fur- 
nish no  ground  for  a  Masonic  trial  (Mackey,  "  Juri^ 
prudence",  509).  The  importance  which  Masonry 
attaches  to  this  point  is  manifest  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  set  forth  in  the  Article  II  of  the  "  Old  Charges", 
which  defines  the  duties  of  a  Freemason  with  respect 
to  the  State  and  civil  powers.  Compared  with  the 
corresponding  injunction  of  the  "Gothic"  constitu- 
tions of  operative  masoniy,  it  is  no  less  ambiguous 
than  Article  I  concerning  God  and  reUgion.  The  old 
Gothic  Constitutions  candidly  enjoin^:  "Also  you 
shall  be  true  liegemen  to  the  King  without  treason 
or  falsehood  and  that  you  shall  know  no  treason 
but  you  mend  it,  if  you  may,  or  else  warn  the  King 
or  his  council  thereof"  (Thorp,  Ms.,  1629,  A.  Q.  C, 
XI,  210;  Rawlinson,  Ms.  1900,  A.  Q.  C,  XI,  22- 
Hughan,  "Old  Charges").  The  second  article  of 
modem  speculative  Freemasonry  (1723)  runs:  "Of 
the  civil  magistrates,  supreme  and  subordinate.  A 
Mason  is  a  peaceable  sumect  to  the  Civil  Powers, 
wherever  he  resides  or  works^  and  is  never  to  be  con- 
cerned in  Plots  and  Conspiracies  against  the  peace  and 
welfare  of  the  Nation,  nor  to  behave  himself  unduti- 
fuUy  to  inferior  Magistrates;  for  as  Masonry  hath  al- 
ways been  injured  by  War,  Bloodshed  and  Confusion 
so  ancient  Kings  and  Princes  have  been  much  dis- 
posed to  encourage  the  craftsmen,  because  of  their 
Peaceableness  and  Loyalty,  whereby  they  practically 
answer'd  the  Cavils  of  their  adversaries  and  promoted 
the  Honour  of  Fraternity,  who  ever  flourished  in 
Times  of  Peace.  So  that  if  a  Brother  should  be  a 
Rebel  against  the  State,  he  is  not  to  be  countenanc'd 
in  his  Ilebellion,  however  he  may  be  pitied  as  an  un- 
happy man;  and,  if  convicted  of  no  other  Crime, 
though  the  loyal  Brotherhood  must  and  ought  to  dis- 
own his  Rebellion,  and  give  no  Umbrage  or  Groimd  of 
political  Jealousy  to  the  Government  for  the  time  be- 
mg;  they  cannot  expel  him  from  the  Lodge  and  his 
Relation  to  it  remains  indefeasible." 

Hence  rebellion  by  modem  speculative  Masonry  is 
only  disapproved  when  plots  are  directed  against  the 
peace  and  welfare  of  the  nation.  The  brotherhood 
ought  to  disown  the  rebellion,  but  only  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  fraternity  from  annoyance  by  the  dvil  au- 


MASONRY 


778 


IffASONET 


thorities.  A  brother,  then,  guilty  of  rel^cllion  cannot 
be  expelled  from  the  lodge:  on  the  contrary,  his  feUow 
Maaonfl  are  particularly  obliged  to  have  pity  on  his 
misfortune  when  he  (in  prison  or  before  the  courts) 
has  to  suffer  from  the  consequences  of  his  rebellion,  and 

five  him  brotherlv  assistance  as  far  as  they  can. 
reemasonry  itself  as  a  body  is  very  peaceable  and 
loyal,  but  it  does  not  disapprove;  on  the  contrair,  it 
conmiends  those  brethren  who  through  love  of  free- 
dom and  the  national  welfare  successfully  plot  against 
monarchs  and  other  despotic  rulers^  while  as  an  asso- 
ciation of  public  utility  it  claims  pnvile^  and  protec- 
tion through  kings^  princes,  and  other  high  dignitaries 
for  the  success  of  its  peaceful  work.  "Loyalty  to 
freedom",  says  Chr..  1875,  I,  81,  "overrides  all  other 
considerations".  The  wisdom  of  this  regulation,  re- 
marks Mackey  (Jurisprudence.  510.  note  I),  "will  be 
apparent  when  we  consider,  tnat  ii  treason  or  rebel- 
hon  were  masonic  crimes,  almost  every  mason  in  the 
United  Colonies,  in  1776,  would  have  oeen  subject  to 
expulsion  and  every  Lodge  to  a  forfeiture  of  its  war- 
rant by  the  G.  LL.  of  England  and  Scotland^  under 
whose  jurisdiction  they  were  at  the  time  ". 

A  misleading  adage  is  "once  a  Mason  always  a 
Mason".  This  is  often  taken  to  mean  that  the 
Masonic  tie  is  indissoluble,  that  there  is  no  absolution 
from  its  consequences"  (Ohr.,  1885, 1,  161)  or  "Obli- 
gations" (Chr.,  18n89,  II,  58),  that  not  even  death  can 
sever  the  connexion  of  a  Mason  with  Freemasonry 
(Chr.,  1883. 11^  331).  But  certainly  a  Mason  has  the 
"right  of  demission"  (Mackey.  "Jurisprudence.  232 
sq.),  and  this  right,  whatever  \ye  the  opinion  of  Ma- 
sonic iurispnidence,  according  to  the  inalienable 
natural  rights  of  man,  extends  to  a  complete  with- 
drawal not  only  from  the  lodge  but  also  from  the 
brotherhood.  In  the  scale  of  Masonic  penalties,  "ex- 
pulsion "  is  the  most  severe  (Mackey,  op.  cit.,  514  sqq.). 
Besides  those  who  have  been  expelled  or  have  resigned 
there  are  many  "unaffiliated"  Masons  who  have 
ceased  to  be  "active  "  members  of  a  lodge,  but,  accord- 
ing to  Masonic  law,  which,  of  course,  can  oblige  no 
more  than  is  authorized  by  the  general  rules  of  mo- 
rality, they  remain  subject  to  the  lodge  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  which  they  reside. 

As  to  unity,  Masonic  authorities  unanimously  af- 
firm that  Freemasonry  throughout  the  world  is  one, 
and  that  all  Freemasons  form  in  reality  but  one  lodge; 
that  distinct  lodges  exist  only  for  the  sake  of  conven- 
ience, and  that  conseauently  every  regular  Mason  is 
entitled  to  be  receivea  in  every  regular  lodge  of  the 
world  as  a  brother,  and,  if  in  distress,  to  be  relieved. 
The  good  understanding  among  Masons  of  different 
countries  is  furthered  by  personal  intercourse  and  by 
correspondence,  especially  between  the  grand  secre- 
tary offices  ana  international  congresses  (Paris,  1889; 
Antwerp,  1894;  Hague,  1896;  Paris,  1900;  Geneva,  1902; 
Brussels,  1904;  Rome,  intended  for  Oct.,  1911)  which 
led  to  the  establishment,  in  1903,  of  a  permanent  inter- 
national office  at  Neuchdtel,  Switzerland  (Chr.,  1907, 
II,  119).  There  is  no  general  Grand  Lodge  or  direc- 
tion of  Freemasonry,  though  various  attempts  have 
been  made  in  nearly  every  larger  state  or  country  to 
establish  one.  Incessant  dissensions  between  Ma- 
sonic systems  and  bodies  are  characteristic  of  Free- 
masoniy  in  all  countries  and  times.  But  the  federative 
unity  of  Freemasonry  suffices  to  prove  a  true  solidarity 
among  Masons  and  Masonic  bodies  throughout  the 
world ;  hence  the  charge  of  complicity  in  the  machina- 
tions which  some  of  tliem  carry  on.  This  solidarity 
is  openly  avowed  by  Masonic  authorities.  Pike, 
for  instance,  writes  (Off.  Bull.,  1885,  VII,  29):  "When 
the  journal  in  London  which  speaks  of  the  freema- 
sonry of  the  G.  L.  of  England,  deprecatingly  protested 
that  the  English  Freemasonry  was  innocent  of  the 
charges  preferred  by  the  Papal  Bull  (Encycl.  1884) 
against  Freemasonry,  when  it  declared  that  English 
Freemasonry  had  no  opinions  political  or  religious,  and 


that  it  did  not  in  the  least  degree  sympathise  vrith  the 
loose  opinions  and  extravagant  utterances  of  part  of 
the  Continental  Freemasonry,  it  wajs  very  justiy  tnd 
verv  conclusivelv  checkmated  by  the  Ronush  Orgfja 
with  the  reply,  It  is  idle  for  you  to  protest.  You  are 
Freemasons  and  you  recognixe  them  as  Freemasons. 
You  give  them  countenance,  encouragement  and  sup- 
port and  you  are  jointly  responsible  with  them  and 
cannot  shirk  that  responsibihty ' ". 

As  accurate  statistics  are  not  always  to  be  had  and 
the  methods  of  enumeration  differ  in  different  coun- 
tries, total  numbers  can  only  be  approximated.  Thus 
in  most  of  the  Lodges  of  the  Umted  States  only  the 
Masters  (third  degree)  are  counted,  while  in  other 
countries  the  apprentices  and  fellows  are  added. 
There  are  besides  many  unaffiliated  Masons  (ha>'ing 
ceased  to  be  members  of  a  lodge)  who  are  not  in- 
cluded. Their  number  may  be  estimated  at  two- 
thirds  of  that  of  the  active  Masons.  In  England  a 
Mason  may  act  as  member  of  many  lodges.  Confirming 
our  statement  as  to  the  active  members  of  the  strictly 
Masonic  bodies,  which  in  calendare  and  year  books  are 
registered  as  such,  we  may,  upon  recent  and  reliable 
sources  (Mackey,  "Encyclopedia",  1908,  1007  sq.: 
"Annual  of  Umversal  Masonry'*,  Berne,  1909;  "Mas. 
Year-Book  1909",  London;  "Kalender  fQr  Frd- 
maurer",  Leipzig,  1909),  estimate  the  actual  state  of 
Freemasonry  as  follows:  Grand  O's^  G.  L's,  Supr. 
Couns.,  and  other  Scottish  G.  bodies,  183;  lodges 
26,500;  Masons,  about  2,000,000;  the  number  of  the 
Grand  Chapters  of  Royal  Arch  is:  in  the  United 
States,  2968  subordinate  chapters,  under  one  General 
Grand  Chapter;  England,  46  Grand  Chapters  with 
1015  suboruinate  chapters;  English  colonies  and  for- 
eign Masonic  centres,  18  Grand  Chaptera  with  150  sub- 
ordinate chapters.  The  census  of  craft  masonry  is  as 
follows: 


Countries 


Great  Britain  and  Colonies  (exc.  Can- 
ada)   

Canada 

United, States:  White 

Colored 

Latin  Countries 

(Europe  and  S.  America) 

Other  European  countries 

Africa 

Total 


Members 


262.651 

66.728 

1.203.150 

28.000 

120.000 

90.700 

2.150 

1.767.388 


VI.  Inner  Work  or  Freemasonry:  MxaoNic 
Symbolism  and  Oaths. — "From  first  to  last",  says 
Pike  (I,  340),  "Masonry  is  work".  The  Masonic 
"work",  properl^r  so  called,  is  the  inner  secret  ritual- 
istic work  by  wmch  Masons  are  made  and  educated 
for  the  outer  work,  consisting  in  action  for  the  welfare 
of  mankind  according  to  Masonic  princii)les.  Masons 
are  made  by  the  three  ceremonies  of  initiation  (first 
degree),  passing  (second  degree),  and  raising  (third 
degree).  The  symbols  displayed  in  these  cere- 
monies and  explained  accordmf;  to  the  MasOnic  prin- 
ciples and  to  tne  verbal  hints  given  in  the  rituals  and 
lectures  of  the  three  degrees,  are  the  manual  of  Masonic 
instruction.  The  education  thus  begun  is  comjjleted 
by  the  whole  lodge  life,  in  which  every  Mason  is  ad- 
vised to  take  an  active  part,  attending  the  lodge  meet- 
ings regularlv,  profiting,  according  to  his  ability,  by 
the  means  wfiicn  Masonry  affords  him,  to  perfect  him- 
self in  conformity  with  Masonic  ideals,  and  contribut- 
ing to  the  discussions  of  Masonic  themes  and  to  a  good 
lodge  government,  which  is  represented  as  a  model  of 
the  government  of  society  at  large.  The  lodge  is  to  be 
a  type  of  the  world  (Chr..  1890, 1,  99)  and  Masons  are 
intended  to  take  part  in  tne  regeneration  of  the  human 
race  (Chr.,  1900,  II,  3).  "The  symbolism  of  Free- 
masonry  ",  says  rike  in  a  letter  to  Gould,  2  December, 
1888  (A.  Q.  C.,  XVI,  28),  "is  the  very  soul  of  Ma- 


MASONRY 


779 


ISASONRY 


«onry."  And  Boyd,  the  Grand  Orator  of  Missouri, 
confirms:  "  It  is  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  symbol, 
symbol,  symbol"  (Chr.,  1902  I,  167). 

The  principal  advantages  of  this  symbolism,  which  is 
not  peculiar  to  Freemasonry  but  refers  to  the  mjrsteries 
and  doctrines  of  all  ages  and  of  all  factors  of  civiliza- 
tion, are  the  following:  (1)  As  it  is  adaptable  to  all 
possible  opinions,  doctrines,  and  tastes,  it  attracts  the 
candidate  and  fascinates  the  initiated.  (2)  It  pre- 
serves the  unsectarian  unity  of  Freemasonry  in  spite 
of  profound  differences  in  religion,  race,  national  feel- 
ing, and  individual  tendencies.  (3)  It  sums  up  the 
theoretical  and  practical  wisdom  of  all  ages  and  na- 
tions in  a  universally  intelligible  language.  (4)  It 
trains  the  Mason  to  consider  existing  institutions,  reli- 
gioiis,  political,  and  social,  as  passing  phases  of  human 
evolution  and  to  discover  by  his  own  study  the  reforms 
to  be  realized  in  behalf  of  Masonic  progress,  and  the 
means  to  realize  them.  (5)  It  teacnes  him  to  see  in 
prevailing  doctrines  and  dogmas  merely  subjective 
conceptions  or  changing  6>Tnbols  of  a  deeper  umversal 
truth  in  the  sense  of  Masonic  ideals.  (6)  It  allows 
Freemasonry  to  conceal  its  real  purposes  from  the 
profane  and  even  from  those  among  the  initiated,  who 
are  unable  to  appreciate  those  aims,  as  Masonry  in- 
tends. '*  Masonry  ",  says  Pike,  "  jealously  conceals  its 
secrets  and  intentionally  leadiJ  conceitedf  interpreters 
astray  "  [( 1) ,  1 05].  "  Part  of  the  Symbols  are  displayed 
,  .  .  to  the  Initiated,  but  he  is  intentionally  misled  by 
false  interpretations  "[(1),  819].  "The  initiated  are  few 
though  many  hear  the  Thyrsus  "  [( 1 ),  355].  **  The  mean- 
ing of  the  Symbols  is  not  unfolded  at  once.  We  give 
you  hints  only  in  general.  You  must  study  out  the 
recondite  and  mysterious  meaning  for  yourself"  [(3), 
128].  "  It  is  for  each  individual  Mason  to  discover  the 
secret  of  Masonry  by  reflection  on  its  symbols  and  a 
wise  consideration  jof  what  is  said  and.  done  in  the 
work  "  [( 1 ) ,  2 1 8].  "  The  universal  cry  throughout  the 
Masonic  world",  says  Mackey  (Inner  Sanctuary  I, 
311),  "is  for  light;  our  lodges  are  henoefolili  to  be 
schools,  our  labour  is  to  be  study,  our  wages  are  to 
be  learning;  the  types  and  symbols,  the  myths  and 
allegories  of  the  institution  are  only  beginning  to  be 
investigated  with  reference  to  the  ultimate  meaning 
and  Freemasons  now  thoroughly  understand  that  often 
quoted  definition,  that  Masonry  is  a  science  of  mo- 
rality veiled  in  allegory  and  illustrated  by  s>Tnbols." 

Iklasonic  symbols  can  be  and  are  interpreted  in  dif- 
ferent senses.  By  orthodox  Anglican  ecclesiastics  the 
whole  symbolism  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  con- 
nected with  the  symbolism  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon 
was  treated  as  Masonic  symbolism  and  Masonry  as  the 
"handmaid  of  religion"  (Oliver,  Hist.  Landmarks,  I, 
128)  which,  "in  almost  every  part  of  every  degree 
refers  distinctly  and  plainly  to  a  crucified  Saviour" 
(OUver,  ibid.,  I,  146,  65;  11^  7  sq.).  Many  Masonic 
authors  in  the  Latin  countries  (Clavel,  Ilagnon,  etc.) 
and  some  of  the  principal  Anglo-American  authors 
(Pike,  Mackey,  etc.)  declare,  that  Masonic  symbolism 
in  its  original  and  proper  meaning  refers  above  all  to 
the  solar  and  phallic  worship  of  the  ancient  mysteries, 
especially  the  Egyptian  [Pike  (1),  771  sq.].  "  It  is  in 
the  antique  symbols  and  their  occult  meaning",  says 
Pike  [(4),  3971  "that  the  true  secrets  of  Freemasonry 
consist.  These  must  reveal  its  nature  and  true  pur- 
poses." In  conformity  with  this  rule  of  interpretation, 
the  letter  G  in  the  symbol  of  Glory  (Blazing  Star)  or  the 
Greek  Gamma  (square),  summing  up  all  Masonry  is 
very  commonly  explained  as  meaning  "generation"; 
the  initial  letter  ot  the  tetragrammaton  iT]r\^  and  the 
whole  name  is  explained  as  male  or  male-female  prin- 
ciple [Pike  (1),  698  sq.,  751,  849;  (4),  IV,  342  sq.; 
Mackey,  "Symbolism  ,  112  sqq.,  186  sqq.;  see  also 
Preuss,  "American  Freemasonry",  175  sqq.].  In  the 
same  sense  according  to  the  ancient  interpretation  are 
explained  the  two  pillars  Boaz  and  Jachm;  the  Rose- 
oroix  (a  croes  with  a  rose  in  the  centre) ;  the  point  within 


the  circle;  the  "vesica  piscis".  the  well-known  sign 
for  the  Saviour;  the  triple  Tau;  Sun  and  Moon ;  Hiram 
and  Christ  (Osiris) ;  the  coffin;  the  Middle  Chamber  and 
even  the  San  eta  Sanctorum,  as  ad^'ta  or  most  holy  parts 
of  each  temple,  usually  contained  hideous  objects  of 
phalUc  worship  (Mackey,  "  Dictionary  ",  s.  v.  rhaUus; 
Oliver,  "Signs'\  206-17;  V.  Longo,  La  Mass.  Specul.). 

As  Masons  even  in  their  official  lectures  and  rituals, 
generally  claim  an  Egyptian  origin  for  Masonic  sym- 
bolism and  a  close  "affinity"  of  "masonic  usages  and 
customs  with  those  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  "  [Ritual. 
I  (first)  degree],  such  interpretations  are  to  be  deemed 
officially  authorized.  Pike  says,  moreover,  that  "al- 
most every  one  of  the  ancient  Masonic  symbols  "  has 
"  four  distinct  meanings,  one  as  it  were  within  the 
other,  the  moral,  political,  philosophical  and  spiritual 
meaning"  [Pike  (3),  128].  From  the  political  point 
of  view  Pike  with  many  other  Anglo-American  Scotch 
l^fasons  interprets  all  Masonic  symbolism  in  the  sense 
of  a  systematic  struggle  against  every  kind  of  political 
and  religious  "  despotism  " .  Hiram,  Christ,  Molay  are 
regarded  only  as  representatives  of  "Humanity  the 
"Apostles  of  Liberty,  EquaUty,  Fraternity"  [Pike 
(4),  141].  The  Cross  (a  double  or  quadniple  aquare) 
is  "  no  specific  Christian  symbol ",  "  to  all  of  us  it  is  an 
emblem  of  Nature  and  of  Eternal  life;  whether  of  them 
only  let  each  say  for  himself"  (Pike,  ibid.,  100  sq.). 
The  Cross  X  (Christ)  was  the  Sign  of  the  Creative 
Wisdom  or  Logos,  the  Son  of  God.  Mithraism  signed  its 
soldiers  on  the  forehead  with  a  cross,  etc.  [(1),  291  sq.]. 
I.  N.  R.  I.,  the  inscription  on  the  Crass  is,  Masonically 
read :  "  Igne  Natura  Rcnovatur  Integra  ".  The  regen- 
eration of  nature  by  the  influence  of  the  sun  symbol- 
izes the  spiritual  regeneration  of  mankind  by  the  sacred 
fire  (truth  and  love)  of  Masonrv,  as  a  purely  natural- 
istic institution  [Pike  (4),  111,^81;  (1),  291;  Ragon, 
1.  c,  76-86].  "The  first  assassin  of  Iliram  is  RmjaUy 
as  the  common  type  of  tyranny ",  striking  "with  its 
rule  of  iron  at  the  throat  of  Hiram  and  making  free- 
dom of  speech  treason."  The  second  assassin  is  the 
Pontificate  (Papacv)  "  aiming  the  square  of  steel  at 
the  heart  of  the  victim"  [(4),  I,  288  sq.].  Christ  dy- 
ing on  Calvary  is  for  Masonry  "  the  greatest  among  the 
apostles  of  Humanity,  braving  Roman  despotism  and 
the  fanaticism  and  bigotryof  the  priesthood  (ibid., Ill, 
142  sq.) .  Under  the  svmbol  of  the  Cross.  "  the  legions 
of  freedom  shall  march  to  victory"  (ibid.,  Ill,  146). 

The  Kadosh  (thirtieth  degree),  trampling  on  the 
papal  tiara  and  the  royal  crown,  is  destined  to  wreak  a 
just  vengeance  on  these  "  liigh  criminals  "  for  the  mur- 
der of  Molav  (ibid.,  IV,  474  sq.),  and  "  as  the  apostle  of 
truth  and  the  rights  of  man"  (ibid.  J[V, 478),  to  deliver 
mankind  "from  the  bondage  of  Despotism  and  the 
thraldom  of  spiritual  T\Tamiy"  (ibid.,  IV,  476).  "In 
most  rituals  of  this  degree  everything  breathes  ven- 
geance" against  religious  and  political  "Despotism" 
(ibid.,  IV,  547).  Thus  Masonic  symbols  are  said  to  be 
"  radiant  of  ideas,  which  should  penetrate  the  soul  of 
every  Mason  and  be  clearly  reflected  in  his  character 
and  conduct,  till  he  become  a  pillar  of  strength  to  the 
fratemitv"  ("Masonic  Advocate"  of  Indianapolis, 
Chr.,  1900, 1  296).  "Tliere  is  no  iota  of  Masonic  Rit- 
ual", adds  tne  "Voice"  of  Chicago,  "which  is  void  of 
significance"  (Chr.,  1897,  II,  83).  These  inteipreta- 
tions,  it  is  true,  are  not  officially  adopted  in  Anglo- 
American  craft  rituals;  but  they  appear  fully  author- 
ized, though  not  the  only  ones  auttiorized  even  by  its 
system  and  by  the  first  two  articles  of  the  "Old 
Charge"  (1723),  which  contains  the  fundamental  law 
of  Freemasonry.  As  to  the  unsectarian  character  of 
Masonry  and  its  symbolism.  Pike  justly  remarks: 
"Masonry  propagates  no  creed,  except  its  own  most 
simple  and  sublime  one  taught  by  Nature  and  Reason. 
There  has  never  been  a  false  Religion  in  the  world. 
The  permanent  one  universal  revelation  is  written  in 
visible  Nature  and  expkdned  by  the  Reason  and  is 
completed  by  the  wise  analogies  of  faith.  There  is  but 


MASONBY 


780 


SIASONRY 


<me  true  religion,  one  dogma,  one  legitimate  belief 
[(4),  1, 271].  Consequently,  also,  the  Bible  as  a  Masonic 
symbol,  is  to  be  interpreted  as  a  symbol  of  the  Book 
of  Nature  or  the  Code  of  human  reason  and  conscience, 
while  Christian  and  other  dogmas  have  for  Freema- 
sonry but  the  import  of  changing  symbols  veiling  the 
one  permanent  truth,  of  which  Masonic  "  Science  **  and 
"Arts"  are  a  "progressive  revelation",  and  applica- 
tion [ibid..  I  280;  (1),  516  sq.]. 

It  should  be  noted,  that  the  great  majority  of  Ma- 
sons are  far  from  being  "initiated"  and  "are  grovel- 
ling in  Egyptian  darkness"  (Chr.,  1878,  II,  28).  "The 
M^nry  of  the  higher  degrees",  says  Pike  [(4),  1. 3111 
"  teacheathe  great  truths  of  intellectual  science;  out  as 
to  these,  even  as  to  the  rudimente  and  first  principles. 
Blue  Masonry  is  absolutely  dumb.  Its  dramas  seem 
intended  to  teach  the  resurrection  of  the  body." 
"The  pretended  possession  of  mysterious  secrets,  nas 
enabled  Blue  Masonry  to  nimiber  its  initiates  by  tens 
of  thousands.  Never  were  any  pretences  to  the  pos- 
session of  mysterious  knowledge  so  baseless  and  so  ab- 
surd as  those  of  the  Blue  and  Sx)yal  Arch  Chapter  De- 
pees  "  (ibid.,  IV,  388 sq.).  "The  aping  Christianity  of 
Blue  Masoniy  made  it  simply  an  emasculated  and  im- 
potent society  with  large  and  soimding  pretences  and 
slender  performances.  And  yet  its  mmtitudes  adhere 
to  it,  because  initiation  is  a  necessity  for  the  Human 
Soul;  and  because  it  instinctively  longs  for  a  union  of 
the  many  under  the  control  of  a  single  will,  in  things 
spiritual  as  well  as  in  things  temporal,  for  a  Hierarchy 
andaMonarch"  (ibid.,  IV,  389  sq.).  "It  is  for  the  Adept 
to  imderstand  the  meaning  of  the  Symbols"  [(1),  849]; 
and  Oliver  declares:  "Brethren,  high  in  rank  and 
office,  are  often  imacquainted  with  the  elementary 
principles  of  the  science"  (Oliver,  "Theocratic  Phil- 
osophy' ' ,  355) .  Masons  * '  may  be  fifty  years  Masters  of 
the  Chair  and  yet  not  learn  the  secret  of  the  Brother- 
hood. This  secret  is,  in  its  own  nature,  invulnerable; 
for  the  Mason,  to  whom  it  has  become  known,  can  only 
have  guessed  it  and  certainly  not  have  received  it  from 
anv  one;  he  has  discovered  it,  because  he  has  been  in  the 
looge,  marked,  learned  and  inwardly  digested.  When 
he  arrives  at  the  discovery,  he  unquestionably  keeps  it 
to  himself,  not  conununicating  it  even  to  his  most 
intimate  Brother,  because,  should  this  person  not  have 
capability  to  discover  it  of  himself,  he  would  likewise 
be  wanting  in  the  capability  to  use  it,  if  he  received  it 
verbally.  For  this  reason  it  will  forever  remain  a 
secret"  (Oliver,  Hist.  Landmarks,  I,  11,  21;  "Free- 
masons' Quarterly  Rev.",  I,  31;  Casanova  in  Ragon, 
"Kit.  3rd  Degree",  35). 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  secrete  of  Masonry  are 
unknown  to  the  bulk  of  Masons,  the  oaths  of  secrecy 
taken  on  the  Bible  are  all  the  more  startling  and  im- 
justifiable.  The  oath,  for  instance,  of  the  firat  degree 
IS  as  follows: "  I,  in  the  presence  of  the  Great  Architect 
of  the  Universe,  .  .  .  ao  hereby  and  hereon  solemnly 
and  sincerely  swear,  that  I  will  always  hide,  conceal 
and  never  reveal  any  part  or  parts,  any  point  or 
points  of  the  secrete  or  mysteries  of  or  belonging  to 
Free  and  Accepted  Masons  in  Masonry  which  may 
heretofore  have  been  known  by,  shall  now  or  may 
at  any  future  time  be  communicated  to  me"  ete. 
"These  several  pointe  I  solemnly  swear  to  observe 
\mder  no  less  penalty,  than  to  have  my  throat  cut 
across,  my  tongue  tern  out  by  the  root  and  my  body 
buried  in  the  sands  of  the  sea",  "or  the  more  efficient 
punishment  of  being  branded  as  a  wilfully  perjured 
mdividual,  void  of  all  moral  worth".  "So  help  me 
CJod",  ete.  Similar  oaths,  but  with  severer  penalties 
attached,  are  token  in  the  advanced  degrees.  The 
princ^al  contente  of  the  promises  are  according  to 
Pike:  eighteenth  degree:  "I  obligate  and  pledge  my*- 
self  always  to  sustain ,  that  it  belongs  to  Masonry  to 
teach  the  great  unsecterian  truths,  that  do  not  exclu- 
vxely  belong  to  any  religion  and  acknowledge  that  I 
Aave  no  right  whatever  to  exact  from  others  the  ac- 


ceptation of  any  particular  interpretation  of  masonic 
symbols,  that  I  may  attribute  to  them  by  the  virtue  of 
my  personal  beUef .  I  obligate  and  solenmly  pledge  my- 
self to  respect  and  sustein  by  all  means  andfunder  any 
circimistances  Liberty  of  Speech,  Liberty  of  Thou^t 
and  Liber^  of  Conscience  in  religious  and  political 
matters"  FPike  (4),  III,  68].  Thirtieth  D^ree:  A.— 
"  I  solenmly  and  freely  vow  obedience  to  afl  the  laws 
and  regulations  of  the  Order,  whose  belief  will  be  my 
behef ,  I  promise  obedience  to  all  my  regular  superiors. 
...  1  pledge  myself  to  be  devoted.,  soul  and  body,  to 
the  protection  of  innocence,  the  vindication  of  right, 
the  crushing  of  oppression  and  the  punishment  of 
every  infraction  against  the  law  of  Humanity  and  of 
Man  s  righte  .  .  .  never,  either  by  interest  or  by 
fear,  or  even  to  save  my  existence,  to  submit  to  nor 
suffer  any  material  despotism,  that  may  enslave  or 
oppress  humanity  by  the  usurpation  or  abuse  of 
power.  I  vow  never  to  submit  to  or  tolerate  any  in- 
tellectual Despotism,  that  may  pretend  to  chain  or 
fetter  free  thought,  ete."  B.  "I  solemnly  vow  to 
consecrate  my  life  to  the  ends  of  the  Order  of  Knights 
of  Kadosh,  and  to  co-operate  most  efficaciously  by  all 
means  prescribed  by  the  constituted  authorities  of  the 
order  to  attein  them.  I  solemnly  vow  And  consecrate, 
to  these  ends,  my  words,  my  power,  my  strength,  my 
influence,  my  intelligence  and  my  life.  I  vow  to  con- 
sider myself  henceforward  and  forever  as  the  Apostle 
of  Truth  and  of  the  rights  of  man."  C.  "I  vow  my- 
self to  the  utmost  to  bring  due  punishment  upon  the 
oppressors,  the  usurpers  and  the  wicked;  I  pleoge  my- 
self never  to  harm  a  Knight  Kadosh,  either  by  word  or 
deed  .  .  .;  I  vow  that  if  I  find  him  as  a  foe  in  the 
battlefield,  I  will  save  his  life,  when  he  makes  me  the 
Sign  of  Distress,  and  that  I  will  free  him  from  prison 
and  confinement  upon  land  or  water,  even  to  the  risk 
of  my  own  life  or  my  own  liberty.  I  pledge  myself  to 
vindicate  right  and  truth  even  by  might  and  violence, 
if  necesqyy  and  duly  ordered  by  my  regular  superiors. ' ' 
D.  "I  pftdge  myself  to  obey  without  hesitation  any 
order  whatever  it  may  be  of  my  regular  Superiors  in 
the  Order"  (ibid.,  IV,  470,  479,  488,  520). 

VII.  Outer  Work  of  Freemasonry:  Its  Achieve- 
ments, Purposes  and  Methods. — The  outer  work 
of  Freemasonry,  though  imiform  in  ite  fundamental 
character  and  its  general  lines,  varies  considerably  in 
different  countries  and  different  Masonic  svmbols. 
*'  Charitable**  or  '* philanthropic**  purposes  are  chiefly 
pursued  by  Englisn,  German,  and  American  Masonry, 
while  practically  at  least,  they  are  neglected  by  Ma- 
sons in  the  Latin  countries,  who  are  absorbed  by 
pK>litical  activity.  But  even  in  England,  where  rela- 
tively the  largest  sums  are  spent  for  charitable  pur- 
poses, Masonic  philanthropy  does  not  seem  to  be 
mspired  by  very  high  ideals  of  generosity  and  disin- 
terestedness, at  least  with  respect  to  the  great  mass  of 
the  brethren;  the  principal  contributions  are  made  by 
a  few  very  wealthy  brethren  and  the  rest  by  such  as 
are  well-to-do.  Moreover,  in  all  coimtries  it  is  al- 
most exclusively  Masons  and  their  families  that  profit 
by  Masonic  charity.  Masonic  beneficence  towards 
the  "profane "  world  is  little  more  than  figurative,  con- 
sisting in  the  propagation  and  application  of  Masonic 
principles  by  which  Masons  pretend  to  promote  the 
welfare  of  mankind;  and  if  Masons,  particularly  in 
Catholic  countries,  occasionally  devote  themselves  to 
chariteble  works  as  ordinarily  understood,  their  aim  is 
to  gain  sympathy  and  thereby  further  their  real  pur- 
poses. In  North  America,  especially  in  the  United 
States,  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  outer  work  is  the 
tendency  toward  display  in  the  construction  of  sump- 
tuous Masonic  "temples",  in  Masonic  processions,  at 
the  laying  of  cornerstones  and  the  dedication  of  public 
buildmgs  and  even  of  Christian  churches.  This  ten- 
dency h&a  frequently  been  rebuked  by  Masonic  writ- 
ers. "The  Masonry  of  this  continent  has  ffone  mad 
after  high  degreeism  and  grand  titleism.    We  tell  the 


SIASONEY 


781 


SIASONBY 


brethren,  that  if  they  do  not  pay  more  attention  to  the 
pure,  simple,  beautiful  symbolism  of  the  Lodge  and 
less  to  the  tinsel,  furbelow,  fuss  and  feathers  of  Scotch 
Ritism  and  Templarism,  the  Craft  will  yet  be  shi^n  to 
its  very  foundations!''  *'  Let  the  tocsin  be  sounded'' 
(Chr.,  1880,  II,  179).  "  Many  masons  have  passed 
through  the  ceremony  without  any  inspiration*  but, 
in  public  parades  of  the  Lodges  (also  in  England)  they 
may  generally  be  found  in  the  front  rank  and  at  the 
masonic  banquets  they  can  neither  be  equalled  nor  ex- 
celled" (ibid^  1892,  I,  246).  For  similar  criticism  see 
Chr.,  1880,  II,  195;  1875, 1,  394. 

But  the  real  object  of  both  inner  and  outer  work  is 
the  propagation  and  application  of  the  Masonic  prin- 
ciples. The  truly  Masonic  method  is,  that  the  lodge 
is  the  common  ground  on  which  men  of  different  re- 
ligions and  political  opinions,  provided  thev  accept 
the  general  Masonic  principles,  can  meet;  hence,  it 
does  not  directly  and  actively  interfere  with  party 
politics,  but  excludes  political  and  religious  discus- 
sions from  the  meetings,  leaving  each  M^on  to  apply 
the  principles  to  proDiems  of  the  day.  But  tnis 
nethod  is  openly  disowned  by  contemporaneous  Ma- 
v3onry  in  the  Latin  countries  and  by  many  Supreme 
Councils  of  the  Ancient  and  Accepted  Scottish  system, 
by  the  Grand  Lodge  of  Hungary,  the  Grand  Orient  of 
Belgium,  etc.  It  was  and  is  practically  rejected  also 
by  German  and  even  by  American  and  English  Ma- 
sonry. Thus  American  Masonic  lodges,  at  least  so 
leadmg  Masonic  authors  openly  claim,  had  a  prepon- 
derant part  in  the  movement  for  independence,  the 
lodges  of  the  *' Ancients"  in  general  promoting  this 
movement  and  those  of  the  modems"  siding  with 
Great  Britain  (Gould,  "Concise  History"  419). 
According  to  the  *' Masonic  Review"  Freemasonry 
was  instrumental  in  forming  the  American  Union 
(1776),  claiming  fifty-two  (Chr.,  1893, 1, 147),  or  even 
fifty-five  (Chr.,  1906, 1,  202),  out  of  the  fiftynsix  of  the 
"  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  as  mem- 
bers of  the  Order".  Other  Masonic  periodicals,  how- 
ever, claim  that  only  six  of  the  signers  ("  New  Age  ", 
May,  1910,  464),  and  only  nine  of  the  presidents  of 
the  United  States  were  Freemasons  ("  Acacia  ",  II, 
409).  In  the  French  Revolution  (1789)  and  the  later 
revolutionary  movements  in  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, Central  and  South  America,  Masonic  bodies,  it  is 
claimed,  took  a  more  or  less  active  part,  as  is  stated  by 
prominent  representatives  of  the  drand  Lodees  in  the 
several  countries  and  in  many  cases  by  *' profane"  im- 
partial historians  (see  Congi^s  Intern,  of  Paris,  1889, 
m  "Compte  rendu  du  Grand  Orient  de  France",  1889; 
Browers,  "L'action,  etc.";  Brttck,  **Geh.  Gesellsch. 
inSpanien";  *'Handbuch";  articles  on  the  different 
countries,  etc.).  In  Russia  also  Freemasonry  finally 
turned  out  to  be  a  "political  conspiracy"  of  Masom- 
cally  organized  clubs  that  covered  the  land. 

Even  with  regard  to  the  most  recent  Turkish  Revo- 
lution, it  seems  certain,  that  the  Young  Turkish 
party,  which  made  and  directed  the  Revolution,  was 
guided  by  Masons,  and  that  Masonry,  especially  the 
Grand  Orients  of  Italy  and  France,  had  a  preponder- 
ant r61e  in  this  Revolution  (see  "Rivista*',  1909.  76 
sqq.;  1908,  394;  "Acacia,"  1908,  II,  36;  "Bauhtitte", 
1909, 143;  "La  Franc-Ma^onnerie  d^masqu^e",  1909, 
93-96;  "Compte  rendu  du  Convent,  du  Gr.*.  Or.*,  de 
France",  21-26  Sept.,  1908,  34-38).  In  conducting 
this  work  Freemasonry  propagates  principles  which, 
logically  developed,  as  shown  above,  are  essentially 
revolutionary  and  s^rve  as  a  basis  for  all  kinds  of 
revolutionary  movements.  Directing  Masons  to  find 
out  for  themselves  practical  reforms  in  conformity 
with  Masonic  ideals  and  to  work  for  their  realization, 
it  fosters  in  its  members  and  through  them  in  so- 
ciety at  large  the  spirit  of  innovation.  As  an  ap- 
parently harmless  and  even  beneficent  association, 
which  in  reality  is,  through  its  secrecy  and  ambiguous 
symbolism,  subject  to  the  most  different  influences,  it 


ftimishes  in  critical  times  a  shelter  for  conspiracy,  and. 
even  when  its  lodges  themselves  are  not  transformed 
into  conspiracy  dubs,  Masons  are  trained  and  en- 
couraged to  found  new  associations  for  such  purposes 
or  to  make  use  of  existing  associations.  Thus.  Free- 
masonry in  the  eighteenth  century,  as  a  powertul  ally 
of  infidelity,  prepared  the  French  Revolution.  The 
alliance  of  Freemasonry  with  philosophy  was  pub- 
licly sealed  by  the  solemn  initiation  of  Voltaire,  the 
chief  of  these  philosophers,  7  February,  1778,  and  his 
reception  of  tne  Masonic  garb  from  the  famous  ma- 
terialist Bro.*.  Helvetius  (Handbuch,3rded.,II,517). 
Prior  to  the  Revolution  various  conspiratory  societies 
arose  in  connexion  with  Freemasonry  from  which 
they  borrowed  its  forms  and  methods;  Illuminati. 
dubs  of  Jacobins,  etc.  A  relatively  large  number  ol 
the  leading  revolutionists  were  members  of  Masonic 
lodges,  tramed  by  lodge  life  for  their  political  career. 
Even  the  programme  of  the  Revolution  expressed  in 
the  "  rights  of  man  "  was,  as  shown  above,  drawn  from 
Masonic  principles,  and  its  device : "  Liberty,  Equality, 
Fraternity  "  is  the  very  device  of  Freemasonry.  Sim- 
ilarly, Freemasonry,  together  with  the  Carbonari,  co- 
operated in  the  Italian  revolutionary  movement  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Nearly  all  the  prominent  leaders 
and  among  them  Mazzini  and  Garibaldi,  are  extolled 
by  Masonry  as  its  most  distinguished  members.  In 
dermany  and  Austria,  Freemasonry  during  the  eigh- 
teenth century  was  a  powerful  ally  of  the  so-called 
party  of  "Enlightenment"  (Aufklaerung),  and  of 
Josephinism ;  in  the  nineteenth  century  of  the  pseudo- 
Liberal  and  of  the  anti-clerical  party. 

In  order  to  appreciate  rightly  the  activity  of  Free- 
masonry in  Germany,  Sweden,  Denmark  and  Eng- 
land^ and  in  France  imder  the  Napoleonic  regime,  the 
special  relations  between  Freemasonry  and  the  reign- 
ing dynasties  must  not  be  overlooked.  Li  Germany 
two-tnirds  of  the  Masons  are  members  of  the  old 
Prussian  Grand  Lodges  imder  the  protectorship  of  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Dynasty,  which  implies  a  severe 
control  of  all  lodge  activity  in  conformity  with  the 
aims  of  the  Government.  Hence  German  Free- 
masons are  scarcely  capable  of  independent  action. 
But  they  certainly  furthered  the  movement  by  which 
Prussia  gradually  became  the  leading  state  of  Ger- 
many, considered  by  them  as  the  "  representative  and 
the  protector  of  modem  evolution"  against  "Ultra- 
montanism'',  *' bigotry",  and  "Papal  usurpations". 
They  also  instigated  the  "  Kulturkampf  ".  The  cele- 
brated jurisconsult  and  Mason,  Grandmaster  Blunt- 
schU,  was  one  of  the  foremost  agitators  in  this  con- 
flict; he  also  stiired  up  the  Swiss  "Kulturkampf". 
At  his  instigation  the  assembly  of  the  "  Federation  of 
the  German  Grand  Lodges  ",  in  order  to  increase  lodge 
activity  in  the  sense  of  the  "  Kulturkampf  ",  declared, 
24  May,  1874 :  "  It  is  a  professional  duty  for  the  lodges 
to  see  to  it^  that  the  brethren  become  fully  consdous 
of  the  relations  of  Freemasonry  to  the  sphere  of  ethical 
life  and  cultural  purposes.  Freemasons  are  obliged  to 
put  into  effect  the  principles  of  Freemasonry  in  prac- 
tical life  and  to  clefend  the  ethical  foundations  of 
human  society,  whensoever  these  are  assailed.  The 
Federation  of  the  German  Grand  Lodges  will  provide, 
that  every  year  questions  of  actuality  be  proposed  to 
all  lodges  for  discussion  and  uniform  action  "  [Gruber 
(5),  6;  Ewald,  "Loge  und  KulturkampfJ  German 
Freemasons  put  forth  untiring  efforte  to  exert  a 
deddve  influence  on  the  whole  life  of  the  nation  in 
keeping  with  Masonic  principles,  thus  maintaining 
a  perpetual  silent  "Kulturkampf".  The  prindpal 
means  which  they  employ  are  popular  libraries,  con- 
ferences, the  affiliation  of  kindred  associations  and 
institutions,  the  creation,  where  necessary,  of  new  insti- 
tutionSj  through  which  the  Masonic  spirit  permeates 
the  nation  (see  Herold,  No.  37  and  33  sqq.).  A  similar 
activity  is  displayed  by  the  Austrian  Freemasons. 

The  chief  organisation  which  in  France  aecured  the 


MASONRY 


782 


MASONRY 


success  of  Freemasonry  was  the  famous  "League  of 
instruction''  founded  in  1867  by  Bro.'.F.  Mac^,  later  a 
member  of  the  Senate.  This  league  affiliated  and  im- 
bued with  its  spirit  many  other  associations.  French 
Masonry  and  above  all  the  Grand  Orient  of  France 
has  displayed  the  most  systematic  activity  as  the 
dominating  pohtical  element  in  the  French  Kultur- 
kampf'  since  1877  (see  also  Chr.,  1889,  I,  81  sq.). 
From  the  official  documents  of  French  Masonry'  con- 
tained principally  in  the  official  "Bulletin"  and 
"Compte-renau"  of  the  Grand  Orient  it  has  been 
provea  that  all  the  anti-clerical  measures  passed  in 
the  French  Parliament  were  decreed  beforehand  in  the 
Masonic  lodges  and  executed  under  the  direction  of  the 
Grand  Orient,  whose  avowed  aim  is  to  control  every- 
thing and  everybody  in  France  ("que  personne  ne 
bougera  plus  en  France  en  dehors  de  nous",  "Bull. 
Gr.  Or.",  1890,  500  sq.).  "I  said  in  the  assembly  of 
1898  ",  states  the  deputy  Massd,  the  official  orator  of 
the  Assembly  of  1903,  "  that  it  is  the  supreme  duty  of 
Freemasonry  to  interfere  each  day  more  and  more  in 
political  and  profane  struggles  ".  "  Success  (in  the  anti- 
clerical combat)  is  in  a  lar^  measure  due  to  Free- 
masonry; for  it  is  its  spirit,  its  programme,  its  meth- 
ods, that  have  triumphed."  If  the  Bloc  has  been 
established,  this  is  owing  to  Freemasonry  and  to  the 
discipline  learned  in  the  lodges.  The  measures  we 
have  now  to  urge  are  the  separation  of  Church  and 
State  and  a  law  concerning  instruction.  Let  us  put 
our  trust  in  the  word  of  our  Bro  .*.  Coml>es  ".  "  For  a 
long  time  Freemasonry  has  been  simply  the  republic  in 
disguise ",  i.  e.,  the  secret  parliament  and  govern- 
ment of  freemasonry  in  reality  rule  France;  the  pro- 
fane State,  Parliament,  and  Government  merely  exe- 
cute its  decrees.  "We  are  the  conscience  of  the 
country";  "we  are  each  year  the  funeral  bell  an- 
nouncing the  death  of  a  caoinet  that  has  not  done  its 
duty  but  has  betrayed  the  Republic;  or  we  are  its  sup- 
port, encouraging  it  by  saying  in  a  solemn  hour:  I 
present  you  the  word  of  the  country  ...  its  satis- 
fecit  wliich  is  wanted  by  you,  or  its  reproach  that 
to-morrow  will  be  sealed  by  your  fall " .  "  We  need  vigi- 
lance and  above  all  mutual  confidence,  if  we  are  to  ac- 
complish our  work,  as  yet  unfinished .  This  work,  you 
know  ...  the  anti-clerical  combat,  is  going  on.  The 
Republic  must  rid  itself  of  the  religious  congregations, 
sweeping  them  off  by  a  vigorous  stroke.  The  system 
of  half  measures  is  everywhere  dangerous;  the  adver- 
sary must  be  crushed  with  a  single  blow"  (Compte- 
rendu  Gr.  Or.,  1903,  Nourrisson,  "  Les  Jacobins  ",  26&- 
271) .  "  It  is  beyond  doubt ",  declared  the  President  of 
the  Assembly  of  1902,  Bro .'.  Blatin,  with  respect  to  the 
French  elections  of  1902,  "  that  we  would  nave  been 
defeated  by  our  well-organized  opponents,  if  Free- 
masonry had  not  spread  over  the  whole  country" 
(Compte-rendu,  19a2,  153). 

Along  with  this  political  activity  Freemasonry  em- 
ployed against  its  adversaries,  whether  real  or  sup- 
posed, a  system  of  spying  and  false  accusation,  the 
exposure  of  which  brought  about  the  downfall  of  the 
Masonic  cabinet  of  Combes.  In  truth  all  the  "  anti- 
clerical "  Masonic  reforms  carried  out  in  France  since 
1877,  such  as  the  secularissation  of  education,  meas- 
ures against  private  Christian  schools  and  charitable 
establishments,  the  suppression  of  the  religious  orders 
and  the  spoliation  of  tne  Church,  professedly  culmi- 
nate in  an  anti-Christian  and  irreligious  reorganization 
of  human  society,  not  only  in  France  but  tlwoughout 
the  world.  Thus  French*  Freemasonry^  as  the  stand- 
ard-bearer of  all  Freemasonry,  pretends  to  inau- 
gurate the  golden  era  of  the  Masonic  universal  republic, 
comprising  in  Masonic  brotherhood  all  men  and  all  na- 
tions. "  The  triumph  of  the  Galilean  "  said  the  presi- 
dent of  the  (jrand  Orient,  Senator  Delpech,  on  20 
September,  1902,  "has  lasted  twenty  centuries.  But 
now  he  dies  in  his  turn.  The  mvsterious  voice,  an- 
nouncing (to  Julian  the  Apostate)  the  death  of  Pan, 


to-day  announces  the  death  of  the  impostor  God  who 

Eromised  an  era  of  iustioe  and  peace  to  those  who  be- 
eve  in  him.  The  iUusion  has  lasted  a  long  time.  The 
mendacious  God  is  now  disappearing  in  his  turn;  he 
passes  away  tojjoin  in  the  dust  of  ages  the  other  divin- 
ities of  India,  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Kome,  who  saw  so 
many  deceived  creatures  prostrate  before  their  altars. 
Bro .'.  Masons,  we  rejoice  to  state  that  we  are  not  with- 
out our  share  in  this  overthrow  of  the  false  prophets. 
The  Romish  Church,  founded  on  the  Galilean  myth, 
began  to  decay  rapidly  from  the  very  day  on  which  the 
Masonic  Association  was  established  "  (Compte-rendu 
Gr.  Or.  de  France.  1902,  381). 

The  assertion  of  the  French  Masons:  "We  are  the 
conscience  of  the  country",  was  not  true.  By  the 
official  statistics  it  was  ascertained,  that  in  all  elections 
till  1906  the  majority  of  the  votes  were  against  the 
Masonic  Bloc,  and  even  the  result  in  1906  does  not 
prove  that  the  Bloc,  or  Masonry,  in  its  anti-clerical 
measures  and  purposes  represents  the  will  of  the  na- 
tion, since  the  contrary  is  evident  from  many  other 
facts.  Much  less  does  it  represent  the '  *  conscience ' '  of 
the  nation.  The  fact  is,  that  the  Bloc  in  1906  secured 
a  majority  only  because  the  greater  part  of  this  ma- 
jority voted  against  their  "conscience".  No  doubt 
the  claims  of  I*>eemasonry  in  France  are  highly  exag- 
gerated, and  such  success  as  they  have  had  is  due 
chiefly  to  the  lowering  of  the  moral  tone  in  private 
and  public  life,  facilitated  by  the  disunion  existing 
among  Catholics  and  by  the  serious  political  blunders 
which  they  committed.  Quite  similar  is  the  outer 
work  of  the  Grand  Orient  of  Italy  which  likewise  pre- 
tends to  be  the  standard-bearer  of  Freemasonry  in  the 
secular  struggle  of  Masonic  light  and  freedom  against 
the  powers  of  "spiritual  darlmess  and  bondage",  al- 
luding of  course  to  the  papacy,  and  dreams  of  the 
establishment  of  a  new  and  universal  republican  em- 

gire  with  a  Masonic  Rome,  supplanting  tne  papal  and 
cesarean  as  metropolis.  The  Grand  Orient  of  Italy 
has  often  declared  that  it  is  enthusiastically  foUowed 
in  this  struggle  by  the  Freemasonry  of  the  entire 
world  and  especially  by  the  Masonic  centres  at 
Paris,  Berlin,  London,  Madrid,  Calcutta,  Washington 
("Riv.",  1892,  219;  Gruber,  "Mazzini",  215  sqq.  and 
passim).  It  has  not  been  contradicted  by  a  single 
Grand  Ixxige  in  any  country,  nor  did  the  German  and 
other  Grand  Lodges  break  off  their  relations  with  it 
on  account  of  its  sliameful  political  and  anti-religious 
activity.  But  though  the  aims  of  Italian  Masons  are 
perhaps  more  radical  and  their  methods  more  cunning 
th^i  those  of  the  French,  their  political  influence,  owing 
to  the  difference  of  the  surrounding  social  conditions, 
is  less  poweriul.  The  same  is  to  be  said  of  the  Bel^an 
and  the  Hungarian  Grand  Lodges,  which  also  consider 
the  Grand  Orient  of  France  as  their  political  model. 

Since  1889,  the  date  of  the  international  Masonic 
congress,  assembled  at  Paris,  16  and  17  July,  1889,  by 
the  Grand  Orient  of  France,  systematic  and  incessant 
efforts  have  been  made  to  bring  about  a  closer  union 
of  universal  Freemasonry  in  order  to  realize  effica- 
ciously and  rapidly  the  Masonic  ideals.  The  special 
allies  of  the  Grand  Orient  in  this  undertaking  are: 
the  Supreme  Council  and  the  Symbolical  Grand  Lodge 
of  France  and  the  Masonic  Grand  Lodges  of  Switzer- 
land, Belgium,  Italy,  Spam,  Hungary,  Portugal, 
Greece;  the  Grand  Ix)dges  of  Massachusetts  and  of 
Brazil  were  also  represented  at  the  congress.  The 
programme  pursued  ny  the  Grand  Orient  of  France,  in 
its  main  lines,  runs  thus:  "Masonry,  which  prepared 
the  Revolution  of  1789,  has  the  duty  to  continue  its 
work"  (circular  of  the  G.  O.  of  France,  2  April,  1889). 
This  task  is  to  lie  accomplished  by  the  thoroughly  and 
rigidly  consistent  apphcatiou  of  the  principles  of  the 
Revolution  to  all  the  departments  of  the  religious, 
moral,  judicial,  legal,  political,  and  social  order.  The 
necessary'  political  relorms  being  realized  in  most  of 
their  essential  points,  henceforth  the  consistent  appli* 


MASONBY 


783 


MASONBY 


cation  of  the  revolutionary  principles  to  the  social  con- 
ditions of  mankind  is  the  main  task  of  Masonry.  The 
universal  social  republic,  in  which,  after  the  over- 
throw of  every  kind  of  spiritual  and  political  tyr- 
anny", of  "theocratical"  and  dynasticai  powers  and 
class  privileges,  reigns  the  greatest  possible  individual 
liberty  and  social  and  economical  equality  conform- 
ably to  French  Masonic  ideals,  is  the  real  ultimate 
aim  of  this  social  work. 

The  following  are  deemed  the  principal  means:  (1) 
To  destroy  radically  by  open  persecution  of  the  Church 
or  by  a  hypocritical  fraudulent  system  of  separation 
between  State  and  Church,  all  social  influence  of  the 
Church  and  of  religion,  insidiously  called  ''clerical- 
ism", and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  destroy  the  Church 
and  all  true,  i.  e.,  superhuman  religion,  which  is  more 
than  a  vague  cult  of  fatherland  and  of  hmnanity;  (2) 
To  laicize,  or  secularize,  by  a  likewise  hypocritical 
fraudulent  system  of  *'  unsectarianism",  all  public  and 
private  life  and,  above  all,  popular  instruction  and 
education.  "Unsectarianism"  as  understood  by  the 
Grand  Orient  party  is  anti-CathoUc  and  even  anti- 
Christian,  atheistic,  positivistic,  or  agnostic  secta- 
rianism in  the  garb  of  imsectarianism.  Freedom  of 
thought  and  conscience  of  the  children  has  to  be  de- 
veloped systematically  in  the  child  at  school  and  pro- 
tected, as  far  as  possible,  against  all  disturbing  influ- 
ences, not  only  of  the  Church  and  priests,  but  also 
of  the  children's  own  parents,  if  necessary,  even  by 
means  of  moral  and  physical  compulsion.  The  Grand 
Orient  party  considers  it  indispensable  and  an  infalli- 
bly sure  way  to  the  final  establishment  of  the  universal 
social  republic  and  of  the  pretended  world  peace,  as 
they  fancy  them,  and  of  the  glorious  era  of  human 
solidarity  and  of  unsurpassable  human  happiness  in 
the  reign  of  liberty  and  justice  (see  "  Chaine  d  Union," 
1889,  134,  212  sqg.,  248  sqq.,  291  sqa.;  the  official 
comptes  rendus  ot  the  International  Masonic  Con- 

ress  of  Paris,  16-17  July,  1889,  and  31  August,  1  and 
September,  1900,  published  by  the  Grand  Orient  of 
France,  and  the  regular  official  *' Comptes  rendus  des 
travaux"  of  this  Grand  Orient,  1896-1910,  and  the 
"  Ri  vista  massonica",  1880-1910). 

The  efforts  to  bring  about  a  closer  union  with  Anglo- 
American  and  German  Freemasonry  were  made  prin- 
cipally by  the  Symbolical  Grand  Lodge  of  France  and 
the  "International  Masonic  Agency"  at  NeucliAtel 
(directed  by  the  Swiss  Past  Grand  Master  Ouartier- 
La  Tente),  attached  to  the  little  Grand  Ix)dge  **A1- 

E"  of  Switzerland.  These  two  Grand  Ix)ages,  as 
ised  agents  of  the  Grand  Orient  of  France,  act  as 
itors  between  this  and  the  Masonic  bodies  of 
English-speaking  and  German  countries.  With  Eng- 
lish and  American  Grand  Lodges  their  efforts  tfll 
now  have  had  but  little  success  (see  Intemat.  Bul- 
letm,  1908,  119,  127,  133,  149,  156;  1909,  186). 
Only  the  Grand  Lodge  of  Iowa  seems  to  have  recog- 
nizeid  the  Grand  Lodge  of  France  (Chr.  1905.  II, 
58, 108, 235).  The  English  Grand  Lodge  not  only  de- 
clined the  offers,  but,  on  23  September,  1907,  through 
its  registrar  even  declared:  "  A'e  feel,  that  we  in  En- 

fland  are  better  apart  from  such  people.  Indeed, 
'reemasonry  is  in  such  bad  odour  on  the  Continent 
of  Europe,  by  reason  of  its  })eing  exploited  bv  So- 
cialists and  Anarchists,  that  we  may  have  to  Break 
off  relations  with  more  of  the  Grand  Bodies  who  have 
forsaken  our  Landmarks"  (from  a  letter  of  the  Regis- 
trator J.  Strahan,  in  London,  to  the  Grand  Lodee  of 
Massachusetts:  see  "The  New  Age",  New  York, 
1909, 1,  177).  The  American  Grand  Ix)dee8  (Massa- 
chusetts, Missouri,  etc.),  in  general,  seem  to  be  resolved 
♦o  follow  the  example  of  the  English  Grand  Lodges. 

The  German  Grand  Lodges,  on  the  contrar\%  at 
least  most  of  them,  j'ielded  to  the  pressure  exercised  on 
them  by  a  great  many  German  brothers.  Captivated 
bj  the  Grand  Orient  party  on  3  June,  1906,  the  Federa- 
tion of  the  eight  German  Grand  Lodges,  by  6  votes  to 


2,  decreed  to  establish  official  friendly  relations  with 
the  Grand  Lodge,  and  on  27  May,  190!9,  by  5  votes  to 

3,  to  restore  the  same  relations  with  the  Grand  Orient 
of  France.  This  latter  decree  excited  the  greatest 
manifestations  of  joy,  triumph  and  jubilation  in  the 
Grand  Orient  party,  which  considered  it  as  an  event 
of  great  historic  import.  But  in  the  meantime  a  pub- 
lic press  discussion  was  brought  about  by  some  incisive 
articles  of  the  "Germania"  (Beriin,  10  Biay,  1908;  9 
June,  12  November,  1909;  5,  19  February,  1910)  with 
the  result,  that  the  three  old  Prussian  Grand  Lodges, 
comprising  37,198  brothers  controlled  by  the  pro- 
tectorate, abandoned  their  ambiguous  attitude  and 
energetically  condemned  the  decree  of  27  May,  1909, 
and  the  attitude  of  the  5  other  so-called  "humanita- 
rian" German  Grand  Lodges,  which  comprise  but  16,- 
448  brothers.  It  was  hoped,  that  the  British  and 
American  Grand  Lodges,  enticed  by  the  example  of 
the  German  Grand  Lodges,  would,  in  the  face  of  the 
common  secular  enemy  in  the  Vatican,  join  the  Grand 
Orient  party  before  the  great  universal  Masonic  con- 
gress, to  be  held  in  Rome  in  1911.  But  instead  of 
this  closer  union  of  universal  Freemasonry  dreamt  of 
by  the  Grand  Orient  party,  the  only  result  was  a  split 
between  the  German  Urana  Lodges  by  which  their  fed- 
eration itself  was  momentarily  shaken  to  its  foundation. 

But  in  spite  of  the  failure  of  the  official  transactions, 
there  are  a  great  manv  German  and  not  a  few  Amer- 
ican Masons,  who  evidently  favour  at  least  the  chief 
anti-clerical  aims  of  the  Grand  Orient  party.  Start- 
ling evidence  thereof  was  the  recent  violent  world- 
wide agitation,  which,  on  occasion  of  the  execution  of 
the  anarchist,  Bro.  .*.  Ferrer,  31  .*. ,  an  active  member 
of  the  Grand  Orient  of  France  (Barcelona,  13  October, 
1909),  was  set  at  work  by  the  Grand  Orient  of  France 
(Circular  of  14  October,  1909;  "Franc-Ma?,  d^m.", 
1906, 230 sqq.;  1907, 42, 176;  1909,  310,  337 sqq.;  1910, 
an  "International  Masonic  Bulletin",  Berne,  1909, 
204  sq.),  and  of  Italy  (Rivista  massonica,  1909,  337 
sqq.,  423),  in  order  to  provoke  the  organization  of  an 
international  KuUurk^mpf  after  the  French  pattern. 
In  nearly  ail  the  countries  of  Europe  the  separation  be- 
tween State  and  Church  and  the  laicization  or  neu- 
tralization of  the  popular  instruction  and  education, 
were  and  are  still  demanded  by  all  parties  of  the  Left 
with  redoubled  impetuosity. 

The  fact  that  there  are  also  American  Masons,  who 
evidently  advocate  the  KuUurkampf  in  America  and 
stir  up  the  international  KuUurkampf^  is  attested  by 
the  example  of  Bros.  .*  .J.  D.  Buck,  33  and  A.  Pike,  33/ . . 
Buck  published  a  book,  "  The  Genius  of  Freemasonry", 
in  which  he  advocates  most  energetically  a  KuUur- 
kampf for  the  United  States.  TWs  book,  which  in 
1907,  was  in  its  3rd  edition,  is  recommended  ardently 
to  all  American  Masons  by  Masonic  journals.  A. 
Pike,  as  the  Grand  Commander  of  the  Mother  Su- 

f)renie  Council  of  the  World  (Charleston,  South  Caro- 
ina)  lost  no  opportunity  in  his  letters  to  excite  the 
anti-clerical  spirit  of  his  colleagues.  In  a  long  letter 
of  28  December,  1886,  for  instance,  he  conjures  the 
Italian  Grand  Commander,  Timoteo  Riboli,  33.*.  the 
intimate  friend  of  Garil)aldi,  to  do  all  in  his  power,  in 
order  to  unite  Italian  Masonry  against  the  Vatican. 
He  writes:  "The  Papacy  .  .  .  has  been  for  a  thousand 
years  the  torturer  and  curse  of  Humanity,  the  most 
shameless  imposture,  in  its  pretence  to  spiritual  power 
of  all  ages.  With  its  robes  wet  and  reeking  with  the 
blood  of  half  a  million  of  human  beings,  with  the 
grateful  odour  of  roasted  human  flesh  always  in  its 
nostrils,  it  is  exulting  over  the  prospect  of  renewed 
dominion.  It  has  sent  all  over  the  world  its  anath- 
emas against  CoiLstitutional  government  and  the 
right  of  men  to  freedom  of  thought  and  conscience". 
Again,  "In  presence  of  this  spiritual  '('obra  di  ca- 
pello',  this  deadly,  treacherous,  murderous  enemy, 
the  most  formidalile  power  in  the  world,  the  unity  of 
Italian  Masonry  is  of  absolute  and  supreme  ntceBBity; 


MASONRY  784  SIASONBY 

and  to  this  paramount  and  omnipotent  necessity  all  deserved,  for  even  at  the  height  of  their  literary  (ani^ 

minor  considerations  ought  to  yield;  dissensions  and  not  they,  but  common  swindlers,  Uke  Johnson,  Cagii- 

disunion,  in  presence  of  this  enemy  of  the  human  race  ostro.  etc.,  were  the  centres  round  which  the  Masonic 

are  criminar'.    "There  must  be  no  unvielding,  im-  world  gravitated.     All  the  superior  men   belongmi 

compromising  insistence  upon  particular  opinions,  to  Freemasomy:  Fichte,  Fessler,  Krause,  SchrOda, 

theories,  preiudices,  professions:  but,  on  the  con-  Mossdorf, Schiffman,  Findel, etc.,  so  far  as  they  strove 

trary,  mutual  concessions  and  harmonious  co-opera-  to  purge  lodge  life  from  humbug,  were  treated  igno- 

tion".    ''The  Freemasonry  of  the  world  will  rejoice  miniously  by  the  bulk  of  the  average  Masons  and  even 

to  see  accomplished  and  consummated  the  Unity  of  b^  lodge  authorities.    Men  of  similar  turn  of  mind  are 

the  Italian  Freemasonry  "  (Official  Bulletin,  Septem-  stigmatized  by  English  and  American  Masonic  devo- 

ber,  1S87,  173  sqq.).    Important  Masonic  journals,  tees  as  "materialists''  and  "iconoclasts"  (Chr.,  1885, 

for  instance,  "The  American  Tyler-Keystone"  (Ann  I,  85;  1900.  II,  71).    But  true  it  is  that  the  lodges 

Arbor),  openly  patronize  the  efforts  of  the  French  work  silently  and  effectually  for  the  propagation  sAd 

Grand  Onent  Party.    "The  absolute  oneness  of  the  application  of  "unsectarian"  Masomc  principles  m 

Craft",  says  the  Past  Grand  Master  Clifford  P.  Mao-  human  society  and  Ufe.    The  Masonic  mftgayiT^fff 

Calla    (Pennsylvania),    "is    a    glorious    thought."  abound  in  passages  to  this  effect.    Thus  Bro. .'.  Rich- 

" Neither  boundaries  of  States  nor  vast  oceans  sepa-  ardson  of  Tennessee  avers:  "Freemasonry  does  its 

rate  the  Masonic  Fraternity.    Everywhere  it  is  one."  work  silently,  but  it  is  the  work  of  a  deep  river,  that 

"There  is  no  imiversal  church,  no  imiversal  body  of  silently  pushes  on  towards  the  ocean,  etc."  (Chr.. 

politic;  but  there  is  an  universal  Fraternity,  that  Free-  1889. 1,  308) .     "  The  abandonment  of  old  themes  ana 

masonry;andevery  Brother  who  is  a  worthy  member,  the  formation  of  new  ones",  explained  Grand  High 

may  feel  proud  of  it"  (Chr.,  1906,  II,  132).    Owing  to  Priest,  J.  W.  Taylor  (Georgia),  'Nlo  not  always  arise 

thesoUdarity  existing  between  all  Masomc  bodies  and  from  the  immediately  perceptible  cause  wmch  the 

individual  Masons,  they  are  all  jointly  responsible  for  world  assigns,  but  are  tne  culmination  of  prindpfeB 

the  evil  doings  of  their  fellow-members.  which  have  been  working  in  the  minds  of  men  for 

Representative  Masons,  however,  extol  the  pre-  many  years,  until  at  last  the  proper  time  and  projpi- 
tended  salutary  influence  of  their  order  on  human  cul-  tious  surroundings  kindle  the  latent  truth  into  ufe. 
ture  and  progress.  "Masonry",  says  Frater,  Grand  and,  as  the  light  of  reason  flows  from  mind  to  mind 
Orator,  Washmgton,  "is  the  shrine  of  grand  thoughts,  and  the  unity  of  purpose  from  heart  to  heart,  enthus- 
of  beautiful  sentiments,  the  seminary  for  the  improve-  ing  all  with  a  mighty  common  cause  and  moving  na- 
ment  of  the  moral  and  the  mental  standard  of  its  mem-  tions  as  one  man  to  the  accomplishment  of  great  ends, 
bers.  As  a  storehouse  of  morality  it  rains  benign  On  this  principle  does  the  Institution  of  Freemasonnr 
influence  on  the  mind  and  heart"  (Chr.,  1897,  II,  148).  diffuse  its  influence  to  the  world  of  mankind.  It 
"Modem  Freemasonry",  according  to  other  Masons,  works  quietly  and  secretly,  but  penetrates  through  all 
"  is  a  social  and  moral  reformer"  (Chr.,  1888,  II,  99J.  the  interstices  of  society  m  its  many  relations,  and  the 
"No  one",  says  the  "Keystone"  of  Chicago, "  has  esti-  recipients  of  its  many  favors  are  awed  by  its  grand 
mated  or  can  estimate  the  far  reaching  character  of  achievements,  but  cannot  tell  whence  it  came  "  (Chr., 
the  influence  of  Masonry  in  the  world.  It  by  no  1897,  II,  303).  The  "Voice"  (Chicago)  writes: 
means  is  limited  to  the  bodies  of  the  Craft.  Every  "  Never  before  m  the  history  of  ages  has  Freemasonry 
initiate  is  a  light  bearer,  a  center  of  light "  (Chr.,  1889.  occupied  so  important  a  position,  as  at  the  present 
II,  146).  "In  Germany  as  in  the  United  States  ana  time.  Never  was  its  influence  so  marked,  its  mem- 
Great  Britain  those  who  have  been  leaders  of  men  in  bership  so  extensive,  its  teaching  so  revered."  "There 
intellectual,  moral  and  social  life,  have  been  Free-  are  more  Masons  outside  the  great  Brotherhood  than 
masons.  Eminent  examples  in  the  past  are  the  Broth-  within  it."  Throu^  its  "  pure  morality  "  with  which 
ers  .*.  Fichte,  Herder,  Wieland,  Lessing,  Goethe,  pure  Freemasonry  is  synonomous,  it  "  influences  soci- 
Greatest  of  them  all  was  I.  W.  von  Goethe.  Well  may  ety^  and,  unperceived,  sows  the  seed  that  brings  forth 
we  be  proud  of  such  a  man"  ("  Keystone  ",  quoted  in  fruit  in  wholesome  laws  and  righteous  enactments.  It 
Chr.,  1887,  II,  355),  etc.  German  Masons  (see  Boos,  upholds  the  right,  relieves  the  distressed,  defends  the 
304-63)  claim  for  Freemasonnr  a  considerable  part  in  weak  and  raises  the  fallen  (of  course,  all  understood 
the  splendid  development  of  German  literature  in  the  in  the  masonic  sense  above  explained).  So,  silently 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  These  claims,  but  surely  and  continuedly,  it  builds  into  tiie  great 
however,  when  critically  examined,  prove  to  be  either  fabric  of  human  society"  (Chr.  1889,  II,  257  sq.). 
^oundless  or  exaggerated.  EngUsn  Freemasonry,  be-  The  real  force  of  Freemasonry  in  its  outer  work  is 
ing  then  at  a  low  intellectual  and  moral  level  and  re-  indeed,  that  there  are  more  Masons  and  oftentimes 
trograding  towards  orthodoxy,  was  not  qualified  to  be  better  qualified  for  the  performance  of  Masonic  work, 
the  originator  or  a  leading  factor  in  the  freethinking  outside  the  brotherhood  than  within  it.  Freema- 
"  Culture  of  Enlightenment."  German  Masonry,  then  sonry  itself  in  Europe  and  in  America  founds  societies 
dominated  by  the  Swedish  system  and  the  Strict  Ob-  and  institutions  of  similar  form  and  scope  for  all 
servance  and  intellectually  and  morally  degenerated,  classes  of  society  and  infuses  into  them  its  spirit, 
as  Masonic  historians  themselves  avow,  was  in  no  bet-  Thus  according  to  Gould  (Concise  History,  2)  Flee- 
ter plight.  In  truth  the  leading  literary  men  of  the  masoniy  since  about  1750  "has  exercised  a  remark- 
epoch,  Lessin^,  Goethe,  Herder,  etc.  were  cruelly  dis-  able  influence  over  all  other  oath-boimd  societies", 
abused  and  disappointed  by  what  they  saw  and  ex-  The  same  is  stated  by  Bro  .*.  L.  Blanc,  Deschamps,  etc. 
perienced  in  their  lodge  life  [Gruber  (6),  141-236].  for  Germany  and  other  countries.  In  the  Um'ted 
Lessing  spoke  with  contempt  of  the  lodge  life;  States,  according  to  the  "Cyclopedia  of  Fraternities", 
Goethe  characterized  the  Masonic  associations  and  there  exist  more  than  600  secret  societies,  working 
doings  as  "fools  and  rogues";  Herder  wrote, 9  Janu-  more  or  less  imder  the  veil  of  forms  patterned  on 
ary.  1786,  to  the  celebrated  philologist  Bro.'.  Heyne;  Masonic  symbolism  and  for  the  larger  part  notably  in- 
"I  Dear  a  deadly  hatred  to  all  secret  societies  and,  as  a  fluenced  by  Freemasonry,  so  that  every  third  male 
result  of  my  experience,  both  within  their  innermost  adult  in  the  United  States  is  a  member  of  one  or  more 
circles  and  outside,  I  wish  them  all  to  the  devil.  For  of  such  secret  societies.  "  Freemasonry ",  says  the 
persistent  domineering  intrigues  and  the  spirit  of  "  Cyclopedia ",  p.  v,  "  of  course,  is  shown  to  be  the 
cabal  creep  beneath  the  cover  "  (Boos,  326) .  mother-Fratermty  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name."     "  Few 

Freemasonry,  far  from  contributing  to  the  literary  who  are  well  informed  on  the  subject,  will  deny  that 

greatness  of  these  or  other  leading  men,  profited  by  the  masonic  Fraternity  is  directly  or  indirectly  the 

the  external  splendour  which  their  membership  re-  parent  organization  of  all  modem  secret  societies, 

fleeted  on  it.    But  the  advantage  was  by  no  means  good,  bad  and  indifferent"  (ibid.,  p^  xv). 


SlASOmtY 


785 


SIASONBY 


Many  Anglo-American  Freemasons  are  wont  to 
protest  strongly  against  all  charges  accusing  Freema- 
sonry of  interfering  with  political  or  religious  affairs  or 
of  hostility  to  the  Church  or  disloyalty  to  the  public 
authorities.  They  even  praise  Freemasonry  as  "  one 
of  the  strongest  bulwarks  of  religion  "  (Chr.,  1887,  II, 
340),  "the  handmaid  of  religion^  (Chr.,  1887, 1,  119) 
and  the  "handmaid  of  the  church"  (Chr..  1885,  II, 
355).  "There  is  nothing  in  the  nature  or  the  Soci- 
ety", says  the  "Royal  Craftsman",  New  York,  "that 
necessitates  the  renunciation  of  a  single  sentence  of 
any  creed,  the  discontinuance  of  any  religious  customs 
or  the  obliteration  of  a  dogma  of  belief.  No  one  is 
asked  to  deny  the  Bible,  to  change  his  Church  rela- 
tions or  to  be  less  attentive  to  the  teaching  of  his  spir- 
itual instructors  and  counsellors"  (Chr.,  1887,  II,  49). 
"  Masonry  indeed  contains  the  pith  of  Christianity " 
(Chr.,  1875, 1, 1 13) .  "  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose 
it  an  enemy  of  the  Church."  "  It  does  not  offer  itself 
as  a  substitute  of  that  divinely  ordained  institution." 
"It  offers  itself  as  an  adjunct,  as  an  ally,  as  a  helper  in 
the  great  work  of  the  regeneration  of  the  race,  of  the 
uplifting  of  man"  (Chr.,  1890,  II,  101).  Hence,  "we 
deny  the  rigjit  of  the  Romish  Church  to  exclude  from 
its  communion  those  of  its  flock  who  have  assumed 
the  responsibility  of  the  Order  of  Freemasonry" 
(Chr.,  1875, 1, 113).  Though  such  protestations  seem 
to  be  sincere  and  to  reveal  even  a  praiseworthy  desire 
in  their  authors  not  to  conflict  with  religion  and  the 
Church,'  they  are  contradicted  by  notorious  facts. 
Certainly  Freemasonry  and  "Christian"  or  "Catho- 
lic" rehgion  are  not  opposed  to  each  other,  when 
Masons,  some  erroneously  and  others  h3rpocritically 
understand  "Christian"  or  "Catholic"  in  the  above 
described  Masonic  sense,  or  when  Masonry  itself  is 
mistakenly  conceived  as  an  orthodox  Christian  insti- 
tution. But  between  "Masonry"  and  "Christian" 
or  "Catholic"  religion,  conceived  as  thev  really  are: 
between  "  unsectarian  "  Freemasonry  and  "  dogmatic, 
orthodox  "  Christianity  or  Catholicism,  there  is  a  radi- 
cal opposition.  It  is  vain  to  say:  though  Masonry  is 
officially  "  unsectarian",  it  does  not  prevent  individual 
Masons  from  being  "sectarian"  in  their  non-Masonic 
relations;  for  in  its  official  "  unsectarianism "  Free- 
masonry necessarily  combats  all  that  Christianitv  con- 
tains beyond  the  "  universal  religion  in  which  aU  men 
agree",  consequently  all  that  is  characteristic  of  the 
Christian  and  Catholic  religion.  These  characteristic 
features  Freemasonry  combats  not  only  as  superfluous 
and  merely  subjective,  but  also  as  spurious  additions 
disfiguring  the  objective  universal  truth,  which  it  pro- 
fesses. To  ignore  Christ  and  Christianity,  is  practi- 
cally to  reject  them  as  unessential  framework. 

But  Freemasonry  goes  farther  and  attacks  Catholi- 
cism openly.  The  "  Voice  "  (Chicago),  for  instance,  in 
an  article  which  begins:  "There  is  nothing  in  the 
Catholic  religion  which  is  adverse  to  Masonry",  con- 
tinues, "for  the  truth  is,  that  masonry  embodies  that 
religion  in  which  all  men  agree.  This  is  as  true  as  that 
all  veritable  religion,  wherever  found,  is  in  substance 
the  same.  Neither  is  it  in  the  power  of  anjr  man  or 
body  of  men  to  make  it  otherwise.  Doctrines  and 
forms  of  observance  conformable  to  piety,  imposed  by 
spiritual  overseers,  may  be  as  various  as  the  courses  of 
wind;  and  like  the  latter  may  war  with  each  other 
upon  the  face  of  the  whole  earth,  but  they  are  not  re- 
ligion. Bigotrv  and  zeal,  the  assumptions  of  the 
priestcraft,  witn  all  its  countless  inventions  to  magnify 
and  impress  the  world  .  .  .  are  ever  the  mainsprings 
of  strife,  hatred  and  revenge,  which  defame  ana  ban- 
ish religion  and  its  inseparable  virtues,  and  work  un- 
speakable mischief,  wherever  mankind  are  found  upon 
tne  earth.  Poperv  and  priestcraft  are  so  allied,  tnat 
they  may  be  called  the  same;  the  truth  bein^,  that  the 
former  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  special  case  of 
the  latter,  being  a  particular  form  of  a  vicious  princi- 
ple, which  itself  is  but  the  offspring  of  the  conceit  of 
IX.— 50 


self-sufficiency  and  the  lust  of  dominion.  Nothing 
which  can  be  named,  is  more  repugnant  to  the  spirit  of 
masonry,  nothing  to  be  more  carefullv  guarded 
against,  and  this  has  been  alwajrs  well  imderstood  by 
au  skillful  masters,  and  it  must  in  truth  be  said,  that 
such  is  the  wisdom  of  the  lessons,  i.  e.  of  masonic  in- 
struction in  Lodges,  etc."  (Chr.,  1887, 1, 35) .  In  simi- 
lar discussions,  containing  in  almost  every  word  a  hid- 
den or  open  attack  on  Christianity,  the  truly  Masonic 
magazines  and  books  of  all  countries  abound.  Past 
Grand  Deacon  J.  C.  Parkinson,  an  illustrious  English 
Mason,  frankly  avows:  "The  two  systems  of  Roman- 
ism and  Freemasonry  are  not  only  incompatible, 
but  they  are  radically  opposed  to  each  other"  (Chr., 
1884,  II,  17):  and  Amencan  Masons  say:  "We  won't 
make  a  man  a  Freemason,  until  we  know  that  he 
isn't  a  Catholic."  (Chr.,  1890,  II,  347:  see  also  1898, 
1,83). 

With  respect  to  loyalty  towards  "lawful  govern- 
ment "  American  Masons  pretend  that  "  everywhere 
Freemasons,  individually  and  collectively,  are  loyal 
and  active  supporters  of  republican  or  constitutional 
governments  ("Voice"  quoted  in  Chr.,  1890,  I, 
98) .  "  Our  principles  are  all  republican  "  ("  Voice  "  in 
Chr.,  1893,  I,  130).  "Fidelitjf  and  Lovalty,  and 
peace  and  order,  and  subordination  to  lawful  authori- 
ties are  household  gods  of  Freemasonry"  ("Voice"  in 
Chr.,  1890,  I,  98);  and  English  Freemasons  declare, 
that,  "the  loyalty  of  English  Masons  is  proverbial" 
(Chr.,  1899,  1,  301).  These  protestations  of  English 
and  American  Freemasons  in  general  mav  be  deemed 
sincere,  as  far  as  their  own  countries  and  actual  gov- 
ernments are  concerned.  Not  even  the  revolutionary 
Grand  Orient  of  France  thinks  of  overthrowing  the 
actual  political  order  in  France,  which  is  in  entire  con- 
formity with  its  wishes.  The  question  is,  whether 
Freemasons  respect  a  lawful  Government  in  their  own 
and  other  countries,  when  it  is  not  inspired  by  Masonic 
principles.  In  this  respect  both  English  and  Ameri- 
can Freemasons,  by  tneir  principles  and  conduct, 
provoke  the  condemnatory  verdict  of  enlightened  ana 
impartial  public  opinion.  We  have  already  above 
hinted  at  the  whimsical  Article  II  of  the  "Old 
Charges",  calculated  to  encour&ge  rebellion  against 
Governments  which  are  not  accoiding  to  the  wishes  of 
Freemasonry.  The  "Freemason's  Chronicle"  but 
faithfully  expresses  the  sentiments  of  Anglo-American 
Freemasonry,  when  it  writes:  "If  we  were  to  assert 
that  under  no  Circumstances  had  a  Biason  been  found 
willing  to  take  arms  against  a.  bad  government,  we 
should  only  be  declaring  that,  in  trying  moments, 
when  duty,  in  the  masonic  sense,  to  state  means  an- 
tagonism to  the  Government,  they  had  failed  in  the 
highest  and  most  sacred  duty  of  a  citizen.  Rebellion 
in  some  cases  is  a  sacred  duty,  and  none,  but  a  bigot  or 
a  fool,  will  say,  that  our  countrymen  were  in  the 
wrong,  when  they  took  arms  against  King  James  II. 
Loyalty  to  freedom  in  a  case  of  this  kind  overrides  all 
other  considerations,  and  when  to  rebel  means  to  be 
free  or  to  perish,  it  would  be  idle  to  urge  that  a  man 
must  remember  obli^tions  which  were  never  in- 
tended to  rob  him  of  his  status  of  a  human  being  and  a 
citizen"(Chr.,  1875, 1,81). 

Such  language  would  equally  suit  every  anarchistic 
movement.  The  utterances  Quoted  were  made  in 
defence  of  plotting  Spanish  Masons.  Only  a  page 
further  the  same  English  Masonic  magazine  writes: 
"  Assuredly  Italian  Masonry,  which  has  rendered  such 
invaluable  service  in  the  regeneration  of  that  mag- 
nificent country",  "is  worthy  of  the  highest  praise" 
(Chr.,  1875,  I,  82).  "A  Freemason,  moved  by  lofty 
principles  ",  says  the  "  Voice  "  (Chicago), "  may  rightly 
strike  a  blow  at  tyranny  and  may  consort  with  othera 
to  bring  about  needed  relief,  in  ways  that  are  not  ordi- 
narily justifiable.  ^  History  affords  numerous  in- 
stances of  acts  which  have  been  justified  by  subse- 
quent events,  and  none  of  us,  whetner  Masons  or  not. 


MASONRY 


786 


BCASOmtY 


are  inclined  to  condemn  the  plots  hatched  between 
Paul  Revere,  Dr.  J.  Warren  and  others,  in  the  old 
Green  Dragon  Tavern,  the  headquarters  of  Colonial 
Freemasonry  in  New  England,  because  these  plots 
were  inspired  by  lofty  purpose  and  the  result  not  only 
justified  them^  but  crowned  these  heroes  with  glory 
(Chr.,  1889^  I,  178).  "No  Freemason"  said  Ri^t 
Rev.  H.  C.  rotter  on  the  centenary  of  the  Grand  Chap- 
ter of  Royal  Arch,  New  York,  "  may  honourably  bend 
the  knee  to  any  foreign  potentate  (not  even  to  King 
Edward  VII  of  England)  civil  or  ecclesiastical  (the 
Pope)  or  yield  allegiance  to  any  alien  sovereignty, 
temporal  or  spiritual "  (Chr.,  1889,  II,  94).  From  tms 
utterance  it  is  evident  that  according  to  Potter  no  Cath- 
olic can  be  a  Mason.  In  conformity  with  these  princi- 
{)les  American  and  English  Freemasons  supported  the 
eaders  of  the  revolutionary  movement  on  the  Euro- 
pean continent.  Kossuth,  who  "  had  been  leader  in  the 
rebellion  against  Austrian  tyranny",  was  enthusiasti- 
cally received  by  American  Masons,  solemnly  initiated 
into  Freemasonry  at  Cincinnati,  21  April,  1852,  and 
presented  with  a  generous  gift  as  a  proof  "  that  on  the 
altar  of  St.  John's  Lodge  the  fire  of  love  burnt  so 
brightly,  as  to  flash  its  light  even  into  the  deep  re- 
cesses and  mountain  fastnesses  of  Hungary"  ("Key- 
stone" of  Philadelpliia  quoted  by  Chr.,  1881, 1,  414; 
the  "Voice"  of  Chicago,  xbid.,  277).  Garibaldi  "the 
greatest  freemason  of  Italy"  ("Intern.  Bull.",  Berne, 
1907, 98)  and  Mazzini  were  also  encoura^d  by  Anglo- 
American  Freemasons  in  their  revolutionary  enter- 
prises (Chr.,  1882,  I,  410;  1893,  I,  185;  1899,  II,  34). 
The  consistent  Mason",  says  the  "Voice  "(Chicago), 
*'  will  never  be  found  engaged  in  conspiracies  or  plots 
for  the  purpose  of  overturning  and  suljverting  a  gov- 
ernment based  upon  the  masonic  principles  of  liberty 
and  eoual  rights"  (Chr.,  1892,  I,  259).  "But"  de- 
clares rike,  "  with  tongue  and  pen,  with  all  our  open 
and  secret  influences,  with  the  purse,  and  if  need  be, 
with  the  sword,  we  will  advance  the  cause  of  human 
progress  and  labour  to  enfranchise  human  thought,  to 
give  freedom  to  the  human  conscience  (above  all  from 
papal  'usurpations')  and  equal  rights  to  the  people 
everywhere.  Wherever  a  nation  struggles  to  gain  or 
regain  its  freedom,  wherever  the  human  mind  asserts 
its  independence  and  the  people  demand  their  inalien- 
able rights,  there  shall  go  our  warmest  sympathies" 
[Pike  (4),  IV,  547]. 

VIII.  Action  of  State  and  Church  Authorities. 
— Curiously  enough,  the  first  sovereign  to  join  and  pro- 
tect Freemasonry  was  the  Catholic  German  Emperor 
Francis  I,  the  founder  of  the  actually  reigning  hne  of 
Austria,  while  the  first  measures  against  Freemasonry 
were  takenby  Protestant  Governments:  Holland,  1735; 
Sweden  and  Geneva,  1738;  Zurich,  1740;  Berne,  1745. 
In  Spain,  Portugal  and  Italy,  measures  against  Masonry 
were  taken  after  1738.    In  Bavaria  Freemasonry  was 

?rohibited  1784  and  1785;  in  Austria,  1795;  in  Baden, 
^  813;  in  Russia,  1822.  Since  1847  it  has  been  tolerated 
in  Baden,  since  1850  in  Bavaria,  since  1868  in  Hun- 
gary and  Spain.  In  Austria  Freemasonry  is  still  pro- 
hibited because  as  the  Superior  Court  of  Administra- 
tion, 23  January,  1905,  rightly  declared,  a  Masonic 
association,  even  though  established  in  accordance  with 
law,  "would  1x3  a  member  of  a  large  (international) 
organization  (in  reality  ruled  by  the  *  Old  Charges ', 
etc.  according  to  general  Masonic  principles  and  aims), 
the  true  regiilations  of  which  would  oe  kept  secret 
from  the  civil  authorities,  so  that  the  activity  of  the 
members  could  not  \)e  controlled"  (Bauhtttte,  1905, 
60).  It  is  indeed  to  he  presumed  that  Austro-Hun- 
garian  Masons,  whatever  statutes  they  might  present 
to  the  Austrian  Government  in  order  to  secure  their 
authorLBation,  would  in  fact  continue  to  regard  the 
French  Grand  Orient  as  their  true  pattern,  and 
the  Brothers. -.Kossuth,  Garibaldi,  and  Mazzini  as  the 
heroes,  whom  they  would  strive  to  imitate.  The 
Prussian  edict  of   1798  interdicted  Freemasonry  in 


fleneral,  excepting  the  three  old  Prussian  Grand 
Lodges  which  the  protectorate  subjected  to  severe 
control  by  the  Government.  This  edict,  though 
juridically  abrogated  by  the  edict  of  6  April,  IS&, 
practically,  according  to  a  decision  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Administration  of  22  April,  1893,  D)r  an 
erroneous  interpretation  of  the  organs  of  adminis- 
tration, remained  in  force  till  1893.  Similarly,  in 
England  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed  on  12  July, 
1798  for  the  ''more  effectual  suppression  of  societies 
established  for  seditions  and  treasonable  purposes  and 
for  preventing  treasonable  and  seditious  practices". 
By  this  Act  Masonic  associations  and  meetmgs  in  gen- 
eral were  interdicted,  and  only  the  lodges  existing  on 
12  July,  1798,  and  ruled  according  to  the  old  re^ila- 
tions  of  the  Masonry  of  the  kingdom  were  tolerat^,  on 
condition  that  two  representatives  of  the  lod^e  should 
make  oath  before  the  magistrates,  that  the  lodge  ex- 
isted and  was  ruled  as  the  Act  enjoined  (Preston, 
"Illustrations  of  Masonry",  251  sqq.).  During  the 
period  1827-34,  measures  were  taken  against  Freema- 
sonry in  some  of  the  United  States  of  America.  As  to 
European  countries  it  may  be  stated,  that  all  those 
Governments,  which  had  not  originated  in  the  revolu- 
tionary movement,  strove  to  protect  themselves 
against  Masonic  secret  societies. 

The  action  of  the  Church  is  summed  up  in  the  papal 
pronouncements  against  Freemasonry  smce  1738,  the 
most  important  of  which  are: — 

Clement  XII,  Const.  "  In  Emmenti ",  28  April,  1738; 
Benedict  XIV,  "Providas",  18  May,  1751:  Pius  VII, 
"Ecclesiam",  13  September,  1821;  Leo  XII,  "Quo 
graviora",  13  March,  1825;  Pius  VIII,  Encycl.  "Tra- 
diti",  21  May,  1829;  Gregory  XVI,  **Mirari",  15 
August.  1832;  Pius  IX,  Encycl.  "Qui  pluribus",  9 
November,  1846;  Alloc.  "Qmbus  quantisque  malis", 
20  April,  1849;  Encycl.  "Quanta  cura",  8  December, 
1864;  Alloc.  "Multiplices  inter",  25  September,  1865; 
Const.  "  Apostolicae  Sedis",  12  October,  1869;  Encvcl. 
"Etsi  multa",  21  November,  1873;  Leo  XIII,  Encycl. 
"Humanum  genus",  20  April,  1884;  "Prseclara",  20 
June,  1894;  "Annum  ingressi",  18  March,  1902 
(against  Italian  Freemasonry);  liicycl.  "Etsl  nos", 
15  February,  1882;  "Ab  Apostolici",  15  October, 
1890.  These  pontifical  utterances  from  first  to  last 
are  in  complete  accord,  the  latter  reiterating  the  earlier 
with  such  developments  as  were  called  for  by  the 
growth  of  Freemasonry  and  other  secret  societies. 

Clement  XII  accurately  indicates  the  principal  rea- 
sons why  Masonic  associations  from  the  Catholic, 
Christian,  moral,  political,  and  social  points  of  view, 
should  be  condemned.  These  reasons  are: — (1) 
The  peculiar,  "  imsectarian "  (in  truth,  anti-Catholic 
and  anti-Christian)  naturalistic  character  of  Free- 
masonry, by  which  theoretically  and  practically  it 
imdermines  the  Catholic  and  Christian  faith,  first  in 
its  members  and  through  them  in  the  rest  of  society, 
creating  religious  indmerentism  and  conteinpt  for 
orthodoxy  and  ecclesiastical  authority.  (2)  The  in- 
scrutable secrecy  and  fallacious  ever-changing  di^uise 
of  the  Masonic  association  and  of  its  "work  ,  by 
which  "men  of  this  sort  break  as  thieves  into  the 
house  and  like  foxes  endeavour  to  root  up  the  vine- 
yard", "perverting  the  hearts  of  the  simple",  ruining 
their  spiritual  and  temporal  welfare.  (3)  The  oaths  of 
secrecy  and  of  fidelity  to  Masoniy  and  Masonic  work, 
which  cannot  be  justified  in  their  scope,  their  object, 
or  their  form,  and  cannot,  therefore,  mduce  any  obli- 
gation. The  oaths  are  condemnable.  because  the 
scope  and  object  of  Masonry  are  "wicked"  and  con- 
demnable, and  the  candidate  in  most  cases  is  ignorant 
of  the  import  or  extent  of  the  obligation  which  he 
takes  upon  himself.  Moreover  the  ritualistic  and  doc- 
trinal ''secrets"  which  are  the  principal  object  of  the 
obligation,  according  to  the  highest  Masonic  authori- 
ties, are  either  trifles  or  no  longer  exist  (Handbuch, 
3rd  ed.,  1, 219).    In  either  case  the  oath  is  a  condemna- 


MASONBY 


787 


MASONBY 


ble  abuse.  Even  the  Masonic  modes  of  recognition, 
which  are  represented  as  the  principal  and  only  essen- 
tial "secret  of  Masonry,  are  published  in  many 
printed  books.  Hence  the  real '  *  secrets  **  of  Masonry, 
if  such  there  be,  could  only  be  political  or  anti-reli- 
^ous  conspiracies  like  the  plots  of  the  Grand  Lodges 
m  Latin  countries.  But  such  secrets,  condemned,  at 
least  theoretically,  by  Anglo-American  Masons  them- 
selves, would  render  the  oath  or  obligation  only  the 
more  immoral  and  therefore  null  and  void.  Thus  in 
every  respect  the  Masonic  oaths  are  not  only  sacrile- 
gious but  also  an  abuse  contrary  to  public  order  which 
requires  that  solemn  oaths  and  obligations  as  the 
principal  means  to  maintain  veracity  and  faithfulness 
m  the  State  and  in  human  society,  should  not  be  vili- 
fied or  caricatured.  In  Masonry  the  oath  is  further 
degraded  by  its  form  which  includes  the  most  atro- 
cious penalties,  for  the  "violation  of  obligations'' 
which  do  not  even  exist;  a  "violation**  which,  in 
truth  may  be  and  in  many  cases  is  an  imperative  duty. 
(4)  The  danger  which  such  societies  involve  for  the 
security  and  "tranquility  of  the  State"  and  for  "  the 
spiritual  health  of  souls*',  and  conseouently  their  in- 
compatibility with  civil  and  canonical  law.  For  even 
admitting  that  some  Masonic  associations  pursued  for 
themselves  no  purposes  contrary  to  religion  and  to  pub- 
lic order,  they  would  be  nevertheless  contrary  to 
public  order,  because  by  their  very  existence  as  secret 
societies  based  on  the  Masonic  principles,  thc^'  encour- 
age and  promote  the  foundation  of  other  really  dan- 
gerous secret  societies  and  render  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  efficacious  action  of  the  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical authorities  against  them. 

Of  the  other  papal  edicts  only  some  characteristic 
utterances  need  be  mentioned.  Benedict  XIV  ap- 
peals more  urgently  to  Catholic  princes  and  civil  pow- 
ers to  obtain  their  assistance  in  the  struggle  against 
Freemasonry.  Pius  VII  condemns  the  secret  society 
of  the  Carbonari  which,  if  not  an  offshoot,  is  "cer- 
tainly an  imitation  of  the  Masonic  society**  and,  as 
such,  already  comprised  in  the  condemnation  issued 
against  it.  Leo  All  deplores  the  fact,  that  the  civil 
powers  had  not  heeded  the  earlier  papal  decrees,  and  in 
consequence  out  of  the  old  Masonic  societies  even  more 
dcm^erous  sects  had  sprung.  Among  them  the  "  Uni- 
versitarian  **  is  mentioned  as  most  pernicious.  "  It  is 
to  be  deemed  certain**,  says  the  pope,  "that  these 
secret  societies  are  linked  together  by  the  bond  of  the 
same  criminal  purposes.'*  Gregory  XVI  similarly  de- 
clares that  the  calamities  of  the  age  were  due  princi- 
pEilIy  to  the  conspiracy  of  secret  societies,  and  like  Leo 
5CII,  deplores  the  religious  indifferentism  and  the  false 
ideas  of  tolerance  propagated  by  secret  societies. 
Pius  IX  (Allocution,  1865)  characterizes  Freemasonry 
as  an  insidious,  fraudulent  and  perverse  organization 
injurious  both  to  religion  and  to  society ;  and  condemns 
anew  "this  Masonic  and  other  similar  societies,  which 
differing  only  in  appearance  coalesce  constantly  and 
openly  or  secretly  plot  against  the  Church  or  lawful 
authority**.  Leo  XIII  (1884)  says:  "There  are  vari- 
ous sects,  which  although  differing  in  name,  rite,  form, 
and  origin,  are  nevertheless  soimited  by  community  of 
purposes  and  by  similarity  of  their  main  principles  as 
to  be  really  one  with  the  Masonic  sect,  which  is  a  kind 
of  centre,  whence  they  all  proceed  and  whither  they 
all  return.*'  The  ultimate  purpose  of  Freemasonry  is 
"the  overthrow  of  the  whole  religious,  political,  and 
social  order  based  on  Christian  institutions  and  the 
establishment  of  a  new  state  of  things  according  to 
their  own  ideas  and  based  in  its  principles  and  laws  on 
pure  Naturalism." 

In  view  of  these  several  reasons  Catholics  since  1738 
are,  under  penalty  of  excommunication,  incurred  ipso 
facto f  and  reserved  to  the  pope,  strictly  forbidden  to 
enter  or  promote  in  any  way  Masonic  societies.  The 
law  now  in  force  (Const.  "Apostolicae  Sedis",  1869, 
Cap.  ii,  n.  24)  pronounces  excommunication  upon 


"those  who  enter  Masonic  or  Carbonarian  or  other 
sects  of  the  same  kind,  which,  openly  or  secretly,  plot 
against  the  Church  or  lawful  authonty  and  those  who 
in  any  way  favour  these  sects  or  do  not  denoimce  their 
leaders  and  principal  members.**  Under  this  head 
mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  "  Practical  Instruc- 
tion of  the  Congreg.  of  the  Inquisition,  7  May^  1884 
'de  Secta  Massonum***  (Acta  SanctsB  Sedis,  \VIII, 
43-47)  and  of  the  decrees  of  the  Provincial  Coimcils  of 
Baltimore,  1840;  New  Orleans,  1856;  Quebec,  1851, 
1868;  of  the  first  Council  of  the  English  Colonies,  1854; 
and  particularly  of  the  Plenary  Councils  of  Baltimore, 
1866  and  1884  (see  "Collect.  Lacensis*',  III,  1875 and 
"  Acta  et  deer.  Concil.  plen.  Bait.  Ill  **,  1884).  These 
documents  refer  mainlv  to  the  application  of  the  papal 
decrees  according  to  the  peculiar  condition  of  the  re- 
spective ecclesiastical  provinces.  The  Third  Council 
of  Baltimore,  n .  254  sq. ,  states  the  method  of  ascertain- 
ing whether  or  not  a  society  is  to  be  regarded  as  com- 
prised in  the  papal  condemnation  of  Freemasonry.  It 
reserves  the  final  decision  thereon  to  a  commission 
consisting  of  all  the  archbishops  of  the  ecclesiastical 
provinces  represented  in  the  council,  and,  if  they  can- 
not reach  a  imanimous  conclusion,  refers  to  the  Holy 
oee. 

These  papal  edicts  and  censures  against  Freema^ 
sonry  have  often  been  the  occasion  of  erroneous  and 
unjust  charges.  The  excommunication  was  inter- 
preted as  an  "imprecation**  that  cursed  all  Free- 
masons and  doomeid  them  to  perdition.  In  truth  an 
excommunication  is  simply  an  ecclesiastical  penalty, 
by  which  members  of  the  Church  should  be  aeterrea 
from  acts  that  are  criminal  according  to  ecclesiastical 
law.  The  pope  and  the  bishops,  therefore,  as  faithful 
pastors  of  Christ's  flock,  cannot  but  condemn  Free- 
masonry. They  would  betray,  as  Clement  XII  stated, 
their  most  sacred  duties,  if  they  did  not  oppose  with 
all  their  power  the  insidious  propagation  and  activity 
of  such  societies  in  Catholic  countries  or  with  respect 
to  Catholics  in  mixed  and  Protestant  countries.  Free- 
masonry systematically  promotes  religious  indifferent- 
ism ana  undermines  true,  i.  e.,  orthodox  Christian 
and  Catholic  Faith  and  life.  Freemasonry  is  essen- 
tially Naturalism  and  hence  opposed  to  all  supematu- 
ralism.  As  to  some  particular  charges  of  I^  XIII 
(1884)  challenged  by  Freemasons,  e.  g.,the  atheistical 
character  of  Freemasonry,  it  must  be  remarked,  that 
the  pope  considers  the  activity  of  Masonic  and  similar 
societies  as  a  whole,  applying  to  it  the  term  which 
designates  the  most  of  tnese  societies  and  among  the 
Masonic  groups  those,  which  push  the  so-called  "anti- 
clerical", in  reality  irreligious  and  revolutionary, 
principles  of  Freemasonry  logically  to  their  ultimate 
consequences  and  thus,  in  truth,  are,  as  it  were,  the 
advanced  outposts  and  standard-bearers  of  the  whole 
immense  anti-Catholic  and  anti-papal  army  in  the 
world-wide  spiritual  warfare  of  our  a^e.  In  this  sense 
also  the  pope,  in  accordance  with  a  fundamental  bib- 
lical and  evangelical  view  developed  by  St.  Augustine 
in  his  "  De  ci vitate  Dei  * ' ,  like  the  Masonic  poet  Carducci 
in  his  *  *H3nnn  to  Satan  ",considers  Satan  as  the  supreme 
spiritual  chief  of  this  hostile  army.  Thus  Leo  XIII 
(1884)  expressly  states: "  What  we  say,  must  be  under% 
stood  of  the  Masonic  sect  in  the  universal  acceptation 
of  the  term,  as  it  comprises  all  kindred  and  associated 
societies,  but  not  of  their  single  members.  There  may 
be  persons  amongst  these,  and  not  a  few,  who,  al- 
though not  free  from  the  ^It  of  having  entangled 
themselves  in  such  associations,  yet  are  neither  them- 
selves partners  in  their  criminal  acts  nor  aware  of  the 
ultimate  object  which  these  associations  are  endeav- 
ouring to  attain.  Similarly  some  of  the  several  bodies 
of  the  association  may  perhaps  by  no  means  approve 
of  certain  extreme  conclusions,  which  they  woula  con- 
sistently accept  as  necessarily  following  from  the  gen- 
eral principles  common  to  aU,  were  they  not  deterred 
by  tne  vicious  character  of  the  conclusions.**    "The 


Masonic  fedention  ui  to  be  judged  not  eo  much  by  the 
acts  and  things  it  baa  accompliabed,  aa  by  the  whole  of 

its  principles  and  purposes. 

The  Free,  " 

dSrii.^".': 

the  1..    ■ 

R.Fii  (...'  1^1. -■     .     I'        N  iinirl 
18(W,l,.i.>i>f.     lll^imHripiilMiuu 

Iste  ALEtuT  Pike.  Gnod  Comm 

Council  (CbarloalQD.  South  Cninliiu. 
ed^vd  IB  the  (imtcflt  authority  id  nil  Miui 
!□£  to  NoRTOH  "'tbo  world- renow 
ITS)  ii  EeDDTBliv  admilleil  aa  tl 

the  OiTind  Orator  RoBEOT  (Indian  Tamtoi^")  he '■ 


i.  I.  25). 


orld' 


MoraU  and  Dot 


_r  Muanty  la  ki 

.  -J  the  Ncic  Age.  M-»- 

»  tbe  foremom  flgure  in  the  Fnw 

(1901).  II.  458).  "the  gr«l.       ^ 
■'."thoPfophetofFj 


.Ceatur,     ,     .„ 

'luJ /(Of  (IBIO,  1,  H).  "»« 

Tre  rflvu«d  and  apiiiluiklit ^ 

■  logma,  curTBnllv  quolHd  by  ui,  ia  highly 

by  tbfi  cflebnitcd  Umnnii:  scbabu^  Tcupi-E  (BruMcli)  and 
_  .V,  ... . .  .u.  1 .  i^..... — ,-. .:  Lodp, 


SrBTH.  tba  late  necretary  „.  ..... 

at  Londoa  (CAr..  188S,  I.  339). 
actordina  to  the  BalUlin  d/  i 
(1H83,  211)  wen  "true  coda  I 


«U  the  Supreme  Counciln  of  tl 
Ooundb  of  En  ■      ■   ■    ■      ■ 


;  Wisdom".    The  well- 
kept  la  leadinc  irtrinAH 


1898.  215).  The 
call*  Pilw:  "T 
Findel,  the  Oei 


of  the  Wh  Desrea"  (SauAUIe,  ISOl.  12S>. 

Mawmic  PublioalioDS.  Encyclopedias:  MicitBY,  (1)  Encn- 
deprdMa/^r«Tna»riTV(LaDdon,  1908)  .even  this  recent  edi^OD. 
Hcordins  to  American  authorities,  is  thorDUBhlysoliqualAJ  and 
scarcely  an  improvement  on  (hat  of  18«0:  foEii.  l2)Liiiam  of 
Freemaaonrv  (LimdoD.  1SH4):  OuiER.  Ditl.  ol Sumbolic  Fttf 
nitwniv  (London.  IS63):  Nackehme,  rAfffctralMoKmic  Cud. 
<18TS-f):  WoooroRD,  K(nn>iw'>CV.  (1S7S):  Lenhihq.  £>■- 
Old.  dtr  Preimaurerti  (1822-1828);  InEii  *nd  Henne  *u 
Rhtn.  AUecmtina  Handbvrh  dtr  Ft.,  2Dd  ed.  (1863-79);  Pia- 
cer.K,  Alia.  Handb.d.  Ft..  MA  fA-ilMO);  theseeditioos  contain 
vaiuaUe  information  and  answer  scientific  requiremeDU  fsr 
more  than  all  the  other  Musonic  cyelopediae  (A.  Q.  C.  XI,  St); 
aiEVENB,  Cuclopfdu  of  FrottniUiei  (New  York.  IMT). 

Masonic  Isw  and  Jurisprudence:  Tht  Cmilitiaimi  of  Us 
Frermattm;  17MS.  1738:  Nma  C«tu(iluttiHir)i  BikA,  etc.  <  1741); 
pK  La  TiKItcI,  Hiiloirr.  Obligalioni,  H  SUUuli,  etc.  <FrBnkfort. 
i7i2):  QuyiK,  MatoBie  Jurujirvdcim  {1S59,  1S74):  Chabi, 
Dtgetl  of  Matonic  Lav  (ISeai:  Milckkt,  Tat  Book  of  Union. 
JurupridmctHSSB)-.  vjm  Ohoddxck.  ete.,  VtriueA  einrr  Dai- 
itcUuno  da  fotilivm  tnntm  Frdmaurtr.  Rtthlx  (1S7T),  the  beat 

"hiSo'Ic^:  Andebboh,  Hi**.  D/Frmnasmrv' in  the  fimt  edi- 
tions Bud  tiannlationa  of  the  Boot  of  Contitalioni  (most  unre- 
liable, even  after  1717);  Preston.  IlluHralioTu  of  Maionry 
(17721.  ed.OuvEB  (lasfii,  IhouBh  not  reliable  in  some  historical 


(isss).  I  iiiF-ii-..  '  ■.  ..    .-  r 

Thf  Obnui  und  t^rrrmitaonrv.  ocrorrtirii 
Umi  andaaniniit  iSe«  Yaik,  IfiliO]; 
vtdualmBndBoeekdrrFrar- 

yrwmaKmry  (ISSl-I;  1906), 

1U9:  l&Buentu]  in  apreuUnc  more 

■monc  Uasona;  Qodld.  Hit.  of  Frurmawnrv  (»  vols.,  1883- 
1887),  now  nput«d  the  best  histoiinal  work  on  Froemnsonry; 
''-— ODB  Chawlet.  CamrMario  HtbrmiiM  (1895-1000): 
«.  Origin  of  Iht^ntjMHile^ofFremmtryhSliih  Tkt 


flS23);TSiSlarin  Ihr  BaM  1 1327):  Signt  and  Synl 
iaS7):Pm.(l)MamltaHdi>0fmaBfcheA.A.Scoi...    .    ._, 
MaaiiaH2)^lDtM.(2)T/teBookafUuiWordtSeas(l»7S)jlBBi. 
a'lJhe  PotA  and  Uu  MiddU  Choicer.    B«ok  of  At  Lodft  fesi 


(lB70-7a):K»AtmE.Di. 


(l87a);lDUi«,l4 ,--. 

dnti  dJMm   Kumlurkunden   dtr  Frmra 

esteemed,  in  spite  of  faiatoriea]  enon,  as  a  aritieal  ^ipnniatiiiB 
of  Frcemuooiy;    Fihdcl  (beat  Gennaa  authority).  OtiM  md 

"im  *T  Fr.  (1874,  1809);   I ""'-  "- -■-  "-   ■- 

<tterbAcn(l8g2);  Idsh,  Di* 


I.  Die  OmndMtie  der  Fr.  m 


\4  WdUmntluiu.x 


1891)  and  SionaU  (1895-1905). 
Anti-masonic  publication!:  Fmm  1T23-174.1.  EunlLib  Fm- 
oaaoniy  and  AHnENSON,  Hiwtory,  wen  derided  in  mMiy  pab> 
bcatioog  (GoDLD,  2,  294,  327);  acauut  Freoeh  Freemasoon 
appeared:  VOrdrtdiiFrHnuuonHtahinsa  lA..Q,C..lX..tSl 
aad  Le  SrcrU  da  itopta  r^rlli  (1745);  Sc«u  nmpu  (1745); 
on  the  oceaalon  of  the  French  Revolution;  LEimuic,  Lt  nit 
Um  (1792).  In  the  United  Sutes  the  sati-MaKmic  nuvoncet 
l>egBnl783:  Creior,  Hojonnr  and  Jnfimasmrv  (1854):  Snin, 
LiUtrion  MoKmni  and  AntimoKnrii  (18.12);  FirHUH.  Dim/att 
of  MoKnru  (IKIK):  Vfiialogui  of  anH-Maimie  Ivoiu  (Bwten, 
INAl'):  .■i^A.  .•itin.nu-n  ubcr  tiiktitnc  QaOlichttfloi  Mid  Fnnni 
Frrurordm  tn  Hriner  iroAriri    Bidndiat 

,    lo.  Dii  Frmrei  and  dai  aane.  PfaTraml 

lS54-Se);  CivOHi  CaUelitaADtx  ISW;   Neoro)  -    "'     ' 


(1901),  trHces  the  ] 


(IfffSli 

<    dtUa   rivoltuione    liloJuM 
0900-01);  Ehicua.  £a  ■«■ 

_..  rork  of  lUlian  Mssaniv  from 
La  Front-moLfonneri*  H  la  Rtwit%- 
.... ....     .  ,_        ..,.,  (jj^  ^ 

work  ol 


icA  (2iid  ed.,  1879.  IV.  138) 

lI  ol  the  Older",  and  T,  O. 

of  Masonry:  "  the  uncrowned  king 


(UR  (1872):  Jahet.  Lti  toeinit 

1B80-S3).  best  naeral  survey 

.„~.   .^..i^i—  ■„   .11  ~,..„.rioi:     BBDWEia,  LAction  dt  Im 
■  (1392):    Lehoube.  La  Fnmc-m. 

'    BiLHm.u.IjiFrane-m. 

_        .1(1899);    NocRRUSOK, 

(1900);    luEH.  La  Jacohinm  ou  poinvir 

,  ^1  Grand  Oritnt  dt  Frana  (1906);    Nut. 

utnuc  du  ffrand  jo-ur  dr  la  publicUf  (18M).  contains 


(189i,.    __ _.  _ 

(19041;    Biu. 
to," 


Mali 


usble  < 


..  La  Maronnirie  Bclgt  (IBoS).  documents  on  the  most 
political  activity  of  Belgian  Masoniy;  de  La  Fcertc 
:_  J.  i_.  t..__j_j , ,.■ F Etpata. 


HAS.  to  atasoneria  rn  BifK^^flSOi-At: 

<mThTv<  ,       ...    ___ 

'irAeif  der  i^rwirn  (1884):  GrT- 
Ordnrnit  (1893):  Idem,  (5)  fini 


Hi:«or 

etc.  (1870-71: 

(1S81):   Tim _ 

DE  Rafael.  La  Maaoni. ._  , ,_.  ,. , 

LKR,  Der itillf  KrivBiemTli-nmundAUa 
Raich).  Dit  inncrc  VnuKilirfiat  der  Frmri 
DieFTmrriu    '  -     -        "    ■  

( 1 899 1  "id  Ml.  "mFmieiundUmH  uri5TO«jw>«r'(i5o  lY:  Sfm/nS 
durdl  da>  Rridi  drr  Frmrri  (1897):  EwALD,  Ltvt  und  Kldlur- 
jlamp/(lS99);  OesEO.Drr  Hamnrrd.  fmm. etc.  (1876):  W.B., 
Sei^raga  lur  OarJiKhte  drr  F.  in  Ocitrrreiili  (18^);  Die  Frmra 
inOrMfrrric/iUnaam  nS97).    IaPaliiod:Mi  -■       ■ 

~     "                 PDln.Eri.4'  '         "~     " 

„  .  „!■--    (T.f     " 


*.(1876);1 
W);  DieF 

lALOW    Z)lV  I 

lawi.OMiu 


830:1877); 

1908):     for   Anslo-Suan  i 

.... ,    ,    A    Stadv  in  American  Fn 

.—DfiTv  (St.  Louis.  1908),  ■  careful  discussion  on  the  basis 
the  standard  works  of  Hackey  and  Pike. 

Hermann  Gboser. 


Boo«,  Ofdi.  der  Frtimaw^rn  (1806);  Haicall,  Rut.  ofFm 
vuuonry  llSai):  Bariv  Hiil.andTTantacliantafMatoneof.Vea 
York  (1878);  McTlekachah,  Hit.  of  Iht  Fral.  in  Keic  York 
(1888-94);  Hobs  Robe«t»o«,  ff £i*.  o/ Fr«™oimifv  in  CnMdo 
hS90):  Dnvimona.  Hitl.  and Bibluer.  Memoranda  and HiM.  of 

(^jotn, //iV.  (18M*):  TiWKT.Aninh'.'ely.'.thi'a'r'i'^'fol^'-nlilr 


cr 


Spiril 
(1822, 


1723   and   1738:    Hdtc 


Spirit  of  FreematonrTi  (1775);    'Cavtv.SyMem  of  Spec.  Mat 


Olivsk,    ilnJtfuttiM    of   Freematonrji 


.    .      -Name  of  several  plaoes  in  the  Bible.  The 

Septuagint  transcribes  Katipi,  Hoirffir^,  Hafm^r; 
Vulg.:  Afaspka  and  Masphath  {once  Mtuphe,  Mam- 
pha,  Mesphe);  Hebrew:  Alifpeh  and  Mi^paA;  the 
latter  almost  invariably  in  pause.  The  word,  with 
many  other  proper  names,  is  derived  from  \/^PH  = 
watch,  observe,  and  means  "watch-tower"  {spwtijum, 
ffnvJa),  which  sense  it  bears  twice  in  the  Bible  (Is., 
xii,  8;  II  Par.,  XK,  24^.  Joaephus  interprets  by  rare- 
wTiv^rBior  (Antt.VI,ii,  I).  It  tsthus  a  natural  name 
for  a  town  in  a  commanding  position  (ef.  the  Crusad- 
ing Belvoir,  and  el-Mi^hr(feh  (Palmer,  Desert  of  the 
Exodus,  II,  513).  Like  the  latter  it  almost  invariably 
has  the  article. 

Mabpha  op  Galaad. — Hiatory. — Jacob  to  ratify 
his  compact  with  Laban,  "  took  a  stone  and  set  it  up 
for  a  title,  and  he  said  to  his  brethren  'Bring  hither 
stones'.  And  they,  gathering  stones  together,  made  a 
heap  and  they  ate  upon  it  (or&yitR.V.).  Andl^ban 
said.  'This  heap  (Kal)  shall  be  a  witness  ('M)  between 
me  and  thee  this  dav,  and  therefore  the  name  thereof 
was  called  Galaad  (gal'ed)  and  Mf^^pah  (so  R.  V.with 
Hebrew)  for  he  said  'The  I^ord  watch  (ye^et  VpFH) 
between  me  and  thee  when  we  are  absent  one  from  an- 
another'"  (Gen.  XXXI,  45  ff.).  Here  the  Vulgate 
omits  Adm-Mffpo*.  ^^  Septuagint  translates  *  ifitra, 
Targtims  of  OnkeloaandSiire,  SekOthA,  i.  e.  view.  The 


MA8PHA 


789 


ICASPHA 


play  on  the  Hebrew  words  is  not  unnatural  if  we 
suppose  that  the  spot  itself  or  some  neighbouring 
height  was  already  called  Maspha.  The  name  seems 
to  nave  gradually  extended  from  the  height  to  the 
whole  region  (Judges,  xi,  29).  The  monument  was 
probably  a  cairn  or  a  dolmen.  While  the  latter  is 
suggested  by  the  flat  surface  on  which  they  ate 
(verse  46;  Joseph  us,  "Ant.",  T,  xix,  II;  Conder,  "Heth 
and  Moab,''  241),  the  sepulchral  destination  of  the 
dolmens  and  the  ambiguity  of  the  Hebrew  militate 
against  this  view  (Schumacher,  ''Across  the  Jordan 

pass.'*). 

Aroimd  Jacob's  monument  Israel  assembled  to  re- 

5 el  Ammon  (Judges,  x,  17).  Thither  they  summoned 
ephte,  "and  Jephte  spoke  all  his  words  before  the 
Lord  at  Maspha"  (Judges,  xi,  U).  By  Maspha  of 
Galaad  (a  region?)  he  marched  against  Ammon,  and 
after  victory  "  to  Maspha  to  his  house  " .  The  Septua- 
gint  translates  by  aKoxla  the  rendezvous  of  Israel,  and 
the  place  by  which  Jephte  passed  over  against  Ammon. 
They  thus  distinguish  between  the  sanctuary  and 
town,  and  a  watch-tower  on  the  height  above  (cf. 
Palmer,  op.  cit.,  II,  512-513);  but  in  Osee,  y,  1,  they 
likewise  use  the  common  noun  when  parallelism  mam- 
festly  requires  the  proper  name.  At  Maspha  prob- 
ably Jephte  was  buried  (Judges,  xii,  7,  anci  variants 
in  Kittel,  and  perhaps  Josephus,  "Antiquities'*  V, 
vii,  12). 

identification. — We  cannot  decide  whether  the 
Maspha  of  Jacob  and  Jephte  is  identical  with  Ramath 
hdm-Mf9p^h  (Jos.,  xiii,  26),  or  both  with  Rdmoth  Gil'ed 
(III  Kings,  iv,  13),  nor  even  whether  Maspha  refers 
to  one  or  many  places.  In  Jephte's  history  it  seems 
near  the  borders  of  Ammon,  in  ^hat  of  Judas  Macca- 
basus  far  to  the  N.  E.,  and,  if  we  place  here  the  events 
of  Judges,  xxi-xxii,  near  the  Western  frontier  (G.  A. 
Smith,  "Hist.  Geog.  of  H.  Land",  586).  Jacob  was 
coming  from  Padan  Aram  and  probably  approached 
Galaad  by  the  Hajj  route.  Turning  westward  N.  of 
Jabeoc  he  would  traverse  the  valley  of  Jerash.  About 
four  miles  from  Jerash,  S.  E.  of  Mahneh  (before 
Mahanaim?),  on  a  high  mountain  overhanging  the 
valley,  is  the  village  of  S (if  in  a  locality  rich  in  dol- 
mens. Many  identify  with  Maspha  this  place  whose 
derivation  may  be  identical  with  and  whose  name  re- 
calls the  2€j8«t^  of  Josephus,  1.  c.  But  Dr.  Schumacher 
discovered  N.  E.  of  Jerash  Tell  Md^fah,  whose  summit 
dominating  all  the  surrounding  heights  is  strewn  with 
dolmens  and  stone-hewn  altars.  The  ideal  site,  exact 
preservation  of  the  ancient  name  and  the  veneration 
still  attaching  to  the  spot  (it  is  still  a  ma*bad)  all 
justif^r  its  identification  with  Maspha. 

For  identification  with  Ramath  GUead  and  es-Salt  cf.: — 
SCBWARTS,  Tebuolh  ha-Arez,  269,  270  (Jerusalem,  1900);  v. 
RicflS.  Btbliache  Geographte  (Freibui^  im  Br..  1872).  64. 
Against  it  cf.  Driver,  Commentary  on  DeiUeronomu  (Edin- 
bunh,  1902). 

For SOf:  etc.: — Conder,  HHh  and Moab  (London,  1889),  181; 
Armbtrono,  Names  and  Places  in  the  Old  Testament  (London, 
1887);  OUPHANT.  Land  of  Oalaad  (London,  1880),  209-18; 
Buhl,  Oeooraphxe  des  Alten  PaUlstina  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  '96); 
Mbrrxll,  East  of  Jordan,  365-374;  Smith,  Historical  Geography 
of  the  Holy  Land,  487,  679  (London,  1907);  Mittheilungen  und 
Nachriehten  des  deut.  palnst.  Vereins,  1897,  66;   1899,  If,  06. 

Maspha  op  Benjamin. — History. — Maspha  was 
assigned  to  Benjamin  by  Josue  (Jos.,  xviii,  26) .  Here, 
according  to  many,  Israel  assembled  to  avenge  the 
outrage  on  the  Levite's  wife,  and  swore  not  to  give 
their  daughters  in  marriage  to  the  survivors.  But  as 
they  would  scarcely  have  gathered  in  the  heart  of  the 
enemy's  country,  others  place  the  events  of  Judges, 
xx-xxi,  at  Maspha  of  Galaad.  Note  that  Jabes 
Galaad  is  mentioned  in  close  connexion  with  the  camp 
of  Israel.  Further,  Judges,  xx.  3,  implies  that  Maspha 
was  outside  the  borders  of  Benjamin.  To  Maspha 
Samuel  when  Judge  convoked  all  Israel,  prayed  for 
them  there  while  they  defeated  the  Philistines,  and 
erected  a  monument  to  commemorate  the  victoiy  be- 
tween Maspha  and  Sen  (I  Kings,  vii,  5>12).    Here  he 


held  some  of  his  chief  assizes  (Kings,  x,  13-16),  and 
his  final  assembly  for  the  election  of  Saul  (ibid.,  17). 
Two  hundred  and  fifty  years  later  Maspha  was  forti- 
fied by  Asa,  King  of  Juda,  with  the  materials  left  be- 
hind at  Rama  by  King  Baasa  in  his  hasty  march 
northwards  against  the  Syrians  (III  Kings,  xv,  22; 
II  Par.,  xvi,  6).  Jerusalem  destroyed  (586  b.  c.) 
Godolias,  Governor  of  Juda,  made  Maspha  his  head- 
Quarters  (Jer.,  xli,  6;  IV  Kings,  xxv,  23  sq.)  and  there 
tne  tragic  events  of  Jer^  xlii,  took  place.  In  the  re- 
building of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  the  lords  of  Maspha 
took  an  active  part  (II  Esd.,  iii,  7,  15, 17).  Some  in- 
fer from  verse  7  that  Maspha  was  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment (HSlscher,  "  Pal&stina  in  der  Pers.  und  Hellen. 
Zeit",  29);  but  this  is  unlikely  (Smith,  "  Jerusaleni**, 
II,  354  n.) .  Judas  Machabeus,  preparing  for  war  with 
the  Syrians,  gathered  his  men  to  Maspha,  over 
against  Jerusalem:  for  in  Maspha  was  a  place  of 
prayer  heretofore  in  Isnier'  (I  Mach.,  iii,  46),  and 
transported  thither  the  ritualistic  observances. 

Identification: — (a)  Many  modems  suggest  Nebt- 
Sdmwtl,  the  most  striking  position  around  Jerusalem, 
and  identify  Maspha  with  Rama  and  Ramathaim- 
Sophim,  relying  chiefly  on  the  connexion  with  Samuel 
implied  by  the  mociem  name.  In  that  case  the 
rendezvous  for  the  Benjaminite  war  must  be  sought 
in  Galaad  or  Ephraim,  perhaps  near  Silo,  and  the 
"house  of  the  Lord"  (Jer.,  xli,  6)  cannot  refer  to 
Jerusalem,  (b)  Gu^rin  (Jud^e^  I,  395-4(K2)  placed 
Maspha  at  Sh&fat,  a  village  on  high  ground  overlook- 
ing Jerusalem,  but  his  etymology  is  suspect,  and 
SMfat  suits  neither  III  Kmgs,  xv,  22,  nor  I  Mach., 
iii,  46.  The  same  objections  hold  for  Tell  el-Fiil  only 
three  miles  N.  of  Jerusalem,  (c)  Others  suggest  Tell 
en-Ndsbeh,  which  commands  a  narrow  defile  on  the 
high  road  two  miles  S.  of  el-B!reh.  (d)  Perhaps  the 
best  conjecture  is  el-Blreh,  which  has  a  copious  water 
supply,  IS  sufficiently  northerly  to  permit  of  a  camp 
there  against  Benjamin,  lies  on  the  road  from  Silo  to 
Jerusalem,  and  is  near  Bethel  (cf.  Josephus,  "  Antiq.", 
V,  ii,  10).  This  identification  was  expressly  made  by 
Surius  ("Le  Pieux  P^lerin'*,  III.  ii,  547,  Brussels, 
1660),  and  bv  some  copies  of  the  map  of  Sanuto 
(1306)  (Rohricht  "Zeitschr.  des  deut.  paliist.  Ver- 
eins, "  1898,  Map  6).  Near  the  village  is  a  large  spring, 
'In  MfsbAh,  whose  name  may  be  a  modernization  of 
Maspha.  Burchard  (1283),  indeed,  identifies  el-Btreh 
with  Machmas  ("  Peregrinationes  medii  aevi  quatuor", 
Leipzig,  1873.  p.  56),  and  similarly  others  [e.  g.  Maun- 
drell  (1697)  in  "Pinkerton  Voyages",  X,  337];  but 
Machmas  was  certainly  elsewhere,  and  the  identifica- 
tion serves  only  to  show  that  the  homophony  of  Be- 

roth  and  Blreh  is  not  conclusive. 

For  the  testimony  of  Eusebius  and  the  Franks  cf .  Heidet  in 
ViGOUROUx,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.  For  identification  with 
(a)  cf.,  Schwartz,  op.  cit.,  152,  402;  Armstrong,  op.  cU.,  127; 
Robinson,  Biblical  Researches,  II  (Boston,  1841),  139-149; 
Survey  of  Western  Palestine,  Memoirs,  III,  144:  Buhl,  op. 
eit.,  167;  Fischer  Guthe,  Map  of  Palestine;  (b)  Srafat: — 
V.  RiBSS,  op.  cit.,  p.  64 ;  Gatt  in  Das  heilige  Land  (Cologne,  1879), 
119-126;  154-160;  184-194;  Stanley,  -Sinai  and  Palestine, 
(London,  1871)  226;  Haoen,  Index  Topogrcmhicus  (Paris, 
1908);  DE  Saulct,  Voyage  atUour  de  la  Mer  Morte,  I  (Paris, 
1883).  112-115:  (c)  Vin cent, /2eru«BiWi9u«(  1898),  630;  (1899), 
315-316;  (1901),  151;  (1902),  458;  Conder,  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Fund  Quarterly  (1898),  169,  251;  Raboisson.  Les  Mizpeh 
(Paris,  1807);  (d)  Heidet  in  Remie  Biblique,  1894,321-356, 
450;  1895. 97;  Idem  in  Revue  d'Orient,  1898,  295-300;  Ixi  Pales- 
tine, Guide  historique  et  pratique  (Paris,  1904),  317  sqq. 

Maspha  of  Juda  (ham-Mi^peh,  Masepha,  Mcw^a)  is 
placed  in*the  Sephela,  in  the  second  group  of  towns 
*  in  the  lot  of  Juda  ",  between  Delea  and  Jechtel  (Jos., 
XV,  38).  Eusebius  and  Jerome  place  it  in  the  temtory 
of  Eleutheropolis  near  the  road  to  Elia.  William  of 
Tyre  mentions  a  crusading  fortress  eight  miles  N.  of 
Ascalon  near  the  frontiers  of  Palestine  and  Simeon, 
called  Tell  es-Saphi-Blanche  Garde-Alba  Specula. 
This  is  undoubtedly  Tell  es-S&ftyeh  and  is  commonlv 
identified  with  Maspha.  Both  places  served  to  watch 
Ascalon.    The  map  of  Madaba  calls  the  place  2a^i^a« 


MASS 


790 


MAnii 


As  however  this  can  scarcely  be  other  than  Sephata 
(cf .  II  Par»  xiv,  10;  List  of  Thotmee  Ulin  "  MittheU. 
der  Deut.  Vorderas.  Gessell. ",  1907  pi. ;  "  Rev.  Bib. ". 
1908,  516),  the  question  arises  whether  Masepha  ana 
Sepheta  can  refer  to  the  same  place. 

Survey  of  Western  Palestine^  Memoire^  II,  440;  Robinson, 
op.  ct<.,  II,  31;  GuiRiN,  op^  cU.^  II,  92;  db  Saulct,  Dietionnaire 
topographique  o^r^^ 220  (Paris,  71);  v.  Kiess. op ci<., 64; Buhl* 
•p.  cit.t  19o. 

Land  op  Masfha,  near  Hermon.  "The  Hevite, 
who  dwelt  at  the  foot  of  Hermon  in  the  land  of  Mas- 

Eha",  was  amongst  the  foes  on  whom  Josue  fell  at 
.ake  Merom  and  chased  to  "  the  great  Sidon  and  the 
waters  of  Maserephoth,  and  the  field  of  Maspha  "  east- 
ward (Jos.,  xi,  8).  Probably  the  two  names  here 
mentioned  indicate  one  place  despite  the  variations  of 
the  versions  (Heb.,  Mi^pah,  Miypeh;  LXX,  Mcur<ru/aa, 
Ma<ro'(6x;  Alex.,  Mo<r<ri70d^,  Mcuro'i^^d;  Vulg.,  Maspha, 
Masphe). 

Identifications. — Suggestions  differ  according  as 
"  eastward  "  is  referred  to  Sidon  or  Merom.  Hence  west 
of  Hermon  either  (a)  The  Merj  'liyiin,  a  fertile  plain, 
the  Lit&ny  and  the  Nahr  Hasb&ny,  with  Metiillah  re- 

g lacing  Maspha,  or  (b),  the  plain  from  Metilllah  to 
►anias,  with  es-S\ibdbeh  as  Maspha.  or  (c)  the  valley 
of  the  LitAny,  actually  called  el-Buqi*.  If  "east- 
ward "  refers  to  Merom  (which  is  more  probable)  then 
Maspha  may  be  the  W&dy  el-'di^m,  stretching  south 
of  Hermon  and  traversed  by  the  Roman  road  (Via 
Maris)  from  Damascus. 

At  the  western  end  of  the  valley  is  the  village  of 
el-BijqA'ty,  perhaps  an  echo  of  Bfq'dt  Mi^peh. 

Armstrong,  op.  ct/.,  127;  Schwartz,  op.  cit.,  74;  v.  Ribss, 
Bible ^Atla*,  20,  1887;  Buhl,  op.  ct7.,  240;  DillMann.  Com- 
mentdrium  in  Joeue. 

Maspha  of  Moab,  whither  David  fled  with  his 
parents  from  Adullam  (I  Kings,  xxii,  3  sq.).  We 
nave  no  clue  to  its  identification,  save  that  it  was, 

temporarily,  at  least,  a  royal  residence. 

Schwartz,  op.  cit.,  254.  For  seneral  reference: — Hastings, 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.\  Vigodroux,  Dietionnaire  de  la 
Bible,  s.  v.;  Baedeker,  Syrta  and  Palestine,  4th  ed.  (Le^zig, 
1006). 

J.  A.  Hartigan. 

Mass,  Chapter  and  Conventual. — As  a  general 
rule,  churches  in  which  the  Divine  office  is  to  be  said 
publiclv  every  day  must  also  have  Mass  said  daily. 
This  Mass  is  the  "conventual**  Mass  {miasa  convene 
ttuUis);  it  completes,  with  the  canonical  Hours,  the 
official  public  service  of  God  in  such  a  church.  A  con- 
ventual Mass  then  is  to  be  sung  or  said  in  all  cathe- 
drals and  collegiate  churches  that  have  a  chapter;  in 
this  case  it  is  often  called  the  "chapter"  Mass  {missa 
capituli),  though  the  official  books  constantly  use  the 
general  name  "conventual"  for  this  Mass  too.  A 
conventual  (not  chapter)  Mass  must  also  be  celebrated 
daily  in  churches  of  regulars  who  have  the  obligation 
of  the  pubhc  recitation  of  the  office,  therefore  certainly 
in  churches  of  monks  and  canons  re^lar.  Whether 
mendicant  friars  have  this  obligation  is  disputed. 
Some  authors  consider  them  obliged  by  common  law, 
others  admit  only  whatever  obligation  they  may  have 
from  their  special  constitutions  or  from  custom.  Some 
extend  the  obligation  even  to  churches  of  nuns  who 
say  the  office  in  choir.  That  friars  may  celebrate  a 
daily  conventual  Mass  according  to  the  rule  of  monas- 
tic churches  is  admitted  by  every  one  (de  Herdt.,  I. 
14).  A  chapter  Mass  then  is  a  kind  of  conventual 
Mass,  and  falls  under  the  same  rules. 

The  obligation  of  procuring  the  conventual  Mass 
rests  with  the  corporate  body  in  question  and  so  con- 
cerns its  superiors  (Dean,  Provost,  Abbot,  etc.).  Nor- 
mally it  should  be  said  by  one  of  the  memoers,  but  the 
obligation  is  satisfied  as  long  as  some  priest  who  may 
celebrate  lawfully  undertakes  it.  The  conventual 
Mass  should  always,  if  possible,  be  a  high  Mass;  but  if 
this  is  impossible,  low  Ma«8  is  still  treated  as  a  hi^^ 


Mass  with  regard  to  the  number  of  collects  said,  tt» 
candles,  absence  of  prayers  at  the  end,  and  so  on.  It 
may  not  be  said  durmg  the  recitation  of  the  office,  but 
at  certain  fixed  times  between  the  canonical  Hours,  as 
is  explained  below.  The  general  rule  is  that  the  con- 
ventual Mass  should  correspond  to  the  office  with 
which  it  forms  a  whole.  It  is  not  allowed  to  sing  two 
high  Masses  both  conformed  to  the  office  on  the  same 
day.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  cases  in  which  two 
dinerent  conventual  Masses  are  celebrated.  The 
csjses  in  which  the  Mass  does  not  correspond  to  the 
office  are  these:  on  Saturdays  in  Advent  (except  Em- 
ber Saturday  and  a  Vigil),  if  the  office  is  ferial  the 
Mass  is  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  On  Vigils  in  Advent 
that  are  not  also  Ember  days,  if  the  office  is  ferial  the 
Mass  is  of  the  Vigil  commemorating  the  feria.  On 
Maundy  Thursday  and  Holy  Satiuday  the  Mass  does 
not  conform  to  the  office.  On  Rogation  Tuesday,  if 
the  office  is  ferial  the  Mass  is  of  Rogation.  On  Whit- 
sun  Eve  the  office  is  of  the  Ascension,  but  the  Mass  a 
Whitsun  Mass.  When  a  Vigil,  an  Ember  day  or  Ro- 
gation Monday  falls  within  an  octave  (except  that  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament)  the  office  is  of  the  octave,  and 
the  Mass  of  the  feria,  conmiemorating  the  octave. 
Except  in  Advent  and  Lent,  on  Ember  days.  Rogation 
days  and  Vigils,  if  the  office  is  ferial  and  the  Sunday 
Mass  has  already  been  said  that  week,  the  conventual 
Mass  may  be  one  of  the  Votive  Masses  in  the  Missal 
appointed  for  each  day  in  the  week.  Except  in  Ad- 
vent, Lent  and  Paschal  time,  on  the  first  day  of  the 
month  not  prevented  by  a  double  or  semi-double,  the 
conventual  Mass  is  a  Requiem  for  deceased  members 
and  benefactors  of  the  community. 

On  doubles,  semi-doubles^  Sundays,  and  during  oc- 
taves, the  conventual  Mass  is  said  after  Terce,  onsim- 
Eles  and  ferias  after  Sext,  on  ferias  of  Advent  and 
ent,  on  Vigils  and  Ember  days  after  None.  There 
are  also  occasions  on  which  several  conventual  Masses 
are  said  on  the  same  day.  On  ferias  of  Lent,  on  Eda- 
ber  days.  Rogation  days  and  Vigils  when  a  double  or 
semindouble  occurs,  or  during  an  octave  or  when  a 
Votive  office  is  said,  the  Mass  corresponding  to  the 
office  is  said  after  Terce.  that  of  the  feria  after  None. 
On  Ascension  eve,  if  a  double  or  semi-double  occurs, 
the  Mass  of  the  feast  is  said  after  Terce,  that  of  the 
Vigil  after  Sext,  that  of  Rogation  after  None.  In  the 
case  of  the  conventual  Requiem  mentioned  above,  if  a 
simple  occurs  or  if  the  Mass  of  the  preceding  Sunday 
has  not  yet  been  said,  the  Requiem  is  celebrated  after 
the  Office  of  the  Dead,  or  if  that  is  not  said,  after 
Prime,  the  Mass  of  the  simple  or  Sunday  after  Sext. 
On  All  Souls'  day  (2  Nov.)  the  Mass  of  the  octave  (or 
feast)  is  said  after  Terce,  the  Requiem  after  None. 
When  an  additional  Votive  Mass  has  to  be  said  (for  in- 
stance for  the  Forty  Hours  or  for  the  anniversary  ol 
the  bishop's  consecration  or  enthronement,  etc.)  it  is 
said  after  None.  On  the  Monday  of  each  week  (ex- 
cept in  Lent  and  Paschal  time)  if  the  office  is  ferial  the 
conventual  Mass  may  be  a  Reouiem.  But  if  it  is  a 
simple  or  a  feria  with  a  proper  Mass,  or  if  the  Sunday 
Mass  has  not  been  said,  the  collect  for  the  dead  (Fidi' 
Hum)  Is  added  to  that  of  the  day  instead.  These  rules 
concerning  the  celebration  of  two  or  more  conventual 
Masses  apply  as  laws  only  to  chapters.  Regulars  are 
not  bound  to  celebrate  more  than  one  such  Mass  eadi 
day  (corresponding  always  to  the  office) ,  unless  the  par- 
ticular constitutions  of  their  order  impose  this  obliga- 
tion. 

See  the  Rubrics  of  the  Missal  (Ruhr.  gen.  tit.  t-VIT),  where 
the  Mass  in  question  is  primarily  the  conveatudl  Mass,  and  an^ 
authorised  book  of  ceremonial:  Dk  HsRiyr,  8.  Liturgta  Praxu 
(Louvain,  18M),  14-17;  Lb  Vavasseur,  Manud  de  Lit%vi/i» 
(lOth  ed..  Paris.  IQlO).  205-221;  Dale.  Ceremonial  according  to 
the  Roman  Rite  (London,  1006). 

Adrian  Fortescub. 

Mass,  LmjRGT  of  the  . — ^A.  Name  and  Definition. 
—The  Mass  is  the  complex  of  prayers  and  ceremonies 
that  make  up  the  service  of  the  Eucharist  in  the  Latin 


UAta 


7&1 


MAfiS 


rites.  As  in  the  case  of  all  liturgical  terms  the  name  is 
less  old  than  the  thing.  From  the  time  of  the  first 
preaching  of  the  Christian  Faith  in  the  West,  as  every- 
where, the  Hol^  Eucharist  was  celebrated  as  Christ 
had  instituted  it  at  the  Last  Supper,  according  to  His 
command,  in  memory  of  Him.  But  it  was  not  till 
long  afterwards  that  the  late  Latin  name  Missa^  used 
at  first  in  a  vaguer  sense,  became  the  technical  and  al- 
most exclusive  name  for  this  service. 

In  the  first  period,  while  Greek  was  still  the  Chris- 
tian language  at  Rome,  we  find  the  usual  Greek  names 
used  there,  as  in  the  East.  The  conunonest  was 
E^apiarta,  used  both  for  the  consecrated  bread  and 
wine  and  for  the  whole  service.  Clement  of  Rome 
(d.  about  101)  uses  the  verbal  form  still  in  its  general 
sense  of  ''  giving  thanks",  but  also  in  connexion  with 
the  Liturgy  (I  Clem^  Ad  Cor.,  xxxviii,  4:  /card  ndyra 
e^api0T€cy  airf).  The  other  chief  witness  for  the 
earliest  Roman  Liturgy,  Justin  Martyr  (d.  c.  167), 
speaks  of  eucharist  in  both  senses  repeatedly  (Apol..  I, 
av,  3,  5;  Ixvi,  §1;  Ixvii,  5).  After  him  the  word  is 
always  used,  and  passes  into  Latin  {euchanstia)  as 
soon  as  there  is  a  Latin  Christian  Literature  [Tertul- 
lian  (d.  c.  220),  "De  praBScr.",  xxxvi,  in  P.  L.,  II,  50; 
St.  Cyprian  (d.  258),  Ep.,  Uv,  etc.].  It  remains  the 
normal  name  for  the  sacrament  throughout  Catholic 
theology,  but  is  gradually  superseded  by  Missa  for  the 
whole  nte.  Clement  calls  the  service  AeirovpyLa  (I 
Cor.,  xl,  2,  5;  xli,  1)  and  «-po<r0opd  (ibid.,  2,  4),  with, 
however,  a  shade  of  different  meaning  ("rite",  " obla- 
tion"). These  and  the  other  usual  Greek  names 
(xXdffa  dfiTov  in  the  Catacombs;  KonnapLa^  oi^m^tt, 
0-vyAcv(rit  in  Justin,  "  I  Apol.  "^  Ixvii,  3),  with  their  not 
yet  strictly  technical  connotation,  are  used  during  the 
first  two  centuries  in  the  West  as  in  the  East.  With 
the  use  of  the  Latin  language  in  the  third  century 
came  first  translations  of  the  Greek  terms.  While 
eucharisHa  is  very  common,  we  find  also  its  transla- 
tion gratiarum  actio  (Tertullian,  "Adv.  Marcionem", 
I,  xxiii,  in  P.  L.,  II,  274) ;  benedictio  (=  ei>Xo7/o)  oc- 
curs too  (ibid..  Ill,  xxii;  "De  idolol.",  xxii); 
aacrificiumf  generally  with  an  attribute  {divina  sacri- 


etc.).    We  find  also  Solemnia  (Cypr^  "De  lapsis", 
xxv),  "Dominica  solemnia"  (Tert.,  "De  fuga",  xiv). 


Prex,  OUatio,  Coma  Domini  (Tert.,  "Ad  uxor.", II, iv, 
in  P.  L.,  I,  1294),  SpirUtiale  ac  coehste  sacramentum 
(Cypr.,  Ep.,  Ixiii,  13),  Dominicum  (Cypr.,  "De  opere 
et  eleem.'*,  xv;  Ep.  bciii,  16),  Officium  (Tert.,  ^'De 
<»at.",  xiv),  even  Passio  (Cypr.,  Ep.  xlii),  and 
other  expressions  that  are  rather  descriptions  than 
technical  names. 

All  these  were  destined  to  be  supplanted  in  the  West 
by  the  classical  name  Missa.  The  first  certain  use  of 
it  is  by  St.  Ambrose  (d.  397).  He  writes  to  his  sister 
Marcellina  describing  the  troubles  of  the  Arians  in  the 
vears  385  and  386,  when  the  soldiers  were  sent  to 
break  up  the  service  in  his  church:  "The  next  day  (it 
was  a  Sunday)  after  the  lessons  and  the  tract,  having 
dismissed  the  catechumens,  I  explained  the  creed 
[mfmbolum  trad^mm]  to  some  of  the  competents  [peo- 
ple about  to  be  baptized]  in  the  baptistery  of  the 
oasilica.  There  I  was  told  suddenly  that  they  had 
Bent  soldiers  to  the  Portiana  basilica.  .  .  .  But  I  re- 
mained at  my  place  and  began  to  say  Mass  [missam 
facere  coBpi].  While  I  offer  [dum  offero],  I  hear  that  a 
certain  Castulus  has  b^n  seized  by  the  people  "  (Ep., 
I.  XX,  4-5).  It  will  be  noticed  that  missa  here  means 
tne  Eucharistic  Service  proper,  the  Liturgy  of  the 
Faithful  only,  and  does  not  mclude  that  of  the  Cate- 
chimiens.  Ambrose  uses  the  word  as  one  in  cominon 
use  and  well  known.  There  is  another,  still  earlier, 
but  very  doubtfully  authentic  instance  of  the  word  in 
a  letter  of  Pope  Pius  I  (from  c.  142  to  o.  157) :  "  Eupre- 
pia  has  hanaed  over  possession  of  her  house  to  the 


I,  672).  The  authenticity  of  the  letter,  however, 
is  very  doubtful.  If  Missa  really  occurred  in  the 
second  century  in  the  sense  it  now  has,  it  would  be 
surprising  that  it  never  occurs  in  the  third.  We  may 
consider  St.  Ambrose  as  the  earliest  certain  authority 
for  it. 

From  the  fourth  century  the  term  becomes  more 
and  more  common.  For  a  time  it  occurs  nearly  al- 
ways in  the  sense  of  dismissal.  St.  Augustine  (d.  430) 
says:  "  After  the  sermon  the  dismissal  of  the  catechu- 
mens takes  place  "  (j>ost  sermonem  fit  missa  catechu- 
menorum—Serm.,  xlix,  8,  in  P.  L.,  XXXVIII,  324). 
The  Synod  of  Lerida  in  Spain  (524)  declares  that  peo- 
ple guilty  of  incest  may  be  admitted  to  church  "usque 
ad  missam  catechumenorum ",  that  is,  till  the  cate- 
chumens are  dismissed  (Can.,  iv,  Hefele-Leclercq, 
"  Hist,  des  Conciles  ",  II,  1064) .  The  same  expression 
occurs  in  the  Synod  of  Valencia  at  about  the  same 
time  (Can.,  i,  ibid.,  1067),  in  Hincmar  of  Reims  (d. 
882}  ("Opusc.  LV  capitul.",  xxiv,  in  P.  L.,  CXXVI, 
380),  etc.  Etheria  (fourth  century)  calls  the  whole 
service,  or  the  Liturgy  of  the  Faithful,  missa  con- 
stantly ("Peregr.  Silviai*,  e.  g.,  xxiv,  11,  Benedicit 
fideles  et  fit  missa,  etc.).  So  also  Innocent  I  (401- 
17)  in  Ep.,  xvii,  5,  P.  L.,  XX,  535,  Leo  I  (440-61),  in 
Ep.,  be,  2,  P.  L.,  LIV,  627.  Although  from  the  be- 
ginning the  word  Missa  usually  means  the  Eucharistic 
Service  or  some  part  of  it,  we  find  it  used  occasionally 
for  other  ecclesiastical  offices  too.  In  St.  Benedict's 
(d.  543)  Rule  fiani  missce  is  used  for  the  dismissal  at 
the  end  of  the  canonical  hours  (chap.,  xvii,  passim). 
In  the  Leonine  Sacramentary  (sixth  cent.  See  Litur- 
gical BooKB),thewordin  its  present  sense  is  supposed 
throughout.  The  title. "  Item  alia  ",  at  the  head  of  each 
Mass  means  "Item  alia  missa".  The  Gelasian  book 
(sixth  or  seventh  cent.  Cf.  ibid.)  supplies  the  word: 
"Item  alia  missa",  "Missa  Chrismatis",  "Orationes 
ad  missa  [sic]  in  natale  Sanctorum  ",  and  so  on  through- 
out. From  that  time  it  becomes  the  regular,  practi- 
cally exclusive,  name  for  the  Holy  Liturgy  m  the 
Roman  and  Gallican  Rites. 

The  origin  and  first  meaning  of  the  word,  once  much 
discussed,  is  not  really  doubtful.  We  may  dismiss  at 
once  such  fanciful  explanations  as  that  missa  is  the 
Hebrew  missah  ("oblation" — so  Reuchlin  and  Lu- 
ther), or  the  Greek  fju^ff  is  ("  initiation  "),  or  the  German 
Mess  r" assembly",  "market").  Nor  is  it  the  parti- 
ciple leminine  of  mitterCy  with  a  noun  understood 
(*  oblatio  missa  ad  Deum  ",  ^'  congregatio  missa  ",  i.  e., 
aimissa — so  Diez,  "  Etvmol.  Worterbuch  der  roman. 
Sprachen",  212,  and  others).  It  is  a  substantive  of  a 
late  form  for  missio.  There  are  many  parallels  in 
medieval  Latin,  coUeda,  ingressa,  conjessa,  accessa, 
ascensa — all  for  forms  in  -io.  It  does  not  mean  an 
offering  {mittere,  in  the  sense  of  handing  over  to  God), 
but  the  dismissal  of  the  people^  as  in  the  versicle :  "  Ite 
missa  est "  (Go,  the  dismissal  is  made).  It  may  seem 
strange  that  this  unessential  detail  should  have  given 
its  name  to  the  whole  service.  But  there  are  many 
similar  cases  in  liturgical  language.  Communion ^ 
confession^  hreviary  are  none  of  them  names  that  ex- 
press the  essential  character  of  what  they  denote.  In 
the  case  of  the  word  missa  we  can  trace  the  develop- 
ment of  its  meaning  step  by  step.  We  have  seen  it 
used  b^  St.  Augustine,  synods  of  the  sixth  century, 
and  Hincmar  of  Reims  for  "  dismissal ".  Missa  Cate- 
chumenorum means  the  dismissal  of  the  catechumens. 
It  appears  that  missa  fit  or  missa  est  was  the  regular 
formula  for  sending  people  away  at  the  end  of  a  trial 
or  legal  process.  Avitus  of  Vienne  (d.  523)  says: 
"  In  churches  and  palaces  or  law-courts  the  dismissal  is 
proclaimed  to  be  made  [missa  ^im  pronuntiatur]  when 
the  people  are  dismissed  from  their  attendance ''  (Ep. 
i).    SoalsoSt.  Isidore  of  Seville:  "  At  the  time  of  the 


MA88 


792 


IkASS 


sacrifioe  the  dismissal  is  [missa  tempore  aocrf/ictt  est] 
when  the  catechumens  are  sent  out,  as  the  deacon 
cries:  If  anv  one  of  the  catechumens  remain,  let  him 
go  out:  and  thence  it  is  the  dismissal  [et  inde  missa] " 
("Etymol.",  VI,  xix,  in  P.  L.,  LXXXII,  252).  As 
there  was  a  dismissal  of  the  catechumens  at  the  end  of 
the  first  part  of  the  service,  so  was  there  a  dismissal  of 
the  faithful  (the  baptized)  after  the  Communion. 
There  were,  then,  a  missa  caiechumenorum  and  a  missa 
fideliumf  both,  at  first,  in  the  sense  of  dismissals  only. 
So  Florus  Diaconus  (d.  860) :  "  MiSsa  is  understood  as 
nothing  but  dimissio,  that  is,  absolutio,  which  the 
deacon  pronounces  when  the  people  are  dismissed 
from  the  solemn  service.  The  deacon  cried  out  and 
the  catechumens  were  sent  [mittebarUur]^  that  is,  were 
dismissed  outside  [id  est^  dimiUebaniur  foras].  So  the 
missa  catechumenorum  was  made  before  the  action  of 
the  Sacrament  (i.  e..  before  the  Canon  Actionis)^  the 
missa  fiddium  is  made  " — note  the  difference  of  tense; 
in  Florus's  time  the  dismissal  of  the  catechumens  had 
ceased  to  be  practised — "after  the  consecration  and 
commimion"  [post  confecHonem  et  participationem] 
(P.  L.,  CXIX,  72). 

How  the  word  gradually  changed  its  meaning  from 
dismissal  to  the  whole  service,  up  to  and  including  the 
dismissal,  is  not  difl&cult  to  understand.  In  the  texts 
quoted  we  see  already  the  foundation  of  such'a  change. 
To  stay  till  the  missa  caiechumenorum  is  easily  modi- 
fied into:  to  stay  for,  or  during,  the  missa  catechu- 
menorum. So  we  find  these  two  misses  used  for  the 
two  halves  of  the  Liturcy.  Ivo  of  Chartres  (d.  1116) 
has  forgotten  the  original  meaning,  and  writes :  **  Those 
who  heard  the  missa  catechumenorum  evaded  the 
missa  sacramentorum'*  (Ep.  ccxix,  in  P.  L.,  CLXII, 
224).  The  two  parts  are  then  called  by  these  two 
names;  as  the  discipline  of  the  catechumenate  is  grad- 
ually jforgotten^  and  there  remains  only  one  con- 
nected service,  it  is  called  by  the  long  familiar  name 
missaj  without  further  qualification.  We  find,  how- 
ever, through  the  Middle  Ages  the  plural  missce^  miS" 
sarum  solemnia,  as  well  as  missce  sacramentum  and 
such  modified  expressions  also.  Occasionally  the 
word  is  transferred  to  the  feastnday.  The  feast  of  St. 
Martin,  for  instance,  is  called  Missa  S.  Martini.  It  is 
from  this  use  that  the  German  Mess,  Messtag,  and  so 
on  are  derived.  The  day  and  place  of  a  local  feast  was 
the  occasion  of  a  market  (for  all  this  see  Rottmanncr, 
op.  cit.,  in  bibliography  below).  Kirmess  (Flemish 
Kermis,  Ft.  kermesse)  is  Kirch-mess,  the  anniversary  of 
the  dedication  of  a  church,  the  occasion  of  a  fair.  The 
Latin  missa  is  modified  in  all  Western  languages  (It. 
messa,  Sp.  misa,  Fr.  messe,  Germ.  Messe,  etc.).  The 
English  form  before  the  Conquest  was  maesse,\hi&n 
tiiddle  Engl,  messe,  masse — "  It  nedith  not  to  speke  of 
the  masse  ne  the  seruise  that  thei  hadde  that  day" 
("Merlin"  in  the  Early  Engl.  Text  Soc.,  II,  375) 
— "  And  whan  our  parish  masse  was  done  "  ("  Sir  Cau- 
line".  Child's  Ballads,  III,  175).  It  also  existed  as  a 
verb:  "to  mass"  was  to  say  mass;  "massing-priest" 
was  a  common  term  of  abuse  at  the  Reformation. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  name  Mass  (missa)  ap- 

Slies  to  the  Eucharistic  service  in  the  Latin  rites  only, 
[either  in  Latin  nor  in  Greek  has  it  ever  been  applied 
to  any  Eastern  rite.  For  them  the  corresponding 
word  IS  Liturgy  (titurgia).  It  is  a  mistake  that  leads 
to  confusion,  and  a  scientific  inexactitude,  to  speak  of 
any  Eastern  Liturey  as  a  Mass. 

B.  The  Origin  of  the  Mass. — The  Western  Mass,  like 
all  Liturgies,  begms,  of  course,  with  the  Last  Supper. 
What  Christ  then  did,  repeated  as  he  commanded  in 
memory  of  Him,  is  the  nucleus  of  the  Mass.  As  soon 
as  the  Faith  was  brought  to  the  West  the  Holy  Eu- 
charist was  celebrated  here,  as  in  the  East.  At  first 
the  language  used  was  Greek.  Out  of  that  earliest 
Liturgy,  the  language  being  changed  to  Latin,  de- 
veloped the  two  great  parent  rites  of  the  West,  the 
Roman  and  the  Galilean  (see  Ltturgt).   Of  these  two 


the  Galilean  Mass  may  be  traced  without  difficulty. 
It  is  so  plainly  Antiochene  in  its  structure,  in  the  veiy 
text  of  many  of  its  prayers,  that  we  are  safe  in  ae- 
coimting  for  it  as  a  translated  form  of  the  Lituny  of 
Jerusalem-Antioch,  brought  to  the  West  at  about 
the  time  when  the  more  or  less  fluid  universal  Liturgy 
of  ihe  first  three  centuries  gave  place  to  different  fixed 
rites  (see  Liturgy;  Gallican  Kite).  The  orinn  of 
the  Roman  Mass,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  most  difficult 
Question.  We  have  here  two  fixed  and  certain  data: 
tne  Litui^gy  in  Greek  described  by  St.  Justin  Mart^ 
(d.  c.  165),  which  is  that  of  the  Church  of  Rome  in  toe 
second  century,  and,  at  the  other  end  of  the  develop- 
ment, the  Liturgy  of  the  first  Roman  Sacramentaries 
in  Latin,  in  about  the  sixth  century.  The  two  are 
very  different.  Justin's  account  represents  a  rite  of 
what  we  should  now  call  an  Eastern  type,  correspond- 
ing with  remarkable  exactness  to  that  of  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions  (see  Liturgy)  .  The  Leonine  and 
Gelasian  Sacramentaries  show  us  what  is  practically 
our  present  Roman  Mass.  How  did  the  service  change 
from  the  one  to  the  other?  It  is  one  of  the  chief  dS- 
ficulties  in  the  history  of  liturgy.  During  the  last  few 
vears,  especially,  all  manner  of  solutions  and  com- 
oinations  have  been  proposed.  We  will  first  note 
some  points  that  are  certain,  that  may  serve  as  land- 
marks in  an  investigation. 

Justin  Martyr,  Clement  of  Rome,  Hippolytus  (d. 
235),  and  Novatian  (c.  250)  all  agree  in  the  Litui^gies 
they  describe,  though  the  evidence  of  the  last  two  is 
scanty  (Probst,  "Liturgie  der  drei  ersten  christl 
Jahrhdte";  Drews,  "  Untersuchungen  tiber  die  sogen. 
clement.  Liturgie  ").  Justin  gives  us  the  fullest  litur- 
gical description  of  any  Father  of  the  first  three  cen- 
turies (ApoL,  I,  Ixv,  IX vi,  quoted  and  discussed  in 
Liturgy)  .  He  describes  how  the  Holy  Eucharist  was 
celebrated  at  Rome  in  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury; his  account  is  the  necessary  point  of  departure, 
one  end  of  a  chain  whose  intermeaiate  links  are  hid- 
den. We  have  hardly  any  knowledge  at  all  of  what 
developments  the  Roman  Rite  went  through  during 
the  third  and  fourth  centuries.  This  is  the  mysterious 
time  where  conjecture  may,  and  does,  run  riot.  By 
the  fifth  century  we  come  back  to  comparatively  firm 
ground,  after  a  radical  change.  At  this  time  we  have 
the  fragment  in  Pseudo- Ambrose,  *'De  sacramentis" 
(about  400.  Cf.  P.  L.,  XVI,  443),  and  the  letter  of 
Pope  Innocent  I  (401-17)  to  Decentius  of  Eugubium 
(P.  L. ,  XX,  553) .  In  these  documents  we  see  uiat  the 
Roman  Liturgy  is  said  in  Latin  and  has  already  be- 
come in  essence  the  rite  we  still  use.  A  few  indica- 
tions of  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  agree  with  tiiis. 
A  little  later  we  come  to  the  earliest  Sacramentaries 
(Leonine,  fifth  or  sixth  century;  Gelasian,  sixth  or 
seventh  century)  and  from  then  the  history  of  the 
Roman  Mass  is  fairly  clear.  The  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies therefore  show  us  the  other  end  of  the  chain. 
For  the  interval  between  the  second  and  fifth  centuries, 
during  which  the  great  change  took  place,  although  we 
know  so  little  about  Rome  itself,  we  have  valuable  data 
from  Africa.  There  is  everv  reason  to  believe  that  in 
liturgical  matters  the  Church  of  Africa  followed  Rome 
closely.  We  can  supply  much  of  what  we  wish  to 
know  about  Rome  from  the  African  Fathers  of  the 
third  century,  Tertullian  (d.  c.  220),  St.  Cyprian  (d. 
258),  the  Acts  of  St.  Perpetua  and  St.  Felicitas  (203), 
St.  Augustine  (d.  430)  (see  Cabrol,  "  Dictionnaire  d' 
arch6oIogie ",  I,  591-657).  The  question  of  the 
change  of  language  from  Greek  to  Latin  is  less  impor- 
tant than  it  might  seem.  It  came  about  natundly 
when  Greek  ceaused  to  be  the  usual  language  of  the 
Roman  Qiristians.  Pope  Victor  I  (190^202),  an 
African,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  use  Latin  at 
Rome.  Novatian  writes  Latin.  By  the  second  half 
of  the  third  century  the  usual  litui^cal  languase  at 
Rome  seems  to  have  been  Latin  (Kattenbusch, "  ^rm- 
bolik",  II,  331),  though  fragments  of  Greek  remame^ 


MASS 


793 


irfAM 


f<%  mfUiy  centuries.  Other  writers  think  that  Latin 
was  not  finally  adopted  till  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury (Probst,  ''Die  abendl&nd.  Messe'',  5;  Rietschel, 
"Lehrbuch  der  Liturgik",  I,  337).  No  doubt,  for  a 
time  both  languages  were  used.  The  question  is  dis- 
cussed at  length  in  C.  P.  Caspari,  *'  Quellen  zur  Gesch. 
des  Tauf symbols  u.  der  Glaubensreger'  (Christiania, 
1879),  III,  267  so.  The  Creed  was  sometimes  said  in 
Greek,  somepsaims  were  sung  in  that  language,  the 
lessons  on  Holy  Saturday  were  read  in  Greek  and 
Latin  as  late  as  the  eighth  century  (Ordo  Rom.,  I,  P. 
L.,  LXXVIII,  966-68, 955).  There  are  still  such  frag- 
ments of  Greek  ("Kyrie  eleison",  "A«ios  O  Theos  ) 
in  the  Roman  Mass.  But  a  change  of  lancua^e^  does 
not  involve  a  change  of  rite.  Novatian's  Latm  aUu- 
sions  to  the  Eucharistic  prayer  agree  veiy  well  with 
those  of  Clement  of  Rome  in  Greek,  and  with  the 
Greek  forms  in  Apost.  Const.,  VIII  (Drews,  op.  cit., 
107-22).  The  Africans,  Tertullian,  St.  Cyprian,  etc., 
who  write  Latin,  describe  a  rite  very  closely  related  to 
that  of  Justin  and  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (Probst, 
op.  cit.,  183-206;  215-30).  The  Galilean  Rite,  as  m 
Germanus  of  Paris  (Duchesne,  "Origines  du  Culte", 
180-217),  shows  how  Eastern— how  ''Greek "—a 
Latin  Liturgy  can  be.  We  must  then  conceive  the 
change  of  language  in  the  third  century  as  a  detail  that 
did  not  much  affect  the  development  of  the  rite.  No 
doubt  the  use  of  Latin  was  a  factor  in  the  Roman  ten- 
dency to  shorten  the  prayers,  leave  out  whatever 
seemed  redundant  in  formulas,  and  abridge  the  whole 
service.  Latin  is  naturally  terse,  compared  with  the 
rhetorical  abundance  of  Greek.  This  difference  is  one 
of  the  most  obvious  distinctions  between  the  Roman 
and  the  Eastern  Rites. 

If  we  may  suppose  that  during  the  first  three  cen- 
turies there  was  a  conunon  Liturgy  throughout  Chris- 
tendom, variable,  no  doubt,  in  details,  but  uniform  in 
all  its  main  points,  which  common  Liturgy  is  repre- 
sented bjT  tnat  of  the  eighth  book  of  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  we  have  in  that  the  origin  of  the  Roman 
Mass  as  of  all  other  liturgies  (see  Liturqy).  There 
are,  indeed,  special  reasons  for  supposing  that  this 
type  of  liturgy  was  used  at  Rome.  Tne  chief  authori- 
ties for  it  (Clement,  Justin,  Hippolytus,  Novatian)  are 
ajl  Roman.  Moreover,  even  the  present  Roman  Rite, 
in  spite  of  later  modifications,  retains  certain  elements 
that  resemble  those  of  the  Apost.  Const.  Liturgy  re- 
markably. For  instance,  at  Rome  there  neither  is  nor 
has  been  a  public  Offertory  prayer.  The  "Oremus" 
said  just  before  the  Offertory  is  the  fragment  of  auite 
another  thing,  the  old  prayers  of  the  faithful,  of  wnich 
we  still  have  a  specimen  in  the  series  of  collects  on 
Good  Friday.  The  Offertory  is  made  in  silence  while 
the  choir  sin@3  part  of  a  psalm.  Meanwhile  the  cele- 
brant says  private  Offertory  prayers  which  in  the  old 
form  of  the  Mass  are  the  Secrets  only.  The  older 
Secrets  are  true  Offertory  prayers.  In  the  Byzantine 
Rite,  on  the  other  hand,  the  gifts  are  prepared  before- 
hand, brought  up  with  the  singing  of  the  Cherubikon, 
and  offered  at  the  altar  by  a  public  Synapte  of  deacon 
and  people,  and  a  prayer  once  sung  aloud  by  the  cele- 
brant (now  only  the  Ekphonesis  is  sung  aloud).  The 
Roman  custom  of  a  silent  offertory  with  private 
prayer  is  that  of  the  Liturgy  ef  the  Apostohc  Con- 
stitutions. Here  too  the  rubric  says  only:  "The 
deacons  bring  the  gifts  to  the  bishop  at  the  altar" 
(VIII,  xii,  3)  and  "The  Bishop,  praying  by  himself 
[Ko^AiwT6r,  "silently"]  with  the  pnests  .  .  .  "(VIII, 
xii,  4).  No  doubt  m  this  case,  too,  a  psalm  was  sung 
meanwhile^  whidi  would  account  for  the  unique  in- 
stance of  silent  prayer.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions 
order  that  at  this  point  the  deacons  should  wave  fans 
over  the  oblation  (a  practical  precaution  to  keep  away 
insects,  VTII,  xii,  3);  this,  too,  was  done  at  Rome 
down  to  the  fourteenth  century  fMart^ne,  "  De  anti- 
quis  eccl.  ritibus  ",  Antwerp,  1 763,  I^  145) .  The  Roman 
Mass,  like  the  Apostolic  (Constitutions  (VIII,  xi,  12), 


has  a  washing  of  hands  just  before  the  Offertory.  It 
once  had  a  uss  of  peace  before  the  Preface.  Pope 
InnocentI,in  his  letter  to  Deoentius  of  Eugubium  (416), 
remarks  on  this  older  custom  of  placing  it  ante  ctynftda 
mysieria  (before  the  Eucharistic  prayer — ^P.  L.,  XX, 
553).  That  is  its  place  in  the  Apost.  Const.  (Vlil,  xi, 
9).  After  the  Lord's  Prayer,  at  Rome,  during  the 
fraction,  the  celebrant  sings:  "  Pax  Domini  sit  semper 
vobiscum . "  It  seems  that  this  was  the  place  to  which 
the  kiss  of  peace  was  first  moved  (as  in  Innocent  I's 
letter).  This  greeting,  unique  in  the  Roman  Rite,  oc- 
curs again  only  in  the  Ap<x5t.  Const.  (^  clp-^nj  tov  BeoO 
ft/trii  xdvTiaw  it/jiQp),  Here  it  comes  twice:  after  the 
Intercession  (VIII,  xiii,  1)  and  at  the  kiss  of  peace 
(VIII,  xi,  8).  The  two  Roman  prayers  after  the 
Communion,  the  Postcommunion  and  the  Oratio 
super  populum  {ad  poptdum  in  the  Gelasian  Sacra- 
mentary)  correspona  to  the  two  prayers,  first  a 
thanksgiving,  then  a  prayer  over  the  people,  m  Apost. 
Const.,  VIII,  XV,  1-5  ancl  7-9. 

There  is  an  interesting  deduction  that  may  be  made 
from  the  present  Roman  Preface.  A  number  of  Pref- 
aces introduce  the  reference  to  the  angels  (who  sing 
the  Sanctus)  by  the  form  et  ideo.  In  many  cases  it  is 
not  clear  to  what  this  idea  refers.  Like  the  igitur  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Canon,  it  does  not  seem  justified 
by  what  precedes.  May  we  conjecture  that  some- 
thing has  been  left  out?  The  beginning  of  the  Euchar- 
istic prayer  in  the  Apost.  Const.,  VIII,  xii,  6-27  (the 
part  oefore  the  Sanctus,  our  Preface,  it  is  to  be  found 
m  Brightman,  "Liturgies,  Eastern  and  Western",  I, 
Oxford,  1896, 14-18),  is  much  longer,  and  enumerates 
at  length  the  benefits  of  creation  and  various  events 
of  the  Old  Law.  The  angels  are  mentioned  twice, 
at  the  beginning  as  the  first  creatures  and  then  again 
at  the  end  abruptly,  without  connexion  with  what  has 
preceded,  in  oraerto  introduce  the  Sanctus.  The 
shortness  of  the  Roman  Prefaces  seems  to  make  it 
certain  that  they  have  been  curtailed.  All  the  other 
rites  begin  the  Eucliaristic  prayer  (after  the  formula: 
"Let  us  give  thanks")  with  a  long  thanksgiving  for 
the  various  benefits  of  God.  which  are  enumerated. 
We  know,  too^  how  much  o(  the  development  of  the 
Roman  Mass  is  due  to  a  tendency  to  abridge  the  older 
prayers.  If  then  we  suppose  that  the  Roman  Preface 
IS  such  an  abridgement  of  that  in  the  Apost.  Const., 
with  the  details  of  the  Creation  and  Old  Testament 
history  left  out,  we  can  account  for  the  ideo.  The 
two  references  to  the  angels  in  the  older  prayer  have 
met  and  coalesced.  The  ideo  refers  to  the  omitted 
list  of  benefits,  of  which  the  angels,  too,  have  their 
share.  The  parallel  between  the  orders  of  angels  in 
both  liturgies  is  exact: — 

Roman  Missal  Apost.  Ck>NST. 

cum  Angelis  arftartaX  ayy/A«»v, 

et  Archangelist  cum  Thronis  apxayy^Awr, $p6vm¥, 

et   Dominationibua,    cumque  icvpior^TMv, 

omni   militia    ciBlestis    exer- <rrpariMv 

ciiuS aJMvitty^ , 

sine  fine  dioentes.  Myovra  oicarairavoTMv. 

Another  parallel  is  in  the  old  forms  of  the  "  Hano 
igitur"  prayer.  Baumstark  ("Liturgia  romana", 
102-07)  has  found  two  early  Roman  forms  of  this 
prayer  in  Sacramentaries  at  Vauclair  and  Rouen, 
already  published  by  Mart^ne  ("  Voyage  litt^raire ", 
Paris,  1724,40)  and  Delisle(inEbner,  "Iteritalicum", 
417),  in  which  it  is  much  longer  and  has  plainly  the 
nature  of  an  Intercession,  such  as  we  find  in  the  East- 
em  rites  at  the  end  of  the  Anaphora.  The  form  is: 
"Hanc  igitur  oblationem  servitutis  nostrse  sed  et 
cunctee  familise  tuae,  qusesumus  Domine  placatus 
accipias,  quam  tibi  devoto  offerimus  corde  pro  pace 
et  caritate  et  imitate  sanctse  ecclesis,  pro  fide  catholica 
.  .  .  pro  sacerdotibus  et  omni  gradu  ecclesise,  pro 
regibus  .  .  .  "  (Therefore,  Ol^rd,  we  beseech  Thee, 
be  pleased  to  accept  this  offering  of  our  service  and  of 
all  Thy  household,  which  we  offer  Thee  with  devout 


BCA88 


794 


MASS 


heart  for  the  peace,  charityi  and  iinity  of  Holy  Church, 
for  the  Catholic  Faith  ...  for  the  Diieets  and  every 
order  of  the  Church,  for  kings  .  .  .  ;  and  so  on,  enu- 
merating a  complete  list  of  people  for  whom  prayer 
is  said.  Baumstark  prints  these  clauses  parallel  with 
those  of  the  Intercesison  in  various  Eastern  rites;  most 
of  them  may  be  found  in  that  of  the  Apo^.  Const. 
(VIII,  xii,  40-50,  and  xiii,  3-9).  This,  then,  supplies 
another  missing  element  in  the  Mass.  Eventuallv 
the  clauses  enumerating  the  petitions  were  suppressed!, 
no  doubt  because  they  were  thought  to  be  a  useless 
Feduplication  of  the  prayers  "Te  igitur",  "Communi- 
cantes",  and  the  two  Mementos  (Baumstark,  op.  cit., 
107),  and  the  introduction  of  this  Intercession  (Hahc 
igitur  .  .  .  placatus  accipias)  was  joined  to  what 
seems  to  have  once  been  part  of  a  prayer  for  the  dead 

(diesque  nostros  in  tua  pace  disponas,  etc.). 

We  still  have  a  faint  echo  of  the  old  Intercession  in 
the  clause  about*the  newly-baptized  interpolated  into 
the  "Hanc  igitur"  at  Easter  and  Whitsuntide.  The 
beginning  of  the  prayer  has  a  parallel  in  Apost.  Const.. 
VIII,  xiii,  3  (the  (beginning  oi  the  deacon's  Litany  oi 
Intercession) .  Drews  thinks  that  the  form  quoted  by 
Baiunstark,  with  its  clauses  all  beginning  pro,  was 
spoken  by  the  deacon  as  a  litany,  Uke  the  clauses  in 
Apost.  Const,  beginning  ^^p  (Untersuchungen  tiber 
die  sog.  clem.  Lit.,  139).  The  prayer  containing  the 
words  of  Institution  in  the  Roman  Mass  (Qui  pridie 
.  .  in  mei  memoriam  facie tis)  has  just  the  construc- 
tions and  epithets  of  the  corresponding  text  in  Apost. 
Const.,  VIII,  xii,  36-37.    All  this  and  many  more 

Earallels  between  the  Mass  and  the  Apost.  Const, 
liturgy  may  be  studied  in  Drews  (op.  cit.) .  It  is  true 
that  we  can  find  parallel  passages  with  other  liturgies 
too,  notably  with  that  of  Jerusalem  (St.  James). 
There  are  several  forms  that  correspond  to  those  of  the 
Egyptian  Rite,  such  as  the  Roman  '*  de  tuis  donis  ac 
datis"  in  the  "  Unde  et  memores"  (St.  Mark:  iic  tQp 
ffQp  d(i)po9v;  Brightman,  "  Eastern  Liturgies",  p.  133, 1. 
30) ;  "  offerimus  praeclarae  maiestati  tuie  de  tuis  donis 
ac  datis"  is  found  exactly  in  the  Coptic  form  ("  before 
thine  holy  glory  we  have  set  thine  own  gift  of  thine 
own",  ibid.,  p.  178,  1.  15).  But  this  does  not  mean 
merely  that  there  are  parallel  passages  between  any 
two  rites.  The  similarities  of  the  Apost.  Const,  are  far 
more  obvious  than  those  of  any  other.  The  Roman 
Mass,  even  apart  from  the  testimony  of  Justin  Martyr. 
Clement,  Hippolytus,  Novatian,  still  bears  evidence  oi 
its  development  from  a  type  of  liturgy  of  which  that  of 
the  Apostolic  Constitutions  is  the  only  perfect  surviv- 
ing specimen  (see  Liturgy).  There  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve, moreover,  that  it  has  since  been  influenced  both 
from  Jerusalem- Ant ioch  and  Alexandria,  though 
many  of  the  forms  common  to  it  and  these  two  may 
be  survivals  of  that  original^  universal  fluid  rite  which 
have  not  been  preserved  m  the  Apost.  Const.  It 
must  always  be  remembered  that  no  one  maintains 
that  the  Apost.  Const.  Liturroj  is  word  for  word  the 

?riraitive  universal  Liturgy.  The  thesis  defended  by 
robst,  Drews,  Kattenbusch,  Baumstark,  and  others 
is  that  there  was  a  comparatively  vague  and  fluid 
rite  of  which  the  Apost.  Const,  have  preserved  for  us 
a  specimen. 

But  between  this  original  Roman  Rite  (which  we 
can  study  only  in  the  Apost.  Const.)  and  the  Mass  as  it 
emerges  in  the  first  sacramentaries  (sixth  to  seventh 
century)  there  is  a  great  change.  Much  of  this  change 
is  accounted  for  by  the  Roman  tendency  to  shorten. 
The  Apost.  Const,  has  five  lessons;  Rome  has  generally 
only  two  or  three.  At  Rome  the  prayers  of  the  faitli- 
ful  after  the  expulsion  of  the  catechumens  and  the 
Intercession  at  the  end  of  the  Canon  have  gone.  Both 
no  doubt  were  considered  superfluous  since  there  is  a 
series  of  petitions  of  the  satne  nature  in  the  Canon. 
But  both  iiave  left  traces.  We  still  say  0remu8  before 
the  Offertory,  where  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  once 
stood,  and  still  have  these  prayers  on  Good  Friday  in 


• 

the  collects.  And  the  "  Hanc  Igitur "  is  a  fragment  of 
the  Intercession.  The  first  great  change  that  separate! 
Rome  from  all  the  Eastern  rites  is  the  ii^uenoe  of  ths 
ecclesiastical  year.  The  Eastern  liturgies  remain  al- 
ways the  same  except  for  the  lessons,  Prokeimerum 
(Gradual- verse),  and  one  or  two  other  slight  modifica- 
tions. On  the  other  hand  the  Roman  Mass  is  pro- 
foundly affected  throughout  by  the  season  or  feast  od 
which  It  is  said.  Probst's  theory  was  that  this  change 
was  made  by  Pope  Damasus  (36^-84;  ''Liturgie  des 
vierten  Jahrh. ",  pp.  448-72) .  This  idea  is  now  aban- 
doned (Funkm  ''tabmger  Quartalschrift ",  1894,  pp. 
683  sq.).  Indeed,  we  have  the  authority  of  Pope 
Vigilius  (540-55)  for  the  fact  that  in  the  sixth  century 
the  order  of  the  Mass  was  still  harcUy  affected  by  tbie 
calendar  ("Ep.  ad  Eutherium"  m  P.  L.,  LXIX,  18). 
The  influence  of  the  ecclesiastical  year  must  have  be^ 
gradual.  The  lessons  were  of  course  alwa3r8  varied, 
and  a  growing  tendency  to  refer  to  the  feast  or  season 
in  the  prayers.  Preface,  and  even  in  the  Canon,  brought 
about  the  present  state  of  things,  already  in  tull  force 
in  the  Leonine  Sacramentary.  That  Damasus  was 
one  of  the  popes  who  modified[  the  old  rite  seems,  how- 
ever, certam.  St.  Gregory  I  (590-604)  says  he  intro- 
duced the  use  of  the  Hebrew  AUduia  from  Jerusalem 
("  Ep.  ad  loh.  Syiucus. "  m  P.  L.,  LXXVII,  956).  It 
was  under  Damasus  that  the  Vulgate  became  the 
official  Roman  version  of  the  Bible  used  in  the  Litur^; 
a  constant  tradition  ascribes  to  Damasus's  friend  St. 
Jerome  (d.  420)  the  arrangement  of  the  Roman  Leo- 
tionary.  Mgr  Duchesne  thinks  that  the  Canon  was 
arranged  by  this  pope  (Origines  du  Culte,  168-9).  A 
curious  error  of  a  Roman  theologian  oi  Damasus's 
time,  who  identified  Melchisedech  with  the  Holy 
Ghost,  incidentally  shows  us  one  prayer  of  our  Mass  as 
existing  then,  namely  the  "  Supra  qu« "  with  its 
allusion  to  "summus  sacerdos  tuus  Melchisedech'* 
("Quflest.  V.  et  N.  Test."  in  P.  L.,  XXXV,  2329). 

C.  The  Mass  from  the  Fifth  to  the  Seventh  Century. — 
By  about  the  fifth  century  we  begin  to  see  more  clearly. 
Two  documents  of  this  timie  give  us  fairly  large  frag- 
ments of  the  Roman  Mass.  Innocent  I  (401-17),  m 
his  letter  to  Decentius  of  Euffubium  (about  416;  P.  L., 
XX,  553),  alludes  to  many  features  of  the  Mass.  We 
notice  that  these  important  changes  have  already  been 
made:  the  kiss  of  peace  has  been  moved  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Mass  of  the  Faithful  to  after  the  Con- 
secration, the  Commemoration  of  the  Living  and  Dead 
is  made  in  the  Canon,  and  there  are  no  longer  prayers 
of  the  faithful  before  the  Offertory  (see  Canon  op  the 
Mass).  Rietschel  (Lehrbuch  der  Litureik,  I,  340-1) 
thinks  that  the  Invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  has 
already  disappeared  from  the  Mass.  Innocent  does 
not  mention  it,  but  we  have  evidence  of  it  at  a  later 
date  under  Gelasius  I  (492-6:  see  Canon  of  the 
Mass,  s.  v.  Supplices  te  rogamus,  and  Epiklesis). 
Rietschel  doc.  cit.)  also  thioJcs  that  there  was  a  dog- 
matic reason  for  these  changes,  to  emphajsize  the  sacri- 
ficial idea.  We  notice  especially  that  in  Innocent's 
time  the  prayer  of  Intercession  follows  the  Consecra- 
tion (see  (3anon  of  the  Mass).  The  author  of  the 
treatise  **  De  Sacramentis"  (wrongly  attributed  to  St. 
Ambrose,  in  P.  L.,  XVI,  418  sq.)  says  that  he  will  ex- 
plain the  Roman  Use,  and  proceeds  to  quote  a  great 
part  of  the  Canon  (the  text  is  given  in  Canon  of  the 
Mass,  II).  From  this  document  we  can  reconstruct 
the  following  scheme:  The  Mass  of  the  (Catechumens 
is  still  distinct  from  that  of  the  faithful,  at  least  in 
theory.  The  people  sing  " Introibo  ad  altare  Dei"  as 
the  celebrant  and  nis  ministers  approach  the  altar  (the 
Introit).  Then  follow  lessons  from  Scripture,  chants 
(Qraduals),  and  a  sermon  (the  Cateohiunens*  Mass). 
The  people  still  make  the  Offertory  of  bread  and  wine. 
The  IVeface  and  Sanctus  follow  (laua  Deo  defertur), 
then  the  prayer  of  Intercession  {aratione  petttur  jaro 
voptdo,  pro  reffibug,  pro  ceteris)  and  the  Ck>n8ecratJ0Q 
r>y  the  words  of  Institution  (ut  conficUwr  vm.  9acrq^ 


TMTAaff 


795 


2CASS 


mmiJtum  .  .  .  vHbur  wrmonibu9  ChritH).  From  this 
point  (Fao  nobis  banc  oblationem  ascriptam,  ratam, 
lationalnlem  .  .  .)  the  text  of  the  Canon  is  quoted. 
Then  oome  the  Anamnesis  (Ejrgq  memores  ,  .  .), 
joined  to  it  the  prayer  of  oblation  (offerimus  tibi  hano 
immaculatam  hostiam  .  .  .),  i.  e.,  practically  our 
"Supra  quae"  prayer,  and  the  Communion  with  the 
form:  ** Corpus  Christi.  R.  Amen",  during  which  Ps. 
xxii  is  sune.     At  the  end  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  said. 

In  the  "De  Sacramentis",  then,  the  Intercession 
comes  before  the  Consecration,  whereas  in  Innocent's 
letter  it  came  after.  This  transposition  should  be 
noted  as  one  of  the  most  important  features  in  the 
development  of  the  Mass.  The  "Liber  Pontificalia" 
(ed.  Duchesne,  Paris,  1886-92)  contains  a  number  of 
statements  about  changes  in  and  additions  to  the 
liass  made  by  various  popes,  as  for  instance  that  Leo  I 
(440-61)  added  the  woros  "sanctum  sacrificium,  im- 
maculatam hoetiam"  to  the  prayer  "Supra  quad", 
that  Sei^gius  I  (687-701)  introduced  the  4gnus  Dei, 
and  so  on.  These  must  be  received  with  caution;  the 
whole  book  still  needs  critical  examination.  In  the 
case  of  the  Agnus  Dei  the  statement  is  made  doubtful 
by  the  fact  that  it  is  found  in  the  Gregorian  Sacramen- 
tary  (whose  date,  however,  is  agam  doubtful).  A 
constant  tradition  ascribes  some  great  influence  on 
the  Mass  to  Gelasius  I  (492-6).  Gennadius  (De  vir. 
illustr.,  xciv)  sa^s  he  composed  a  sacramentary ;  the 
Liber  Pontincalis  speaks  of  his  liturgical  work,  and 
there  must  be  some  basis  for  the  way  in  which  his 
name  is  attached  to  the  famous  Gelasian  Sacramen- 
tary. What  exactly  Gelasius  did  is  less  easy  to 
determine. 

We  come  now  to  the  end  of  a  period  at  the  reign  of 
St.  Gregory  I  (590-604).  Gr^ory  knew  the  Mass 
poracticaily  as  we  still  have  it.  There  have  been  addi- 
tions and  changes  since  his  time,  but  none  to  compare 
with  the  complete  recasting  of  the  Canon  that  took 
place  before  him.  At  least  as  far  as  the  Canon  is  con- 
cerned, Gregory  may  be  considered  as  having  put  the 
last  touches  to  it.  His  biographer,  John  the  Deacon, 
says  that  he  "collected  the  Sacramentary  of  Gelasius 
in  one  book,  leaving  out  much,  changing  little,  adding 
something  for  the  exposition  of  the  Gospels"  (Vita  S. 
Greg.,  II,  xvii).  He  moved  the  Our  Father  from  the 
end  of  the  Mass  to  before  the  Communion,  as  he  says 
in  his  letter  to  John  of  Syracuse:  "  We  say  the  Lord's 
Prayer  immediately  after  the  Canon  \mox  post  pre- 
eem]  ...  It  seems  to  me  very  imsmtable  that  we 
should  say  the  Canon  [prex]  which  an  unknown  scho- 
lar composed  [quam  schotasHcus  composuerat]  over 
the  oblation  and  that  we  should  not  say  the  prayer 
handed  down  by  our  Redeemer  himself  over  His  body 
and  bk)od  "  (P.  L. ,  LXX VII,  956) .  He  is  also  credited 
with  the  addition:  "diesque  nostros  etc."  to  the 
"Hanc  igitiur"  (ibid.;  see  Canon  op  the  Mass). 
Benedict  XIV  says  that  "no  pope  has  added  to,  or 
changed  the  Canon  since  St  Gregory"  (De  SS.  Missse 
saorificio,  p.  162).  There  has  been  an  important 
change  since,  the  partial  amalgamation  of  the  old 
Roman  Rite  with  Galilean  features;  but  this  hardly 
affects  the  Canon.  We  may  say  safely  that  a  modem 
Latin  Catholic  who  coidd  be  carried  back  to  Rome  in 
the  early  seventh  century  would — ^while  missing  some 
features  to  which  he  is  accustomed — find  himself  on 
the  whole  quite  at  home  with  the  service  he  saw  there. 

This  brings  us  back  to  the  most  difficult  question: 
Why  and  when  was  the  Roman  Liturgy  changed  from 
what  we  see  in  Justin  Martyr  to  that  of  Gregory  I? 
The  change  is  radical,  especially  as  regards  the  most 
important  element  of  the  Mass,  the  Canon.  The  modi- 
fications in  the  earlier  part,  the  smaller  number  of 
lessons,  the  omission  of  the  prayers  for  and  expulsion 
c^  the  catechumens,  of  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  be- 
fore the  Offertory  and  so  on,  may  be  accounted  for 
easily  as  a  result  of  the  characteristic  Roman  tendency 
to  shorten  the  service  and  leave  out  what  had  become 


superfluous.  The  influence  of  the  calendar  has  abready 
been  noticed.  But  there  remains  the  great  question 
of  the  arrangement  of  the  Canon.  That  the  order  of 
the  prayers  that  make  up  the  Canon  is  a  cardinal  diffi- 
culty is  admitted  by  every  one.  The  old  attempts  to 
justify  their  present  order  by  symbolic  or  mystic  rea- 
sons have  now  been  given  up.  The  Roman  Canon  as 
it  stands  is  recognized  as  a  problem  of  great  difficulty. 
It  differs  fundamentally  from  the  Anaphora  of  any 
Eastern  rite  and  from  the  Galilean  Canon.  Whereas 
in  the  Antiochene  family  of  liturgies  (including  that 
of  Gaul)  the  great  Intercession  follows  the  Consecra- 
tion, which  comes  at  once  after  the  Sanctus,  and  in  the 
Alexandrine  class  the  Intercession  is  said  during  what 
we  should  call  the  Preface  before  the  Sanctus,  in  the 
Roman  Rite  the  Intercession  is  scattered  throughout 
the  Canon,  partly  before  and  partly  after  the  Conse- 
cration. We  may  add  to  this  the  other  difficulty,  the 
omission  at  Rome  of  any  kind  of  clear  Invocation  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  (Epiklesis).  Paul  Drews  has  tried  to 
solve  this  question.  His  theory  is  that  the  Roman 
Mass,  starting  from  the  primitive  vaguer  rite  (prac- 
tically that  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions),  at  first 
followed  the  development  of  Jcrusalem-Antioch,  and 
was  for  a  time  very  similar  to  the  Liturgy  of  St.  James. 
Then  it  was  recast  to  brine  it  nearer  to  Alexandria. 
This  change  was  made  probably  by  Gelasius  I  under 
the  influence  of  his  guest,  John  Talaia  of  Alexandria. 
The  theory  is  explained  at  length  in  the  article  Canon 
OP  THE  Mass.  Here  we  need  only  add  that  it  has  re- 
ceived in  the  main  the  support  of  F.  X.  Funk  (who  at 
first  opposed  it;  see  "lustor.  Jahrbuch  der  Gorres- 
gesellschaft",  1903,  pp.  62,  283;  but  see  also  his 
"  Kirchengesch.  Abhandlungen",  III,  Paderbom, 
1907,  pp.  85-134,  in  which  he  will  not  admit  that  he 
has  altogether  changed  his  mind),  A.  Baumstark 
("Liturgia  romana  e  Liturgia  dell'  Esarcato",  Rome, 
1904),  and  G.  Rauschen  ("Eucharistie  und  Bussakra- 
ment",  Freiburg,  1908,  p.  86).  But  other  theories 
have  been  suggested.  Baumstark  does  not  follow 
Drews  in  the  details.  He  conceives  (op.  cit.)  the  origi- 
nal Canon  as  consisting  of  a  Preface  m  which  God  is 
thanked  for  the  benefits  of  creation;  the  Sanctus 
interrupts  the  prayers,  which  then  continue  (Vere 
Sanctus)  with  a  prayer  (now  disappeared)  thanking 
God  for  Redemption  and  so  coming  to  the  Institution 
(Pridie  autem  quam  pateretur  .  .  .).  Then  follow 
the  AnamTiesis  (tlnde  et  memores),  the  "Supra  qua)", 
the  "Te  igitur",  joined  to  an  Epiklesis  after  the  words 
"hsec  sancta  sacrificia  illibata".  Then  the  Interces- 
sion (In  primis  quse  tibi  offerimus  .  .  .),  "Memento 
vivorum",  "Communicantes",  "Memento  defuncto- 
rum"  (Nos  quo<iue  pcccatores  .  .  .  intra  sanctorum 
tuorum  consortium  non  eestimator  meriti  sed  veniffi 
qusesumus  largitor  admittc,  per  Christum  Dominum 
nostrum). 

This  order  then  (according  to  Baumstark)  was  dis- 
located by  the  insertion  of  new  elements,  the  "Hanc 
Igitur",  "Quam  oblationem",  "Supra  quae"  and 
"  Supplices  ",  the  list  of  saints  in  the  "  Nobis  quoque  ", 
all  of  which  prayers  were  in  some  sort  reduplications 
of  what  was  already  contained  in  the  Canon.  They 
represent  a  mixed  influence  of  Antioch  and  Alexan- 
dria, which  last  reached  Rome  through  Aquilea  and 
Ravenna,  where  there  was  once  a  rite  of  the  Alexan- 
drine type.  St.  Leo  I  began  to  make  these  changes; 
Gregory  I  finished  the  process  and  finally  recast  the 
Canon  in  the  form  it  still  has.  It  will  be  seen  that 
Baumstark's  theory  agrees  with  that  of  Drews  in  the 
main  issue — ^that  at  Rome  originally  the  whole  Inter- 
cession followed  the  Canon.  Dom  Cagin  (Pal^o- 
graphie  musicale,  V,  80  sq.)  and  Dom  Cabrol  (Origines 
Rturgiques,  354  sq.)  propose  an  entirely  different 
theory.  So  far  it  has  been  admitted  on  all  sides  that 
the  Roman  and  Galilean  rites  belong  to  different 
classes:  the  Galilean  Rite  approaches  that  of  Antioch 
very  closely,  the  origin  of  the  Roman  one  being  the 


2CASS 


796 


MA88 


great  problem.  Cagin's  idea  is  that  all  that  must  be 
reversed,  the  Gallican  Rite  has  no  comiezion  at  all 
with  Antioch  or  any  Eastern  Liturgy ;  it  is  in  its  origin 
the  same  rite  as  the  Roman.  Rome  changed  this  ear- 
lier form  about  the  sixth  or  seventh  century.  Before 
that  the  order  at  Rome  was:  Secrets,  Preface,  Sanctus, 
"Te  igitur";  then  "Hanc  igitur",  "Quam  oblatio- 
nem",  "Qui  pridie"  (these  uuree  pravers  correspond 
to  the  Gallican  Post-Sanctus).  Then  followed  a 
group  like  the  Gallican  Pos^Pridie,  namely  '*  Undo  et 
memores",  ?*0flferimu8  praeclar»",  ** Supra  quae", 
"Supplices",  "Per  eunaem  Christum  etc.",  "Per 
quern  hsec  omnia",  and  the  Fraction.  Then  came  the 
Lord's  Prayer  with  its  embolism,  of  which  the  "  Nobis 
()uoque "  was  a  part.  The  two  Mementos  were  orig- 
inally before  the  Preface.  Dom  Cagin  has  certainly 
pointed  out  a  number  of  points  in  which  Rome  and 
Uaul  (that  is  all  the  Western  rites)  stand  together  as 
opposed  to  the  East.  Such  points  are  the  changes 
caused  by  the  calendar,  the  introduction  of  the  Insti- 
tution by  the  words  '*  Qui  pridie  ",  whereas  all  Eastern 
Liturgies  have  the  form  "  In  the  night  in  which  he  was 
betrayed".  Moreover  the  place  of  the  kiss  of  peace 
(in  Gaul  before  the  Preface)  cannot  be  quoted  as  a 
difference  between  Rome  and  Gaul,  since,  as  we  have 
seen,  it  stood  originally  in  that  place  at  Rome  too. 
The  Gallican  diptychs  come  before  the  Preface;  but 
no  one  knows  for  certain  where  they  were  said  ori^- 
nally  at  Rome.  Caein  puts  them  in  the  same  place  in 
the  earlier  Roman  Mass.  His  theory  may  be  studied 
further  in  Dom  Cabrol's  **  Origines  liturgiques",  where 
it  is  very  clearly  set  out  (pp.  353-64).  Mgr  Duchesne 
has  attacked  it  vigorously  and  not  without  effect  in 
the  "  Revue  d'histoire  et  de  litt^rature  eccl6siastiques" 
(1900),  pp.  31  sq.  Mr.  Edmund  Bishop  criticizes  the 
German  theories  (Drews,  Baumstark  etc.),  and  im- 
plies in  general  terms  that  the  whole  question  of  the 
grouping  of  liturgies  will  have  to  be  reconsidered  on  a 
new  oasis,  that  of  the  form  of  the  words  of  Institution 
(Appendix  to  Dom  R.  Connolly's  "Liturgical  Homi- 
lies of  Narsai"  in  "Cambridge  Texts  and  Studies", 
VIII,  I,  1909).  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  he  has  not 
told  us  plainly  what  position  he  means  to  defend,  and 
tha^  he  is  here  again  content  with  merelv  negative 
criticism.  The  other  great  question,  that  of  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  Roman  Epiklesis,  cannot  be  examined 
here  (see  Canon  of  the  Mass  and  Epiklesis).  We 
will  only  add  to  what  has  been  said  in  those  articles 
that  the  view  is  growing  that  there  was  an  Invocation 
of  the  Second  Person  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  an  Epiklesis 
of  the  Logos,  before  there  was  one  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
The  Anaphora  of  Serapion  (fourth  century  in  Egypt) 
contains  such  an  Epiklesis  of  the  Logos  only  (in  I*  unk, 
"Didascalia",  II,  Paderborn,  1905,  pp.  174-6).  Mr. 
Bishop  (in  the  above-named  Appendix)  thinks  that 
the  Invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  did  not  arise  till 
later  (Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  about  350,  being  the  first 
witness  for  it),  that  Rome  never  had  it,  that  her  only 
Epiklesis  was  the  "Quam  oblationem"  before  the 
words  of  Institution.  Against  this  we  must  set  what 
seems  to  be  the  convincing  evidence  of  Gelasius  I's 
letter  (quoted  in  Canon  op  the  Mass,  s.  v.  Supplicea 
te  rogamua). 

We  have  then  as  the  conclusion  of  this  paragraph 
that  at  Rome  the  Eucharistic  prayer  was  fundamen- 
tally changed  and  recast  at  some  uncertain  period  be- 
tween the  lourth  and  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries. 
During  the  same  time  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  before 
the  Offertory  disappeared,  the  kiss  of  peace  was  trans- 
ferred to  after  the  Consecration,  and  tne  Epiklesis  was 
omitted  or  mutilated  into  our  "Supplices"  prayer. 
Of  the  various  theories  suggested  to  account  for  this  it 
seems  reasonable  to  say  with  Rauschen:  "Although 
the  question  is  by  no  means  decided,  nevertheless 
there  is  so  much  in  favour  of  Drews's  tneory  that  for 
the  present  it  must  l)e  considered  the  right  one.  We 
must  then  admit  that  between  the  years  400  and  600 


a  great  transformation  was  made  in  the  Roman 
Canon"  (Euch.  u.  Busssakr.,  86). 

D.  From  the  Seventh  Century  to  Modem  Times.-- 
After  Gregory  the  Great  (590-604)  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  follow  the  history  of  the  Mass  in  tne  Roman 
Rite.  We  have  now  as  documents  first  the  three  well- 
known  sacramentaries.  The  oldest,  called  Leonine^ 
exists  in  a  seventh-century  manuscript.  Its  composi- 
tion is  ascribed  variously  to  the  fifth,  sixth,  or  seventh 
century  (see  Litubgical  Boosls).  It  is  a  fragment, 
wanting  the  Canon,  but,  as  far  as  it  goes,  represents 
the  Mais  we  know  (without  the  later  Gallican  addi- 
tions). Many  of  its  collects,  secrets,  post-commu- 
nions, and  prefaces  are  still  in  use.  The  Gelasian  book 
was  written  in  the  sixth,  seventh,  or  eighth  century 
(ibid.) ;  it  is  partly  GalUcanized  and  was  composed  in 
the  Frankish  Kingdom.  Here  we  have  our  Canon 
word  for  word.  The  third  sacramentary,  called  GregO' 
riaUf  is  apparentlv  the  book  sent  by  Pope  Adrian  I  to 
Charlenaagpe  probably  between  781  and  791  (ibid.). 
It  contains  additional  Masses  since  Gregory's  time  and 
a  set  of  supplements  gradually  incorporated  into  the 
original  book,  giving  Frankish  (i  e.  older  Roman  and 
Gallican)  additions.  Dom  Suitbert  Baumer  ('*  Ueber 
das  sogen.  Sacram.  Gelasianum"  in  the ''  Histor.  Jahr- 
buch' ,  1893,  pp.  241-301)  and  Mr.  Edmund  Bishop 
("The  Earliest  Roman  Massbook"  in  "Dublin  Re- 
view", 1894,  pp.  245-78)  explain  the  development  of 
the  Roman  Rite  from  the  nmth  to  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury in  this  way:  The  (pure)  Roman  Sacramentary 
sent  by  Adrian  to  Charlemagne  was  ordered  by  the 
king  to  be  used  alone  throughout  the  Frankish  King- 
dom. But  the  people  were  attached  to  their,  old  use, 
which  was  partly  Roman  (Gelasian)  and  partly  Galli- 
can. So  wnen  the  Gregorian  book  was  copied  they 
(notably  Alcuin,  d.  804)  added  to  it  these  Franki^ 
supplements.  Gradually  the  supplements  became 
incorporated  into  tKe  original  book.  So  composed  it 
came  back  to  Rome  (tmou^h  the  influence  of  the 
Carlo vingian  emperors)  and  became  the  "use  of  the 
Roman  Church".  The  "Missale  Romanum  Latem- 
nense"  of  the  eleventh  century  (ed.  Azevedo,  Rome, 
1752)  shows  this  fused  rite  complete  as  the  only  one  in 
use  at  Rome.  The  Roman  Mass  has  thus  gone  through 
this  last  change  since  Gregory  the  Great,  a  partial 
fusion  with  GaUican  elements.  According  to  Baumer 
and  Bishop  the  Gallican  influence  is  noticeable  chiefly 
in  the  variations  for  the  course  of  the  year.  Their  view 
is  that  Gregory  had  given  the  Mass  more  uniformity 
(since  the  time  of  the  Leonine  book),  had  brought  it 
rather  to  the  model  of  the  unchanging  Eastern  litur- 
gies. Its  present  variety  for  different  days  and  seasons 
came  bacK  again  with  the  mixed  books  later.  Gallican 
influence  is  also  seen  in  many  dramatic  and  symbolic 
ceremonies  foreign  to  the  stern  pure  Roman  Kite  (sec 
Bishop,  "The  Genius  of  the  Roman  Rite").  Such 
ceremonies  are  the  blessing  of  candles,  ashes,  palms, 
much  of  the  Holy  Week  ritual,  etc. 

The  Roman  Ordines,  of  which  twelve  were  pub- 
lished by  Mabillon  in  his  "Museum  Italicum"  (others 
since  by  De  Rossi  and  Duchesne),  are  valuable  sources 
that  supplement  the  sacramentaries.  They  are  de- 
scriptions of  ceremonial  without  the  prayers  (like  the 
"  Cserimoniale  Episcoporum"),  and  extend  from  the 
eighth  to  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  centuries.  The 
first  (eighth  century)  and  second  (based  on  the  first, 
with  Frankish  additions)  are  the  most  important  (see 
LiTURQiCAL  Books).  From  these  and  the  sacramen- 
taries we  can  reconstruct  the  Mass  at  Rome  in  the 
eighth  or  ninth  century.  There  were  as  yet  no  pre- 
paratory prayers  said  before  the  altar.  The  pope, 
attended  oy  a  great  retinue  of  deacons,  subdeacons, 
acolytes,  and  singers,  entered  while  the  Introit  psalm 
was  sung.  After  a  prostration  the  Kjrrie  eleison  was 
sung,  as  now  with  nine  invocations  (see  Ktrie  Elei- 
son) ;  any  other  litany  hail  disappeared.  The  Gloria 
followed  on  feasts  (sec  (iLoria  in  Excelsib).    The 


BtASS 


7^7 


MASS 


pope  sang  the  prayer  of  the  day  (see  Collect),  two  or 
three  lessons  followed  (see  Lessons  in  the  Liturgt), 
interspersed  with  psalms  (see  Gradual).  The  prayers 
of  the  faithfxil  had  gone,  leaving  only  the  one  word 
Oremus  as  a  fragment.  The  people  Drought  up  the 
bread  and  wine  while  the  Offertory  psalm  was  sung; 
the  gifts  were  arranged  on  the  altar  by  the  deacons. 
The  Secret  was  said  (at  that  time  the  only  Olfertory 
prayer)  after  the  pope  had  washed  his  hands.  The 
Preface,  Sanctus,  and  all  the  Canon  followed  as  now. 
A  reference  to  the  fruits  of  the  earth  led  to  the  words 
"per  quem  haec  onmia"  etc.  Then  came  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  Fraction  with  a  complicated  ceremony, 
the  kiss  of  peace,  the  Agnus  Dei  (since  Pope  Sei^ius, 
687-701),  the  Communion  under  both  kinds,  during 
which  tiie  Conmiunion  psalm  was  sung  (see  Com- 
munion-Antiphon),  the  rost-Communion  prayer,  the 
dismissal  (see  Ite  Missa  Est),  and  the  procession  back 
to  the  sacristy  (for  a  more  detailed  account  see  C. 
Atchley,  "Ordo  Romanus  Primus",  London,  1905; 
Duchesne,  **Origines  du  Culte  chr^tien",  vi). 

It  has  been  explained  how  this  (mixed)  Roman  Rite 
gradually  drove  out  the  Galilean  Use  (see  Liturgy). 
By  about  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century  the  Roman 
M!ass  was  practically  the  only  one  in  use  in  the  West. 
Then  a  few  additions  (none  of  them  very  important) 
were  made  to  the  Mass  at  different  times.  The  Nioene 
Creed  is  an  importation  from  Constantinople.  It  is 
said  that  in  1014  Emperor  Henry  II  (1002-24)  per- 
suaded Pope  Benedict  VIII  (1012-24)  to  add  it  after 
the  Gospel  (Bemo  of  Reichenau,  "  De  quibusdam  re- 
bus ad  Missse  offic.  pertiL . ",  ii).  It  had  already  been 
adopted  in  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Germany.  All  the  present 
ritual  and  tne  prayers  said  by  the  celebrant  at  the 
Offertory  were  introduced  from  France  about  the 
thirteenth  century  ("  Ordo  Rom.  XIV  ",  liii,  is  the  first 
witness;  P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  1163-4);  before  that  the  se- 
crets were  the  only  Offertory  prayers  ("  Micrologus  ",  xi, 
in  P.  L.,  CLI,  984) .  There  was  considerable  variety  as 
to  these  prayers  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  until  the 
revised  Missal  pf  Pius  V  (1570).  The  incensing  of 
persons  and  things  is  again  due  to  Galilean  influence; 
It  was  not  adopted  at  Rome  till  the  eleventh  or  twelfth 
century  (Micrologus^  ix).  Before  that  time  incense 
was  burned  only  dunng  processions  (the  entrance  and 
Gospel  procession;  see  C.  Atchley,  "Ordo  Rom.  Pri- 
mus", 17-18).  The  three  prayers  said  by  the  cele- 
brant before  his  communion  are  private  devotions 
introducfd  gradually  into  the  official  text.  Durandus 
(thirteenth  century,  "Rationale,"  IV,  liii)  mentions 
the  first  (for  peace) ;  the  Sarum  Rite  had  instead  an- 
other prayer  addressed  to  God  the  Father  ("  Deus  Pater 
fons  et  origo  totius  bonitatis, "  ed.  Burntisland,  625). 
Micrologus  mentions  only  the  second  (D.  I.  Chr.  qui  ex 
voluntate  Patris),  but  says  that  many  other  private 
prayers  were  said  at  this  place  (xviii) .  Here  too  there 
was  great  diversity  through  the  Middle  Ages  till  Pius  V  's 
Missal.  The  latest  additions  to  the  Mass  are  its  pres- 
ent be^nning  and  end.  The  psalm  "  ludica  me  ",  the 
Confession,  and  the  other  prayers  said  at  the  foot  of  the 
altar,  are  all  part  of  the  celebrant's  preparation,  once 
said  (with  many  other  psalms  ancl  prayers)  in  the 
sacristy,  as  the ''  Prseparatio  ad  Missam  "  m  the  Missal 
now  is.  There  was  great  diversity  as  to  this  prepara- 
tion till  Pius  V  established  our  modem  rule  of  saying 
80  much  only  before  the  altar.  In  the  same  way  all 
that  follows  the  "  Ite  missa  est "  is  an  afterthought. 

g&rt  of  the  thanksgiving,  not  formally  admitted  till 
iusV. 

We  have  thus  accounted  for  all  the  elements  of  the 
Mass.  Tlie  next  stage  of  its  development  is  the 
growth  of  numerous  local  varieties  of  the  Roman  Mass 
m  the  Middle  Ages.  These  medieval  rites  (Paris, 
Rouen,  Trier,  Sarum,  and  so  on  all  over  Western 
Europe)  are  simply  exuberant  local  modifications  of 
the  old  Roman  rite.  The  same  applies  to  the  partic- 
ular uses  of  various  religious  orders  (Carthusians,  Do- 


minicans, Carmelites  etc.) .  None  of  these  deserves  to 
be  called  even  a  derived  rite;  their  changes  are  only 
ornate  additions  and  amplifications;  though  certain 
special  points,  such  as  the  Dominican  preparation  of 
tne  offerings  oefore  the  Mass  begins,  represent  more 
Galilean  influence.  The  Milanese  and  Mozarabic  lit- 
urgies stand  on  quite  a  different  footing;  they  are  the 
descendants  of  a  really  different  rite — the  original  Gal- 
ilean— ^though  they  too  have  been  considerably  Ro- 
manized (see  Liturgy). 

Meanwhile  the  Mass  was  developing  in  other  ways 
also.  During  the  first  centuries  it  had  been  a  common 
custom  for  a  number  of  priests  to  concdebrate;  stand- 
ing around  their  bishop,  they  joined  in  his  prayers 
and  consecrated  the  oblation  with  him.  This  is  still 
common  in  the  Eastern  rites.  In  the  West  it  had  be- 
come rare  by  the  thirteenth  century.  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  (d.  1274)  discusses  the  question,  "Whether 
several  priests  can  consecrate  one  and  the  same  host " 
(Sunmia  Theol.,  Ill,  O.  Ixxxii,  a.  2).  He  answers  of 
course  that  they  can,  out  quotes  as  an  example  only 
the  case  of  ordination.  In  this  case  only  nas  the 
practice  been  preserved.  At  the  ordination  of  priests 
and  bishops  all  the  ordained  concelebrate  with  the 
ordainer.  In  other  cases  concelebration  was  in  the 
early  Middle  Ages  replaced  by  separate  private  cele- 
brations. No  doubt  the  custom  of  offering  each  Mass 
for  a  special  intention  helped  to  bring  about  this 
change.  The  separate  celebrations  then  involved  the 
building  of  many  altars  in  one  church  and  the  reduc^ 
tion  of  the  ritual  to  the  simplest  possible  form.  The 
deacon  and  subdeacon  were  m  this  case  dispensed  with; 
the  celebrant  took  their  part  as  well  as  his  own.  One 
server  took  the  part  of  the  choir  and  of  all  the  other 
ministers,  everything  was  said  instead  of  being  sung, 
the  incense  and  kiss  of  peace  were  omitted.  So  we 
have  the  well-known  rite  of  low  Mass  {missa  privata). 
This  then  reacted  on  high  Mass  (missa  solemnis),  so 
that  at  high  Mass  too  the  celebrant  himself  recites 
everything,  even  though  it  be  also  sung  by  the  deacon, 
subdeacon,  or  choir. 

The  custom  of  the  intention  of  the  Mass  further  led 
to  Mass  being  said  every  day  by  each  priest.  But  this 
has  by  no  means  been  uniformly  carried  out.  On  the 
one  hand,  we  hear  of  an  abuse  of  the  same  priest  say- 
ing Mass  several  times  in  the  day,  which  medieval 
councils  constantly  forbid.  Again,  many  most  pious 
priests  did  not  celebrate  daily.  Bossuet  (d.  1704), 
for  instance,  said  Mass  only  on  Sundays,  Feasts,  every 
day  in  Lent,  and  at  other  times  when  a  special  ferial 
Mass  is  provided  in  the  Missal.  There  is  still  no  obli- 
^tion  for  a  priest  to  celebrate  daily,  though  the  custom 
IS  now  very  common.  The  Council  of  Trent  desir^ 
that  priests  should  celebrate  at  least  on  Sundays  and 
solemn  feasts  (Sess.  XXIII,  cap.  xiv).  Celebration 
with  no  assistants  at  all  {missa  solilaria)  has  continu- 
ally been  forbidden,  as  by  the  Synod  of  Mainz  in  813. 
Another  abuse  was  the  missa  bifaciata  or  trifaciata^  in 
which  the  celebrant  said  the  first  part,  from  the  Introit 
to  the  Preface,  several  times  over  and  then  joined  to  all 
one  Canon,  in  order  to  satisfy  several  intentions.  This 
too  was  forbidden  by  medieval  councils  (Durandus, 
"Rationale",  IV,  i,  22).  The  missa  sicca  (dry  Mass) 
was  a  common  form  of  devotion  used  for  funerals  or 
marriages  in  the  afternoon,  when  a  real  Mass  could  not 
be  said.  It  consisted  of  all  the  Mass  except  the  Offer- 
tory, Consecration  and  Communion  (Durandus,  ibid., 
23).  The  missa  nautica  and  missa  venatoria,  said  at 
sea  in  rough  weather  and  for  hunters  in  a  hurry,  were 
kinds  of  dry  Masses.  In  some  monasteries  each  priest 
was  obliged  to  say  a  dry  Mass  after  the  real  (conven- 
tual) Mass.  Cardinal  Bona  (Rerum  liturg.  libr.  duo, 
I,  xv)  argues  against  the  practice  of  saying  dry  Masses. 
Since  the  reform  of  Pius  V  it  has  gradually  disappeared. 
The  Mass  of  the  Presanctified  {missa  prassanctificato- 
rumj  \ciTovpyla  rQy  mportyiaffftdytap)  is  a  very  old  custom 
described  by  the  Quinisext  Council  (Second  Trullan 


MASS 


798 


MASS 


Svnod,  692).  It  is  a  Service  (not  really  a  Mass  at  all) 
of  Communion  from  an  oblation  consecrated  at  a 
I>revious  Mass  and  reserved.  It  is  used  in  the  Bvsan- 
tine  Church  on  the  week-days  of  Lent  (except  Satur- 
days) ;  in  the  Roman  Rite  only  on  Good  Friday. 

Finally  came  uniformity  in  the  old  Roman  Kite  and 
the  abolition  of  nearl]^  all  the  medieval  variants.  The 
Council  of  Trent  considered  the  question  and  formed  a 
commission  to  prepare  a  uniform  Missal.  Eventually 
the  Missal  was  published  by  Pius  V  by  the  BuU  "Quo 
primum"  (still  printed  in  it)  of  14  July,  1570.*  That 
IS  really  the  last  stage  of  tne  history  of  the  Roman 
Mass.  It  is  Pius  V's  Missal  that  is  used  throughout 
the  Latin  Church,  except  in  a  few  cases  where  he  al- 
lowed a  modified  use  that  had  a  prescription  of  at 
least  two  centuries.  This  exception  saved  the  variants 
used  by  some  religious  orders  and  a  few  local  rites  as 
well  as  the  Milanese  and  Mozarabic  liturgies.  Clem- 
ent VIII  (1604),  Urban  VIII  (1634),  and  Leo  XIII 
(1884)  revised  the  book  slightly  in  the  rubrics  and  the 
texts  of  Scripture  (see  Liturgical  Books).  Pius  X 
has  revised  the  chant  (1908.)  But  these  revisions 
leave  it  still  the  Missal  of  Pius  V.  There  has  been 
since  the  earlv  Middle  Ages  unceasing  change  in 
the  sense  of  ad.ditions  of  masses  for  new  feasts,  the 
Missal  now  has  a  number  of  supplements  that  still 
grow  (Liturgical  Books),  but  liturgically  these 
additions  represent  no  real  change.  The  new  Masses 
are  all  built  up  exactly  on  the  lines  of  the  older  ones. 

We  turn  now  to  the  present  Roman  Mass,  without 
comparison  the  most  important  and  widespread,  as  it 
it  is  m  many  wa^rs  the  most  archaic  service  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist  in  Christendom. 

E.  The  Present  Roman  Mass. — It  is  not  the  object  of 
this  paragraph  to  give  instruction  as  to  how  the  Ro- 
man Mass  is  celebrated.  The  very  complicated  rules 
of  all  kinds,  the  minute  rubrics  that  must  be  obeyed  by 
the  celebrant  and  his  ministers,  all  the  details  of  coin- 
cidence and  commemoration — these  things,  studied  at 
length  by  students  before  they  are  ordained,  must  be 
sought  in  a  book  of  ceremonial  (Le  Vavasseur,  quoted 
in  the  bibliography,  is  perhaps  now  the  best).  More- 
over, articles  on  all  the  chief  parts  of  the  Mass,  describ- 
ing how  they  are  carried  out,  and  others  on  vestments, 
music,  and  the  other  ornaments  of  the  service,  will  be 
found  in  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia.  Itwillbesuffi- 
oient  here  to  give  a  general  outline  of  the  arrangement. 
The  ritual  of  the  Mass  is  affected  by  (1)  the  person 
who  celebrates,  (2)  the  day  or  the  special  occasion  on 
which  it  is  said,  (3)  the  kind  of  Mass  (high  or  low)  cele- 
brated. But  in  all  cases  the  general  scheme  is  the 
same.  The  normal  ideal  may  be  taken  as  high  Mass 
sung  by  a  priest  on  an  ordinary  Sunday  or  feast  that 
has  no  exceptional  feature. 

Normally.  Mass  must  be  celebrated  in  a  conse- 
crated or  blessed  Church  (private  oratories  or  even 
rooms  are  allowed  for  special  reasons:  see  Le  Vavas- 
seur, I,  200-4)  and  at  a  consecrated  altar  (or  at  least 
on  a  consecrated  altar-stone),  and  may  be  celebrated 
on  any  day  in  the  year  except  Good  Friday  (restric- 
tions are  made  agamst  private  celebrations  on  Holy 
Saturday  and  in  the  case  of  private  oratories  for  cer- 
tain great  feasts)  at  any  time  between  dawn  and  mid- 
day. A  priest  may  say  only  one  Mass  each  day,  ex- 
cept that  on  Christmas  Day  he  may  say  three,  and  the 
first  may  (or  rather,  should)  then  be  said  immediately 
after  midnight.  In  some  countries  (Spain  and  Portu- 
gal) a  priest  may  also  celebrate  three  times  on  All 
Souls'  Day  (2  November).  Bishops  may  give  leave 
to  a  priest  to  celebrate  twice  on  Sundays  and  feasts  of 
obligation,  if  otherwise  the  people  could  not  fulfil  their 
duty  of  hearing  Mass.  In  cathedral  and  collegiate 
churches,  as  well  as  in  those  of  religious  oiders  who 
are  bound  to  say  the  Canonical  Hours  every  day 
publicly,  there  is  a  daily  Mass  corresponding  to  the 
Office  and  fonning  with  it  the  complete  cycle  of  the 
public  worship  of  (Jod.    This  official  public  Mass  is 


called  the  conventual  Mass;  if  possible  it  should  be  s 
high  Mass,  but,  even  if  it  be  not,  it  always  has  some  of 
the  features  of  high  Mass.  Tne  time  for  this  oqd- 
ventual  Mass  on  feasts  and  Sundays  is  after  Teroe  has 
been  said  in  choir.  On  Simples  aiid  ferise  the  time  k 
after  Sext;  on  ferise  of  Advent,  Lent,  on  Vigils  and 
Ember  days  after  None.  Votive  Masses  and  tiie 
Requiem  on  All  Souls'  Day  are  said  also  after  None; 
but  ordinary  requiems  are  said  after  Prime.  The 
celebrant  of  Mass  must  be  in  the  state  of  grace,  fasting 
from  midnight,  free  of  irregularity  and  censure,  and 
must  observe  all  the  rubrics  and  laws  concerning  the 
matter  (azyme  bread  and  pure  wine),  vestments,  ves- 
sels, and  ceremony. 

Tiie  scheme  of  high  Mass  is  this:    the  procession 
comes  to  the  altar,  consisting  of  thurifer,  acolytes, 
master  of  ceremonies,  subdeacon,  deacon,  and  cele- 
brant, all  vested  as  the  rubrics  direct  (see  Vestments). 
First,  the  preparatory  prayers  are  said  at  the  foot  of 
the  altar;  the  altar  is  incensed,  the  celebrant  reads  at 
the  south  (Epistle)  side  the  Introit  and  Kyrie.    Mean- 
while the  choir  sing  the  Introit  and  K3rrie.    On  days 
on  which  the  '^Te  Deum''  is  said  in  the  office,  the 
celebrant  intones  the  "Gloria  in  excelsis'V  which  is 
continued  by  the  choir.    Meanwhile  he,  the  deacon, 
and  subdeacon  recite  it,  after  which  they  may  sit 
down  till  the  choir  has  finished.    After  the  greeting 
"  Dominus  vobiscum  V,  and  its  answer  '*  Et  cum  spiritu 
tuo'',  the  celebrant  chants  the  collect  of  the  day,  and 
after  it  as  many  more  collects  as  are  required  either  to 
conunemorate  other  feasts  or  occasions,  or  are  to  be 
said  by  order  of  the  bishop,  or  (on  lesser  days)  are 
chosen  by  himself  at  his  discretion  from  the  collection 
in  the  Missal,  according  to  the  rubrics.     The  sub- 
deacon chants  the  Epistle  and  the  choir  sings  the 
Gradual.    Both  are  read  by  the  celebrant  at  the  altar, 
according  to  the  present  law  that  he  is  also  to  recite 
whatever  is  sung  by  any  one  else.    He  blesses  the 
incense,  says  the  "Munoa  Cor  meum"  prayer,  and 
reads  tne  Uospel  at  the  north  (Gospel)  side.    Mean- 
while the  deacon  prepares  to  sing  the  Gospel.    He  goes 
in  procession  with  the  subdeacon,  thuriier,  and  aco- 
lytes to  a  place  on  the  north  of  the  choir,  and  there 
chants  it,  the  subdeacon  holding  the  book,  unless  an 
ambo  be  used.     If  there  is  a  sermon,  it  should  be 
preached  immediately  after  the  GospeL    This  is  the 
traditional  place  for  the  homily,  after  the  lessons 
(Justin  Martyr,  "I  Apolog.",  Ixvii,  4).    On  Sundays 
and  certain  feasts  the  Creed  is  sung  next,  just  as  was 
the  Gloria.    At  this  point,  before  or  after  the  Creed 
(which  is  a  later  introduction,  as  we  have  seen),  ends 
in  theory  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens.   The  celebrant 
at  the  middle  of  the  altar  chants  "  Dominus  vobiscum" 
and  **Oremus" — the  last  remnant  of  the  old  prayers 
of  the  faithful.     Then  follows  the  Offertonr.     ITie 
bread  is  offered  to'  God  with  the  prayer     Suscipe 
sancte  Pater  '* ;  the  deacon  pours  wine  into  the  chalice 
and  the  subdeacon  water.    The  chalice  is  offered  by 
the  celebrant  in  the  same  way  as  the  bread  (Offerimus 
tibi  Domine),  after  which  the  gifts,  the  altar,  the  cele- 
brant, ministers,  and  people  are  all  incensed.    Mean- 
while the  choir  sings  the  Offertory.    The  celebrant 
washes  his  hands  saying  the  ''Lavabo".    After  an- 
other offertory  prayer  (Suscipe  sancta  Trinitas),  and 
an  address  to  the  people  (Orate  fratres)  with  its 
answer,  which  is  not  sung  (it  is  a  late  addition),  the 
celebrant  says  the  secrets,  corresponding  to  the  col- 
lects.   The  last  secret  ends  with  an  Ekphanesis  (Per 
omnia  ssecula  sseculorum).    This  is  only  a  warning  of 
what  is  coming.     When  prayers  began  to  be  said 
silently,  it  still  remained  necessary  to  mark  their  end- 
ing, tliat  people  might  know  what  is  going  on.    So  the 
last  clauses  were  said  or  sung  alouo.    This  so-called 
Ekphonesis  is  much  developed  in  the  Eastern  rites. 
In  the  Roman  Mass  there  are  three  cases  of  it— always 
the  words: ''  Per  omnia  sscula  Sfficulorum",  to  which 
the  choir  answers ' '  Amen  ".    After  the  Ekphonesis  of 


MA88 


799 


IftAfiS 


the  Secret  comes  the  dialo^e,  "Sursum  Corda",  etc., 
used  with  sliffht  variations  in  all  rites,  and  so  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Eucharistic  prayer  which  we  c^  the  Jnef- 
ace,  no  longer  counted  as  part  of  the  Canon.  The 
choir  sings  and  the  celebrant  says  the  Sanctus.  Then 
follows  the  Canon,  beginning  "Te  igitur''  and  ending 
with  an  ekphonesis  before  the  Lora  s  Prayer.  All  its 
parts  are  described  in  the  article  Canon  of  the  Mass. 
The  Lord's  Prayer  follows,  introduced  by  a  little 
clause  (Prseceptis  salutaribus  moniti)  and  followed  bv 
an  embolism  (see  Libeba  nos),  said  silently  and  enci- 
VDf  with  the  third  ekphonesis.  The  Fraction  follows 
with  the  versicle  **  Pax  domini  sit  semper  vobiscum'', 
meant  to  introduce  the  kiss  of  peace.  The  choir  sings 
the  Agnus  Dei,  which  is  said  by  the  celebrant  together 
.with  the  first  Communion  prayer,  before  he  gives  the 
kiss  to  the  deacon.  He  then  says  the  two  other  Com- 
'  munion  prayers,  and  receives  Communion  under  both 
kinds.  The  Communion  of  the  people  (now  rare  at 
high  Mass)  follows.  Meanwhile  the  choir  sings  the 
Communion  (see  Communion-Antiphon).  The  chaUoe 
is  purified  and  the  post-Communions  are  sung,  corre- 
sponding to  the  collects  and  secrets.  Like  the  collects, 
tney  are  introduced  by  the  greeting  '*  Dominus  vobi»- 
cum''  and  its  answer,  and  said  at  the  south  side. 
After  another  greeting  by  the  celebrant  the  deacon 
sings  the  dismissal  (see  Ite  Missa  E^r).  There  still 
follow,  however,  three  later  additions,  a  blessing  by 
the  celebrant,  a  short  prayer  that  God  may  be  pleased 
¥rith  the  sacrifice  (Plaiceat  tibi),  and  the  Last  Gospel, 
normally  the  beginning  of  St.  John  (see  Gospel  in 
THE  Liturgy).  The  procession  goes  back  to  the 
sacristy. 

This  high  Mass  is  the  norm;  it  is  only  in  the  com- 
plete rite  with  deacon  and  subdeacon  that  the  cere- 
monies can  be  understood.  Thus,  the  rubrics  of  the 
Ordinarv  of  the  Mass  always  suppose  that  the  Mass  is 
high.  Low  Blass,  said  by  a  priest  alone  with  one 
server,  is  a  shortened  and  simphfied  form  of  the  same 
thing.  Its  ritual  can  be  explained  only  by  a  reference 
to  h^h  Mass.  For  instance,  the  celebrant  goes  over  to 
the  north  side  of  the  altar  to  read  the  Gospel,  because 
that  is  the  side  to  which  the  deacon  goes  in  procession 
at  high  Mass;  he  turns  round  always  by  the  right, 
because  at  high  Mass  he  should  not  turn  his  back  to 
the  deacon,  and  so  on.  A  sung  Mass  (missa  Cantata) 
is  a  modem  compromise.  It  is  really  a  low  Mass,  since 
the  essence  of  high  Mass  is  not  the  music  but  the  dea- 
oon  and  subdeacon.  Only  in  churches  which  have  no 
ordained  person  except  one  priest,  and  in  which  high 
liass  is  thus  impossible,  is  it  allowed  to  celebrate  the 
Mass  (on  Sundays  and  feasts)  with  most  of  the  adorn- 
ment borrowed  from  high  Mass,  with  singing  and 
generally)  with  incense.  The  Sacred  Congregation  of 
lutes  has  on  several  occasions  (9  June,  1884;  7  Decem- 
ber, 1888)  forbidden  the  use  of  incense  at  a  Missa 
Cantata;  nevertheless,  exceptions  have  been  made  for 
several  dioceses,  and  the  custom  of  using  it  is  generally 
tolerated  (Le  Vavasseur,  op.  cit.,  I,  514-5).  In  thiis 
case,  too,  the  celebrant  takes  the  part  of  deacon  and 
subdeacon;  there  is  no  kiss  of  peace. 

The  ritual  of  the  Mass  is  further  affected  by  the 
dignity  of  the  celebrant,  whether  bishop  or  only  priest. 
There  is  something  to  be  said  for  taking  the  pontifical 
Mass  as  the  standard,  and  explaining  that  of  the  sim- 
ple priest  as  a  modified  form,  just  as  low  Mass  is  a 
modified  form  of  high  Mass.  On  the  other  hand  his- 
torically the  case  is  not  parallel  throughout;  some  of 
the  more  elaborate  pontifical  ceremony  is  an  after- 
thought, an  adornment  added  later.  Here  it  need 
only  DC  said  that  the  main  difference  of  the  pontifical 
Mass  (apart  from  some  special  vestments)  is  that  the 
bishop  remains  at  his  throne  (except  for  the  prepara- 
tory prayers  at  the  altar  steps  and  the  incensing  of  the 
altar)  till  the  Offertory;  so  in  this  case  the  change 
from  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens  to  that  of  the 
Faithful  is  still  clearly  marked.    He  also  does  not  put 


on  the  maniple  till  after  the  preparatory  prayers, 
a^n  an  archaic  touch  that  marks  tnem  as  being  out- 
side the  original  service.  At  low  Mass  the  bishop's 
rank  is  marked  only  by  a  few  unimportant  details  and 
by  the  later  assumption  of  the  maniple.  Certain 
prelates,  not  bishops,  use  some  pontifical  ceremonies 
at  Mass.  The  pope  again  has  certain  special  cere- 
monies in  his  Mass,  of  which  some  represent  remnants 
of  older  customs.  Of  these  we  note  especially  that  he 
makes  his  Communion  seated  on  the  throne  and  drinks 
the  consecrated  wine  through  a  little  tube  called 
fistula. 

Durandus  (Rationale,  IV,  i)  and  all  the  symbolic 
authors  distinguish  various  parts  of  the  Mass  accord- 
ing to  mystic  principles.  Thus  it  has  four  parts,  corre- 
sponding to  tnc  four  kinds  of  prayer  named  in  I  Tim., 
ii,  1.  It  is  an  Obsecratio  from  the  Introit  to  the  Offer- 
tory, an  Oraiio  from  the  Offertory  to  the  Pater  Noster, 
a  PostuUUio  to  the  Communion,  a  Gratiarum  actio  from 
then  to  the  end  (Durandus,  ibid. ;  see  Mass,  Sacbifice 
OF  the:  Vol.  X).  The  Canon  especially  has  been 
divided  according  to  all  manner  of  sj'stems,  some  very 
ingenious.  But  the  distinctions  that  arc  really  impor- 
tant to  the  student  of  liturgy  are,  first  the  historic 
division  between  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens  and 
Mass  of  the  Faithful,  already  explained,  and  then  the 
great  practical  distinction  between  the  changeable  and 
imchangeable  parts.  The  Mass  consists  of  an  un- 
changed framework  into  which  at  certain  fixed  points 
the  variable  prayers,  lessons,  and  chants  are  fitted. 
The  two  elements  are  the  Common  and  the  Proper  of 
the  day  (which,  however,  may  again  be  taken  from  a 
common  Mass  provided  for  a  number  of  similar  occa- 
sions, as  are  the  Commons  of  various  classes  of  saints). 
The  Common  is  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass  (Ordinarium 
Misses)  y  now  printed  and  inserted  in  the  Missal  be- 
tween Holy  Saturday  and  Easter  Day.  Every  Mass  is 
fitted  into  that  scheme;  to  follow  Mass  one  must  first 
find  that.  In  it  occur  rubrics  directing  that  something 
is  to  be  said  or  sung,  which  is  not  printed  at  this  place. 
The  first  rubric  of  this  kind  occurs  after  the  incensing 
at  the  beginning:  "Then  the  Celebrant  signing  himself 
with  the  sign  of  the  Cross  begins  the  Introit."  But  no 
Introit  follows.  He  must  know  what  Mass  he  is  to  say 
and  find  the  Introit,  and  all  the  other  proper  parts, 
under  their  heading  among  the  large  collection  of 
masses  that  fill  the  oook.  These  proper  or  variable 
parts  are  first  the  four  chants  of  the  choir,  the  Introit, 
Gradual  (or  tract.  Alleluia,  and  perhaps  after  it  a 
Sequence),  Offertory,  and  Communion;  then  the  les- 
sons (Epistle,  Gospel,  sometimes  Old  Testament  les- 
sons too),  then  the  prayers  said  by  the  celebrant 
(Collect,  Secret,  post-Communion;  often  several  of 
each  to  commemorate  other  feasts  or  days).  By  fit- 
ting these  into  their  places  in  the  Ordinary  the  whole 
Mass  is  put  together.  There  are,  however,  two  other 
elements  that  occupy  an  intermediate  place  between 
the  Ordinary  and  tne  Proper.  These  are  the  Preface 
and  a  part  of  tJie  Canon.  We  have  now  only  eleven 
pqrefaces,  ten  special  ones  and  a  common  preface. 
They  do  not  then  change  sufficiently  to  be  printed 
over  and  over  again  among  the  proper  Masses,  so  all 
are  inserted  ^Ji  the  Ordinary;  from  them  naturally  the 
jight  one  must  be  chosen  according  to  the  ruorics. 
In  the  same  way,  five  great  feasts  have  a  special  clause 
in  the  Communicantes  prayer  in  the  Canon,  two  (Eas- 
ter and  Whitsunday)  nave  a  special  **Hanc  Igitur" 
prayer,  one  day  (Maundy  Thursday)  affects  the  "Qu^ 
pridie"  form.  These  exceptions  are  printed  after  the 
corresponding  prefaces;  but  Maundy  Thursday,  as  it 
occurs  only  once,  is  to  be  found  in  the  Proper  of  the 
day  (see  Canon  op  the  Mass). 

It  is  these  parts  of  the  Mass  that  vary,  and,  because 
of  them,  we  speak  of  the  Mass  of  such  a  day  or  of  such 
a  feast.  To  be  able  to  find  the  Mass  for  any  given  day 
requires  knowledge  of  a  complicated  set  of  rules.  These 
rules  are  given  in  the  rubrics  at  the  beginning  of  th^ 


Mm 


800 


lljsaal.  In  outline  the  aystem  la  this.  First  a  Maaa  ia  IV).  There  ure  two  Other  Masses  which,  inasmuch  *■ 
provided  for  every  day  m  the  year,  according  to  the  they  do  not  eorrGspond  to  the  office,  may  be  ttm- 
seasoQS  of  the  Church.  Ordinary  week  days  (feria)  sidered  a  kind  of  Votive  Mass:  the  Nuptial  Mass 
have  the  Mass  of  the  preceding  Sunday  with  certain  (miasa  pro  aptmso  et  gportsa),  said  at  weddings,  and  the 
regular  changes;  but  ferix  of  Lent,  rogation  and  ember  Requiem  Mass,  said  for  the  faithful  depart«d,  which 
Jays,  and  vigib  have  special  Masses.  AH  this  makes  up  have  a  number  of  special  charact«riBtics  (see  Nuptul 
the  first  part  of  the  Misaal  called  Propriumde  tempore.  Mass  and  Reqvibu  Mass).  The  calendar  (Ordb)  p ub- 
The  year  is  then  overladen,  as  it  were,  by  a  great  quan-  lished  yearly  in  each  diooeae  or  province  gives  the 
tity  of  feasts  of  saints  or  of  special  events  detemiined  office  and  Mass  for  every  day.  (Concerning  Mass  Glj- 
by  the  day  of  the  month  (these  make  up  the  Proprium  pends,  see  Mass,  Sacriticb  of  the:  Vol.  X.) 
Sattdorum).  Nearly  every  day  in  the  year  is  now  a  That  the  Haa8|  around  which  such  complicated 
feast  of  some  kind;  often  thcte  are  several  on  one  day.  rules  have  grown,  is  the  central  feature  of  the  Catholic 
There  is  then  constantly  coinciifence  (concurrent  ia)  of  rolipon  hardly  needs  to  be  said.  During  the  Reforms- 
several  possible  Masses  on  one  day.  There  are  cases  tion  and  always  the  Mass  has  been  the  test.  The 
in  which  two  or  more  conventual  Masses  are  said,  one  wordof  theReformera:  "It  is  the  Mass  that  matters", 
for  each  of  the  coinciding  oftioes.  Thus,  on  feriie  that  was  true.  The  Corriish  insurgents  in  1549  rose  against 
have  a  special  office,  if  a  feaat  occurs  as  wetl,  the  Mass  the  new  religion,  and  expressed  their  whole  cause  in 
of  tJie  feast  is  said  after  Terce,  that  of  the  leria  after  their  demand  to  have  the  Prayer-book  Communioo 
None.  If  a  feast  talis  on  the  Eve  of  Ascension  Day  Service  taken  away  and  the  old  Mass  reatotfed.  The 
thcie  are  three  Conventual  Masses — cf  the  feast  ader  long  persecution  of  Catholics  in  England  took  the 
Terce,  of  the  Vigil  after  Sext,  of  Ro^tion  day  after  practical  form  of  laws  chiefly  a^inst  saying  Mass;  for 
None.  But,  in  churches  thiat  have  no  official  con-  centuries  the  occujmnt  of  the  En^ish  throne  was 
ventual  Mass  and  in  the  case  of  the  priest  who  says  obliged  to  manifest  bis  Protestantism,  not  by  a  general 
Mass  for  his  own  devotion,  one  only  of  the  coinciding  denial  of  the  whole  aystem  of  CathoUc  dogma,  but  b^a 
Masses  is  said,  the  others  being  (usually)  commemo-  formal  repudiation  of  the  doctrine  of  Transubstantia- 
rated  by  saying  their  collects,  secrets,  and  post-Com-  tion  and  of  the  Mass.  As  union  with  Rome  is  the 
munions  aft«r  those  of  the  Mass  chosen.  To  know  bond  between  Catholics,  bo  is  our  common  share  in 
which  Mass  to  choose  one  must  know  their  various  de-  this,  the  most  venerable  rite  in  Christendom,  the  wit- 
grees  of  dignity.  All  days  or  feasts  are  arranged  in  ness  and  safeguard  of  that  bond.  It  isby  hisshaiein 
this  scale:  feria,  simple,  semidouble,  double,  greater  the  Mass  in  Communion  that  the  Catholic  proclaims 
double,  double  of  the  second  class,  double  of  the  first  his  union  with  the  great  Church.  As  excommunica- 
class.  The  greater  feaat  then  is  the  one  kept:  by  tion  means  the  loas  of  that  right  in  those  who  are  ei- 
transferring  feasts  to  the  next  free  day,  it  ia  arranged  pelled,  so  the  Alass  and  Comtnunion  are  the  visible 
that  two  feasts  of  the  same  rank  do  not  coincide,  bond  between  people,  priest,  and  biahop,  who  are  all 
Certain  important  days  are  privileged,  ao  that  a  higher  onebody  who  share  the  or-     — -" 


feast  cannot  displace  them.  Thus  nothing  i 
place  the  first  Sundays  of  Advent  and  Lent,  Passion 
and  Palm  Sundays.  These  are  the  so-called  nt^t-class 
Sundays.     In  the  same  way  nothing  can  diaplao 


piac^  by  doubles  of  the  first  class.  Ordinary  Sundays     'SSi^lmmJu™ 


.. .„ OnainttduCuUedu*- 

Mai  (3d[)  ed.,  Paris,  1S9S);  Oam.  Dai  heilige  Matop/er  (Olb  eA^ 
Freiburg,  ISB?):  Rieivchei,  Lthriiurh  drr  LUurgJc.  I  (Beiiin, 
1000):  Pbobot,  Lil-arait  der  dm"  n-*«i  ekriitiichen  Jahrhm- 
dnfeCTQbingeD,  1S70):  Idem.  LtlursK  detvirrltn  Jahrhundrrti 
K.  drren  Refirm  (MOiMtflr.  18B31 ;  iDtM.  Dii  aUiHai  rOmiKti^ 
SaeramnUarien  u.  Ordina  (Ufluter.  ISSS);  Cabhol..  Ln 
0™n«  Wurvwu*"  (Pftris,  IBOOl;  Idik,  Lt  Livrc  de  la  prirn 
anSirtu  (Faria.  1000);  Biaiiop,  TtuOtniut  ofUu  Rom-^  Hi" 
in  Stalit,  EtKiu'im  Ctrammial  (LoDdao,  IHM).  Z83-a 
La  Men       "  "  -     ' 


count  as  semidoubles,  but  have  precedence  over  other 

aemidoubles.    The  days  of  an  octave  are  semidoubles; 

the  octave  day  isa  double.    The  octaves  of  Epiphany, 

Eaater,  and   Pentecost   (the  original  thtee   greatest 

feasts  of  all)  are  cliMed  against  any  other  feast.    The  -       „  .... 

di.pl.ced  («ut  i.  oom™m„„wl ,  Bo.pl  In  the  cu.  ol     5fte3;,t  fflol'siS.'Si 

a  great  infenonty:   the  rules  for  this  are  given  among     iath>.  ciudni  i-nmni*  nt  tt»  TnxHii 

the  "RubricK  generalea"  of  the  Miasal  (VII;  deCom. 


iM^' 


rationibus).  Onaemidoublesand  days  below  that  gfJ^T^j^jj 

in  rank  other  collects  are  always  added  to  that  of  the  ii,  Teits 

day  to  make  up  an  uneven  number.     Certain  ones  are  'I'u'oioi,  1,  i 
prescribed  regularly  in  the  Missal,  the  celebrant  may 
add  others  at  hia  discretion.    The  bishop  of  the  dio- 
cese may  also  order  collects  for  special  reasons  (the 

so-called  Orationes  imperaltE).     As  a  genera!  ru|e  the  ^,^^ 

Mass  must  correspond  to  the  Office  of  the  day,  iaclud-  Ma; 

ing  its  commemorations.     But  the  Missal  contains  a  •>'>" 

collection  of  Votivt  Mattes,  that  may  be  Bald  on  days  ^^j^ 

not  above  a  semidouble  in  rank.    The  bishop  or  pope  ym< 

may  order  a  Votive  Mass  for  a  public  cause  to  be  said  wU 

on  any  day  but  the  very  highest.    All  these  rules  are  )^, 

explained  m  detail  by  Le  Vavssaeur  (op.  cit.,  I,  210-  cin 
31)  as  well  as  in  the  rubrics  of  the  Missal  (Ruhr.  gen.. 


„  1B08);    Dbewb.  Zur  EitUtrhuna^etei. 

(Tabinaen.  1M2);  tuEU.  Vnternchvngen  Ubtt  dit 

loam.  drnunlniKAB  Liluvii  (Tabinscn,  10001;  BiuiiaruE. 
iMumia  Komana  t  litarvia  dtW  BtaraUo  (Rome.  IMM):  Alstxis 
UID  f  DUBTOH,  Orwinm  Bucharitliea  (LoDdon.  190S);  Warren. 
liiturm  ol  lAt  Ante-Kitme  ChunA  CLODdou.  1907);  RotthaN- 
Hm,  Vtbrr  nnuere  taid  aUere  Devtiaem  dtt  WarUt  MimKa  in 

"       *" —  — »qq.;  DCRAKunB  (Biahop 

mi  agirionBa  Libri  VIll, 

'■xiv^^^^iTDt  SS. 

NEiDEB  (Msiai.  1^79).  b 


I.  FlorilfQium  PatnHi- 


WitaoH,  Tilt  Gtlatian  Saci 


Coda  LUurgiau  Ecetttia  wiiwn,  1  [Ldpiig.  18«7i: 

"■■      •      '-LitiireuifthrCh^rcha/BnqbindtUm- 

.MiHaieSarum<.BuTiMMlaiiS  ir 


>i>uJ,  I8ei-B3). 
ana  in  the  Missal,  «ra- 
'  {3  vola..  0th  ed..  Lou- 

3*  iruSaO'tnii.  iwC). 
JnfmiJurliDn  aui:  MwJe* 
BE  Mass  and  other  arti- 


Adriak  Foktescue, 


3  2044  048  326  359 


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